CHAPTER 436 Unit 6 Why It Matters This region has served as the crossroads for Asia, Africa, and Europe. As a result, the region has been home to many ethnic groups and cultures. Section 1: North Africa Places reflect the relationship between humans and the physical environment. The Sahara and access to water have profoundly affected the people of North Africa. Section 2: The Eastern Mediterranean Geography is used to interpret the past, understand the present, and plan for the future. Ancient civilizations and cultures continue to influence the subregion today. Section 3: The Northeast Culture influences people’s per- ceptions of places and regions. Religious traditions have shaped the history of this subregion. Section 4: The Arabian Peninsula The characteristics and distribu- tion of cultures influence human systems. The desert climate, coastal regions, and Islam have formed today’s Arabian Peninsula. Section 5: Central Asia Geographers organize Earth into regions that share common char- acteristics. Central Asia’s geogra- phy and climate have created challenges for the subregion. Geography ONLINE Chapter Overview Visit the World Geography and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 18 to preview infor- mation about the cultural geography of the region. CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia An Egyptian man at the Fortress of Qaitbey, which offers views of Alexandria and the Mediterranean Sea. Gary Cook/Alamy Images
Transcript
CHAPTER
436 Unit 6
Why It MattersThis region has served as the crossroads for Asia, Africa, and Europe. As a result, the region has been home to many ethnic groups and cultures.
Section 1: North AfricaPlaces reflect the relationship between humans and the physical environment. The Sahara and access to water have profoundly affected the people of North Africa.
Section 2: The Eastern MediterraneanGeography is used to interpret the past, understand the present, and plan for the future. Ancient civilizations and cultures continue to influence the subregion today.
Section 3: The NortheastCulture influences people’s per-ceptions of places and regions. Religious traditions have shaped the history of this subregion.
Section 4: The Arabian PeninsulaThe characteristics and distribu-tion of cultures influence human systems. The desert climate, coastal regions, and Islam have formed today’s Arabian Peninsula.
Section 5: Central AsiaGeographers organize Earth into regions that share common char-acteristics. Central Asia’s geogra-phy and climate have created challenges for the subregion.
Geography ONLINE
Chapter Overview Visit the World Geography and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on Chapter Overviews—Chapter 18 to preview infor-mation about the cultural geography of the region.
CULTURAL GEOGRAPHY OF
North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia
An Egyptian man at the Fortress of Qaitbey, which offers views of Alexandria and the Mediterranean Sea.
Reading and Writing As you read the chapter, make notes in your Foldable to summarize information about the cultures of each subregion.
Summarizing Information Make a Layered-Look Book to help you summarize information about each of the subregions discussed.
SECTION 1
• nomad (p. 439)• bedouin
(p. 439)• infrastructure
(p. 440)• domesticate
(p. 440)
• hieroglyphics (p. 440)
• geometric boundary (p. 441)
• nationalism (p. 441)
Guide to ReadingSection PreviewThe Sahara and access to water have profoundly affected the peo-ples of North Africa.
Content Vocabulary
Academic Vocabulary• principal (p. 439)• medical (p. 442)
Places to Locate
Reading StrategyOrganizing Complete a chart simi-lar to the one below by listing infor-mation about each of the major ethnic groups in North Africa.
North AfricaAs the birthplace of one of the world’s earliest civilizations, North Africa has a rich cultural heritage. Although the traditions and cultures of some of the ethnic groups have changed with modernization and urbanization, some continue to hold on to their tradi-tional ways of life.
Voices Around the World“As we entered the village, children saw me and cried, ‘Arrumi!’ (‘Roman!’), an offhand tribute to rulers 16 centuries gone and the name by which Berbers still refer to Westerners. Little appeared to have changed since the days of the Latins: Barefoot boys used sticks to prod slug-gish cattle toward their pens; turbaned men sharpened scythes on whet-stones; women trudged by, amphorae of sloshing water on their backs.”
(bkgd)Celia Mannings/Alamy Images, (br)John and Lisa Merrill/CORBIS
Chapter 18 439
North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia: Population Density
depending on the season and availability of grass for grazing and water. The Berbers are most pop-ulous in the Atlas Mountains and in the Sahara.
The other principal ethnic group in North Africa is the Arab people. United by language, Arabs first migrated from the Arabian Peninsula to North Africa in the a.d. 600s. Nomadic bedouin(BEH•doo•ihn) are Arabic-speaking people who migrated to North Africa from deserts in Southwest Asia. Bedouin can be found herding animals in the desert where there is enough veg-etation to support their herds or water for grow-ing food in oases. Egypt was the primary gateway for Arabs migrating to North Africa.
North African peoples have had continuous contact with Europe for hundreds of years, most notably in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. French, Spanish Muslims, Romans, and Jews have all influenced the culture in this subregion.
Population PatternsMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Indigenous ethnic groups, migrations,
and the dramatic climate have shaped population patterns in North Africa.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How has climate affected your region of the United States? Read to learn how North Africa’s water affects its population patterns.
Indigenous cultures in North Africa have mixed with those from the Arabian Peninsulaand from Europe to form distinct cultures.
The PeopleWhile European influence remains in the coastal
regions of North Africa, the primary influence on the subregion is a mix of indigenous and Arab cultures. The people indigenous to North Africa before Arab invasions are called Berbers. Most of the 15 million Berbers exist today as farmers, though previously they were pastoral nomads,groups of people who move from place to place 1. Location Where are North Africa’s largest cities located?
2. Regions Which countries in the region are the most densely populated?
Density and DistributionGeographic factors, especially the availability
of water, have influenced settlement in the sub-region. Because water is scarce, people have for centuries settled along seacoasts and in river del-tas, such as along the Nile River in Egypt. Today more than 90 percent of Egypt’s people live in the Nile Delta region, one of the world’s most densely populated areas.
The major population centers in North Africa are urban: Casablanca, Morocco; Algiers, Algeria; Tunis, Tunisia; Tripoli, Libya; and Cairo, Egypt. As Egypt’s primate city, Cairo dominates social and cultural life in the coun-try. Cities such as Cairo have grown rapidly as people move there in search of a better life. Problems have arisen in some cities because urban growth has occurred too quickly to sup-ply enough jobs and housing or to develop the infrastructure — basic urban necessities such as streets and utilities.
Human-Environment Inter action How has the Sahara affected settlement patterns in North Africa?
History and GovernmentMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea The Sahara, the Nile River valley, and
multiple invasions influenced different cultures throughout North Africa’s history.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How has the physical envi-ronment influenced events where you live? Read to learn how the physical environment has shaped the history of North Africa.
North Africa’s location near Europe and South-west Asia has made it vulnerable to numerous migrations and invasions over the centuries. As a result, European, Arab, and Berber influences exist in North Africa.
Early Peoples and CivilizationsHunters and gatherers settled throughout
North Africa by the end of the last Ice Age, about 10,000 years ago. By 6000 b.c., farming com-munities had arisen in areas along the Nile River and the Mediterranean Sea. The region’s farmers were among the first to domesticate plants and animals, or adapt them from the wild and culti-vate them for food.
The Egyptian civilization developed in the fer-tile Nile River valley about 6,000 years ago. Annual floods from the Nile deposited rich soils on the flood plain. During dry seasons, Egyptians used sophisticated irrigation systems to water crops, enabling farmers to grow two crops each year. The Egyptians also developed a calendar with a 365-day year, built impressive pyramids as tombs for their rulers, and invented a form of picture writing called hieroglyphics(hy•ruh•GLIH•fihks).
InvasionsThe seventh-century invasions of Arabs from
the Arabian Peninsula heavily influenced the cultures of North Africa. The Berbers closely assimilated with Arab cultures in Algeria and Morocco, but less so in Tunisia. After brief Vandal and Byzantine invasions, Arab rule was established in Tunisia. The culture persisted through Ottoman rule that lasted until 1922.
While Arab culture has persisted through the centuries in all North African countries, history
Open-air markets, such as this one in Tripoli,
Libya, can be found in many cities throughout North Africa.
Regions What are the major population centers in North Africa?
Lutz Jaekel/Bilderberg/Peter Arnold
Chapter 18 441
North Africa: Invasions and Migrations
has brought other cultural influences to the sub-region. Internal invasions in the a.d. 600s from Arabs in the east brought Islamic religion and culture to Morocco. Muslim and Jewish exiles fleeing Christian persecution in Spain infused Morocco with Spanish culture in the 1400s. Early rule by Arab-Berber dynasties was eventu-ally overturned by the Ottoman Empire in the 1500s in Algeria.
European colonial rule also affected people and cultures in North Africa. Algeria’s short indepen-dence, followed by French invasion and conquest in the mid-1800s, imprinted French influence on the country. Geometric boundaries — which often follow straight lines and do not account for natu-ral and cultural features — exist between Libya, Egypt, and Algeria. They were drawn by European colonial powers and often created conflict between the new countries because local practices of government were not the same as European ideas about governing.
During the 1800s a well-educated urban mid-dle class developed in North Africa. Trained in European ways, this new middle class adopted European ideas about nationalism, or a belief in the right of an ethnic group to have its own inde-pendent country. This devel-opment stirred demands for self-rule that provided the basis for the modern coun-tries that emerged in the subregion.
IndependenceEgypt gained independence
from the United Kingdom in 1922. The Suez Canal, an important shipping lane that connects the Mediter ranean Sea to the Red Sea across Egypt, has made Egypt a key regional power. Egypt is also an important center of Arab nationalism.
Algeria gained independence from France when a strong nationalist movement led to a civil war in the mid-1900s. Since independence in 1962, Algeria has developed its
resources and increased its standard of living. However, a civil war in the 1990s killed over 100,000 people.
Other countries in the region also gained inde-pendence in the 1950s and 1960s. Libya won independence from Italy in 1951, but was then ruled by a strong, Western-friendly monarchy. In 1969 a coup led by Colonel Muammar al-Qaddafi overthrew the monarchy. Al-Qaddafi has ruled the oil-rich country to this day. Tunisia separated from France in 1956. Morocco won independence from France in 1956 and today is a constitutional monarchy.
Regions What movement led to the demand for self-rule in North African countries?
Geography ONLINE
Student Web Activity Visit the World Geography and Cultures Web site at glencoe.com and click on Student Web Activities—Chapter 18 for an activity about Egypt.
1. Movement Which cities were affected by Islamic invasions until the 750s?
2. Movement Which later migration route is similar to that of Islamic invasions?
Main Ideas 2. How have indigenous ethnic groups, migrations, and water
availability shaped population patterns in North Africa? 3. Describe the impact of Islam and the Arabic language on
culture in North Africa. 4. Use a table like the one below to list examples of how the Nile
River valley, the Sahara, and invasions influenced the develop-ment of different cultures in North Africa’s history.
Critical Thinking 5. How have North Africa’s large bodies of water
affected populations in the subregion? 6. Drawing Conclusions Why was the domestication of plants
and animals so important for early peoples in North Africa? 7. Analyzing Visuals Study the population density map on page
439. Where are the largest concentrations of people in North Africa? Why are they concentrated there?
Writing About Geography 8. Descriptive Writing Think about the different challenges that
people in North Africa face today in the desert and in the coastal areas and Nile Delta. Choose one area and write a paragraph describing the challenges of living there.
SECTION 1 REVIEW
Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.
Influence on Culture Example
Nile River valley
Sahara
Invasions
CultureMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea The Muslim religion and the Arabic
language define much of the culture of North Africa.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Can you describe a culture in the United States that is connected by religion and language? Read to learn about such a connec-tion in North Africa.
Indigenous, Arab, and European cultures have long shaped the lives of people in North Africa.
Religion and LanguageWhen the Arabs invaded North Africa, they
brought the religion of Islam. Most belong to the Sunni branch of Islam, which believes that leader-ship should be in the hands of the Islamic com-munity at large. Most Berbers have adopted Islam, but some maintain indigenous religious practices.
Calls to worship occur five times each day in countries with large Muslim populations. A muezzin, or crier, calls the faithful to prayer from the minaret, or tower, of each local mosque. Following the movements of the imam, or prayer leader, they bow and kneel, touching their fore-heads to the ground in the direction of the holy city of Makkah (Mecca) in Saudi Arabia.
As Islam spread across North Africa, so did the Arabic language. Non-Arab Muslims learned Arabic in order to read the Quran, Islam’s holy book. As more people became Muslims, Arabic became the region’s main language.
Education and Health CareMost young people in North Africa attend
school. Primary education is free, and enroll-ment is increasing. Literacy rates range widely, however, from about 52 percent in Morocco to about 82 percent in Libya.
Health care has also improved in recent decades. People often go to government-owned hospitals for medical treatment, but doctor shortages mean limited care for rural people.
The ArtsFrom the earliest times, the peoples of North
Africa have expressed themselves through the arts. The Egyptians built towering pyramids to serve as royal tombs. The arts of weaving, embroidery, and metalworking in the region are highly influenced by Islam. One of Algeria’s most popular forms of music, raï, involves vari-ous instruments and poetic lyrics.
Place What has been the primary influence on language in North Africa?
Places to Locate• Israel (p. 444)• Lebanon (p. 444)• Palestine (p. 444)• Syria (p. 444)• Jordan (p. 444)• Tel Aviv-Jaffa (p. 444)• Beirut (p. 444)• Jerusalem (p. 445)• Makkah (Mecca) (p. 445)
Reading StrategyIdentifying As you read about the eastern Mediterranean, use a table like the one below to list the chal-lenges faced by ethnic groups in the subregion.
The Eastern MediterraneanThe eastern Mediterranean was the birthplace of three major world religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Periods of conflict and war have resulted as different peoples have laid claim to the lands of their religion’s birthplace. In Israel today, Jewish and Palestinian peoples both claim rights to the same land.
Voices Around the World“A north-south drive through the center of the West Bank on Road 60, which connects the historic cities of Jenin, Nablus, Bethlehem, and Hebron, takes four hours. Traversing one of the modern east-west highways that cross between the Jordan River and the so-called Green Line, which marks the West Bank’s border with Israel, should take 30 minutes.”
— Andrew Cockburn, “Lines in the Sand,” National Geographic, December 2002
• monotheism (p. 445)
• prophet (p. 445)• mosque (p. 445)
A Palestinian man with an Israeli border officer
Ethnic Group Challenges
Chapter 18 443
Mahfouz Abu Turk (ISRAEL)/Reuters
444 Unit 6
Population PatternsMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Migrations, claims to ancestral homes,
and boundary disputes have influenced population in the eastern Mediterranean.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Are there any regions of the United States to which many people have migrated? Read to understand what caused periods of migration in the eastern Mediterranean.
The eastern Mediterranean is inhabited by millions of Arab and Jewish people. Arabs share similar customs and speak Arabic. Jewish people speak Hebrew, and if they are religious, practice Judaism.
The PeopleAbout 7.1 million people in the eastern
Mediterranean are Israelis living in Israel. Of these, 80 percent are Jewish. Jews, as followers of Judaism are known, in Israel and elsewhere trace their religious heritage to the Israelites, who
in ancient times settled Canaan, the land shared today by Israel and Lebanon. The Israelites believed that God had given them this area as a permanent homeland. Over the centuries, wars, forced exile, persecution, and trade led many Jews to settle in other countries. Their religious identity, however, kept alive their link to the ancestral homeland. In 1948 Israel was founded as a Jewish state. Today half of Israel’s Jews were born in Israel, and half have immigrated.
Arabs in the region, however, did not want a Jewish state in the territory that had been their homeland for centuries. Tensions between Arabs and Jews resulted in six wars that brought severe hardship to all the people of the area, including the Palestinians — Arabs living in the territory of Palestine. During these conflicts, many Palestinians were displaced from their homes and had to live in refugee settlements in neigh-boring Arab countries, such as Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. Many of these refugee settlements became permanent.
Density and DistributionThe dry, desert climate causes the majority of
people in the eastern Mediterranean to live along coastal plains and in the Euphrates River valley. The lack of water in many areas, coupled with small land areas and significant human popula-tions, creates some of the highest population densities in Southwest Asia. For example, Lebanon has a population density of 941 people per square mile (365 per sq. km).
The eastern Mediterranean subregion is pre-dominantly urban, with more than 75 percent of people in Israel, Jordan, and Lebanon and just over 50 percent in Syria and Palestine living in cities. Many people live in Tel Aviv-Jaffa and other cities along the coast in central Israel. Much of Lebanon’s population lives in the coastal cities of Beirut and Tripoli and their sur-rounding suburbs.
Israel has experienced intense periods of immi-gration since its founding in 1948. About one million Jews have migrated to Israel from the former Soviet Union since 1989 — the largest influx since Israel’s beginning. People have migrated from more than 100 countries, making Israel ethnically diverse.
Movement What led Jews to settle in Israel?
1. Place How is Israel’s ethnic composition different from that of other countries in the eastern Mediterranean?
2. Regions Other than large Arab populations, what does the ethnic makeup of Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan have in common?
History and GovernmentMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea The eastern Mediterranean is home
to three of the world’s major religions that have shaped politics and culture there for centuries.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How many different reli-gions are practiced in the United States? Read to learn about the influence of religion on the history of the eastern Mediterranean.
As a bridge between Europe, Africa, and Asia, the eastern Mediterranean has been occupied by cultures from each of these continents through-out history. The rise of influential religions in the subregion has profoundly affected its vari-ous cultures.
Early CivilizationsThe entire region has been occupied by impor-
tant cultures and empires over the centuries. Ebla, Syria, was an important commercial trade center by 3000 b.c. Hundreds of thousands of people lived in this Semitic empire somewhere around 2400 b.c. Damascus, Syria, is one of the oldest, continuously settled cities in the world.
Religion as HistoryThree major religions began in the eastern
Mediterranean subregion: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. All three share many beliefs, especially monotheism, or belief in one god. As the map at the right shows, the city of Jerusalem is of special importance to all three religions.
Judaism Judaism is one of the oldest of the monotheistic faiths. Jews trace their origin to the ancient Israelites, who created the kingdom of Israel along the eastern Mediterranean coast. Jerusalem was its capital and religious center.
Judaism teaches obedience to God’s laws and the creation of a just society. Jews recorded their history and examined it for meaning in the Hebrew Bible, consisting of the Torah, the prophets, and the sacred writings.
Christianity About a.d. 30, in the land of Israel, a Jewish teacher named Jesus began preaching and gathering followers. His followers said that those who believed in Jesus and followed his
teachings would be renewed and would go to heaven after death. After his death, the life and teachings of Jesus became the basis of a new religion — Christianity. The Christian Scriptures included the Hebrew Bible, which was called the Old Testament. The New Testament contained writings of the life and teachings of Jesus as well as the experiences of the earliest Christian communities.
Islam Islamic tradition states that in a.d. 610 revelations from God came to Muhammad, a merchant in the city of Makkah (Mecca) in the Arabian Peninsula. Muhammad began preach-ing that people should turn away from sin and worship the one true God. His followers claimed that he was the last in a line of prophets, or mes-sengers, that included Abraham and Jesus.
By the a.d. 700s, Islam had spread through the region and into parts of Europe. Islam had profound religious, political, and cultural influ-ences in these areas. One of the new features seen in the region’s cities was the mosque, a house of worship where Muslims pray.
The Old City of Jerusalem
1. Location In which quarters is the Western Wall located?
2. Place What other sacred sites are located in more than one quarter?
446 Unit 6
Independence and Conflict As the centuries passed, Islamic empires in the
eastern Mediterranean rose and fell. Physical geography placed limits on the subregion’s eco-nomic development. For example, empires in this subregion lacked resources such as minerals, wood, and coal to fuel an industrial revolution like that in Western Europe. By the late 1800s, Western European powers controlled large areas in the eastern Mediterranean.
Countries in this subregion gained indepen-dence around the time of World War II. Lebanon’s independence from France came in 1943. Syria gained independence from the French, and Jordan gained independence from the British in 1946.
Arab-Israeli Conflict After being expelled from their homeland by the Romans, Jews eventually settled in communities scattered all over the world, often experiencing persecution. In the late 1800s, many of these Jews, called Zionists, began to call for a return to Palestine, and some began to settle there.
After World War II, hostilities broke out in Palestine among Jews, Arabs, and British forces. Finally, the United Nations decided in 1947 to divide Palestine into a Jewish state and an Arab state. When the British withdrew from Palestine, the Jews proclaimed the independent state of Israel in 1948. During the next 25 years, Arab opposition to Israel and Israel’s concern for its security led to six wars in the region. In the 1948
and 1967 Arab-Israeli conflicts, victorious Israeli forces occupied Arab lands.
Israelis and Palestinians The wars that followed the birth of Israel forced many Palestinian Arabs to live as refugees in other lands. The status of the Palestinian refugees is an ongoing issue in the Arab-Israeli dispute. In addition, the Palestinians want an independent state of their own in the region.
In the 1990s, Israeli and Palestinian officials made some progress toward peace. Palestinians were moving closer to limited self-rule and to acknowledging Israel’s right to exist as a nation. Israel was moving toward troop withdrawal and handing authority over the West Bank and Gaza Strip to the Palestinians. By 2002, the peace pro-cess had stalled. Yasir Arafat, the chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization, died in 2004. In 2006 the Islamic group Hamas won elections in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Defying moder-ate Palestinian leaders, Hamas opposed Israel and supported armed attacks on Israeli territory.
Place What right do both Jews and Arabs claim in Israel?
Israel and Palestine
1. Place How did the size of Israel change between 1947 and 1967?
2. Place How did the size of Palestinian territories change between 1947 and 2006?
Main Ideas 2. Describe how migrations, claims to ancestral homes, and
boundary disputes have influenced population patterns in the eastern Mediterranean.
3. How have languages influenced the art and everyday life of the eastern Mediterranean?
4. Use a web diagram like the one below to describe the three major religions that originated in the eastern Mediterranean and that continue to influence the region today.
Critical Thinking 5. How did the birth of Judaism, Islam, and Christianity
influence the population patterns in the subregion? 6. Identifying Cause and Effect What are the main causes of
conflict in the region today? 7. Analyzing Visuals Study the maps of Israel and Palestine on
page 446. Has the West Bank ever been under Israeli control?
Writing About Geography 8. Descriptive Writing Write a letter to a friend describing the
different ethnic groups in your community. Be sure to men-tion how these groups contribute to the community.
Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.
CultureMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea The eastern Mediterranean’s religions
and languages have influenced its art and everyday life for centuries.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How has religion affected everyday life in the United States? Read to learn about the influence of religion on art in the region.
The eastern Mediterranean produced three of the world’s most dominant religions.
Religion and LanguageThe majority of people who practice Islam in
the subregion follow the Sunni branch of the religion, while Arabs in Syria and Lebanon fol-low the Shia branch.
Followers of Judaism and Christianity make up only a small percentage of the population. Most Jews in the area live in Israel. Large groups of Christians live in Lebanon and Syria, but they are still a minority.
Family life in this subregion usually includes the extended family and often involves religious worship. During Ramadan, the Muslim holy month, Muslims fast during daylight hours.
Western-style dress is becoming more common in this subregion, especially among Christian and Jewish women. However, many Muslims
dress modestly. Some Muslim women in the region wear a veil over their face and completely cover their hands and feet.
Although Hebrew is spoken in Israel, the pri-mary language in all other areas is Arabic. Both Hebrew and Arabic are Semitic languages. English is also spoken in some areas.
Education and Health Care Education in the subregion is compulsory and
free, and the majority of young people attend school. However, literacy rates vary from 76 per-cent in Syria to 96 percent in Israel. Health care has improved in the subregion in recent decades. Hospitals are often government-owned.
The ArtsFor thousands of years, the peoples of the sub-
region have expressed themselves through the arts and architecture. Artists and writers later found inspiration in religion.
Muslim scholars wrote about Islamic achieve-ments and translated Greek writings into Arabic. These works later added to European knowl-edge about the ancient world. Syrian arts and scholarly works rivaled those of Mesopotamia and influenced Roman culture and thought.
Regions What branch of Islam do Arabs in Syria and Lebanon follow?
TheProblem: Israelis and Palestinians each claim the same territory in Southwest Asia. After decades of uprisings, assassinations, attacks, failed peace agreements, and other struggles, conflict remains between these two groups attempting to coexist in the same area.
Disengagement A woman cries in front of Israeli soldiers in the Gaza Strip settle-ment of Kfar Darom, where settlers have been evicted as part of Israel’s disengagement plan.
Settler evicted from the Gaza StripSeparation These Israeli soldiers are patrolling the controversial barrier Israel constructed to protect itself from Palestinian terrorists. Eventually the barrier will completely separate the West Bank from Jerusalem.
(bkgd)Associated Press, AP Images, (r)Menahem Kahanna/AFP/Getty Images
Attempts at PeaceAt the heart of the conflict lie the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem. East Jerusalem is the most disputed territory, as it is home to some of the holiest sites in the Jewish, Muslim, and Christian faiths. Israel claims a united Jerusalem as its capital, but this claim is not recognized by many nations. The Palestinians, on the other hand, want East Jerusalem to become the capital of their future country. Both sides have failed to reach agreement on the status of the city.
What are some of the attempts at peace? In 1993 a plan known as the Oslo Accords was enacted. This plan allowed for limited Palestinian self-rule in areas occupied by Israel, including the Gaza Strip and parts of the West Bank. The Palestinian National Authority (PNA) was established in 1994 to control security-related and civilian issues in the Palestinian urban areas. Both sides hoped that the accords would lead to a two-state solution in which both groups could be secure in their borders and rights. In 2005 Israel carried out a disengagement plan, removing all of its military and settlers from the Gaza Strip and some cities in the West Bank.
What is the current state of the region? Since the completion of the disengagement, conditions have deteriorated. In 2006 Hamas won control of the PNA. Hamas refuses to recognize Israel and has called for violence against the country. Israel has refused to have any dealings with the
Hamas-led Palestinian government. As long as this animosity continues, peace in the region will be threatened.
Disputed Lands: Israel and Palestine
Chapter 18 449
Israeli Premier Ehud Olmert (L) meets with Palestinian President Mahmoud Abbas at a conference in Petra, Jordan, in 2006.
One Solution:Many feel that the only solution may be the cre-ation of an independent country of Palestine. In 2003, U.S. President George W. Bush called for an inde-pendent Palestinian state living in peace with Israel. Most recently, the Road Map for Peace was pub-lished as the next step in the peace process.
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
1. Human Systems Why is Jerusalem such an important city to both the Palestinians and the Israelis?
2. Places and Regions Look at the main picture. Several separation barriers have been built along Israeli and Palestinian territorial borders. Why do you think these barriers were built? What purpose do they serve?
Term Meaning
Hamas a Palestinian Sunni Islamist organization founded in 1987
Palestinian National Authority
an interim administrative organization estab-lished in 1994 that nominally governs parts of the West Bank and all of the Gaza Strip, areas known as the Palestinian Territories
Road Map for Peace
a plan outlined by the “quartet,” the United States, European Union, United Nations, and Russia, that calls for an independent Palestinian state coexisting in peace with an Israeli state
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Moshe Milner-Israeli Government Press Office/epa/CORBIS
SECTION 3 The NortheastIn a region where cultures are fundamentally tied to religions, Islam is the most practiced of them all. For hundreds of years, it has defined people’s lives and is now the fastest-growing religion in the world.
Voices Around the World“Borne aloft five times a day, from Shanghai to Chicago, Jakarta to Timbuktu, the music of Islam’s call to prayer stirs the soul of devout Muslims everywhere. Whether cast from metal loudspeakers over teeming city streets or lifted as the murmured song of camel drivers kneeling in the sand, it begins with the same Arabic phrase Muslims have used for nearly 1,400 years, Islam’s melodic paean to the Creator.”
— Don Belt, “The World of Islam,” National Geographic, January 2002
• culture hearth (p. 452)
• cuneiform (p. 452)
• qanats (p. 452)
• natural boundary (p. 453)
• embargo (p. 453)
• ziggurat (p. 454)
Guide to ReadingSection PreviewReligious traditions have shaped the history of this subregion.
Places to Locate• Turkey (p. 451)• Iran (p. 451)• Iraq (p. 451)• Tehran (p. 452)• Mesopotamia (p. 452)• Fertile Crescent (p. 452)• Persian Empire (p. 452)
Reading StrategyIdentifying As you read about the Northeast subregion, complete a graphic organizer similar to the one below by filling in the major ethnic groups of each country.
Country Ethnic Groups
Iran
Iraq
Turkey
An Iraqi man at morning prayer
450 Unit 6
Joe Raedle/Getty Images
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Chapter 18 451
Population PatternsMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Ethnic diversity and the Muslim reli-
gion have profoundly shaped the population of the Northeast subregion.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How many different eth-nic groups exist in your city or town? Read to learn about the similarities and differences among the peoples of the Northeast subregion.
Descendants of the ancient civilizations in this region continue to exert a cultural, political, and social influence today.
The PeopleEthnic populations in the Northeast migrated
from Central Asia and the Arabian Peninsula. Though their languages and customs connect with their ancestral homes, the religion of Islam is a dominant aspect of these cultures.
Turks Over the past 8,000 years, many peoples have occupied Anatolia, the Asian part of what is today the country of Turkey. Each group added its own customs and beliefs to the area’s culture. Turkic peoples migrated to the penin-sula in the a.d. 1000s from Central Asia. One group, known as the Ottoman Turks, later built the Ottoman Empire, which ruled much of the eastern Mediterranean world for more than 600 years. Most Turks practice Islam and speak the Turkish language. Their culture blends Turkish, Islamic, and Western elements.
Iranians Almost 67 million people live in Iran, a land that was once called Persia. The word Iranmeans “land of the Aryans.” Many Iranians believe they are descendants of the Aryans (AR•ee•uhnz), Indo-Europeans who migrated into the region from southern Russia around 1000 b.c. The Persians, or Iranians, managed to maintain their culture and language even when invaded numerous times over the centuries. Iranians speak Farsi, also called Persian, and almost 90 percent of them practice the Shia branch of Islam.
Arabs With ethnic ties to the Arabian Peninsula, the majority of people living in Iraq are Arabs. Most Arabs in Iraq are Shia Muslims, and about 35 percent are Sunni Muslims. Arabic is the lan-guage most commonly spoken in Iraq.
1. Place In which countries are Kurds found?
2. Human-Environment Interaction Compare the physical map on page 412 of the Regional Atlas to the map above. Why do you think Iran is more ethnically diverse than its neighbors?
Ethnic Groups in the Northeast
‘‘The Arabs have punished us too much, for too long,” [says Omar Rahan]....‘They attacked this village in 1977, then again in 1986 and 1991. They destroyed every house, every tree. Every time we came back and rebuilt.’’’—Frank Viviano, “The Kurds in Control,”
National Geographic, January 2006
Kurds The Kurds have lived for more than 2,000 years in the mountainous border areas of Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. Most Kurds are Sunni Muslims and speak Kurdish, a language related to Farsi. Their customs and dress also differ from those of the Arabs in the region. The Kurds have no country of their own, though they call their ter-ritory Kurdistan. Many Kurds often participate in efforts to win self-rule. However, such efforts have been repeatedly crushed by their Turkish and Arab rulers. A Kurdish shepherd expresses the views of many Kurds:
452 Unit 6
Density and DistributionThe Northeast’s most populous countries are
Turkey and Iran, each having nearly 70 million residents. About 29 million people live in Iraq.
Large cities and towns are common in this sub-region. More than half of Iranians and Turks live in cities. Most of the population in Iraq lives in the area that stretches from Baghdad to the Persian Gulf. Population densities range from 110 people per square mile (43 per sq. km) in Iran to 244 per square mile (94 per sq. km) in Turkey.
The large urban areas of Istanbul, Turkey; Tehran, Iran; and Baghdad, Iraq, dominate social and cultural life in their respective countries. Many cities have become overcrowded due to the rapid influx of villagers seeking a better life. Some cities have tried to cope by installing traffic con-trol systems and improving public transportation. Iran has tried another solution — moving some of its government offices to various towns and vil-lages away from its capital, Tehran. By doing so, Iran hopes to improve services in outlying areas and slow Tehran’s rapid growth.
Regions Which ethnic group that lives in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey has not been able to claim self-rule?
History and GovernmentMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Ancient empires and thriving civiliza-
tions influenced the early history of the Northeast, which today is being shaped by the oil industry and relations with the outside world.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Which ethnic groups have lived in your part of the country for centuries, and which are newer arrivals? Read to learn about the rise and fall of empires in the Northeast.
Some of the world’s greatest civilizations have flourished in the Northeast. Many discoveries made during the height of these civilizations shaped the subregion’s history.
Civilizations and EmpiresMany civilizations arose in Mesopotamia, the
area between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. This area became one of the world’s first culture hearths,or centers where cultures developed and spread outward. Mesopotamia was part of a large, rich agricultural region known as the Fertile Crescent.
Mesopotamia was home to the Sumerian civili-zation. The Sumerians mastered farming by grow-ing crops year-round and by using canals to irrigate them. They made great strides in mathe-matics and engineering and created a code of law. They kept records by using a writing system called cuneiform (kyu•NEE•uh•fawrm), wedge-shaped symbols written on clay tablets.
The Phoenician civilization, which began along the eastern Mediterranean coast around 3000 b.c., traded widely across the Mediterranean. They also developed a revolutionary new alphabet in which letters stood for sounds that formed the basis for many modern alphabets.
During the 500s b.c., the Persian Empireextended across the region. One of the Persians’ great engineering achievements was the building of qanats, or underground canals. They knew that irrigation water would evaporate in surface canals, so they built these underground canals to deliver water from the mountains to their farmlands.
The Ottoman Empire, which lasted for 600 years, was centered in present-day Turkey. It spanned an area that covered northern Africa, western Asia, and southeastern Europe.
As a result of various historical influences, Turkish culture is a
combination of traditional customs and an effort toward modernization.
Place What civilizations and empires have left a lasting impression on the Northeast subregion?
Steve Vidler/SuperStock
Chapter 18 453
The Modern EraWestern Europe controlled large areas of the
Northeast by the late 1800s. Britain controlled Iraq until 1932, and since then Iraq has experi-enced periods of turmoil, including the more recent Iraq War with the United States.
The Ottoman Empire came to an end during World War I. The empire was finished, but the country of Turkey was established in 1923. The secular republic is now a candidate to join the European Union.
Today’s Iran borders Iraq on the eastern side of the Zagros Mountains. The mountains pro-vide a physical boundary, also called a natural boundary. Modern Iranians have experienced political and social upheavals as well. In 1979 the nation’s secular government was overthrown during the Islamic Revolution. Clerics, or mullahs, came to power and continue to domi-nate the country’s politics to this day.
The Era of OilThe discovery of oil in the
Persian Gulf in the early 1900s did not immediately bring riches to this region. Over time, however, the wells produced a large quantity of oil and came under the con-trol of regional powers. In the late 1950s, the Gulf states of Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, and Saudi Arabia, along with Venezuela, formed the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). This group agreed to regulate pro-duction in order to keep oil prices high. As the demand for oil grew, OPEC gradually assumed more power. In 1973 OPEC imposed an embargo, or a ban on trade, on oil when it became angered over the Arab-Israeli War.
H u m a n -Environment Interaction How did the discovery of oil in the Northeast influence power in the subregion?
CultureMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Religion and language shape everyday
life in the Northeast subregion.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU In what ways does sharing a language with your peers affect your everyday life? Read to learn how Islam influences life in Iran, Iraq, and Turkey.
Even though Islam is the dominant religion in the Northeast subregion, each country has unique cultural characteristics.
Language and ReligionThough most people who live in Islamic coun-
tries of the Northeast speak Arabic, this is not the case in Iran and Turkey. Turkic peoples speak Turkish in Turkey, and Persians speak Persian, or Farsi, in Iran, which was once called Persia.
Shia Muslims are the most populous religious group in both Iraq and Iran. In Turkey, the major-ity of those who practice Islam are Sunni.
Early Civilizations and Empires
1. Location Which body of water lies southeast of the Tigris-Euphrates area?
2. Regions Compare this map to the political map on page 414 of the Regional Atlas. Which present-day country in the Northeast subregion was not part of the Ottoman Empire?
Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: culture hearth, cuneiform, qanat,
natural boundary, embargo, ziggurat.
Main Ideas 2. Describe the ways in which ethnic diversity and Islam have
profoundly shaped the population of the Northeast. 3. How are the oil industry and relations with the outside world
shaping the subregion today? 4. List examples of how religion and language shape everyday
life in the Northeast subregion. 5. Use a table like the one below to list important contributions
made by the following ancient civilizations and empires.
Critical Thinking 6. Has the religion of Islam unified the different cul-
tures of this subregion? Give examples. 7. Determining Cause and Effect What are the main causes of
conflict in the subregion today? 8. Analyzing Visuals Compare the physical map on page 412
of the Regional Atlas with the map of early civilizations on page 453. How did location and environment aid the devel-opment of Mesopotomia?
Writing About Geography 9. Narrative Writing Think about the language, religion, educa-
tion, and customs in this subregion. Then write an essay com-paring the ways of life there with your own.
SECTION 3 REVIEW
Geography ONLINE
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454 Unit 6
Education and Health Care Education is required through grade 6 in Iraq
and grade 8 in Turkey. The literacy rate in Iran is 80 percent and 86 percent in Turkey. Before the revolution, less than 50 percent of Iranians could read or write. However, since Iran’s Islamic Revolution, efforts have been made to reform education from a secular to a religious focus.
Health care in the subregion varies. Iraq is struggling to rebuild its hospitals since the Persian Gulf War in 1991. In other countries, hospitals are government-owned but often suffer from doc-tor shortages in rural areas.
The ArtsThe early civilizations created sculptures, fine
metalwork, and large buildings. In Mesopotamia the Sumerians built large, mud-brick temples called ziggurats, which were shaped like pyra-mids and rose high above the flat landscape.
Literature in the northeast is based on strong oral tradition, epics, and poetry. The Rubáiyát by the Persian poet Omar Khayyám is an example.
Regions What challenges do educational systems in the Northeast face?
Civilization Contributions
Mesopotamia
Sumeria
Phoenicia
Persia
Culture
The ArtsThe Iranian city of Esfahan is the center of production of the Persian rug. Esfahan rugs—which are consid-ered the most consistently fine wool rugs made in the world today—are knotted on silk or cotton foun-dations, with up to 400 knots per square inch
Places to Locate• Kuwait (p. 456)• Saudi Arabia (p. 456)• Bahrain (p. 456)• Oman (p. 456)• Yemen (p. 456)• United Arab Emirates (p. 456)• Qatar (p. 456)
Reading StrategyTaking Notes As you read about the Arabian Peninsula, use the major headings of the section to create an outline similar to the one below.
The Arabian PeninsulaThe Arabian Peninsula is a mix of tradition and modernity, of religion and growing commerce. The one element in the region that has not changed over time is the Arabian Desert’s severe climate. Throughout history, the people of the peninsula have adapted to climate, especially the nomadic peoples.
Voices Around the World“For thousands of years this territory has resisted settlement as one of the Earth’s hottest, driest, and most unyielding environments. Yet it’s also home to a culture on the edge, a proud bedouin society working to adapt its mix of Islam, ancient tribal custom, and newfound oil riches to a demanding and fast-paced modern world.”
— Donovan Webster, “Empty Quarter: Exploring Arabia’s Legendary Sea of Sand,” National Geographic,
February 2002
• sheikhdom (p. 458)
• shari’ah (p. 458)• emir (p. 458)
• hajj (p. 458)• Ibadhism
(p. 458)
4
An Arab man in the Rub’ al-Khali
I. Population Patterns A. B. II. History and Government
Population PatternsMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea A shared religion, a common lan-
guage, and rapid modernization have formed today’s Arabian Peninsula.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU Is the area where you live changing in noticeable ways? Read to learn how the Arabian Peninsula is a mix of tradition and modern cultures.
The harsh desert climate of the Arabian Desert has led most people to live along the coasts. Their lives are shaped by traditional Islamic culture and modernization driven by the oil industry.
The PeopleMost people in the subregion — about 56 mil-
lion — are Arabs. Most Arabs are Muslims, but a small percentage follows Christianity or other religions. Islamic culture and the Arabic language have had a significant impact here.
Arabic-speaking peoples have lived on the Arabian Peninsula since before the spread of Islam. Many Arabic-speaking people today, how-ever, descend from ancient groups such as the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Saharan Berbers, and peoples speaking other Semitic languages. In Kuwait, for example, the majority of people are Arab, but, instead of originating on the Arabian Peninsula, they migrated from other states in the region when oil was discovered in the first half of the 1900s.
Many people from South Asia also live in the larger cities of the eastern Arabian Peninsula. Muslims from Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, and Iran have immigrated to this area to find jobs.
Density and DistributionAs in North Africa, harsh desert and lush coastal
climates dictate where the majority of people live on the Arabian Peninsula. Bedouin still roam the large Arabian Desert and settle in oases, but many have migrated to cities. This settlement pattern has become common in Saudi Arabia, where pop-ulation densities can be as high as 2,600 people per square mile (1,000 per sq. km) in cities and some oases. Yet, because the country has over 829,996 sq. miles (2,149,680 sq. km), the density for all of Saudi Arabia is only 30 people per square mile (11 per sq. km). In Bahrain, 89 percent of the
population lives in its two main cities, Manama and Al Muharraq. In Oman, more than half of the population lives along the coastal plain.
Arab people in Yemen are historically a more settled group than Arab nomads. They have lived mostly in villages and small towns. The bedouin, however, have adapted to the desert as they roam for water and grazing areas for their herds. In contrast, 95 percent of the bedouin population of Saudi Arabia is now settled.
The discovery of oil in the early 1900s led to increased wealth, modernization, and immigration in many Arab countries. In many of these coun-tries, such as the United Arab Emirates, these new arrivals make up a majority of the population. Only 15 to 20 percent of the people in the United Arab Emirates are citizens. Foreign workers make up more than 50 percent of Qatar’s (KAH•tuhr) population and more than 60 percent in Kuwait.
Movement What discovery helped lead to modernization in some countries on the peninsula?
1. Place Which country has the largest population of foreign nationals?
2. Place Which country has about the same number of citizens as it does foreign nationals?
The Arabian Peninsula: Citizens and Foreign Nationals
History and GovernmentMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Conquering empires and unified gov-
ernments have imposed cultures on the peoples of the Arabian Peninsula that remain influential to this day.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How do you think the cul-ture of the United States might be shaping other cultures around the world? Read to learn about how the peninsula was shaped by various forces in its early and recent history.
Though some countries on the Arabian Peninsula are quite young, the histories of their peoples are long. Many of these histories through the 1800s are similar, as people of the region sought protection from Great Britain to fight off rule by other outsiders, such as the Ottoman Empire. This region also saw the birth of Islam, which has become a crucial part of each state’s culture in the peninsula.
Early Cultures and ConquestsFor 5,000 years vibrant cultures have existed
on the Arabian Peninsula. One of the oldest cen-ters of civilization in the area existed in Yemen between the 1100s b.c. and the a.d. 500s.
Because of the peninsula’s harsh climate, it has been difficult for large settlements to exist any-where but along the coast. An island near Kuwait was used by ancient Greeks as a huge trade cen-ter for about 2,000 years.
After a local powerful family gained control of territory on the Arabian Peninsula around 1750, it struggled against invasion by the Ottoman Empire and others. The Unified Kingdom of Saudi Arabia was finally established in 1932.
Also threatened by the Ottoman Empire, Kuwait, Bahrain, and Qatar signed treaties with Great Britain for protection in the 1800s and early 1900s. Parts of Yemen were under British control from the 1800s until 1967. Oman was independent for most of its history.
The Spread of Islam
1. Location Which cities were not part of the Abbasid Empire?
2. Regions How far west did Muslim lands extend by 750?
458 Unit 6
IndependenceCountries throughout the region gained inde-
pendence slowly. Kuwait eventually won inde-pendence from the British in the mid-1900s. The United Arab Emirates was established in 1971 when its treaty with Britain ended. It was formed from a group of tribal sheikhdoms, territories ruled by an Islamic religious leader.
Though Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, and Oman are monarchies, the more conservative Saudi govern-ment follows shari’ah, or Islamic law, based on the Quran. Kuwait and Qatar are constitutional emirates, which are ruled by emirs, or princes.
Standards of living vary widely across the region and even within countries. Urbanized countries with economies based on oil production, manu-facturing, or trade have relatively high standards of living. Some oil-rich countries in the region are so prosperous that they have labor shortages and depend on foreign workers.
Qatar’s oil and gas reserves have given its people one of the highest per-capita incomes in the world. It is possible that changes in Qatar’s political future will occur as well. The ruling emir, Sheikh Hamad bin Khalifa, deposed his father in 1995 and has claimed a commitment to democracy.
Human-Environment Inter actionWhy did Arabian Peninsula states sign treaties with Great Britain?
CultureMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Religious beliefs and a common lan-
guage influence everyday life on the Arabian Peninsula.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How does culture help unify the United States? Read to learn about the different religious sects of Islam.
Though the Arabian Peninsula is currently most known for its oil resources and Arab cul-ture, more and more foreign workers are bring-ing their own cultures to the area. The influence these cultures will have on the region is only just beginning to emerge as the large cities become more modern and continue to demand more labor for growing industries.
Religion and LanguageSunni and Shia Muslims are the dominant
sects of Islam in most states on the peninsula. Most Muslims believe in making a pilgrimage, or hajj, to Makkah at least once in their life. However, one can find different sects of Islam in the region. A form of Islam practiced in Oman, called Ibadhism, differs from the Shia and Sunni sects. Those who practice Ibadhism are said to practice a moderate conservatism because they choose their ruler by communal consensus and consent. Oman is the only Islamic country to have a majority Ibadhi population. Another branch of Muslims, the Wahhabi sect of the Sunni branch, advocates the literal teachings of the Quran.
As in other Arab countries, Islam influences the language in the Arabian Peninsula. Most people speak and pray in Arabic. South Asian and Afro-Asian languages can also be found, along with English.
Education and Health Care Most children and young people in the subre-
gion attend school. Public education is strongly supported in Kuwait and Qatar, where the liter-acy rates are 83 and 89 percent, respectively. Bahrain’s government has used its oil revenues to cover education costs and has a literacy rate of 89 percent. Oman is primarily focused on devel-oping a trained workforce and has given second-ary and post-secondary education high priority.
Dubai, United Arab Emirates, is one of several modern cities on
the Arabian Peninsula built using the profits from oil.
Regions What heavily influences the standard of living in the subregion?
Main Ideas 2. Describe how conquering empires and unified governments
have affected population patterns on the Arabian Peninsula. 3. How does Islam influence everyday life in the countries of the
Arabian Peninsula? 4. Use a web diagram like the one below to list the different
ways a shared religion, a common language, and rapid modernization have affected culture and government on the Arabian Peninsula.
Critical Thinking 5. How has the development of the oil industry
played a role in modernizing the peninsula? 6. Determining Cause and Effect How will increasing literacy
rates help countries on the peninsula modernize? 7. Analyzing Visuals Compare the political map on page 414 of
the Regional Atlas with the map showing the spread of Islam on page 457. Which present-day countries were part of Muslim lands at Muhammad’s death?
Writing About Geography 8. Expository Writing Think about the language, religion,
education, and customs in this subregion. Then write a para-graph or two comparing the ways of life there with your own.
Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.
As in other subregions in this part of the world, health care varies widely from country to coun-try, and even more widely from urban to rural areas. Government-owned hospitals are not always fully staffed. Sometimes people rely on private groups to provide health care and other social services. Often private health care is associ-ated with a particular social or religious group.
The Arts and CelebrationsArchitecture provides some of the best exam-
ples of art on the Arabian Peninsula. Mosques and palaces are the best-known examples of Islamic architecture. Because Islam discourages depicting living figures in religious art, Muslim artists work in geometric patterns and floral designs. They also use calligraphy, or elaborate writing, for decoration. Passages from the Quran adorn the walls of many mosques.
Religious holidays and observances often bring family and community together. Many Muslims mark Id al Adha, the Feast of Sacrifice, by mak-ing a pilgrimage to Makkah. They also observe Ramadan, a holy month of fasting from dawn until dusk ordained by the Quran.
Regions What has contributed to the emphasis on education in some Arabian states?
Al-Masjid al-Haram, a large mosque in Makkah, is considered
TheProblem: Afghanistan’s inability to form a strong central gov-ernment has led to terror-ism and instability in the country. Obstacles such as warlords, a decentralized power base, and the lack of a democratic history stand in the way of the formation of a national democratic government.
Warlords Internal fighting along ethnic lines has given rise to warlords. These men command their own armed forces used to solidify control in the areas they occupy.
Warlord Mullah AktharVoting These Afghan citizens are voting in a national election. Voters are required to dip a finger in ink when voting. An ink-stained finger signifies that the citizen has voted. This process helps prevent voters from voting more than once.
(bkgd)Associated Press, AP Images, (b)Associated Press, AP Images
Chapter 18 461
One Solution:The support of peace organizations combined with foreign aid may help strengthen and stabilize Afghanistan by helping to build an infrastructure, including a strong commu-nications system. The eco-nomic development of the country would help in forming a national identity.
ChallengesSituated on trade routes linking the Middle East and South Asia, Afghanistan has often fallen vic-tim to invaders. In the last 30 years Afghanistan has again faced external forces like invasion by other nations as well as internal forces such as ethnic diversity. These forces threaten the coun-try’s stability.
How has the Soviet Union been involved? In 1979 the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan, hoping to shore up the communist regime. Fearing an expansion of Soviet power, the United States, Britain, and China provided arms to guerilla rebels. In 1988 the United States, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and the Soviet Union signed agreements for the withdrawal of Soviet forces. Following the Soviet withdrawal, the
rebel group Mujahadeen stormed the capital at Kabul and overthrew the government, creating the Islamic Republic of Afghanistan.
Who are the Taliban? In 1995 the Taliban, an Islamic military group promising to restore order, rose to power. They cracked down on rampant crime and drug trafficking, but they also severely limited the rights of women and used violence to enforce laws.
How has the U.S. been involved? International terrorist Osama Bin Laden was believed to be hid-ing in Afghanistan. When the Taliban refused to turn him over to stand trial for terrorism, the United Nations imposed trade restrictions. Following the 2001 attack on the World Trade Center and Pentagon, the United States attacked Afghanistan and ousted the Taliban. American forces worked with Afghans to try to stabilize the government, and in 2004 Hamid Karzai was named Afghanistan’s president in the country’s first successful election.
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
1. Human Systems Research U.S. involvement in Afghanistan in more depth. Why do you think a stable Afghan government is impor-tant to the United States?
2. Places and Regions Look at the map of the various ethnic divisions in Afghanistan. Why has uniting the country under one centralized government been so difficult?
U.S. Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice (R) shakes hands with Afghan President Hamid Karzai.
Afghanistan: Ethnic GroupsN
ORTH
AFRICA
, SOUTH
WEST A
SIA, A
ND
CENTRA
L ASIA
Yuri Gripas/Reuters/Landov
SECTION Central AsiaOver the centuries Central Asia has been a cross-roads of cultures and empires, as well as a destina-tion for people emigrating from their homelands to escape harsh political or economic situations. The subregion’s diverse climate constantly makes demands on its people as well.
Voices Around the World“The Stans’ common denominator is the harshness of their shared landscape, sweeps of desert and near desert riven by soaring mountain chains. . . . Mountains mean life. Snowmelt feeds the rivers that support cities and farms. . . . Engineers in the Soviet Stans harnessed the Amu Darya and Syr Darya to grow cotton on huge farms. The new nations still grapple with the aftereffects, land poisoned by agricultural chemicals and transformed into barren salt marshes.”
— Mike Edwards, “Central Asia Unveiled,”
National Geographic, February 2002
• enclave (p. 465)• exclave (p. 465)
• mujahideen (p. 465)
Guide to ReadingSection PreviewCentral Asia’s geography and cli-mate have created challenges for the region that sits at the cross-roads between continents.
Reading StrategyCategorizing As you read about Central Asia, complete a graphic organizer similar to the one below by filling in the different ethnic groups.
5
• Afghanistan (p. 463)
• Turkmenistan (p. 463)
• Tajikistan (p. 463)
• Uzbekistan (p. 463)
• Armenia (p. 463)
• Georgia (p. 463)• Kazakhstan
(p. 463)
• Amu Dar’ya (p. 463)
• Syr Dar’ya (p. 463)
• Silk Road (p. 464)
• Samarqand (p. 464)
• Azerbaijan (p. 464)
• Kyrgyzstan (p. 465)
462 Unit 6
An Uzbek girl picks cotton
Ethnic Groups
Efrem Lukatsky/AP Images
Chapter 18 463
Population PatternsMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea Invasions, domination by numerous
empires, and the rugged landscape have created challenges for Central Asia.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How is your life shaped by the physical landscape around you? Read to learn how Central Asia’s land, climate, and location have shaped the subregion’s population patterns.
The crossroads of Central Asia is home to numerous ethnic groups. Some historical Central Asian peoples vanished long ago — defeated in wars, wiped out by famines, or absorbed by more powerful groups. Others survived and flourish today.
The PeopleAfghanistan sits in the southern tip of Central
Asia, south of Turkmenistan, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. This mountainous country is home to many eth-nic groups that reflect centu-ries of migrations and invasions by outsiders. Pashtun is the predominant ethnic group.
More than 50 ethnic groups and nationalities live in the Caucasus area. Armenians and Georgians are among the largest ethnic groups there. Arme nians make up 98 per-cent of the population of Armenia, which became inde-pendent after the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Georgiaalso became independent after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Most Turkic peoples out-side of Turkey live in the republics of Central Asia. These include Uzbeks and Kazakhs. The Uzbeks form the largest Turkic group in the region and make up the major-ity population in Uzbekistan. Of the Central Asian Turkic peoples, only the Kazakhs are a minority in their own coun-try, Kazakhstan.
Density and DistributionThe population of Central Asia is spread unevenly
across its mountainous terrain. However, large populations do exist in some countries. Afghanistan is home to 29.9 million people and is the most populous country in the sub region.
Throughout history, the subregion’s popula-tion has been shaped by conflict. In 1915 about 1 million Armenians in Turkey were massacred, deported, or died of illness at the hands of the Ottoman Turks. Recently, about 20 percent of Armenia’s population has left the country look-ing for a more prosperous life. In Georgia, around 300,000 of its people are displaced.
The majority of Tajikistan’s people live and work in river valleys. The two major rivers of Central Asia, the Amu Dar’ya and the Syr Dar’ya,flow through Tajikistan.
Location What do Kazakhs, Uzbeks, and Turkmen have in common?
Ethnic Groups in Central Asia
1. Place Which country is the most ethnically diverse?
2. Regions Where are most Russians in Central Asia concentrated?
464 Unit 6
History and GovernmentMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea The location of Central Asia has left
the region’s people vulnerable to centuries of inva-sion and to new challenges in the modern era.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU How has location helped or hurt your community? Read to learn how the countries of Central Asia struggled against invasion and oppression to arrive at independence.
Emerging from centuries of domination by other cultures and empires, the newly indepen-dent countries of Central Asia are working to find economic and political stability.
Cultures and ConquestsCentral Asia is a crossroads of cultures that
have roots 2,500 years old. Georgia’s ancient history, for one, includes the development of a language and culture that are unlike any other.
Another civilization, the kingdom of Urartu, dates back to the 800s b.c. Its rule extended over
the entire Caucasus region. It later became part of the Roman Empire, and its people adopted Western political, philosophical, and religious ways.
Beginning about 100 b.c., parts of Central Asia prospered from the Silk Road, a trade route connecting China with the Mediterranean Sea. Many cities in the region, such as Samarqand in present-day Uzbekistan, thrived as trading sta-tions along this route.
Because of Central Asia’s accessible location along this trade route, it has come under the control of various empires. In the a.d. 1200s, Genghis Khan led Mongol forces — members of nomadic tribes that previously lived north of China — to invade the area and establish a vast empire. The Mongols killed tens of thousands of people to gain control, but later they brought many improvements to the region, such as paper money and safer trade routes. Other empires that unified the region at different times were led by Alexander the Great, Persians, Arabs, and Ottoman Turks.
Armenians resisted conquest, however. Today Armenia is located next to the Muslim countries of Turkey and Azerbaijan, but over 90 percent of its people practice a form of Christianity. This
The Silk Road
1. Movement Over which rivers did the Silk Road pass?
2. Regions Which present-day countries in Central Asia did the Silk Road pass through?
makes Armenia an enclave, a territory that is culturally or ethnically different from surround-ing larger cultures.
Azerbaijan maintains an Islamic culture although it is nearly surrounded by the Christian region of the Caucasus. Today its population forms an exclave, or a distinct group of people who are iso-lated from the main or larger part of the country.
The Russian Empire unified parts of Central Asia in the 1800s. By 1936, Central Asia had become an extension of the Soviet Union. Under Soviet rule, Central Asian peoples were objects of Soviet economic, political, and cultural con-trol. Large numbers of people in Kyrgyzstan fled to escape harsh conditions. Many countries, however, experienced increased literacy and standards of living.
Independence Numerous Central Asian countries declared
independence almost simultaneously when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991. Armenia has experienced some measure of stability and eco-nomic reform. Tajikistan, on the other hand, experienced chaos after the breakdown of a cen-tral authority. The country continues to maintaina Russian military presence.
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 prompted a military reaction from Afghan free-dom fighters, known as the mujahideen. After the Soviets were gone, the fundamentalist Islamic Taliban took control of most of the country. The Taliban imposed an extreme interpretation of Islam on the country.
Though some countries are moving toward political and economic stability, poverty and unemployment are widespread. Armenia, Kazakhstan, and Georgia are hopeful that gas and oil resources will provide economic stability.
Following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, the United States overthrew Afghanistan’s Taliban-led government. That government had sheltered Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda, who had claimed responsibility for the attacks on the United States. Despite holding elections in 2004, the new Afghan government still faces serious problems in ruling its territory and providing basic services for its people.
Regions In what ways are Central Asian countries trying to establish democratic sys-tems of government?
Armenia is a very young country by most stan-dards, gaining its independence from the Soviet Union in 1991. Approximately the size of Maryland, Armenia is home to nearly 3 million people, most of whom are ethnic Armenians. Education is extremely valued, but the minority groups within Armenia do not attend school with the ethnic Armenians. They have their own schools.
Did you know . . . Armenians consider chewing gum in public to be impolite.
City children often gather in the courtyards of their apartment buildings to play soccer, one of the country’s most popular sports.
Chess is extremely popular. There are special schools that very young children attend to learn the game.
Students attend school for about 10 years beginning at the age of 7. They must pass diffi-cult exams to attend a university.
Most Armenian children do not own bikes because the mountainous terrain of the country makes riding difficult.
All 18-year-old men are required to serve 18 months in the Armenian military.
Teen Life
in Armenia
Chapter 18 465
Seth Kushner/Getty Images
Vocabulary 1. Explain the significance of: Pashtun, enclave, exclave,
mujahideen.
Main Ideas 2. Describe how invasions and domination by numerous empires
have created challenges for Central Asia. 3. How does the rugged landscape impact the population pat-
terns of Central Asia? 4. How has the location of Central Asia left the subregion’s
people vulnerable to centuries of invasion? 5. Create a table like the one below to list the cultural char-
acteristics and histories that are shared by the people of Central Asia.
Critical Thinking 6. How have the geography and climate of Central
Asia influenced the economies of the region? 7. Determining Cause and Effect How did the Afghan people
resist Russian and Soviet rule? 8. Analyzing Visuals Study the map of the Silk Road on page 464.
How many present-day countries did the Silk Road pass though?
Writing About Geography 9. Expository Writing Think about what it would be like to be a
member of an ethnic group that is conquered by another eth-nic group. Write a letter to a family member suggesting ways that the family can maintain its ethnic identity.
SECTION 5 REVIEW
Geography ONLINE
Study Central™ To review this section, go to glencoe.com and click on Study Central.
CultureMAIN MAIN IdeaIdea The people of Central Asia share
many cultural characteristics and experiences.
GEOGRAPHY AND YOU What region of the coun-try do you live in, and what culture do people share there? Read to learn about the different types of art practiced in Central Asia.
Central Asia is home to cultures influenced by empires centuries ago. Age-old traditions exist alongside many new changes.
Language and ReligionThe vast majority of people in Central Asia
speak a form of the Turkic languages. The Armenian, Tajik, and Afghan Persian and Pashto languages are Indo-European and are spoken in Armenia, Tajikistan, and Afghanistan, respec-tively. Georgia is the only country in the subre-gion with a wholly unique language and alphabet. Russian remains the official language in Kazakhstan and is still widely spoken in Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan.
Islam is the predominant religion throughout Central Asia, with most Muslims practicing the Sunni branch. The majority of Azerbaijani Muslims, however, follow the Shia branch. Christianity is
Cultural Characteristics History
466 Unit 6
the majority religion in two countries, Armenia and Georgia. Ninety percent of Armenians follow the Armenian Apostolic Church, which dates back to the a.d. 300s. Georgians practice Christianity in the Georgian Orthodox Church.
Education and Health Care Education is universal across Central Asia and
mandatory through secondary school in a few countries. Afghanistan and Uzbekistan are lag-ging, but in other Central Asian countries, liter-acy is at or above Tajikistan’s level of 88 percent. Armenia and Georgia have rates of 99 percent.
Health-care resources have been lacking in Central Asia since the breakup of the Soviet Union. Years of internal civil strife and economic challenges have left few financial resources to be spent on social programs.
The ArtsThe peoples of Central Asia have a rich literary
tradition. In the 1800s and early 1900s, great novelists emerged throughout the subregion. When the subregion fell under the oppressive control of the Soviet Union, however, the arts suf-fered. However, they have enjoyed a resurgence since the fall of communism.
Regions What challenges does the subregion face in educating its populations?
• The region’s fertile rivers and central location made the land a valuable resource.
• Empires in the region grew rich from trade. As Europe grew more skilled at sea travel, the empires’ powers grew weaker.
• Oil has helped make the region wealthy again. It has also led to conflict as countries fight over the rights to oil reserves in the region.
LOCATION AND TRADE
Muslim women pray in Iran
• Religion is very important to the people of North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia.
• It is the birthplace of three of the world’s major religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.
• It is also home to the holiest sights of these religions. Muslims must make a pilgrimage to Makkah (Mecca) in Saudi Arabia. Jerusalem is the Jewish capital and religious center. Christians also hold Jerusalem close, because many of Jesus’ acts took place there.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RELIGION
• North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia has been a cultural crossroads for much of human history.
• The region has two important cultural hearths in Mesopotamia and the Nile Valley.
• The region has a large amount of ethnic diversity. Many cus-toms, languages, and beliefs are represented here.
• This diversity of peoples has led to conflict in parts of the region.
ETHNICITY AND CULTURE
Pyramids at Giza, Egypt
Study anywhere, anytime by downloading quizzes and flashcards to your PDA from glencoe.com.CHAPTER VISUAL SUMMARY
Reviewing VocabularyDirections: Choose the word or words that best complete the sentence.
1. Cities in the region have grown so fast that , basic urban necessities, cannot keep up.
A nomadism C infrastructure
B domestication D urbanization
2. is belief in one god.
A Hajj C Monotheism
B Idealism D Polytheism
3. A center where a culture develops and spreads outward is a .
A cuneiform C ziggurat
B qanat D culture hearth
4. Law based on the Quran is called .
A qanat C monarchy
B kum D shari’ah
5. An is a territory that is culturally or ethnically different from surrounding larger cultures.
A exclave C enclave
B area D autonomous republic
Reviewing Main IdeasDirections: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
Section 1 (pp. 438–442)6. From whom did North Africans learn about nationalism?
A Arabs
B Berbers
C Muslims
D Europeans
Section 2 (pp. 443–447) 7. Although several major religions began there, the eastern
Mediterranean’s dominant religion today is .
A Christianity
B Judaism
C Islam
D Buddhism
Section 3 (pp. 450–454) 8. In which country of the northeast are Arabs the dominant
ethnic group?
A Iran
B Turkey
C Iraq
D Kurdistan
Section 4 (pp. 455–459) 9. The discovery of oil has attracted large numbers of migrants
to the Arabian Peninsula from .
A the United States
B Europe
C South Asia
D East Asia
Section 5 (pp. 462–466)10. The predominant ethnic group in Afghanistan is .
A Pashtun
B Armenian
C Turkish
D Azeri
When you have fi nished, check to be sure that you have answered every question.
TEST-TAKING TIP
STOP
Chapter 18 469
ASSESSMENT
Critical ThinkingDirections: Choose the best answers to the following questions.
11. The most pervasive cultural force in North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia is .
A the Arabic language
B the search for oil
C the religion of Islam
D the ideology of communism
Base your answer to question 12 on the map and on your knowledge of Chapter 18.
12. What is the predominant ethnic group in Israel?
A Kurds
B Palestinians
C Jews
D Iranians
Document-Based QuestionsDirections: Analyze the document and answer the short-answer questions that follow the document.
In 1917, when Great Britain ruled parts of the eastern Mediterranean region, the government issued the Balfour Declaration. The Declaration is a letter that promised that the British government would support the Zionist effort to secure a homeland for the Jewish people. In time the Balfour Declaration gained international support, which enabled the founding of present-day Israel.
Foreign Offi ceNovember 2nd, 1917
Dear Lord Rothschild,
I have much pleasure in conveying to you, on behalf of His Majesty’s [the British] Government, the following declaration of sympathy with Jewish Zionist aspirations which has been submitted to, and approved by, the Cabinet:
“His Majesty’s Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a national home for the Jewish people, and will use their best endeavours to facilitate the achievement of this object, it being clearly understood that nothing shall be done which may prejudice the civil and religious rights of existing non-Jewish communities in Palestine, or the rights and political status enjoyed by Jews in any other country.”
I should be grateful if you would bring this declaration to the knowledge of the Zionist Federation.
Yours sincerely
Arthur James Balfour
13. The declaration announced that the British would help an eth-nic group establish a home in Palestine. What group was it?
14. What did the British say about the rights of the people who already lived in this area?
Extended Response15. Write an essay about how Islam has infl uenced
Importing oil The United States is the world’s largest energy consumer. A large portion of U.S. oil is imported from countries in this region.
THE UNITED STATES
Just the Facts: • Approximately half of the Arab popula-
tion in the United States is concentrated in five states: California, Florida, Michigan, New Jersey, and New York.
• Dearborn is home to the largest mosque in North America. Thirty percent of Dearborn, Michigan’s population is Arab American.
• The cell phone was developed in Israel at the Israeli branch of Motorola.
• The alphabet was created in the land of the Phoenicians, which is now Lebanon.
Iraq’s first parliamentary election since the overthrow of Saddam Hussein was held in December 2005. An estimated 240,000 Iraqi’s living in the United States, like this woman in Detroit, Michigan, were eligible to vote in the election by absentee ballot.
Rebecca Cook/Reuters/CORBIS
Chapter 18 471
Making the ConnectionWorld cultures are intercon-nected in many ways, and much of what we encoun-ter in our daily lives finds
its past and present in the countries of North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia.
Food — Influencing Our Dinner Tables A wide variety of foods we eat daily comes from this region. Some of the most recognizable include melons, kebabs, yogurt, and rice pilaf.
Energy — Keeping Us on the Move The United States is the world’s largest energy consumer, importing about half of all of its oil. The United States consumes about 20 million barrels of oil each day, most of which comes from this region. Currently, Saudi Arabia is the greatest
supplier of oil to the United States.
Religion — A Melting Pot of Beliefs Christianity, Islam, and Judaism, the three most practiced religions in the United States, trace their origins to North Africa, Southwest Asia, and Central Asia. The region still holds great signifi-cance today for all three religions. The city of Makkah, in Saudi Arabia, is the holiest site in Islam. Jerusalem, the capital of Israel, is the holiest city of Judaism and is also of special importance to Christianity and Islam.
Region’s Immigration to the United States by Country (2004)
Country Immigrants
Iran 10,434
Egypt 5,522
Israel 4,160
Morocco 4,128
Turkey 3,833
Lebanon 3,811
Iraq 3,494
Jordan 3,431
Syria 2,256
Afghanistan 2,137
Beef kabobs and rice pilaf
THINKING GEOGRAPHICALLY
1. Human Systems Research one of the reli-gious sites mentioned in this feature. Explain its significance within the context of one or multiple religions.
2. Environment and Society Investigate some of the uses of oil other than gasoline for cars. What products are created using oil? How do these products impact your daily life?
Source: U.S. Department of Homeland Security
Judaism, which began in this region, is one of the three most practiced
religions in the United States.
Paula Abdul, a well-known choreographer, singer, and television
personality, is of Syrian descent.
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(tr)Douglas Johns/Photo Library, (c)Stephen Shugerman/Getty Images , (inset)Kayte M. Deioma/PhotoEdit
