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Rock Art Studies

ilInterpretation through

Multidisciplinary Approaches

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lnterpretation through Multidisciplinary Approadres

ISBN: 978-81 -7305-492-'t (Vol' tr)97 8 -81, -7 305-493-8 (Set)

@ Indira Gandhi National Centre forthe Arts, NewDelhi

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, utilised in any form or by any means'

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Responsibility for statements made and visuals grovide{ in. the various PaPers rests solely

with the contributors. The views e*ptessed by individual authors are not necessarilythose of the editor or of publishers'

First Published in 20L4 bY:

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Co nte nts

ForewordAcknowledgenxentsList of lllustrationsIntroduction- Bansi Lal Malla

t t,

xxii

xxiu

1

93

703

Tracing Ancient Shamanism in Yakutia through Rock Art

- Andrzej Rozuadowski

Rock Art and Continuity in South Central Kimberley Region ofWestern Australia 1,9

- Jane Balme and Sue O'Connor

3 Restoration of Rock Art in India: An Integrated Anthropological Approach 43

- Somnatb Chakrauerty

Rock Art in Bolivia through Ethnology

- Roy Querejazu Leuis

The Art of Contemporary and Prehistoric Societies

- Bulu Imam

The Usefulness of Archaeology in Rock Art Science

- Robert G. Bednarik

77

ROCK

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STUDIES-II

CO NTENTS

7 A Reappraisal of Rock Art inKerala

- Ajft Kumar

B Situating Rock Art within the Cultural Past of KeraIa

- Jenee Peter

9 A Multidisciplinary Approach to the Study of Rock Art:A Case Study of Chhattisgarh, India

- G.L Badam and Bharati Sbroti

Rock Art of Gujarat: A Fresh Look

- V.H. Sonawane

Salient Features of the Rock Art of Rajasthan: A Detailed Study

- MuraN Lal Sbarma

Chariots in Chalcolithic Indian Rock Art

- Erwin Neumayer

Usha-Kothi Rock Art Sites in Odisha: An Ethnographic Analysis

-Jagannatb Dasb

Basketmaker Paintings in,Canyon de Chelly, Arizona

- Iawrence Loendorf

Diversity in Southern African Rock Art

- Anne Solomon

Rock Art and Cognitive Development at the Dawn of the

Early Civilisation in the Andes: Findings and Hypotheses

- GoN Tumi Ecbeuania L6pez

Neuroscientific Analysis of Rock Art Interpretation

- Roben G. Bednarik

10

77

1.2

13

1.4

1.5

t6

111

129

r49

181

209

241

257

295

309

329

1,7 359

365

371.

Epilogue.- Jane Balme

Iist of Contrtbutors

I nocxI ART

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HCONTENTS

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Prchisloric hctbitctlirttts irt I(ercilcr. especiull.l, their Palaeolithic ltbase, At?represerttecl b-r, sctnte stra.l, slone ctfic.fLtcts ttrtc/ baue a shrourJ of'<tbscuritysurrctt.trtclittg lhent. Srtnte sknte ctrte.lLtcts ctncl rrrck art expressions represen[tbe Mesolithic cutcl .Yeolithic phuses o.l'the prehistoric periocl in Kerala.One cl' the tnost cottspicurnrs 1:relsistrtric tcstiges in Kerctlct, uthich hasbeen of interest ctrtcl stLtcl.1, tn,er tbe pctst ntan1,.years, are nte,galiths. k)da.)',tbere ure close to l0 reporte(l rock aft sites in Keralct; a.feut rnore hctttectlso cr.tnte u.p in recertt exploratietns. It is inlercsting to note tbctt ir.t Keralcttbe an of'rock ertgrctttings is ntore tt,iclel.l, clistributecl as compared b tbetradition oJ-pcrinting. Rock engrat:ings are ct totLgber oncl time-consuntirtgmeclitrnt of-expressfun cou'tpctrecl to pctintirz.qs',. s-o tbe preference for thismocle rentains a nt-l,stel\,. Pctitttecl caL)es are restrictecl trt tbe lclukki dish.ictancl sorne caues hctrt,e stperintpositions rctnging possibly.frnm Mesolitbicto bistoricctl times. Irt theprehistoricperiocl. rock sbelters cou,ld haue seruedas tentporary or pertltaneltt ctbodes agctirtst the seuerities of matrLre;boLueu-er, their tLse cluring tbe historic pefiod as a placefor afiistic expressionneecls reasoning. ht this paper. Prc;fessor Kuntcu" attempts to anctlyse tberock art sites bolisticct/ly, to ttj: ctrtd unclerstand the irnportance andsignfficctnce ctf rock crft,

p oct art from Kerala gained the world's attention with the discovery of rock engravingsI\at Edakkal by Fawcett in 7894. Post this discovery, the study of rock aft in Kerala wason the back burner for about the next eight decades. Studies in rock afi were revivedagain thereafter, and they received a spurt during the early 1970s with the discovery ofpainted rock shelters at Marayrrr by S.P. Tampi. Over the years, many new sites andwritings on various facets of rock art in Kerala have been brought to light by scholars likeKJ. John (797r, Y. Mathpal (1998), M.R. warrier (2006), p. Rajendran (2007), and,R. Gurukkal (2010). However, despite their work, there is still a dilemma and ambiguityregarding the true nature, meaning, period of association, and dates of the rock art foundin the state. This paper presents an overview of Kerala's rock art sites, their content andnature, and also tries to offer some new interpretations and dates for these rock artvestiges.

Rock art in Kerala can be broadly divided into: (i) rock paintings ancl (ii) rockengravings. The painted rock art tradition is today exclusive to the AnjanadValley in theMarayur/Marayoor range and in the Devikulam taluka in Idukki district. Rock engravingsare found in the south as well as in north Kerala. The important painted rock art sites arelocated in the Anjanad Valley in the Ezhuthupara range at Koodakkad,,PaIIanad, Attala,Champakkad, and Purachi Ala.

ROCK PAINTINGS

The rock shelter at Koodakkacl (77" 05 E and 10" 1j N), also called Ezhuthupara orEzhuthuala, is situated at abour 3,300 feet MSL (Fig. 7.1). The rock paintings are done inthe concavity of a serpent hood-shaped rock towering over 72 m in height and 10 m inwidth. There is a .superimposition of painted forms which occupy I Fig. z.1 Ezhuthupara rockalmost three-fourth of the concave area. The paintings are done using I shelters.

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AJIT KUMAR

Map 7.1 Rock art sites in Kerala.

red ochre and have shades of saffron, brownish yellow, pinkish buff,and grey; there are also paintings done using white pigment. Theearliest representations appear to be wild animals iike ihe mor_rntaingoat or Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragus bylocrius) GiS. 7.2) ancl Sambardeer (Rusa wnicolor). These animals are drawn in profile ancl arevery naturally done either as outlines or with coiours filled in.

Left: Fig.7.2 Mountain goaVNilgiri Tahr (Katadu).

Right: Fig.7.3 Paintings atPallanad (77" 0S'E and 10. N)also called Atalla.

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Representations of cattle in this cave follow those of wilcl anrmals. The cattle tooare drawn in profile and they have a slight symbolism and stylisation when compared tothe wiid animals. Stylisation can be observed in the treatment of their horns, tails,-hooves,and genitals. Many of the cattle figllres are drawn using ochre ancl only have brownishshades; some are only outlined. The stylised anthropomorphic figures depicted frontallywith raised arms, superimpose the cattle and other figr-rres. There are three giantanthropomorphic figures in this cave, which are outlinecl in red ochre and filled withwhite wary lines in the interior. The physiognomy of the figures is very stylized; thepalms of the hands and the facial featr-rres are not clearly demarcated and hence they arenot human portraits in the trLle sense. when compared with other human figures done inwhite, their large sizes indicate that they were painted during two different periocls oftime ancl hence carry drfferent connotations. The large size ancl the white lines drawnwithin the figures indicate that they were intendecl to personify something mystic andpowerful. In their design and treatment of the face and physiognomy, the paintedanthropomorphic figures at MarayLtr are similar to those found at Edakkal. It is qultepossible that they represent some protective ancestral spirit or genie with magico-religiousconnotations and powers. The gender of these figures is not demarcated and is left toassumption' Chronologicaiiy, the last of the series here is probably white painted andstylised elephant riders and some fleeing human figures.

The rock shelter at pallanad (77" Oj E and 100 N) is located at an elevarion ofaround 5,500 feet MSL (Fig. 7.3). This shelter is also called Atalla due to a painted pictureof a motintain goat or Nilgiri Tahr feedingits young one. This shelter has over 400 paintedrepresentations on its walls and ceilings, all painted in white pigment. The motifs paintedinclude a mountain goat suckling its lamb,lizard.s, reptiles, birds, geometric motif's like

AJIT KUMAR

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rectangles and triangles, and human figures engaged in activities like drumming andriding a bull and an elephant. There are two coracles, one with four and the other rvithfive people aboard, There are also representations of human beings riding in procession

carrying a decorative pole-like thing. There are also vegetative motifs like a bananaplant, and a sugar cane stalk apart from weapons like a trident, spear and bow.

The animals are painted in profile while the human figures mainly shown astridefrontal. The palms are not clearly demarcated and the arms are usually depicted curvedand raised upwards. The treatment of the arms recalls stone anthropomorphs from themegalithic context found in Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, and Karnataka.

Though water buffaloes are sometimes usecl for riding while taking them for grazing,a bull is usually not used to ride on. The bull-rider represented here may be Lord Shivafrom the Hindu pantheon. Many of the motifs seen in the cave seem to be associablewith Lord Shiva and his son Muruga or Kartikeya. There are two men depicted in profileoriented in the same direction carrying a horizontally placed pole with some insigniaplaced over it. The person at the back while lending support to the pole with his lefthand also seems to be carrying a box-iike element with a triclent planted over it. Thisbrings to mind the kauadiprocession undertaken to appease Lord Muruga. It is interestingto note that the cave also contains representations of a pea hen anda cock-like animal,both again associated with Mun-rga. There are many temples strewn across Tamil Naduon hilltops dedicated to him. A banana plant with torn leaves, plantain and inflorescenceand sugar cane stalk with inflorescence fincls representation in the paintings here. Itsdepiction here possibly indicates festivities llke Pongal or celebrations for the TamilNew Year. The Anjanad Valley has a concentration of Tamil population from ancienttimes. The coracles with for-rr people also have ores clepicted on either side. The fivepeople in the second coracle face the same direction. Similar coracles of bambooframework are still r-rsed in the inland waterways in Tamil Nadu and Anclhra Pradesh forfishing and other ferrying activities. The men in the coracles are probably armed withweapons; a trisbttla or trident is represented below and is touching it. This seems torepresent some warring factions.

The shelter at Champakkad (78"E 12 3tE) is located around 2,000 feet MSL and ispossibly the largest in terms of accommodation space. There are hnman and animalfigures painted on the side walls of this cave. which measure around 10 cm on an averageand are exclusively done in white pigment. They stylisticaily and chronologically belongto the same genre as those painted in Attala at Pallanad.

Other painted shelters,/caves with paintings are located at Alampatti, which has a

painting of Sambar deer (Rusa u,nicolor) done in red ochre. Similarly, Yaymala andJellimalatoo contain motifs painted in red ochre. More sites are being reported from the regionevery year. However, there does not appear to be any novelty in the known themes/motifs and styles.

DISCUSSION ON ROCK PAINTINGS

S.P. Tampi, during his studies in the 7970s, had opined that the antelope, cattle, andhorse may go back to the Mesolithic period and date back to 7000 ecn. He felt that the

A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IFI KERALA

human figures would go back to the Chalcolithic times of around 2000 ecs and the elephantriders to the Historic period of 300 ece (Gurukkal 707). Since then, no critical evaluationof this dating has been attempted.

Among the painted caves in the Marapr range, naturalistically depicted wild animalslike the Sambar deer done in red ochre, appear to be the earliest. In these paintings,there is no representation of a wild animal being hunted. In such a situation, associatingthese paintings without corroborative evidence to the Mesolithic period is questionable.Mesolithic artefacts have been reported from shelters around Anjanad Valley butassociating them with the paintings appears to be an ambiguous proposition. The wildanimals depicted are even today present in the area and the paintings are a goodrepresentation of the familiar fauna; whether they carry a symbolic value is left to theimagination

Chronologi cally andsrylistically, the bull figures with stylised horns, tails, and hoovesand done in red ochre may have followed these paintings. These bull figures arestylistically not very different and possibly a very long time gap did not separate thetwo. Tampi associated these bull figurines and the horse with the Mesolithic period andthe superimposing large stylised anthropomorphic figures with the Chalcolithic period.

Associating the cattle and the horse to the Mesolithic period in Kerala appears to bea far-fetched proposition. Cattle definitely have been associated with the Neolithic periodin south Deccan. However, there are no Neolithic habitation sites or ash mounds inAnjanad Valley though stray Neolithic celts have been reported. Hence, it appeais thatthe cattle depicted here are not the handiwork of Neolithic people. The cattle are notindigenous to the region, as none of the surviving aboriginal groups/forest tribes inKeraIa, or Marapr in particular, practice cattle-rearing on their own (though they maytake the responsibility of grazing them for remuneration). Thus, cattle appear to havebeen brought to the Maralrur region by some migrant population of cattle raisers andgrazers from the adjoining Kongu region due to climatic or political conditions or becauseof fear of cattle raids by feuding clans or chieftains.

Etymologically, the name Marayur means hidden village or settlement(mara-hidden,yur-viIlage/settlement). Apparently, MaraSrur was selected for habitation by these cattleraisers to prevent warring chieftains from preying on their cattle wealth. Cattle raids(padalam-uelchi) werc aft activiqt and duty called for by youthful wariors and advisedfor by the kings as the statement '.... take the three pronged dart (trident) and bring homeherds of cattle ...' and accounts in Sangam literature Pura-Pontl Vemba Malai indicate(Pope, Vol. I, No. 6: 5-6).ltwas practiced by Cheras, Cholas, Pandyas, and local chieftainswith equal vigour. The Maray'ur located in the Anjanad Valley is hidden in the midst ofthe forested hilly terain of the \Testern Ghats and in a way was naturally fortified againsteasy raids. This region was also blessed with a pleasant climate, rich fertile land,vegetation, and perennial water sources for cattle-reaing and cultivation.

It is possible that during the early Historic/Iron Age period, some communitiesfrom the adjoining Kongu region ventured into the Marapr region for the safety and

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upkeep of their cattle population. If this assumption is considered, then the bull paintingsnoticed in the shelters have to be attributed to these cattle raisers and their arrival in theregion was possibly beween 900 ece and 300 ecn. This would then obviously obliteratethe current Mesolithic/Neolithic association of the bull paintings. Naturalistic animalsappear to be from an earlier period but not at alarge time gap, as they are quite similartechnically, in colour schemes, and in states of preservation. Even if wild animals are

placed earlier by 200 or 400 years, though this is not likely, it would still find place onlvto c.7300 scr-900 scs. Given the current status of C'odates in south India, this date willsynchronise with the Megalithic phase in south India and not with the Mesolithic/Neolithicphase.

Hence, in our assumption, the naturalistic animals were possibly the creation ofindigenous clans/tribes of the Marayur region or the incipient cattle-raising community'sacknowledgement of the popular local fauna which grazed along with their cattle. Thecattle paintings attributed to migrating cattle raisers can be placed an),'where between c.

900 ecr and 300 sce. The stylised large human figures which overlap the bull figurineswould date back to the early Historic period when Megalithic practices were still invogue. They are possibly contemporaneous with anthropomorphic figures engraved at

Edakkal and may datable to c.3rd ecr-200 cr.

The highly stylised paintings done in many caves using only white pigment are allapparently coeval in execution and follow the bull and anthropomorphic figures ofEzhuthupara. These white paintings depict human figures riding b"ulls/elephants, mentravelling in coracles, drumming, or engaged in some sort of warfare. There are alsoother natural depictions like plants, sugar cane, and horses. Apart from these, there are

also some painted forms which have the character of Vattezuthu alphabet.Many of these white paintings are apparently of early Medieval origin considering

their themes and style, and can be dated to c.3rdcp-7th cE. The coracles depicted in these

paintings are still in vogue in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh for inland fishing andtransport. In Ezhuthupara, there are some armed men and some fleeing men. In Attala.there is a depiction of a stylised bull, and armed men travelling in a coracle and a tridentas though attacking the coracle from the bottom. These remind one of offence and defensein cattle and other raids that the region might have witnessed during the early HistoricMedieval period.

Motifs like sugar cane and banana plants with inflorescence in Attala seem to strikea chord with Tamil festive celebrations. It is interesting to note that the tribe group ofMuthuvans claims Tamil ancestry and legend says that they were disposed from theMadurai region and the Malampulays also speak a dialect close to Tamil. It is apparentthat these white paintings depicting war, festivities, animal riders, nature, and cognisanceare associable with the Shaivite pantheon and are the work of ethnic groups with Tamilorigin or affinity. The alphabetic character of Yattezuthu noticed in some of the paintingsmandates the placement of these figures to the c.4th cn-Bth cn and not apparently as

early as 3rd ece as is now presumed.

A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IN KERALA

ROCK ENGRAVINGS I Fig.7.4 (a-b)Ancode rock

Rock engravings or carvings are the next popular rock art I engravings'

representation in KeraIa. They have been reported from south as well as north Kerala. Inthe south, they have been reported from Ankode (77" E and B N) (Fig. 7.4a-b) anclTenmala (8" 95 N 77' 06 E), and in the north from the famous sites of Edakkal (11" 59 N76" 22 E) and Tovari.

Ankode is located in Ne),T/attinkara taluka in Trivandrum district. The outer face ofthe shelter has 2I cross-hatchings vertically and horizontally overlapping each other. Inthe interior side wall are engraved some motifs like a hexagonal flower, some lineardesigns, and a rectangle internally divided into eight. There is also one letter whichlooks like the alphabet 'nu' in Vattezuthu/Malayalam.It is close ro a floral design andtechnically similar and hence coeval. Rajendran reports microlithic implements made ofquartz from the floor of the cave and assigns the earliest phase of the rock art to Mesolithicfollowed by Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Megalithic, and early Historic periods (Rajendran2007: B3). There are very few distinct motifs here like the crossed circle, the herring-bone motif, and the palm-leaf type and they are stylistically and technically similar.There are no animal or human figures and assigning these few motifs to a wide range ofperiods without proper corroboration is far-fetched. Some of the motifs like the flower,if one goes by the alphabet written in early Vattezuthu characters etched on the wall,may go back only to the early Medieval period.

The Tenmalai shelter in Kollam district has engravings of a few geometrical patternslike triangles, circles, squares, flower motifs, and circle with cross marks (Fig.7.5a-b).There are also parallel lines. Rajendran claims to have found Mesolithic artefacts at adepth of 35 cm from the floor of the cave and also assigns a date of 5000 sp for a woodcharcoal from the shelter. Whether the rock engravings and the microliths found nearlya foot below the soil belong ro the same period is a subject for deliberation.

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AJIT KUMAR

Fig- 7.5 (a-b) Engravings atTenmalai shelter in Kollamdistrict.

The Tobrimala/Tovari rock shelter is not far from the famousrock art site of Edakkal close to Sultan Battery in Ambalayayal taluka.in \Waynad district. The Tovari etching is relatively shallow and has

motifs like triangles, squares and a circle, and combinations of these. Among the animalmotifs is a bird with outstretched wings (Fig.7.6a-b). It is speculated that it is an insigniawhich represents a hoe and an arrow (Varier 2006:7).

The Edakkal rock shelter is the most unique and the earliest rock art site to bediscovered in Kerala with engravings or etchings. This shelter was discovered by Fawcettjust 15 years after the historic discovery of the Altamira paintings. Fawcett's report on

Fig. 7.6 (a-b) Engravings at I the cave is exempiary and there is hardly any facet that he has leftTobrimala/Tovari rock shelter. I unrecorded or without interpretation (Fawcett 1901). This also

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A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IN KERALA

happens to be the most discussed rock shelter in academic circles lFig'z't (a-b)WaytoEdakkal

and has been subjected to various studies and interpretations I rock shelters'

(Fig. 7.7a-b).The Edakkal shelter is located on a hill known as the Ambukuthimala at an elevation

of about 4,500 feet MSL (Fig. 7.Ba). The shelter has a lower and upper storey (Fig. 7.Bb).The lower storey has no engravings and flowing through it is a perennial water stream.

The upper storey is reached after a steep climb and it opens into a landing (Fig.7.9a-b).

To its right is a cleft between two rock formations. Between the cleft rests a large bouldercreating the shelter, which is open to the sky at the further end of the entrance. The rocksurface on either side of the entrance is engraved or etched with strange looking stylisedanthropomorphic figures and other images. These anthropomorphicfigures though linear in delineation are articulate in execution. Toattain coordination and the best results, the outline of the figure wasfirst drawn and then subsequently etched or grooved out deeper.There are also a few inscriptions in the cave (Figs.7.70-7.7r.

Left: Fig.7.8a General Viewfrom the Ambukuthimala Hill.

Right: Fig. 7.8b Staircaseleading to Edakkal rockshelter.

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Fig. 7.9 (a-b) The upper storey,Edakkal rock shelter.

The left wall almost in the centre of the cave has avery prominentanthropomorphic figr-rre with a strange face, headgear, and arms

(Figs. 7.10 &7.71). Adjoining it is another eqr-rally large figure with a queer circularclesign at the chest (Fig. 7 .72). There are a few more anthropomorphic figures adjoiningthese two, some small and some large. There are also some figures above the largerimages in shallow depths when compared to the larger figures. There are animals like a

dog, an elephant, seer blackbuck, and a peacock, and a plant and flowers, a humanfigure with a hand shaped like a jar among the depictions. A wheeled cart with a figureabove on the extreme left and a lady with a square-headed head-dress on the right endare interesting representations. Spoked wheels and some geometric motifs are also noticedat marry places along both the walls. There are also three inscriptions on this wall towardsthe empty space at the far end, which opens to the sky. The earliest may belong ro rheearly Historic period. The inscriptions are away from the etching and in an elevatedportion where sufficient natural light is available. On the right wall too, there is a largeanthropomorphic figure joined by some smaller ones. Towards the far end, which opensto natural light, there is a wheeled cart with an anthropomorphic figure above it. Thereare also a few other female figures elegantly carwed, apart from animals like black buck(Antilope ceruicaprd), a queer bird with a long neck (peacock?) and some inscriptionswith early palaeography.

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A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IN KTRALA

Fig.7.12 Large figure with a queercircular design at the chest, Edakkalrock shelter.

Fig.7.10 Left wall. Edakkal rock shelter.

Fig. 7.11 Anthropomorphic figures, Edakkal rock shelter.

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DISCUSSION ON EDAKKAL ENGRAVINGSAmong the rock engraving or etchings in Kerala, apart fuom those at Edakkal, there isnothing much to discuss. There has been much speculation about the Edakkal engravingsand their methodology, meaning and dates, from the time that these were first reported.It has been stated that Neolithic celts or iron implements were used to execute theengravings. The rock is comparatively soft, so engraving with any sharp flake can derivethe required results. That not much effort is required to etch into this relatively soft rockis vouched for by numerous modern graffiti engraved by visitors. The artist who createdthe engravings did not attempt it as a work of art as we perceive it today. It was areflection of his beliefs and practices. Conjecturing and infusing meaning to theseenigmatic creations is a challenging and satisfying pursuit for researches.

The location of the Edakkal shelter is awe-inspiring and bestows it with a mysticfeel even today. Nearly four feet of debris from the rock shelter was cleared soon afterits initial discovery by Fawcett. He did not report any stone artefactof prehistoric contextfrom here. Nearly two feet of debris was also removed from this cave in 2o7o-77 andduring the process too no prehistoric stone artefacts were found. This clearly shows thatthe rock shelter was never habited but was possibly a place of worship and veneration,like a temple, used by the aboriginals who once inhabited the region as stated by Fawcett.

Over a century ago, Fawcett observed that Kurumbars had a reverence for Edakkalbut no one visited it. He also stated the association of Chettis with theideity for conductinga tiget hunt. He added that the cave was associated with minor goddesses calledMudiampilli and Kuttichattan. All this, in away, speaks of the reverence that the localshad for the figures carved in the shelter though none claimed authorship of the creations.

It is quite possible that the authors of the engravings atEd,akkalwere the ancesrorsof the Kurumbars who were creative in their religious beliefs. They had an affinitytowardsreligious edifies over hills. Thurston states that the Kurumbars were known to worshiprough stones by setting them up in a cave called kurumabr koil. rncase of illness, as andwhen instructed by their ancestral spirits, they also made offerings to Bettadachicama orthe 'mother of the hill'. In addition, they also believed in evil and good spirits and practicedexorcism and animal sacrifices. They also practiced ancestor worship and erectedmegalithic monumenrs (Ray 2OO& 1G2).

It is likly possible that the anthropomorphic representarions at Edakkal are ancestralspirits/deities. It is interesting to note that many of the anthropomorphic figures do nothave their feet demarcated clearly. \Vas the depiction in tune with the underlying beliefthat spirits have no feet? Nearly all the anthropomorphic figures are individualistic andno fwo are exactly similar. Some commonalities, however, are observed in the coiffuresand costumes worn by these figures and also at times in the delineation or positioning ofthe hands' There are some female figures which arc apparently divinities. They aremote variably executed. Do some of them represent hill diviniiies or goddessesBettadachicama, which Thurston says were worshipped by Kurumbars to ward off ill-heath and evil, or Masiti, also a female divinity worshipped by the Kurumbars-is left tothe imagination.

A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IN KERALA

The various representations in the Edakkal shelter suggest thatthis place was used as a religious abode by different families of theKurumbars or their sects. Thurston states that forest-dwelline

Fig. 7.13 (a-b) Similar coiffuresand costumes of devil dance'performers of the Tuluvas.

Kurumbars were divided into different families represented by totemic animals llke anat(elephant) and naya (dog) and by malai (hill), plants, erc. Inrerestingly, near theanthropomorphic representations are also engraved animals like elephants, dogs, deer,blackbuck, and antelopes. This seems to imply that these engraving were done as votiveofferings by different families from different regions over years. At Edakkal , the variantdepth and styles noticed in the engravings also seem to reiterate that they were doneover different periods of time.

The Kurumbars as a practice abandoned their place of stay and shifted to a newplace after a mishap or calamity struck. It is quite possible that after one such eventualifystriking the region, the Kurumbars' ancestors migrated from the region and whensubsequent generations returned, they had lost their assoc iation with the Edakkalengravings and their true meaning was lost. The reverence attached to it was howevernot totally lost in public memory as inscriptions in the caves dating from period c.2nd -3rd cn to c' 5th-6th cE. attest that the cave was visited by socially elite people (Mahadevan1998). Engravings may have also been done during rhis period but it is difficult ro sorrthem out.

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AJ IT KU MAR

Fi1.7.14 (a-b) Similar coiffure,masks and adornments withvarious Teyyam forms.

The local Kurumbars today do not recall any direct association

with the figures etched in Edakkal. They only associate themselves

with ancestral worship conducted by their moopqn (chieftain and

head priest) and with divinities like Shiva. Ancestral worship is prevalent amongst many

tribes in Kerala. Tribal communities like Cholanayakans andPatinaikans, apart from their

intangible practices, also have images of ancestors made in bell metal. In the case ofPatinaikans, these images are sprinkled with vermillion and alongwith coins as offerings

are wrapped in a red silk cloth and placed in a casket in the rnoopan3 house. In the case

of Cholanayakans, such images are placed in rock shelters deep in the forest where the

chieftains are also buried (Kumar 2007:95). Some of these bell metal images hold a staff

in their hand and iconographically recall the Muthappan Telyam. The Telyam rituals

are similar to tribal rituals. In tribal practices, the moopan becomes the medium and in

Telyam the person who adorns the dress becomes the medium between the believer

and the spirit or god. Many rituals in aTeyyam performance have their roots in hunting/

trlbal practices. The theophanies of the Teyyam ritual are essentially based on spirit and

ancestor worship prevalent among the ethnic tribes of north Kerala (Gabriel 2070: 40-

47).

Fawcett mentioned a similarity between the coiffures and costumes of the figures

in Edakkal with the 'devil dance' of the Tuluvas (Figs. 7.1'3a-b & 7.74a-b). The coiffure

and masked facial features and certain adornments on the hands draw similarities withcostumes of various Telyam forms enacted today (Mathpal 1,998: 3D. The bow and

affow held by one of the figures in the Edakkal representation also happens to be the

chief weapon of the Muthappans (Figs. 7.74a &7.I5a-b). These tribal ancestor cults

slowly got assimilated into the brahmanical form and tribal male deities came to be

associared with Shiva and the female deities with Bhagwati eclipsing their true identities.

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A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IN KERALA

Apart from the anthropomorphs, there are also many votivesymbols at Edakkal. These figr-rres and symbols were not executed atone time and were possibly votive offerings.

Fig. 7.15 (a-b) The chief weaponof Muthaqpans also representedby Edakkal figures.

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We noticed a wheeled cart-like object witl-i no draft animals like a bull or a horse. Itis well recorclecl that Kurumbars and Paniyas inhabiting the region dicl not rear cattle ontheir own. Hence, the cart represented here may be a festive cart to be clrawn by humanswith the deity placed on it. This assumption gains credence if we obsele that in all cartrepresentations, the anthropomorphic figure is shown towarcls the end and above thecart; the engraver probably intendecl to show the image riding the cart. A similarperspective is also visible in scr:lptural art of the early Br,rddhist period. The absence ofdraft animals like a bull or a horse along with the depictecl cart lencls credence to theassumption that these are the works of indigenous tribes residing in the area. It is interestingto note that none of the tribes in Kerala ventured into cattle-keeping or rearing on theirown.

It is usually said that the Edakkal engravings belong to the Neolithic period. Thistakes a clue from the fact that Fawcett mentioned discovering neoliths some 15 km fromEdakkal. These engravings at Edakkal do not seem to belong ro rhe Neolithic period andmay only date back to the early Historic period/Megalithic period. The earliest inscriptionsin the cave

^re datable to the Chera period (c. 2nd 3rd cE) (Mahadeva n 7998:). The location

of this inscription is at the top, away from the engravings on the left wall and right rocksurfaces. The location of the early inscription also indicates that the figures were alreadyin existence when the inscriptions were engraved around c.2ndcn. The crux of the rssueis regarding the date of these carved figures. The figures do not appear to antedate theearliest inscriptions at Edakkal by more than 500 or 600 years. If so, these caruings must

AJIT KUMAR

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have come about during the Mauryan period (c.4th-2nd scE) when Kunrmbars' ancestors

had dominance in the region and followed the practice of erecting dolmens (Ray 2008:

762).The dresses worn and the bows and arrows depicted in the figures also recall andreiterate Kurumbar tradition and association.

REFERENCES

Fawcett, F. (1901), 'Notes on the Rock Caruings in the Edakkal Caves, \Tynaad' , Indian Antiquary 30409-21..

Gabriel, Theodore (2010), Playing God Belief and Ritual in Muttappan Cult of Nortb Malabar.London: Equinox.

Gurukkal, R. (2010), 'Prehistoric Life in the Southern'Western Ghats Interpreting Rock-art', in SocialFormations of Early SoutbJndia.Delhi: Oxford University Press, pp. 95-120.

John, KJ. Q973), 'EarlyMan inVaynad',Journal of Kerala Studies2(2).Tivandrum: University ofKeraIa.

Kr-rmar, Ajit (2007), 'An Ethno-archaeology Appraisal of Cholanaickans at Nilambur and Its Ramifications

on the Study of Megaliths Culture in Kerala', in M.R. Manmathan (ed.), Archaeologlt in Kerala:Past and Present.Kozhikode: Farook College Publication Division, pp.75-86.

Mahadevan, Iravatham (1998), 'The Earliest Inscriptions of KeraIa' , Presidential Acldress XXIVAnnualCongress of the Epigrapbical Society of Indiaheld in Trichur.

Mathpal, Yashodhar (1998), Rock Ar"t in Kerala. Delhi: IGNCA &Aryan Books International.Pope, G.V. (1907-1"4), Drauidian Kingdoms and List of Pandean Coins Para-Porul 'tbe objectiue': A

Summarily Account of Pura-Porul Venba Malai Vol. 1., No.6. The Tantil Antiquary.DelhtATS.

Rajendran, P.(2007), 'An Overview of Indian Mesolithic Cr-rlture and Early Rock-ar1 in Kerala', in M.R.

Manmathan (ed.), Arcbaeologlt in Kerala: Past and Present, Kozhikode: Farook CollegePublication Division. pp. 7 5-86.

Ray, H.P. (2008), Colonial Arcbaeologt in Soutb Asia. Delhi: Oxford University Press.

Tampi, S.P. (1983), 'Prehistoric Archaeology of South Central Kerala with Special Reference to theValleyof Anyunad', Unpublished Ph.D. Dissertation, Pune Universiry, Pune.

Thurston, Edgar (1,909), Castes and Tribes of Soutbent India. Delhi: Asian Educational Service (2001

reprint).Varier, R.M.R. (2005),'Towari: A Site with Primitive Rock-Art in \Tayanad' , Aclharam: AJoutnalfor

Kerala Arcbaeologt and History; 72-7 4. Kottayam: M.G. University.

A REAPPRAISAL OF ROCK ART IN KIRALA

List of

Aiit KumarDepartment of ArchaeologyUniversity of KeralaKariavattom Complex, Thiruvanthapuram _ 695 581E-mail: ajitkumarku@gmail.com

Andrezej RozwadowskiInstitute of Eastern StudiesUniversity of Poznan, poland

28 Czerwca 7956, nr I9B61-485 Poznan, poland

E-mail: rozw@amu.edu.pl, main.amu.edu.pl

Anne Catherine Solomon37 Bullfinch RdSr AthanVale of Glamorgan

Contributors

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

'Wales, UKCF62 4NDE-mail: soloarch@btopenworld.com

Bharti ShrotiN2, Abhishek ViharKanchan Ashwa ParkDeen Dayal Upadhyay Nagar

Sec.-1, Raipur - 492 001.

ChhattisgarhE-mail: bharatishroti@vahoo.in

Bulu ImamHazaibaghJharkhand (India)E-mail: rch-buluimam@sanchamet.in

Ervrin Neumayer1100 ViennaErlachgasse 95 /5AustriaE-mail: erwin_neumayer@yahoo.com

G.L. Badam25/1.-4, Hermes Paras 3Kalyani NagarPune - 411,006E-mail : glbadam@yahoo.com

Gori Tumi Echevarria L6pezPlaza Julio C. Tello 274 - 303,Torres de San Borja,Ltma 41., PeruE-mail: goritumi@gmail.com

Jagannath DashDepartment of AnthropologyUtkal University, Vani Vihar

RocK I Bhubaneshwar'-4 (Odisha)ART I

sTUDIES-ii I E-mail: jdashl955@gmail'com

I

372 |IIr-l

Nlnr/\ -'lt LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Jane BalmeCentre for Rock Art Studies

The University of Western Australia (M257)

35 Stirling Highwa, CRA\7IEY \fA 600, AustraliaE-mail: iane.balme@uwa.edu.au

Jenee PeterDepartment of HistoryUnion Christian CollegeAluva - 583 702Kerala (India)E-mail: jeneepeter@uccollege.edu.in

Lawrence LoendorfSacred Sites Research, Inc.5ZZ0 lloiave Srreer NWAlbuquerque, New MexicoUSAE-mail: loendorf@loendorf. net

Murari Lal SharmaGovernment P.G. CollegeKotputali (Jaipur)

Raiasthan - 303 108

E-mail : murari_sha rma79 57 @yahoo. com

Robert G. BednarikAustralian Rock Art Research Association (AURA)

P.O. Box 216

Caulfield South, l/IC. 31,52

AustraliaE-mail: auraweb@hotmail.com . calral@hotmail.com

Roy Querejazu LewisAsociaci6n de Estudios del Arte Rupestre de Cochabamba (AEARC)

Casilla 4243

Cochabamba, BoliviaE-mail: aearcb@gmail.com

Somnath Chakravertv5/7 Suri LaneKolkata - 700 0L4E-mail: somraja2))B@gmail.com

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LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

",'11 I

H-

Sue O'ConnorDepartment of Archaeology and Natural HistoryCollege of Asia and the Pacific,

The Australian National University Act 0200, AustraliaE-mail: sue. oconnor@anu.edu.au

V.H. SonawaneDept, of A.LH.C. & ArchaeologyFaculry of Arts, M.S. University of BarodaYadodan, Guiarat - 390 O02

E-mail : vhsonawane@rediffmail. com

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

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