Carbothermal Reduction of Bauxite - UNSWorks

SCHOOL OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING

Carbothermal Reduction of Bauxite

A thesis in

Materials Science and Engineering

by

Chun-Hung Yeh

Submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements

for the Degree of

Master of Philosophy

2012

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School I

Certificate of Originality I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge

it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, nor material

which to a substantial extent has been accepted for the award of any other degree or

diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due

acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to research by others,

with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the

thesis.

I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work,

except to the extent that assistance from others in the project design and conception, or

in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.

------------------------------------------------

Chun-Hung Yeh

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School II

Acknowledgements

Many people assisted me both in the laboratory work and with the written aspects of

this project. To these people I express deep appreciation.

Oleg Ostrovski, my supervisor, who always gave me constant encouragement and

generous support;

Guangqing Zhang, my co-supervisor, who sparked my interest in this thesis project and

who always shared his wealth of knowledge as well as his time;

Yan Li, who assisted with continual guidance and critical assessment of my work;

Xing Xing and Emily Wan for help with X-ray diffraction and LECO analysers, always

without delay and with enthusiasm.

Emily Wan, who assisted with electron microscopy and made a good time table with

me.

Maggie Zhang, appreciated for all things practical.

I also thank those people whose names have been omitted from this list.

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School III

Abstract

The commercial technologies for aluminium production include production of alumina

from bauxite by the Bayer process and smelting of alumina to produce aluminium by

Hall-Heroult process. The current technology is energy intensive, a major source of

greenhouse gas emissions and harmful fluoride emissions. These issues have stimulated

the interests in search for alternative technologies of aluminium production.

Carbothermal reduction of alumina is considered a promising alternative technology for

aluminium production. However, the carbothermal process in investigation still needs

pure alumina which does not solve the problems related to Bayer process, such as

generation of harmful red mud, requires very high temperatures, and is overall still an

energy intensive process.

This thesis is concerned with the development of an environmentally sustainable

technology for aluminium production that will avoid the generation of environmentally

negative red mud sludge. It is to investigate the feasibility of stepwise carbothermal

reduction of bauxite at different temperatures with emphasis on the examination of the

mechanisms and kinetics of reduction of different metal oxides in bauxite, and also on

the deportment of impurities among the various phases formed. It is expected that, if

successful, this technology will significantly decrease energy consumption and CO2

emissions compared to conventional carbothermal reduction for aluminium production

without generation of red mud waste.

Understanding the kinetics and mechanisms of reduction of the different metal oxides in

bauxite and the effects of operational parameters is essential for the achievement of the

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School IV

optimal conditions for the production of metallic aluminium and by-products such as

ferroalloys and possibly titanium and silicon carbides.

This project investigated the carbothermal reduction of Western Australian and

Queensland bauxites in argon, carbon monoxide and hydrogen atmospheres.

Experiments were performed in a high temperature vertical tube furnace and the off-gas

composition was monitored using an infra-red gas analyser. The phase composition of

reduced samples was characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD). Oxygen and carbon

contents in reduced samples were determined by LECO analysers. The morphology of

the surface and intersections was observed by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM).

The chemical compositions of the phases in the reduced samples were also detected by

Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS).

The results of this study have proved the concept of stepwise reduction of bauxite ores

in solid state by appropriate controlling reduction temperature. The products in reduced

bauxites by temperature programmed reduction to 1600oC include ferroalloy of silicon

and aluminium, carbides of titanium, silicon and aluminium, and unreacted alumina. It

also showed that temperatures and the gas environment affected the extent of reduction.

These results are of importance to an explanation of the stepwise carbothermal reaction

of bauxites, as well as providing aluminium industry with a better understanding of

alternative ways to produce aluminium.

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School V

Table of Contents

Section Page

Certificate of Originality .......................................................................................... I

Acknowledgements .................................................................................................. II

Abstract .................................................................................................................. III

1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... I

1.1 Importance of Aluminium ................................................................................. 1

1.2 Current Aluminium Production Technologies................................................... 3

1.3 Environmental Issues Associated with Current Production Technologies ........ 4

1.4 Alternative Routes for Aluminium Production ................................................. 6

2 Literature Review ............................................................................................ 8

2.1 Introduction to Bauxite, Alumina and Aluminium ............................................ 8

2.1.1 Bauxite....................................................................................................... 8

2.1.2 Alumina ................................................................................................... 10

2.1.3 Aluminium ............................................................................................... 17

2.2 Aluminium Alloy ............................................................................................ 19

2.3 Metal Oxides Impurities in Bauxite Ores ....................................................... 21

2.4 Carbothermal Reduction of Bauxite................................................................ 22

2.4.1 Carbothermal Reduction of Alumina ...................................................... 23

2.4.2 Carbothermal Reduction of Titania ........................................................ 25

2.4.3 Carbothermal Reduction of Silica ........................................................... 27

2.4.4 Carbothermal Reduction of Iron Oxides ................................................. 29

2.5 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Carbothermal Reduction ........................... 30

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School VI

2.5.1 Thermodynamics ..................................................................................... 31

2.5.2 Kinetics .................................................................................................... 35

2.6 Summary and Scope of the Thesis .................................................................. 38

3 Experimental.................................................................................................. 40

3.1 Materials .......................................................................................................... 43

3.2 Gases ............................................................................................................... 44

3.3 Sample Preparation ......................................................................................... 44

3.4 Experimental Set Up ....................................................................................... 45

3.4.1 Experimental Furnace ............................................................................. 45

3.4.2 Reactor Set Up ........................................................................................ 45

3.4.3 Gas System .............................................................................................. 46

3.5 Experimental Procedure .................................................................................. 48

3.6 Sample Characterisation.................................................................................. 49

3.6.1 X-ray Diffraction Analysis ...................................................................... 49

3.6.2 LECO Analyses ....................................................................................... 50

3.6.3 Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS) ................................................................................................. 51

3.7 Calculation of Extent of Reduction ................................................................. 51

3.7.1 Calculation of Extent of Reduction Based on the Off-gas Analysis ........ 51

3.7.2 Calculation of Extent of Reduction Based on Content of Oxygen in the Reduced Sample ...................................................................................................... 52

4 Results and Discussion ................................................................................... 54

4.1 Progress of Carbothermal Reduction .............................................................. 54

4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis ............................................................................. 58

4.3 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of Reduced Samples ....................... 63

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School VII

4.3.1 Samples Reduced Until a Temperature of 1100oC .................................. 63

4.3.2 Samples Reduced Up to 1600°C ............................................................. 70

4.3.3 Segregation of Titanium, Silicon and Aluminium from Alloy Phase ....... 73

4.4 Extent of Reduction in Different Gas Atmospheres ........................................ 76

5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research .............................. 80

5.1 Conclusions ..................................................................................................... 80

5.2 Recommendations for Future Research .......................................................... 81

List of References .................................................................................................. 82

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School VIII

List of Figures

Number Title Page

1-1 Variation in global production of primary aluminium during

1887–1986 and that of secondary aluminium during 1940–1986 in

the Western world [2] .............................................................................. 1

2-1 Structure of crystal alumina [19] ......................................................... 11

2-2 Schematic representation of the Bayer Process depicting its cyclic

nature [23] .............................................................................................. 12

2-3 Fine white powder of aluminium oxide [24] ........................................ 13

2-4 Profile of a modern electrolytic cell used in Hall-Heroult process [37]

................................................................................................................. 19

2-5 Schematic of the reaction mechanism of the carbothermal reduction

of Al2O3 ................................................................................................... 25


of TiO2 [50] ............................................................................................. 26


of SiO2 [54] ............................................................................................. 29

2-8 Iron phase change and carbon content as a function of temperature

[54] .......................................................................................................... 30

2-9 Illustration of the energy required to produce one kg of aluminium

via the carbothermal reduction of alumina [41] ................................. 31

2-10 Standard Gibbs free energy changes of Reactions (21) – (28) ........... 34

2-11 The effect of C/Al2O3 weight ratio on the conversion of alumina at

1500oC [57] ............................................................................................. 37

file:///C:/Users/ashop/Desktop/Chun-Hung%20Yeh%20thesis%20carbonthermal%20reduction%20of%20bauxite%2011%2001R.docx%23_Toc339556490

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School IX

3-1 Schematic diagram of the reaction system .......................................... 46

3-2 Schematic diagram of the gas supply system ...................................... 47

3-3 The setting point of a mass flow controller and corresponding gas

flow rate for Ar, CO and H2 ................................................................. 48

4-1 Change in CO content in the off-gas during temperature

programmed reduction of Western Australian and Queensland

bauxite ores ............................................................................................ 55

4-2 Changes in experimental temperature and CO content in the off gas

in step–by–step reduction experiments ............................................... 57

4-3 XRD patterns of Western Australian bauxite reduced at different

temperatures .......................................................................................... 59

4-4 XRD patterns of Queensland bauxite reduced at different

temperatures .......................................................................................... 60

4-5 XRD patterns of Western Australian bauxite samples reduced at

different steps ........................................................................................ 61

4-6 XRD patterns of Queensland bauxite samples reduced at different

steps ........................................................................................................ 62

4-7 EDS elemental distribution of Queensland bauxite reduced until

1100oC. .................................................................................................... 64

4-8 Point analysis of Queensland bauxite reduced until 1100oC .............. 66

4-9 SEM images and EDS elemental distribution of Western Australian

bauxite reduced until 1100oC ............................................................... 67

4-10 EDS spectra and elemental composition of Western Australian

bauxite reduced until 1100°C ............................................................... 69

4-11 SEM images and elemental distribution of Western Australian

bauxite reduced until 1600oC ............................................................... 71

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School X

4-12 EDS spectra and elemental composition of Western Australian

bauxite reduced until 1600°C ............................................................... 72

4-13 SEM images and elemental distribution of Western Australian

bauxite reduced to 1600oC .................................................................... 74

4-14 SEM images and elemental distribution of Queensland bauxite

reduced to 1600oC ................................................................................. 75

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School XI

List of Tables

Number Title Page

1-1 Basic physical properties of aluminium [3] ........................................... 3

1-2 Reported annual production capacity of primary aluminium [8] ....... 4

2-1 Composition of other aluminium containing ores on a mass percent

basis [16] ................................................................................................... 9

2-2 Geography of Aluminium Production and Consumption in 2000 [17]

................................................................................................................. 15

2-3 XRF analyses of red mud expressed as % oxide [29] ......................... 16

2-4 Classification of aluminium alloys [39] ................................................ 21

3-1 Preliminary experiments of reduction of bauxites to identify

reduction stages ..................................................................................... 41

3-2 Temperature programmed reduction experiments............................. 41

3-3 Step-by-step reduction experiments ..................................................... 42

3-4 Reduction of bauxites under different conditions ............................... 42

3-5 Major components of bauxites by XRF, wt% ..................................... 43

3-6 XRD testing parameters ........................................................................ 50

4-1 Extent of reduction of Western Australian and Queensland bauxite

ores reduced in argon at different temperatures ................................ 76

4-2 Contribution of different metal oxides, assuming their complete

reduction, to the extent of reduction of the two bauxite ores ............ 77

4-3 Extent of reduction of Western Australian and Queensland bauxites

by ramping from 850oC to different temperatures under CO

atmosphere ............................................................................................. 78

UNSW Materials Science and Engineering School 1

1 Introduction

1.1 Importance of Aluminium

Aluminium industry plays a very important role in the global economic development

and has developed rapidly during the last 100 years. The unique thermal and mechanical

properties such as low density, high strength, and good malleability, make them suitable

for a wide range of applications. [1] This metal can be formed into different shapes

ranging from thick plates (250 mm) to thin foils (0.005 mm). Aluminium alloys can be

modified in a range of tempers to achieve required of strength and formability,

combined with low density. Modifications of other types of alloy have also been

developed to improve their thermal and electrical conductivities. [2]

Figure 1-1 Variation in global production of primary aluminium during 1887–1986 and that of

secondary aluminium during 1940–1986 in the Western world [2]


A glance at Figure 1-1 reveals some striking similarities between productions of

primary aluminium during the period 1887–1986 and secondary aluminium during

1940–1986. Secondary aluminium is obtained by recycling primary aluminium products.

There was a steady increase in the world’s production of primary aluminium from 1950

to 1980. Aluminium production became 16 times higher in the 1980s than that in the

1890s. Production roughly doubled during the period 1950–1960 and again during

1960–1970. The past few decades have seen further gains. Aluminium production

continues to be of significant importance in the 21st century.

Aluminium is a silvery white metal that is insoluble in water. It is very reactive and does

not occur as a free element in nature. In nature, it is usually found in mineral forms.

Physical and chemical actions on aluminium–bearing rocks over a long period of time

resulted in the formation of aluminous clays that are the basis of all refractory materials.

Further weathering action forms new compounds – for example, bauxite, a general term

given to earthy materials with a high content of aluminium oxide.

Projections of future demands for aluminium are higher than that of other metals, which

can be attributed to its increased use by the transportation, packaging and construction

industries.

Table 1-1 Summarises some of the major physical properties of aluminium.


Table 1-1 Basic physical properties of aluminium [3]

1.2 Current Aluminium Production Technologies

Research on aluminium production routes has increased over the past 50 years. Initially,

aluminium was produced in a chemical reduction process, which was expensive and had

low productivity. The electrolytic reduction method was established in 1886 which

enhanced aluminium production and its subsequent application. [4]

Metallic aluminium is extracted from bauxite ore in a two–step process. In the first step,

bauxite is chemically processed into alumina using the Bayer refining process.

Approximately 0.5 to 2.5 tonnes of bauxite are required to produce 1.0 tonne of alumina.

[5] In the second step, the alumina is smelted. During smelting, 1 tonne of aluminium is

produced from approximately 2 tonnes of alumina by electrolysis employing the

Hall–Heroult process. This two-step process for producing aluminium is both energy

and capital intensive. [6]

Relative atomic mass 26.9815

Melting point 660.37oC

Boiling point 2467oC

Density (at 20oC) 2.7 g/cm3

Oxidation states 3

Electronegativity 1.47

Atomic radius 143.2 pm

Percentage mass of the earth’s crust 7.57

Sources from http://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=2863


A typical aluminium smelter consists of around 300 pots, which can produce 125,000

tonnes of aluminium annually. However, some of the latest generations of smelters can

produce aluminiumin the 350,000 – 400,000 tonnes range. [7]

Table 1-2 Reported annual production capacity of primary aluminium [8]

As at the end of: Reported primary aluminium annual production capacity

(thousands of metric tonnes)

Total

December 2010 27,295

June 2011 27,556

June 2012 28,302

June 2013 29,496

June 2014 30,294

The International Aluminium Institute foresees an average annual growth of 1.76% per

year in the global aluminium demand for the next 2 years. Total production is currently

increasing at a rate of approximately 1.2 million tonnes per annum. [8] These estimates

indicate that aluminium demand, and therefore alumina and aluminium production, can

as much as triple by early in the 22nd century.

1.3 Environmental Issues Associated with Current Production Technologies

An important point to be considered with regard to the production of aluminium is the

major environmental problems associated with its production using Bayer process


followed by electrolytic reduction. Bauxite residue (red mud), whose high alkalinity is

harmful to the surrounding environments, is the main by-product generated during

aluminium production. At present, the bauxite residues are stored on land or at the

bottom of the ocean in containers (marine disposal). However, potential problems of

these disposals include leaching of alkaline solution from the container barrier, failure

of retaining dams and damage of pipelines leading to leakage of bauxite residue slurry.

High capital investment and large areas of land are required for building bauxite residue

dams. [9] Although the production process has existed for many years, only recently has

the growing public pressure and environmental awareness prompted the development of

solutions to these problems. The enormous quantity of red mud discharged by industries

producing aluminium from bauxite poses serious environmental and economical

problems. [10, 11] In order to understand these issues and develop better management

solutions, it is useful to consider all aspects of aluminium production and its chemistry.

Many companies are embracing the environmental challenge by implementing changes

to their production systems. Greenhouse gas emissions from aluminium production by

electrolytic process contribute 2.5% of the CO2 emissions worldwide. Much effort has

been focused on developing and enhancing the carbothermal reduction of Al2O3 to

metallic aluminium, which then reacts with nitrogen to form AlN. Halmann et al. stated

that replacement of the electrochemical process by carbothermal reduction of Al2O3

would decrease the total greenhouse gas emissions by at least 30%. [12] A fairly large

body of literature exists on the recycling and reuse of bauxite residues, and their

environment related issues. However, there is a surprising lack of information on

alternative routes to produce aluminium, which can help avoid these environmental

problems.


1.4 Alternative Routes for Aluminium Production

In recent years, research is focused on novel alternative routes for aluminium

production. Compared with the Hall–Heroult process, carbothermal reduction of

alumina offers merits of a simpler process, lower cost and lower requirement for raw

materials. [13] Previous assessments showed that carbothermal reduction has the

potential to reduce energy consumption by up to 38%, capital costs by more than 60%,

overall operating costs by 25-30% and CO2 emissions by up to 30%, without any

fluoride emission. [14]

The present research focuses on carbothermal reduction of bauxite with the major aim

of investigating the effect of the gas atmosphere on the reduction kinetics. The proposed

method involves two steps. Firstly, bauxite is reduced to a ferroalloy of titanium, silicon

and aluminium as well as to their respective carbides. The reduced product is further

heated to decompose aluminium carbide under vacuum or a suitable gas atmosphere to

obtain aluminium vapour, which after condensation produces pure aluminium. Oxides

and carbides of iron, silicon and titanium are separated out after the reduction of bauxite.

The relatively pure alumina obtained from residues can be further reduced to produce

metallic aluminium.

This research thesis encompasses reduction experiments and subsequent

characterisation of the reduced samples with the aim of understanding and enhancing

the efficiency of the carbothermal reduction for aluminium production, which has the

potential to lower the adverse impact on the environment.


This study may lead to a better understanding of aluminium production with reduced

negative effect on the environment. Experimental results are of great interest for both

applied and scientific research. This study may also be important for better

understanding of bauxite reduction processes.

The thesis is structured as follows. Chapter 2 includes a survey of the published

literature with some background information. It establishes a foundation for the current

research and includes a statement of the specific research aims. Chapter 3 describes the

experimental procedures and techniques employed in the characterization analysis of

samples. Major experimental results, analysis and discussion are presented in Chapter 4.

Chapter 5 summarises the main conclusions of the research and recommendations are

made for further research.


2 Literature Review

2.1 Introduction to Bauxite, Alumina and Aluminium

The present method for production of aluminium was discovered nearly simultaneously

and completely independently in 1886 by Paul-Louis Heroult in France and Charles

Martin Hall in the United States.

Alumina or aluminium oxide is made from bauxite via the Bayer process followed by

smelting using the Hall–Heroult process to produce primary aluminium. The Bayer

process produces pure alumina from bauxite ore, and the Hall–Heroult process produces

aluminium from alumina. The primary aluminium produced is 99.5–99.8 % pure. [15]

2.1.1 Bauxite

Aluminium begins as an ore, bauxite, which contains high concentrations of aluminium

hydroxide minerals (40-60%) but there are many other ores from which aluminium can

be manufactured. Some of the most common are alunite, kaolinite, illite, dawsonite and

anorthosite. Compared with other ores, bauxite is the richest of the aluminium bearing

ores and also contains the smallest percentage of impurities. [16] Table 2-1 gives the

mass % of alumina in the major forms of aluminous containing materials.


Table 2-1 Composition of other aluminium containing ores on a mass percent basis [16]

Bauxite is converted to alumina via the Bayer process. Approximately 98% of primary

aluminium production is based on bauxite. [17] Bauxite is a naturally occurring,

heterogeneous material composed primarily of one and more aluminium hydroxide

minerals plus different types of mixtures of silica, iron oxide, titania and other

impurities.

Bauxite results from the decay and weathering of aluminium bearing rocks, often

igneous but not necessarily so. It may form residual deposits replacing the original rock.

Large amounts of bauxite can be discovered in tropical and subtropical areas, for

example, the West Indies, South America and Australia. [18]

Australia has huge reserves of bauxite. In 2000 it was the leading worldwide bauxite

producer with a production share of 39%. Second in terms of bauxite production was

Guinea which has 13%, followed by Brazil (10%) and Jamaica (8%) (Table 2-2).

Generally the bauxite is extracted by open cast working methods. It is then washed and


screened to remove extraneous dirt. The lumps of washed ore may be treated locally at

the mining place for the production of alumina, or the raw materials will be delivered to

locations for processing the using Bayer process.

2.1.2 Alumina

The chemical formula for alumina is Al2O3. It is a ceramic oxide material that has been

used as a biomedical implant material since the early 1970s. [19] It represents the

intermediate stage between the naturally occurring ore, bauxite and metallic aluminium.

In material science and related fields, Al2O3 can refer to one of many chemical

compounds including amorphous hydrous and anhydrous oxides, crystalline hydroxides

and oxides, and alumina materials containing small amounts of alkali or alkali earth

oxides. Thermodynamically, the most stable form of Al2O3 is the hexagonal crystal

structure. The usual type of alumina encountered in biomedical engineering applications

is either polycrystalline form (alumina) or single crystal form (sapphire). [20]

A number of solids, especially fluorides and oxides, possess a high melting point and

are strongly bonded, as the bonds are intermediate ionic and covalent, the stability of

the solids is due to the formation of huge molecules with uniform bonding. [21]


The aluminium and oxygen valence electrons are bonded in a complex manner by

covalent homopolar bonding. Only Al3+ and O2-are present. There are no other atoms.

[22]

Alumina refining is a complex chemical process. The alumina must be purified before it

can be refined to aluminium metal. Commercially, alumina is produced by the Bayer

process, illustrated in Figure 2-2.

Figure 2-1 Structure of crystal alumina [19]


Figure 2-2 Schematic representation of the Bayer Process depicting its cyclic nature [23]

Mined bauxite ore is finely ground then crushed to a fine powder before chemical

treatment. It is digested in caustic soda, NaOH, at high temperature (~250oC) and

pressure (~3 atm) to form water soluble aluminium hydroxide. The aluminium

hydroxide is then precipitated from the soda solution, washed and dried while the soda

solution is recycled. The overall reactions are as follows:

Al2O3 (in bauxite) + 2OH- + 3H2O → 2[Al(OH)]- (1)

Impurities are removed via setting or filtration followed by cooling of the solution to

room temperature in precipitator tanks where agitation with seed crystals generates the

precipitation of alumina in a hydrated form. Subsequently it is collected, washed free of


caustic, dried, and lastly calcined at temperature up to ~1100oC in rotary kilns to

produce alumina, a white powder.

By calcination, aluminium hydroxide loses water to form alumina:

2 Al(OH)3 → Al2O3 + 3 H2O (2)

After calcination the end product, aluminium oxide, is in a white powder form, shown

below.

Figure 2-3 Fine white powder of aluminium oxide [24]

Source from http://www.e-reful.com/products/white-fused-alumina.html

In China most of the local bauxite ores contain a high proportion of Si and therefore a

combined Bayer process and bauxite calcination method is used for alumina refining.

[25] The Bayer process is capable of producing large quantities of powder

inexpensively and with high purity. Raw material is readily available and the price is

relatively stable in the market. [26]


Alumina can occur in the hydrate forms as trihydrate Al2O3．3 H2O (gibbsite) or the

monohydrate Al2O3．H2O (boehmite) because of nature tendencies and the bauxite can

contain either of these forms or a mixture. During the extraction of the alumina from

bauxite with caustic soda, silica separates out with other insoluble residue producing red

mud slurry. [27] The mud is diluted and sent for filter pressing. It is then pumped away

as slurry into large man made lagoons. The by-product, red mud, still has no

commercial use.

Table 2-2 shows a number of clear differences among countries with respected to

bauxite, alumina and aluminium production. In 2000, Australia was the largest supplier

globally of both bauxite and alumina. Australian alumina comprised some 31% of the

50.9 million tonnes of alumina produced worldwide. On the other hand, United States,

China and Jamaica produced 9%, 8% and 7% respectively.

The activity of primary industries often yields substantial amounts of by–products. Red

mud is a by-product in the processing of bauxite to alumina through the Bayer process.

Its chemical and physical characteristics rely on the origin and treatment of the bauxite.

Red mud is composed largely of Fe and Ti oxides, behaving as chemically inert matter

with variable percentages of nominal SiO2, Al2O3 and Na2O. The material is typically

available as a watery mixture which settles slowly and may easily be conveyed from

station to station by continuous fluid carrying machinery. [11]


Table 2-2 Geography of Aluminium Production and Consumption in 2000 [17]

Chemical analyses show that the characteristics of chromium, lead and sodium in the

red mud are different from those normally found in sediments. The pH value of the

liquid in red mud is about 12.8. The reason is that the presence of caustic remaining

after Bayer processing. Dethlefsen and Rosenthal [28] found Al3+, Fe2+, Ca2+, Cl- and S2-

in red mud and also measured the pH of the sea water of pH 0.2 after dumping it.

Consequently red mud is viewed as a corrosive substance requiring careful handling.

Primary production (%)

Bauxite Alumina Primary Aluminium

Europe 9 22 33

France 0 1 2

Germany 0 2 3

Asia 13 11 21

China 6 8 12

India 5 0 3

Africa 13 1 5

Guinea 13 1 0

South Africa 0 0 3

America 26 33 34

Brazil 10 7 5

Canada 0 2 10

Jamaica 8 7 0

United States 0 9 15

Australia 39 31 7


Table 2-3 XRF analyses of red mud expressed as % oxide [29]

Table 2-3 gives the information about the average percentage of oxides in red mud from

different countries.

The major industry environmental impact is the large amounts of red mud waste at

alumina production. There are various forms of waste materials in the alumina

production processes which include sludge and solid residues. The exact composition of

red mud depends on the source of the bauxite and its treatment during production.

Depending on the source of the bauxite, between 1.0 tons to 1.5 tonnes of red mud are

produced per ton of alumina. [31] The traditional storage in nearby dumps can be

impractical owing to the considerable masses involved and environmental restrictions.

[32] The previous findings on red mud toxicity are attributed to aluminium and iron

being present in mud at high concentrations. [33] Other reports also focused on Al(III)

and Fe(III) associated toxicity as well as the complex mixtures and their type of salts.

[34]

Several laboratory experiments were carried out to assess the effects of red mud on

Country Fe2O3 TiO2 CaO Al2O3

Brazil 45.6 4.3 15.6 15.1

Germany 44.8 12.3 5.4 16.2

Italy 15.2 6.2 18.6 24.7

Spain 37.5 11.5 4.4 21.2

USA 35.5 6.3 8.5 18.4

Australia [30] 47.0 5.0 3.7 20.2


marine organisms, by Dethlefsen and Rosenthal. [28] The results showed that red mud

is harmful to a variety of organisms and the most predominant effect was agglutination

of gill tissues. Dumping red mud in the sea would endanger the stocks of bottom ocean

fauna and should therefore take place in areas without water life at depths greater than

3000 m. Liu et al. [9] indicated that environmental concerns have motivated the Bayer

process industry in the west to increasingly adopt processes to neutralise the red mud

before disposal.

2.1.3 Aluminium

Aluminum is a silvery white coloured metal having high reflectivity of light and heat.

Aluminium has an electrical conductivity high enough to permit its use as an electrical

conductor. [35] Impurities such as titanium, vanadium and chromium have a negative

effect on conductivity. Aluminium, normally combined with sufficient amounts of iron

and silicon, has improved tensile strength and conductivity.

A flat clean surface of pure aluminium reflects approximately 80 to 85% incident visible

radiation which has led to its wide use in lighting fixtures. [21] A flat aluminium surface

absorbs less heat than other metals such as copper and steel. This property can be

applied in the construction of various types of light and heat reflectors: for instance

houses with roofs of this material are cooler in summer.

The most important applications for aluminium include building and construction, such

as roof constructions, offshore installations, stairways, window frames and doors;


transportation, for example in airplanes, cars, trains, ships; packaging for food or

beverages; and electrical technology, for instance, power transmission lines,

transformers and panels. [36] The automotive industries prefer using aluminium where

possible due to its light weight which improves fuel consumption and decreases

pollution emissions.

In the Hall-Heroult process the starting materials are alumina, electrical energy and

carbon. Smelting is a process of electrolytic reduction in a molten bath of natural and

synthetic cryolite (Na3AlF6) to convert alumina to aluminium at 960oC. Normally it has

a range of purity between 99.5 and 99.8 percent aluminium. The two main impurities

are iron and silicon. [15]

The Hall–Heroult process is an electrolysis process so aluminium smelters use a

prodigious amount of electricity. This is done in batteries of electric furnaces called

reduction cells or pots. The reduction cells are shallow steel tanks lined with carbon.

Smelting is run as a batch process with the aluminium metal deposited at the bottom of

the pots and periodically drained off. Figure 2-4 presents a schematic of an electrolytic

cell for aluminium smelting.

The anodes are consumed during the process when they react with the oxygen from the

alumina. Oxygen in the alumina separates and combines with the carbon from the

anodes. Under constant power carbon dioxide is produced leaving molten aluminium to

collect at the bottom of the cells.

The reaction is based on electrolysis of alumina in molten cryolite, the only medium

into which alumina reasonably dissolves. Upon the flow of current, the following


overall chemical reaction takes place for the production of primary aluminium:

2Al2O3 (dissolved) + 3C (solid, anode) → 4Al (molten) + 3CO2 (gas) (3)

Figure 2-4 Profile of a modern electrolytic cell used in Hall-Heroult process [37]

1. Steel shell; 2. Insulation; 3. Cathode; 4. Iron cathode bar; 5. Cathodic curry entry;

6. Liquid aluminium; 7. Electrolyte; 8. Prebaked anodes; 9. Steel nipple; 10. Anode beam;

11. Aluminium oxide hopper; 12. Gas suction unit; 13. Detachable covers; 14. Crust crusher.

2.2 Aluminium Alloy

The alloys of aluminium are generally of similar colour, some with a bluish tinge. The

pure aluminium produced through the methods explained previously is a relatively weak

material. Much larger increases in strength can be obtained by alloying it with small

percentages of other metals such as copper, magnesium, manganese and zinc, usually in


combinations of two or more of these elements together with iron and silicon. Some of

the alloys are further strengthened and hardened by heat treatments so that today

aluminium alloys possessing tensile strengths approaching 100,000 pounds per square

inch are available. [38] When the aluminium is applied in the construction or industrial

fields the greater mechanical strength allows it to meet the requirements of a wide range

of situations. The molten aluminium is transported to the cast house where it is alloyed

in holding furnaces by the addition of other metals. Subsequently the metal is cast into

ingots, rolled ingots or extrusions, depending on the proposed use for the aluminium or

aluminium alloys. [7]

The molten aluminium is transported to the cast house where it is alloyed in holding

furnaces by the addition of other metals. Subsequently the metal is cast into ingots,

rolled ingots or extrusions, depending on the proposed use for the aluminium or

aluminium alloys. [7] The alloys can be considered as three main groups: ingot derived

from remelting, shaped casting; and mechanically worked (wrought) products. Heat

treatable alloys assume the various forms by means of mechanical working. The

material can be shaped into plates, sheets, foil, bars, extrusions, hollow sections, forging

stock, forgings, tubes, wires, rivets and solid conductors. [35]

The alloys for castings will be referred to using the BS 1490 LM designations and the

internationally agreed four digit system is used for wrought alloys. The first of the four

digits in the designation demonstrates the major alloying element of alloys within the

group, as Table 2-4.


Table 2-4 Classification of aluminium alloys [39]

The increasing demands of engine makers led to major research projects to further

improve aluminium alloys and in turn the resultant stronger materials able to withstand

higher temperatures led to further new applications.

The first digit is representing the main alloy element in aluminium alloys. Second two

digits indicate the different aluminium alloys (impurity or the adding special alloy

modification). Last digit demonstrates the product forms.

2.3 Metal Oxides Impurities in Bauxite Ores

The differentiation of bauxites is mainly in terms of the age of the deposits and the

weathering conditions to which they were exposed. Potassium (K), sodium (Na),

1XXX Aluminium of 99.00% minimum purity

2XXX Copper

3XXX Manganese

4XXX Silicon

5XXX Magnesium

6XXX Magnesium plus silicon

7XXX Zinc

8XXX Other elements

9XXX Unused series


manganese (Mg), and calcium (Ca) are the common impurities in bauxite. However,

there are four main oxides, silicon dioxide (SiO2), titanium dioxide (TiO2), iron oxide

(Fe2O3) and aluminium oxide (Al2O3) occupying the large percentage in bauxite.

Following sections are only focused on these main four oxides.

2.4 Carbothermal Reduction of Bauxite

In order to achieve sustainable production it is very important to find technological

alternatives to overcome the environmental problems, caused during alumina

production. Few studies have been published on carbothermal reduction of bauxite.

Cochran [40] estimated that the costs for any new process would have to be almost half

of the average Bayer/Hall-Heroult process to allow profitable operation through the

lows in the price cycle for aluminium. Murray [41] provided extensive discussion of the

applications which use high temperature solar process to replace the traditional methods

of producing aluminium. Li et al [42], demonstrated that alumina can be reduced to

aluminium carbide in a hydrogen atmosphere at temperatures as low as 1600oC to

1700oC. The carbothermal reaction strongly depends on the homogeneity of the

bauxite-carbon mixture.

In the carbothermal reduction processes organic liquids are commonly used to

homogenize and bind the starting powders with the carbon source. [43] Most of the

alumina will be reduced to aluminium carbide due to the high content of alumina in the

bauxite ore material and the relatively low solubility of aluminium in the molten phase.

Halmann et al. [12] aptly pointed out that utilising alumina, methane and oxygen as

reagents, the coproduction of aluminium with syngas, to be converted to methanol,

yields likely fuel savings of about 68% and CO2 emission decreases of about 91%.


Moreover there is a fuel saving of fuel saved of 66% and CO2 emission avoidance of

15% when carbon is used as reducing agent.

An excess of carbon is generally required in carbothermal reduction in order to:

(a) Increase the reaction rate;

(b) Help to complete the transformation;

(c) Improve the dispersion of the powder; and

(d) Control the powder aggregation.

Bauxites include four main components which are alumina, titania, silica and iron

oxides. Following sections are going to introduce the situation for each oxides reduced

by carbothermal reduction.

2.4.1 Carbothermal Reduction of Alumina

The overall reaction of carbothermal reduction for converting alumina to metallic

aluminium is listed as below:

Al2O3 + 3C → 2Al +3CO (4)

This reaction occurs in two stages. The first is the reduction from alumina to aluminium

carbide, Al4C3, shown as reaction (5). At the second stage, the Al4C3 reacts with excess

alumina and metallic aluminium is formed according to reaction (6).

2Al2O3 + 9C →Al4C3 + 6CO (5)


Al4C3 +Al2O3 → 6Al +3CO (6)

Yuan et al. [4] reported that at the ALCOA Corporation a charge of Al2O3 and C was

inserted into a high temperature upper reaction zone to form liquid mixtures of Al2O3

and Al4C3 which was then transferred to a lower reaction zone for the extraction of

liquid Al.

Wang et al. [44] used bauxite as raw material of alumina, coal as reducing agent and

anhydrous – AlCl3 as chloridising agent. The overall reaction can be represented by

Al2O3 +3C +AlCl3 → 3AlCl + 3CO (7)

3AlCl → 2Al +AlCl3 (8)

Both reactions are complicated by the formation of aluminium carbide, and oxycarbides

in the carbothermal reduction process. Another issue is that the impurities from raw

materials have uncertain effects on the carbothermic-chlorination processes.

Li et al. [45] mentioned that the internal mass transfer in the gas phase plays a major

role in the reduction kinetics in a reaction cycle. Al vapour reacts with Al2O3 to form

gaseous Al2O; the latter diffuses to graphite and reacts with carbon regenerating Al

vapour; then the Al vapour diffuses to Al2O3 phase (Figure 2-5).

They also found that the aluminium carbide in hydrogen and helium was close to

completion in 180 min at 1600oC and in 60 min at 1700oC. In argon a higher

temperature and longer reaction time are required.


Carbothermal reduction for aluminium production has been found to be compatible with

the induction shaft furnace electrochemical dissociation process [46] and the high

temperature reduction-aluminium scrap cooling process. [47]

Figure 2-5 Schematic of the reaction mechanism of the carbothermal reduction of Al2O3

I. Al2O3 + 4Al(g) → 3Al2O(g), △Go = -113.1 - 0.0084T (kJ)

II. Al2O + C →2Al(g) + CO, △Go = 689-0.264T (kJ)

III. 2Al2O(g) + 5C → Al4C3 + 2CO, △Go = -124 + 0.016T (kJ)

2.4.2 Carbothermal Reduction of Titania

Titanium carbide powder can be produced from titanium oxide from carbothermal

reduction. Sen et al. [48] indicated that carbothermal reduction of titanium dioxide

using a vacuum condition, with charcoal and plentiful TiC, can be found at 1550oC.

The overall carbothermal reduction reaction for titanium dioxide is:

TiO2 + 3C → TiC + 2CO (9)

I II

III


This reaction proceeds thermodynamically at 1289oC. It can be separated into three

parts:

4TiO2 + C → Ti4O7 + CO (10)

3Ti4O7 + C → 4Ti3O5 + CO (11)

Ti3O5 + 8C → 3TiC + 5CO (12)

In contrast, Woo et al. [49] strongly believe that the formation of TiCxOy was completed

in a specimen which was reacted at 1500oC with carbon for five minutes. After five

minutes the TiCxOy lost more oxygen as the purification of TiC proceeded. The similar

conclusion also pointed out by Berger et al. [50] There are three reaction steps in the

carbothermal reduction of titanium dioxide, schematically shown in Figure 2-6.

Figure 2-6 Schematic of the reaction mechanism of the carbothermal reduction of TiO2 [50]


The steps involved in the reduction are as follows:

I. CO, which is formed at the very beginning by a solid state reaction between the

oxide and carbon particles or by destruction of oxygen containing functional

groups at the carbon surface, acts as a reduction agent, resulting in the formation

of lower oxides (TinO2n-1).

II. CO acts as a reduction agent again and simultaneously is disproportionate at the

surface of TinO2n-1. The surface is rich in lattice defects which accommodates the

incorporation of carbon into the crystal lattice. CO2 is generated and convert to

CO on the solid carbon immediately. According to (CO2 + C → 2CO). Hence the

oxide particles will be the precursors for the oxycarbide formed.

III. Substitution of oxygen by carbon in TiCxOy. The mass transfer is realised by the

same reaction mechanism as in reaction step II.

2.4.3 Carbothermal Reduction of Silica

The carbothermal reduction reaction of SiO2 to the overall reaction is as follows:

SiO2 + C → SiO + CO (13)

SiO2 + CO → SiO + CO2 (14)

Reaction (13) includes a multiple step process. The first step is SiO2 reduction by

carbon forming gaseous SiO with CO. Again CO can also be the reduction agent for

SiO2 and SiO can also be generated according to the above reaction (14).


CO2 + C → 2CO (15)

SiO + 2C → SiC + CO (16)

SiO + 3CO → SiC +CO2 (17)

Any created CO2 will react with the surrounding carbon immediately to form CO gas,

followed by the gaseous SiO reacting with C and CO. CO2 from reaction (17) is

followed by reaction (15) to synthesis CO, and the CO from reaction (15) can be

utilised for reaction (14) where formed gas SiO and according to reaction (17), so that it

becomes a cycle. [51] The generation rate of CO gas increases with rising temperature.

[52]

Weimer et al. [53] proposed a mechanism for the carbothermal reduction synthesis of

SiC. The schematic and sequence of reactions involved are shown in Figure 2-7.

By this mechanism, SiO is initially formed at the contact points of the carbon and silica

particles (I). In reactions steps gaseous SiO as an intermediate product is formed and

reacts as the surface of carbon particles (IV). SiC crystallites resembling the starting

carbon crystallites in size and morphology prior to gain growth. Therefore the mass is

mainly transferred from the starting SiO2 to the carbon particle which is the precursor of

the SiC.

I C(s) + SiO2(s) → SiO(g) + CO(g) II SiO2(s) + CO(g) → SiO(g) + CO2(g) III C(s) + CO2(g) → 2CO(g) IV 2C(s) + SiO(g) → SiC(s) +CO(g)


Figure 2-7 Schematic of the reaction mechanism of the carbothermal reduction of SiO2 [54]

2.4.4 Carbothermal Reduction of Iron Oxides

There are three forms of iron oxide: hematite (Fe2O3), magnetite (Fe3O4) and wustite

(FeO). These oxides are reduced in stages.

3Fe2O3 + CO → 2Fe3O4 + CO2 (18)

Fe3O4 + CO → 3FeO + CO2 (19)

FeO + CO → Fe + CO2 (20)

Figure 2-8 shows the quantitative iron phase and carbon percentages as a function of

temperature. The analysis by Liu et al. [54] showed that when the Fe3+ started to reduce

at 450oC the reduction was almost complete at 870oC. The percentage of Fe2+ climbed

from 450oC, reaching the top point at 870oC and then falling with further heating up to

1100oC. The metallic iron rapidly increased from 870oC and reached up to 98.7% at

1200oC. They also demonstrated that the carbon reduced rapidly at temperatures above

800oC due to carbon gasification. This research helps to understand the reduction

process of iron oxide from 3+ state to metallic iron in bauxite and carbon start to

consume generally when the temperature increases.


Figure 2-8 Iron phase change and carbon content as a function of temperature [54]

2.5 Thermodynamics and Kinetics of Carbothermal Reduction

The carbothermal method for production of aluminium has been the subject of much

research effort for almost half century, and has involved substantial investments by the

major aluminium producers. In stark contrast, however, its development has not reached

the industrial level yet.

During carbothermal reduction, the alumina and carbon fraction decrease generally with

increasing reaction temperature. The carbothermal reaction strongly depends on the

homogeneity of the alumina and carbon mixture. Furthermore, compressing the mixture

and the eventual incorporation of a carbon generating binder can extend the solid-solid


interface. Alumina and carbon enable to be the most suitable starting mixture by chosen

on the basis of such different criteria as purity, fineness, narrow particle size distribution,

uniform particle shape, cost, and without hard agglomeration. [55]

2.5.1 Thermodynamics

The production of aluminium is an energy intensive process. The enthalpy change (ΔH)

is the total amount of energy required in the reaction. Moreover an amount equal to the

Gibbs free energy change (ΔG) of the reaction is required, as high quality energy which

is expensive. [56]

Figure 2-9 Illustration of the energy required to produce one kg of aluminium via the carbothermal

reduction of alumina [41]

Figure 2-9 shows that while the total energy required remains fairly constant with

increasing temperature, the amount of high quality (expensive energy) that must be


added decreases linearly.

Bauxite contains mainly hematite, alumina, silica and titania. Carbothermal reduction of

these oxides and related Gibbs free energy changes and equilibrium temperature under

standard condition are listed below:

Fe2O3 + 3C → 2Fe + 3CO,

△Go = 478.54 – 0.516T (kJ) (21)

Teq = 654 °C

Al2O3 +3C → 2Al + 3CO,

△Go = 1269.13 – 0.547T (kJ) (22)

Teq = 2047 °C

SiO2 + 2C = Si + 2CO,

△Go = 722.90 – 0.373T (kJ) (23)

Teq = 1665 °C

TiO2 + 2C → Ti + 2CO,

△Go = 708.49–0.348T (kJ) (24)

Teq = 1765 °C

From above equations, metal iron can be easily formed by carbothermal reduction of

Fe2O3. Formation of metallic aluminium, silicon, and titanium is much more difficult,

with equilibrium temperatures under standard conditions of 2047, 1665 and 1765°C.

Even though, the formation of these metals is possible in experiments if they are


dissolved in iron to form a ferroalloy. Another factor favouring their formation is that

the partial pressure of CO in experiments can be significantly lower than 1 atm when

the experiments are carried out in the atmosphere of another gas such as argon or

hydrogen.

Because aluminium, titanium and silicon are highly reactive metals, carbothermal

reduction of their pure oxides usually forms corresponding carbides:

Al2O3 + (9/4)C → (1/2)Al4C3 + 3CO,

△Go = 1198.88 – 0.528T (kJ) (25)

Teq = 1997 °C

SiO2 +3C → SiC + 2CO,

△Go = 589.19 – 0.327T (kJ) (26)

Teq = 1529 °C

TiO2 + 3C → TiC + 2CO,

△Go = 524.13 – 0.334T (kJ) (27)

Teq = 1569 °C

Carbothermal reduction of bauxite ores in this investigation is more complex than

reduction of individual oxides, and the final products can be complex too, which needs

careful characterisation. Furthermore, reduction of Fe2O3 and TiO2 can proceed in

multiple steps, which makes the thermodynamics more complex. However, this

complexity does not change the overall conclusions of above thermodynamic analysis.


Figure 2-10 Standard Gibbs free energy changes of Reactions (21) – (28)

Figure 2-10 summarises the standard Gibbs free energy changes of Reactions (21) –

(27). It is clear that hematite is the easiest to be reduced to metallic iron. The tendency

to reduce titania and silica to titanium and silicon is very close, which is more difficult

than reducing to their carbides. Reduction of alumina to metallic aluminium has the

highest standard Gibbs free energy change, and needs the highest temperature to

proceed. Relatively, formation of aluminium carbide is slightly easier than reduction to

metallic aluminium, and so is the preferred product. However, as stated previously,

ferroalloy of silicon, titanium and aluminium can be formed due to existence of metallic

iron which will be saturated with carbon and melted above 1153 °C.

-500

-400

-300

-200

-100

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

500 700 900 1100 1300 1500 1700 1900 2100 2300 2500

Stan

dar

d G

ibb

s fr

ee

en

erg

y ch

ange

(kJ

)

Temperature (K)

Eq.21 (Fe) Eq.22 (Al)

Eq.23 (Si) Eq.24 (Ti)

Eq.25 (Al4C3) Eq.26 (SiC)

Eq.27 (TiC) Eq.28 (CO)


It is also strongly believed that the carbothermal reduction of solid oxides proceeds

through the gas phase, when an oxide is reduced by CO which is regenerated by the

Boudouard reaction. [56]

C(s) + CO2(g)→ 2CO(g),

△Go = 160.77 – 0.168T (kJ) (28)

The standard Gibbs free energy change of Reaction (28) is also included in Figure 2-10.

Boudouard reaction is favoured at high temperatures. At lower reduction temperatures

CO2 is the favourite product, whereas CO is formed in higher temperature reactions.

2.5.2 Kinetics

Factors affecting the kinetics of carbothermal reduction of bauxite ores include ore

composition, temperature, gas atmosphere, carbon to oxide ratio, particles size, gas flow

rate, etc.

As demonstrated in the thermodynamic analysis, reduction of titanium, silicon and

aluminium oxides from bauxite ores needs high temperature. Besides, high temperature

enhances reaction kinetics according to Arrhenius law. However, direct heating of

bauxite ores to a high temperature will melt the ores to form a slag phase of metal

oxides, which decreases the activities of the metal oxides, and increases the resistance

of the metal oxides to diffuse to the carbon phase for a reduction reaction to take place.

That is why this investigation reduces the bauxite ores in steps so that formation of a

slag phase will be avoided, and the oxides are reduced in solid phase.


Gas atmosphere can affect the reduction kinetics in different ways. Firstly, the reaction

of carbon and metal oxides in separate phases is through gas phase. This includes CO as

a reaction intermediate, as previously mentioned. For the reduction of silica, vapour SiO

plays an important role, while Al and Al2O vapours are involved in the reduction of

alumina. Different gas atmosphere can change the diffusivity of above gas species in the

gas phase, so as to change the mass transfer rate between two phases and so the reaction

kinetics. When CO is used, it will promote the reduction of hematite as a reductant.

However, its high partial pressure will suppress the reduction of alumina, silica and

titania thermodynamically. Using of hydrogen is expected to enhance the reaction

kinetics, because it is a reductant, can increase the gas diffusivity, and may promote the

transfer of carbon to the oxide phase by formation of methane.

High carbon content in the solid sample can provide more surface area for reaction with

Al2O3 and Al2O as well as accelerating nucleation. Consequently faster reduction can be

reached. Figure 2-11 shows that the higher the weight ratio of C/Al2O3, the faster the

reaction. [57]

Using carbon of finer particle size can achieve similar effect. Same amount of carbon

with small particle size possesses large surface area and accelerates the reaction. When

the particle size is small, the distance of the diffusion of reductive gas in the solid

matrix is small, the intermediate gas species can diffuse easily from the reaction surface

of a particle to another, and the reaction is accelerated.


Figure 2-11 The effect of C/Al2O3 weight ratio on the conversion of alumina at 1500oC [57]

The reduction reactions can be beneficiated by mixing starting materials homogeneously.

Furthermore, compressing the mixture and eventual incorporation of a carbon

generating binder can extend the solid-solid interface. The most suitable raw materials,

bauxite and carbon, can be chosen on the basis of such different criteria as purity,

fineness, narrow particle size distribution, uniform particle shape, cost, and with no hard

agglomeration.

A higher gas flow rate in reduction experiments may favour reduction because it will

reduce the partial pressure of CO, besides reducing external mass transfer resistance.

The reason is that the pressure of inlet gas is increased; simultaneously, the resistance of

the gas film mass transfer is reduced. Motlagh [58] found that the rates of reduction are

directly related to the gas flow rate from his direct reduction of Australian lump iron ore

experiment.


When the reduction temperature is high enough, ferroalloy of titanium, silicon and

aluminium will be produced. Fused iron may promote reduction by enhancing carbon

transfer through the molten phase. However, too much molten phase will obstruct

diffusion of CO generated in reduction and retard further reaction.

2.6 Summary and Scope of the Thesis

This review of academic literature shows that there is much interest in the discovery and

development of reduction bauxite. Novel manufacture methods and cost effective

carbide of silicon and titanium, alloys and aluminium are of particularly high appeal.

The proposed project involves the development of an environmentally sustainable

technology for aluminium production that will avoid the generation of red mud sludge.

This project investigates stepwise carbothermal reduction of bauxite at different

temperature levels. The ultimate aim of this project is to establish the fundamentals for a

sustainable technology for aluminium production from bauxite ore, together with the

production of valuable by-products in the process. The difference between this project

and previous works is that the raw material, bauxite, will be used directly. Based on

analysis of simple model systems, the reduction temperature is expected to be

significantly lower, and the formation of a molten Al4O4C-Al4C3 phase will be avoided.

[59] Thus, many potential difficulties in commercialisation of the above processes will

be avoided.

This thesis will describe the effect of different factors such as carbon/alumina ratio, gas

composition, and flow rate. It will develop an understanding on the kinetics and


mechanisms of reduction of various metal oxides in bauxite via carbothermal reduction.

It will ascertain the optimal conditions for production of metallic aluminium and

ferroalloy by-products.


3 Experimental

This study was to explore the feasibility of stepwise carbothermal reduction of bauxite.

The reduction experiments were carried out under argon and hydrogen atmospheres in a

molybdenum disilicide high temperature vertical tube furnace using mixtures of bauxite

ores (from Western Australia and Queensland) and synthetic graphite. The reducing

temperature range was from 850°C to 1600°C. Effluent gas was analysed by a

CO/CO2/CH4 infra-red (IR) analyser. Ore samples without mixing with graphite were

also reduced in CO gas to examine reduction of iron oxide impurities.

Carbothermal reduction of bauxite ore first was the temperature programmed

experiments. CO/CO2 curve from here identified the reduction stages temperature zones.

Second, were the step-by-step reductions (Table 3-3) which hold the temperature after

reach the target temperature for a period of time (30 mins) to let the samples reduced

completely. Samples were stopped at different temperatures after the peak in reduction

peak had occurred. The composition of the reduced samples was analysed using X-Ray

Diffraction (XRD). Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray

Spectroscopy (EDS) were also utilised to identify the components. Carbon and oxygen

contents were analysed using LECO carbon and oxygen analysers. The extent of

reduction was determined by means of gas and sample analyses.

Following tables list present project. Table 3-1 is showing the first heating of Western

Australian and Queensland bauxite mixed with carbon. The purpose here was obtaining

the CO/CO2 curve for the whole reduction of bauxites.


WB/C: Western Australian bauxite mixing with carbon (C:O= 1.2:1)

QB/C: Queensland bauxite mixing with carbon (C:O= 1.2:1)

WB: Western Australian bauxite without mixing with carbon

QB: Queensland bauxite without mixing with carbon

Table 3-1 Preliminary experiments of reduction of bauxites to identify reduction stages

Sample Reduction temperature (oC) Atmosphere

Checked CO/CO2 Curve

WB/C 500-1600 Ar

QB/C 500-1600 Ar

Table 3-2 Temperature programmed reduction experiments


Temperature Programmed Experiment

WB/C 850-1100 Ar

WB/C 850-1300 Ar

WB/C 850-1360 Ar

WB/C 850-1500 Ar

WB/C 850-1600 Ar

QB/C 850-1100 Ar

QB/C 850-1350 Ar

QB/C 850-1600 Ar


Table 3-3 Step-by-step reduction experiments


Step-by-Step Experiments

WB/C 850-980 Ar

WB/C 850-1032 Ar

WB/C 850-1360 Ar

WB/C 850-1600 Ar

QB/C 850-1051 Ar

QB/C 850-1255 Ar

QB/C 850-1600 Ar

Table 3-4 Reduction of bauxites under different conditions


Different gaseous reduction

WB/C 1600 CO

WB 1600 CO

WB/C 1100 CO

WB 1100 CO

QB/C 1600 CO

QB 1600 CO

QB/C 1100 CO

QB 1100 CO

WB/C 1600 H2

QB/C 1600 H2


3.1 Materials

The raw materials used in the project were:

(1) Metallurgical grade bauxite from Western Australia.

(2) Metallurgical grade bauxite from Queensland.

(3) Synthetic graphite with a powder size <20 µm. (99.97% purity)

Bauxite is a mixed ore which contains a lot of oxides. It is very difficult to calculate the

oxygen contain certainly because the percentage of some oxides is very low. Luckily

there are four main oxides in bauxite which are Al2O3, Fe2O3, SiO2 and TiO2. Current

project will focus on these four oxides including analysis, calculation, XRD and EDS

data. The major compositions of the two bauxite ores investigated in this project are

presented in Table 3-5. Both bauxite ores were supplied by Rio Tinto Alcan and data are

measured from chemistry laboratory UNSW by X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF).

Table 3-5 Major components of bauxites by XRF, wt%

(Alcoa), %

Component Western Australian Bauxite Queensland Bauxite

Al2O3 39.9 52.5

Fe2O3 19.3 13.6

SiO2 17.3 6.5

TiO2 1.3 2.6


Western Australian bauxite comprised approximately 40% aluminium oxide, one fifth of

iron oxide, 17% silicon dioxide and ~ 1% of titanium dioxide. Compared with Western

Australian bauxite the most significant change to take place between the compositions

in Queensland bauxite are the percentage of aluminium oxide and silicon dioxide. More

than half the aluminium oxide exists in Queensland bauxite with 13% iron oxide and

6% silicon dioxide. Titanium dioxide is only 2.6% in Queensland bauxite. Graphite

powder was supplied by Sigma-Aldrich, Australia.

3.2 Gases

The gases used in the project were argon and hydrogen, and they were supplied by Air

Liquid (Australia). Carbon monoxide was supplied by Core gas (Australia).

Specifications are as follow:

● Argon Gas, 99.999%,Ultra High Purity.

● Hydrogen Gas, 99.999%, Ultra High Purity.

● Carbon Monoxide Gas, 99.5%, High Purity.

3.3 Sample Preparation

The reduction mixture was prepared by mixing raw materials. The amount of graphite

added was sufficient that to C:O = 1.2:1 (in Bauxite) molar ratio. A wet mixing method

was used in order to obtain a uniform mixture. The powders were intimately mixed by

addition of 0.3 wt% CMC (Carboxymethyl Cellulose) as a binder and 60 wt% (dry basis)

of water. All these chemicals, together with 8-10 ceramic balls (φ 8.1mm), were placed

into a 500mL plastic container using ball milling for about five hours to form a paste.


The paste was dried in an oven at 105°C for 12 hours. Then the powder was pressed

into cylindrical pellets using a 10 tonnes hydraulic press, manufactured by Enerpac,

NSW, Australia. The pellets were pressed at 3kN for two minutes. The final pellet was

8mm in diameter and about 10 mm in height. The mass was approximately one gram.

3.4 Experimental Set Up

3.4.1 Experimental Furnace

The experiments were carried out in a molybdenum disilicide high temperature vertical

tube furnace manufactured by Ceramic Engineering, Australia. The furnace was heated

by four Kanthal Super 1800 molybdenum disilicide resistance heating elements. Power

to the element was switched from the mains by a phase angle thyristor unit through a

transformer. The thyristor unit was protected by a semiconductor fuse. Power to the

element was controlled by the programmable temperature controller through the phase

angle thyristor. The maximum temperature of 1700oC can be reached.

3.4.2 Reactor Set Up

The schematic of the reactor set up is shown in Figure 3-1. The system consists of an

internal gas ducting tube and an external sheath, both being made of high purity

recrystallised alumina. The internal tube dimensions are 8.6 mm internal diameter, 12

mm external diameter, and 860 mm in length. The external sheath is 19 mm internal

diameter, 24 mm external diameter and 740 mm long. A sample pellet was loaded into a

graphite crucible, which is located at the bottom of the alumina sheath. The temperature

at the top of the pellet was measure by a type B thermocouple which was inserted


through the gas ducting tube. This temperature is referred to as the reduction

temperature. The thermocouple consists of Pt-Rh wires and an insulator held in an

alumina sheath of 6.4 mm OD and 4 mm ID to separate it from contact with reacting

gas atmosphere.

Figure 3-1 Schematic diagram of the reaction system

3.4.3 Gas System

The gas, in which the reduction was studied, passed through the gas inlet into the reactor,

through the sample and finally came out through the gas outlet which was connected

740mm

24mm


with the gas analyser. The furnace protecting gas from external to the reactor was

continuously kept flowing from external to the reactor to avoid oxide formation on the

sample and reactor. Gas flow was maintained until the end of the experiments.

The schematic diagram of the gas system is shown in Figure 3-2. The gases passed

through 4A molecular sieve three columns for removal of moisture before being

introduced into the reactor. The flow rate of the gases was controlled by Brooks

mass-flow controllers (model 5850E mass flow meter and 0154E controlling electronics,

Brooks Instrument, Hatfield, PA). Compositions of effluent gases were monitored by a

CO/CO2/CH4 infrared (IR) analyser (Advanced Optima AO2020, ABB, Germany).

Figure 3-2 Schematic diagram of the gas supply system

The mass flow controller was calibrated for argon, hydrogen and carbon monoxide

gases. Calibration curves obtained using bubble flow meters are shown in Figure 3-3.


Figure 3-3 The setting point of a mass flow controller and corresponding gas flow rate for Ar, CO

and H2

3.5 Experimental Procedure

A known mass of pellet of bauxite-carbon mixture (about 1 gram) was loaded in a

graphite crucible and introduced to the bottom of the reaction tube. The thermocouple

was placed into the reactor and the tube was sealed using fittings and O-rings.

The tests were composed of temperature programmed experiments and step by step

reduction. The samples were flushed with argon gas and then positioned in the hot zone

of the furnace. The reactor system was assembled, and purged with argon at room

temperature for 10-15 minutes to remove air from the system. In temperature

programmed experiments, the furnace temperature was ramped from 850oC until

1600oC at a heating rate of 2oC/min. For step by step reduction experiments, a range of


temperatures were set, between 1100oC to 1600oC, and the heating rate between the

steps was 5oC/min.

After a sample was reduced for certain time the reactor assembly with sample was lifted

from the hot zone of furnace very slowly and the sample was quenched in under the

reaction atmosphere. Fast pulling out of the reactor was avoided to protect the external

alumina sheath from thermal shock and cracking. The reaction gas atmosphere was still

kept flowing during sample cooling to prevent the sample from reacting with air. When

the temperature decreased to the room temperature, the sample and deposit were

removed and weighed. They were kept in a closed desiccator for further analysis.

3.6 Sample Characterisation

The phase composition of samples in the progress of reduction was analysed by XRD.

The contents of oxygen and carbon in the samples were measured by LECO analysis.

3.6.1 X-ray Diffraction Analysis

After the experiments, the phase composition of the reduced samples was analysed

using the powder X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) (Philips X’pert Multipurpose X-Ray

Diffraction System (MPD)). Before the XRD analysis, the reduced sample pellets were

ground to a fine powder. Then the powder was packed in a hollow of 15mm diameter

and 1mm depth on a steel sample holder. The surface of the sample powder was flat.

The phases were identified by XRD using monochromatic Cu Kα radiation.The

parameters for XRD analysis were presented in Table 3-6.


Table 3-6 XRD testing parameters

2θ start angle (o) 20

2θ end angle (o) 80

Step size (o) 0.026

Time per step (s) 0.2

Scan Speed (o/s) 0.13

3.6.2 LECO Analyses

The oxygen content of the reduced samples was measured by LECO (Model

TC-436DR). Approximately 0.05-0.08 gram of the reduced sample powder was loaded

into a tin capsule, and then the capsule was weighed and inserted in a nickel basket. The

nickel basket with the capsule was loaded into a graphite crucible. After the system was

purged by high purity helium, the crucible was heated to the combustion temperature.

The oxygen in the sample reacted with the carbon in the crucible to form carbon

monoxide and carbon dioxide which were detected by thermal conduction detectors.

The carbon content of the reduced samples was detected by combustion method using a

LECO carbon and sulphur determinator (Model TC-444). A sample, about 0.1 gram in

weight, was loaded into a ceramic boat, which was pushed into the hot zone of a furnace

at 1300oC in a flowing oxygen gas. The carbon in the sample was oxidised into CO and

CO2 of which the amounts were detected by CO/CO2 detectors and the carbon content

was calculated and outputted by the LECO analyser.


3.6.3 Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) and Energy Dispersive X-ray

Spectroscopy (EDS)

The morphology of samples was observed using a Hitachi S-4500 Field Emission

Scanning Electron Microscope (FESEM) with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)

attachment. The EDS detector was manufactured by Oxford Instrument ISIS. When the

EDS unit was enabled, the characteristic X-ray produced from electron bombardment

were detected by an energy dispersive spectrometer, which is a solid state device that

discriminates among X-ray energies. By using FESEM/EDS, the sample morphology

and semi-quantitative composition can be deduced.

3.7 Calculation of Extent of Reduction

The extent of reduction was defined as a fraction of oxygen in bauxite removed from

the sample in the process of reduction. The extent of reduction was calculated on the

basis of the off-gas composition as measured by IR analyser and LECO analysis.

3.7.1 Calculation of Extent of Reduction Based on the Off-gas Analysis

Using data of the CO and CO2 concentrations in the off-gas measured by the IR

analyser the extent of reduction was calculated as follows (for the gas flow rate

1L/min):

(44)

(45)


(46)

where VCO (%) and VCO2 (%) are the volume % of CO and CO2 in the off-gas and t is the

reduction time.

Current thesis only focuses on the main oxides in bauxite (Fe2O3, SiO2, TiO2 and Al2O3).

Because the amounts of other oxides are too small compare with these four.

Total mass of O in sample =

3.7.2 Calculation of Extent of Reduction Based on Content of Oxygen in the Reduced

Sample

The extent of reduction was calculated from the remaining oxygen content in the

reduced sample analysed by LECO. The original samples (bauxite and graphite mixture)

had a molar ratio of C:O (in bauxite) = 1.2:1. Therefore, the weight fraction of oxygen


in the original sample before the reduction is:

(47)

where 0Of is the weight fraction of oxygen in the pellet before the reduction, MWx is

the molar weight of X, and fx is the weight fraction of component x in a bauxite ore. The

weight of O ( 0OW ) in the pellet before reduction is:

(48)

where 0sW is the weight of the original pellet before the reduction reaction. The weight

of oxygen in a reduced sample ( tOW ) can be calculated as:

(49)

where tOf is weight fraction of oxygen in the pellet after reduction; t

sW is the sample

weight after reduction. Then the extent of reduction (X) is equal to:

(50)


4 Results and Discussion

Bauxite ores mined from Western Australian and Queensland were reduced using two

reduction procedures. Temperature–programmed reduction was followed by sample

characterisation to identify the stages and temperature range of reduction of different

metal oxides. Further reduction experiments were carried out in different steps, with

each step being at a constant temperature to demonstrate the feasibility of stepwise

reduction of metal oxides from bauxite.

4.1 Progress of Carbothermal Reduction

Temperature–programmed reduction was carried out under a flowing argon gas

atmosphere. The rate of reduction was monitored by detection of CO released from the

reactions using a CO/CO2/CH4 IR analyser.

Figure 4-1 presents the change in CO content in the off–gas during reduction

experiments of both bauxites. The reduction curves consist of multiple overlapped peaks,

indicating that the metal oxides in the bauxite ores were reduced over a range of

temperatures. The concentration of CO can be obtained from the CO/CO2 curve. When

the reaction temperature was increased, an oxide was reduced by carbon, releasing CO.

The reduction curve of Western Australian bauxite is more complex than that of

Queensland bauxite owing to the presence of more impurities in the former ore.


Figure 4-1 Change in CO content in the off-gas during temperature programmed reduction of

Western Australian and Queensland bauxite ores

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

6000

0 100 200 300 400 500

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

CO

leve

l (pp

m)

Minute(s)

Western Australian Bauxite

CO level (ppm)

Temperature, °C

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

0 100 200 300 400 500

Tem

pera

ture

, °C

CO

leve

l (pp

m)

Minute(s)

Queensland Bauxite

CO level (ppm)

Temperature, °C


Based on the major compositions (Table 3-5) and the reducibility of the metal oxides

(thermodynamic consideration), it can be seen that the first major reduction stage

(reduction of iron oxides) took place in the temperature range of 850–1100°C, while the

second major reduction stage (reduction of silica and titania from bauxite) occurred in

the range of 1300–1500°C. Further reduction was mainly attributed to that of alumina,

which was not completely reduced at the end of the experiments.

In the step–by–step reduction experiments, reduction temperatures were decided on the

basis of the peak temperatures of reduction curves in Figure 4-1. For Western Australian

bauxite, 980°C, 1032°C, 1360°C and 1600°C, and for Queensland bauxite, 1051°C,

1255°C and 1600°C were considered as the step temperature. The last temperature,

1600°C, was limited by the maximum operation temperature of the furnace used. The

temperature and CO evolution curves are presented in Figure 4-2.

During the first step in the step–by–step reduction experiments, even though the furnace

was heated to the designated temperatures in advance, the sample temperature took

about 20–30 min to become stable. Therefore, although the reduction temperature is

labelled constant in Figure 4-2, in reality, it was changing in the early stages. Different

iron oxides have different reducibility; this explains the occurrence of multiple peaks in

the CO curves of Western Australian bauxite ore. However, multiple peaks did not

appear in the CO curve of Queensland bauxite, which may be because the compositions

of the bauxite ores were different; the temperatures used in the reduction were also

different.


Figure 4-2 Changes in experimental temperature and CO content in the off gas in step–by–step

reduction experiments


It can be seen from the reduction curve of Western Australian bauxite that the reduction

rate increased during 150–200 min of the reduction process, although the reduction

temperature was remained constant. This phenomenon, which is rare in isothermal

reduction experiments, could be attributed to the formation of new reaction interface

along with reduction of iron oxides.

In the reduction curve of Queensland bauxite, a sharp CO peak appeared before the

furnace temperature was stabilised at 1051oC. Increasing the temperature to 1255oC

resulted in the formation of another CO peak because the rate of reduction increased

according to Arrhenius law, following which the reaction rate slowed down due to

consumption of reactants. The rate became increasing again due to an increase in

temperature to 1600oC, and started to decrease after the temperature was hold at the

temperature. .

4.2 X-Ray Diffraction Analysis

The temperature–programmed reduction experiments (Figure 4-1) were stopped at

various temperatures and the reduced samples at different stages were analysed by

X-ray diffraction (XRD). The XRD patterns of reduced samples of Western Australian

and Queensland bauxites are presented in Figures 4-3 and 4-4, respectively. XRD

pattern database was from PDF22004 of X’pert Highscore Plus software.

As shown in Figure 4-3, original Western Australian bauxite contains hydrated alumina,

goethite and hematite. Weak peaks of silica were also detected, but not those of titania

due to its low content in the ore. When the reduction temperature was increased to


1100°C, dehydration of alumina took place and a peak corresponding to metallic iron

appeared. Further reduction up to a temperature of 1300°C made the peaks of alumina

stronger, reflecting higher content of alumina in the ore. An obvious shift of the iron

peak is visible, which implies a significant change in its composition due to the

formation of a ferroalloy. During the reduction experiments alloys such as Al4SiC4 and

ferroalloy were formed. Both of them could contain varying amount of Si, Al and C.

Peaks of SiC could be detected in the samples reduced at a temperature of 1360°C and

above. Meanwhile, only weak peaks of TiC can be observed at 1360oC, which may be

attributed to low TiO2 content in the bauxite ore. In the samples reduced until 1500°C

and 1600°C, peaks of aluminium carbide, Al4C3, were also detected.

Figure 4-3 XRD patterns of Western Australian bauxite reduced at different temperatures


Reduction of Queensland bauxite followed a route similar to that of Western Australian

bauxite (Figure 4-4). Raw Queensland bauxite also possesses high content of hydrated

alumina and hematite, with small amounts of silica and a trace amount of titania.

Hydrated alumina and hematite were converted to alumina and iron metal phase,

respectively, when the temperature was increased to 1100°C. The peaks corresponding

to silica imply that it cannot be converted to any other compound at low–temperature

reduction conditions.

Figure 4-4 XRD patterns of Queensland bauxite reduced at different temperatures

Peaks corresponding to carbides of silicon and titanium were observed in the samples

reduced at 1350°C, as the carbides started to form at this temperature. Shifting iron


peaks indicates that it was converted to ferroalloy in the same way as in case of Western

Australian bauxite. An Al4SiC4 peak appeared at 1350°C; Al2O3 and SiO2 smelted to

form Al4SiC4. Peaks of Al4C3 were displayed when samples were reduced at 1600°C.

Figure 4-5 XRD patterns of Western Australian bauxite samples reduced at different steps

In a step–by–step reduction, as shown in Figure 4-2, experiments were stopped after

each step and the reduced samples were analysed by XRD. XRD patterns of the reduced

Western Australian and Queensland bauxite ores are presented in Figures 4-5 and 4-6,

respectively.


Figure 4-6 XRD patterns of Queensland bauxite samples reduced at different steps

As shown in Figure 4-5, only hematite in the Western Australian bauxite was converted

to metallic iron in the first stage at 980°C. Compared with other oxides, Al2O3 had

higher peaks due to its high concentration in the raw material. The weaker peak of TiO2

was due to its low concentration in the raw material. Further increase in temperature to

1032°C led to the complete reduction of the iron. At 1360°C, new peaks, including

those of SiC, TiC and Al4SiC4, appeared. Moreover, better crystallisation of Al2O3 gave

stronger Al2O3 peaks, and a ferroalloy phase was also detected. In the reduction up to

1600°C, the peak of ferroalloy phase became very strong and also Al4C3 peaks

appeared.


For Queensland bauxite (Figure 4-6), iron peaks were detected in the sample reduced at

1051°C; the iron was transformed to a ferroalloy at 1255°C with reduction of silica (and

probably titania). Further reduction up to temperature of 1600°C caused stronger

ferroalloy peak. Fe2O3 was the only oxide reduced at 1051°C. Peaks corresponding to

carbides of silicon and titanium were noted at 1255°C and above. A small peak of

Al4SiC4 was also detected at this temperature.

Al4C3 was present only in the sample reduced at 1600°C. It was noted that the Al2O3

peaks at 1600°C were slightly weaker than those at 1255°C, suggesting that significant

amount of alumina was reduced with formation of Fe–Si–Al alloy and Al4C3.

As titanium content was low in raw sample, the intensity of TiC peak in XRD patterns

was very weak, making its detection extremely difficult in all the samples.

4.3 Scanning Electron Microscope Analysis of Reduced Samples

4.3.1 Samples Reduced Until a Temperature of 1100oC

Figure 4-7 shows the scanning electron microscope (SEM) images and the distribution

of different elements in a Queensland bauxite sample reduced by the

temperature–programmed reduction process (Figure 4-1) until 1100°C. Figure 4-8

presents the chemical composition of selected particles by Energy Dispersive

Spectroscopy (EDS) analysis. The bright dots distributed in the matrix of oxides

correspond to metallic iron. The matrix (Points 17, 18 and 20) contains mainly alumina

with low levels of silica, iron and titania. In the image of iron distribution, more bright


dots of iron are present at the lower right area than at any other area. The bright dots in

the images of elemental silicon distribution represent quartz particles in bauxite that was

not reduced until 1100oC. Although the particles at Point 19 contain mainly titania, low

levels of silica, alumina and iron are also detected.

As mentioned before, EDS analysis was focused only on Al, Fe, Si and Ti elements; the

missing percentages are related to the amount of impurities present.

Figure 4-7 EDS elemental distribution of Queensland bauxite reduced until 1100oC.

1100oC

Queensland

Bauxite


(a) Particles whose chemical compositions were detected by EDS.

Point 17 Point 18

Element Wt.% Norm. wt.% Norm. at.%

O 31.52 39.92 45.73

Al 26.93 34.11 23.17

C 14.42 18.26 27.87

Ti 2.84 3.59 1.37

Fe 2.02 2.56 0.84

Si 1.23 1.56 1.02

Sum: 78.96 100.00 100.00


O 25.63 36.95 41.30

Al 23.31 33.59 22.27

C 15.93 22.96 34.19

Si 0.34 0.49 0.31

Fe 4.17 6.01 1.93

Sum: 69.38 100.00 100.00

(b) EDS spectroscopy and chemical composition of the selected points shown on image


Figure 4-8 Point analysis of Queensland bauxite reduced until 1100oC

Images in Figure 4-9 correspond to a Western Australian bauxite sample reduced until a

temperature of 1100 °C. The EDS spectra and phase compositions by point detection are

presented in Figure 4-10.

In case of Western Australian bauxite, the sample reduced at low temperature had much

smaller bright dots compared with those reduced at high–temperature conditions. Iron

and silica particles are easily identified by their brightness in the elemental distribution

images.

The EDS images showed that amounts of Fe2O3 and SiO2 in the sample were more in

Western Australian bauxite (Figure 4-9) than in Queensland bauxite (Figure 4-7), which

also match the information given in Table 3-5.

Point 19 Point 20


Ti 44.38 45.23 22.63

O 33.77 34.42 51.53

C 9.23 9.41 18.76

Fe 5.54 5.64 2.42

Al 4.18 4.26 3.78

Si 1.02 1.04 0.88

Sum: 98.11 100.00 100.00


O 27.06 39.73 45.38

Al 25.44 37.36 25.30

C 12.05 17.69 26.91

Fe 2.07 3.05 1.00

Si 1.48 2.17 1.41

Sum: 68.10 100.00 100.00


It can be seen from the EDS images that the oxides were widely distributed, which

implies that the reduction reaction was far from completion. Different elements such as

iron, silicon and titanium occupy different regions. No overlap between iron and silicon

can be observed.

Figure 4-9 SEM images and EDS elemental distribution of Western Australian bauxite reduced

until 1100oC

1100oC Western Australian

Bauxite


(a ) Particles whose chemical compositions were detected by EDS

Point 10 Point 11


O 33.04 47.20 53.93

Si 27.55 39.37 25.62

C 9.40 13.43 20.45

Sum: 69.99 100.00 100.00


Fe 27.77 28.97 10.76

C 22.12 23.07 39.86

O 23.14 24.13 31.30

Al 20.74 21.63 16.64

Si 1.52 1.58 1.17

Ti 0.59 0.62 0.27

Sum: 95.88 100.00 100.00


Point 12 Point 13


O 26.91 37.11 40.56

Al 25.58 35.28 22.86

C 17.56 24.22 35.26

Fe 1.85 2.55 0.80

Si 0.60 0.83 0.52

Sum: 72.51 100.00 100.00


O 44.31 43.13 52.47

Al 18.82 18.32 13.22

Si 17.76 17.29 11.98

C 10.10 9.83 15.93

K 18.82 18.32 13.21

Fe 2.58 2.52 0.88

Mg 1.85 1.80 1.45

Na 1.73 1.69 1.43

Ti 0.62 0.61 0.25

Sum: 102.75 100.00 100.00

(b) EDS spectroscopy and chemical composition of the selected points shown on image.

Figure 4-10 EDS spectra and elemental composition of Western Australian bauxite reduced until

1100°C

In Point 10, mainly silicon and oxygen elements were detected, other elements being

negligible. Thus, it represents a quartz particle. In Point 11, a particle with white spots

represents alumina and iron. Some of the iron phase started to grow and form a larger

iron metal phase. The dark grey area (Point 12) has a large amount of alumina and a

trace of iron and silicon. Point 13 is a special example that listed a number of impurities

such as K, Mg and Na. These percentages of impurities do not show on other tables due

to their small amounts in the bauxite ore. A high concentration of oxides existed in this

area.


Reduction of iron in bauxite ores starts at a low temperature. In contrast to other oxides,

iron oxide is reduced firstly in an argon atmosphere.

4.3.2 Samples Reduced Up to 1600°C

Figure 4-11 shows the SEM images and the distribution of different elements in a

Western Australian bauxite sample reduced up to 1600°C and further reduced at that

temperature for 2h. Figure 4-12 presents the composition of the sample at selected

points analysed by EDS. From the morphological point of view, although the sample

consisted of sintered grains it was still porous, indicating that not all oxides were melted

at the final temperature. The bright grains distributed in the matrix of oxides are

ferroalloy containing a large amount of Fe and a small amount of Si and Al (Point 57 in

Figure 4-12). The oxide phase contains mainly alumina and a trace amount of residual

iron oxide (Point 58 in Figure 4-12). Carbon existed in the system because sample

preparation for SEM required carbon coating.


Figure 4-11 SEM images and elemental distribution of Western Australian bauxite reduced until

1600oC

1600°C Western Australian Bauxite


(a ) Particles whose chemical compositions were detected by EDS

Point 57 Point 58


Fe 64.89 82.60 53.81

C 10.69 13.60 41.20

Si 1.81 2.31 2.99

Al 1.17 1.49 2.01

Sum: 78.55 100.00 100.00


O 40.47 43.71 51.66

Al 41.90 45.25 31.71

C 9.66 10.43 16.42

Fe 0.57 0.62 0.21

Sum: 92.60 100.00 100.00

(b) EDS spectroscopy and chemical composition of the selected points shown on image.

Figure 4-12 EDS spectra and elemental composition of Western Australian bauxite reduced until

1600°C


From SEM and EDS analyses, iron oxides in the bauxite ores were reduced at

temperatures below approximately 1100oC. Reduction of alumina, silica and titania

needs higher temperatures. At low temperature of 1100 °C, SEM images show that the

particles are more dispersed to each other. On the other hand, at 1600 °C, the particles

formed a cross linked net due to sintering. It seems that although generated metal iron

was melted at high temperatures, the oxide phases were held as solid. This proves the

concept of stepwise reduction of metal oxides from bauxite in solid phase.

4.3.3 Segregation of Titanium, Silicon and Aluminium from Alloy Phase

Figure 4-13 presents the SEM images and EDS mapping of elemental distribution of

Western Australian bauxite reduced to 1600oC. The big bright grain is Fe–Si alloy. The

grey areas within the alloy grain represent aluminium oxide; titanium bright dots are

distributed around and within the grain, which do not correspond to high oxygen

content. It is assumed that this material represents titanium carbide. Titanium carbide

does not have high solubility in ferroalloy phase. [60] Titanium oxides were reduced in

the ferroalloy phase at high temperatures. During cooling, titanium was segregated and

combined with carbon to form titanium carbide. [61] Figure 4-14 presents the SEM

images and EDS mapping of elemental distribution of Queensland bauxite reduced to

1600oC. Silicon grains are surrounded by iron matrix. Most of the oxygen maps overlap

with aluminium, indicating formation of Al2O3 that are seen at the outer layer of the

grain. Fewer signals of titanium were observed as in case of Western Australian bauxite.

Presence of a lot of cracks on iron grains indicated that these silicon grains were formed

by the segregation of ferroalloy phase during cooling. The growing silicon grains either

broke the iron grain into pieces or formed fractures.


Figure 4-13 SEM images and elemental distribution of Western Australian bauxite reduced to

1600oC


Figure 4-14 SEM images and elemental distribution of Queensland bauxite reduced to 1600oC


4.4 Extent of Reduction in Different Gas Atmospheres

Bauxite samples reduced at different temperatures were tested by LECO analysers and

the final extents of reduction (percentage measure), that is removal of oxygen from

metal oxides, were calculated. Table 4-1 lists the extent of reduction at different

temperatures.

Table 4-1 Extent of reduction of Western Australian and Queensland bauxite ores reduced in argon

at different temperatures

Temperature (oC) Extent of reduction (%)

Western Australian bauxite

1100 26.8

1300 40.5

1360 43.6

1500 56.1

1600 60.2

Queensland bauxite

1100 17.7

1350 30.9

1600 40.8

Table 4-2 lists the contributions of each major oxide, when fully reduced, to the extent

of reduction of the two bauxite ore. Here, it was assumed that oxygen in each oxide was

fully removed due to reduction reaction. When Fe2O3 is fully reduced, it contributes

16.9% and 12.3% to the extent of reduction of Western Australian and Queensland


bauxite, respectively. Mainly four oxides (Fe2O3, SiO2, TiO2 and Al2O3) account for the

total oxygen content in bauxite ores because oxygen concentration from the remaining

oxides (impurities) is negligibly low.

Table 4-2 Contribution of different metal oxides, assuming their complete reduction, to the extent of

reduction of the two bauxite ores

Metal oxide (%) Fe2O3 SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3

Western Australian bauxite 16.9 26.9 1.5 54.7

Queensland bauxite 12.3 10.3 3.1 74.3

Comparing Tables 4-1 and 4-2, it can be found that although iron oxide was not

completely reduced at 1100°C, the extent of reduction was beyond the maximum

possible contribution by Fe2O3. This indicates that reduction of SiO2 and TiO2 occurred

at this relatively low temperature, which is a distinct difference from the reduction of

pure oxides. Similarly at 1600°C, the extent of reduction of bauxite ores was higher

than the sum of complete reduction of Fe, Si and Ti oxides. This illustrates that partial

reduction of alumina took place.

Table 4-3 presents the extent of reduction of bauxite samples at different temperatures,

with and without mixing with graphite when reduced under CO. Using the same

Western Australian bauxite-graphite or Queensland bauxite-graphite pellets, but in CO

the extent of reduction achieved was 29% and 20%, respectively, which were higher

than those achieved in argon. In fact, even without the addition of graphite, the extent of

reduction reached under CO was 24% and 15%, respectively. These data illustrate that,

CO, if used, plays a major role in the reduction of iron oxides at temperatures below


1100oC.

Table 4-3 Extent of reduction of Western Australian and Queensland bauxites by ramping from

850oC to different temperatures under CO atmosphere

Pellet composition Temperature (oC) Extent of reduction (%)

Western Australian bauxite +

graphite

1100 29.2

Western Australian bauxite +

graphite

1600 40.0

Western Australian bauxite 1100 24.0

Western Australian bauxite 1600 33.7

Queensland bauxite + graphite 1100 19.9

Queensland bauxite + graphite 1600 28.8

Queensland bauxite 1100 14.8

Queensland bauxite 1600 21.4

The mole ratio of C:O was 1.2 : 1.

The effect of CO to reduction of bauxite is examined because it is not only a product of

carbothermal reduction at high temperatures, but also a reductant, especially to iron

oxides at low temperatures (below 1100 °C). According to Tables 4-1 and 4-3, at

1100oC, reduction in CO resulted in higher extent of reduction of iron oxides than in

argon; as a result, FeO content in the oxide phase became reduced, making the sintering

more difficult. When the temperature was increased to 1600 °C, the extent of reduction

in CO was increased from 1100 °C for both bauxite ores and either mixed with carbon

or not. However, the extent of reduction reached in CO at 1600 °C was much lower than


in argon.

This phenomenon pointed out that CO is an effective reductant of iron oxides, but not of

SiO2, TiO2 and especially Al2O3 because of thermodynamic limitation. High

concentration of CO retards the reaction between alumina and carbon.

In the present project, the samples were heated to 1600oC and maintained at that

temperature for 30 min. It is expected that increasing the reaction temperature or extend

reduction time will increase the extent of reduction.

A possible route of bauxite processing is to separate ferroalloy formed by reduction

from the oxide residue via magnetic separation. The remaining relatively pure alumina

can undergo further carbothermal reduction to produce aluminium carbide which can be

further converted to metallic aluminium. This way, the impurity oxides of Fe, Si and Ti

in bauxite ores are also utilised in addition of aluminium production.

In the technology of carbothermal reduction of bauxites, there is no need to produce

pure alumina, which avoids the consumption of a large amount of NaOH solution and

generation of very harmful red mud waste. Furthermore, there is no fluorine compounds

are involved in the process which so will avoid fluorine emission issues in aluminium

production. Due to the relatively simple process and without consumption of a large

amount of electricity for electrolysis, carbothermal reduction has a potential to decrease

the production costs and CO2 emission in aluminium production. More detailed

investigation of the process is in progress.


5 Conclusions and Recommendations for Future Research

5.1 Conclusions

The carbothermal reduction of bauxite from Western Australian and Queensland was

carried out in atmospheres of Ar and CO at elevated temperatures. The major

conclusions of this research are:

1. Bauxite ore can be directly reduced carbothermally by temperature programmed

reduction or stepwise reduction process. Appropriate control of reaction temperature

may maintain the residual oxide phases in solid state. The extent of reduction in

argon was 60% for Western Australia bauxite and 40% for Queensland bauxite.

2. The reduction sequence of the metal oxides in the bauxite ores is iron oxides then

silica and titania and then alumina. Metallic iron is formed at temperatures below

1100oC. At 1200oC, or above, a ferroalloy phase containing silicon and aluminium is

formed.

3. Carbides of titanium, silicon and aluminium were formed by carbothermal reduction.

The metals were formed and dissolved in the ferroalloy phase, which upon

saturation, were segregated as silicon carbide distributed inside alloy phase as

inclusions or around the alloy particles.

4. Carbothermal reduction of bauxite was faster in Ar than in CO; a higher extent of

reduction can be reached in Ar and using the sample mixed with carbon.

5. Carbon monoxide is effective in reduction of iron oxides, but shows a retarding

effect to reduction of silica, titania and alumina.


The reduction in this investigation was far from completion, a high percentage of

unreacted alumina remained in the reduced samples. This was because of the limited

temperature and time of reduction. A possible route of bauxite processing is to separate

ferroalloy and further reduce relative pure alumina to produce metallic aluminium.

5.2 Recommendations for Future Research

The findings from this investigation proved the concept of stepwise reduction of bauxite

as a promising alternative technology for aluminium production.

Suggested topics for future research include:

1. The flow rate may affect in the reduction of bauxite. The optimisation flow rate for

reduction reaction can be adjusted to reach better extent of reduction. The effect of

flow rate of argon can be monitored during the carbothermal reduction of bauxite.

2. Carbon plays an important role in carbothermal reduction. The ratio of

carbon/oxygen can reflect the extent of reduction directly. Thus, the effect of

carbon/oxygen ratio can be studied in carbothermal reduction of bauxite.

3. Effect of hydrogen on the carbothermal reduction of bauxite can be examined.

Hydrogen can enhance the reduction kinetics by methane formation from the

reaction of hydrogen and carbon.


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