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Ayurvedaandmind-bodyhealing:Legitimizingstrategiesin
theautobiographicalwritingofDeepakChopra
MayaWarrier
Abstract:Thispaperexplorestheearlyautobiographicalworkofthepopularhealthand
well-beingguru,DeepakChopra.Theautobiography(entitledReturnoftheRishi)is
Chopra’saccountofhisearlyforaysintomeditationandayurveda,theIndianhealth
tradition.Itisthestoryofhis‘spiritualtransformation’,andhisdevelopmentintoa
proficientayurvedichealer.Followingtheleadofhisone-timeguruandmentor,Maharishi
MaheshYogi,Choprarepresentsayurvedaas‘consciousness-based’medicine.Thispaper
demonstrateshow,bymeansofaseriesofnarrativestrategiesdeployingthemotifofthe
semi-divinerishiorsage,andforegroundingpersonalexperienceastheultimatesourceof
spirituallegitimacyandauthority,Chopra(abiomedicaldoctorwithlittleornoformal
traininginayurveda)seekstosecurelegitimacyasanauthorityonayurvedaandanadept
withextraordinaryhealingpowers.
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Thepopularhealthandwellbeingguru,DeepakChopra,isaleadingfigureinthe
contemporaryWesterntransnationalholistichealthmilieu,andoneofthemostprolific
anglophonewritersonhealthandspiritualitytoday.Heisaqualifiedbiomedicaldoctor
whocombineshisbiomedicalexpertisewithyogaandayurvedaaswellasarangeof
‘holistic’therapies,topracticewhathedescribesas‘integrativemedicine’intheUS.This
paperexploreshisautobiographicalwritingwithaviewtoexaminingbothhis
representationofayurveda(theclassicalSouthAsianhealthtradition)andhisself-
representationasamind-bodyhealer.
Choprawasintroducedtoayurvedainthe1980sbyMaharishiMaheshYogi,thefounder
oftheTranscendentalMeditation(TM)movement.Foratimeheplayedakeyrolein
promotingMaharishiAyurveda,theMaharishi’sversionofthistradition,beforeparting
wayswiththeTMmovementandsettinguphisownindependentpractice.The
autobiographicalworktobeexploredhere,entitledReturnoftheRishi:ADoctor’sStory
ofSpiritualTransformationandAyurvedicHealing(firstpublishedin1988)waswritten
soonafterChopra’sencounterwithMaheshYogi,andatatimewhenhewasanactive
participantintheTMmovement,playingakeyroleinbringingMaharishiAyurvedato
theattentionofAmericanaudiences.
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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Aravamudan(2006:28)describesReturnoftheRishias‘aspiritualautobiographyof
sortsthatmakesthebridgebetweenChopra’smedicalcareerandhisadoptionofthe
Maharishi’sphilosophy’.Infact,asthispaperwillargue,itismuchmorethanthis.By
meansofthisnarrative,Chopra,followingtheMaharishi’slead,interpretsayurvedaas
thebasisofmind-bodyhealing,attributingtoitmeaningsfarremovedfromthose
associatedwithitinitshomecontextinSouthAsia.Hedrawsdirectlyfromthe
discoursecentraltotheTMmovement,presentingayurvedaasa‘holistic’systemof
healingwithmeditationasitsbedrock.Mostimportantly,theautobiographicalnarrative
legitimizesChopraasanaccomplishedayurvedichealer.Itchartshistransformation
intoanadeptwhocanperformextraordinaryactsofhealing.
IntraditionalSouthAsiancontexts,securinglegitimacyasavaidyaorayurvedic
practitionerusuallyrequiredanumberofyearsoftutelageandapprenticeshipunderan
experiencedphysician.InmodernIndiaandSriLanka,universitiesandcolleges
followingastandardizedcurriculumprovidemassinstructioninayurveda.Thosewho
completethetrainingprogrammeandsecureaBAMS(BachelorofAyurveda,Medicine
andSurgery)degreearedeemedqualifiedtosetuppractice.InChopra’scase,hehas
followedneitherroute.Insteadhereliesonpersonalexperienceofwhatheclaimsare
ayurveda’s‘truths’.Asthenarrativeinhisautobiographymakesevident,andasIwill
illustrateinthesectionstofollow,Chopra’spresumedexpertiseinayurveda,likethatof
theMaharishibeforehim,isbasedonmysticalgnosticinsight;heclaimstoaccessthe
‘truth’ofayurvedathoughdirectexperiencesofstatesofalteredconsciousness.
Thisemphasisonpersonalexperienceandinsightisacentralfeatureofthemilieuof
unchurchedspiritualityandoftheholistichealthsectorinEuro-Americancontexts.A
centraltenethereisthatauthoritylieswithintheself;the‘epistemological
individualism’(Wallis1984)centraltothismilieurequiresthatvoicesofauthority
(thoseofexperts,charismaticleaders,figuresoftraditionalauthority)mustbemediated
throughinnerexperience(Heelas1996;Heelas,Woodheadetal2004).Chopra,whois
well-versedwiththeattitudesandorientationsofthismilieu,mediatestheteachingsof
theMaharishithroughhisinnerexperiences.Thenarrativealsoportrayshimas
developing,onthestrengthoftheseinnerexperiences,asenseofhisownextraordinary
healingpowers.
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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Sinceitisinhispublishedworksthathemakestheseclaims,Chopra’sreputationasan
authorityonayurveda,healthandwellbeingrestsinlargepartonhiswritingandits
positivereceptionbythetargetedreadership.Theproductionofavoluminousrangeof
publicationsonthesesubjectshasbeencentraltohispopularityandlegitimacyasa
healer.AsAlter(2004,xviii-xix)notesinrelationtomodernyoga,throughsuchwriting,
authorsarticulatetheirversionof‘truth’.Readerswhoacceptthistruth,andperceiveit
tobelegitimateandmeaningful,ineffectacknowledgetheauthor’sauthenticityand
authority.Chopra’sautobiographicalwork(alongwithhisotherearlywritingson
ayurvedaandhealing1)isfoundationaltohisauthorityandlegitimacyasanayurvedic
healer.CentraltoChopra’snarrativestrategy,asthefollowingdiscussionwill
demonstrate,isthesettingupofcontrasts–betweenIndiantraditionandWestern
modernity,betweenayurvedaandbiomedicine,betweenthenewspirituallyawakened
Chopra,andhisoldself.Thenarrativeisframedintermsofhisrediscovery,while
servinginabusyhospitalintheUS,ofIndia’sspiritualwealth,oftheMaharishiand
TranscendentalMeditation,andofhisownpotentialasahealer.InwhatfollowsIwill
firstprovideabriefintroductiontoDeepakChopraandhisversionofayurveda,before
goingontheexplorecentralthemesandlegitimizingstrategiesinhisautobiographical
narrative.
DeepakChopra:healerandculturalentrepreneur
Chopraisaself-consciouslymodernfigure,presentinghimselfbeforehistransnational
anglophoneaudiencesnotasatraditionalguru,butasanurbansecularhealer(Baer
2003).Hewasamongthoseinitiallyhand-pickedbytheMaharishitospearhead
MaharishiAyurveda(aversionofayurvedathatcombinedTMwithayurvedichealing).2
ChoprafoundedtheMaharishiAyurvedaProductsInternationalwhichmarketedand
distributedAyurvedicmedicinessupposedly‘rediscovered’bythisguru(Zysk2001).He
wasalsotaskedwithdirectingtheTMorganization’smainayurvediccentrein
Lancaster,Massachussetts.Chopra’sassociationwiththeMaharishiwas,however,
short-lived.In1991,anarticleonMaharishiAyurvedaintheJournaloftheAmerican
MedicalAssociation,co-authoredbyChopraandothersaffiliatedtotheTM
1ParticularlyrelevanthereareChopra1989,1990.2ForaninsideraccountofMaharishiAyurveda,seeSharma1996.Academic‘outsider’
accountsareprovidedbyReddy2000,andbyJeannotat,HumesandNewcombein
WujastykandSmith(eds.)2008.(Alsoseetheeditors’‘Introduction’tothisvolume.)
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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establishment,becamethesubjectofamajorcontroversy(ibid.).Theauthorswere
accusedofusingthejournaltopromoteMaharishiAyurveda;theyfacedchargesof
misinforminganddeceivingtheirreaders,andofmanipulatingscientificdatatofurther
theirowninterests.Thiscontroversy,whichgeneratedalotofbadpublicityfortheTM
movement,wouldappeartohavebeenakeyfactorprecipitatingChopra’sdecisionto
partwayswiththeMaharishi.
In1996,heco-foundedTheChopraCenterforWellbeinginSanDiego,California,with
hiscolleague,DavidSimon,aqualifiedmediclikeChopra.Inthepromotionalmaterial
thisCentreisdescribedasproviding‘anintegrativeapproachtototalwell-being
throughself-awareness,andthepracticeofyoga,meditation,andAyurveda’.3The
Centre,accordingtoitswebsite,offersawidevarietyoftreatmentprogrammes,retreats
andteachertrainingcoursesthatintegratethe‘consciousness-basedteachingsofVedic
science,astranslatedbyourfounders’,with‘cutting-edgeresearchandmodernwestern
medicine’.4In2000,hewentontoestablishtheChopraFoundation,dedicatedto
‘improvinghealthandwell-being,cultivatingspiritualknowledge,expanding
consciousness,andpromotingworldpeacetoallmembersofthehumanfamily’.5
Choprapromotesahighlyoptimisticvisionofhealing,attributingtothemindand
consciousnessunlimitedpotentialwhichcanbeharnessednotjusttocuredisease,but
alsotoovercomeanyandallperceivedlimitationsinone’slife.Hehasauthoredmore
than80bookstranslatedintoover40languages,someofthemrankinginTheNewYork
Timesbestsellerlists.HemakesinnumerableappearancesonAmericantelevision.He
offersadviceonmattersrangingfromboostingself-confidence,enjoyingfulfilling
relationships,winningfriendsandinfluencingpeople,toeatingwell,meditating,and
sleepingsoundly.
HisclientshaveincludedcelebritieslikeDemiMoore,andthelateElizabethTaylorand
GeorgeHarrison(Aravamudan2006,257).Hisannualincome,runningintomillionsof
dollars,derivesnotjustfromthesaleofproductsandservicesattheChopraCentre,but
alsofromothersourcessuchasbookroyaltiesandlecturefees.Hisinfluenceextends
wellbeyondhisaffluentclient-base;hiswritings,talks,inspirationalmessages,guided
3http://www.chopra.com/about/the-chopra-center(accessed5/2/17)4ibid.5http://www.choprafoundation.org/about/about-the-chopra-foundation/(accessed
05/09/17)
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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meditationvideos,andgeneraladviceandcounsel,areallfreelyaccessiblethrough
variousmediaincludinghisbooks;blogsandpodcasts;FacebookandTwitter;hisown
YouTubechannel,TheChopraWell.6Heisacontroversialfigure,buthighlypopular,a
celebrityinhisownrightwhocaterstothehealthneedsofHollywoodcelebrities,and
collaborateswithsuchprominentfiguresintheAmericanculturalandtherapeuticscene
asOprahWinfrey.
Chopraisoneinalonglineofspiritualityenthusiastswho,sincethelate19thcentury,
havesoughttopopularizeIndianspiritualityintheWest.Inkeepingwiththemodeof
guru-discoursethatscholars(followingtheGermanIndologist,PaulHacker)often
describeasNeo-Hinduism,7ChopratooinvokesancientHindutraditionasthesourceof
spiritualwisdom.HeattributestoancientIndiagreatmystery,wisdomandpurity,
romanticizingtheancientworldasprimordial,mysteriousandspirituallyadvanced,and
contrastingthiswiththemodern,secularWestdeemedtobelackingintheseaspects.
TheancientIndianspiritualityheconstructsisworld-affirming,world-transformingand
deeplypractical.Inhisportrayal,aswillbediscussedinthesectionstofollow,ancient
spiritualitysurvivesinpresent-dayIndiainpersons,placesandpracticesasyet
untouchedbymodernity.
Choprashowsaremarkablefamiliarityandeasewiththevaluesandprioritiesofthe
mind-body-spiritmilieuintheWest.8Chopra’snarrativeonayurvedaandspiritualityis
refractedthroughtheprismofthemodernspiritualmilieuofunchurchedseekership,
andreflectsseekers’keypreoccupationwithgainingself-knowledgeandempowering
theselfthroughpersonalstriving.Inparticular,hesharestheirdeeply-heldbelief,
influencedinnosmallmeasurebypopularpsychologyandtheHumanPotential
Movement,9thathumanbeingspossessinfinitepotential.Theonlythingthatgetsinthe
wayofrealizingthispotential,accordingtothegeneralconsensus,isalackofbeliefin
6https://www.youtube.com/user/TheChopraWell(accessed28/02/18)7SeeHalbfass(1995)foradiscussionofHacker’skeyideas,andAltglas(2014)andWilliamson(2010)foranoutlineofNeo-Hinduism,itskeyfeatures,andthecontinuing
circulationofNeo-Hinduideasinthemoderntransnationalmilieuofunchurched
spirituality.8Seeeg,Fuller2001,Hanegraaff1997,Heelas1996.9OnpopularpsychologyandtheattendanttherapycultureintheUS,seeegRose1989;Furedi2004;Illouz2008;Rieff1987.
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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theself,andthepersistenceofrestrictiveandnegativethoughtpatterns.Reflectingthe
influenceofNewThoughtandtheMindCuremovement,10thismilieugreatlyvalorizes
positivethinkingandthepowerofthemindtobreakthroughalllimitations.Positive
thinking,andbeliefininfinitehumanpotential,arebothcrucialidealsthatChopra
deploysinhisstrategiestolegitimizeayurvedaasmind-bodymedicine,asweshallsee.
Indeedhisownjourneyof‘spiritualtransformation’asoutlinedinhisautobiographyisa
journeytowardstheunlockingofhisinfinitepotentialasahealer.
Chopra’snarrativestrategiesaredeeplypractical–theyleadto‘apersonalexpressionof
powerandauthority’and‘makemanifestavisionofattainablechangeinthisworld’
(CoatsandEmerich2017,5).Hisgreatestassetasawriterofbestsellersonspirituality
ishishighlyreadable,personalized,dynamicandexpressivestyleofwriting.Equally
important(thoughlessobvioustotheuncriticalreader)ishisabilitytoskillfully
combinetheculturalchauvinismandnationalisticpridecentraltoNeo-Hindunotionsof
spirituality,withtheuniversalistic,individual-centred,experimental,experiential
aspectsofmodernWesternspiritualseeking.Theresultisaspiritualcocktailthatis
uniquelyhisown.Heisacomplexfigure,AmericanandIndian;biomedicaldoctorand
holistichealer;moderninself-representationandmediatorofsupposedlyancientand
traditionalwisdom.Thiscomplexityserveshimwell,providinghimwiththenecessary
culturalcapitalforhisself-representationasamodernsourceoftraditionalwisdom.
Chopra’ssuccessislargelyattributabletohispersonalcharisma,hisremarkablyfluent
andengagingdiscursivestyleinwrittenandspokenEnglish,astutemediamanagement,
andskillfulcorporateorganizationandmarketing,allofwhichhaveservedtowinhim
audiencesfromacrosstheglobeandsecureforhimanicheinthehighlylucrative
transnationalholistichealthmarket.Foracharismatichealerwithaverysignificant
publicpresenceintheholistichealthsectorinNorthAmericaandbeyond,andavastly
10Albanese2007andHanegraaff1997,amongothers,discussthewidespreadinfluence
inNorthAmericaandWesternEuropeoftheNewThoughtandMindCuremovements
inthe19thandearly20thcenturies.MindCureisbasedonthehealingpoweroffaithand
positivethinking,andNewThoughtisassociatedwiththebeliefthatdivinitylieswithin
the‘true’selfandthatitisaninexhaustiblesourceofhappiness.Bothareprecursorsto
modern‘therapyculture’whichseesallbehavioursandconditionsfallingshortof
idealizedstatesofhappinessandwellbeingasrequiringtreatmentthatcanleadtoself-
realizationorself-actualization.
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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successfulbusinessenterprise,Choprahasnotreceivedthescholarlyattentionhe
deserves.HefindsbriefmentioninstudiesofMaharishiAyurveda,11andinasmall
numberofstudiesonNewAgehealers.12SrinivasAravamudan(2006)devotesafew
pagestoadiscussionofChoprainhisanalysisofthediscoursesofmodernanglophone
gurus.Beyondthis,thereislittlescholarlymaterialavailableonChopra.Heisa
particularlyinterestingfiguretostudynotjustbecauseofhisvastpopularityand
influenceintransnationalmind-body-spiritcircles,butalsobecauseofthehighly
innovativewaysinwhichherepackagesthingsdeemedancient/Vedic/ayurvedic/
Indian/Easternforamodernanglophoneaudience.
Spiritualizedayurveda,consciousness-basedmedicine,andstrategiesof
legitimization
Ayurveda,aselaboratedinitsclassicaltextsdatingbackroughly2,000years,isasystem
basedonhumoraldiagnostics.Diseaseisunderstoodtoresultfromtheaggravationof
oneormoreofthreehumours,wind,bileandphlegm,leadingtoblockagesinthesystem
(Wujastyk2003,xviii).Ayurveda’stherapeuticarmamentariumincludesdieteticsand
herbalremedies,minorsurgery,aswellasarangeofproceduresofcatharsisand
eliminationwhichincludeoleation,enema,purgation,emesis,douching,andsudation
(ibid.).InitshomecontextinSouthAsia,ayurvedahasbeenprofoundlytransformedby
itsencounterwithmodernityandparticularlywithbiomedicine.13Themodernized,
standardized,professionalizedversionsof‘official’ayurvedathatnowobtaininIndia
andSriLankaborrowdeeplyfromthebiomedicalmodelnotjustintermsoftheir
institutionalandorganizationalset-up,butalsointermsoftheirknowledgebaseand
methodsofpractice.
Itwasinthe1970sand1980sthatayurvedafirstcametotheattentionofaudiencesin
NorthAmericaandWesternEurope(SmithandWujastyk2008:9).MaharishiMahesh
Yogiwasoneoftheearlypioneerstopromote(hisversionof)ayurvedaoutsideIndia.In
thedecadestofollow,ayurvedahasdevelopedanincreasinglyvisiblepresencein
Westernmind-body-spiritor‘holistichealth’networks.Itisnoteworthythatayurveda’s
developmentintheUShasreliedprimarilyonitsappealbeyondSouthAsianimmigrant
populations,andthatthishasmeantitsmarketingasanexoticculturalcommodity
11See,forinstance,Jeannotat2008,Humes2008,Newcombe2008,Zysk200112Eg.,Baer2003;Albanese1992;Albanese2007,447-448;Heelas1999,67.13SeeBanerjee2009;Bode2008;Leslie1973,1976;Langford2002.
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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(Reddy2002,99).Scholarshavenotedtheinfluenceof‘NewAge’or‘unchurched’or
‘religiouslyunaffiliated’spirituality(Reddy2002,SmithandWujastyk2008,Zysk2001)
onayurveda(aswellasothermedicaltransplants)inAmerica,resultinginashiftin
emphasis‘fromphysictometaphysic’(Fuller1989).Inotherwordstraditionslike
ayurvedahaveundergoneaprocessof‘spiritualization’(Reddy2002,104),witha
markedincreaseintheirmetaphysicalcontent,andanincreasedrelianceonspirituality-
centredconcepts(‘energy’,‘vibrations’),goals(balance,harmony,self-healing),and
philosophies(self-control,responsibility).
MaharishiAyurvedaisonesuchversionof‘spiritualized’ayurveda.Itmarksadeparture
frommainstreamayurvedaintheIndiansubcontinentinimportantways.Maharishi
AyurvedadrawscentrallyupontheprinciplesunderpinningTranscendentalMeditation.
TheMaharishidefinedTM’sgoalintermsofleadingthemind‘toevermoresubtlelevels
ofcreation’,resultingultimatelyintheconsciousnessof‘thesourceofcreationbeyond
relativity–theblissfulfieldoftheAbsolute’(Jeannotat2008:287).Hecalledthisthe
‘UnifiedFieldofpureconsciousness’andclaimedthatitwasnootherthanthe
‘innermostcoreofone’sbeing’.Hemaintainedthatmindcontrolthroughmeditation
was‘easy’andthatthiscontrolcouldbringpeaceandenabletheeverydayexperienceof
anandamorbliss(Humes2008,313).Heclaimedthatthistransformationcouldbe
broughtaboutnotjustattheleveloftheindividualbutalsoofsociety,andindeedthe
world,asawhole.Hismovementaimedtobringaboutthe‘totaldevelopmentofthe
humanrace’(Jeannotat2008,299).
MaharishiAyurveda,basedsquarelyonTM’scentralideas,positedthedevelopmentof
consciousnessasindispensabletoattainingandmaintainingoptimalhealth,and
emphasizedmeditationtechniquestodeveloptheintegratedandholisticfunctioningof
bodyandmind.AccordingtoearlypromotersofMaharishiAyurveda,ayurvedic
knowledgehadcomefragmented,andsomeofitforgotten,asaresultofIndia’shistory
ofpoliticalturbulence(Jeannotat2008,289).MaharishiMaheshYogi’sobjectivewasto
returnthisknowledgetoastateofcompletenessbyrestoringtoitmentaltechniques
suchasTMthat,heclaimed,werepreviouslypartofayurveda’sknowledgecorpus,but
thathadsincebeensidelinedorforgotten.Theaimwasto‘unfoldthefullpotentialof
thephysiologyofconsciousness’(Wallace,ascitedinJeannotat2008,289).
HariSharma(1996,244),aMaharishiAyurvedaadvocate,describesthissystemas
‘consciousness-based’medicine.Inhiswords:
This is an accepted manuscript of an article published by Springer Verlag in International Journal of Hindu Studies, available online at https://link.springer.com/journal/11407. It is not the copy of record. Copyright © 2018, Springer Verlag.
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Theultimatebasisofpreventionandcureisrestoringone’sconsciousconnectionto
(ormemoryof)[the]innermostcoreofone’sbeingandexperience.This
reconnectionisthebasisofanintegratedapproachtohealthcare;integrationofthe
differentlayersoflifebeginswithreconnectingone’slifetothesubstrateuponwhich
allitslayersarebased.Theinnermostcoreofone’sexperienceisconsidered
identicaltothehomeofallthelawsofnaturethatoperatethroughouttheuniverse.
Thebodycontains,atitsbasis,thetotalpotentialofnaturallaw,andallofMaharishi
Ayurveda’smodalitiesaimtoenablethefullexpressionofthebody’sinner
intelligence(Sharma1996,246).
Ayurveda,accordingtoitsclassicaltexts,haslittletodowiththetransformationof
consciousness,andfocusesinstead,inlargepart,onthephysiologicalchangesresulting
fromaggravatedorweakenedhumours,inthediagnosisandtreatmentofdisease.
MaharishiAyurveda,bycontrast,placesconsciousnessattheverycentreofitshealth
practice.‘Remembering’theunifiedfield,accordingtoSharma(ibid.,247),‘enlivensthe
orderlypatternsthatprevailinahealthybody’.Itisthelossof‘connection’withthe
unifiedfieldthatresultsindisease.Themethodsforachievinghealth,intheMaharishi’s
reformulation,arefarmorediverseandwide-rangingthanthosetypicallyassociated
withayurveda.TranscendentalMeditationisthemainmethod,understoodasthekey
Vedictechniquefordevelopingconsciousness,forrestoringthelinkbetweentheunified
fieldandone’sinnermostcore,andtherebyrestoringhealth.Meditationtypicallyplays
nopartinclassicalformsofayurveda,andtheMaharishi’sreinterpretationinthis
respectisunconventionalandinnovative.MaharishiAyurvedacomprisesmorethanjust
TM,however;italsoselectivelyincorporatesideasandpracticesderivedfromthemore
conventionalformsofayurvedaintheIndiansubcontinent,butwithimportantshiftsin
themeaningsassociatedwiththese.
TheMaharishireliedonarangeofstrategiestolegitimizehisversionofayurveda.First,
hereliedonhisownauthorityasasageandguru,claimingtheabilityto‘divine’the
truthoftheVedasthroughmysticalinsight.Second,hereliedonscience,seekingto
securescientificcredentialsforhistechniquesandpracticesbymeansofnumerous
experimentsconductedinthelaboratoriesoftheTMenterprisemeasuring,forinstance,
thephysicalandmentalchangesthataccompaniedtheattainmentof‘transcendental
consciousness’(Jeannotat2008,298).Third,healsoreliedonprominentIndian
AyurvedicphysicianstosupportandlegitimizehisMaharishiAyurvedaproject.
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ParticularlynoteworthywereBrihaspatiDevTriguna,V.M.Dwivedi,andBalrajMaharaj,
physiciansorvaidyasofsomerenowninIndia,allofwhomparticipatedinthemany
conferencesorganizedbytheTMenterprise,andallowedtheirimagestobeprintedon
thelabelsofMaharishiAyurvedaproducts,thusauthenticatingitastruetotradition
(ibid.,302).
TheMaharishistipulatedapreconditionintheearlydaysthatonlythoseholdinga
medicaldegreecouldtrainaspractitionersofMaharishiAyurveda.Theearly
practitionerswereallthusbiomedicaldoctorswhoreceivedspecialtrainingfrom
vaidyasfromIndiaworkingfortheMaharishi(Humes2008,320).DeepakChoprawas
onesuchtrainee–hewasencouragedbytheMaharishitostudyunderthetutelageof
Triguna.JudgingfromChopra’sautobiographicalnarrative,hisengagementwith
Trigunawasfleeting;thereisnomentionofasustainedperiodofapprenticeshipwith
thisphysician.
AsanearlyspokespersonforMaharishiAyurveda,Chopratooplacesmeditationand
transformedconsciousnessatthecentreofayurvedichealing.Asameditatorhimself,
heclaimstohaveattainedaleveloftranscendenceinhismeditativeexperiencethat
enableshimtohealhimselfandothers.Thisisthesourceofhislegitimacy.Inorderto
makethisclaim,heintroducesthefigureoftherishi(ancientsageorseer)asacentral
motifinhisnarrative,asthetitlesuggests.InVedicliterature,therishiisapeculiar
categoryofsemi-divinebeingdistinctfromgodsandordinarymenandwomen,the
inspiredpoetoftheVedichymns,anecstaticvisionary.Inpost-Vedicliterature,therishi,
asall-seeingandall-knowingsage,isthepossessorofsupernaturalabilitiesanddeep
wisdomgleanedthroughyearsofyogicmeditationandausterities(tapas).The
knowledgeofayurveda,accordingtoitsoriginmyths,wasfirstobtainedbyrishis;they
arebelievedtohavepossessedthespecialpsychicpowersnecessarytoperceiveand
receivethisdivineknowledgefromthegods.InChopra’swork,therishibringstogether,
inonepotentsymbol,manyofthekeythemesassociatedwithmodernunderstandings
of(Hindu)India’ssuperiorstrengths–secretgnosis,higherlevelsofconsciousness,
spiritualtranscendence.
InChopra’suseofthetermrishi,threedifferentlevelsofmeaningarediscernible.He
usesthetermtorefertothemythicrishiassociatedwithVedicandpost-Vedicliterature.
Healsousesthetermtorefertohisearlymentor,MaheshYogi,aself-proclaimedgreat
(maha)sage(rishi),towhomheattributesimmeasurablewisdomandinsight.Inathird
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andratherinnovativemove,Choprausestheterm‘rishivalue’torefertoaqualityof
insightandperfectionwhich,heclaims,liesdormantinallpersons,andcanberekindled
through‘simple’practiceslikemeditation.Hisunderstandingofayurvedaisbuiltonthe
ideathatawakeningone’srishivalueistheroutetocuringallone’sphysicalandmental
problems,andthereforethekeyto‘perfecthealth’.
InReturnoftheRishi(henceforthROTR),Chopradescribessilenceascentraltothe
experienceandattainmentofone’s‘rishivalue’.AteacherliketheMaharishi,heclaims,
‘embodiesthetruthhetalksabout’(ROTR1991,144),andthis‘truth’liesinthedeep
silencethatthesageorrishiemanates.
Inarealsense,silenceisthewisestvaluearishipossesses,becauseitneedsno
argumentstopersuade.Inthepresenceofarishi,thelistenerbecomeslikearishi
himself.Thisisnotadelusion.Everyonepossessestherishivalue–thecapacityfor
wisdom–atthequietestlevelofhisconsciousness.Whenitsensesitslikeness,it
simplyresponds(ibid.,145).
Explainingthatitistothis‘rishivalue’thatthebooktitlerefers,hewrites:
Therishiwhohasreturnedisinsideyouandme,for“rishi”alsomeanstheknower
insideeveryhumanmind.Whenthisknowerisasleep,peopleforgetthemselves.
Theylosethememoryofman’scentralplaceintheschemeofnatureandtherefore
fallpreytodisaster–war,sickness,turmoil,andunhappiness.Thegoaloflifeisto
wakeupfromthisfalseconditionandregainthepowerofarishi,whoseslightest
desireistakenasacommandbytheforcesthatshapereality(ibid.,vi).
ThisparticularandinnovativeuseofthetermrishiiscentraltoChopra’srepresentation
ofayurvedaasmind-bodymedicine;inthisunderstanding,atransformedstateof
consciousness,andtheachievementofultimatesilencerootedinself-belief,isessential
forhealingtotakeplace.Theawakeningofone’s‘rishivalue’canaswellbedescribedin
termsof‘self-realization’or‘self-actualization’ortheattainmentofoptimum‘human
potential’–ideascentraltohumanistpsychologyandtheworksofprominentfiguresin
theAmericanpsycho-therapeuticscenelikeAbrahamMaslowandCarlRogers(Illouz
2008,159-161)whoseworkwasknowntoChopra,14andwhoseinfluencehaslefta
14Hereferstotheirworks,andtofigureslikeWilliamJones,insomeofhisotherpublications,egChopra1989.
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lastinglegacyfornetworksofunchurchedspiritualityandholistichealthintheUSand
beyond.Mostimportantly,theconceptof‘rishivalue’iscentraltoChopra’sassertionof
hisownspiritualmastery,asthediscussioninfollowingsectionswilldemonstrate.The
autobiography,aspreviouslynoted,reliesonaseriesofcontraststhatarecentraltothe
narrativestrategy:ayurveda(supposedlylimitlessinitspotential)iscontrastedwith
biomedicine(limitedandconstrained);India(mysteriousandspiritual)iscontrasted
withthemodernWest(materialisticandrational);Chopra’snewspirituallyawakened
selfiscontrastedwithhisoldunseeingself,blindtotherishiwithin.Bymeansofthese
contrasts,theautobiographicalnarrativeaffirmsChopra’sauthorityandlegitimacyas
anayurvedichealercapableofworkingnear-miraculousfeatsofmind-bodyhealing.
Indiantradition,Westernmodernity
Chopra’sautobiographicalworkchartsthefirstfourdecadesofhislife.HereChopra
describeshisinitialjourneyintothebiomedicalprofession(firstasastudentinIndia
andthenasadoctorintheUS),hissubsequentforaysintoayurveda,hisencounterwith
MaheshYogi,hisgrowinginterestinspirituality,andhismovetowardsacareerin
integrativemedicine.Chopra’smainpurposeinthisbook,asheexplainsrightatthe
outset,istonarratethestoryofhisdiscoveryofayurveda,‘thetraditionalsystemof
Indianmedicinethathasdescendedtousdirectlyfromtheancientrishis’(ROTR1991,
vi).Ayurveda,accordingtoChopra,‘containsthespiritualelementthatWestern
scientificmedicinejettisonedthreehundredyearsago’(ibid.,vii).Thegoalofayurveda,
heclaims,‘istotransformthepatient’spersonalreality,whichmeanstakinghis
subjectiveviewpointasseriouslyas[…]hisphysicalcondition’(ibid.,ix).Ayurveda,
Choprawrites,‘signifiesmorethanasystemofmedicine.ItisIndia’sguidetolife’(ibid.,
22).HeseesitaspartofIndia’sbequesttohumanity:atitsheartliesa‘stupendousview
ofhumanpotential’(ibid.,21).
ChopraexoticizesancientIndiaandIndiantraditionsas‘primordialandmystical
kernelsofspirituality’(Altglas2014:12).Earlyinthenarrative,Chopradescribesa
dreamhehadasachild.Heusesthisasaframingdevice,infusingitwithsymbolic
meaning.Centraltothedreamisablackcobra,whichliesdeadinapoolofbloodinthe
middleofavastfield.Nearbyasmallmongooseleapsaroundinamacabredance–the
snakeisitsvictim(ROTR1991,20).Thecobra,Chopraexplains,standsforIndia’s
‘deepestwisdomandpower,’itsspiritualityandancienttradition.Chopraequatesthe
deathofthecobrawithwhathedescribesasIndia’s‘saddecline’(ibid)fromitsancient
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glory.Themongoose,Chopraexplains,representsscience,rationality,biomedicine,
modernizationandtechnicalprogress–allofwhichhave,heclaims,havecontributedto
thecobra’sdeath.
Itbecomesclearinthecourseofhisnarrative,however,thatthedreamisnotquitethe
sameasreality;thecobra,thoughindecline,isnotinfactdead.VestigesofIndia’s
traditionsliveon,itturnsout,inordinaryIndianpeople,ineverydaylife,insacred
places,pilgrimagecentres,intheretellingofIndia’smythicstories,anditsritualsand
festivals.ByprovidingthereaderwithaseriesoffleetingglimpsesofIndia’ssurviving
traditionsandindeeditsmysteries,Chopracarefullypaintsapictureofanexotic,
mysterious,andspiritually-richIndia,thatliesjustbeyondthefaçadeofmodernization
andWesternization.
ChopradevelopsthisthemeofIndia’slatentspiritualitybysettingupaseriesof
oppositionsbetweenpersonsandtraditionsthatsymbolizethecobra,andthose
symbolizingthemongoose.Hedrawsthereader’sattentiontoonesuchopposition
whichhasabearingonhisearlylife--thatbetweenhisowngrandmotherandhisfather.
Thegrandmother,Chopraexplains,wassteepedintraditionalIndianvaluesand
customs;sheembodiedthewisdomandfaithoftraditionalIndia.Shewaswell-versedin
thestoriesfromtheHinduepicsandPuranas,steadfastinherworshipofthemanygods
andgoddesses,afirmbelieverinthetraditionalidealsofspiritualseekingand
enlightenment.ThestoriesofRamaandKrishnaandothermythiccharactersthatshe
narratedtohergrandchildrenhad‘greatmagic,mysteryandadventureinthem’(ROTR
1991,31).
[…]Grandmotherimpliedthatthemostawesomeofpowersdidnotbelongtojust
godsandsidhas,theperfectedbeings.Theywereinustoo,onlywewerenotyet
perfected.Couldaboyreallyflythroughtheairorreadpeople’smindsorcure
mortalsofhorriblediseasessimplybytouchingthem?Mygrandmotherstoodfirm.
ThesidhasintheVedascoulddoallthisandmore.Onedaywewouldbecomelike
them(ibid.).
The‘cobra’,itwouldseem,remainedaliveinthegrandmother,andinthisrespectshe
presentsastrikingcontrasttohisfather,adoctorandaprominentfigureinthemedical
establishmentinindependentIndia.Hisfatherisportrayedasarationalman,
committedtothemethodsofmodernscientificenquiry,andoftendismissiveof
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traditionalformsoffaith.Thegrandmotherhadfaithintraditionalayurveda--a‘heresy’
fromhisfather’spointofview.Chopradescribesherasbeingproficientinsimple
traditionalhealingpractices,anddescribesthesepracticesashavingprovedefficacious
onmorethanoneoccasion,muchtohisfather’schagrin.
MyfatherproudlypracticedWesternmedicineandlookedathisaccomplishmentsas
apersonaltriumph.HehadeveryreasontothinkthatmodernIndiawouldbewelloff
withouttheignorantoldways.Ayurveda,being“unscientific”toWesterneyes,could
jointheothercastoffs.Itneveroccurredto[…]myfatherthatAyurvedamightbe
somethinggreat(ibid.,23).
Italsoneveroccurredtohisfather,Choprawrites,thatamarriagebetweenayurveda
andmodernscientificmedicinemightbepossible.Asthesonofsuchascientifically-
mindedfather,Choprawasanunlikelycandidatetorediscoverayurveda(ibid.,24).And
yet,asaresultoftheMaharishi’sinterventioninhislife,heclaimsthat‘theappealof
ayurvedicwisdombecameself-evident’beforelong,atatimeinhislifewhen‘theideaof
amedicinethatkeepsmanwholewastremendouslywelcome’(ibid.,25).
Inparallelwiththeoppositionbetweenthefatherandthegrandmother,Chopra
presentsfurtheroppositionsandcontrastsinthenarrative,toreinforcethethemeof
India’sprimordialspirituality.Onesuchcontrastisthatbetweenhisscientifically-
mindedphysiologylectureratmedicalschool,acertainProfessorNanda,andanIndian
asceticorsadhuwhoselifewasdedicatedtospiritualseeking.ProfessorNanda,
accordingtothenarrative,decidedtoperformanexperimentontheasceticinorderto
ascertaintheeffectsofmeditationonhisbodilyfunctions.15Theexperimentinvolved
buryingthesadhualiveforacertainduration,duringwhichtimethesadhu(whom
Chopradescribesasa‘saint’)wouldrelyonmeditativetechniquestostayalive.
15ThiskindofexperimentationhasamuchlongerhistoryinIndia.Thepioneerofmodernyoga,SwamiKuvalayananda,wasoneofthefirsttoattemptto‘conduct
researchonthe“uncannypsychophysicaleffects”ofvarioushigherstatesofyogic
consciousness’(Alter2004,82).Thereareclearconnectionsbetweentheexperiments
ofKuvalayananda,thoseofProfessorNanda,andtheexperimentsconductedintheTM
laboratories.Inallthreecases,thescientist,motivatedby‘aprofoundphilosophical
spirituality’isconcernedtofind‘theobjective,rationalmeansbywhichtomeasureand
testthepowerofextrasensoryperceptionandtranscendentalconsciousness’(ibid.).
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Thissaint,Chopraexplains,wasdressedinthefadedsaffronrobesofawandering
monk;hehadmattedhair,alongunkemptbeard,andholyashessmearedonhisbody
(ibid.,44).
Asacuriosity,thissaintwasveryobliging.ProfessorNandaplacedhiminawooden
boxjustlargeenoughforhimtositinsideinlotusposture.Asthetopwasnailedon,
wecaughtalastglimpseofhim,halfliddedandimmobileashebegantomeditate.
Thentheboxwasloweredintoapitdugespeciallyforthepurposeinonecourtyard
oftheschool.Dirtwasthrownoverthetopwhilethephysiologystudentslookedon.
(ibid.,45)
Sixdayslater,Chopratellsthereader,theboxwasliftedbackout.Whenthetopwas
prisedoff,thesadhuslowlystoodup.Hewasescortedtothephysiologylabandoffered
aglassofmilk.Hewasthenhookeduptovariousmonitorsandhispulserate,heart
function,andoxygenlevelsweremeasured.Noneofthebodilymechanismsaboutwhich
hehadbeentaught,Chopracomments,couldaccountforthestrangeandunusual
readingsobtained.‘Thesimplefactwasthatthesainthadlivedpeacefullyforsixdays
underconditionsthatwouldhavedestroyedanormalbodyandmindinlessthantwelve
hours’(ibid.,58).Allpresent,Chopranotes,wereamazedbywhattheydiscoveredbut,
afterawhile,theepisodewassimplyforgotten.Thesadhuwalkedawayfromtheschool,
andthatwastheendofthematter.
Chopranotesthatasayoungsterhewasdismissiveofsuchexperiences,andoffigures
likethesadhu,seeingtheseasrelicsbelongingtoanother,a‘primitive’,India.He
believedthatwiththepassageoftime,‘sciencewouldsweepawaythesaints’(ibid.,44).
Ididnot[then]realizewhatdeepfootprintsoursaintwasleavingbehind.Itwould
taketenyearsbeforeIhadasignificantencounterwithmeditation.[…]Iwouldgivea
greatdealnowtoknowmoreaboutthecontentofthatsaint’smindanditswisdom.
Abouthissoul,themostimportantthingtohim,adeepersilenceprevails.Inour
arrogance,wethoughtthatasaintcouldbecapturedongraphpaper.Buthisquiet
heartkeptitssecrets(ibid.,58).
Chopranotonlyattributesgreatmysteryandmagictotheancienttraditionsand
techniquesthattheasceticrepresents,butalsopointstothefutilityofthescientific
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methodthat,hesuggests,canneverquitecapturethetruthsofancientIndiaembodied
inthisfigure.ProfessorNanda’sapproachandmethods,itwouldseem,couldtakehim
onlysofar–the‘saint’possessedspiritualskillsandstrengths,emblematicofthe
mysteriousandwisecobra,thatProfessorNanda’sscientificequipmentcouldnot
record,andwhichhisscientifictheoriescouldnotexplain.
Thisseriesofoppositions,inChopra’saccount,buildsuptowhatisinessencethe
centraloppositioninthenarrative–thatbetweenChopra’sold,pre-spiritual,
scientifically-mindedself,andhisnew,spiritually-awakenedself.TheoldChopra
representsaselfhoodshapedbyWesternmodernity,scientificenquiryandrational
thinking.HeismuchlikehisfatherandProfessorNandaintheserespects,andthe
cobra(within)isallbutdead.ThenewChopra,deeplytouchedbyexperiencesthat
sciencecannotexplain,becomesopentofaith,mysteryandmiracle–heisnowonthe
pathtodiscoveringIndianspirituality;thecobrawithinhimbeginstobestiritselfand
willsoonberevived.Thepassagefromtheoldselftothenewisenabledbymeansofan
encounterfirstwithTranscendentalMeditation,andthenwithitspioneer,Maharishi
MaheshYogi.Akeycatalysttothistransformation,accordingtothenarrative,is
Chopra’sdisillusionment,asapractisingbiomedicaldoctor,withbiomedicine’s
approachandmethods,anditsmodesofpracticeinmodernhospitals.
Ayurvedaversusbiomedicine
Chopraclaimsinhisautobiographytohavedecided,attheageofsixteen,tofollowinhis
father’sfootstepsandbecomeabiomedicaldoctor.Whatpromptedthisdecisionwas
SinclairLewis’snovel,Arrowsmith,whichChoprareadwitheagerenthusiasmasa
youngster.Thenovel,Chopraexplains,tellsthestoryofthescientifically-mindedMartin
Arrowsmith,whomakesajourneyfromhissmallnativetownintheAmericanMidwest
tothehighesttiersofAmerica’sscientificcommunity.Chopraclaimstohavebeen
particularlymovedbythenovel’sdescriptionsofArrowsmith’scareforhispatients,his
selflessstrivingfortheirwellbeing,andhisunwaveringpursuitofmedicalresearchfor
thebenefitofhumankind.Oversixyearsofintensivestudy,Choprapreparedforhis
medicalcareer.JustmonthsaftergraduatingfrommedicalschoolinIndia,hewas
invitedtotakeupapostatahospitalinNewJersey.
ItbecomesclearfromChopra’snarrativethatthemedicalprofessionheencounteredin
theUSborelittlesemblancetotheversionidealizedinSinclairLewis’snovel.He
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describestheethosinUShospitalsascoldandheartless.Thedoctors,heargues,‘wear
blinders,seeingpatientsaswalkingsyndromesandnotaspeopletobelovedandcared
for’(ROTR1991,x).WhileworkinginAmericanhospitals,Chopraperceivedhispatients
notasindividualsbutsimplyas‘theabortion,theoverdose,thelaceration,theheart
attack’(ibid.,7).Heseldomspentanytimewiththem,andrarelygottoknowthemor
understandtheirhopesandfears.Eventhoughdoctorsmaybemovedbytheirpatient’s
feelingsandemotions,heasserts,theyaretrainedtotreatonlythephysicaldistress.
Thepatient’sfeelingsarea‘side-issue’.‘ThemedicineIwastaught,’hewrites,‘hadbeen
strippedofidealsaltogetherinfavorofapracticalzealforrepairingthebodiesofsick
people’(ibid.,9).‘Medicine’,Choprainsists,‘shouldbeabouthealingpeopleandmaking
themhappy’(ibid.,8).
Doctorsweremotivatedtoworkhardnotbecausetheydesiredtoseepatientswelland
happy,butbecausetheirpersonalcareerambitionscouldonlybefurtheredbymeeting
thenear-impossibletargetssetbythehospitalmanagement.Doctors,heclaims,
contributetokeepingtheirpatientssickby‘fosteringadiseasedsystemandbeyondthat
adiseasedworld’(ibid.,80).‘Thereissomuchmomentuminthesystem’,hewrites,
‘thatdoctorsgowithit,tellingthemselvesthat,afterall,progressisalwaysbeingmade’
(ibid.,81).Whendoctorscannotsolveproblems,theyrelyonthecomfortingbut
‘perilous’beliefthatmedicaltechnologywillfindsolutions(ibid.).Chopraishighly
skepticaloftheclaimthatmedicalprogresswillbeachievedthroughtechnologicaland
scientificbreakthrough.Henoteshowtherehasnotbeenanyletuptodateinthe
numberofillpeoplepassingthroughthehospitalsystem,somenevertoreturn.Heis
alsocriticalofinvasivetechnology-reliantmedicalprocedures,oftheiatrogeniceffects
ofmedicalintervention,andtheimpactonthepatient’smorale.Thesystemasawholeis
onethatChopradeemsunnecessarilycomplexandunnatural–‘anewtrendhadto
begin’,hewrites,‘movingtowardsimplicityandhumancontact’(ibid.,87).
ItisstrategicallyimportanttoChopra’snarrativethathisdiscoveryofTranscendental
Meditationtookplaceatatimewhenhewashimselfinneedofhealing--hisstress-
levelsasabiomedicaldoctorhadpeaked.ThiscontextissignificantforChopra’s
legitimizationof(theMaharishi’sversionof)ayurveda,sinceitreinforcessomeofthe
contraststhathedrawsbetweenayurvedicandbiomedicalpractice.Choprawasatthe
timeemployedatahospitalinNewJersey.Hishospitalshifts,henotes,weregetting
moreandmorerushed,hisdayswereblurringintonights,hewasconsumingexcessive
quantitiesofblackcoffee,drinkingwhiskeymostevenings,andsmokingatleastapack
ofcigarettesaday.Hisschedule,hewrites,kepthisstomachchurningallthetimeand
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hehadaconstanttasteofgastricjuiceinhismouth(ibid.,125).Onedayhechanced
uponaTMbookinasecondhandbookshopinBoston.Hewasstruckbythesimplicityof
thepracticeitrecommended.Itdidnotrequire‘workingstrenuouslyfor
enlightenment’;instead,correctmeditationwas‘aneffortlessprocessthatledtodeeper
relaxation’(ibid.,124).Thetechniquewasquickandeasy,witheachsessionlastingonly
aboutfifteenminutes.Theexperiencewas‘quietandsereneandwithoutstrain’(ibid.,
127).Mostimportantly,heclaims,itworked–withindayshenoticedhisstresslevels
drop.Hestoppeddrinkingandsmoking,andbegantofeelanextraordinarysenseof
wellbeing.
ItwasanotherfiveyearsbeforeChoprafirstmetwithMaharishiMaheshYogi.The
meetingwiththeTMgurutookplacein1985atavenueinWashington.Thenarrative
suggeststhatChoprawasdeeplyaffectedbytheMaharishi’ssimplicityanddeepsilence.
Itisnoteworthythatsilenceisarecurringmotifinhiswritingandwouldseemtobea
coreelementinChopra’sunderstandingofspirituality.
Hismannerwasquitesimple,butatthesametime,ashechattedwithus,onecould
notimaginepayingattentiontoanyoneelse.Atapointearlyinourmeeting,Inoticed
thatmyownattention,exposedtohis,hadbecomeveryconcentrated.Andwithout
anyeffort,mymindhadfallensilent.Nothoughtsmovedthroughit,andtherewasn’t
theusualricochetofstrayimpressions–justsilence.Thisseemedanextraordinarily
pleasantstatetobein,becauseIfeltcompletelyunselfconscious(ibid.,140-41).
ReturnoftheRishiwasauthoredjustthreeyearsafterChopra’sfirstmeetingwiththe
Maharishi.Chopra’senthusiasmforMaheshYogiisevidenthere.Hewritesthathewas
innodoubtthattheMaharishiwaseverythingthathistitleimplied–‘agreatsage,a
knowerandteacherofreality’(ibid.,144-45).InspiredbytheMaharishi’steachings,he
acceptedtheMaharishi’sinvitationto‘comeandlookatAyurvedawithus’(ibid.,143).
Hisassociationwiththisgurudevelopedoverthenextfewyears,evenashe
spearheadedthe‘MaharishiAyurveda’initiative.
MaharishiMaheshYogiserves,inChopra’snarrative,asthegatewaytowhathe
describesinterchangeablyas‘Easternspirituality’,‘Vedicwisdom’,andthe‘knowledge
oftheancients’.HedescribesboththeMaharishi,andthetraditionalIndiaheis
understoodtorepresent,inthemostgloriousterms:
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VisitingtheMaharishiinhishomelandislikereturningtoBharata,theIndiaof
antiquityandlight.EnlightenmentcameintoexistenceinBharataandfathereda
culture.Oneseesitstracesintheoldestimagesofartthathavesurvived.Somanyof
themdepictthesameunfadingscene,ofcommonpeopleseatedontheground
surroundingagreatsage,arishi.Thesageappearstobedelightinghisraptlisteners
withhiswords.Heistalkingaboutenlightenment,tellingthemthatonedaytheywill
beperfect.Hedescribesapatholderthantheirmemoryandmorepermanentthat
thelow,redhillstheycanseeonthehorizon(ibid.,196).
TobearoundtheMaharishi,Choprawrites,islikelivingintheancestralimages,tobe
backinthe‘originalIndia’.Time(antiquity)andspace(thelandofBharata)are
exoticizedandspiritualizedhere,strategicallydifferentiatedfrommoderneverydaylife.
Reconnectingwithhisnativerootsis,forChopra,aboutreconnectingwiththeIndiaof
thepast,throughthemediationoftheMaharishi.
Mostimportantly,MaheshYogiservesasChopra’sgatewaytoayurveda.‘Atthesoulof
India’,hewrites,‘thereisanexpansivespiritualjoy.Ayurvedaiscompletelyapartof
thisview,andthereforeitsaimistheconstantexpansionofman’shappiness’(ROTR
1991,22).Ayurveda,inChopra’snarrative,providestheperfectcounterpointto
biomedicine.Inhisunderstanding,biomedicaldoctorscurephysicaldisease,whereas
ayurvedicphysicianshealpersons.Biomedicalmethodsseektocontrolnature,whereas
ayurvedais‘natural’.Biomedicineisheavilyreliantontechnology;ayurvedaissimple
andalmostintuitive.Biomedicalmethodsareoftendangerous,risky,placestressonthe
body,andcansometimesresultiniatrogenicdisease;ayurvedaisgentleandsoothing.16
‘Ayurvedatakesthevistaofmantobeinfinite.Theuniverseisthemacrocosm,manis
themicrocosm.ButAyurvedaspeaksdelicately,sodelicatelythatyouseeWestern
medicineasclumsy’(ibid.,113).
16ThisdescriptionofAyurvedaasgentleandsoothingreflectsadomesticationofthis
traditionincontemporaryWesterncontextswhereitsharshermodalities,stillinusein
sometraditionalpracticesinSouthAsia,areignored.Zimmerman(1992)aptly
describesmoderntransnationalAnglophoneformsofthistraditionintermsoftheir
‘flowerpower’.
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Chopradescribesatsomelengthhisfirstencounterwithanayurvedicphysician.The
physicianinquestion,BrihaspatiDevTriguna,wasknownforhisuseofpulsereadingto
assessthepatient’scondition.DescribingTriguna’smethod,Choprawrites:
Hedoesnotinterferewithapatient’slife.Hisfingersmerelytouchthepaceofthat
life.Theysenseitsrhythms.Theyextractknowledgeofdisharmony,broken
vibrationsthatmightcauseillhealth.Itisenough.Thereisonlyonehealthypaceto
Dr.Triguna,thepaceofthecosmos.Theessenceofhealthistoattendtothe
pacemaker.Oncethatisdone,diseaseisdone(ibid.,115).
Thephysician’smostimportantadvice,henotes,isthatpatientsareresponsiblefor
theirowncondition.Theycanchoosetheaffirmingattitudesthatpromotehealth(ibid.,
92).Disease,intheayurvedicunderstanding,‘startsouthumblyinthebody,assome
imperceptibleimbalance,andproceedsslowlyfromthere.Theoutcomeofafull-blown
diseasemaybedevastating,butithasbeenbuiltupthroughinsignificanteveryday
actions’–whatweeatanddrink,howwebehave,howouremotionsaffectus(ibid.,92).
Bypayingattentiontothesethings,thepatientcanmakeactivechoicesthatsupport
health.Ayurveda,hewrites‘givesapatientcontroloverhimselflongbeforehebecomes
apatient’(ibid.,93).
Ayurveda,inChopra’sexoticizedversion,iseverythingthatbiomedicineisnot.As
Altglas(2014)notes,exoticizationsuggestsanattempttograsp(andconvey)otherness,
butmoresignificantly,itmakesothernessstrangelyalluringandbeautiful.Narratives
thatexoticizeacultureortraditionidealizeitsotherness(butalso‘domesticate’it)by
eitherignoring,orlamenting,thepresent-dayrealitiesontheground.Itisnoteworthy
thatinChopra’saccountofayurvedahecompletelyignoresthefar-reachingprocesses
ofmodernizationthatmainstreamAyurvedahasundergoneinIndia.Modernayurveda
inIndiaissignificantlybiomedicalized–ithasadoptedbiomedicine’sinstitutional
frameworksaswellasitsknowledgesystems,itsprinciplesandparadigms,inwaysthat,
somescholarsargue(eg.Banerjee2009,Bode2008,Langford2002)haveundermined
thistradition’sintegrity.ThisisanaspectofayurvedathatChopraconveniently
overlooksinhisnarrative.
TheReturnoftheRishi
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ThenarrativeinChopra’sworkisthusshotthroughwithtwocentralsentiments--
intensedissatisfactionwiththewaythemedicalprofessionispracticedinmodern
clinicsandhospitals,and,alongsidethis,adeepreverencetowardstraditionalIndian
practices,manyofwhich,Chopranotes,cannotreadilybeexplainedbymeansof
scientificandempirico-rationalprinciplesandmethods.Thepolarizationbetweenthe
modernandthetraditional,betweenscientificrationalityandfaith,arecrucialto
Chopra’sstrategiesforlegitimizingayurveda.Hepresentshiscaseintermsofacentral
contrastbetweenasystem(biomedicine)thatiscriticallylimitedbyitsemphasison
scientificmethodsandanalternative(ayurveda)whosescopeisunlimited,boundless.It
isimportanttonote,however,thatChopradoesnotrejectbiomedicineinitsentirety;
whatheappearstopushforisverymuchanintegratedapproachwherethepractitioner
complementsbiomedicalknowledgeandmethodswithapproachesdrawnfrom(his
versionof)ayurveda.
InChopra’sversionofayurveda,basedcloselyontheMaharishi’sinterpretation,
ayurvedichealingreliescentrallyonthepracticeofmeditationandthetransformation
ofhumanconsciousness.InotedpreviouslyChopra’sexperienceofheightened
wellbeingasaresultofhisinitialpracticeofTM.Thishoweverwasnottheonlychange
thatheclaimstohaveexperienced.Beyondthis,hewrites,‘somethingmorepersonal
wasoccurring,likeacurtainbeingdrawnasideatmidnight’(ROTR1991,127).The
earlypracticeofmeditation,heclams,gavehimhisfirstexperientialtasteofwhatwords
like‘wisdom’and‘perfection’reallymeant.Hisnose,hewrites,hadjustcaughtthesmell
ofseabreezes,andheknewhewouldreachthesea(ibid.)Thisinitialexperiencewith
meditation,in1980,markedthebeginningofaturninChopra’slife.Hewasonapath
leadingtowards‘enlightenment’.ThisisnotenlightenmentinthetraditionalHindu
senseofliberationormoksha,itisnotaboutworld-rejectionorworld-transcendence.
Insteaditisemphaticallythis-worldlyandlife-affirming.Atitsheartistheexperienceof
deepsilence,calmandinnerpoise,leadingtotheattainmentofwisdomandperfection
inthehereandnow,andholdingthepromiseofperfecthealth,happinessand
prosperity.IndeedwiththepracticeofTranscendentalMeditation,Choprawas
beginningtoawakenhisown‘rishivalue’.
Thetransformationofthepatient’sconsciousness(andtoawakenthe‘rishivalue’lying
dormantwithin)iscentraltowhatChopraunderstandsashisownworkasahealer.The
goalofayurveda,heclaims,‘istotransformthepatient’spersonalreality,whichmeans
takinghissubjectiveviewpointasseriouslyas[…]hisphysicalcondition(ROTR1991,
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22
ix).Theall-importantingredientintreatment,heasserts,is‘thepatient’sconfidencein
hisownstrengthtorecover’(ibid.,79).Ayurveda,Chopraclaims,‘placesitshighest
emphasisonallowingconsciousnesstofinditsownwaythroughthedamageinthe
body’(ibid.,153).TheinfluenceofMindCureandNewThoughtinChopra’shealing
approachisreadilyevidenthere.
Chopra’smodelofayurvedawouldappeartocombinetwodifferenthealingframeworks
thatAlbanese(1992)identifieswithrespectto‘NewAgehealing’–theharmonialand
theshamanic.Inthefirst,shewrites,thelawofharmonyprevails.Healingheremeans
‘harmonizingtheenergiesofthebodysothattheyresonatewithlargernaturalforces
andlaws’(ibid.,77).Thehealer’smanipulativeeffortsworksubtlyatthephysical-
energeticlevel.Theaimistoremoveobstructionsthatblockthefulloperationof
harmoniallaw.Inthesecond,‘shamaniclaw’reignssupreme(ibid.).Healingmeans
‘journeyingintotherealmofnon-matterinwhichsubtleforcestransmuteintomaterial
substance’(ibid.).Mindandimagination(and,inthecaseofChopra,Iwouldadd,faith)
assumehegemonyovertheharmoniallifeofmatter.Thehealingshaman,whetherself
orother,travelstotheplaceofprimalenergyfromwhichtheblueprintfororganiclifeis
thoughttocome(ibid.).
ItisclearfromtheaccountinReturnoftheRishithatChopraunderstandshealing,at
leastinpart,intermsoftheremovalofblockagesandtherestorationofharmonyand
balance.Indeedmoreconventionalformsofayurvedicpracticearerootedina
harmonialmodel,andthisbecomesreadilyevidentinChopra’sdescriptionofthe
healingapproachofphysicianslikeTriguna.Chopra’sadditionofashamanicmodelto
theharmonialone(drawinginlargepartfromMaharishiAyurveda)meansthatself-
belief,andtheinfinitepotentialofthehumanmindtoeffectchange,becomecentralto
hisapproach.Thecentralityofthemind,faith,andconsciousnessinthisversionof
ayurvedadifferentiatesitradicallyfrombiomedicineandthescientificpreoccupation
withtheempirical,therationalandthematerial.Healingcannowbeachievedbythe
patient–whatisrequiredisunshakeablebeliefthatonewillbehealed.Thiscanbe
enabled,itwouldseem,bymeansofthesustainedpracticeofmeditation,andthrough
theguidanceandministrationsofashamanichealer.
FromhisaccountofcaseswhereChopraseekstotransformthepatient’sconsciousness,
thereadergetssomeunderstandingofChopra’smethodsof‘ayurvedic’healing.He
recountshisexperienceswithamalepatientwhohadbeendiagnosedwithterminal
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23
lungcancer.Thedoctorshaddecidedthatfurtherbiomedicaltreatmentwasfutile.
Chopra’sapproachwastoinstillinthispersontheself-beliefthathewasgoingtoget
well.Hedescribeshisexchangeswiththepatientthus(ROTR1991,152-53):
“Let’sgetyouwell,”I[Chopra]said.He[thecancerpatient]lookedatme,firstwith
amazement,thenwithtremendousrelief.Hewasbeyondtheartofmedicine,and
thathadbroughthimdespair.Nowsomeonewasintroducingtheartofbelief.I
consideredhishappinessatleastasimportantashissurvival.Idescribedaschedule
ofdiet,rest,meditation,andaspecialregimencalledpanchakarma,whichAyurveda
usestodetoxifythebody.[…]Itsetsthestageforthepatient’sownpowertorecover.
[…]
WhenheaskedmeoutrighthowIwouldcurehim,Ievadedthequestion.“You’rethe
player,”Isaid.“MystaffandIareonlythecheerleaders.Butwe’llneverstop
cheering.”
Helistenedtomeeagerly.Iaskedifwecouldmakeapact.Hehadtopromisetoget
well.Heagreed.Icouldseethatthissimpletacticstronglyaffectedhim.Weshook
handsonit:hewasgoingtorecoverfromthecancer,andthatwasthat.Heleftwitha
senseofpurposeIhadnotseeninhimanhourearlier.Hemightbehappyagain,even
thoughhisillnessseemedtoposesuchahugeobstacle.
Inthisinstance,thepatient’swilltorecover,hewrites,wasallthathehadtoworkwith.
Chopra’shopewasforaspontaneousremission,motivated,heexplains,atthedeepest
levelofself.Guidedbythe‘uncompromisingthought’atthisdeeplevelthatthewhole
personmustrecovercompletely,thebody,heclaims,hasnochoicebuttoobey.The
physicianandthepatientmustbeconvincedtothedepthsoftheirheartsthatthe
patientwillgetwell(ibid.,153).Inthisparticularinstance,themethodappearsnotto
haveworked.Thepatient,itwouldseem,didnotbelievefirmlyenoughinthepossibility
ofhisrecovery–hewasaheavysmokerandcontinuedtosmokedespitethedoctor’s
advicetoquit.Eventually,afteracriticalturn,hisdaughtertookhimhome.Evenso,
Chopranotes,whereasthedoctorshadgivenhimthreemonthstolivehehadlivedfor
eightunderChopra’scare.
Choprarealizeshisfullpotentialasrishiinthenarrativewhenheuseshisnewfound
healingpowerstobringapatientbackfromthebrinkofdeath.Thepatient,afemale
strokevictim,andherhusbandwerealreadypractitionersofTMandhadbeenintouch
withChopraaboutasurgeryshewasduetoundergoforaheartcondition.Immediately
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24
aftertheoperationshedevelopedararecomplication,leadingtoamassivestroke.She
nowlayinacoma,andthedoctorsfearedtheworst.Accordingtothenarrative(ROTR
1991,156-161),whenthedistraughthusbandrangChopratotellhimwhathad
happenedandtoaskforadvice,Chopratoldhimshewasgoingtorecover(ibid.,158).
Hiswifewasbeyondboththeartofmedicineandtheartofbelief.Wewouldhaveto
startontheartofBeing.
Sinceheandhiswifewerebothmeditators,Isaidthatwewouldgobacktotheself.
Wewouldsimplyknowthatshewasgoingtorecover,fully.Iwouldhaveherinmy
attentionwhenIwenttobedatnight,justbeforefallingasleep.Iaskedherhusband
todothesame.Butthekeythingwouldbecontactingtheselfthroughmeditation.
Overthecomingdays,Chopraclaims,thehusbandcalledbackanumberoftimesand
eachtimetherewasmoreandmorepositivenewsaboutthewife’sprogress.Inabout
sixweeks’time,shewasfullyrecovered.Chopraattributestherecoverytothepowerof
meditation.Returningtohiscentralmotifofsilence,Chopranotes:
[…]thiswomanandI,whohadneverseenoneanother,didnotmeetonthelevelof
diseaseorevenofpersonality.Somethingdeeperhadbeenstirred.Westillplayed
thesameroles,inthesensethatshewasthepatientaskingmeasphysicianforhelp.
Thistime,however,shehadaskedinsilence,andoutofsilenceIhadanswered.It
wasasifariverofcompassionranbeneathourfeet,andunabletoreachdownfor
herself,shehadaskedmetoreachforher(ibid.,160).
Chopranotesthatthiscasemarkedachangeinhisownpsychology,achangethat
‘progressivelydeepened’overtime(ibid.,159-160).Inhisreckoningthisparticular
patientwasconnectedwithhimbyabondoflove.Whatisremarkableisthatrather
thanexplaintheprocessofhealingintermsofthepatient’s(orherhusband’s)strength
orresolveorabilityfor‘connection’,heasthedoctornowtakesfullcreditforher
recovery.Heattributeshissuccessinthiscasetohistotalwillingnesstoacceptthe
patientashisresponsibility,withnofearofdisease,norejectionofthepatient,andno
clingingtoauthority(ibid.,160).Inthisinstance,itwouldseem,he‘transcended’the
limitationsofbiomedicine.Healsotranscendedthedividebetweenselfandpatient,and
betweenbodyandmind.Andthis,heclaims,wasnotanisolatedincident.
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25
Moreandmore,IbelievethatthetranscendingcanhappenbecauseIhavecometo
feel,whenIamfacetofacewithpatients,thatIamthem.Ilosethesensethatweare
separate.Wearenot.Icanfeeltheirpainastheydescribeit.Icanunderstandthem
withoutblameandwantthemtogetwellbecauseIwillbegettingwellmyself(ibid.,
160).
Thestrategiesoflegitimizationinthenarrativedonotstopatlegitimizingayurveda.By
thispoint,aswillbereadilyevident,thenarrativeseekstosecurelegitimacyforChopra
asahealingadept.Byhisownaccount,heisno‘ordinary’doctor;insteadheisonewith
extraordinaryabilitiestoheal,toeasesuffering,andtorestorewellbeing.Heclaimshe
canhealpeoplebyconnectingwiththeirinnerselvesinextraordinaryways,and
bringingthembackfromthebrinkofdeath.Earlierinthenarrativehedescribes
Susruta,understoodtobethecompilerofoneoftheearliestayurvedictexts,asan
‘angelicdoctor’.Susruta,heclaims,bequeathedtoayurvedaaviewthatmanisinfinitein
scope.Hehadamindthat‘displayedinfinitequalities’.
Morethanaphysician,hewasarishi,aseer.HehadlookedasdeeplyintoNatureas
ourspiritcan[…].Motivatedbyhisownperfection,heapproachedpatients,notas
victimsofmalady,butaspeoplewhocouldpotentiallyperfectthemselves,too.That
aspirationliesatthecoreofAyurveda…(ibid.,70-71)
Thisterm‘angelicdoctor’,itwouldseem,couldaswellnowapplytoChopra.
Thedoctor’sstoryofspiritualtransformationiscomplete.TherishinowisChopra
himself,and‘TheReturnoftheRishi’inthetitleofthebookcouldaswellreferto
Chopra’s‘return’tohis‘true’selfhoodandtoastateofperfection,hisrealizationofhis
ownrishivalueand‘infinitepotential’.
ThemetaphoricalcobrainChopra’sdream,itthusturnsout,livesonnotjustthrough
devoutgrandmothers,wanderingascetics,ayurvedicphysicianslikeTriguna,andgurus
liketheMaharishi,butalsoinspirituallyawakenedindividualslikeChopra.‘Thetruth
maysinkfrompublicsight’,Choprawrites,‘butsomewhereitisflowingthroughasage’
(ibid.,144).This‘truth’flowsthroughhimnow,followinghisencounterwiththe
Maharishi,hisreconnectionwithhisIndianspiritualroots,andhispersonalexperience
ofwhatitistoattainperfectionthrough‘simple’practiceslikemeditation.Asadoctor
andhealerwhocombinesbiomedicalknowledgewithsomethingmoreancientand
enduring--the‘truth’ofayurveda--heisnowhimselfafountofwisdom.Patientswho
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26
cometohimforhealingcandrinkdirectlyfromthisfount,reconnectingwithanancient
spiritualtraditionthatpointstowardshumanperfection.
Concludingremarks
ChopraframeshisautobiographyasthestoryofhisreturntohisIndianroots.Inhis
narrativehegrowsupinIndiasomewhatalienatedfromtheseroots.Inhisadultlifehe
practicesbiomedicinebutgetsincreasinglydisenchantedwithmainstreamformsof
practice.ItiswhenheiswellintohisthirtiesthathediscoversIndicspirituality.
ParadoxicallyitisintheUSthathemakesthisdiscovery–throughhisencounterwith
TM.The‘Indian’legacythatChopraclaimstohavediscoveredisnotmerelythis;healso
borrowsfromcounterculturalandothercurrentsintheUS,whichhereadilyassimilates
intohisdiscourseandpractice.OnceChopramakeshisspiritualdiscovery,hesetsabout
revisioninghisworkasadoctor,integratinghisbiomedicalknowledgewithayurvedic
healing,anddevelopingaformofpracticethatcentrallyaddressestheself,themind,
andtheunleashingofhumanpotential,which,heclaims,liesattheheartofayurveda.
Throughhiswriting,heseekstosharehisdiscoverieswith,andtoeducate,thegeneral
publicaboutthisformofhealing.
Chopra’sautobiographywouldseem,inthefirstinstance,tobesomethingofa
‘conversionnarrative’–thekindofstorywhichportraysone’slifeashavinghadlittle
positivemeaningorvalueuntil,inamomentofrevelationorthroughachancemeeting,
itis‘totallytransformed,re-routedontodifferenttracks,sentoffinanewspiritual
(and/orsocial)direction’(ArnoldandBlackburn2004,14).InChopra’snarrative,his
pastasbiomedicaldoctorisportrayedasrelativelyvalue-less;thisiscontrastedwithhis
meaningfulpresentasapractitionerofmind-bodymedicine.Thetransformationfrom
theonetotheothertakesplacethroughachanceencounterwithTManditsfounder.
Itisnoteworthy,however,thatChopraaffirmshisownlegitimacyasahealernotonthe
strengthofhisproximitytoMaharishiMaheshYogi,andthelatter’sauthorityasa
spiritualfigure,butonthebasisofhisownpersonalexperiences.Aspreviouslynoted,it
isacentraltenetintheWesternmilieuofunchurchedspiritualitythattruthmustbe
validatedthroughpersonalexperience,notmediatedbyfiguresofauthority.Theclaims
ofexperts,scientists,orspiritualmastersaremereclaimsuntilonehastestedand
verifiedtheirtruth-valuebymeansofone’sowndirectexperience.Theautobiography
placesChopra’sdirectpersonalexperienceattheheartofitsnarrative.Chopra’sdirect
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27
experienceoftheMaharishi’squalitiesofserenityandsilenceconfirmsMaheshYogiasa
truerishi.Chopra’spersonalexperienceoftransformationthroughmeditation
legitimizesTMandMaharishiAyurvedaaslegitimatetechniquesofconsciousness-based
healing.Similarly,Chopra’sdirectexperienceofhealingthesickusingthepowerofhis
mind,asrecountedintheautobiography,legitimizesthe‘truth’ofhisextraordinary
healingability.TheautobiographyservesultimatelyasChopra’smeansofself-
validation.Thenarrativeinturnreliesonvalidationfromhisreadersandclients;their
personalexperienceandaffirmationofChopra’sprofessedspiritualwisdomandhealing
powersarecriticaltohissustainedlegitimizationasan‘angelicdoctor’whohasrealized
thefullpotentialofhisinnate‘rishivalue’.
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