BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL ELEMENTS OF SEXUAL PREFERENCE

Running Head: BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL ELEMENTS OF SEXUAL PREFERENCE 1

Biopsychosocial Elements of Sexual Preference:

Nurture, Nature & Attachment

A project presented to the Faculty of Saybrook University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the RES 9030 Qualifying Essay in Psychology

by

Sherry Terez Punch

Saybrook University

San Francisco, California

December 2014

BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL ELEMENTS OF SEXUAL PREFERENCE

Abstract

The unique facets of human sexuality shape one’s biological and psychological nature,

and social institutions. This essay reviews literature indicating the fluidity of human

sexuality in males and females define a person’s sexual preference as biopsychosocial

interconnectedness. Linking together the biopsychosocial puzzle of sexual preference, the

unique biological, psychological and sociological aspects of human sexuality will be

explored in connection with nature, nurture and attachment. Genetics and neural function

in connection with sexual arousal will define nature’s role in sexual differences. Nurture’s

role will be encapsulated by the sociology of sexuality, with a specific emphasis on how

cultural beliefs and stigmatization in diverse cultures impact one’s choice of sexual

preference. The recognition that sexual preference is beyond the biological basis of

reproduction is a revolutionary step in the direction of human equality will also be

illuminated. Defining the linkage of attachment and psychopathology with genetic and

relational experience will explain the connectedness of human nature and nurture.

Moreover, the psychological puzzle piece of human sexuality will examine the

importance of attachment in human development. Development of a dysfunctional

attachment style may lead to mental afflictions that result in maladaptive behaviors, such

as in the case of the female serial killer, Aileen Wuornos. An explanation of the ebb and

flow of sexual preference will strengthen the notion that sexuality is fluid, and not limited

to social norms, reproduction, or mental illness. All in all, understanding the

biopsychosocial foundation of human sexuality connects the pieces of the puzzle of

sexuality as more than a label. Without labels, united love can be formed from the

accepting the biopsychosocial interconnectedness of one’s sexual place in the world.

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Table of Contents

Biopsychosocial Elements of Sexual Preference

Nurture, Nature and Attachment 5

Historical Reflection on the Evolution of Hyman Sexuality 6

Biopsychosocial Puzzle of Sexuality: Connecting the Pieces 7

Biology of Sexuality: The Core of Human Nature 8

Neurobiological Functioning of Sexual Differences 10

Neurohormonal Model: Biology of Sexual Preference 11

Neuroanatomy of Sexual Arousal: Pleasure in the Mind 12

Chemical Messengers: Neuronal Match Makers 13

Initial Love 14

Mature Love 16

Sociology of Sexuality: Nurture 17

Stigmatizing View of Sexuality: Coming Out of Society’s Closet 19

Psychology of Sexuality: Actions Speak Louder Than Words 20

Sexuality and Psychopathology: The Role of Attachment 22

Sexual Differences 23

The Dark Side of the Sexual Moon: In Search of Attachment At Any Cost? 26

Biopsychosocial Ebb and Flow of Sexual Preference 28

Sexual Fluidity 30

Conclusion 31

References 33

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Biopsychosocial Elements of Sexual Preference:

Nurture, Nature and Attachment

Throughout history, the sexual experience has been explored through the human

experience (Krippner, 2008). The content of this literature review focuses on the

biopsychosocial elements of sexuality through the exploration of sexual orientation as a

means to discover the development of one’s sexual destiny (i.e., identity). To reveal the

essence of how one self-identifies with his or her sexuality, empirical findings regarding

role of nature, nurture, and attachment in defining sexual orientation will be analyzed. In

addition to sexual orientation, gender, a driving force for understanding and theorizing

about sexuality, will also be examined. Over the last two centuries sex has been

associated with reproduction, which has profoundly impacted the way sexuality has been

theorized in relation to gender desire (Houghtaling, 2013). To shift the molded belief that

any sexual behavior (e.g., bisexuality, homosexuality, etc.) beyond the means of

reproduction is abnormal, this literature review will offer mixed-methodology research

findings displaying that regardless of one’s sexual orientation or gendered desire,

sexuality cannot solely be associated with biology. Consideration of social,

psychological, and environmental factors should be investigated to illuminate the essence

of an individual’s sexual destiny.

A Brief Historical Refection on the Evolution of Human Sexuality

Humans, similar to all living things, are fundamentally beings that unfold over the

lifecycle in a unidirectional way (i.e., they think, feel, and behave in time) (Pettit &

Hegarty, 2014). At the beginning of the 1600’s, during the Renaissance, sexual practices

had sparse need for secrecy, and communication was spoken freely without undue

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reticence (i.e., this was a time of direct gestures, shameless discourse, and open

transgressions) (Foucault, 1978). Over the course of a century, Foucault believes support

of the 19th century Victorian regimes image of a prude empire is branded on society’s

confined, silent, and hypocritical sexuality in claim over individuals’ sexual choices and

identities. In other words, Foucault (as cited in Crabtree, 2009) perceived sexuality as the

result of historical operations of power (p. 248). Arguing against Foucault’s theory that

beliefs and attitudes to repress sexuality was a result of Victorian period, Crabtree

highlights Spinelli’s existential-phenomenological theory of sexual identity. According to

Crabtree, Spinelli rejected Foucault’s’ idea of repression, and instead argues that the

Victorian’s invented present day notions of sexuality. Setting out three assumptions of the

Victorian era, Crabtree shares how Spinelli describes a link between sexuality and

biology (i.e., reproduction), a contract between normal and deviant sexual practices, and

finally the existing connection between sexual preference and orientation. Further

elaborated, Crabtree notes that Spinelli drew from the work of existential philosopher

Merleau-Ponty, highlighting that sexuality is a conceived fundamental facet of human

interconnection and desire to connect with other human beings, rather than solely

founded on the basis of biological drives and impulse rooted in reproduction. This belief

leads to debating the implication that biology is the basis on which normal and deviant

sexual behaviors are formed, by introducing psychological and social factors that also

play a role in shaping one’s sexual existence throughout the lifespan.

Over the last two hundred years, Western cultural reflects the work of Foucault and

Spinelli’s work; oppression and repression formed the governmentality of sexuality that

has led to sex being implicated with reproduction (Houghtaling, 2013). Implicating sex

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with reproduction has a profound impact on the way sexuality is related to one’s gendered

desire, according to Houghtaling. Realistically, the focus of reproduction as a means to

determining sexual orientation misses the multifaceted dimensions that make up one’s

sexual identity. Viewing sexuality from a biological perspective diminishes the meaning

of being human. Breaking free from the repression and oppression tied to sexual

orientation, the following will provide a snapshot of human sexuality through a

biopsychosocial lens to create a collage of nurture, nature, and attachment in the

formation of one’s sexual destiny.

Biopsychosocial Puzzle of Sexuality: Connecting the Pieces

Before exploring the role of biology, psychology, and sociology in the context of

human sexuality, one should understand what defines the biopsychosocial system. In the

1970’s, the inception of the biopsychosocial model introduced by Engle (as cited in

Lafreniere & Cramer, 2005), views health and wellbeing as a determinant of biological,

psychological and social influence (p. 182). Changes in one part of the biopsychosocial

system may create a domino effect in changing other parts of this system (Young, Kane &

Nicholosn, 2007). For example, a person fearful of identifying with a sexual label (i.e.,

orientation) other than heterosexual as a result of being stigmatized by his or her culture

may develop a psychological affliction (e.g., anxiety, depression), which may in effect

impact his or her biological health (e.g., fatigue, insomnia, lack of appetite, overeating,

and so forth). Perhaps another instance, explained by Boyer et al. (as cited in Harris,

1997), involves an individual suffering from borderline personality disorder resulting

from a history of childhood sexual abuse trauma. As a result of being labeled with this

psychological disorder, a person may experience the pressure of social stigma, which

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may lead to behavioral maladies (e.g., impulsivity, substance abuse, poor-self image,

unsafe sex, etc.), and in some cases suicide (American Psychiatric Association [APA],

2013). Although these are just two of many instances that may intertwine the

biopsychosocial model with human sexuality, the message being conveyed is that the

multifaceted dimensions of sexuality are influenced by more than one system. To offer a

more comprehensive view of human sexuality, each area of the biopsychosocial model

will be explored and dissected to discover the workings of each system in to the sexual

lives of human existence.

Biology of Sexuality: The Core of Human Nature

When the genes of two parents are mixed, sexual reproduction occurs (Starr, 2011). At

the moment of conception, an individual’s sex (i.e., physiological makeup of

chromosomes-- XX or XY) is determined; with females carrying the egg cells containing

the X chromosome, and the male’s sperm carrying the Y chromosome (Krippner, 2008).

In the fifth or sixth week of gestation, as documented by Krippner, the embryo develops

the external genitalia. Krippner also discusses images of ultrasounds that show a fetus

displaying sexual activity in the womb (i.e., erections present in male fetus, fondling of

vagina in female fetus), as well as evidence of erections and vaginal lubrication from

birth on through the lifespan. Between the ages of nine and 18 years, Krippner notes that

puberty (e.g., physiological, physical, sociological changes) takes place, and introduces

hormones to the body that begin to produce changes in the male and female reproductive

organs, which allow for maturation to adult capacity and function. Explained further,

Krippner reports that hormones stabilize when an individual reaches their 20s, remaining

somewhat constant until a female experiences menopause; unless psychological or

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sociological factors play a role in sexual dysfunction. Based on this brief outline of

sexual development, one may conclude that sexuality is indeed, at the root of human

nature.

One should also consider the role of neurological functioning in sexual development.

A human brain is composed of billions of neurons, and trillions of connections that

control all human function, including behaviors that are so intriguingly studied today

(Wolfe, 2013). Sex differences in brain function and hormone levels comprise the

structural and functional basis of pronounced differences of all realms of sexual behavior

(Swabb, 2005). Sexual arousal includes internal (phenomena of the mind) and external

stimuli (looking at a sexy person, touching sexual organs) (Kelly, 2008). These two

perspectives, as reported by Kelly, have been divided and categorized as the central

arousal system (CAS) and the peripheral arousal system (PAS). Further explained, Kelly

describes the CAS as being located in the cognitive, emotional, and pleasure regions of

the brain; thus, stimulation to these areas generates the fundamental blueprint of an

individual’s sexual response.

In the human brain, the limbic system (e.g., hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala) is

the hammock of emotion, along with the significance of the autonomic nervous system

(ANS), which houses the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system (Boeree,

2009). For instance, Boeree describes the hypothalamus as one of the busiest regions of

the brain; this area communicates with the ANS, regulating involuntary bodily functions

(e.g., hunger and thirst), a person’s response to pain, levels of pleasure, aggressiveness, as

well as sexual satisfaction. The cerebral cortex is equally significant, because this region

comprises 80 percent of the human brain and enables cognition- one’s ability to think

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(Sternberg & Stermberg, 2012). Still connected to brain, the PAS is related to stimuli

stemming from the spinal cord’s “voluntary and involuntary nervous control

mechanisms,” which pick up sensations from touch on the skin, genitals, and sense

organs (p 81). Kelly’s findings indicate sexual arousal from the CAS and PAS can be

measured physiologically, verbally, and behaviorally based on one’s arousal level. All in

all, together these systems rely on brain function to determine sexual arousal in each

unique being.

Neurobiological Function of Sexual Differences

While there is no definitive biological divide regarding the framework of

sexual differences, researchers have subdivided sex difference into three types: absolute

sexual dimorphism, sexual differences exist on a continuum, and sexes either start the

same or converge to the same endpoint (McCarthy, Arnold, Ball, Blaustein & De Vries,

2012). Absolute sexual dimorphism, as documented by McCarthy et al., encapsulates a

behavioral, physiological, or morphological endpoint made up of two forms, one found

exclusively in men and the other in women. Further, MaCarthy and colleagues report

sexual dimorphisms in behavior are linked with reproduction (e.g., male-specific

courtship, territory defense, nurturing and postpartum aggression) in correlation with the

biochemical make-up of nerve cells and glial cells. Second, the continuum of sexual

differences, as outlined by McCarthy et al., males and females may fall at any point on

the continuum, for example somatosensory thresholds, anxiety, learning and memory,

social behaviors, and food preferences will differ on average between these sexes.

McCarty et al. point out that sexual differences on this continuum appear to be related to

an individual’s genetic makeup, rather than a direct connection to reproduction. Lastly,

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McCarthy et al. touch on the third type of sexual difference, which concludes that males

and females present the same at baseline; yet, each has different neurochemical

foundations that result in varying vulnerabilities (e.g., parental care, symptoms of

pregnancy) and dissimilar outcomes to stress responses.

Neurohormonal Model: Biological Key to Sexual Preference

The human endocrine system controls bodily function by producing hormones,

which travel throughout the body to maintain organs and tissues (Anawalt, Kirk &

Shulman, 2013). Growth and sexual development, reproduction, body energy levels and

stress response, and internal balance of bodily systems, according to Anawalt et al., are a

few areas governed by the endocrine system. Elaborating further, Anawalt and colleagues

describe the endocrine system as constructed of many glands (e.g., adrenal,

hypothalamus, ovaries, pancreas, parathyroid, pineal gland, pituitary gland, testes,

thymus, and thyroid) that store and excrete hormones to maintain healthy bodily function.

Succinctly, hormonal activity is also believed to play a role in sexuality. Linkage studies

(i.e., molecular) have delivered evidence in the realm of human sexuality, becoming the

underpinning of the creation of the Neurohormonal model. This model claims that

gestational hormones solidify one’s sexual identity during the gestational period between

eight and 14 weeks (Chappel, 2010). For instance, Chappel claims the presence of

testosterone during the gestational period masculinizes the fetus, whereas an absence of

testosterone may result in feminization. Shockingly, Chappel claims that rather than

accepting this as the cause of difference in one’s sexual orientation, these studies were

considered to treat anyone with a sexual identity other than heterosexual. When

comparing adult heterosexual and homosexual males, both appear to have the same level

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of testosterone; hence, Chappel asserts that giving an adult homosexual male testosterone

will not change his sexual orientation, the hormone would instead increase his libido.

What is being conveyed here is one of the sexual difference types in the aforementioned

section of the literature known as sexual dimorphism, which identifies how hormonal

characteristics differ between males and females during gestation (e.g., neuoranatomy,

brain function, body type). In sum, Chappel concludes that the Neurohormonal model

predicts that, regardless of the sex of the fetus, the presence of testosterone in the specific

gestational period (i.e., eight to 14 weeks) will cause sexual attraction to females; while

the absence of testosterone would create sexual preferences for males in adulthood.

Neuroanatomy of Sexual Arousal: Pleasure in the Mind

Subcortical structures of the brain (e.g., amygdala, thalamus, cingulate,

hippocampus, hypothalamus), located beneath the cerebral cortex are a layer of white

matter made up of primitive brain regions that have been preserved throughout evolution

in the animal kingdom (Bremner, 2002). For the purpose of this essay, focus will zoom in

on the amygdala and hypothalamic function, which Bremner hypothesizes as a generator

of emotions linked to the sympathetic nervous system in connection with mediating the

peripheral autonomic responses to stress. In addition, networking with the endocrine

system, the hypothalamus and the amygdala is the basis of sex differences in

reproduction, sexual arousal, gender identity (e.g., feeling one is either male or female),

gender identity disorders, and sexual orientation (Swabb, 2005). Receiving signals from

the brainstem, the hypothalamus plays a role in sexual genital response; and during

orgasm both the hypothalamus and the amygdala are highly activated in males and

females (i.e., more activated in men) (Giuliano & Julia-Guilloteau, 2006). Functional

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magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) technology used to record human brain activity

during sexual arousal provides evidence supporting hypothalamic functioning (Crooks &

Baur, 2014). Elaborated further, Crooks and Baur’s review of Peredes and Baum’s study

of various species (i.e., not humans) showed that destroying parts of the hypothalamus

led to a dramatic reduction in sexual behavior in male and females species.

Equally important, the hypothalamus and amygdala neural structures responsible for

sexual arousal are also responsible for aggression (Constantino, Crane & Young, 2013).

In males who are biologically predisposed to aggression, Constantino and colleagues

propose that the influence of sex hormones may fuse sexual arousal with aggression. If

faced with rejection in sexual situations, Constantino et al. notes that aggression may fuel

anger, which may become intertwined with sexual fantasies including violence and

aggression. Such aggressive sexual fantasies, according to Constantino et al., may

manifest beyond masturbation, into a life of sexual offending for some males; and in

some cases maybe females. Although the hypothalamus and the amygdala are at the seat

of the emotional brain, and bring pleasurable states that activate in sexual arousal, if one’s

aggression is fused with the sexual arousal, pleasure centers of the brain may result in

maladaptive behavior.

Chemical Messengers: Neuronal Match Makers

Another area of human sexuality that should not be ignored is the biology of falling

in love. Understanding the function of chemical messengers (i.e., neurotransmitters)

behind emotion can help identify why a person is attracted to one person and not the

other, defining the very meaning of love through a neurobiological lens. Take a moment

to ponder these questions before moving forward. Is monogamy a natural state of being?

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Is love the glue to monogamy? Have you ever been in love? Have you experienced the

difference between love and lust? Does love fade over time? How do you define love?

Did pondering of any of these questions create a change in bodily sensation? Perhaps just

the thought of love created a ripple effect in the neural circuitry of your brain, triggering

emotions and sensations awaking your mind and body. To discover more about the

chemical messengers that lead one to fall head-over-heels for another person, four

neurotransmitters will be discussed: oxytocin, serotonin, dopamine, and PEA.

Chemical mechanisms triggering emotions of love in the brain have evolved since

the beginning of humankind, for various reasons (e.g., populate the planet, increase

genetic variation) (Brock, 2014). Unlike the beginning of time, Brock shares that these

chemical mechanisms differ today, because not all people form relationships with the

desire or for the sake of passing along their genes. The previously mentioned four

chemical mechanisms, according to Brock, make up four different mental states, which is

categorized in two phases- initial love and mature love.

Initial Love (subheading of the previous subheading, thus the extended indent)

Dopamine (DA) represents a mental state of excitement, which Brock (2014)

notes is responsible for feelings of pleasure (i.e., reward), addictive nature (e.g., food,

drugs, shopping, sex), and the mystery (i.e., chase) at the beginning of a relationship.

Biologically speaking, Brock notes that the initial romance saturates the brain with DA,

making one feel high and elated. For example, two people meet at a social gathering. One

asked the other out on a date. If the recipient of the invitation agrees to go on a date,

Brock explains that dopamine will increase and give the questioner a sense of reward,

which may be attributed to the innate response to spread one’s genes. Another key aspect

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of the release of dopamine is the suppression of judgment in the prefrontal cortex, for

Brock outlines that when this chemical messenger is transmitted, one may act solely on

the craving if the reward (i.e., sex with another person) without thinking of the

consequences (i.e., sexually transmitted disease).

Another chemical messenger in the initial stage of love is phenylethylamine (PEA);

the neurotransmitter (NT) of lust (e.g., obsession/infatuation) is very high when lovers

first meet and gradually decreases over time (Brock, 2014). Lust is the sex drive, one’s

libido (i.e., craving for sexual gratification) (Fisher & Thompson, 2014). Seemingly, the

surge of these feel good neurochemicals may be attributed to the nature of genetic

variation, because of the fluctuation of increase in the initial phase of love, while PEA

decreases as love matures. Further described, Brock shares that PEA declines over a

period of 18 months to three years until the chemical messenger is completely gone.

Research studies shared by Brock attribute the decrease in PEA again to genetic variation,

which theoretically takes place every four years; because evolutionally speaking, the first

three years prepare a couple to fall in love, mate, and reproduce. Once the baby reaches a

year old, they are no longer as dependent as a newborn, and begin to contribute to the

family unit. In other words, as Brock frankly explains, at this point people naturally fall

out of love (i.e., decreased PEA), to fall in love with another person to contribute to the

process of genetic variation. Before becoming discouraged, do not become weary that

relationships will not last more than three years. If one yearns to remain in the state of

initial love, yes, their relationship may not survive the decrease in neurochemicals that

occur naturally. Nevertheless, the initial stage of lust may potentially lead to a deeper

emotional state that grows into mature love.

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Mature Love

Oxytocin (OT), the chemical messenger associated with touch, bonding,

and orgasm, is said to be the hormone of love (Pritscher, 2011). OT fills the tank of love

when PEA runs out at the three-year mark, and is released with physical touch (Brock,

2014). That being said, OT is not reliant on sex, this NT is released when we make a

physical bond with others, such as hugging a friend. Hence, this neurochemical is only

activated by physical touch, and Brock describes this as the reason behind the downfall of

long distance relationships. OT keeps human bonds strong; a connection Brock notes as

the fuel to the fire maintaining a close relationship when PEA diminishes. Both men and

women experience a release of OT during orgasm; and according to Brock, this release is

higher in women, thereby triggering the desire to cuddle (i.e., bond) during lovemaking.

Furthermore, Brock outlines serotonin (5-HTP) as another NT released in the mature love

phase, which is related to contentment and wellbeing when dopamine levels decrease

(i.e., when 5-HTP is high, dopamine is low) (Brock, 2014). Another way to view this is

when DA is high, sexual arousal is high, whereas high levels of 5-HTP “reduce sexual

arousal and inhibit orgasm” (Lehmiller, 2014, p.90). Working together OT and 5-HTP

stabilize the trusting bond between lovers after the four-year mark, as seen in both men

and women.

Surely, understanding neurochemicals that flood the brain is of the essence when

considering the make-up of human sexuality. From a biological perspective, sexuality is

a multifaceted process referred to as sexual selection (i.e., conscious and/or unconscious

effort of people to transmit their genes to their offspring) (Kornblum, 2012). Based on

interconnected findings of the biology of sexuality, biological functioning plays a key

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role in sexual arousal, gender desire, and sexual identity; thereby, implicating nature as a

foundation to the roots of human sexuality.

Sociology of Sexuality: Nurture

Astonishing diversity is the crucial feature of the human population; the key to the

origins of what the world terms, ‘society’ (Gellner, 1988). Human society is vast, and

diverse societies display differences, which Gellner refers to as relativism. Ember and

Ember (as cited in Bolin & Whelehan, 1999) define relativism as the attitude that a

society’s customs and ideals should be perceived within the context of that society’s

obstacles or opportunities (p. 27). In reality, values oftentimes differ significantly

between societies. For example, perspectives on sexuality in society are conflicting,

despite sexuality’s interconnectedness with intimacy and love (Kornblum, 2012). Western

cultural biases against homosexuality may impact one’s understanding of the subject and,

according to Bolin and Wheelman, may cloud one’s objectivity based on a judgmental

view of the topic. Succinctly, relativism consists of various viewpoints that suggest social

phenomena are relative to other social phenomena on a continuum, defining the essence

of social constructivism (Christie & Fleischer, 2009). Social construction seems to play a

role in whether or not a person will identify with his or her sexual preference. Reported

by Amnesty International (as cited in Cosis-Brown & Cocker, 2011), engaging in

homosexuality is punishable by death in some parts of the world (e.g., Iran, Saudi Arabia,

Nigeria); when religious fundamentalism is repressive, punishing those who do not

follow their specific set of theoretical laws and principles. Sociocultural oppressions and

repressions influence people globally. Based on this knowledge and Gellner’s

explanation, the multiple realities of social constructivism change according to the

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knower-- the one who constructs one’s own reality using past experience and individual

contexts to realize that which is known (i.e., ontological relativism). In other words,

ontological relativism symbolizes an interrelated connection between knower and the

known. Becoming into existence is shaped by the relativism of diverse societies, and

impacts the way nurture influences the lives of all human beings.

Simply put, nurture is interconnected with nature; like the conscious and

unconscious, one cannot exist without the other (i.e., self-existence of unconscious

implies openness to consciousness) (Dolidze, 2005). Understanding biological

functioning in human sexuality is important to advancement of knowledge in this field.

Nonetheless, sociological facets of human sexuality should not be ignored. Instead,

understanding how one’s environment (e.g., culture, society) influences their sexual

development is equally important. Studies show that a person’s traits shape the way other

people will react to his or her characteristics (Rutter, 1997). The first societal experience

a child has is his or her family unit. Family influences have shared and non-shared effects

among children in the unit; and according to Rutter, evidence shows that oftentimes non-

familial influences have proved to be more important than familial ones. For example,

Rutter notes that children vary in the extent to which they cope with family conflict, as

well as vary in their susceptibility to this type (e.g., family discord, disruption) of

environmental risk. Families living a health-promoting lifestyle offer the experience of a

safe and nurturing environment for their children. In contrast, Repetti, Taylor and

Seeman (as cited in Perese, 2012) report that children living in families characterized by

unsupportive and neglectful relationships (e.g., abuse, conflict, and violence) are at risk

of mental and physical health afflictions (p. 92). Risky parental behavior greatly

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influences children’s behaviors, and children are likely to repeat these behaviors, which

may lead to conduct disorders and/or criminal behavior later in life (Videbeck, 2006).

Perhaps other role models (i.e., non-familial school friends, teachers, pastors, etc.) may

offer a safe haven for those children living in risky family environments; thus, the

importance of non-familial roles in the developing child.

Moreover, human sexuality is influenced by a person’s cultural beliefs and values

and diverse social structures. Many sociologists believe that the evolution of sexuality is

a result of changes in the economy, politics and family (Kornblum, 2012). For the last

three centuries, Kornblum notes that Western life has metamorphosed from a family-

centered system ensuring reproduction and stability during tough historical times (i.e.,

colonial period), to an intimate and romantic sexuality in the 19th century, which led to

the modern-day snapshot of commercialized sexuality. Based on the evidence of other

researchers’ work, Kornblum describes commercialized sexuality as sexual relationships

that carry an expectation of providing personal identity and individual happiness apart

from reproduction. Such beliefs have paved the way for the expression of sexual

preference.

Stigmatizing Views of Sexuality: Coming Out of Society’s Closet

Moving away from the biological notion that sexuality should center on

reproduction, sexual orientation remains controversial in today’s world. While

heterosexual behavior is practiced in all societies, Kornblum (2014) estimates that one-

third of all societies actively ban homosexual behavior. Human sexuality in Western

culture has experienced change over time, for the taboo of homosexuality and bisexuality

that was once considered a mental illness is becoming more understood and accepted by

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many in the eyes of society (Herek, 2012). Past research, as noted by Herek, displayed

the adoption of a sexual identity other than heterosexual was a form of maladaptive

psychopathology. In contrast, Herek explains that current research shows that mental

illness tied to sexual orientation is a result of stigma and prejudice. The choice to reach

beyond the fear of discrimination has been termed one’s choice of “coming out of the

closet,” which involves recognizing one’s own sexual preference, accepting one’s views

of self as other than heterosexual (Crooks & Baur, 2014, p. 277). When the media began

popularizing homosexuality in the 1990’s, according to Crooks and Baur, society began

evolving into the familiarity and acceptance of sexual identities. Today, this recognition

has led to the legalization of same-sex marriage in some places on the globe; a political

feat revolutionizing the way society perceives human sexuality beyond the biological

basis of reproduction (Pierceson, 2014). This is certainly a step in the direction of the

diversification of societal nurturing, which encapsulates moving forward to treat human

beings equitably. Without this equality, societal influence on sexuality breeds stigma, a

fear so powerful that one may choose to go against their truth of sexually identifying as

other than heterosexual.

Essentially, one cannot consider human development in light of biology without

reconsidering the possibility of influences from one’s environment (Krippner, 2008).

Constructivism of a society shapes the way people see and become in the world. A

society riddled with stigma bleeds prejudice and discrimination, away from the

nurturance of a healthy reality. Societal oppression and repression of sexuality instills

fear, which may manifest into a war on the human psyche.

Psychology of Sexuality: Actions Speak Louder Than Words

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Defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes, psychology is

pertinent to human sexuality (Meyers, 2007). Expanded further, Meyers defines behavior

as “anything an organism does,” any action one can observe and record; whereas mental

processes are internal, subjective experiences (e.g., dreams, beliefs, sensations, feelings,

and perceptions) that derive from an individuals actions. Sexual behavior is an action,

which is motivated by mental processes of the co-existing conscious and unconscious.

For every state of consciousness one experiences, there is a correlated neural state; a

change of conscious state is not possible without an associated change in neural state

(Spiering & Everaerd, 2007). Indeed, the action of sex is a motivating behavior at the

core of nature and nurture (i.e., biological and environment), which is governed by

mental and physical processes that make up the human species. The biopsychosocial

element of the human sexuality is what sets humans apart from the animal world. Most

animals (excluding dolphins and bonobo chimpanzees) instinctively mate to reproduce,

whereas humans have sex more often for fun (Rosenthal, 2013). What is more, Rosenthal

explains that humans engage in intercourse to express emotion, relieve stress, and burn

calories, as well as for social reasons (i.e., cement family relations) and antisocial reasons

(i.e., reject societal/parental values and beliefs). Human sexuality is an act of both instinct

and physical pleasure, a human conscious choice produced by the biological and

sociological influences of the human mind. Based on the evidence that humans have sex

for the sake of physical pleasure and not reproduction, one may argue that sexual

identification is not an orientation, but a preference (i.e., choice) to have sex and/or fall in

love with someone of the same-sex, opposite sex, or both. That being said, actions speak

louder than words in the context of defining choice in human sexuality.

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Sexuality and Psychopathology: The Role of Attachment

An individual’s ability to cope with behavioral and environmental stimuli is

essential to his or her motives and beliefs; and if a person’s coping responses are

maladjusted, he or she is at a higher risk of psychopathology (Hewitt & Flett, 1996). The

development of coping patterns is closely related to attachment, because people with

secure attachments display active coping and have better long-term adjustment, whereas

those with insecure or disorganized attachments have inadequate coping skills (e.g.,

isolation, helplessness, anxiety) that often result in long-term maladjustment (Mark,

2008). Personality may genetically predispose one to certain personality traits; thus,

highlighting the importance of considering the role of both nurture and nature in the

formation of attachment styles and coping strategies as precursors of adjustment and

psychopathology in the development of sexual preference.

Bowlby’s (as cited in Mander, 2006) theory of attachment proposes that the

establishment of a secure attachment is the foundation of developing healthy patterns of

attachment, strong ego functions, and an evolving capacity to discover and relate to one’s

external reality (p. 15). Basically, Bowlby (as cited in Bosma & Gerlsma, 2003) explains

that evolution is credited for equipping humans with the need to seek closeness with

caregivers in light of threat (p. 452). Although humans have the innate need for

attachment, relational social experience is needed for an individual to learn how to

strategically deal with their attachment needs. This flows together with Cooley’s (as cited

in Ferrante, 2008) ‘looking-glass self’ theory, which describes people as knowing himself

or herself by what he or she observes and learns from his or her significant others (p. 97).

Attachment typically forms between the caregiver and an infant around the age of eight

21


months, taking on different forms, and being influenced by environmental and

psychological factors (Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010). Initially a child will form an attachment

to one primary caregiver, who becomes the figure of secure base for the child to explore

the world (McLeod, 2009). The formation of this monotropy paves the foundation for all

future social relationships, so disrupting the process of protecting and nurturing this

critical attachment may create severe consequences, as explained by McLeod. When

there is no secure base during development, according to Mander, attachment behaviors

may manifest as insecure, clingy, contradictory, avoidant, aggressive, and/or

disorganized. These behaviors are all represented by high levels of separation anxiety,

which according to Mander, hinder one’s ability to maintain healthy relationships with

others throughout one’s lifespan.

Forms of Attachment

Researchers, including Mary Ainsworth (as cited in Kail & Cavanaugh, 2010)

(pp. 171-72), have studied the different forms of attachment using the Strange Situation

procedure, which involves observing the infant’s behavior when separated by their

mother. Secure attachment, according to Kail and Cavanaugh, was displayed when the

child expressed sadness and minimal desire to explore the room when the mother left the

room, and when the mother returned to the room the child became joyful and comfortable

to explore their surroundings. Hence, the child felt secure when the parent was in the

room; yet with their secure base not present, the dependence of attachment hindered their

exploration. Kail and Cavanaugh also highlight other forms of attachment (e.g.,

avoidance, resistance, and disorganized), which make up the category of insecure

attachment. Children showing avoidance in the study did not differ in emotion or play

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when the mother left the room, and upon the mother’s return, Kail and Cavanaugh report

the child looking away from the mother as being left again. In addition to secure or

avoidant attachment, Kail and Cavanaugh share that resistance is defined when the child

became upset by the mother’s absence, and remained upset, angry, and difficult to

console when she returned. Unlike avoidance and resistance, Kail and Cavanaugh explain

that children with disorganized attachment did not display sad or happy emotions in or

out of their mother’s presence; instead they were confused and unable to grasp what was

occurring. Reviewing these forms of attachment clarifies the significance of a child’s

reliance on his or her caregivers for security and reassurance. These forms of attachment

not only act as a prototype of all future relationships according to Erikson (as cited in

Kail & Cavanaugh, p. 172), but also played a key role in describing patterns of

attachment in the adult population, according to Fraley (2010). In all, from the words of a

French Proverb quoted by Meyers (2009), “what is learned in the cradle lasts to the

grave” (p. 225).

Relationship Between Attachment and Psychopathology

While the classification of attachment has been known to change in the face of

significant life events, for the most part, Bowlby et al. (as cited in Outcalt, 2008) theorize

that attachment remains stable throughout the human lifespan. Most individuals with a

secure attachment form emotional bonds with other people; however, in cases involving

psychopaths for example, their impaired emotional response is thought to disrupt the

attachment process (Blair, Mitchell & Blair, 2005). Succinctly, Blair and colleagues

report that family variables such as modeling antisocial behaviors, engaging in substance

abuse, and neglecting consistent discipline and supervision may also hinder the

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possibility of a secure attachment. In light of the latter, evidence shows that psychopaths

have commonly experienced child abuse (Weiler & Widom, 2006). Abuse from the

primary caregiver places a child at risk for later mental illness. Elaborated further, Sturt

(2006) explains that linking abuse-related afflictions to a child’s neural function (i.e.,

brain imaging) are displayed in regions of the brain responsible for securing an

attachment with their caregiver. Rather than learning how to form a secure attachment, an

individual exposed to maladaptive behaviors may lack the normal identifications, thereby

contributing to an abnormal or non-secure attachment (Richards, 1999). Making a full

circle encapsulating the social (e.g., family variables, child abuse/neglect) and

psychological facets of attachment, biological (i.e., genetic) factors cannot be ignored in

the formation of a secure or non-secure attachment. Molecular genetic studies show

variations in neural wiring (i.e., neurochemicals- dopamine and serotonin) may also

reflect one’s capacity to from a secure attachment. Linking attachment and

psychopathology with genetic and relational experience, a connection between human

nature and nurture is made.

Sexual Differences

In connection with human sexuality, Bowlby (as cited in Eagle, 2007) reports that

attachment and sexuality impinge on each other (p. 27). Individuals with insecure

attachment use sex primarily to meet attachment needs, rather than sexual needs (Caruso,

2011). Further, Caruso notes that individuals with anxious attachment engage in

intercourse to satisfy unfulfilled emotional needs and decrease fear of abandonment,

whereas emotional and sexual distance is pertinent to individuals with avoidant

attachment. The message being conveyed here is that problematic attachment may

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present sexual difficulties and trust issues in relationships. Three studies conducted by

Shaver et al. (as cited in Mikulincer & Shaver, 2007) found that individuals involved in

secure romantic relationships scored higher than individuals with anxious attachment or

avoidant attachment on psychological androgyny (p. 235). Additionally, Mikulincer and

Shaver provide evidence from numerous studies indicating that attachment anxiety is

associated with lower scores on measures of masculinity, while avoidance is related to

lower scores on femininity. Other studies, as reported by Mikulincer and Shaver, found

that males with insecure attachment are more likely than males with secure attachment to

have anxiety about failing to live up the societal-held masculine ideals. Lastly,

Mikulincer and Shaver explain that stigmatized social groups (i.e., gay, lesbian, bisexual,

transgendered) are subjected to strong external pressures to suppress their authenticity

when constructing their sexual identity. Unfortunately, a dysfunctional attachment may

lead to mental afflictions that result in maladaptive behaviors involving human sexuality.

The Dark Side of the Sexual Moon: In Search of Attachment At Any Cost?

Aileen Wuornos was born into a broken family afflicted with mental illness, and was

repeatedly physically and mentally abused (Arrigo & Griffin, 2004). As a teen, Wuornos

participated in maladaptive activities (e.g., shoplifting, robbery), performed sexual acts

for money, and ultimately learned, what Russell (as cited in Arrigo & Griffin, 2004)

described “how to dissociate herself from her body; to blank off emotions” (p. 10). By the

age of 15, Arrigo and Griffin report that Aileen gave birth to a baby believed to be

fathered by Keith Wuornos (i.e., Aileen’s brother), which was given up for adoption.

Moreover, Aileen admitted to engaging in prostitution over 25 times a day, at the same

time becoming romantically involved in a homosexual relationship; and as documented

25


by Arrigo and Griffin, during this time she committed several murders until being

arrested. Certainly, Aileen had a tumultuous background including child abuse, neglect,

violence, and numerous run-ins with law enforcement. These associations and grandiose

behaviors were a part of Aileen’s daily life, mirroring what was learned through social

relational experience as a child; unwanted by anybody.

Lacking the security and love of primary caregivers, attachment in early

development was disrupted; Aileen’s fragmented relationships with primary

caregivers created an insecure attachment style, which ultimately blinded Aileen’s

ability to self-reflect states of emotion or see the value in those murdered (Arrigo

& Griffin, 2004). Such a disruption clouded Aileen’s concept of the relationships

with other people; instead, through her eyes, relationships are objectifications.

With that said, a failed attachment in early development interfered with Aileen’s

ability to self-regulate, hence her inability to control the impulse to murder or

remain hidden behind the mask of sanity. Some may call Aileen a monster for her

heinous acts of crime, without considering the biopsychosocial elements that

shaped her perspective on life reflecting a non-secure attachment. Only until this

mask is removed shall we see Aileen as another human being, not a monster, who

committed a fatal act of violence for the sake of feeling the innate need of

attachment to minimize her existential angst. On the whole, attachment plays an

important role in the relationships one will experience throughout the lifecycle;

influenced by biological and sociological factors impacting the psychology of

one’s mind.

Biopsychosocial Ebb and Flow of Sexual Preference

26


When considering the elements of human sexuality, one should take note of the

differences in terms gender identity, sexual identity, sexual orientation and sexual

preference. Ruble and Martin (as cited in Zucker, 2006) define gender as psychological or

behavioral traits associated with men and women (i.e., collective attributes/genetics

harmoniously characterizing biological masculinity and femininity)-- a modern

perspective of the term sex (p. 536). Over the last 40 years, Zucker describes the

development that occurred regarding the use of the terms sex and gender as: sex relates to

the biological processes of human sexuality, whereas gender is viewed as psychosocial

processes influences one’s gender role. Gender roles are behaviors, attitudes, and

personality characteristics that a society categorizes as masculine or feminine, which

according to Zucker, is influenced by gender identity and sexual orientation. Zucker

identifies gender identity as a person’s sense of self as male or female. In other words,

gender identity is defined by the way a person projects his or her social identity in the

world (Halim & Ruble, 2010).

Unlike gender identity, individuals with a minority sexual orientation choose from an

array of labels when characterizing their sexual (e.g., gay, lesbian, bisexual, questioning,

and so forth) identity. Gender identity involves psychological behaviors of masculine and

feminine, whereas sexual identity is how one identifies in relation to one’s sexual

orientation. Sexual orientation refers to a one’s relative response to sexual stimuli of a

person one is attracted to sexually, thus defining one’s sexual identity (Zucker, 2006). In

other words, part of establishing one’s sexual identity encompasses being aware of one’s

sexual orientations. Becoming aware of one’s sexual orientation is termed sexual

preference, which often presents in adolescence, and is defined by one’s feelings for a

27


sexual partner of the other or same sex, or both (Sigelman & Rider, 2012). Elaborated

further, Sigelman and Rider note that although many have an initial awareness of their

sexual preference in childhood, the fear of establishing a sexual identity other than

heterosexual in light of negative societal attitudes may lead individuals to suppress their

sexual preference. Stigmatization of being labeled as a sexual minority plays a role in

threatening the physical and mental health of those identifying with non-heterosexual

orientation (Lam & Lim, 2014).

There are varied proximal and distal factors that impact the health of all human

beings, especially when identifying with a label that violates societal mores, which leads

to the potential of stigma (Lam & Lim, 2014). Stigma and the associated prejudice and

discrimination, according to Lam and Lin, impact the living experience of members of

outcast members of a particular social group (i.e., sexual minority). Moreover, Lam and

Lin document research findings displaying sexual orientation stigma is correlated with

negative mental health (e.g., substance abuse, mental illness, suicidality, unsafe sex). On

the basis of this information, the stigma associated with sexual orientation labels may

hinder one’s courage to identity their sexual preference in fear of not living up to one’s

societal values. Basically, a person who chooses to not identify with his or her sexual

preference is not living in authenticity; rather he or she is living a fearful existence

shaped by biopsychosocial elements of sexual preference. The notion that reproduction

(i.e., biological) is the only normality of sexuality shapes societal views, and has shown

to impact a person’s psychological wellbeing. Such rigidity lacks the essential human

nurture and nature of sexuality. If the biopsychosocial elements of sexual preference were

equally accepted, and not categorized into compartments that create minority social

28


groups, perhaps society would embrace sexual preference as fluid.

Sexual Fluidity

Research findings from various survey topics (e.g., sociodemographics; sexual

activities on the Internet, sexual exposure and sexual exploitation; attitudes and

experiences of sexual activities performed in exchange for money or goods; positive and

negative experiences using online sites for love and sexual purposes; and sexual problems

(i.e., addiction, loss of control, sexually transmitted diseases) show that men and women

report having same-sex fantasies and experiences (Ross, Daneback & Mansson, 2012).

Explained in more detail, Ross et al. note close to 2,000 participants (i.e., 34 % males and

66 % females) completed the survey, with a mean age of 28 years old. Over 64 % of

these subjects, according to Ross et al., identified as non-religious; and nearly one-half of

the female participants (i.e., compared to one-sixth of males) were fluid regarding sexual

fantasies involving both sexes. Ross and colleagues point out that identifying as less

religious and living in larger populations correlate with higher sexual fluidity in women,

whereas higher education in men represented higher levels of fluidity. Moreover, Ross et

al. highlight that sexual variables distinguished fixed and fluid groups more in women

than men, because fluid women have significantly higher frequencies of sex,

masturbation, and separating from their partners when compared to men. On the basis of

fluidity, Ross et al. present findings that females are twice as likely as males to report

fluid sexual orientation; hence, the fear of identifying as non-heterosexual is evidently

higher in males. While findings from this study indicate sexual preference is fluid among

males and females, the influence of social construct implies greater acceptance in women

who identify as other than heterosexual. Again, this points to the oppression and

29


repression of what society deems normal, and may lead a person to suppress his or her

sexual preference in fear of stigmatization. Although research indicates sexuality is fluid

in men and women, the inability to accept the biopsychosocial elements of sexual

preference limits the experience of being human. Limitations become labels that

categorize sexual identity and lead to stigmatization and fear.

Conclusion

The unique facets of human sexuality shape one’s biological and psychological

nature, and social institutions. Think for a moment about the complex concept of love.

The emotions of love consist of passion, intimacy and commitment, which influence the

way a person thinks, behaves, and feels toward someone else (Lehmiller, 2014). This

triangle of love, as Lehmiller describes, is what binds love shared between people,

because in consummate love without passion, there is not intimacy, and without intimacy,

the truth of commitment is out of reach. In other words, love is always unconditionally

fluid, and cannot be categorized. Perhaps the same should ring true about the

biopsychosocial triangle of human sexuality, for each of these elements make up one’s

sexual preference. Categorization of sexual identities limits both societal views and

acceptance of the biopsychosocial elements that influence the fluidity of sexual

preference. Repressing the truth of the fluidity of sexual preference creates

stigmatization, a categorical label branding one’s existence in the world that breeds

prejudice and discrimination, not love. Accepting that each person is uniquely shaped by

the biopsychosocial elements of human existence is key to understanding the fluidity of

sexual preference. Placing labels on those who choose to express a sexual preference

other than heterosexual is not the practice of love. On the whole, sexual preference is

30


interconnected biopsychosocially. More than a label of one’s sexual preference defines

one’s place in the world; a sexual label becomes a mask of hatred in an unaccepting

society. Albert Einstein (n.d) said, “peace cannot be kept by force; it can only be achieved

by understanding.” In reflection, the road to world peace is practiced by understanding

human sexuality without labels, a global journey to achieving the united love formed

from the biopsychosocial interconnectedness of human nature and nature in defining

one’s sexual preference.

31


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