15Spring 2007 Volume 41, Number 1

I

A U T H O R S1

John MarraNOAA Integrated Data and EnvironmentalApplications (IDEA) Center

Tashya AllenNOAA Coastal Services Center (CSC)

David EasterlingNOAA National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)

Stephanie FauverNOAA Coastal Services Center (CSC)

Thomas KarlNOAA National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)

David LevinsonNOAA National Climatic Data Center (NCDC)

Douglas MarcyNOAA Coastal Services Center (CSC)

Jeffrey PayneNOAA Coastal Services Center (CSC)

Leonard PietrafesaNorth Carolina State University

Eileen SheaNOAA Integrated Data and EnvironmentalApplications (IDEA) Center

Lisa VaughanNOAA Climate Program Office (CPO)

P A P E R

An Integrating Architecture for CoastalInundation and Erosion Program Planningand Product Development

A B S T R A C TThe need for data and information that can be used to enhance community resilience to

coastal inundation and erosion has been highlighted by the devastating impacts of recentevents such as Hurricane Katrina and the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. The physical systemscausing coastal inundation and erosion are governed by a complex combination of oceanic,atmospheric, and terrestrial processes interacting across a broad range of temporal andspatial scales. Depending on time and place the expression of these processes may variouslytake the form of episodic storm-induced surge or wave overtopping and undercutting,chronic flooding and erosion associated with long-term relative sea level rise, or cata-strophic inundation attributable to tsunami. Differences related to geographic setting, suchas sea ice in Alaska or coral reefs in Hawai‘i and the Pacific Islands, enhance this phenom-enological variability. Anticipating the expression of these phenomena is also complicatedby observed and projected changes in climate. Combined with these physical systems aresocial systems made up of diverse cultural, economic, and environmental conditions. Likethe physical systems, the social systems are changing, largely because of increases inpopulation and infrastructure along coastlines. These diverse conditions and systems revealwide-ranging needs for the content, format, and timing of data and information to supportdecision-making. In addition, other considerations complicate these requirements for dataand information: (1) the decentralized acquisition of information from a variety of platforms(e.g., tide gauges, wave buoys, satellites, radars); (2) data and models of varying complexityand spatial and temporal application; and (3) gaps and overlaps in agency, institutional, andorganizational activity and authority. This systemic complexity presents a challenge to sci-entists, planners, managers, and others working to increase community resilience in theface of the risks associated with inundation and erosion.

This paper describes a conceptual framework for an integrating architecture that wouldsupport program planning and product development toward hazard resilient communities.Central to this framework is a comprehensive, horizontally and vertically integrated view ofthe physical and social systems that shape the risks associated with coastal inundation anderosion, and the kinds of information needed to manage those risks. Equally important, theframework addresses the necessary connections among systems and scales. This integratedapproach also emphasizes the needs of planners, managers, and decision-makers in achanging physical and social environment, as well as the necessity of an iterative, nested,collaborative, and participatory process.

al., 2004; NSF National Science Board, 2006).The human presence in the coastal zone drivesan economic engine that produces more thanone-third of the U.S. gross national productand more than 28 million jobs (MaritimeAdministration, 1999). The physical infra-structure in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico and At-lantic coastal regions alone is worth about $3

trillion. Globally, three-quarters of the worldpopulation now lives within 50 kilometers ofthe sea, and nine of the world’s ten largestcities are in coastal zones (Small and Nichols,2003; Russell, 1998).

The vulnerability of those who live andwork in coastal communities to the impacts ofnatural hazards is well known. As recent events

Introductionn the United States approximately 50 per-cent of the population lives within 50 miles ofthe coast, 19 of the 20 most densely popu-lated counties are coastal counties, and 10 ofthe 15 most populous cities are located withinthese counties (National Academy of Sciences,1999; U.S. Census Bureau, 2002; Crossett et

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have shown, for communities located close tothe sea, coastal inundation and erosion areamong the most serious and costly of risks. In2005, over a period of a few days, HurricaneKatrina was directly responsible for over 1000deaths along the U.S. Gulf of Mexico coastand was the largest single environmentallycaused economic catastrophe to affect theUnited States. Direct economic losses are esti-mated to exceed $100 billion (Lott and Ross,2006). Before the unprecedented loss of lifeand property wrought by Hurricanes Katrinaand Rita, the 1998 tropical storm season inthe western hemisphere was one of the mostdevastating. On one day in August, forecast-ers tracked four storms simultaneously, andnine of the fourteen storms that occurred dur-ing the season became hurricanes. Stormsspawned in the Atlantic Ocean that year wereresponsible for more than 11,000 deaths(Payne, 2000). The greatest losses occurred inNicaragua and Honduras, where rainfall fromHurricane Mitch caused massive landslides thatburied thousands of people. A year later, in1999, the two-day passage of Hurricane Floydalong the Southeast Atlantic coast resulted inmassive flooding of the entire eastern NorthCarolina coastal plain, 56 lives lost to drowningand several small towns destroyed (Pietrafesa etal., 2007a). In 1992 the island of Kaua‘i inHawai‘i was hit by Hurricane Iniki. With physi-cal damage from Hurricane Iniki estimated at$2.5 billion, it was the most destructive stormto hit Hawai‘i in recorded history (Chock,2005). Super Typhoon Pongsona struck theisland of Guam in 2002. According to the April2003 National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad-ministration (NOAA) National Weather Ser-vice (NWS) Service Assessment, it was Guam’sthird most intense storm on record. With over$700 million in damages, it was the most costlydisaster in the entire U.S. for that year. The2004 Indian Ocean tsunami caused over225,000 deaths, illustrating in tragic form howcomplete towns can be inundated and physi-cally shattered within a matter of minutes(CRED, 2006).

Coastal inundation and erosion-relatedrisks go beyond extreme episodic storm-re-lated events to include chronic, longer-rangerisks linked to rising sea levels and a changingclimate. All 30 states bordering an ocean or

the Great Lakes have erosion problems, and26 now are experiencing net loss of their shores.Planning for climate change and its associatedeffects adds another layer of complexity forcoastal communities already facing risks frominundation and coastal erosion. For example,the U.S. Government Accounting Office(2003) estimates that as sea ice melts and inun-dation and erosion along the coast of Alaskabecomes significant, it will cost over $1 billiondollars to relocate native villages. Studies indi-cate that global warming has accelerated in thepast few decades, and humans have had a di-rect impact (IPCC, 2001; NRC, 2001; CCSP,2006). Planning, adaptation and mitigationfor long-term climate change and variability arefundamentally different from those currentlyused for shorter-range phenomena, and whichare concerned with rapid response to the dam-ages from past events. Using observed histori-cal storms may be adequate for short-term plan-ning horizons, but as planning horizonslengthen, the use of past climatology as a futureguide becomes increasingly tenuous.

The vulnerability of coastal communitiesto inundation and erosion-related risks is notjust a function of being in harms way. Thisvulnerability is multifold—intertwining so-cial, economic, and environmental factors thatinfluence the capacity of coastal communitiesto understand, prepare for, and respond tohigh-risk events. Poorly constructed buildings;an aging transportation, energy, water, andsewer infrastructure; and constricted evacua-tion routes, for example, are indicators of therange of societal vulnerabilities that now exist.This societal influence on vulnerability con-tinues to increase, in large part because of de-mographic change and social choice. Peopleare streaming to coasts in record numbers,drawn by surging job markets, unique recre-ational advantages, and lifestyle choices. Thepopulation of U.S. coastal counties has risenby 33 million since 1980, a rate that exceedsthat of inland counties (Culliton, 1999;Crossett et al., 2004). This rate, which increasedlinearly over the first half of the 20th century,has been increasing exponentially in the latterhalf of the 20th century and into the 21st cen-tury. Trillions of dollars of investment in newfacilities and infrastructure are expected overthe next several decades (NSF National Science

Board, 2006). As the coastal populations andeconomies continue to grow, increasing vulner-abilities and impacts will follow.

Unquestionably, as documented here andin contributions to this MTS special two-vol-ume Journal issue, there is an immediate needto enhance community resilience to inunda-tion and erosion. Coastal communities andbusinesses, as well as government agencies andthe scientific community are increasingly call-ing for better information to manage coastalinundation and erosion-related risks. Examplesinclude the following:■ On September 29, 2006, the U.S. National

Science Foundation’s National ScienceBoard released for public review a call fora national hurricane research initiative, inwhich a high-priority recommendationis preparedness and building resilience,including human behavior and risk planning.http://nsf.gov/nsb/committees/hurricane/index.htm

■ The U.S. National Science and TechnologyCouncil’s Subcommittee on DisasterReduction June 2005 report, “GrandChallenges in Disaster Reduction,” statesthat “Despite significant progress in theapplication of science and technology todisaster reduction, communities are stillchallenged by disaster preparation,response, and recovery.... A primary focuson response and recovery is an impracticaland inefficient strategy for dealing withthese ongoing threats. Instead, communitiesmust break the cycle of destruction andrecovery by enhancing their disasterresilience.” http://www.sdr.gov/SDRGrandChallengesforDisasterReduction.pdf

■ The 2006 “Integrated Global ObservingStrategy (IGOS) Coastal Theme Report”identifies coastal flooding and erosion andsea level change as phenomena of keyinterest to end-users and recognizes theneed for a strategy for observations acrosstime and space scales to provide data andinformation to make informed decisions.http://www.igospartners.org/docs/theme_reports/IGOS%20COASTAL%20REPORT%20midrez.pdf

■ The U.S. Global Ocean Observing System(GOOS) Steering Committee has desig-nated coastal inundation as one of the top

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three priorities for the U.S. integratedocean observing system (IOOS) contributionto GOOS. http://www-ocean.tamu.edu/GOOS/GSCXII/gsc12.html. Likewise,coastal zone managers and disaster manage-ment agencies in the Pacific have identifiedinundation and erosion as one of the highestpriorities for a regional development ofIOOS in the Pacific http://www.ocean.us/oceanus_publications).This paper proposes a conceptual frame-

work for addressing these needs and the call toaction. The proposed “integrating architec-ture” defines the various components of theproblem and describes important connections.Consistent with concepts outlined in Maloneand Hemsley (2007) and other papers in Vol-ume 1 of the MTS special publication, keyelements built into the architecture includeend-user connections and relevance; problemdiagnosis and treatment through an end-to-end, side-to-side methodology; effective inte-gration of an extensive range of required sci-entific and management expertise; meaningfulcoordination and collaboration among scien-tists, practitioners, and policy makers; and com-mitment to fill existing gaps in knowledge,applications, and outreach.

The proposed architecture not only re-sponds to a prime social and economic need,but also addresses a significant scientific chal-lenge because the phenomena affecting coastalinundation and erosion are complex and var-ied, and are often expressed in combinationsunique to a given time and place. Further, itaddresses a significant societal challenge be-cause the potential users of information arediverse in terms of their responsibilities andtheir specific requirements for informationcontent, precision, formatting, and timeliness.While outlining the complexity of the prob-lem, the proposed framework also providesevidence to suggest that the ability to addressmany key questions already exists. The archi-tecture acknowledges and even takes advan-tage of the differentiated treatment of the prob-lem that has been the foundation of scientificstudies of coastal inundation and erosion todate. The architecture emphasizes the impor-tance of focusing on the linkages required toseamlessly integrate the various pieces of thepuzzle in a way that addresses local, regional

and national needs, and that forms a basis fordeveloping comprehensive and decision-sup-port-oriented programs of research, products,and services. The desired outcome is that us-ers, through the application of the proposedarchitecture, will have timely access to infor-mation that is both accurate and appropriate,and, as such, will afford them the opportu-nity to plan accordingly. As a result, the resil-ience and adaptive capacity of coastal com-munities affected by inundation and erosionwill be enhanced.

The discussion that follows starts with anoverview of the architecture and its variouscomponents, including factors affecting resil-ience and factors affecting risk. Attention isthen given to the linkages between physicaland social systems, and in this context thediscussion delves deeper into a considerationof inundation and erosion-related products,models, data, and observing systems as a meansto highlight particular challenges and oppor-tunities. The conclusion summarizes the keypoints and ends with a call for action.

The Coastal Inundationand Erosion IntegratingArchitecture

OverviewThe proposed integrating architecture is

depicted in Figure 1. It represents a basic con-struct for defining the elements of the coastalinundation and erosion problem and delin-eating the relationships among and betweenthem. The upper portion of the diagram rep-resents the diverse mixture of social, economic,and environmental factors, affected by natu-ral forces, which influence the ability of soci-ety to plan for and adapt to the impacts ofcoastal inundation and erosion. These factorsinfluence the overall resilience of a commu-nity facing these risks, and, through their in-teraction, generate unique sets of product andservice requirements in terms of content, for-mat, timing, and delivery. This component isplaced at the top of the diagram to reflect theimportance of considering and interacting withdecision-maker needs, capacities, and capabili-ties in the development and implementationof scientific products and services. The lower

portion of the diagram represents the com-plex combinations of oceanic, atmospheric,and terrestrial processes that, through theirinteraction, generate the different inundationand erosion phenomena that affect risk—beit episodic storm-induced surge or wave over-topping and undercutting, chronic floodingand erosion associated with long-term relativesea level rise, or catastrophic inundation at-tributable to a tsunami. As depicted, theseprocesses are also influenced by human forces.

At the center of the diagram are two tri-angles that come together in the shape of anhourglass. Inspired by a similar analogy madeby Berger (2005), the nexus represents the in-teraction among producers and users of scien-tific products and information. The hourglassinvolves flow in both directions—not only fromsystems and data to users and products, butalso the reverse, from users and products to dataand systems. The upper portion of the hour-glass contains tailored information products rep-resentative of a more advanced level of dataanalysis and integration. The lower portion ofthe hourglass contains derived data productsrepresentative of a more basic level of data col-lection and analysis. The three primary compo-nents of this integrating architecture—the so-cial system, the physical system, and theconnections between them (i.e., from time, sec-tor, and process-specific products, throughanalyses and models, to data and observing sys-tems)—are described further below.

Factors Affecting ResilienceThe overall impact to individuals or soci-

etal aggregates affected by coastal inundationand erosion depends on their exposure to agiven hazard and the level of vulnerability, orconversely, resilience to that hazard. The U.S.National Science and Technology Council’sSubcommittee on Disaster Reduction June2005 report, Grand Challenges in DisasterReduction, defines resilience as “the capacity ofa system, community, or society potentiallyexposed to hazards to adapt, by resisting orchanging, in order to reach and maintain anacceptable level of functioning and structure.”The report also concludes that resilience is “de-termined by the degree to which the socialsystem is capable of organizing itself to in-crease the capacity for learning from past di-

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sasters for better future protection and to im-prove risk reduction measures.” As depictedin the upper portion of Figure 1, this capacityto understand, plan, respond, recover, andadapt is determined by the complex interplayof a broad range of social, economic, and envi-ronmental factors. Specific examples of factorsaffecting resilience include the state and na-ture of governance structures, critical infra-structure (e.g., communications, transporta-tion, water) and other elements of the builtenvironment, natural features (e.g., mangroveforests, tidal marshes, and dunes) economicand environmental conditions, and awarenessand knowledge of the human behaviors thatinfluence and are influenced by physical phe-nomena, and an understanding of the phe-nomena themselves. In the context of prod-uct development and implementation, thissame interplay of elements encompassed withinsocial systems influences decision-maker needsand capabilities.

At a fundamental level, the elements ofthe physical systems, specifically the nature ofthe phenomena, establish the time frame overwhich any given data or information productis applicable (Figure 2.). For hurricane stormsurges and tsunamis nowcasts (i.e., warningsand bulletins within minutes to hours) andfuturecasts (i.e., scenarios and projections outto years and decades) are both warranted andeach is in need of significant improvements toincrease resilience. Forecasts (i.e., daily, weekly,monthly, seasonal outlooks), particularly forhurricane storm surge, are a critical existinginformation product that society is alreadylikely to respond to. Product needs with re-spect to changes in climate (e.g., relative sealevel) and population and infrastructure alongthe coast, on the other hand, are limited tofuturecasts. For ocean and coastal flooding anderosion, the full range of products—nowcasts,forecasts, futurecasts—is necessary. Hindcasts(i.e., climatologies, retrospective analyses) arerelevant in all instances.

Elements of the social systems, specificallythe nature of the user, govern the appropriatetime frame of applicability at a functional level.Because coastal inundation and erosion affectsa wide variety of socioeconomic sectors (e.g.,hazard mitigation, urban development andplanning, water resources, agriculture, conser-

FIGURE 1

Coastal Inundation and Erosion Integrated System Architecture.

This figure depicts the basic construct for defining the elements of the coastal inundation and erosionproblem and delineating the relationships among and between them. At the top is the social system and thecombination of factors within it that affect community resilience and that, in turn, drive end-user productand service requirements in terms of content, format, timing, and delivery. At the bottom are the physicalsystem and the combination of factors within it that, through their interaction, generate the differentinundation and erosion phenomena that affect risk. At the center of the figure are the connections betweenthe social and physical systems. Depicted as an hourglass, it represents the transition from derived data,through the development of applied data products and decision-support tools, to the production of atailored information suite applicable to a wide range of users, and the iterative, two-way interactions amongproducers and users that leads to the creation of these data and information products.

Note that the derived, applied, and tailored terminology used here, though not identical, is consistent withthe idea of categories of data/information products identified during the development of the NOAAEnvironmental Data Report to Congress (2005) as modified from P.L. 106-554 Section 515 (TheInformation Quality Act) and which uses the terms “original data” to apply to “data in their most basicform”; “synthesized products” to “those that have been developed through analysis of original data”; and“interpreted products” as “those that have been developed through interpretation of original data andsynthesized products”.

Also note that physical systems here refer to the more “fluid” physical processes responsible forparticular phenomena. Environmental conditions, on the other hand, refers to more ‘fixed’ physicalelements of the environment such as the topography or geology.

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take into account (and at its genesis be drivenby) the situational social, economic, and envi-ronmental conditions and circumstances thataffect vulnerability. This information genera-tion process must also anticipate changes inthese parameters. In effect, a diagnosis is re-quired that can be understood, acted upon,and modified, and that is as particular to the“patient” as it is to the symptoms.

Factors Affecting RiskThe U.S. National Science and Technol-

ogy Council’s Subcommittee on Disaster Re-duction June 2005 report, Grand Challengesin Disaster Reduction, defines risk as “the prob-ability of harmful consequences or expectedlosses (death and injury, losses of property andlivelihood, economic disruption, or environ-mental damage) resulting from interactionsbetween natural or human-induced hazardsand vulnerable conditions.” In the context ofproduct development and implementation,this calls for an understanding of the nature ofthe hazard, including the potential impactsand time frame in a given location. In thisinstance an understanding of the nature ofthe hazard includes understanding the opera-tion and interaction of myriad oceanic, atmo-spheric, and terrestrial processes responsiblefor the various forms of inundation and ero-sion, as depicted in the lower portion of Fig-ure 1 (Ruggiero et al., 2001; Firing andMerrifield, 2004; Pietrafesa et al., 2007a;Merrifield et al., in press).

Figure 3 expands upon this descriptionof the complex interplay of a broad range ofinundation and erosion-related processes viatheir manifestation as elevated water levelswithin a so-called “water level process spec-trum.” At one end of this spectrum are varia-tions in water level associated with the passageof surface gravity waves. These high-frequency(seconds to minutes) elevation changes aresuperimposed upon lower frequency (hourlyto daily) variations in water level attributableto phenomena such as tides, event-scale me-chanical wind-forced water level in advanceof a storm, non-local effects of rising coastalwater on effecting coastal harbors, rivers andestuaries assuming a storage mode, and directstorm-induced surge. These elevation changes,in turn, rest upon a host of barometric pres-

FIGURE 2

Use Sector Product Range.

This figure shows how the product needs of a given use sector are a function of the timing and deliveryneeds versus the level of product development. The time frame of applicability refers to the period overwhich any given product is targeted. The terms nowcast, forecast, and futurecast are generalized group-ings useful for discussion purposes. Although hindcasts are not included in this figure they are notedbecause they provide the basis for any framework related to future planning, as well as tools for testing orcalibrating models and placing current conditions into a historical perspective. The level of productdevelopment refers to the transition from derived data products and a more basic level of data collectionand analysis to tailored information products’ higher, more integrated level of product development.

vation, tourism and public health and safety),there is a need for the development and distri-bution of information in a context appropriateto these different sectors (Shea, 2001; 2003).Emergency managers, for example, are primaryconsumers of hindcasts, forecasts, and nowcasts.Long-range mitigation planners need the kindof information provided by futurecasts.

Further, as the elements of social systemsand the mix of users vary with their settings(e.g., small island nations, urban areas,transnational regions), product and service re-quirements must be tailored for content, for-mat, and delivery. Public safety needs are of-ten paramount: users include emergencymanagers and incident responders (e.g., prod-ucts such as local tsunami and high wave warn-ings to support evacuation and guidance onwind and current circulation patterns to sup-port search and rescue operations), as well ascoastal planners and managers (e.g., productssuch as flood and erosion maps as a basis forsiting, design, and construction standards and

risk and vulnerability assessments to identifyhazard alleviation needs and priorities). Plan-ners and decision-makers that deal with thebuilt environment, transportation, commerce,and energy sectors also require a variety ofcustomized information products, such as roadelevation and drainage determinations, leveeand bridge design specifications, navigationadvisories, and ship bottom clearance deter-minations. Those involved in recreation andtourism require daily boating, diving, and surfreports. Agriculture and fisheries interests needseasonal forecasts. Inherent in this discussionis the need for an iterative process of productdevelopment from derived data products,through applied products, to the types of tai-lored information products just identified, aprocess that will be considered further below.

Thus, if the intent is to provide informa-tion to planners, managers, and other deci-sion-makers that gives them an opportunityto appropriately address risks from inunda-tion and erosion, then this information must

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sure effects, temperature effects, density cur-rents, river discharge, and steric adjustmentsof large connected water basins (such as oceansand gulfs) that affect water level at even longertime scales (weeks to decades). At the lowestfrequencies, are isostatic, eustatic, andcryospheric variations (over centuries and mil-lennia) that manifest as trends in mean sealevel. Taken together, this atmospheric andoceanic-dominated set of processes constitutesthe climate and weather signal, the strength ofwhich determines the total water level ex-pressed at the shoreline (Komar et al., 1999;Ruggiero et al., 2001). Another influenceupon the total water level important in somesettings is a quasi-independent set of processesrelated to tectonism. Namely, the seismic/volca-nic signal, which includes gradual aseismicuplift and its effect upon mean water levelover millennia, as well as the sudden and cata-strophic seismic adjustments linked to the gen-esis of tsunamis and the ensuing impacts ofco-seismic subsidence.

Of particular interest in the water levelprocess spectrum is the variance (or signalstrength) at a range of frequencies and howthese combine, overlap, or interact to deter-mine the resultant total water level. For ex-ample, an analysis of tide gauge records con-ducted by Ruggiero et al. (2001) as part oftheir studies on extreme water levels and beacherosion along the Oregon coast, found thatthe highest water levels and greatest devia-tions between predicted and measured tidesoccurred during El Niño events. This was dueto a combination of warmer waters, the geo-strophic effect on northward-flowing oceancurrents, and shelf-trapped waves originatingat the equator associated with the expressionof El Niño events in the eastern North Pacific.During such events, typically persisting formonths, inundation and erosion are maxi-mized when high tides couple with high waves.Firing and Merrifield (2004) have also foundextreme water levels to be the result of thesuperposition of various processes. Their as-

sessment of extreme events at Honolulu indi-cate that mesoscale eddies traveling westwardacross the Pacific account for the highest dailysea level stands on record. These eddies occurfrequently throughout the year, but when theirarrival coincides with seasonal and interannualsea level highs, extreme events tend to occur.

Climate change compounds these issuerelated to climate variability. Long-term ob-servations from climate model reanalysis ofcoastal buoys, satellite data, and many otherdata sources indicate that in the NorthernHemisphere storm intensities, as measured bywind speeds and wave heights, have increasedin the North Pacific and North Atlantic dur-ing the second half of the 20th century (Ba-con and Carter, 1991, 1993; Zhang et al.,2000; Allan and Komar, 2000, 2001, 2006;Graham and Diaz, 2001), with limited evi-dence of change elsewhere. In the North Pa-cific and North Atlantic basins, the observedincreases in wind speeds associated with cy-clonic storms have led to an increase in signifi-cant wave heights in the nearshore zone. TheArctic Climate Impact Assessment (2005)highlights the issue of increased sea swells andsignificant wave heights along the Alaskancoast, since sea ice has retreated over the pastseveral decades. There is now evidence to sug-gest that hurricane intensity has increased overthe past few decades and will likely continueto increase as global ocean temperatures in-crease (Webster et al., 2005; Emmanuel,2005). There is a distinct possibility that waveheights will continue to increase and sea levelrise continue to accelerate into the future.

It is also important to recognize that thepattern of the signal is closely associated withand strongly influenced by the physical set-ting. Different locales may have portions ofthe signal in common. However each has itsown unique spectral signature reflective of in-herent types and levels of exposure. Along theU.S. South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts,for example, the spectrum (and correspond-ingly coastal inundation and erosion) is domi-nated by the combination of processes thatculminate in episodic hurricane-induced andextra-tropical storm-induced surge. Chronicflooding and erosion attributable to processesgoverning relative sea level rise are also an im-portant component of the water level spec-

FIGURE 3

Water Level Process Spectrum.

This figure shows some of the different processes operating at a range of time scales that together determinethe total water level along Pacific coasts. Like a power spectra, higher frequency variations in water level, orevents with shorter return interval are towards the right and lower frequencies are towards the left. Theelevation magnitudes are not precise, but rather intended to give general indication of relative values. Withrespect to the climate/weather signal note that MJO stands for Madden-Julian Oscillation; ‘eddies’ formesoscale anti-cyclonic eddies (Firing and Merrifield 2004); ENSO, for the El Niño Southern Oscillation; PDOfor the Pacific Decadal Oscillation; and ‘sun cycle’ for a 206-year natural cycle in solar intensity.

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trum in this setting. Along the U.S. Pacificcoast and in the Pacific Islands the blend ofprocesses expressed as episodic storm-inducedwave overtopping and undercutting, as wellas processes responsible for catastrophic inun-dation attributable to tsunamis, constituteprominent peaks in the signal. In both of thesecases, and unlike the U.S. South Atlantic andGulf of Mexico coasts, surge is not a domi-nant component of the storm-related peaks.In the case of the Pacific Islands, like the U.S.South Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coasts (butunlike the U.S. Pacific coast), flooding anderosion attributable to processes governing rela-tive sea level rise is typically an important ele-ment of the spectral signature.

This discussion of factors affecting risk hasfocused on atmospheric and oceanic processesthat contribute to elevated water levels. This isbecause of the value that the concepts of thewater level process spectrum and the totalwater level have as a foundation for integra-tion. Terrestrial processes, including geologicsetting, geomorphic, and geographic settingalso play an important role. Basin configura-tion and topography, for example, have a sig-nificant impact on localized susceptibility toinundation through their influence on tidesand runup. Coral reefs in Hawaii and the Pa-cific Islands, for example, create complexbathymetries that in turn make for complexcirculation and sedimentation patterns thatare not easily accounted for. Concave-shapedshorelines with wide, shallow continentalshelves make portions of the Southeast Atlan-tic coast particularly vulnerable to hurricanesurge. Sediment budgets and material prop-erties play a leading role in determining sus-ceptibility to erosion. In areas where sea ice isprevalent and changing, such as in the ArcticOcean and Bering Sea, changes in wave en-ergy propagation and dissipation become es-pecially important. Increases in wave energy,as well as coastal erosion and inundation havealready occurred in these areas as the sea iceretreats (IPCC 2001).

Given that the intent is to provide infor-mation to planners, managers, and other deci-sion-makers that affords them an opportu-nity to appropriately address risks frominundation and erosion, the information musttake into account recent advances in under-

standing the interplay of the range of oceanic,atmospheric, and terrestrial processes that af-fect risk. How are they expressed in combina-tion? How is their complete expression uniqueto a given setting and how is this changing?In effect, what is required is a diagnosis basedon a thorough and comprehensive identifica-tion of the symptoms and monitoring of theirchanges, and, as such, that leads to a completeand ongoing course of treatments.

Through the Hourglass—The Transition from DerivedData to Tailored Information

So far the discussion has focused on thephysical and social systems that represent thedriving forces shaping both the risks associatedwith coastal inundation and the kinds of infor-mation needed to manage those risks. Observa-tions, research, modeling and assessment activi-ties that develop a more detailed understanding

of both the physical and social systems are es-sential building blocks in the effort to addressthe challenges presented by coastal inundationand erosion. Through the integration of thesesystem-wide insights, scientists and decision-makers can begin to develop a more compre-hensive, shared understanding of the nature ofthe individual and collective challenges pre-sented by coastal inundation and erosion, andexplore opportunities to mitigate those threats.Achieving this integrated perspective requires acollaborative process through which users andproviders jointly articulate specific informationneeds, and jointly develop and apply new, tai-lored information products designed to addressthose needs.

As Figure 1 depicts, this collaborative pro-cess is centered on the transition from deriveddata, through the development of applied dataproducts and decision-support tools, to theproduction of a tailored information suite ap-

FIGURE 4

Notional Components of Storm-induced Flooding and Erosion.

This figure expands upon Figure 1 to provide more detail regarding the individual elements and theconnections that together constitute the storm-induced flooding and erosion product developmentnetwork. The coloring is intended to show general groupings of systems, data, model, and processelements (i.e., dark blue for climate-related global-scale atmospheric and oceanic; the light blue forweather-related, regional to local scale; the green and brown for terrestrial; and the orange for socioeco-nomic). Use sectors are show in yellow. The total water level and nowcasts, forecasts, futurecasts,hindcasts are shown in red. These are indicative of fundamental levels of derived data and tailoredinformation product development respectively. Note their correlation to the hourglass on the left, and thetwo-way nature of connections across this nexus.

22 Marine Technology Society Journal

plicable to a wide range of users. By implica-tion, the transition from derived data to tai-lored information requires a flow in both di-rections, down from users to providers as wellas up from providers to users. This flow is alsoiterative, with the act of users subsequentlyturning into providers occurring several timesover, as raw data from a variety of sources ad-vances along a path of analysis and integra-tion. Correspondingly, there are multiple stopsalong the path in the product developmentprocess, with the terms used here (i.e., de-rived, applied, tailored) to identify idealized,representative markers along the way.

Using storm-induced flooding and erosionas a general case, Figure 4 expands upon thedepiction of the elements of the coastal inun-dation problem identified in Figure 1 to illus-trate the level of integration required to transi-tion from derived data to tailored information.Fundamental steps along the way are the col-lection, analysis, and integration of a broad rangeof social, economic, and environmental dataleading to derived societal data products; thecollection, analysis, and integration of a broadrange of oceanic, atmospheric, and terrestrialdata leading to derived physical data products;and the blending of this societal informationwith physical information. The developmentof derived societal and physical data typicallyoccurs concurrently. However, in Figure 4 thedevelopment of the societal product suite isplaced above that of the physical product suiteto emphasize that it is through the two-wayblending of societal and physical systems infor-mation, as well as users’ and providers’ knowl-edge and experiences, that the level ofcustomization necessary to meet end-user needsis achieved. Also, the total water level is given aprominent place in Figure 4 because this con-cept is critical to integration in the develop-ment of derived physical data products.

The following discussion explores Figure 4,briefly describing examples of observations, mod-els, and products, with an emphasis on thosefrom the U.S. Gulf of Mexico, Southeast Atlan-tic, and the Pacific. Figure 4, as well as Table 1(which outlines a broad range of inundation anderosion-related decision-support resources repre-sentative of the various elements of the problem),serve to highlight the connections in the transi-tion from derived data to tailored information.

23Spring 2007 Volume 41, Number 1

planning, transportation, communication,agriculture, fisheries, and recreation and tour-ism. Each of the time-dependent, tailored in-formation products plays a unique and im-portant role in decision support. Several ofthem are briefly described below (see also Table1), with the levels of complexity andcustomization in content and format varyinggreatly among them.

One example of a tool used to generatefuturecasts is the Community VulnerabilityAssessment Tool (CVAT), developed by theNOAA Coastal Services Center (Flax et al,2002). This tool employs a GIS query-basedmethodology to blend information about acommunity’s risks with its vulnerabilities, andthereby highlight areas where decision-makerssuch as community planners can direct changesin future building patterns and infrastructuredevelopment to reduce vulnerability to the iden-tified risks. The foundation for the methodol-ogy was established by the Heinz Center Panelon Risk, Vulnerability, and the True Cost ofHazards (2000). The collection, analysis, andintegration of a broad range of social, economic,and environmental data is a necessary prerequi-site to the application of this methodology. Otherexamples of tools recently developed by theNOAA Coastal Services Center to supportfuturecasting include the Kauai Online Haz-ard Assessment Tool and the Tutuila HazardAssessment Tool (Jackson et al., 2006). TheseArcIMS-based applications are targeted at im-proving and streamlining permitting and plan-ning-related decision-making. The FederalEmergency Management Agency’s DigitalFlood Insurance Rate Maps are also an exampleof a commonly recognized tailored informa-tion product used prospectively, but based onretrospective data and information.

Forecasts are probably the most widely-rec-ognized type of tailored information product,with the NOAA National Weather Service(NWS) being the provider of forecasts on manyatmospheric conditions. One example of a fore-cast system that the NWS is using to provideweather data in new digital and graphical for-mats is the National Digital Forecast Database(NDFD). The NDFD consists of seamless,gridded forecasts of sensible weather elements(e.g., cloud cover, maximum temperature, waveheight, wind speeds, etc.) from NWS field of-

Tailored Information ProductsThe path leading to the development of

tailored information products starts with a dia-logue among users and providers and, throughthis dialogue the articulation of data and prod-uct needs. NOAA’s National Ocean ServiceStorm Surge Assessment exemplifies such acollaborative and participatory approach. Thiseffort brought together a collection of scien-tists, planners, managers, decision-makers, thepublic, the private sector, and governmentagencies and academic institutions as part of a

national needs assessment (with over 250 re-spondents). Three focus group meetings werealso a part of this effort (Safford, 2005). Indi-cating a need for a broad suite of products,this effort resulted in a set of recommenda-tions about tailored information products,addressing all time scales (i.e., nowcasts, fore-casts, futurecasts, and hindcasts) and appli-cable to emergency managers, communityplanners, government agencies, and decision-makers in key sectors such as water and natu-ral resource management, coastal community

24 Marine Technology Society Journal

fices working in collaboration with the NationalCenters for Environmental Prediction (NCEP).The database is available for members of thepublic to use in creating text, graphic, griddedand image products of their own. Emergencymanagers and planners require forecast data toaid in their decision-making on various elementsof planning and response to events. NWS alsoprovides a set of text forecast products tailoredto the needs of the maritime, aviation, and rec-reational communities. On a longer time frame,the NOAA Climate Predication Center pro-vides U.S. Seasonal Outlooks. Noteworthy forits relatively high degree of customization, theNOAA NWS Pacific El Niño Southern Oscil-lation (ENSO) Application Center’s PacificENSO Update is also relevant for this purpose.

A good example of a product designed togenerate nowcasts is the NOAA National OceanService’s NowCOAST. This Web-mappingportal provides spatially referenced links to thou-sands of real-time coastal observations for recre-ational and commercial mariners, coastal man-agers, hazardous materials (HAZMAT)responders, marine educators, and researchers,who can discover and display real-time infor-mation for their particular needs and geographicarea of interest. It also provides links to NOAAforecasts and sites that offer hindcasts andfuturecasts. As such, the portal provides “one-stop” access to coastal meteorological, oceano-graphic, and hydrologic observations from avariety of sources. Another example of a morecustomized tool used to generate a nowcast isthe NOAA Center for Operational Oceano-graphic Products and Services (CO-OPS)Physical Oceanographic Real-Time System(PORTS). This decision-support tool measuresand disseminates observations and predictionsof water levels, currents, salinity, and meteoro-logical parameters (e.g., winds, atmospheric pres-sure, air and water temperatures) that marinersneed to navigate safely.

Sources of hindcasts are multiple and var-ied. Examples include the NOAA CO-OPS’Sea Levels Online and the U.S. Army Corp ofEngineers’ Wave Information Studies, as wellas information in the NOAA National Cli-matic Data Center’s U.S. and Global Histori-cal Climatology Network. Particularly in theabsence of reliable futurecasts related to waterlevel variability and mean levels, hindcasts pro-

vide the basis for any framework related tofuture planning. This is in addition to theiruse as a tool for testing or calibrating a modeland placing current conditions into a histori-cal perspective.

Derived and Applied Data ProductsAs noted above, NOAA’s National Ocean

Service Storm Surge Assessment resulted in aset of recommendations for tailored informa-tion. It also produced a set of recommenda-tions for derived and applied data productsand improvements to models at global, re-gional, and local scales. The concept of thewater level spectrum, described earlier, showshow processes operating at each of these spa-tial scales play unique and important roles indetermining the total water level expressed atthe shoreline. Systems, data, and models thatform the basis for derived and applied dataproducts at these scales are briefly describedbelow (see also Table 1).

Processes operating at grand scales controlclimate and drive changes in global sea level.This requires that many different air, oceanand land surface processes be considered, andcorrespondingly that data from a diverse arrayof observing systems be collected and assimi-lated into complex models. Historically, tidegauges have been used to measure sea levelrelative to the local land. Tide gauges also mea-sure meteorological factors that affect sea lev-els, such as barometric pressure and windspeed and direction and precipitation input.Tide gauge networks, such as the NOAA CO-OPS National Water Level Observation Net-work, constitute relatively poorly distributedsea level measurement systems and have otherlimitations common to in-situ measurements.However, they do represent the primary sourceof precise, long-term sea level data, going backto the early 1900s in many cases. Since theearly 1990s sea level has been measured glo-bally by satellite altimeters (Leuliette et al.,2004). Satellite altimetry measures sea levelchange relative to the earth’s center of mass(using an ellipsoidal model for the earth’s sur-face) and is for the most part independent ofobserved land motions. There are, however,significant discrepancies in sea level measure-ments between satellites and tide gauges andsubstantial research has been dedicated to rec-

onciling the observed differences. The inte-gration of altimetric satellite sensor data alongwith in situ measurements provide the mostcomprehensive information related to spatialand temporal changes of sea level.

A number of models have been used tosimulate past observations of global sea leveland to project future changes. The steric com-ponent of global average sea level change canbe calculated directly from Atmospheric-Oce-anic Global Climate Models (AOGCMs) us-ing the Intergovernmental Panel on ClimateChange (IPPC) Special Reports on EmissionScenarios (SRES) for the 21st Century (IPCC,2001). Glaciers and ice sheet accumulation orablation are not simulated by AOGCMs, butinstead the output from these models is used inglacial mass balance models to estimate the con-tribution of glaciers and ice sheets to sea levelchange. A variety of technical issues also occurin trying to apply a general mass balance ap-proach to all the world’s glaciers and ice sheets(Hybrechts and De Wolde, 1999; Raper et al.,2000; Oerlemans et al., 2006; Van de Wal andWild, 2001; Raper and Braithwaite, 2005).

Climate-related processes affect storminessand, in turn wind speeds, wave heights, andstorm surges. When coupled with tides theseprocesses are important influences on waterlevels at regional scales. Ocean wave ampli-tudes and locally generated waves from re-lated atmospheric wind forcing are monitoredusing moored buoys, as well as using reportsfrom merchant and ocean research vessels, andsatellite instruments. The NOAA NationalData Buoy Center marine buoy network pro-vides the most reliable long-term observationsof ocean wave amplitude and the variabilitytherein. However, many of these buoys lackdirectional wave data. The U.S. Army Corpsof Engineers CDIP buoys do measure bothwave height and distribution, but their spa-tial distribution is limited. Satellite instrumentshave provided a means to estimate ocean waveheight since the launch of the SeaSat-A mis-sion in 1977-78. Since that time, wave heightsand wind speeds have been estimated byNASA research satellites (i.e., ERS-1 and -2,NSCAT, and SeaWinds on QuickSCAT andADEOS II) using active microwave retrievaltechniques. A variety of other remote sensingtechniques have been used to measure wave

25Spring 2007 Volume 41, Number 1

heights and propagation along coastal mar-gins and in the open ocean (i.e., Doppler fre-quency shift in radar). Notable in this regardare bottom-mounted upward-looking direc-tional wave systems that are now being fieldtested in the NOAA NOS-sponsored Caroli-nas Coastal Ocean Observation and Predic-tion System (Caro-COOPS) program and areshowing good performance in sea trials(Pietrafesa et al., 2007b).

Spectral ocean wave models are used in near-real-time forecast applications to track and pre-dict the energy distribution associated withwind-driven waves and sea swells across theglobal ocean basins. These models are all typi-cally run parallel with weather forecast modelsthat provide the initialization fields (mean sealevel pressure, air temperature, winds and windstress, etc.). On the regional to local scales thesewave models have been shown to be quite im-portant in hindcasts and in forecasting the trueextent of surge and inundation caused by in-coming storms. Wind fields from larger-scaleweather models are used as the primary windfield forcing for these regional-scale models. Inaddition, specific models simulate and predictstorm surge and inundation in the coastal zone,such as SLOSH (Sea, Lake, and Overland Surgesfrom Hurricanes), which is currently the opera-tional surge model for NOAA’s NationalWeather Service (Jelesnianski et al., 1992), andADCIRC, the Advanced Circulation Model(Luettich et al., 1992), which is the surge modelbeing used in the National Ocean Service StormSurge Partnership Project. Also, three-dimen-sional, fully non-linear, physics-based primitiveequation flood models that provide precise spa-tial and temporal deterministic and probabilis-tic information on the timing and height ofsurge, as well as the extent and timing of inun-dation, and that can be utilized by emergencymanagers have been developed for the Caroli-nas (Pietrafesa et al., 2007a; Peng et al., 2004)and are used routinely along the Southeast At-lantic coast. These models assimilate real-timeNOS, and NESDIS data (Peng et al., 2006).Included among regional climate-related pro-cesses are seasonal cycles and interannual varia-tions such as El Niño, whose effects along theU.S. Northwest Pacific coast are well docu-mented (Komar et al., 2000) but not particu-larly well accounted for in models.

Systems, data, and models pertaining toterrestrial conditions and processes play a rolein the development of derived data productsat all spatial scales. However, it is probably atregional and local scales that such informationis most relevant. Topographic, bathymetric,and gravimetric data are basic components ofthe wave and surge models noted above. Be-cause considerations such as slope, bottom fric-tion, etc. play a crucial role in the extent offlooding along a specific stretch of coastline,extremely high-resolution elevation data, ob-tained from light detection and ranging (LI-DAR) surveys, for example, are necessary tomake the types of detailed predictions requiredat the local level. Precipitation informationderived from a mix of direct radar, satellite,and ground-based observations is also relevant.Historical measurements of changes in shore-line positions in aerial photographs and changesin surveyed beach profiles are classic approachesfor assessing shoreline change and determin-ing the potential for future erosion. An un-derstanding of the sediment budget, whichincludes information on the sources, proper-ties, and supply of sand, is particularly impor-tant for understanding coastal erosion. In thisregard, there are a number of models that havebeen developed to simulate nearshore circula-tion and sedimentation, and to account forlocalized changes caused by human alterationsto the shoreline, such as beach nourishmentand the construction of jetties, groins, andbreakwaters. Included among these are the S-BEACH and GENESIS models within theU.S. Army Corps of Engineers’ Coastal Engi-neering Design and Analysis System.

Making the ConnectionsThe connections that must be made to

achieve a truly integrated approach to coastalinundation and erosion program planning andproduct development are many-fold. They runhorizontally as well as vertically through all lev-els to form an intricate web. Connections arerequired vertically, from problems to solutions,and users to providers. Connections are re-quired horizontally, across agencies and disci-plines, and public and private sectors. Suchconnections will enrich the utility of productsand deepen the understanding of problems.Such connections will bridge gaps and shrink

overlaps in institutional activity and authority.Connections also need to be nested, linking insitu to remote sensing systems and data, andglobal to regional to local models. Such connec-tions will serve to amplify the interoperabilityof data acquired from a variety of platforms(e.g., tide gauges, wave buoys, satellites, radars,etc.) and escalate the unification of models ofvarying complexity and spatial and temporalapplication. The high level of integration ofprocess, structure, and purpose through thesharing of information and resources envisionedhere does not now exist.

Collaboration and partnerships among thevarious scientists, practitioners, and data pro-viders is called for thorough all phases of theproduct development process, from tool cre-ation to model operation and data develop-ment. This requires that independent missionsand operational procedures be flexible to al-low the various groups to work together. Italso presents a challenge because agency juris-dictional and regulatory authority leads tooperational boundaries, historically viewed asindependent missions and objectives. Aca-demic institutions and nongovernmental or-ganizations have also been organized aroundspecific disciplines or areas of interest. Thisdifferentiation of agency, institutional, andorganizational activity and authority throughthe phases of information acquisition, integra-tion, and dissemination process has led to gapsand overlaps, and is impeding progress andfuture success (Pietrafesa et al., 2007b)

The decentralized acquisition of informa-tion from a variety of platforms, and data andmodels of varying complexity and spatial andtemporal application present other challenges.They act to hinder the interoperability amongdata and modeling environments required foreffective integration. For example, a new chal-lenge to planning relates to the most effectiveway of integrating historical data with simula-tions of 21st century climate based on variousscenarios of changes in atmospheric composi-tion (Pietrafesa et al., 2007b). Numerical mod-els of the types identified above are useful forconducting diagnostic and prognostic stud-ies. However, such models are not currentlyused in fully integrated ensembles that couplemesoscale atmospheric models and atmo-spheric precipitation data to ocean basin, con-

26 Marine Technology Society Journal

tinental margin, and estuary hydrodynamicmodels to a river interaction model to a coastalecological model (Pietrafesa et al., 2007a).Current atmospheric model resolutions, forexample, do not support higher-resolutioncoastal flood modeling (NOAA Storm SurgeAssessment). Interactions between riverine dis-charge and coastal inundation continue to bea major gap area, since most riverine and coastalmodels have traditionally not been coupled.The same holds true for coastal erosion andcoastal inundation models.

An important challenge in the architec-ture presented here relates to the integrationand flow of data, metadata, and informationamong and between various kinds of observ-ing systems, models, users, and applicationproducts. This is in addition to the necessaryflow among and between various disciplinesand sub-disciplines, including physical andsocial scientists and end-users. Protocols andstandards for simple descriptions of locationand time are not uniform (e.g., representationof latitude and longitude, Greenwich MeanTime vs. local time, etc.) Data formats varyenormously among disciplines and data canbe gridded, non-gridded, in spherical coordi-nate systems, and in units that are not uni-form across the disciplines. Open data stan-dards and service oriented architectures willbe critical in linking the arrows within thoseboxes depicted in Figure 4. Fortunately, theGlobal Earth Observing System of Systems(GEOSS) and the U.S. Group on Earth Ob-servations has recognized this issue as funda-mental contribution of their work (U.S.GEO,2005). The proposed framework will benefitfrom these broader activities, but is likely toneed specific focus and attention to ensurethe smooth flow of data and informationamong and between the various processes andactivities identified in Figure 4.

ConclusionsThe devastating impacts of recent events

such as Hurricane Katrina and the IndianOcean Tsunami have drawn attention to thesocial, economic, and environmental risks fromnatural hazards, and coastal inundation anderosion in particular. Aware of the staggeringtoll in human misery, loss of life and property,

and economic hardships incurred on our soci-ety from coastal erosion and inundation, andalarmed by the potential for these costs to dra-matically escalate, a number of coastal com-munities are beginning to make positive stridestoward reducing vulnerability. Increasing re-silience is showing up in measured ways suchas through tougher building codes, enhancedlevels of public awareness, and the availabilityand use of new science-based decision-sup-port tools. Science and technology are help-ing to shape and support these efforts. Still,decision-makers in communities, businesses,and government are increasingly calling fortimely access to information that is both accu-rate and appropriate for preparing for, respond-ing to, and recovering from such events. Ad-dressing this need is paramount to buildinghazard-resilient communities.

The processes responsible for coastal in-undation and erosion are complex and var-ied, operating across a range of scales in timeand space. They tend to be expressed in com-binations that are unique to a given settingand are changing because of a changing cli-mate. The potential users of information andtheir respective needs are diverse in terms ofcontent, format, and timing. Like the physi-cal systems, the social systems are in flux asgrowing populations along the coast resultin changing community conditions. Addingfurther complexity is the tendency for inun-dation and erosion-related phenomena to betreated independently at institutional levelsand through the phases of information ac-quisition, integration, and dissemination.This results in gaps, overlaps, and inefficien-cies in the flow of information.

The integrating architecture described inthis paper is designed to address these chal-lenges. The framework:■ Provides a more comprehensive, integrated

view of the physical and social systemsthat constitute the driving forces that shapeboth the risks associated with coastalinundation and erosion and the kindsof information needed to manage thoserisks. Such a holistic view enables theunique information requirements of usersto be better articulated, and informationproducts better designed to address thoserequirements.

■ Promotes a broader, shared understandingbetween and among scientists and decisionmakers (i.e., information providers andusers) of the nature of the problems andneeds by fully extending from “end-toend” and “side-to-side,” and placing anemphasis on user requirements in achanging physical and social environment.

■ Serves to bridge gaps and eliminate over-laps by enabling the mapping of variousniches and networks. Different agencies,institutions, and organizations are betterable to understand where they can best fitand contribute, improving efficiency andeffectiveness. While leveraging existingexperience and expertise, the frameworkcapitalizes on new ideas and resources.

■ Enhances access to and use of existinginformation by providing a structure tosupport the discovery and packaging ofthis information. This structure alsosupports the unification of informationacross platforms and models.This integrated approach draws upon the

ideas of previous work from investigators withdiverse physical and social science expertise. Itis based on recognition of the benefits of col-lective vision and action to achieve short- andlong-term goals that would otherwise not beattainable as individuals or entities workingindependently. The approach requires com-mitment to an iterative, nested, collaborativeand participatory process of program plan-ning and product development. It also callsfor a dialogue among scientists, planners, man-agers, and others working to reduce coastalcommunity vulnerability to natural hazards.The utility of this architecture will be evalu-ated and refined through such dialogue. Or-ganizing around and through regional-scaleefforts may offer a unique opportunity, sincethese regional efforts may constitute the mostviable foci for enhancing integration.

27Spring 2007 Volume 41, Number 1

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