BALANCING EDUCATIONAL IMBALANCES IN NIGERIA.
Prof. L-R.I. Akudolu & Eyiuche Ifeoma Olibie (2015). Abstract
This paper focused on balancing educational imbalancesin the education sector in Nigeria. The paper examinededucational imbalances existing in the education sectorand equally outlined some factors responsible for theeducational imbalances in the education sector inNigeria. It also highlighted the dangers of educationalimbalance in the education sector and further discussedthe various perspectives towards balancing theeducational imbalances in the education sector inNigeria. Based on thes bench marks, some recommendationswere proffered as way forward towards balancing theeducation sector in Nigeria. Among such recommendationsincludes: adequate resourcing, financing and increasedbudgetary allocations at all levels of education sector;implementation of effective policies and curriculum thatwill improve all education sector and properharmonization of activities at all levels of educationsector.
Keywords: Educational Disparities, Curriculum, Access, Quality
Policy, Gender.
Published in Ivowi, UMO. (Eds). Curriculum and teaching in Nigeria: A Book ofreadings in honour of Prof (Mrs) Akon Esu ). University of Calabar, Calabar ) pp 277-302).Lagos: Foremost Educational Services LTD.
Introduction
Education is an instrument for national development and an asset
to any nation. It is a vehicle for developing skills and1
competencies, imparting knowledge and learning. Without education
various socio-economic activities in the societies will remain
stagnant and the human society will continue to wallow in
ignorance. It is in the light of the importance of education that
one appreciates the several contribution of Fafunwa (1923-2012)
to practically all phases of Nigerian education. Fafunwa (2003)
saw education as a human right. This is in line with a lot of
international declarations on education as a fundamental human
right such as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948),
the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural
Rights (1966) and the African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights (1981).
Despite these declarations, several societies in the modern world
are still far from providing adequate education to a greater
proportion of their people. This results in several imbalances in
the education sector. In Nigeria, there are
inequalities/imbalances in the education sector which cannot be
meaningfully covered in this paper. However, the thrust of this
paper is the need to take substantive measures in addressing
imbalances in the education sector in Nigeria. Issues relating to
the topic have been discussed under four subheadings as follows:
An insight into Fafunwa’s contributions to Education in Nigeria
Educational imbalances in Nigeria.
Various perspectives towards balancing educational imbalances in
the education sector.
Imbalances Existing In the Education Sector in Nigeria
In Nigeria, concerns have been expressed on the glaring
imbalances in the education sector which has created a lot of
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gaps and marginalization among groups in the education sectors
(Obanya, 2009; Tahir, 2008; Yoloye, 2004). Educational imbalance
as used in this paper refers to disparities that hinder the
attainment of educational goals. Such imbalances include:
♦ Imbalances in the Curriculum
The purpose of curriculum at any level is to bring about
desirable changes in skills, knowledge, abilities, concept
formation, problem-solving and attitudes of learners (Esu, 2010;
Ivowi, 2010). To enhance this purpose, schools must have an
enriched, coherent and sequential curriculum. Yet in some schools
in Nigeria, this is not the case because:
Unavailability of centrally developed national curricula and
benchmarks in schools and tertiary institutions, leading to
disparities in how schools and institutions develop of school-
level curriculum or course outlines to align with the national
frameworks. Many curricular reforms are left as uncoordinated
local initiatives which vary greatly in number, content and
method (Obanya, 2002; Olarinloye, 2004; Obioma, 2008). For
instance, while the public institutions implement the Nigerian
curriculum, most private institutions evolve and implement
their own curriculum under the names of American Curriculum,
British Curriculum, and Global Curriculum among others, thus
creating an imbalance in uniform learning.
The curricula at all levels are often criticized as being
overloaded, too difficult and fail to incorporate innovative
teaching strategies and media.
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There is an imbalance as to how to adequately incorporate
emerging issues such as: entrepreneurship, education for human
rights, civic education, creativity, sexuality education, life-
coping skills, education for peace, ICT and climate change
among others without overloading the curriculum (Ivowi, 1995).
Hence these areas are not adequately addressed in curricula
content and practices (Olibie & Akudolu, 2009; Enukoha, 2010).
There have been inadequate efforts to update the content of
Nigerian texts in line with emergent societal issues. Hence,
there is an imbalance between the knowledge and skills imparted
through the curriculum of educational institutions and the ones
learners require to function effectively the society.
Excellence in character and learning remains one of the
missions of Nigerian education systems. Yet, there is an
imbalance in academics and character development in schools.
Due to the recent preoccupation of the nation with reshaping
academics and raising academic performance, character
development which makes young people to become good members of
their communities as good citizens, has been neglected in
Nigeria.
There is concern about the relevance of teacher training
programs for the school curriculum and the lack of flexibility
to accommodate the changes needed in the school environment
(Moja, 2000). Many teachers do not have an increased
understanding of curriculum theory and practice to ensure
quality teaching. The quality of much of the training provided
for teachers at the Colleges of Education, are poor. The
training methods and approaches are outdated and do not take
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into consideration the changing the teaching and global
environments where teachers work. For example, the business
studies curriculum and the vocational and technical studies
curriculum require teaching that integrates a number of
subjects. Nonetheless teachers continued to be trained in
single discipline subjects. This creates an imbalance the
subject matter knowledge of the teachers and what they are
expected to teach.
There is almost a total absence of participatory curriculum
planning as many groups such as teachers’ unions, parents, and
industrial organizations, used to voice their concern about
curriculum matters, but do not participate in the process of
developing the curriculum (Anwukah, 2005).
Given these imbalances, it is obvious that as important as the
curriculum is to success of education, existing curricula
practices and content are highly limited in achieving the
nations’ educational objectives. Such imbalances if left
unaddressed would continue to curtail Nigeria’s competitiveness
and diminish her educational standing in the world.
Imbalances in Information and Communications Technology
Imbalances in ICT are yet another issue. Jegede and Owolabi
(2008)’s comparisons of existing schools’ situations revealed
that wide gaps existed in ICT integration in the education
system. In many schools and institutions, there is inadequate
computer hardware and software and most learners and staff do not
have access to laptops and internet connectivity. Staff training
has been highly inadequate. Many teachers possess basic computer
literacy but lack the competencies for teaching with ICT. Even
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where there are a few facilities available, most teachers cannot
use them for teaching and other school purposes. There are more
ICT facilities in private than public institutions, especially at
the primary and secondary education levels. Teachers in elitist
private schools also use ICT to facilitate learning more than
those in public and non-elitist schools. Learners from high and
middle socio-economic background have more access to ICT
facilities and could use them for learning more than those from
low socio-economic background.
In the tertiary institutions, students make more use of ICT than
the lecturers. Most lecturers’ use of technology had largely
consisted of converting their teaching notes into PowerPoint
slides. Students' use of technology has been relegated to
searching the Internet, social media, or word-processing. Other
applications such as e-learning, virtual worlds, clouds, learning
platforms (LP) Web 2.0 applications, and several others are
rarely used.
Most tertiary institutions have devoted significant financial
resources to building the technical infrastructure, purchase and
maintenance of ICT, but devoted much less attention to ensuring
that these investments are used to the maximum in facilitating
administration and learning. The students in this situation
specifically, face hurdles that will inhibit their success in
school and in the working world upon graduation. This will apply
in the rural areas, but it will apply even more in the urban
areas. This is because although urban students have more
available ICT options compared to those in rural areas,
employment in the urban areas are becoming more ICT-based whereas
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only a few urban students have required ICT skills. Not only do
imbalances in ICT empowerment affect the ability of individuals
to compete in the labour market, it also affects their learning-
to-learn skills, types of jobs they obtain, the international
interactions they obtain, the status they attain and the wages
they receive. Many staff and students that are not well educated
or informed of ICT applications could be seen as living on the
margins of contemporary society. They are vulnerable and easily
cheated out of any assets they may have by internet and ICT
fraudsters. These imbalances create a digital divide in ICT
access, know-how and benefits between those who are able to use
and benefit from ICT and those who do not.
Geographical Imbalances in Education
Imbalances exist in among the various geographical zones, states
and between urban and rural schools in Nigeria. Geographical
imbalances between South and North which is owing to the problems
of past educational developments, colonial administration and
history in Nigeria has brought in with it existence of
educational gaps between these two regions. Anyanwu (2010)
equally highlighted that the educational disparity between the
North and the South is so wide that, ―roughly speaking, for every
child in a primary school in the northern states there are four
in the southern states; for every boy or girl in a secondary
school in the North there are five in the South; and for every
student in a post-secondary institution in the North there are
six in the South. Likewise, the statistics of students enrolled
in the universities revealed not only a low supply of university
places but imbalance in enrolment that favored southerners.
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Another dimension to the educational imbalance is the clear
absence of uniform or equal facilities among states in Nigeria.
Adenle and Uwameiye (2012) observed that in some parts of the
country, only 30% of those qualified, able and willing to have
secondary education have the opportunity to do so. Adenle (2005)
for instance, declared that in the 1999 school year, Lagos State
had space for only 250,000 out of 300,000 applicants for entry
into secondary schools; in same year Oyo State had space for
127,000 out of 190,000; Anambra State for 130,000 out of 260,000.
In some other places, the facilities are available but the
candidates do not exists. In Kano State, less than 5% of primary
school age children are in school. In Lagos, Oyo, Osun, Lagos,
Ogun, Imo, Anambra, Edo, Ebonyi states, over 85% of such children
are in school. The educational disparity between the North and
the South has also introduced educational imbalances and
educational marginalization in most regions.
Inequalities found within the education systems are cross-cutting
and persistent in urban and rural areas. Ikoya and Ikoya (2005)
noted that in spite of the rhetoric of universalisation of
educational developments, national policies and attitudes towards
implementation of decentralized management reforms programmes are
still low particularly in rural and suburban communities.
Because of teeming population in urban areas, many schools are
established there. Rural areas witness lack of establishment of
schools. Where schools are available, teachers either resist or
refuse transfers to those rural areas for lack of social
amenities.
8
Even though schools in urban areas are inadequately equipped,
the situation is worse in rural areas. Most sub-urban and rural
schools are faced with unqualified staffs, and inadequate
facilities, poor roads, inadequate water supply, poor lightening,
non-availability of good shops and library, lack of recreational
facilities, etc. Some schools in rural areas are remotely located
and water, classrooms, furniture health and sanitation facilities
are usually lacking. This results in inability to retain
qualified and experienced teachers in the schools (Ezewu & Tahir,
1997).
There is also a lack of official records and statistics about
educational development in the rural areas, particularly as
school supervisors appointed by the government agencies to
monitor schools are highly infrequent in the rural places
(Aluede, 2006). In more remote areas, the monitoring officials
are non-existent. Hence the staffs resort to private business
poor teaching, absenteeism, and use of the schools for “miracle
centre” examination malpractices.
This situation is worsened by poor private sector involvement in
rural education. Findings from many studies (Aremo, 2002; Bock
2004; Ikoya & Ikoya, 2005; Peretomode, 1998; Yoloye 1996) reveal
urban-rural variability in the provision and management of
education in Nigeria. Some of these reports indicated that the
level of private sector participation in the provision and
management of primary education was higher in urban than rural
communities. Hence there are more rural than urban communities in
Nigeria where young people has no or limited opportunities for
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resource-based quality to education due to rural/urban
imbalances.
Imbalances in Availability of Educational Resources:
Several imbalances exist in human and material resources for the
education sector. Human resource imbalance manifests in
mismatches between policy provisions and the actual status of
available teaching and non-teaching force. Although the National
Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) stipulated the teacher: pupil
ratio to be 1:40, many schools operate with teacher-pupil ratios
of 1:76. High pupil-teacher ratios exist both between states and
between local governments within states. The pupil-teacher ratios
could be as high as 1:100 in urban slums. Many schools face
serious shortages of qualified teachers and have resorted to
recruiting contract teachers, most of who are less qualified and
receive lower compensation than regular teachers. There are also
high proportions of non-teaching staff with inadequate teaching
staff.
Another imbalance is in the decline in men’s
participation in the teaching workforce especially at the primary
and secondary education levels. There is little enthusiasm for
teaching as a career amongst the next generation of future
recruits regardless of sex, with more women than men choosing
teaching partly because they recognize that it is a reasonably
family-friendly job. This negatively affects the numbers of male
teachers and their importance as role models. Other imbalances
summarized by Moja (2000:39) are:
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Teacher quality and quality throughout Nigeria is unequal.
This is made worse by the low numbers of graduates going into
the teaching profession.
Inequities in the availability of qualified teachers in the
different States. Most current primary school teachers have
yet to attain the minimum qualification (NCE) as required by
the National Policy on Education.
Most Colleges of Education offer courses which are not
appropriate or relevant to the needs of most primary
teachers. Teachers largely receive training that is more
suited to junior secondary level. The courses are largely of
an academic nature as opposed to the development of
processes, skills, and career development required in primary
schools.
There is an oversupply of NCE and graduate teachers in some
disciplines and subject combinations while there is a general
shortage of teachers in Physics, Mathematics, Home Economics,
Business Education, Technical Education, Primary Education
Studies, Nursery Education and Computer Science. This leads
to a shortage of teachers in subject areas of great demand
and use of non-professional in subject areas as teachers in
school.
Material resource imbalance manifest through inadequacies of text
and reference books, building, consumables, teaching aids,
improvised materials, libraries and audio-visual rooms. In every
state in Nigeria, the infrastructure and facilities in
educational institutions remain inadequate for coping with a
system that is growing at a rapid pace (Okyi, 2004; Ozorji,11
2009). Most schools have overcrowded classroom, lack adequate
classroom space, furniture and equipment, to the extent that
classes are held under shades of trees, some pupils carry-home
their benches and desks and bring them to school every morning.
The instructional materials needed to aid teaching-learning
activities are not available. Due to shortages of classroom
space, classes are offered in the open air and are subjected to
all problems associated with outdoor teaching such as weather
fluctuations leading to class cancellations and lack of quality
instruction (Olaniyan & Obadara, 2008). The school environment is
therefore generally imbalanced for effective learning.
♦ Imbalances in Access to Quality Education:
Achieving access has been marred by several disparities. There
are wide variations in access to schooling for children in
different states and, within states, often across income groups.
The disparity in education access increases with education
levels, i.e. it is more severe with junior secondary than
primary, and most severe with senior secondary (Kaduna State
Ministry of Education, 2008). Imbalances also exist in adult/non-
formal education, special needs education and distance learning.
These imbalances are in enrolment and completion rates across
regions, gender, location and household incomes. access to
secondary education is increasing much faster than access to
primary education Access to University education was limited due
to inadequate capacity of the existing University. Government’s
involvement in the provision of special needs education had been
minimum compared to that of the other players.
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In particular, within the North West and North East zones there
is a group of states where the enrollment rates remain very low.
Most states have either very high primary gross enrollment ratios
or very low ones resulting in differences in medium term
objectives.
Imbalances in access is also evident in the unequal distribution
of schools; increasing number of primary school-aged children
seen hawking in the streets during school hours; those enrolling
but not completing primary education and other out-of-school
children involved in various forms of child labour. A great
number of school aged children who might be working, out-of-
school, in rural areas or handicapped are being marginalised and
denied certain educational opportunities as revealed in the
following reports:
The 2006 National School Census (NSC) revealed a net
enrollment ratio (NER) of 80.6% suggesting that a
substantial proportion (19%) of primary school age
population (6-11 years) is not enrolled in primary schools
nationwide. This represents about 5 million Nigerian
children aged 6-11 years old that do not access primary
education.
The United Nations Development Programme (2011) reported
that between 2005 and 2010, the average rate of primary
school completion in Nigeria rose from 62 to 68 percent, far
short of what is needed to ensure universal completion of
primary school by 2015. The average transition rate to
secondary school was 50.3% to secondary school with a
completion rate of 55%.
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Although primary school enrolment in Nigeria has not
increased substantially in the past five years, the number
of over-aged and disabled children not enrolling for nor
completing primary schooling has increased from 38 percent
in 2008 to 42 percent in 2011 (The Nigerian Household
Survey, 2011).
Quality of learning outcomes is poor as nearly one in five
pupils completing primary schooling is illiterate (World
Bank, 2012).
Also, the large difference between the transition rates from
primary to secondary schooling suggests that a high percentage of
pupils do not enroll and complete secondary education. Those
that dropped out often lack the literacy and numeracy skills to
engage in meaningful jobs. They might eventually resort to
violence, killing, kidnapping, certificate forgery,
prostitutions, impersonation, ritual killing, raping, robbery and
destruction of lives and property.
Data Imbalances
The non-uniformity, scarcity and the very limited amount of
existing data on key aspects of the educational system, and of
its impact on socioeconomic development in Nigeria, exacerbates
educational imbalances. Often times, real data are unavailable
and estimates are used for educational planning. Comparative
reports of education produced by bodies like UNICEF, UNESCO,
Worldbank etc, often show missing time-series data for Nigeria.
Without data, it is not possible to understand the national
effort being made, the distribution of expenditures across levels
of education, or the relative inputs of the three tiers of
14
government. This limits the ability of those who make,
interpret, and implement policy in the federal and state
governments to undertake their own analyses of the dynamics of
the educational system, design new interventions, and redirect
their effects towards correcting any imbalance. In turn, the
development of holistic sector development strategies and plans
is hindered.
For instance, Fafunwa (2004) observed that due to imbalances in
projected data, the Universal Basic Education programme which
took off with much promise, might not achieve its goals of
eradicating illiteracy largely due to inadequate planning, which
is a consequence of lack of adequate data. In 2000 when the
schools were opened to register the pupils, instead of the 2.3
million children expected, 3 million children arrived to be
registered (Fafunwa, 2004). This resulted in under-estimation in
the provision of classrooms and other resources. There was dearth
of qualified teachers with the majority of the teachers recruited
being trainees who underwent a one year crash programme in the
pivotal teachers’ colleges set up by the government of the time.
Data on the education system have not been collected in a timely
manner or processed in a way that is adequate for planning. Moja
(2000) stated that the system has thus suffered from lack of
relevant and adequate planning for the implementation of the
policies that are vital to improved quality and expansion. There
is lack of data on repetition and reentry rates make it difficult
to understand student flows. There was uncontrolled growth in the
system, especially at the basic levels, and later in the higher
education sub-sector.
15
Imbalances in Educational Policies and Policy Implementation
Nigeria has good visions and policies on education. At the
national level, many important policies, are recognized and
accepted. However, there are imbalances between policy
pronouncements and policy implementations in Nigeria. At state
government and LGEA levels, the basic policy issues are
recognized, but many have not yet been elevated to stated
objectives nor have they been systematically prioritized. Broad
courses of action, or strategies, have also been charted, but
often without analyzing the costs and their feasibility. Also,
there are differences among the states both in the educational
objectives they wish to achieve and in their ability to achieve
it. Their different educational policies are not well understood
and documented.
An examination of the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004)
will also reveal some imbalances. For instance, the national
policy on primary, secondary and technical education shows some
concern for self-employment and local crafts and trades. To
achieve this, one had expected a situation where schools would be
inviting the local instructors to teach the students and
teachers. The school in return would impart modern technology to
the local artisans to improve their skills. But this was not to
be. What was witnessed was that sophisticated modern technologies
were imported into the nation from foreign countries. These
countries also indicated their willingness to supply technical
teacher-trainers on a technical assistance basis and some
Nigerian students were also sent abroad for training in technical
and vocational fields. Obanya (2004) noted that these actions,
16
our institutionalised technical and vocational courses have
failed to take advantage of conventional wisdom from the local
environment. A more beneficial approach would have been to
commission local manufacturers to design and fabricate the simple
tools and equipment needed. This would have afforded some
students the opportunity to gain immensely by undergoing
industrial attachment under such manufacturers. There had been
occasions when young Nigerians have displayed their potential
innovative skills but they were never encouraged further to
improve on whatever they had built or to empower them. If they
are empowered, it will encourage others to put to use latent
skills.
The objectives of secondary education (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 2004) are ‘preparation for useful living in the society
and for higher education’. These objectives are not being
achieved. Many of the pupils do not go on to the senior secondary
due to a lack of resources to pay the fees and other charges
(Imam, 2012). There is high a clamour for higher education but
the high failure rates in the SSSCE deny many access to higher
education. Those who are unable to proceed beyond the senior
secondary school level lack in self-reliant skills in any
vocation.
Further, Section 5 of the policy on Higher Education (i.e.
Universities, Polytechnics, and Colleges of Education) was
conspicuous by its absolute silence on the self-employment issue
or option. The Higher Educational Policy concerned itself mainly
with the development of ‘high level manpower’ which was to be in
the context of the ‘needs of the economy’ perceived mainly then
17
in the field of science and technology. Thus the policy had
serious orientation for science and technology and absolutely
none for self-employment. It was also clear from the policy that
the acquisition of knowledge and skill in the University was to
be aimed to satisfy the perceived end of the line employers, that
is government and industry. As Aladekomo (2004) noted, the whole
policy document put a lot of emphasis on acquisition of technical
skill by students for the purpose of gaining employment. Even in
the professional fields, the educational policy stipulates that
course content should reflect the needs of the employer and in
this regard consultation between the Universities, the employers
and the government was to be encouraged so that courses will be
made to satisfy the needs of industry and other employers
(Section 6).
Various imbalances also exist in the Nomadic education for the
education of the migrant ethnic groups such as the nomadic cattle
rearing Fulani and Ijaw fishermen introduced (Federal Republic of
Nigeria, 1998; Umar & Tahir, 2000). The National Policy on
Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004) has also proposed
an integrated Qur’anic school policy to take care of the
education of itinerant people in their own cultural setting. This
led to an imbalance between the provision of basic and secular
education on one hand and providing opportunities for religious
instruction according to the faith of pupils’ parents, on the
other hand. As Imam (2012) noted, the curriculum in these schools
is narrow and prepares them only for adaptation into their own
communities alone, read the Qur’an and to be able to observe
Muslim religious rites. This limits their exposure to a balanced
18
educational programme. Many of the pupils complete their
education yet they lack the skills and knowledge for self
reliance or gainful employment. Imam (2012) painted a picture of
such people as a people driven by limited outlook, hunger and
poverty, thus having the potential for social instability and
sectarian crises.
♦ Gender Imbalances:
There are also gender imbalances in the education sector. In some
States, there is male dominance in access to educational
opportunities. UNICEF (2007) reported that In Nigeria, girls’
access to basic education, especially in northern states, has
remained low. As few as 20 per cent of women in the North West
and North East of the country are literate and have attended
school. In the Northern part of the country, the number of
children out of school is particularly high and the proportion of
girls to boys in school ranges from 1 girl to 2 boys and even 1
to 3 in two states. There exist wide variations across the States
and zones, with the North Central and North West presenting worst
scenarios.
In Anambra State at the South-Eastern part of Nigeria, the
imbalance manifests in declining male enrolment and drop out from
secondary school. Although there is high percent of both male and
female enrollment and completion rate of primary education in the
State, only a few males progress to, and complete secondary or
higher education. Often those that drop out enter trades and
crafts, where many do not succeed because of limited skills.
There are also persisting gender and social inequities and
serious shortfalls in the quality of provisions and outcomes the
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school Mathematics, science and technology learning environment
favoured boys over girls, for such reasons as a lack of female
teachers, teachers’ favourable treatment of girls in class,
sexual harassment by male teachers or students, and curricula and
textbooks presenting favourable adult role models only for boys,
and that these were seen as factors across all regions.
In the Nigerian Education Sector Analysis, Moja (2000) reported
that the gender disparity patterns differ regionally, with the
Northern Zones teaching staff being about 72% male but only 37%
male in the Southern Zones. National averages are 54.1% male
teachers and 45.9% female teachers. In secondary schools,
percentage of female principals is less than that of males. But
in primary schools, there are more female than male head
teachers. The numbers decrease even further at higher education
levels, with women making up about 7–8 per cent of college and
university administrators and about 4 per cent of professors. In
many Colleges, Polytechnics and Universities only a few of
registrars, directors and deans are women.
There is a higher percentage of male's enrolment at the different
levels of education in Nigeria (Omoregie & Ihensekhien, 2009).
Statistics from Universal Basic Education Commission Abuja in
2006 revealed that there were more male enrolment at the basic
level of education with a total of 107,973,895 (56.26%) while
that of the female was 83,917,306 (43.73%). The Census in Nigeria
covering the periods 1991 and 2006 likewise revealed that there
were more males in school than females. In 1991, the ratio was
males 50.04% and females 49.96%. In 2006, the ratio was males
51.21% and females 48.79%. These data revealed that there is a
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gender inequality in education right from the primary level. The
primary school completion rates are generally very low. Kolo
(2009) stated that the recorded average completion rates are 62%
for girls and 59% for boys. Gender imbalances has contributed to
imbalances in making career choices, where some courses are
highly dominated by male than female and such has great
implications not only on the education sector but the nation as a
whole.
♦ Imbalances in Financing/Funding Education and Budgetary
Allocations:
The amount of funds provided to all levels of the education
system has remained below UNESCO’s recommendation 26% of that
annual budget to be allocated to education to salvage this sector
from numerous imbalances. Yusuf (2003) highlighted that the
observed pattern of budgetary allocation to education revealed
that Nigerian governments (both state and Federal) did not
consider education expenditure as a matter of policy priority.
The budgetary allocations has made it impossible for
government to effectively meet the requirement of a
bludgeoning student population and the fast-paced
technological change (Akpa, 2007). There is inadequate fundingat all levels, with some states receiving more funds than others.
The pattern of government support for education in Nigeria may
not sustain the target of making education as prime source of
sustainable development in the country. Nwagwu (2011) reported a
crisis of educational funding brought about by the oil glut in
the world market in the early 1980s which led to a sudden decline
in Nigeria’s revenue from petroleum products that had accounted21
for approximately 80% of its income from exports. The result was
unpaid teacher salaries, degradation of education facilities at
all levels and strikes in universities and schools resulting in
declining literacy rates in the country.
The implication of these imbalances is that the Nigerian
education system as it is cannot significantly to meet emergent
realities and needs of the society. While it has to be
acknowledged that several reforms have been put in place to
reposition the Nigerian educational system, it is also known fact
that the educational system has not enhanced the ability of the
Nation to compete favorably in the global context.
Fafunwa’s Perspectives on Balancing Educational Imbalances inNigeria From 1967 till he died in 2010, Prof. Babs Fafunwa showedpractical interest in balancing educational balances at all tiersof the educational system. Through his wide-ranging publicationsin the form of books, monographs, conference proceedings, journalarticles, technical reports and newspaper columns on educationalissues and strategies, Fafunwa contributed many educationalmissions and practices towards meeting societal expectationsrequired of learners. These contributions include recommendationsfor:1. a detailed curriculum for nursery school education that
followed a child’s natural inclination and providedopportunities for self-expression and creative imagination.
2. teaching the child in the mother-tongue or language of theimmediate environment with lessons in African music, dancing,story-telling, role-playing and painting; and engaging thechild in motor and manipulative skills.
3. improvisation of science corners, wooden educational toys suchas motor cars, diggers, trucks, airplanes, counting beads,
22
rattles, balances and other educational objects in nursery andprimary schools.
4. a six-dimensional structure in the areas of: reading andwriting in the child’s mother-tongue, English or French;arithmetical and mathematical processes; basic science; civicsand social studies; vocational education; and physicaleducation.
5. the use of innovative and student-centered teaching methods tocater for all the vital components of a child’s developmentwith focus on self-reliance, creativity, imagination andresourcefulness in the personality of the child.
6. secondary education to cover knowledge and skill acquisitionof Nigerian youth in the areas of science and technology;critical thinking and vocational skills; responsiblecitizenship; efficient consumerism and entrepreneurship;healthy lifestyle and communicative competence in the mother-tongue or language of the immediate environment.
7. helping the secondary and tertiary students to recognize thedignity of labour; develop ethical character; appreciate theuse of leisure; understand the world outside one’senvironment; develop a scientific attitude towards problems;and live and act as a well integrated individual.
8. recommendations for the provision of tertiary education thatwould encourage socio-economic and techno-scientificdevelopment with due cognizance of the social, political,economic and cultural backgrounds and needs of Africa withoutneglecting the common heritage of all tertiary institutionsthe world over.
Two of the educational landmarks for which Fafunwa will ever beremembered are the Mother-tongue education and National Policy onEducation. The Ife Six-Year Primary Project which he pioneeredled to the policy that early primary education that would use themother tongue as the medium of instruction and that at the upperprimary and secondary school levels, learners should learn atleast one major Nigerian language other than his own. Most of hisideas for curricular reforms eventually found their way into theNational Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981,1998; 2004) on which the education system is based. Although thepolicy document addresses the issues of imbalance in theprovision of education in different parts of the country withregard to access, quality of resources and girls’ education.These efforts notwithstanding, several imbalances still exist in
23
the education sector. There is therefore a need to continuouslydevelop educational programmes to meet the demands of an ever-changing local and global society, the needs of the children, andthe criteria for what students need to learn and do to attainsuccessful outcomes. These would involve a range of strategiesaimed at balancing the imbalances in the education sector. Reforms at Balancing the Imbalances in the Education Sector InNigeria
If one compares the propositions of Fafunwa with the
overwhelming nature of educational imbalances in Nigeria, it is
obvious that the problems with the Nigerian Education system is
not lack of ideas. One is proud to observe that Nigeria has lots
of policies and initiatives that would propel her to take a pride
of place in the global scene. What appears to be the problem is
lack of political and collective will to actualize the nation’s
ideals, and an enabling environment to balance the imbalances.
The truth is that the Nation has done much. Several
conferences, seminars, symposia, stakeholder’s meetings, and
workshops have been held. The outcome of all these is an
increasing emphasis on preparing learners that would have the
knowledge, skills, values and dispositions that enable them
participate effectively in global affairs. In Nigeria, the
emphasis has even received greater attention in several
educational policy documents and reforms such as National
Education Empowerment Development Strategy (NEEDs, 2012), Vision
20-20-20 (2010), Education sector Improvement strategies (2012),
and Education Roadmap (2012) among others.
The country has also introduced several reforms aimed at
changes with positive results and bringing a new lease of life to
the education system thereby reducing the imbalances. The reforms
cover policies, strategies, plans, and mechanisms for effecting24
positive change in the education system. They include the
Universal Basic Education programme; revision of the National
Policy on Education; development of new curriculum, new
techniques of teaching, instructional technologies; establishment
of educational management structures, and restructuring of
education funding arrangements. The aim of these innovations at
the primary, pre-primary and tertiary education levels is to
positively enhance teaching and learning, for the benefits of
learners, and the society.
The reforms at the primary education level include:1) changes in nomenclature (from standard to elementary in
1963; from elementary to primary in 1976; UPE in 1976 to UBEin 2000, and from primary to basic education in 2000.
2) management (government takeover of schools, establishmentof National primary Education Commission (NPEC) and StatePrimary Education Boards (SPEB), and the present institutionof the Universal Basic Education Commission with branchesin the States known as the State Universal Basic EducationBoards). Another reform is the renewed emphasis oncommunity/private sector involvement in primary educationmanagement.
3) duration of the programmes (from 8 years till 1962 to sixyears in 1963; from six years to 9 years of basic educationin 2000). The need for increase in enrolment and decrease indrop-out rates were highlighted.
4) curriculum contents (introduction of subjects like healthand physical education, Arts and Local Crafts; PrimaryScience, Mathematics, Christian Religious Knowledge, IslamicReligious Knowledge, and the use of mother tongue as mediumof instruction in early primary school. Attention areaddressed to improving academic achievement across subjects.
At the secondary school level in Nigeria, there is growingemphasis on educational standards, equity, continuousimprovement, and accountability aimed at ensuring thatsecondary schools must become high-performing organizations ifthey are to prepare all students to succeed in the twenty-first century. Some of these reforms at this levels were
25
necessitated by NEEDs in education as cited by Ezekwesili(2007) include: provision of an enabling environment andstimulation of active participation of the private sector,civil society organizations, communities, and developmentpartners in educational development through Public-PrivatePartnership (PPP) initiative, Adopt-a-School, and CommunityAccountability and Transparency Initiative (CATI). Inaddition, the Nigerian Educational Research and DevelopmentCouncil (2007) in Nwagwu (2007:11) highlighted that theNigerian government specified the achievement of the followingas top priorities in Nigerian secondary education:1. Ensuring access to education for all2. Promoting gender equality at all levels of education3. Improving the quality of education at all levels4. Use education for skill acquisition and job creation and
consequently empower people to improve quality of life5. Periodic review of secondary school curriculum that to meet
NEEDS expectations and specifications6. Promotion of information and communications technology
through ICT skills acquisition at all levels7. Mobilize development partners, donor agencies,\private
enterprises, and communities to fund and support educationat all levels.
Further, the UBE is a nine-year programme that covers six
years of primary education and three years of junior secondary
schools. According to Obioma (2007:7), the key issues in the 9-
year Basic Education Curriculum (BEC): are:
1. Identification of minimum competencies and aligning these to the methodology of classroom transactions (including pedagogical skills needed), instructional materials and suggested evaluation activities
2. Linking learning to the world of work of learners in the cultural context
3. Emphasis on functional literacy, numeracy and strategiccommunication skills.
4. Infusion of relevant and functional entrepreneurial skills using the relevant subject contents as drivers
26
5. Consolidation of some contents and subjects in the basic education context thus reducing subject/content overload
6. The inclusion of strategic life-long skills as well aspositive national values,
7. civic, moral and ethical education as a course of study Infusion of elements of critical thinking.
In addition, a major reform emphasis is on Science, Technologyand Mathematics Education (STME). The reform calls for increasedstudents’ enrolment in the sciences in secondary schools, reneweduse of practical and hands-on activities in science classes andthe encouragement of classroom interactions that foster effectivescience learning. At the classroom level, Bajah (2006:181) statedthat:
Emphasis has been placed on the application ofa student-centered approach which requiresinnovations in developing schemes of work,using new teaching and learning strategies,employing assessment methods for classroomactivities that develop critical skepticism,open-mindedness, thoroughness in rationalinquiry, and desire to learn science.
At the tertiary level, the following reforms are noted:
1. Increase of funding for higher education, separation of costsof academic activities from the regular overhead cost (forgoods and services); scaling-up of the staff welfare system;and private-public sector partnerships in education funding(Akpa, 2007).
2. Asserting a higher education structure of governance andemphasis on institutional accountability, and growingrequirement to pursue, ensure and improve quality in allstrategic higher education activities (didactic, research,curricula innovation, staff and budgeting (Akpan, 2007);
3. Emphasis in the need to connect more systematically highereducation's outflow supply to the economy and labour market aswell as to new forms of demand for higher education (permanentand recurring education, managerial formation). In addition,there is a trend from the students' side to be more interested
27
in degrees market value than to the strictly cultural one,following the entrepreneurship ideologies in higher education(Nwadiani, 2003).
4. Emphasis on generic, creativity and productivity skills as wellas the Post University Matriculation Examinations (Post UME) inthe Universities (Kolo, 2007).
5. The Credit system which plays a pivotal role not only as ameasure of students' commitment to each subject and studycourse, and but also as an academic passport to certificationand jobs (Obanya, 2002). It is a basic instrument by which tomeet and satisfy new educational demands, such as recurrent,permanent and management education; needs of working and part-time students; curricular flexibility as well as students'personal cultural and educational interests; student mobilityfrom one course of study to another and from one university toanother; and is a necessary link between university andvocational track of tertiary education under construction; and
6. Accreditation systems: Evaluation groups made up of externalacademic staff and administrators routinely assess highereducation institutions. The groups visit individualinstitutions to assess university organization and activitiesperformance (research, teaching, administration) and proposeimprovements of academic performance (Mbagwu, 2007).
7. The establishment of Minimum Achievement Standards (MAS) foreach of the policy dimensions for the higher institutions(Alao, 2005), and
8. The University autonomy, which was intended to address twointertwined problems. First, to reduce the bureaucracy withwhich public universities must contend. Second, to injectmarket These inventions need to be improved on, sustained andmanaged to propel further inventions. Societies have dependedon education as a tool for propelling and managing inventions.Hence, in Nigeria for instance, there have been many calls inrecent years for Nigerian education to reform itself bybecoming more efficient in inventions and innovations (Omoifo,2007; Babalola & Ayeni, 2008) mechanisms into the publicuniversity system.
The National Computer Policy (1988) stated two objectives for ICTin Nigerian education system as follows:
1. To ensure that the general populace appreciates theimpact of information and computer technology on today's
28
society, the importance of its effective use, and thetechnologies that process, manage, and communicate theinformation.
2. To ensure that the people of Nigeria will know howto use and program computers, develop software packages,understand the structure and operation of computers andtheir history, and to appreciate the economic, socialand psychological impact of the computer.
In line with these objectives, The National Policy onEducation (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004:17) stated that“in recognition of the prominent role of ICT in advancingknowledge and skills necessary for effective functioning inthe modern world, there is urgent need to integrate ICT intoeducation in Nigeria”. In addition, the Federal Government ofNigeria (2008) realized that the country should not lag behindin the race to become a digital society, and saw the potentialof Information and Communication Technology (ICT) to empowerpeople for the 21st century. Therefore, it declared ICT anational educational priority and made ICT compulsory ineducational institutions. The strategies for achieving the objectives include the provisionof hardware and software; training teachers and associatedpersonnel, curriculum development and evaluation, and maintenanceof hardware and peripherals.
Although, as Kolo (2007) noted, much of these reform policiescame under criticisms by academics and educationists who are veryknowledgeable of the Nigerian education system, one can still seethat the reforms highlight very fundamental issues that areneeded for a functional education in Nigeria. What is importantis critical looks at the possible ways through which these policythrusts can be better pursued, and improve on areas ofweaknesses.
Towards Balancing the Imbalances in Nigerian Education SectorBalancing educational imbalances in the education sector inNigeria must derive from both national and internationalperspectives in the areas of curriculum enrichment and
29
diversification, access and equal educational privileges,quality, research, popular participation, and improved funding. Curriculum Enrichment and Diversification: Curriculum enrichmentis not just about adding new subjects to an overloaded curriculum(Obanya, 2002). Changing the curriculum – the topics being taught– is not enough to bring about meaningful change in education; wealso need to rethink the way the curriculum is delivered. Itbecomes imperative therefore, that the curriculum at all levelsshould not only be reviewed to be more functional and relevant tothe learners and society, but also to be responsive to thechanging needs of the society so as to equip the learner with thecurrent and necessary training, knowledge, values and basicskills needed in the current age of significant changes.Diversified curricula refers to the ability of the school toprovide activities inside and outside the classroom toaccommodate and cater for individual learning needs, potential,styles and cognition. This will involve curriculum developmentand practices that give students opportunities for acceleratedprogress and access to new, more challenging concepts or contentrelative to their individual learning needs etc. indeed, manyactivities in school will involve the two in combination. This isin line with the EFA Global Monitoring Report (2008) whichidentifies three sets of provisions that are essential toimproving the imbalances in the curriculum and quality oflearning in schools. These are: reforming curriculum andtextbooks; enhancing the number and quality of teachers, andmaking the teaching-learning process itself, including the schoolenvironment, more learner-friendly. All have to be particularlynuanced for impacts on girls’ and boys’ education. there is needto make further changes in the curriculum and the teachingstrategy and changes in the attitude and the mindset of everymember of the community: the learners, the educated, parents andsociety at large. It is therefore imperative that efforts will bemade by curriculum planners, educational agencies, teachers andlecturers to ensure the following:
Existing curricula at all levels need to be revised andrevamped to prepare learners for 21st century changes. Asthe Partnership for 21st Century skills noted, thinkingschools and learning nations will be the paradigm of thetwenty-first century based on lifelong learning for lifelongemployability. Curriculum provisions will no longer be only
30
a matter of providing education for all, but also ofenhancing the quality of education, teaching students tolearn and think, to be creative, and preparing them forlifelong learning.
Opportunities for enrichment and diversification should becreated throughout the curriculum, as well as beyond lessontime – and both in school and outside it. An importantfeature of enrichment is that it must enhance the curriculumand the student’s general learning experience. This appliesboth to work done in the classroom and to activities outsideschool. As Freeman (1998) expressed it, enrichment is ‘not asupplementary diet which depends on whether there is enoughmoney for ‘extra’ material and tuition’. It should always beintegrated with whole school provision.
Enhance the quality of classroom interactions through goodteaching and learning practices characterized by a largevariety of interesting activities where each learner isafforded learning opportunities. Acknowledge curriculum andassessment flexibility and adequately respond to differentlearning needs and learning styles.
reviewing the examination system Ensure that curriculum andtextbooks are academically and pedagogically of goodquality. More emphasis should be placed on a broadening ofthe learning experience, promoting a higher level ofthinking and equipping learners with life-long skills.Skills mean such capabilities as critical and flexiblethinking, problem-posing and problem-solving, data analysis,the ability to make judgments, as well as crucialcommunication skills such as expressing ideas and persuadingothers.
The convergence of academic disciplines in the form of broadfield and problem-orientation to knowledge incorporating avariety of theoretical perspectives requires innovativeprocedures for the development of curriculum. For thispurpose, it is imperative that teachers are made aware ofmodern trends in the development of curriculum. School-levelcurriculum practice should avoid heavy reliance on a lectureapproach to curriculum development that is dominated bytextbook contents.
Reviewing and revamping the curriculum for a balancedinclusion of additional subject areas and/or activities, and
31
the use of supplementary materials beyond the normal rangeof resources. It will involve staying with a theme, subjector skill and developing it in depth; integrating emergentsocietal issues in the basic curriculum subjects with awider context; relating learning to new areas; and/orproviding pupils with experiences outside the ‘regular’curriculum (breadth).
Since curriculum development is extremely complex, itrequires many kinds of competencies in differentcombinations at different points of work. These competenciesneed to be organized into effective working teams so thatall resources are made available. To develop an adequate useof the manifold talents and resources, it is necessary topractice the principle of levels of involvement. Not everytype of competency is relevant at every point of curriculumdevelopment. Not everyone needs to participate ineverything. At any point in curriculum development, it isimportant to consider who should be involved and at whatpoints? What should be the roles of administrators,curriculum specialists, content specialists, specialists ingroup dynamics and research, laymen and students?
Train and support teachers in using a diversity of teachingmethods, especially (inter)active methods.
Curriculum documents should be made available in schools.Curricula proposals generated by the school should really bethe work of both administrators and the implementers of thecurriculum in line with national curriculum and benchmarks.Unless this is done, the curriculum proposals may beimplemented unsatisfactorily or not at all. Clients of anyeducation system are a big ingredient to the success of theoperations of the system. This means that independentschools should consult and involve their relevantstakeholders, parents and the wider community much more thanthey do now.
The curriculum should include themes that would preparelearners for meaningful existence in life, for economicproductivity and for the world of work. It should empowerlearners with knowledge, skills and values relevant to thedemands of modern society including training learners for
32
entrepreneurship, citizenship, positions of leadership andpower in various sectors of the society and the economy. Andso, quality education would prepare learners to becomeresponsible and productive citizens who can easily interactwith and join social groups outside the school systemincluding the elite and the powerful (World Bank, 1987;Singh, 2000; and Woodhouse, 2000). It will also equip thelearners to adapt to other physical and economic settings(Hallack, 1991).
As recommended by stemnet organization (2013), curriculumenhancement will focus on raising awareness of the impact ofvocational, science and technology within the community,industry and personally; raising awareness of sciencecareers and opportunities in industry and business; bemotivating and have engaging contexts to capture pupils’enthusiasm; have direct links with industry and business;allow pupils to engage with professionals from a range ofcareers that use the skills developed through education intheir jobs; add value to the school curriculum whether thatis improvement in attitude, motivation, creativity,enterprise, purpose, relevance etc; challenge perceptionsof gender in education; raise aspirations and confidence ofboth staff and pupils in public education.
Adapted from the ’What’s in it for me’ www.stemnet.org.uk.
Improved and Efficient FundingIn the area of financing/funding the education sector, budgetaryallocations to all education sector must be increased and put toefficient use. Education in modern world is a capital intensiveindustry. There could be no education without funding. To addressthe obvious imbalances and lapses in educational sector over theyears, adequate fund must be made available and must be expendedappropriately. To sustain education in the country, allstakeholders must be involved, the parents and guardians, thesociety in general, the private sector and non-governmentalagencies. There has equally been call for a new set of rules forthe allocation of federation account funds in line with theconstitution and the issue of whether universal primary educationis really to be a national target which needs to be addressed. If
33
it is to be a meaningful national target then serious analysis ofthe expenditures involved will need to be made,incentives/requirements placed on the states to allocatesufficient funding.
Facilitating Conditions for ICT-based educationBalanced ICT development would require an equal empowerment ofurban and rural areas and regions with educational funding andresources for ICT. The introduction of new technologies canreduce imbalances between urban and rural areas. This requires anew attitude among local government officials and the ability toforge partnerships with local urban and rural communities to setpriorities, and design and implement policies and programmes forreducing the disturbing imbalance in ICT-driven education. At abroad management level, there is need for decisions andinvestments in ICT infrastructure, capacity building, integrationand funding rather than mere rhetoric. Technological, pedagogicaland cultural issues must be addressed. These include providingsolutions to support a large group of ICT users with amultiplicity of different ICT tools at their disposable;balancing student choice and learner centrism with institutionalstandards for assessment, quality assurance and instructorexpertise; and enabling the use of common ICT tools forcommunication, collaboration and the shared construction ofknowledge.Reducing ICT imbalances would also require teacher training andICT integration in course delivery. Preparing teachers forteaching in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)involves equipping them with the attitudes, knowledge, skills andcompetencies to use ICT in schools. This would enhance thequality of education by helping teachers to do their job and byhelping students to learn more effectively. Teacher preparationcalls for the provision of facilitating conditions and focus onICT themes needed by the teachers. Facilitating conditions areimportant for the integration of ICTs in the classroom,curriculum, school management, library, and any educationalsetting. Facilitating conditions include planning, access,availability of resources, training, guides, and stipulations forhard ware and software standards for ICT implementation inschools. Since few teachers have had extensive opportunities touse ICT in their own pre-service education, the teachers may needto be trained in these areas depending on their existing levels
34
of ICT knowledge and competence. Being connected within theschool and to resources outside the school has become criticalissue in teacher professional development. Easy access toproductivity tools and associated learning resources is alsoimportant. Without access to the Internet and without sufficientquantity and quality of equipment, those teachers are not likelyto be highly motivated to participate in professional developmentactivities related to ICT. Teachers need to be trained todemonstrate and promote the use of ICT across and within alldisciplines in the curriculum, for other tools to be used in theclassroom with the learner, and for resources designed to promoteenhanced professional development. Promoting teacher developmentthrough the sharing and exchange of resource materials andstrategies by schools and teachers is a positive step.
Implementing Gender-Friendly Policies and PracticesGirl-child education should be improved and encouraged. Theextension of educational opportunity to the girl-child has been acornerstone of every development plan. This is in view of therole of women to the development of their community (World Bank,1997; Amali, 2006). Education for the girl-child must necessarilybe a priority in efforts to expand the educational level of theNigerian Northern region. The traditional, cultural and religiousbarriers impeding girl-child education should be addressed andpolicies on women and girl-child education strengthened as well.All cultural and traditional practices, which tend to enhancegender inequality in education, should be discouraged at alllevels of education. Omoregie and Ihensekhien (2009) expressedthat both federal, state and local governments should givefinancial assistance through scholarships or bursaries to femalestudents and educate the parents and the general public so as tobring about a change in attitude toward women education. The non-governmental bodies (NGO) should be assigned to do this by thegovernment. The governments should promulgate laws against earlymarriage, unfavourable cultural practices against women/girl-child and using the females as hawkers on the streets whichexpose them to dangers that affect their education. Let there bea rule on quota system of 50:50 in admission of males and femalesto all institutions of learning from primary to tertiary level.That means ratio of admission should be 50 females to 50 males inall levels (Omoregie and Ihensekhien, 2009). Scholarship
35
programme should also be strengthened and properly instituted tocater for the educational need of theunderprivileged/disadvantaged groups, marginalized groups andspecial groups. This would in no small measure help to reduce thegap of educational opportunities between the privileged and theless privileged people. It would also stem the tide of turnoverrate in schools and colleges as well as tertiary institutions inthe country. In view of the recent of the advancement and modernization in thesociety, the use of ICT Information and CommunicationTechnologies should be emphasized in the schools. With ICT, itis now possible for teachers and learners to interact withoutface to face or physical contact. This opportunity of ICT in theeducational system should be exploited by governments so as tobring about the desired rapid educational development in Nigeria.This also implies that it may no longer be necessary to bephysically present in classrooms to disseminate and receiveknowledge. Satellite communication and internet facilities haveopened a new form of modern education devoid of the hugeinvestment in construction of classrooms and other physicalstructures especially at the higher levels.
Efforts should be made in the area of science and technologicaleducation in order to boost the area. In view of the importanceof this form of education to overall development, deliberateefforts must be made to develop science and technologicaleducation, especially in the disadvantaged areas. If Nigeria mustcontinue to be relevant in the global community at large and becounted among the twenty top (20-G countries) advanced nations inthe world it must place emphasis on appropriate administrationand management of science and technological education which wouldlead to technological development of all the regions in general.
There should also be proper harmonization of activities at thevarious levels of education in terms of raising their activitiesto quality and higher standards. The standards of all tertiaryinstitutions should be raised to the same level and staffdevelopment and training intensified. In line with the above,adequate educational resources (human and material resources)should be provided and existing once maintained. In summary, thefollowing recommendations have been proffered:
36
Adequate resourcing, financing and increased budgetaryallocations which will be needed to build new schools, trainmore teachers and provide sufficient equipments in theschools at all levels of the education sector
Implementation of effective policies and curriculum thatwill improve all education sector
Improving and dealing with the quality issues including sizeof classes, number of teachers and provision of materials
Massive investment in infrastructures in all levels ofeducation
Respect and protection of the rights of children in schoolincluding protection from violence in schools especially ofthe girl child and strengthening scholarship and bursariesgrants at all levels of education sector
Review of school curricula to promote critical and relevantlearning
Promoting good governance in schools and strengtheningleadership at all levels of education
Instituting effective means/strategies of keeping properaccountability of resources and accountability onutilization of resources budgeted for education
Improvement of teacher quality through employment ofprofessional and qualified teachers, in service trainingand retraining and implementation of the teacher salarystructure
Proper harmonization of activities at all levels ofeducation sector which includes salaries, entryrequirements, staff development, etc.
Improving access to quality education at all levels ofeducation sector including in special education, inclusiveeducation and education for special target and marginalizedgroups
To successfully implement the Universal Basic EducationScheme, there is need to
develop sound implementation plans. This would have to bepreceded by a survey of the
existing resources and capacity of the national and localplanning structures to implement
the plan and monitor progress made in order to detectproblem areas and address them at an
early stage. Strategic planning and implementation areessential to the success of the nineyear programme and for
37
capacity building in the system as well as for itsimplementation.
Failures in the past cannot be blamed entirely on low levelsof funding but also on lack of
capacity for planning and implementation at both nationaland local levels. National
structures such as the Planning Division of the FederalMinistry of Education would need to be strengthened toensure that there is capacity in those structures to monitorthe implementation plan as well as to provide assistance tothe local structures.
Teachers need to examine their own biases. CONCLUSION The goal of achieving quality, excellence and improving theNigerian education sector lies on balancing all the educationalimbalances existing in the education sector. For this purpose,the paper has so far discussed extensively the issue of balancingthe educational imbalances in the education sector in Nigeria.Things may not be getting dramatically worse, they areinexcusably and damagingly not impressive, and could and shouldbe remedied. Having pointed out these educational imbalancesexisting in the Nigerian education sector, including theirdangers and identified ways of balancing them, the paperconcluded by proffering recommendations.
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