Action Research Workshop

Action ResearchThe Dawning of a New Personal Learning

by Dr. Ng Kee ChuanIPGK Gaya

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya 1

Action Research• Action: Taking action to improve practice.

• Research: Finding things out and coming to new understandings, that is, creating new knowledge. In action research the knowledge is about how and why improvement has happened.


Donald Schon’s Professional Topology

• Ontological Assumptions – This is the study of being and is strongly linked to values. It is about how we see ourselves in relation to others because one is never alone in the social situation. It is about the position of the researcher in context.

• Epistemological Assumptions – How knowledge is obtained and formed. It is about authority and power to legitimate new knowledge.

3Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya

Ontological

Commitments of AR

Value Laden

Morally Committ

ed

In relation to

others (Social context

)Dr. Ng Kee Chuan – IPGK Gaya 4

4 Dimensions of Qualitative Research

Meaning is the key to understanding

Research is best pursued in holistic natural settings

Research looks for patterns in search for meaning

Researchers are participants, not just observers


Important for Action Research!

• Clarify educational values of a teacher that moves him to take a certain action with the aim of continuous improvement in his or her practice (McNiff & Whitehead, 2011).


Educational Values• The nature of action research is that it is value-laden.

• The researcher works towards the value that inspires them to act. – Explain what gives you inspiration to act.

– Elaborate what you hope that action will achieve (improved practice).


A concept is an idea and a theory is an explanation of that idea. Concept is also the value that drives the thinking of the researcher. Concepts are also values that encourages the mind of the researcher, the reseaach and academic quest.

Example of Educational Value

• I believe that the best way to learn a language is to use it as often as possible especially by speaking it out loud.


Question: Do we use BM when teaching English?

Example of Educational Value

• I believe that students learn best when they are actively involved in the learning process and forming their own understanding.


Question: Is my approach more teacher-centered or student- centered?

Are we a living contradiction?

Educational Value

Educational

Practice


Holding to a set of values but not living according to it.

MORAL COMMITMENT OF ACTION RESEARCH RESEARCHER

Educational Value

Educational

Practice


Researcher chooses &

explains their value

Researcher explains how they carried out their

choice.

Forming Living Theories for Practice

Living Theory (Teori Yang Hidup)(Whitehead & McNiff, 2006)

• …practice was a form of real-life theorizing. As we practice, we observe what we do and reflect on it. We make sense of what we are doing through researching it. We gather data and generate evidence to support our claims that we know what we are doing and why we are doing it (our theories of practice), and we test this knowledge claims for their validity through the critical feedback of others. These theories are our living theories. (pg.32)


SOURCE OF LIVING THEORIESDr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya 13

Source of

Living Theori

es

Teacher’s Stories

Self-Learning

Evolution of

Educational Values

Contradictory

Experiences


Why do Action Researc

h?

Integrating teaching

with research

To improve on the

effectiveness of

practice.

To reduce the

Performance Gap

(what is desired with

practice)The

channel for

professional

development.

Reflection on the T&L process

Naturalistic

research

The realisatio

n of educational values by the

practitioner.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan 15

Question: How can I do this?

What I need to know…

Statement: I know how to do

it.

What I already know…

New Knowledge

Claim





it.


1. Identify

the issue

New Knowledge

Claim

2. Justification: State why the issue

should be investigate

dFocus: Topic, Problem, Objectiv

e Research Question

Professional

Values, Construct

s, Conceptua

l Framework

3. Collect Data

4. Analyse Data

5. Interpret

Data

Qualitative and

Quantitative





it.


1. Identify

the issue

New Knowledge

Claim

Question: How do we know it’s true?

Bridge the gap between authenticity, rigour, and validity.

Report




e Research Question

Professional

Values, Construct

s, Conceptua

l Framework

3. Collect Data

4. Analyse Data

5. Interpret

Data

Qualitative and

Quantitative


Ng Kee Chuan, MP Gaya

Code of EthicsPERMISSION SECRECY INTEGRITY

•Tell and explain to participants the aims of the research•Get their permission and consent.

•Information that is obtained is confidential.

•The findings and the report of the research is valid and reliable. •Objectivity and behaviour of researcher

FOCUS OF ACTION RESEARCHHow to Get Started?


DEDUCTIVE REASONING PROCESS

Theory • General

Hypothesis

• To be tested

Data• Specific proof

Verification


Quantitative Research


Qualitative Research:

Explains and Predicts the Variables

X Y

Type: If…then…Independent variable (X) influences the dependent variable (Y)

Inductive reasoning process

Observations

PatternsTentative Hypothesis

Personal Theory


• Specific

• General

• Identify

• Form

Qualitative Research


Main Phenomenon

Y

Qualitative Research:Exploring and Understanding the Main Phenomenon

Deep understanding of Y; external factors that influence Y and is in turn influenced by Y.

Starting from one idea, focus or concept to explore before collecting data.

Basic Intentions of Qualitative Research

Qualitative

Research

Investigative

Interpretive

Illuminative

Intervention


Basic Intentions of Qualitative Research

Intention

Focus Situation

Investigative

Inquire (like detectives)

Situation that don’t seem to make sense

Interpretive

Integrate (like puzzle masters)

Incoherent situation

Illuminative

Insight (like scientists)

Elusive phenomenon

Intervention

Improvement (like doctors)

Learning issues in classroom


27Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - Topic 3

CLARIFYING THE STARTING POINT

Aspect of practice / focus comes from:

• An Interest – trying out a promising idea, developing a strength, coping with a routine obligation in a more considerate and economic way.

• A Difficulty – Wanting to improve a difficult situation, solve a problem, compensate for a deficiency

• An Unclear Situation – Situations which are neither clearly positive nor negative, existing theories.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - Clarifying the starting point

Research Question• Is not to “prove” to others.• Cannot be answered by “yes” or “no” (Open-ended).

• Is specific enough to give initial direction.

Reconnaissance

Literature Review

Initial Survey

Reflection of Past

T&L Experienc

e


• Interest• Problem• Unclear

Situation

Value

Process Questions for Action Research(McNiff dan Whitehead 2011)

• What is my concern?• Why am I concerned?• What kinds of data can I gather to show why I am concerned?

• What can I do about it? What will I do about it?

• What kinds of data will I gather to show the situation as it unfolds?


• How will I test the validity of my claim(s) to knowledge?

• How will I ensure that any conclusions I reach are reasonably fair and accurate?

• How will I modify my concerns, ideas, practice in light of my evaluation?



Research Focus

Topic

• Broad matters that are considered in the research

Problem

• Issue, consideration or controversy

Objective

• Main aim

Question

• Narrow the objective to the question to be answered.


General

Specific

Research Focus

Topic


Problem


Objective

• Main aim

Question



General

Specific

Example of Research Focus


Umum Spesifik

Thinking in schools

Not much thinking happens in schools.

Discover a model to produce thinking students through a multi-method approach

Will social learning (CL), independent learning (PBL) and technological literacy & competency produce thinking students through process?

Topic


Problem


Objective

• Main aim

Question


LITERATURE REVIEW


Definition• Literature review is a written summary based on journal articles, books and other documents that explains the information standing, past and present, regarding a topic to give the justification for carrying out the research.


The use of literature review

• To know what others have said about the topic.

• To show critical involvement in the research and scholarship.

• To form the conceptual framework.• To compare your findings with the views of significant others.

• To show originality and your contribution to the field of knowledge and its significance.


Basics of Literature Review

How does your

research add to

existing literatu

re.

Add

Potential to

learn a new idea

or knowledg

e.

New

To share latest ideas.

Latest

Identify practices that could improve teaching

and learning in the

class. .


Practices

The Process of Development of Literature Review

Topic and Problem

Educational Value Action


Objectives

Research Questions

The Differences in the Use of Literature Review in Quantitative and Qualitative

Research

Aspect Quantitative Research Qualitative Research

The number of literature used at the beginning of research.

Many Minimum

The use of literature at the beginning of the research

To give the justification and to document the need for the research. Predictive element to give the rational for the direction of the research (problem statement, research question or hypothesis).

To give the justification and to document the need for the research.

The use of literature review at the end of the research

To support or not support the prediction made based on literature.

To support or adapt the findings in literature.


The Main Rational (Qualitative)

• To allow opinions and views of research participants to emerge without restrictions from the opinion of others in literature.


Five Steps in Carrying Out Literature Review

1• Identify the key words and phrases that are important in literature review.

2• To search for literature using all kinds of sources and location.

3• Evaluate and choose literature critically to explore.

4• Arrange chosen literature: the process of abstraction, taking notes, and formulate diagrams or literature maps.

5• Write literature review that reports the summary of literature.


Language Acquisition by Second Language Learners

• Example: Krashen’s Five Hypotheses


Krashen’s Five Hypotheses

• The Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis: – Acquisition is an unconscious process of learning a language as young children acquire their first language.

– Learning is a conscious process in which learners master a formal set of knowledge about a language.


Implication: Teachers need to create a native-like language environment, that is, a language-rich environment, in which learners are exposed to the language. This means the use of English as much as possible in the class. At the same time, teachers have the responsibility to formally instruct students about the elements of English (e.g. letter-sound correspondence, the comprehension process.)


• The Nature Order Hypothesis: – There is a predictable order of acquisition of language forms and rules.

– E.g. Learners go through putting a negation in the beginning of the sentence (No I like games) to inserting a negation in front of a verb (I no like books) to having a correct negation marker (I don’t like games).


Implication: Second language learners need to be exposed to a language-rich environment in the same way as first-language learners, and that instruction should focus on meaning rather than rote memory about language rules.


• The Affective Filter Hypothesis: – A learner’s affective filter (anxiety, motivation and self-confidence) can block input necessary for language acquisition


Implication: Teachers need to provide a lower-anxiety learning environment filled with learning experiences and activities that motivate students, that are meaningful and authentic, and that supports students to become successful.

The Use of “References” in MicrosoftWord


How will this

subject help the

researcher, educationis

ts and administrators, other concerned parties?

Importance

What is lacking and

not known yet

GapProof from literature

review.

Proof from past

experience or

reflection on teaching

and learning.

Justification

Issue. Consideration or controversy that requires a solution.

ProblemsThe broad matter considered in the research.

Topic


Five Elements in the Research Focus


Literature Review

Interest / Problem/ Situation that is unclear

Construct

Theoretical Framework

Conceptual Framework

Themes and Categories


Initial Question

for Organization

Emerging or

Formed Question

Additional

Questions

Formulated

Early Stages of

the Research

Early Data Collection

Advanced Data Collection

• The Emerging Process: Qualitative research objective and question can change depending on the feedback and responses of research participants.

• The researcher learns from the opinions and views of research participants and not force his own opinions upon the participants.

OBJECTIVES / AIMS OF RESEARCH



General

Specific

• Literature Review• Prvious T&L

Reflection• Initial Survey

• Significance• Limitations

• Educational Value• Construct /Conceptual Framework

• Justification

Research Focus

Topic


Problem


Objective

• Main aim

Question


Purpose Statements (Objectives)

• Purpose statements / Objectives indicate the desire to explore or understand the main phenomenon with regards to specific participants in a particular place of research. – Introduces the research.– States the objectives of the research.– Gives the direction of the research.


Guidelines in Writing Purpose Statements

• Use key identifier words to signal the reader such as “The purpose of this study is…”

• Consider mentioning that the study is “qualitative” since audiences may not be familiar with qualitative research.

• Indicate the type of research design you plan to use e.g. Action Research.

• State the central phenomenon you plan to explore.• Use words that convey intent about the

exploration, such as explore, discover, understand and describe.

• Mention the participants in the study.• Refer to the research site where you will study

the participants.Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya 54

Format• The purpose of this qualitative study will be to (explore / discover / understand) (the central phenomena) for (participants) at (research site)


RESEARCH QUESTIONS



General

Specific





• Justification

Research Focus

Topic


Problem


Objective

• Main aim

Question


Research Question• The research question helps to narrow down the research objectives to specific questions.

• It is usually open-ended questions that that the researcher seeks to answer at the end of the research.


Guidelines• Be prepared for the research question to change or emerge as the research progresses based on your reflection on the viewpoints expressed by the participants of your research and on your deepening understanding.

• Ask only a few general questions (3-5 questions for each research is sufficient).


Guidelines• Use questions that uses neutral language, that are exploratory without giving pointers to findings. – Use words like “generating, discovering, understanding, exploring” and not words that give pointers to cause-and-effect relationships like “causes, related to, compared to, influencing.”


Guidelines• Formulate and write two types of questions: Main question and supporting questions.– Main questions: The most general question for your research.

– Supporting questions: Questions that elucidate the main questions. •Helps to answer the main question.•Helps you to order your research in a proper sequence.


Examples of Questions• Main Questions:

– Will the combination of social learning, independent learning and technological literacy & competency produce thinking students through process?

• Supporting Questions: – How can Project-based Learning as the method for independent learning be carried out?

– What is the influence of cooperative learning in the approach?

– How are the students able to use ICT in the process of learning?


How To Formulate Research Questions

• Use one point of inquiry for each question.

• As open-ended questions. • Make sure that the questions are in line with your research objectives.

• Ask separately questions that are related to concepts and processes.


CHAPTERS 1-3

• Introduction• Research Focus• Research Objective• Research Question• Significance and Limitations of Research• Methodology



General

Specific





• Justification

Chapter 1-3

Topic


Problem


Objective

• Main aim

Question





it.


1. Identify

the issue

New Knowledge

Claim

Question: How do we know it’s true?

Bridge the gap between authenticity, rigour, and validity.

Report




e Research Question

Professional

Values, Construct

s, Conceptua

l Framework

3. Collect Data

4. Analyse Data

5. Interpret

Data

Qualitative and

Quantitative


Criteria for Choosing the Research Focus

Feasibility

Collaboration

Control

Importance

Applicability

Relevance to School

FOCUS CHOSEN?


Can it be researched

?

Should it be

researched?

Is there justificat

ion?

Can this problem be researched?

• Collaboration: Will permission be granted so that you have access to the people and place where the research is to be carried out?

• Control: Will cooperation be given by participants?

• Feasibility: Do I have enough time, resources and skills to carry out this research?


Should this problem be researched?

• Importance: – Does this research fill the research gap in existing literature?

– Does this research replicate another research but in a different context?

– Does this research extend or deepen past research findings?

• Relevance to School and Kerelevanan kepada sekolah & Applicability: Is this research related to yours and other teachers’ existing practices?


Main Thing: Justification to Carry Out the Research

Should and can this research be carried

out?


Constructs• Abstraction that cannot be observed directly: they are concepts formed to describe or explain behaviours.

• Example: intelligence, personality, teachers’ effectiveness, creativity, skills, motivation.


Inquiry: Methodology & Research Design

PositivistInterpretive

Critical

• Scientific method that is based on quantitative data (numbers and statistics)

• Finding patterns and meaning from qualitative data in the form of narrative and visual.

• Mixed-method to provide critical perspective from many angles of an issue.

72Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

Mixed Method• Quantitative Enhanced by Qualitative – Adding flesh to the bones

– Enriching and elaborating the quantitative results.

• Qualitative Confirmed by Quantitative– Drive home the point


CHAPTER 4 & 5

• Analysis and Interpreting Data• Findings and Discussion• Further Proposed Research


Criteria for Evaluating AR

1. Authenticity

3. Validity

2. Depth

Data that is given as proof

The truth of the claims made (rigour)

Learning of the participants of the research• The

learning of the researcher that is related to the educational value (Changes in practice)

• The learning of students (the sampel)


1. AUTHENTICITYTo enhance the reality of learning


1. Authenticity • Triangulation – the use of data from different sources that supports the different interpretation.

• Proof is generated according to criteria and standards of judgement that are acceptable..


2. DEPTH

To enhance the credibility of the experience


2. Depth• New knowledge claim that shows the learning of the research participants (changes towards improvement in practice) based on data that demonstrates the learning of the researcher and samples.– Personal Theory: Explanation that shows a clearer understanding.

– Practice: New, different or different practices or methods.


2. Depth• The explanation of the process to meet the positive and negative issues (can illustrate with data like episodes / snippets / events / teacher stories). – When did the researcher begin to learn it?

– How did the learning of the researcher grow?

– “Up and down” stories and discussion of disconfirming data.


Soalan

What?

When?

Where?

How?

Why?

Who?

Example of depth: Questions that are asked during the

interview must be myriad


Jean McNiff• Action Research is an explanatory story, not just a descriptive story.


Criteria to Evaluate the Depth of Action Research

• Relatable: Can I learn from it?• Accessible: Can I understand it? • Verifiability: Can I verify the educational value of the researcher that was fixed at the beginning of the research to encourage change and congruence with the practice and action?


3. VALIDITYTo enhance the rigour of the findings


Validity • Internal validity: How congruent between findings and reality (actual situation). Data is real. (Accuracy of data)

• External validity: How believable it is to others (Originality of data)


Kriteria Guba (1981) Untuk Kesahan Kajian Kualitatif

Kriteria Definisi StrategiKredibiliti

Kebolehan pengkaji untuk mengambil kira kerumitan yang terkandung dalam kajian dan mengendalikan pola yang tidak mudah diterangkan.

• Melibatkan diri secara berpanjangan dalam satu tempat kajian.

• Membuat pemerhatian yang berulang-ulang.

• Mendapat maklum balas daripada rakan sebaya / sekerja.

• Mengamalkan traingulasi.• Mengumpulkan banyak item data

jenis “slice-of-life”• Membuat penyemakan oleh peserta

kajian.• Membentuk struktur koroborasi

atau koheren supaya tiada percanggahan dalaman.

• Membentuk kecukupan rujukan dengan menguji analisis & interpretasi dengan dokumen, rakaman dll.


Kriteria Guba (1981) Untuk Kesahan Kajian Kualitatif

Kriteria Definisi StrategiKebolehpindahan milik (Tranferability)

Kepercayaan pengkaji bahawa semua adaah terikat pada konteks.

• Mengumpul data deskriptif yang terperinci

Kebolehbergantungan (Dependability)

Kestabilan data.

• Kaedah yang bertindih.• Membentuk “jejak

audit” (audit trail) supaya bukti data mentah boleh disemak.

Kebolehpastian (Confirmability)

Keberkecualian (neutrality) atau keobjektifan data yang dikumpulkan.

• Amalkan triangulasi.• Amalkan “reflexivity”

iaitu dengan terbuka bincangkan andaian (assumptions) dan berat sebelah (biases)


Reliability• The generalisability of findings by the formation of personal theories to be adopted as future practices.


ANALYSING QUALITATIVE

DATA

Quest to find meaning from data…and making the claim to new knowledge.


Qualitative Data• Qualitative data is in the form of words and not numbers (as in quantitative data).

• The types of qualitative data includes:•Interviews with students, teachers, administrators and parents.

•Observation data recorded in note form regarding practices in classroom and students’ behaviour.

•Photos and video recordings during the teaching and learning process.

•Researcher’s reflective notes regarding the actions that have been taken.

•Documents in the form of students’ work, whether in electronic or hardcopy.

•Chat comments with students.



MAKING THE CLAIM TO NEWKNOWLEDGE

Ontology

Epistemology

Methodology


A theory of being: What is real?

A theory of knowledge: How do you know?

A theory of working: how do we do things?

Ontology• Ontology refers to a theory of being, which influences how we perceive ourselves in relation to our environment, including other people.


Outsider

Insider

Spectator Participative

BEING

Epistemology• Epistemology refers to a theory of knowledge:– A theory of knowledge (what is known)

– A theory of knowledge acquisition (how it comes to be known)


Outsider

Insider

A thing to study & analyse separate from self

To create in company with other people.

KNOWLEDGE


Methodology• Methodology refers to a theory of how we do things.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya

96

Outsider

Insider

WORKING

Separated study to get definitive answers or theories (closure)

Interact with others to test provisional understandings with openness to new possibilities.

Ontology

Epistemology

Methodology


A theory of being: What is real?

A theory of knowledge: How do you know?

A theory of working: how do we do things?

Data analysis• Data analysis is the process of bringing order, structure, and meaning to the mass of collected data. It is a messy, ambiguous, time-consuming, creative, and fascinating process. It does not proceed in a linear fashion; it is not neat. Qualitative data analysis is a search for general statements about relationships among categories of data; it builds grounded theory.

(Source: Marshall & Rossman, 1995)


Making Sense of data (Meaning)


• What is at issue is the best means to ‘make sense’ of the data in ways that will facilitate the continuing unfolding of the inquiry, and, second, leads to a maximal understanding of the phenomena being studied.

(Source: Lincoln & Guba, 1985)

ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION OF DATA

Telling the narrative of the research coherently.


Analyse Data1. Turning the data into

evidence

2. Providing basis for valid and credible story


I. Turning the Data into Evidence

• Producing evidence is part of the process of establishing the validity, or truthfulness, of a claim.


Make A Claim toKNOWLDEGE

Answer the Research Question!


Data and Proof• Data is not the same as proof.• Data refers to pieces of information you gather about what you and others are doing and learning.


The Validation Process

• Data

Ontological Value

• Living Standards in Practice

Standards of

Judgment • Proof

Epistemological Claims


Do not change form but change status.

Ontology is the study of being, and strongly linked

with values.

Epistemology is how we understand knowledge and how we acquire and create knowledge.

Ontological Commitments• Action research is value laden.• Action research is morally committed.

• Action researchers perceive themselves as in relation with one another in their social contexts.


Living Standards of Judgement

• Introducing the idea of living standards of judgement as rooted in values gives a necessary dimension of values-based practice. Practice is seen as thoughtful educational engagement, and not simply the execution of skills. Practice is judged in terms of what is good about it, rather than only in terms of what activities have been performed. (Whitehead & McNiff, 2006)


From Data to Evidence / Proof


Data ArchivesEvidence Box

Confirming Data

Disconfirming Data

Disconfirming Box

108

II. Providing basis for a valid and credible story


Identify and communicatethe developing story

convincingly.

109

Process of Using Analysis of Data

1.Stating what the claim to knowledge is.

2.Establishing the criteria and standards of judgment.

3.Selecting data. 4.Generating evidence.


1. Stating what the claim to knowledge is.

You claim to know something that was not known before (adding to the public body of knowledge)

Your claim to know in relation to:• Theory (explanation: making sense of phenomenon)

• Practice (creating: new ways of doing)

“Your theory of practice (explanation for practice) has been created from within the practice.” – McNiff and Whitehead (2011)


2. Establishing the criteria and standards of judgment.

• Criteria: Tell you in advance what is expected in a thing or action.

• Standards of judgement: Tell you how well or to what extent the criterion is being achieved according to specific standards.


As a practitioner-researcher, your job is to set your own standards of judgement, and show how you are fulfilling them. – McNiff and Whitehead

Example of University of Bath criteria

• That the thesis demonstrates originality of mind and critical judgment.

• That the extent and merit of the work are appropriate.

• That the thesis contains matter worthy of publication.


Example of Mary Hartog’s Standards of Judgement

• Are the values of my practice clearly articulated and is there evidence of a commitment toward living them in my practice?

• Does my inquiry account lead you to recognize how my understanding and practice has changed over time?

• Is the evidence provided of life-affirming action in my teaching and learning relationship?

• Does this thesis evidence an ethic of care in the teaching and learning relationship?

• Are you satisfied that I as a researcher have shown commitment to a continuous process of practice improvement?

• Does this thesis show originality of mind and critical thinking?


Haberman’s “truth claims”

• Is this account comprehensible?• Does it represent a truthful and sincere account?

• Is it appropriate – has it been crafted with due professional and ethical consideration?


3. Selecting data• Search the data to find instances of educational values in action.



Always Practice TRIANGULATION

TriangulationThree processes:i.Demonstrating the authenticity

of the data.ii.Negotiating the authenticity

of the data; which then transforms into.

iii.Negotiating the validity of the evidence.


Triangulation Matrix

Research Question

Sources of Data 1 2 3 4

1. 2.3.4.

A gird that summarises the various sources of data that can be used to

answer each research question.

Example of Research Matrix

Research Question

Data Source 1

Data Source 2

Data Source 3

Data Source 4

1. How to carry out Strategy A?

Documents: Daily Lesson Plans

Observations: Reflection Journal

Documents: Students’ Portfolio

Video Recordings

2. What are the effects of implementing Strategy A?

Documents: Students’ performance in quizzes, projects, tests, and their profolio sampels

Teacher’s Observations: Reflection Journal and Video Recordings

Peer Observations: Observation Forms

Interviews with Students: Protocol Questions (Structured and Semi-Structured)


i. Demonstrating the authenticity of the data

• Show that you have not fabricated your data. – Print the time and date of photos, emails or text messages.

– Ask the sender to sign and date a written note, observation notes, written feedback.

– State the time and date at the beginning of a audio recording.

– Keep systematic records of meetings, conversations or virtual learning experiences


ii. Negotiating the authenticity of the data

• Show your data to your critical friends and reviewers to have them verify the authenticity of your data.


iii. Negotiating the validity of the evidence.

• You no longer speak about authenticity, but about validity, explaining how you generate evidence / proofs from the data.


Validity for Qualitative ResearchWhitehead & McNiff (2006:98)

Validity is:• The effort to show authenticity of the basis of proof.

• To explain standards of judgement used.

• To show the reasonableness of the claim made.


To Increase Validity I• Triangulation: multiple researchers, sources of data, methods to verify findings that emerge.

• Checked by participants of research: Request participants of research to check the accuracy of interpretation by the researcher.

• Checked by peers: Ask a colleague to check your interpretation.

• Checked by expert: Ask an expert to check the coding and interpretation.


To Increase Validity II• Long-term engagement: Collect data for a long period of time to ensure deep understanding of the phenomena.

• Maximum variation: Each participant has been observed, data has reached saturation point (no new themes emerging anymore).

• Researcher’s experience, assumptions and biasness: Is stated clearly in the research report so that the reader knows the context in which the data is interpreted.



At least three resources. The more resources you can show, the more robust the evidence of your claim.





4. Generating evidence• Use your data to explain how they represent both your capacity to realise you values of practice, and also your capacity to articulate and communicate your specific standards of judgement.


Living Theories

Ontological Values

Epistemological Standards of Judgement


Triangulation for

authenticity and validity

Values and Principles that underpin your

work

Validity of contribution to new knowledge claims based on standards

of judgement

A form of real-life theorising to show we know what we are

doing and why we are doing it

(our theories of practice).

Process of Using Analysis of Data

1.Stating what the claim to knowledge is.

2.Establishing the criteria and standards of judgment.

3.Selecting data. 4.Generating evidence.


ANALYSE AND INTERPRET DATA• This section tells the success or failure of your actions. What was obtained as a result of the action?

• What were the effects of shortcomings of the action?

• What are the improvements in personal practice?


Analysing Data• Give a description of data: Elaborate on the progress of the research from step to step:

• To present the data that has been analysed and how proofs were generated.– Relevant event schedule– Graphic representations of various cycles

– Tables that summarises dataDr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya 138

Aims of Action Research

Make New

Knowledge

Claims

Analyse Data

InterpretData Litera

ture Review


Need to establish validity or truth to claims by PROOFS.

• Knowing something new that was not previously known: Theory or Practice.

• Add on to existing knowledge. 139


Reading Data

Selecting Data

Interpreting Data and Drawing

Conclusions

Presenting Data

Collecting Data

Further Researc

h Activities

DATA ANALYSIS

Miles and Huberman 1984:23

140

ANALYSING DATAChapter 4: Concluding and representing data in the most accurate, believable and correct form.


Two Steps of Data Analysis


1. Construc

ting Stage

• Read the Data• Choose the Data• Present the Data• Interpret the Data

2. Critical Stage

• Re-examine Findings

3Cs:CodeCategoriseConceptualise

Constructing Stage in Data Analysis

1. Read the Data – Data are ‘read’ (closely scrutinised) in order to recall the events and experiences that they represent:

– What was done? – What was said? – What really happened?



2. Selecting Data – – Important factors are separated from unimportant factors.

– Similar factors are grouped together.

– Complex details are sorted and (where possible) simplified.


3. Presenting Data: The selected data are presented in a form that is easy to take in at a glance. This can be in the form of a written outline or a diagram.



• 4. Interpreting Data and Making Conclusions: Relationships are explained and a practical / personal theory (or model) constructed to fit the situation which has been researched. This theory or model should relate to the research focus or aspect of practice. Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya 146


The Critical Stage of Data Analysis

Each stage of the analysis is tested:

• Does the data bring the event to mind?

• Has the data selection focused on the central issues?

• Does the data presentation clarify the relationships between events and stimulate further analysis?

• Does the interpretation explain the data satisfactorily?


The Two Stages of Data Analysis

• A good practice is to review data immediately after they have been collected and write a summary or short notes.

• This allows easy access to the data later and to get an overview of what they offer concerning the research question.

• Analysis of data can occur DURING and AFTER data collection.


ANALYSIS OF DATA DURING DATA COLLECTION

• Making decisions to narrow the scope or field of study.

• Making decisions with regards to research design.

• Forming analytical questions for further investigation.

• Planning further collection of data based on past observations.


• Writing personal notes and reflection on what you have been discovering.

• Testing of your ideas, practices or themes on your sample of subjects.

• Explore related literature for ideas or possible explanations.

• Finding suitable metaphors, analogies or concepts.

• Use of visual aids. Bogdon & Bicklen (1992:154-164)


Constructive Methods of Data Analysis

• Making data summaries.• Developing categories and coding data.

• Writing theoretical notes. • Quantification.• Shaping metaphors.• Pattern analysis.• Dilemma analysis.• .


ANALYSIS OF DATA AFTER DATA COLLECTION

Two main methods of data analysis:• Deductive method – Categories are chosen from the researcher’s theoretical knowledge and the data is then searched for relevant proof.(Development of categories is independent of the data)

• Inductive Method – Categories are chosen during and after scrutinizing the data. (Categories are derived from the data)

(Altrichter, Posch & Somekh, 1993:124)Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya 152

153

Qualitative Data Analysis

The Researcher Collects Data for Analysis (i.e. a text file, such as field notes, transcription, or optically scanned material)

The Researcher Prepares Data for Analysis (i.e. transcribes field notes)

The Researcher Reads Through Data (i.e. obtains a general sense of the material)

The Researcher Codes the Data (i.e. locates text segments and assigns a code label to them)

Codes the Text for Description to Be Used in the Research Report

Codes the Text for Themes to Be Used in the Research Report

Simultaneous

Iterative

Qualitative Process of Data Analysis (Cresswell, 2005)Dr. Ng Kee Chuan - IPGK Gaya

THE PROCESS OF ANALYSING data

3Cs


The 3C Process of Analysing Data

Coding Categorising

Conceptualising


Analysing Qualitative Data

1. Code the data. 2. Categorise by combining codes.3. Conceptualise by looking for

patterns in the categories. 4. Draw a concept map, looking for

relationships between concepts.


1. CODING


#1: CODE THE DATA

• Read through the text (transcript, journal writings, observation/field notes or documents) you want to code.

• Underline or highlight each passage that seems important (interesting, surprising, unexpected) in relation to the research question.

• Attach working labels (themes) to blocks of text. Each block of text may have several labels. These lables must have meaning for you in the context of the research.


Coding ProcessExplore

• Read the whole text

Reduce

• Code it.

• Reduce the number of codes

• Combine codes to form categories

Verify

• Checking themes and categories.

• Forming new themes.


• Existing themes• Emerging themes

Prepare theData

Transcription

Representing Data

160

Coding Using the “Comment” Function of MSWord



R: I’m here to do a research on TESL teachers. How are you?T: Good! You’re most welcome.R: What are some of the problems of teaching and learning English?T: We teachers are really overburdened. We just teach too many periods. There is plenty of paper work nowadays. Pupils are not really reading. English materials R: Has there been a significant drop in the standard of English among students?T: Of course. During my time, everybody speaks English – of course English was the medium of instruction. Now many don’t speak English at home.R: What possibly could have resulted in this drastic drop in standard?T: Firstly the curriculum is ineffective. We’re now using communication English. We do not stress on the mechanics of English grammar. Furthermore, I think Malaysians are a sentimental lot – the Malays, the Chinese, the Indians all want to maintain their mother tongues.R: So how do you propose to improve the standard of English?T: Introduce English medium schools like the good old days. The ETEMS programme doesn’t really help.R: Thank you. I think you’ve provided me with plenty of information and that’s sufficient for my research.T: You’re most welcome.

Extraction of key phrases




Teaching too many periodsPupils not reading English

Not speaking English

Ineffective curriculumMalaysian sentiments

Introduce English medium schools

163

Grounded Theory Approach

• Analysis uncovered 6 descriptions of problems in the teaching and learning of English and the following codes are assigned:– A1 – teaching too many periods– A2 – pupils not reading English– A3 – not speaking English– A4 – ineffective curriculum– A5 – Malaysian sentiments– A6 – introduce English medium schools


2. CATEGORISE


#2: CATEGORISE THE CODES

• Go through the text for a second time looking only at the marked passages, and decide upon a category (one word or a short phrase) that is most significant.


Categories / Themes• Themes: Underlying principles at work that help make any given setting coherent and intelligible.

• As you collect all the text with similar coding, you take note of the patterns emerging. Bring these codes together to form themes / categories.

• It is possible to get several themes in one grouping of qualitative data. Each themes shows how our understanding of a certain topic is advanced.


Boxes and Matrices• Use boxes and matrices. • Box = category


From Data to Evidence / Proof


Data ArchievesEvidence Box

Confirming Data

Disconfirming Data

Disconfirming Box

168

Categories1. Read the data and determine which “box” or category is most relevant to be sorted later. – That which can help answer the research question.– The objective that is aspired.– The main and specific phenomenon that is being researched and to be explained.

– Significant activities that involves the researcher and participants.

– Issues, ideas or actions that keeps emerging from different sources of data (surprising and interesting).

2. Read each coded data and put them in the “box” that is most suitable.



Initially read through text data

Many pages of text

Code the text

Reduce overlap and redundancy of codes

Collapse codes into themes

30-40 codes

Codes reduced to 20

Codes reduced to 5-7 themes




Teaching too many periodsPupils not reading English

Not speaking English

Ineffective curriculumMalaysian sentiments

Introduce English medium schools

172


• Analysis uncovered 6 descriptions of problems in the teaching and learning of English and the following codes are assigned:– A1 – teaching too many periods– A2 – pupils not reading English– A3 – not speaking English– A4 – ineffective curriculum– A5 – Malaysian sentiments– A6 – introduce English medium schools


173


• Recode the 6 descriptions into 1 or 2 categories – the categories/themes emerge from the data.

• Assign a name for the category or theme.• A1 and A4 could be recoded B1 and assigned the category or theme – “curriculum improvement”.

• A2 and A3 could be recoded as B2 and assigned the category or theme – “home factors”.

• A5 – “racial sentiments”.• Go on doing this until you have exhausted the data in terms of developing any new codes.


3. CONCEPTUALISE


#3: FORM THE CONCEPT• Revisit each category and evaluate if it still fits or does it warrant their own category.

• Start noticing the emerging relations between categories.


An example of analysis of data

• Penyelidikan Tindakan dalam Praktikum


• Category Sheet: List the categories on a master sheet.The code for each entry can consists of:

The name of the text you are coding.The page number of the text.The margin number of the marked passage. The date of entryE.g. Con 12/3/13.2.03• Also write the code (preferably with pencil) in the margin beside the passage it refers to.

• Order the categories by grouping concepts which belong together. This gives some structure to the whole by suggesting connections / patterns between individual categories.


Pattern Analysis• Patterns are ‘regularities of behavior’ or ‘forms of interaction which occur over and over again’.

• Patterns select data – Only the data connected by patterns are selected.

• Patterns structure data – They organize the contents of the data. The order is discovered and at the same time constructed.

• Patterns interpret data – They are presumptions (hypotheses) about the nature of T&L.


How Pattern Analysis is Done

• Stage 1: What is a pattern?• Stage 2: What is the significance of the pattern?

• Stage 3: What are the effects of the pattern?

• Stage 4: To what extent does the pattern and its probable effects correspond with what the teacher intends?


Contoh: • “Home Factors” and “Racial Sentiments” are “SOCIETAL INFLUENCES” (Concept)


4. CONCEPT MAPS


#4: Concept Mapping• 4. Form Concept Maps: This is a good way to visualise how the main categories in a research are related to each other.


Concept Map - How?• List the major influences that have affected the study of the area of your focus.

• Develop a visual presentation of the major influences (factors) connecting the influences with relationships you know exists (using solid lines) and influences you have a hunch about (using dotted lines).

• Review the concept map to determine any consistencies and inconsistencies that exist between influences. Check what is missing.



Home Factors

Usage of Mother Tongueinfluen

ces

Difficulty in T&L of English

Curriculum Weakness

Negatively affects

English Medium Schools

Necessitates?

Analysing Qualitative Data

1. Code the data. 2. Categorise by combining codes.3. Conceptualise by looking for

patterns in the categories. 4. Draw a concept map, looking for

relationships between concepts.


Displaying Findings• Information summarized need to be displayed in appropriate and meaningful formats.

• Consider using: matrices, charts, concept map, graphs, figures, diagrams.


ANALYSING DATA: WHAT?Chapter 4


Question


What?…is in the data?

What to look out for?1.That which confirms2.That which disconfirms

3.Dilemma4.Causal relationships5.What’s missing and lacking


1. That Which Confirms• That which demonstrates educational values in action.

• These criteria need to be rigourous and free from biasness.

• Countercheck by getting either the sample, subject experts or colleagues to check.


2. That Which Disconfirms

• Think again and do again.

• Test your initial presuppositions.

• Discuss how this contradiction came about and how it can be overcome. This showed “rigour” in qualitative research.


3. Dilemma• Is based on the notion that teachers are continually faced with dilemmas that require professional decision making.

• It can be expressed in the following terms: “On the one hand…but, on the other hand…”

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

How to Carry Out Dilemma Analysis

• Stage 1: Finding dilemmas.• Stage 2: Formulating and exploring dilemmas.

Is the dilemma solvable?Is the dilemma related to the complexity of the situation?

Is the dilemma emotionally stressful?

• Stage 3: Working on dilemmas.Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

4. Causal Relationships• Antecedents (causes) and consequences (effects) helps discover the major elements of their analysis.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

Causal Relationships – How?

• List the influences that emerged from the analysis for which there appears to be causal relationships.

• Revisit the review of literature to determine whether the analysis of the study supports, or is challenged by, the finding of previous studies.

• Revisit your data to determine if anything is missing and suggest how your finding may influence the next action research cycle.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

4. What’s Missing and Lacking

• As part of full reporting, discuss what pieces of the puzzle that are still missing and identify what questions remain for which you have not been able to provide answers.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

To display Findings• Information that has been summarised have to be displayed in an appropriate and meaningful format or form.

• Consider using matrixes, charts, concept maps, diagrams.


What to look out for?

1.That which confirms

2.That which disconfirms

3.Dilemma4.Causal relationships

5.What’s missing and lacking


Checklist of Data Analysis Techniques

• Identify themes• Code and categorise surveys, interviews, reflections and questionnaires.

• Analyse an interview.

• Ask key questions: who, what, when, where, why and how.

• Develop a concept map.

• Look for what confirms and what disconfirms.

• Analyse antecedents and consequences (causal relationships)

• State what is missing

• Display findings

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Chapter 5: Using analysis of data to make conclusions


Question


So what?…what does it

mean?


Interpreting Data

Summarise

Explain

Implications

Extend the

AnalysisConnect with

Personal Experienc

es

Contextualise in

Literature

Turn to Personal Theory

Suggestions for Further Research

1. Summarise• Summarise the research findings so that it is clear and easy to grasp.

• This summary is to help recall the key findings in the analysis of data. Only need to remind.

• The summary can be in point form or written narratively.

• If the research is to be extended further, do not make overenthusiastic conclusions.


2. Explain• Explanation that discusses the deeper meaning and relations of the findings help to elucidate the meaning.

• It is also possible that during the discussion, further questions arises. In such cases, the findings is best stated tentatively in the form of possibilities or speculations. In other words, further research needs to be carried out.

• Give simple labels to contextual concepts and unpack these context.


3. Examining Implications

• Implications can be in this form:– Practical changes in initial practices.

– Theoretical changes that are broader and deeper compared to initial understanding.

– Effects on social structure and relations.

– Changes in research processes. – Changes in professional values and convictions of researcher or practitioner.


4. Extend the Analysis• Raise questions about the study, noting implications that might be drawn without actually drawing them. This is a strategy of pointing the way rather than leading the way.

• E.g. While PBL appears to have increased independent learning, a number of questions are raised by this strategy. Since the attitude of students towards independence is consequential, is this strategy able to produce independence in all students regardless of personal preference.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

5. Connect Findings with Personal Experience

• Share your stories, struggles, deliberations, understanding, the twist and turns of your applications, discrepant events, surprising encounters, unusual happenings, important developments and emotions experienced.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

Seek the advice of “critical friends”

• If you face difficulties in interpretation, rely on trusted colleagues or experts to offer insights that you might have missed because of the closeness to the work.

• Multiple viewpoints may be helpful but beware of being caught in a myriad of conflicting opinions. Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

6. Contextualize Findings in the Literature

• External sources as part of the review of literature to provide support for the study’s findings.

• Making this connections also gives credence to the contribution of the teacher researcher to that area of study.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

7. Turn to Personal Theory

• Theory is an analytical and interpretative framework that helps the researcher make sense of ‘what is going on’ in the social context or setting being studied.

• This is personal theory.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

Personal Theory• Personal Theory provides a way for teacher researchers to link their work to broader issues of the day and make comparisons and contrasts.

• Personal Theory allows researcher to search for increasing levels of abstraction, to move beyond a purely descriptive account. This level of abstraction helps us to communicate the essence of descriptive work.

• Personal Theory provides a rationale or sense of meaning in the context of the work we do.

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

8. Suggestions for Further Research

• Suggestions can be for:– Further research to extend to descriptive, relational (correlational) or causal-comparative (inferential), or the forming of models.

– Better vision, mission or aims.


Data interpretation techniques

• Extend the analysis by raising questions.

• Connect the findings with personal experiences.

• Seek the advice of critical friends.

• Contextualize findings in the literature.

• Turn to theory. Dr. Ng Kee Chuan

EVALUATING ACTION RESEARCH

What direction to guide your students


Criteria for Evaluating Action ResearchJean McNiff

• Relatable: Can I learn from it?• Accessible: Can I understand it?

• Verifiability: Can I verify the educational value that the researcher fixed at the beginning of the research to encourage change?


Criteria for Evaluating Action Research

• Rigour refers to the quality, validity, accuracy and credibility of action research and its findings. (Craig A. Mertler)


Ways to Provide Rigour

1.Repetition of the cycle.2.Prolonged engagement and

persistent observation.3.Experience with the process. 4.Polyangulation of data.5.Member checking.6.Participant debriefing.


Levels of Evaluation•Long-term effects of embedded sustainable change and extended effects over the years.

Level 6: Ultimate Outcomes or Impact

•Positive or negative influence/effects of new practices and how it have spread to others.

Level 5: Initial Effects

•Changes in systems and structure of the organisation (how people work).

Level 4: Organisational Support

•Changes in behaviour and practice based what was learnt.

Level 3:Behaviours

•What people learnt during the process (change in practice) and what should come next.

Level 2:Learning

•Collected perceptions and feelings at time of event

Level 1: Participant’s Reactions


Epistemological Values for Judgement

• Identify and articulate clearly what they are studying.

• Explain the intellectual and practical processes involved in its study.

• Generate evidence via those intellectual and practical processes.

• Articulate their claims to knowledge in terms of the standards they use to judge the validity of the evidence.


What to look for in practice…

Identify and articulate clearly what they are studying

Object of enquiry

Explain the intellectual and practical processes involved in its study

What was learned and what was done during the process of research

Generate evidence via those intellectual and practical processes

Gathering data, defining appropriate standards of judgement, and placing the evidence in public domain to test its validity in terms of the specifically articulated standards of judgement

Articulate their claims to knowledge in terms of the standards they use to judge the validity of the evidence.

These are living theories of the researcher-practitioner



• What is my concern?• Why am I concerned?• What kinds of data can I gather to show why I am concerned?

• What can I do about it? What will I do about it?

• What kinds of data will I gather to show the situation as it unfolds?



• How will I test the validity of my claim(s) to knowledge?

• How will I ensure that any conclusions I reach are reasonably fair and accurate?

• How will I modify my concerns, ideas, practice in light of my evaluation?


How to Evaluate Action Research

Reports

Dr. Ng Kee Chuan 223

EACH RESEARCH QUESTION MUST BE CLEARLY ANSWEREDImportant!!!


Questions• Is the research regarding an issue or problem that is relevant and important to study?

• Was the research question clearly stated?

• Did the researcher collect sufficient data to be used as proofs for his claims?


Questions• Was the literature used relevant, significant and current?

• Was the action plan clear and developmentally logical?

• Did the findings of the research address the issues that were raised in the beginning of the research?


Questions•Do the available proofs support the findings clearly and positively according to the purpose and practice of the researcher?–Reliability: Are the data consistent to support personal generalisibility?

–Validity – Are the data original and accurate?

–Triangulation – Are the data analysed and synthesised so that emerging patterns are supportive interrelationally.


Questions• Does the research empower, bring transformation or provide new understandings to the particular phenomenon?

• Did the action research bring about changes or resolutions in the form of better understanding of effects following action undertaken?


Questions• Were the conclusions based on substantiated evidence?

• Are the findings and conclusions useful and relevant to the audience?

• Were the educational values and personal theories derived by the researcher clearly articulated based on the findings of the research? Dr. Ng Kee Chuan 229

Happy Learning to carry out Action Research…for my

sake


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