Introduction to Comte’s Positive Philosophy (by Goh Yi Xiang)

AUGUSTE COMTE’S BACKGROUND Was secretary to Claude

Henry Saint Simon – influenced his political involvement.

Close friends with John Stuart Mill – influenced his positivistic methodology

The Course on Positive Philosophy (1830-1842) [Core work]

Discourse on the Positive Spirit (1844)

A General View of Positivism (1848)

Religion of Humanity (1856)

THE COURSE IN POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY (1830 – 1842)

COMPILED BY HARRIET MARTINEAU INTO “THE POSITIVE PHILOSOPHY OF AUGUSTE COMTE”

SOCIAL PHYSICS AND THE HIERARCHY OF SCIENCE In ‘Courses’, Comte establishes the hierarchy of the classification of the natural sciences.

Mathematics is the basis of all the sciences due to its generality.

Sociology (Social physics) is at the top owing to its complexity.

“The consideration of the medium was once everything; but here the consideration of the organism rises more and more through the long series of vital systems of growing complexity.” (VIII, 333)

COMTE’S PURPOSE OF THE HIERARCHY OF SCIENCES

Comte’s purpose was to circumvent a fragmentation of the sciences.

To found Sociology as a final frontier of human knowledge.

"No social fact can have any scientific meaning till it is connected with some other social facts" (II, p. 245).

THE NEED FOR POSITIVISM Reasoning fallacy of theological and metaphysical thinking:

Without appropriate observation and empiricism, pseudo-sciences like alchemy and astrology proffer no actual explanatory and predictive power.

Encourages anthropocentrism, where mankind’s significance is exaggerated (e.g. Being in a geo-centric universe).

"No real observation of any phenomena is possible, except in so far as it is first directed, and finally interpreted, by some theory" (Comte, 1830, p. 243).

THE POSITIVE METHOD IN SOCIOLOGY Observation involves noticing

general patterns and directions Experimentation involves the actual empirical testing to prove social hypotheses.

Comparison involves the contrast between phylogenetic analogies.

Historical Analysis is like a ‘cross-sectional’ study of several concomitantly existing societies at different stages of ‘development’ on earth to derive over-arching evolutionary stages

"If it is true that every theory must be based upon observed facts, it is equally true that facts cannot be observed without the guidance of some theory"  (Comte, 1830, p. 4).

Comtean Positivism

Scientific Methodology

POSITIVISM AND SOCIETAL REFORMS Education: Proponent of a wide-spread general education. “Such a mode of proceeding would, therefore, be chimerical as regards general education, and yet an essential requirement of latter is a complete body of positive conceptions on all the great classes of natural phenomena.”

Politics: The necessity of Applied Sociology: “ … the science of society [Sociology], besides being more important than any other, supplies the only logical and scientific link by which all our varied observations of phenomena can be brought into one consistent whole”

THE RELIGION OF HUMANITY: POSITIVISM

Defines religion as ‘the state of complete harmony peculiar to human life […] when all the parts of Life are ordered in their natural relations to each other’ (1851, v. 2, 8; E.,v. 2, 8). 

2 Functions of Religion: (1) Moral function, religion should govern each individual. (2) Political function, it should unite all individuals.

In the positivist stage, humanity becomes the subject of worship to which love is the fundamental basis of society.

The final, positivistic science recapitulates all others; knowledge, involving the encyclopaedic classification of all subjects becomes the new “religion”.

FUNCTIONALISM AND ORGANICISM Organicism: Sociology is the extension of biology to study social organization.

“The main cause of the superiority of the social to the individual organism is according to an established law” (Comte, 2:289)

Functionalism: Society is an “organic whole” whose component organs are interrelated and interdependent.

“… the more marked is the specialization of the various functions fulfilled by organs more and more distinct, but interconnected … (Comte, Positive Philosophy, 2:289).

Divided Sociology into (1) social statics and (2) social dynamics.

LAW OF THE THREE STAGES Mental evolution as a necessary condition for social

evolution: "The constitution of the new system cannot take place before the destruction of the old … and before the potentialities of the old mental order have been exhausted.

Mental evolution paralleled socio-cultural development: "The highest order of minds cannot discern the characterizations of the coming period till they are close upon it."

Mental Evolution

Social Evolution

DUALISM IN COMTEAN SOCIAL THEORYHuman Though

tAttributes volition to all nature in an animistic fashion.

Ascribes an occult ‘force’ or ‘presence’ to objects.

Derive abstract principles through

positivistic inquiry

Social Stage

Theological

Metaphysical

Positive

Lifestyle

Fetishistic, polytheistic,

and monotheistic beliefs and

superstitutions

Adherence to sacred norms

or codes

Uses rationalistic and scientific

methods to maximise industry

Means of

Control

Military

Clergies, Priests, Bishops

Scientists

THEOLOGICAL STAGE Theological Stage: The human mind attributes causation to the effects of supernatural agents.

I.e.: All reality is the product of Aristotlean final causes.

Illustration: Disasters are created by the wrath of a single God.

Paralleled a military and monarchical social organisation. God is the head of the system. Highly dogmatic and religious. Usurpers or disbelievers are severely punished.

METAPHYSICAL STAGE Metaphysical Stage: Supernatural agents of causation are no longer pantheistic presences, but individualised, abstract, and concrete entities.

Illustration: individual animistic presences like nature nymphs Neieds (seas), Dryads (trees), Oeieds (mountains) etc. are responsible for their own domains of nature.

Priesthood and religion thrives. Power of the king is restricted. Decentralisation of power towards constitutional governance. Highly legalistic. Medieval and feudal. Natural rights are substituted for divine rights. Structured and formal.

POSITIVE STAGE Positive stage: Search for general principles and invariances in the universe through empirically-derived methodologies and reasoned logical stage (Formal Causes)

E.g. The statement that a Durian falls on Newton’s head and kills them is due to the law of gravitation and not due to my imagination. (Really?)

Scientific and industrial society. Scientists are the “new priests”. Positive philosophy becomes the new ‘religion’.

LIMITATIONS OF COMTEAN THOUGHT Distortion of views towards women due to negative personal experiences

Practiced “cerebral hygiene” and did not read his contemporaries’ works

Practiced “armchair philosophy” – provided no empirical support

Functionalism and organicism results in the fallacy of abductive reasoning

G. Ritzer and D.J. Goodman, Sociological Theory, McGraw-Hill, 2003.

ADVANCING COMTE’S SOCIO-THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

Ego Development: Nine Levels of Increasing Embrace (Susanne Cook-Greuter)

EGO DEVELOPMENT: 7 LEVELS OF INCREASING EMBRACE

Posits that there are 7 different stages of Ego development where the ego enters phases of alternating integration and differentiation of one’s identity.

At the lower stages, the self (Ego) is highly undifferentiated, and tends towards defensive self-egoism.

Generally, as one proceeds along the higher stages, one begins to reach a balance between autonomy and homonomy, and the greater is one’s regard towards others.

Most people stagnate at stage 3 or 4 in modern times, while in ancient times, people might stagnate at stages 1 or 2, leading to corresponding social structures.

Similarly, Comte theorizes a social dynamic between egoism and altruism in all stages of social development.

RELATION TO COMTEAN STAGES

Comtean Stages

Theological

Metaphysical

Positive

Post-positivistic

Average Ego-developmental

Stage of CivilizationImpulsive/Self-

protective

Conformist

Conscientious/Individualist

Autonomous/Integrative

Social Structure

Simple tribes

Sectarian and dogmatic systems

Competitive Capitalism and IndividualismEgalitarianism (still being researched)

RESEARCH QUESTION Research Hypothesis: It is expected that countries or locations skewed

towards a greater proportion of individuals at the higher stages should have higher levels of civic commitment, communal volunteerism, and a lower crime rate, as the higher regard towards altruism and homonomy supersedes the anti-social and egoistic tendencies within man, which should correspond to social systems of greater egalitarianism and democratic participation.

Dependent Variable: Human transpersonal development is measurable via Loevinger's Washington University Sentence Completion Test.

Independent Variable: People operating at higher stages of development should score higher on Ruston et al.'s (1981) Altruistic Personality and Self-Report Altruism Scale.

WASHINGTON SENTENCE COMPLETION TESTForm for Females

1. For a woman a career is2. A girl has a right to3. The thing I like aboutmyself is4. Education5. A wife should6. Rules are7. When I get mad8. Men are lucky because9. I am10. A woman feels good when11. My husband and I will12. A woman should always

Form for males

1. If I had more money2. A man's job3. The thing I like aboutmyself is4. Women are lucky because5. A good father6. A man feels good when7. A wife should8. A man should always9. Rules are10. When his wife asked him tohelp with the housework11. When I am criticized12. He felt proud that he .

REFERENCES Bourdeau, M. (2008, October 1). Auguste Comte. Stanford University. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#ClaSciSci

Bourdeau, M. (2008, October 1). Auguste Comte. Stanford University. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/comte/#CouPosFriMil

Comte. (n.d.). Humanistic Texts. Retrieved August 22, 2014, from http://www.humanistictexts.org/comte.htm#The Move Towards Laws

Comte. (n.d.). Comte. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://web.pdx.edu/~tothm/theory/DeadSoc/Comte/comte.htm

Comte, A. (1868). The positive philosophy of Auguste Comte. W. Gowans. Cook-Greuter, S. (2005). Ego development: Nine levels of increasing embrace.Unpublished manuscript.

Martineau, H. (n.d.). Comte's Positive Philosophy. Comte's Positive Philosophy. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://www.faculty.fairfield.edu/faculty/hodgson/Courses/so11/frameworks/fpintro.html

Mill, J. S. (n.d.). AUGUSTE COMTE AND POSITIVISM. The Project Gutenberg eBook of Auguste Comte And Positivism, by John Stuart Mill.. Retrieved August 24, 2014, from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/16833/16833-h/16833-h.htm