Claim, Demand, Require - IS MUNI

Table of Contents

1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 1

2. THEORETICAL PART ......................................................................................... 2 2.1 MEANING ......................................................................................................... 3

2.1.1 Approaches to the Concept of Meaning ..................................................... 3 2.1.2 Meaning vs. Sense ...................................................................................... 5 2.1.3 Types of Meaning ....................................................................................... 7 2.1.4 Change of Meaning ................................................................................... 10

2.2 SYNONYMY ................................................................................................... 13 2.2.1 Definition of Synonymy ........................................................................... 13 2.2.2 Scale of Synonymity ................................................................................. 15

2.2.2.1 Absolute and Complete Synonymy ................................................... 16 2.2.2.2 Cognitive (Descriptive, Propositional) Synonymy ............................ 17 2.2.2.3 Near-Synonymy (Plesionymy) .......................................................... 20

2.2.3 Delimitation of Synonymy ........................................................................ 20 2.3 COLLOCATION ............................................................................................. 22

2.3.1 Concept of Predictability .......................................................................... 23 2.3.2 Parts of Collocation .................................................................................. 27 2.3.3 Collocational Restrictions ......................................................................... 27

3. PRACTICAL PART ............................................................................................. 29 3.1 DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS ....................................................................... 30

3.1.1 Dictionaries of the English Language ....................................................... 30 3.1.1.1 Claim ................................................................................................. 31 3.1.1.2 Demand .............................................................................................. 36 3.1.1.3 Require .............................................................................................. 40 3.1.1.4 Shared Sense and Specifications ....................................................... 46 3.1.1.5 Collocational Possibilities and Other Grammatical Features ............ 47

3.1.2 Thesauri and Dictionaries of Synonyms ................................................... 53 3.2 CORPUS ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 61

3.2.1 General Frequency .................................................................................... 63 3.2.2 Object Collocates (BNC) .......................................................................... 67

3.2.2.1 Objects that Collocate with All the Three Verbs ............................... 67 3.2.2.2 Objects that Collocate with Claim and Demand ............................... 75 3.2.2.3 Objects that Collocate with Claim and Require ................................ 77 3.2.2.4 Objects that Collocate with Demand and Require ............................ 79 3.2.2.5 Objects that Collocate with Claim ..................................................... 83 3.2.2.6 Objects that Collocate with Demand ................................................. 85 3.2.2.7 Objects that Collocate with Require .................................................. 87 3.2.2.8 Object Collocates Sorted by Raw Frequency .................................... 88

3.2.3 Corpora and Dictionaries of the English Language .................................. 94 3.2.3.1 Objects of Claim ................................................................................ 94 3.2.3.2 Objects of Demand ............................................................................ 97 3.2.3.3 Objects of Require ............................................................................. 98

3.2.4 Modifiers (BNC) ..................................................................................... 102 3.2.4.1 Expressions Modifying All the Three Verbs ................................... 102 3.2.4.2 Expressions Modifying Claim and Demand .................................... 104 3.2.4.3 Expressions Modifying Claim and Require .................................... 105

3.2.4.4 Expressions Modifying Demand and Require ................................. 106 3.2.4.5 Expressions Modifying Claim ......................................................... 107 3.2.4.6 Expressions Modifying Demand ..................................................... 108 3.2.4.7 Expressions Modifying Require ...................................................... 109 3.2.4.8 The BNC and Dictionary of Collocations ....................................... 109 3.2.4.9 Overview of Modifiers .................................................................... 111

4. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 113

BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................................................... 119

CZECH RÉSUMÉ ...................................................................................................... 122

ENGLISH RÉSUMÉ .................................................................................................. 123

1

1. INTRODUCTION

The thesis is concerned with the internal lexical structure of three synonymous

verbs, namely claim, demand and require. The characteristic feature of these verbs is

their interchangeability in some contexts; however, it is often the case that due to the

existing differences in meaning of the vast majority of synonymous expressions, their

perfect substitutability is not possible. The thesis thus seeks to show the differences in

each of the verbs’ semantic content as well as the collocational restrictions imposed on

the use of the verbs in question.

The thesis consists of four parts: introduction, theoretical and practical part and

conclusion. The theoretical part introduces all theoretical concepts which are necessary

for the subsequent semantic analysis of the verbs. It is divided into three chapters. The

first one is devoted to the notions of ‘meaning’ and ‘sense’. The second chapter presents

the definition of ‘synonymy’, examines different degrees of synonymity, and proposes

several methods for the delimitation of synonyms. Finally, the third chapter focuses on

collocation and principles of its formation.

The practical part presents the actual comparative analysis of the chosen

lexemes. It is divided into two chapters: analysis of the dictionary definitions and

corpus analysis. Thus, first of all, the meanings of each of the three synonymous

expressions are studied in various dictionaries and thesauri of the English language, and

only then, the research into the real-life usage of each of the verbs is conducted with the

help of the British National Corpus (BNC) and, as far as the general frequency of

occurrence and the examination of the objects found in the dictionaries of the English

language are concerned, also with the help of the Corpus of Contemporary American

English (COCA). The thesis is concluded by the identification of differences between

the cognitive synonyms under examination.

2

2. THEORETICAL PART

This part of the thesis provides insight into the necessary theoretical background

to semantic analysis. It consists of three chapters each of which deals with one of the

most important linguistic concepts – meaning, synonymy and collocation respectively.

The first chapter is devoted to the notion of ‘meaning’. Since ‘meaning’ is still

an eminently discussed term, and no one has ever offered any widely accepted

definition of it, the chapter presents various approaches adopted in its study. Another

notion which is closely connected with the notion of ‘meaning’ is that of ‘sense’. This

chapter thus considers the ways ‘sense’ is treated in linguistic literature, and explains

what various scholars understand by it. Furthermore, the chapter lists several different

components of meaning, and shows factors that may initiate the change of meaning.

The second chapter introduces the notion of ‘synonymy’. First, it focuses on the

definition of synonymy from the point of view of various semanticists, and then, it

presents three basic types of synonyms. As this work deals with the verbs claim,

demand and require, which are generally regarded as ‘cognitive’ synonyms, a particular

attention is paid to this very type of synonymy. In the end, the chapter suggests several

methods for the delimitation of synonyms.

The third chapter concentrates on the theory of collocations. It presents the

concept of predictability, which is considered to be crucial to the discussion of a

collocational typology. Thus, the chapter explains on what principle collocations are

based, and also mentions restrictions imposed on their formation.

3

2.1 MEANING

Meaning is a fundamental concept to the study of language. However, the

definition of what exactly is to be understood by ‘meaning’ still remains a matter of

concern to most scholars. Not only linguists but also philosophers, psychologists,

anthropologists and other theoreticians had and have been struggling to offer a plausible

explanation of what this ambiguous and controversial term, as Ullmann puts it (1967:

54), actually means. Kempson (1977: 11) agrees with Ullmann on that there is no neat

way of defining ‘meaning’, and mentions three main approaches which linguists and

philosophers adopted in their attempts to construct explanations of meaning in natural

language – by describing: (a) the nature of word meaning, (b) the nature of sentence

meaning, and (c) the process of communication. Kempson thus introduces three

possible starting points from which an explanation of meaning may emerge, i.e. “the

signification of words, the interpretation of sentences, or what a speaker is intended to

convey in acts of communication” (ibid. 12). As the present work concerns with lexical

semantics, it is the meaning of words which will be discussed on the following pages.

2.1.1 Approaches to the Concept of Meaning

Ullmann (1967: 55) distinguishes two different schools of thought: the

‘analytical’ (or ‘referential’) approach, which tries to capture the essence of meaning by

resolving it into its main components, and the ‘operational’ (or ‘contextual’) approach,

which focuses on how the meaning works instead of what it is.

The best known analytical model of meaning is Ogden and Richards’ semiotic

triangle, which has to be interpreted as a denial of any direct relation between words (or

‘symbols’) and objects of extra-linguistic reality (or ‘referents’). As a symbolic

4

representation of an object can never refer directly to the real-world object itself, the

relationship must be established through thought (or ‘reference’); hence, the dotted line

in the following diagram.

The Ogden and Richards’ semiotic triangle1

Ullmann adapts the terminology introduced by Ogden and Richards and proposes his

own sequence of simple, everyday English words. Thus, ‘name’ replaces ‘symbol’,

‘sense’ representing the information the name conveys to the hearer stands for Ogden

and Richards’ ‘reference’, and ‘thing’ substitutes ‘referent’. He further points out that

the relationship between name and sense is reciprocal and reversible, and calls this

relationship the ‘meaning’ of the word. The investigation of meaning thus defined can,

therefore, start from either end: “one can start from the name and look for the sense or

senses attached to it, as do all alphabetical dictionaries; but one can also start from the

sense and look for the name or names connected with it” (ibid. 63), as do conceptual

dictionaries. Since the two methods of investigation are complementary, they are both

employed in the practical part of this thesis.

The second school of thought, called the ‘operational’ approach, bases its

definition of meaning on context: “The true meaning of a word is to be found by

1 For the source, see Hjørland, B. in Bibliography.

5

observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it” (qtd. in Ullmann 1967:

64). Wittgenstein takes this idea even further saying that “the meaning of an expression

is a function of its use in a particular context” (in Frawley 1992: 36). Leech (1981: 67)

also emphasizes the importance of context and lists its three major roles:

1) “Context eliminates certain ambiguities or multiple meanings in the message”

(ibid.).

2) Context indicates the referents of deictic expressions and of expressions of

definite meaning, such as John, he, the man, etc.

3) Context supplies information which has been omitted through ellipses.

Ullmann (1967: 67) concludes his discussion by asserting that first, it is important to

allow the meaning to emerge from an adequate sample of contexts2, and only then, it is

possible to proceed on to the referential stage and seek to formulate the meaning(s)

identified. It follows that “the operational theory is concerned with meaning in speech

[while] the referential with meaning in language” (ibid.).

Both of these two approaches are employed in the Practical Part. The analytical

doctrine, which focuses on the word meaning, is applied in the chapters dealing with the

dictionary definitions, and the operational approach, which examines the words in

context, is subsequently adopted in the corpus analysis.

2.1.2 Meaning vs. Sense

Before continuing the present discussion about lexical meaning, it seems

desirable to introduce another key concept to the theory of semantics, i.e. ‘sense’.

Peprník (in Štekauer 2000: 141) mentions two basic approaches to defining the term

‘sense’: for some scholars, ‘sense’ is equivalent to ‘meaning’ whereas for others, it is

2 Another linguist who perceives context as “one of the most important influences on meaning” is Cann

(1993: 22).

6

rather a label for sub-meaning. Besides, he adds that this term is usually used when

referring to polysemous (i.e. many-sensed) words, such as make.

To illustrate the differences in the way ‘sense’ is treated in linguistic literature, it

is appropriate to show what exactly some of the semanticists understand by it. As has

been said in the previous section, Ullmann regards ‘sense’ as an alternative term for one

of the three components of semiotic triangle – ‘thought/reference’. Leech (1981: 23),

uses ‘sense’ as a briefer term for ‘conceptual meaning’, i.e. the basic meaning of a word

and the central factor in linguistic communication. Lyons (1968: 443), on the other

hand, identifies ‘sense’ of a lexical item with the set of relations which exist between

the item in question and other items in the same lexical system, and insists on its

distinction from ‘reference’ and ‘denotation’ (1977: 197, 210).

‘Reference’ is generally defined in terms of “the relationship which holds

between an expression and what that expression stands for on particular occasions of its

utterance” (Lyons 1977: 174), i.e. its ‘referent’. From this quotation, it is evident that

‘reference’ is a relation which exists between lexical items and entities, properties or

situations in the outside world while ‘sense’, as Lyons understands it, “relates to the

complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves”

(Palmer 1986: 29); ‘sense’ thus relies solely on intra-linguistic relations. It is also

worthy of note that expressions may differ in sense and have the same reference. By

way of illustration, consider Gottlob Frege’s (in Lyons 1977: 197-8) classic example

The Morning Star is the Evening Star. The two expressions the Morning Star and the

Evening Star have the same reference for they refer to the same object in the extra-

linguistic reality, i.e. the planet Venus; their senses are, nevertheless, different. It may

be assumed that if the lexical items are to be regarded as synonyms, they must have the

same sense and not necessarily the same reference. Another linguist who preserves

7

sense-reference distinction and emphasizes the importance of both concepts for the

construction of meaning is Saeed: “The meaning of an expression will arise both from

its sense and its reference” (2009: 32).

‘Denotation’, like ‘reference’, is the relationship that exists between an

expression and entities, properties and situations external to the language system.

However, unlike ‘reference’, ‘denotation’ is not bound to the context, and “holds

independently of particular occasions of utterance” (Lyons 1977: 208). For example, the

expression the cow is context-dependent, and ‘refers to’ a particular cow in the way the

expression cow alone, which ‘denotes’ the class of all cows, cannot. It follows that

‘reference’ indicates the actual persons, things, places, properties, processes and

activities, i.e. ‘referents’, in a particular context of utterance whereas ‘denotation’

indicates “the class of persons, things, etc., generally represented by the expression”

(Palmer 1986: 18).

2.1.3 Types of Meaning

It is interesting that although linguists cannot reach an agreement on one

definition of ‘meaning’, they usually acknowledge the existence of several types of it;

what is, however, more interesting is that they often come to the conclusion that

meaning consists of two main components. Thus, Leech (1981: 23) distinguishes

‘conceptual’ and ‘associative’ meaning, Hladký and Růžička (1998: 18) differentiate

‘the semantic nucleus’ and ‘the semantic environment’, and Lyons (1981: 141) talks

about ‘descriptive’ and ‘non-descriptive’ meaning. This section thus aims at examining

the types of meaning introduced by these scholars.

8

In his Semantics: The Study of Meaning (1981), Leech calls ‘meaning’ in its

wider sense ‘communicative value’, and says that this communicative value embraces

seven distinct types of meaning:

1. The most central aspect of meaning is called ‘conceptual’ meaning (also known

under terms ‘denotative’ or ‘cognitive’ meaning). According to Leech, conceptual

meaning is the central factor in linguistic communication. It is organized along two

structural principles which form the basis of all linguistic pattering: the principle of

contrastiveness (which makes it possible to study meaning in terms of contrastive

features) and the principle of structure (according to which, larger linguistic units are

built up out of smaller units).

2. Conceptual meaning is contrasted with the second type of meaning, i.e.

‘connotative’ meaning. “Connotative meaning is the communicative value an

expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual

content” (1981: 12). In short, connotative meaning comprises those properties that are

additional and non-criterial to the identification of the referent, and that are apt to vary

from age to age and from individual to individual. Due to its indeterminate and open-

ended character, connotative meaning is regarded as peripheral compared with

conceptual meaning.

3. ‘Social’ meaning “is that which a piece of language conveys about the social

circumstances of its use” (ibid. 14). The understanding of social meaning allows of the

recognition of different dimensions and levels of style within the same language (e.g.

dialect, level of formality, slang, etc.). Leech’s observation that hardly any words have

both the same conceptual and the same social meaning implies the non-existence of true

synonymy, and leads to the conclusion that ‘synonymy’ should be restricted to

equivalence of one of these two meanings; and as it is conceptual meaning which is

9

considered to be the focal centre of understanding, Leech chooses this very meaning to

constitute the basis for the definition of synonymy.

4. ‘Affective’ meaning deals with personal feelings and attitudes. It is often

conveyed through the conceptual and connotative content of the words used; however

other factors, such as intonation and voice-timbre, are also important. Leech regards

affective meaning as a parasitic category since it relies upon the mediation of other

categories of meaning – conceptual, connotative and stylistic.

5. ‘Reflected’ meaning “arises in cases of multiple conceptual meaning, when one

sense of a word forms part of our response to another sense” (ibid. 16). The functioning

of this meaning may be illustrated by words whose at least one sense has become taboo:

the so-called taboo contamination is usually the cause of dying-out of the non-taboo

sense(s) of a word.

6. ‘Collocative’ meaning is the meaning a word acquires through the associations

with words which tend to occur in its environment. This can be exemplified by the pair

of adjectives pretty and handsome which, despite their shared basic meaning ‘good-

looking’, are distinguished by the nouns with which they collocate.

7. The seventh and final type of meaning, called ‘thematic’ meaning, is determined

by the way a speaker or writer organizes the message. It is influenced by the choice

between alternative grammatical constructions (e.g. an active sentence and its passive

equivalent), and deals with functional sentence perspective as well as the effect a

sentence has on the hearer or reader.

At the end of his classification of meaning, Leech introduces the term

‘associative’ meaning that brings together the types of meaning with open-ended,

variable character, which can be analysed in terms of scales and ranges, i.e. connotative,

social, affective, reflected and collocative meaning. He further contrasts conceptual

10

meaning with associative meaning and claims that “whereas conceptual meaning is

substantially part of the ‘common system’ of language shared by members of a speech

community, associative meaning is less stable, and varies with the individual’s

experience” (ibid. 19).

Hladký and Růžička (1998) adopt Leech’s classification of meaning; they,

however, use the terms ‘semantic nucleus’ for what Leech describes as conceptual

meaning, and ‘semantic environment’ for all other types of meaning, i.e. associative

meaning including thematic meaning. Besides, they differ from Leech in employing an

alternative name for ‘social’ meaning to which they refer as ‘stylistic’ meaning.

Lyons (1981: 141 and 1995: 44) draws a distinction between ‘descriptive’ (also

labelled as ‘propositional’, ‘cognitive’ or ‘referential’) and ‘non-descriptive’

(sometimes called ‘non-propositional’, ’affective’, ‘attitudinal’ or ‘emotive’) meaning.

Descriptive meaning is the meaning carried by descriptive statements which are true or

false according to whether the propositions they express are true or false.3 It seeks to

describe some actual state-of-affairs, and can be asserted or denied. On the other hand,

non-descriptive meaning is more heterogeneous, and includes an ‘expressive’

component. Unlike descriptive meaning, non-descriptive meaning cannot be explicated

in terms of truth.

2.1.4 Change of Meaning

According to Peprník (in Štekauer 2000: 167), the change of meaning may be

approached either form the aspect of motivation or from the aspect of logic. This section

3 This illustrates the so-called ‘truth-conditional’ or ‘formal’ theory of semantics which states that if one

knows the meaning of a sentence, they also know the conditions under which the sentence is true or false

(Crystal 1985: 242).

11

presents both these aspects, and illustrates them by examples taken from the Oxford

English Dictionary (online).

The aspect of motivation concerns those semantic changes which are caused

either by language-internal, i.e. linguistic, factors or by language-external, i.e. extra-

linguistic, factors. The main language-internal factors leading to changes of meaning are

all other changes in the lexicon and in the meanings of lexical items. For instance, when

a perfect synonym of a native expression is borrowed from a foreign language, one of

these synonyms may acquire a special meaning. This can be exemplified by the word

tide which used to mean ‘hour’ or ‘time’, and which started to denote ‘the regular rise

and fall of the sea during the day’ after the adoption of the French equivalents. The

language-external factors are closely connected with cultural and social development.

As an example, consider the word screen. This word originally denoted ‘a piece of

furniture used as a protection against the heat of a fire or the draught of air’; however,

today it refers to ‘the flat surface on different pieces of electronic equipment’.

Bloomfield (in Palmer 1986: 9) attempts to classify semantic changes from the

point of view of logics, and mentions the following kinds of lexical meaning change.

First, the lexical meaning specialization is called ‘narrowing’. One of the best known

examples is the Modern English (ModE) word deer denoting ‘a wild animal of a

particular species’ which, however, referred to ‘beast’ in the Old English (OE) period.

Second, the opposite of narrowing is ‘widening’, or the lexical meaning generalization.

Thus, for example, place, meaning ‘area’ presently, denoted ‘an open space in a city’ in

OE. The third kind of semantic change is ‘metaphor’. Metaphor is based on similarity

between two concepts, and this similarity may be of several different types, such as,

similarity of shape (head of cabbage), of function (the key to success) and of position

(foot of a mountain). Besides, metaphors may be based on the analogy between duration

12

of time and space (long winter – long distance), and may include transitions of proper

names into common names (Don Juan). The forth type of semantic change is

‘metonymy’ which is based upon the association of contiguity. Thus, for instance, the

ModE word win was derived from OE winnan which meant ‘to fight’, or the phrase

Number 10 is used nowadays to refer to the British Prime Minister. Fifth, the semantic

change can be based on part – whole relation, called ‘synecdoche’, such as in the phrase

£20 per head where head designates ‘person’. The other types of lexical meaning

change are ‘hyperbole’, which is a kind of exaggerated statement (kill for ‘torment’),

and ‘litotes’, which is a form of understatement (not bad meaning ‘good’). The last two

types of semantic change listed here are connected with social evaluation. ‘Elevation’

(or ‘amelioration’) is a change resulting in a more positive meaning (cf. OE cwen

denoting ‘woman’ and ModE ‘queen’). On the other hand, ‘degeneration’ (or

‘pejoration’) consists in the meaning deterioration (e.g. the word sinister, derived from

Latin ‘left’, conveys the meaning of ‘dishonest’ in ModE).

To sum up, lexical meaning changes may be caused by factors within or outside

language, and may involve various contrasts and oppositions. Meanings may become

narrower or broader, more positive or negative, and may be based on different figures of

speech.

13

2.2 SYNONYMY

‘Synonymy’ is a type of paradigmatic relations, i.e. relations that “reflect the

semantic choices available at a particular structure point in a sentence” (Cruse 2000:

148), and is generally defined as sameness or identity of meaning. Linguistic literature,

however, indicates that ‘synonymy’ is not such a simple and straightforward notion as

this definition suggests. This chapter thus seeks to examine this sense relation more

thoroughly, and provide various insights on ‘synonymy’ as understood by different

semanticists.

2.2.1 Definition of Synonymy

Palmer (1986: 88) points out that synonymy enables the dictionary-maker to

define gala as festivity and vice versa, and may be, therefore, regarded as a special kind

of hyponymy. To understand the definition of synonymy as a kind of hyponymy, it is

essential to explain what the term ‘hyponymy’ stands for. ‘Hyponymy’, one of the

fundamental structuring principles in the vocabulary of a language, is often referred to

as ‘meaning inclusion’ in the sense that apple is included in fruit. In this case, apple is a

‘hyponym’ of fruit, and conversely, fruit is a ‘superordinate’ of apple. Moreover,

hyponymy can also be defined “in terms of ‘entailment’ between sentences which differ

only in respect of the lexical items being tested” (Cruse 2000: 151). Thus, It’s an apple

entails It’s a fruit; however; the converse implication does not usually hold: It’s a fruit

does not entail It’s an apple. It follows that whereas hyponymy is an asymmetric

relation based on unilateral entailment, synonymy involves mutual entailment4, and may

4 Taylor (2003: 29) also defines synonymy in terms of ‘mutual entailment’, and Persson (1990: 112) calls

this sense relation ‘mutual inclusion’.

14

be, therefore, defined as a special kind of hyponymy, so-called ‘symmetric hyponymy’

(Palmer 1986: 88).

In his interpretation of synonymy, Bolinger (1968) mentions the term ‘semantic

range’ by which he understands the range of potential meanings that a word may have.

He claims that synonyms are words whose ranges overlap so considerably as to become

almost identical, and adds that “for synonyms to be of practical interest there must be

some expectation of their being substituted for each other” (1968: 233). This

substitutability is to be found under two sets of conditions: the first is a matter of

precision, of saying exactly what one intends to convey, and the second is a matter of

contrast, of saying something that sounds different. Bolinger concludes his investigation

into the essence of synonymy by asserting that no two words have exactly the same

range of meanings, and therefore, “there is no such a thing as an ideal synonym” (ibid.

234).

Cruse agrees with Bolinger’s point of view and maintains that “synonyms are

words whose semantic similarities are more salient than their differences” (2000: 156).

In other words, it means that synonyms are those lexical items whose senses are

identical in respect of central semantic traits, but may differ in respect of minor or

peripheral traits (1985: 267). He supports his claim by two examples: while truthful and

honest manifest a significant degree of semantic overlap and can be, therefore, called

synonyms, alsation and spaniel are not regarded as synonyms since the traits which

distinguish one from the other somehow outweigh those which the two lexical items

have in common. Furthermore, Cruse introduces another rule valid for synonymy:

“denying one member of a pair of synonyms implicitly denies the other, too” (ibid. 266-

7), which is not the case of the pair alsation – spaniel. Synonyms also occur together in

certain types of expression. For instance, they are often employed as an explanation, or

15

clarification, of the meaning of another word. When synonyms are used contrastively,

the difference is signalled by some such expression as more exactly, or or rather.

Frawley (1992) proposes to describe synonymy in terms of truth conditions.

According to him, “synonyms are words that can be substituted for each other in an

expression without affecting the truth value” (1992: 28). Thus, it is possible to replace

the word couch by the word sofa in the sentence I bought a _ only because the truth

conditions in the two constructed sentences are the same.

Lyons (1968: 446) distinguishes a stricter and a looser interpretation of the term

‘synonymy’. According to the stricter interpretation, two lexical items are considered

synonymous if they have the same sense. The looser sense of synonymy, which is also

recognized by Palmer, is “the kind of synonymy that is exploited by the dictionary-

maker” (Palmer 1986: 91). To illustrate this point, Lyons gives examples of possible

synonyms for the word nice: savoury, discriminative, exact, good, pleasing, fastidious

and honourable, and says that since each of these words has a different shade of

meaning, and can replace nice only in one particular context, it is synonymous to nice

under the looser interpretation of the notion of synonymy.

2.2.2 Scale of Synonymity

“Within the class of synonyms […], some pairs of items are more synonymous

than others, and this raises the possibility of a scale of synonymity of some kind” (Cruse

1985: 267-8). Since each scale needs at least one well-defined end-point, Cruse makes

‘absolute synonymy’, as a well-established notion, the zero point on the scale. He

explains his choice claiming that unlike ‘absolute synonymy’, its opposite ‘zero

synonymity’ is not a unitary concept. By way of illustration, he mentions the pairs long

– short and green – expensive which are both regarded as zero synonyms; however, in

16

the case of each of the pairs, the reasons for this classification are different. Providing

that zero point on Cruse’s scale is occupied by ‘absolute synonymy’, then the first point

belongs to ‘cognitive synonymy’ and the second point to ‘plesionymy’.

The terms that refer to various points on the scale differ from author to author.

Therefore, not only does this sub-chapter describe different types of synonymy, but also

it presents terms denoting various degrees of synonymity as employed by some of the

well-known semanticists, in particular Cruse and Lyons.

2.2.2.1 Absolute and Complete Synonymy

“Absolute synonymy refers to complete identity of meaning” (Cruse 2000: 157).

According to Lyons (1995: 50), if lexical items are to be called absolute synonyms, they

must satisfy the following three conditions:

(i) all their meanings are identical;

(ii) they are synonymous in all contexts, i.e. they must have the same collocational

ranges;

(iii) they are semantically equivalent on all dimensions of meaning, descriptive and

non-descriptive.

Since “there is no obvious motivation for the existence of absolute synonyms in a

language” (Cruse 1985: 270), very few lexical items, if any, comply with all the three

conditions. Ullmann admits that only few words are “interchangeable in any context

without the slightest alternation in objective meaning, feeling-tone or evocative value”

(1967: 142); he, however, maintains that it is occasionally possible to encounter such

words. To exemplify this point, he mentions the adverbs almost and nearly which seem

to meet the severe requirements of complete synonymy. Moreover, Peprník adds that

absolute synonyms, i.e. “words agreeing in denotation, connotation and distribution” (in

17

Štekauer 2000: 154), may also be found in botany and in names of sciences and

branches of scholarship.

It should be noted that unlike other writers on semantics, Lyons (1981) draws a

distinction between ‘absolute’ and ‘complete’ synonymy. He asserts that while

‘complete’ synonymy is context-restricted, and denotes lexical items which have the

same descriptive, expressive and social meaning, the concept of ‘absolute’ synonymy is

narrower, and refers only to those lexemes which “have the same distribution and are

completely synonymous in all their meanings and in all their contexts of occurrence”

(1981: 148). As far as absolute synonymy, as Lyons defines it, is concerned, it is almost

non-existent, and appears only in highly specialized and purely descriptive vocabulary.

Complete synonymy, on the other hand, is to be found more often. As an example,

Lyons considers the adjectives broad and wide which in the context of the sentence

They painted a wide/broad stripe right across the wall, do not reveal any difference in

meaning.

2.2.2.2 Cognitive (Descriptive, Propositional) Synonymy

Although this chapter shows that the term ‘synonymy’ covers several different

types of synonymy, many linguists restrict this notion to what may be referred to as

‘cognitive synonymy’, i.e. the identity of cognitive meaning. Lyons (1977: 242) claims

that descriptive synonyms are words whose basic meaning remains the same after the

removal of expressive and social meanings. However, this section seeks to present also

other interpretations of this important point on the scale of synonymity.

Collinson (in Ullmann 1967: 142-3) agrees with Lyons’ point of view that

cognitive synonyms are words which do not differ in respect of their central meaning,

and lists nine typical differences between them:

18

1) One term is more general than another, e.g. refuse – reject.

2) One term is more intense than another, e.g. repudiate – refuse.

3) One term is more emotive than another, e.g. reject – decline.

4) One term may imply moral approbation or censure where another is neutral, e.g.

thrifty – economical.

5) One term is more professional than another, e.g. decease – death.

6) One term is more literary than another, e.g. passing – death.

7) One term is more colloquial than another, e.g. turn down – refuse.

8) One term is more local or dialectal than another, e.g. Scots flesher – butcher.

9) One of the synonyms belongs to child-talk, e.g. daddy – father.

Radford et al. define cognitive synonymy in terms of entailment: “Lexemes L1

and L2 are cognitive synonyms if and only if S(L1) entails S(L2) and S(L2) entails S(L1)”

(1999: 198). In this quotation, S(L) means that lexeme (L) occurs in a sentential context

(S). The authors further assert that cognitive synonyms do not affect the truth value of

the containing sentence; nevertheless, they certainly affect its acceptability. They

exemplify this statement by the sentences Horses eat hay and Steeds eat hay. Even

though both the sentences are true, the second example sounds rather odd.

Cruse defines cognitive synonymy in terms of truth-conditions: “X is a cognitive

synonym of Y if (i) X and Y are syntactically identical, and (ii) any grammatical

declarative sentence S containing X has equivalent truth-conditions to another sentence

S1, which is identical to S except that X is replaced by Y” (1985: 88). As an example, he

considers the pair of cognitive synonyms fiddle and violin in He plays the _ very well.

Moreover, Cruse proceeds on specifying cognitive synonyms from the point of

view of ‘semantic mode’. He thus distinguishes between ‘propositional mode’ and

‘expressive mode’. “Propositional meaning depends partly on the propositional attitude

19

expressed by the sentence in which it operates” (ibid. 271), i.e. on whether it is a

statement, question, command or exclamation. The role of propositional meaning in

various types of sentences is different, for instance, in statements, it determines truth-

conditions; in questions, it affects the range of truthful answers; and in commands, it

influences compliance with or obedience to the command. In contrast with propositional

meaning, expressive meaning varies continuously, and it is valid only for the utterer, at

the time and place of utterance. Besides, expressive meaning always conveys come sort

of emotion or attitude. Cruse comes to the conclusion that if lexical items are to be

regarded as cognitive synonyms, they must be identical in respect of propositional traits;

however, their expressive traits may differ.

Cruse further points out that apart from those aspects of meaning which provide

for the interface between speakers’ intentions and language, there exist other semantic

properties whose principal aim is to control interactions amongst linguistic items

themselves. He refers to them as ‘presupposed meaning’ and ‘evoked meaning’. The

term ‘presupposed meaning’ denotes semantic traits which are taken for granted, and

which place restrictions on what expressions can smoothly co-occur with a particular

lexical item. Hence, they are called ‘semantic co-occurrence restrictions’. Cruse

distinguishes two types of such restrictions: ‘selectional’ (logically necessary) and

‘collocational’ (arbitrary and irrelevant to truth-conditions). Since selectional

restrictions are logically necessary and, therefore, inseparable from the propositional

traits, those are only collocational restrictions “in respect of which lexical items may

differ and still be cognitive synonyms” (ibid. 279). ‘Evoked meaning’ is, on the other

hand, a type of meaning which primarily contributes to discourse cohesion, and only

secondarily plays a direct communicative role. Evoked meaning thus accounts for the

existence of different dialects and registers within a language.

20

2.2.2.3 Near-Synonymy (Plesionymy)

“Plesionyms are distinguished from cognitive synonyms by the fact that they

yield sentences with different truth-conditions” (Cruse 1985: 285). It must always be

possible to assert one member of a plesionymous pair without paradox while

simultaneously denying the other one. Cruse illustrates this point by the sentences: It

wasn’t foggy last Friday – just misty, He is by no means fearless, but he’s extremely

brave and She isn’t pretty, but in her way she is quite handsome. However, Cruse then

admits that whereas the distinction between cognitive synonymy and plesionymy is

fairly clear, “the limits of plesionymy in the opposite direction along the scale of

synonymity are more difficult to specify” (ibid. 286); thus, plesionymy shades gradually

into non-synonymy.

Lyons defines near-synonyms as “expressions that are more or less similar, but

not identical in meaning” (1995: 60), such as stream and brook. He insists that near-

synonyms should not be confused with ‘partial synonyms’. Partial synonyms are,

according to Lyons, those lexical items which meet the criterion of identity of meaning

but which fail to satisfy the conditions of absolute synonymy. Thence it follows that

Lyons’ term ‘partial synonymy’ corresponds to cognitive synonymy.

2.2.3 Delimitation of Synonymy

The difference or sameness of meaning between lexical items is investigated by

various methods. This section lists three ways of testing synonymy as proposed by

Ullmann (1967: 143-4).

The first is the substitution test which reveals to what extent the particular

lexical items overlap in meaning. Two lexemes may have many characteristics in

common; however, they are not called ‘synonyms’ unless one can replace the other.

21

Palmer (1986: 91) agrees with this point of view, and adds that as total synonymy is rare

and hardly any words qualify as absolute synonyms, this test by substitution should be

applied to those lexemes which are interchangeable in some contexts only, for instance,

the noun sense may be modified by both broad and wide but accent solely by broad.

The second method consists in the investigation of the opposites, i.e. antonyms,

of the synonymous lexemes. This test shows that words which may be interchanged in a

certain context have the same antonym in precisely that context; on the other hand, in

context in which they cannot be used interchangeably, their antonyms differ. For

example, “the verb decline is more or less synonymous with reject when it means the

opposite of accept, but not when it is opposed to rise” (Ullmann 1967: 144).

The third way of differentiating between synonymous lexemes is “to arrange

them into a series where their distinctive meanings and overtones will stand out by

contrast” (ibid.), such as the adjectives denoting swiftness: quick, swift, fast, nimble,

fleet, rapid and speedy.

22

2.3 COLLOCATION

‘Collocation’ is a combination of words that customarily co-occur. It is the most

important unit of the vocabulary of every speaker which should not be modified unless

a surprise effect is aspired after. Cruse claims that this term refers to sequences of

lexical items “which are fully transparent in the sense that each lexical constituent is

also a semantic constituent […], and which have a kind of semantic cohesion – the

constituent elements are, to varying degrees, mutually selective” (1985: 40). The

semantic cohesion of a collocation is greater if the meaning carried by one of its parts is

highly restricted contextually, and differ from its meaning in more neutral context. By

way of illustration, Cruse mentions heavy in heavy drinker.

Kjellmer asserts that “a decisive characteristic of collocations is the predictable

nature of their constituents: the presence of one of them will predict the presence of the

other(s)” (1991: 128), and distinguishes three categories of collocations. The first

category is called ‘fossilized phrases’ since it refers to phrases which are virtually

unchangeable, e.g. Anno Domini. In the second type of phrases, labelled as ‘semi-

fossilized’, one word predicts a very limited number of words, e.g. Achilles heel/tendon

and inferiority/Oedipus/persecution complex. The variants of a semi-fossilized phrase

must form a lexically (rather than functionally) specifiable and highly restricted set of

words. Thus, the combinations such as blue book/car/shirt are not regarded as

collocations. The third type consists of sequences of words that co-occur more often

than their individual frequencies would suggest. Such groups of words are called

‘variable phrases’, and are composed of either one or more lexical words, e.g. close

friend, or one lexical and one or more function words, e.g. for a change.

23

2.3.1 Concept of Predictability

As has been mentioned above, the concept of predictability seems to be crucial

to the discussion of a collocational typology. One of the linguists who tackle the issue

of cohesiveness and predictability in language is John Sinclair. The aim of this

subchapter is thus to examine the difference between the open-choice and the idiom

principles, as introduced by Sinclair, and to illustrate it by examples taken from the

British National Corpus. However, before dealing with these models of language text’s

meaning interpretation, it would be useful to mention the two ways of considering

language form – grammar and lexis – which are to be found behind the idea of

formulation of these principles.

In his paper Beginning the Study of Lexis (2008a: 17), Sinclair claims that when

the patterns of language are looked at from the point of view of grammar, it is possible

to characterize them by a large numbers of separate choices, each choice coming from a

list of several possibilities. One item is thus conceived as being chosen ‘rather than’

another. On the other hand, lexis “describes the tendencies of items to collocate with

each other” (ibid.). Since in lexis the list of choices is missing, it is incorrect to claim

that a lexical item is chosen ‘rather than’ another or contrasts with a different lexical

item, as it is characteristic of grammatical classes. Sinclair further asserts that in the

language text examination, these two components, grammar and lexis, cannot be treated

separately; however, “every morpheme in a text must be described both grammatically

and lexically” (ibid. 27) for grammatical features are decided by lexis and all lexical

elements have grammatical patterns.

The first of the two models of interpretation which explain how meaning arises

from language text is called ‘the open-choice principle’. This principle refers to

language text as the result of a large number of complex choices. “At each point where

24

a unit is completed (a word or a phrase or a clause), a large range of choices opens up

and the only restraint is grammaticalness.” (1991: 109) The open-choice principle thus

represents the many options a speaker has if they are to produce sentences according to

a given language system of rules. It is often called a ‘slot-and-filler’ model since what

words from a wide range of possible and acceptable words will be filled in a particular

text’s slot depends on an individual user’s creativity (see example 1). According to

Sinclair, all grammars are based on this principle.

(1) Sometimes, he really wanted to abandon her, yet looking at her now he could

not imagine why he ever felt that way. (GW2) – join/kill/leave/surprise/… vs.

*abandonment/*killing etc.)

As the occurrence of words in the text is not random and as the production of

any normal text does not entirely rely on the open-choice principle, the second model of

interpretation, called ‘the idiom principle’, has been introduced. The existence of the

idiom principle, which states that “the choice of one word affects the choice of others in

its vicinity” (1991: 173), contributes to the unrandomness of the word combinations a

speaker resorts to while producing a text. A language user thus has at his or her disposal

a large number of semi-preconstructed phrases that constitute simple choices, and that

create a heterogeneous class. Idioms, proverbs, clichés, technical terms, jargon

expressions, phrasal verbs and the like are all included in this class. Sinclair (ibid. 111)

also lists seven features typical of the idiom principle, which are all mentioned here and

exemplified in the sentences taken from the BNC.

The first feature implies that many phrases can be considerably extended. As an

example, the phrase set eyes on may be considered. This phrase attracts a pronoun

subject, either never or a temporal conjunction, and the word have as an auxiliary to set.

25

(2) From the moment I set eyes on you I haven’t been able to think of anything

else. (BP1)

(3) To my certain knowledge, Wendy, I have never set eyes on anyone called

Margot Iverson in my life before. (A0D)

The second characteristic feature of many phrases is that they “allow internal lexical

variation” (ibid.). For instance, the sense of the phrase ‘make the understanding of a

particular problem easier’ can be expressed by the collocations cast light on, shed light

on and throw light on.

(4) The convergence of the techniques will cast light on perspectives and how they

are controlled. (HHY)

(5) Recent fossil discoveries, though, shed light on the environments in which the

various groups of hominoid emerged and, it is hoped, on their evolution.

(CRM)

(6) Fossils do throw light on the history of the lateral line and tail. (CRM)

The third feature refers to internal lexical syntactic variation. In the phrase slip your

mind, the verb slip can vary to slipped or can include modal verbs, and the word your

can be replaced by another possessive pronoun; only the noun mind remains unchanged.

(7) He states these facts slowly and carefully, as if they might somehow have

slipped her mind. (ANY)

The next feature typical of many phrases is that the order of the words they contain may

change. The phrase shed light on can be taken as an example again.

(8) Dilemma has recently been much studied for the light it may shed on the

evolution of altruistic or cooperative behaviour. (CRM)

26

The fifth feature suggests that many uses of words and phrases predict the presence of

other words, and form strong collocations with them. The phrases bright light,

ultraviolet light and white light illustrate this point.

(9) When Sara woke it was light, the bright light of late morning. (A0R)

(10) Ultraviolet light is so important to insects that they use it as a main component

of their colour vision. (FEV)

(11) White light consists of light waves of all different wavelengths, or colors. (H78)

The penultimate feature of many words and phrases refers to their tendency to co-occur

with certain grammatical patterns. For instance, when a speaker wants to say that there

is a good reason for doing something, they may use the phrase to be worth followed by

a verb in the gerund.

(12) There are, however, three strategies which might be worth considering. (GW1)

The final feature listed here is that many phrases tend to occur in a certain semantic

environment. For example, the phrase slip your mind is always connected with some

trouble or unpleasantness (either a subject forgets something unpleasant or the act of

forgetting something has unpleasant consequences).

Sinclair asserts that meaning is attached to the particular word combinations and

that “many, if not most, meanings require the presence of more than one word for their

normal realisation” (2008b: 53). Hereby, he emphasises the predominance of the idiom

principle since it is this principle that accounts for the co-selection among words and

allows interpretation of most of the texts. On the other hand, it is only occasionally that

the interpretative process switches to the principle which treats words as independent

items of meaning, i.e. to the open-choice principle.

27

2.3.2 Parts of Collocation

“Collocation is now often defined as being co-occurrence within a text window

of five words either side of the node word” (Hanks 2008: 14). As this quotation

suggests, the word that is being studied is called ‘node word’ or simply ‘node’. Besides,

any word that occurs in close proximity to a node is called a ‘collocate’ of it. “Each

successive word in a text is thus both node and collocate, though never at the same

time” (Sinclair 1991: 115). When word a is node and word b is collocate, such type of

collocation is called ‘downward collocation’, i.e. collocation of a with a less frequent

word b. On the other hand, collocation in which b is node and a is collocate is ‘upward

collocation’.

2.3.3 Collocational Restrictions

According to Palmer (1986: 76), collocations are not freely formed. Although

some of them are determined by meaning, others are fairly idiosyncratic, and their

composition cannot be entirely based on the meaning of the associated words. He

exemplifies this point by the word blond which can co-occur with hair but which is not

appropriate for the description of door or dress, even if the colour were exactly that of

blond hair. The example thus shows that some kind of restriction is imposed on the use

of blond. Palmer maintains that “the restrictions are a matter of range” (ibid. 79), i.e. the

set of contexts in which an expression may appear. He further adds: “we know roughly

the kind of nouns […] with which a verb or an adjective may be used. So we do not

reject specific collocations simply because we have never heard them before – we rely

on our knowledge of the range” (ibid.).

Moreover, Palmer (ibid.) distinguishes three kinds of collocational restrictions.

First, some depend wholly upon the meaning of the item; therefore, the phrase green

28

cow is considered unlikely. Secondly, some are determined by range – a word may co-

occur with a whole set of words that share some semantic features. This condition

accounts for the unacceptability of the clause The rhododendron passed away since

pass away requires a human subject. Thirdly, some restrictions are collocational in the

strictest sense, such as addled with brains and eggs.

As has been mentioned in the previous chapter, Cruse states that collocational

restrictions are irrelevant to truth-conditions. Furthermore, they “vary in the degree to

which they can be specified in terms of required semantic traits” (1985: 280-1). Some

collocational restrictions are fully specifiable; they presuppose the selection of an item,

for instance, both kick the bucket and pass away require a human subject. Others are not

fully specifiable, and are applied in cases where collocates of a particular lexical item

display certain semantic properties (so that it is clear what type of collocates to expect);

however, some exceptions to the general tendency arise. By way of illustration, Cruse

mentions the word customer which denotes a person who “typically acquires something

material in exchange of money” (ibid.) but which is also used to refer to a person who

uses the services of a bank. The last type of collocational restrictions ensures that “the

collocational ranges of some lexical items can only be described by listing permissible

collocants [sic]” (ibid.). Finally, Cruse emphasizes the role of collocational restrictions

by saying that cognitive synonyms may differ only with respect to them.

29

3. PRACTICAL PART

This part of the thesis presents the actual comparative analysis of the

synonymous verbs claim, demand and require. It is divided into two chapters: analysis

of the dictionary definitions and corpus analysis.

The first chapter brings a comprehensive survey of meanings of the three verbs

under examination. It consists of two sections. The first one provides dictionary

definitions taken from various monolingual dictionaries of the English language. The

second section is based on the work with thesauri and dictionaries of synonyms. It looks

at the ways the synonymous verbs claim, demand and require are explained and

described with relation to each other. At the end of each section, the summary of

findings is provided.

The second chapter presents the corpus analysis. It examines collocational

restrictions of the verbs claim, demand and require with respect to the objects and

modifiers which tend to occur in their environments. Using data from the British

National Corpus (BNC), this section shows in which contexts the three verbs are not

interchangeable.

30

3.1 DICTIONARY DEFINITIONS

3.1.1 Dictionaries of the English Language

This section deals with definitions of the verbs claim, demand and require, as

they appear in the dictionaries of the English language. Some time, the definitions are

provided in their full form; other time, only their relevant parts are mentioned. The

verbs are treated separately, and a brief comment is added only after those dictionary

entries which convey some new or interesting information on the meaning of each of

the verbs; thus, the dictionaries commented on differ for each of the three verbs. For the

entries depicting the verb in question in the dictionary which is not provided with a

comment, see the part “Claim/Demand/Require in the rest of the consulted dictionaries”

included in each subchapter. At the end of this section, the information obtained from

the dictionaries is succinctly summarized, and collocational possibilities of each of the

verbs as well as other interesting grammatical features are emphasized.

The consulted dictionaries are the following:

Cambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE; 1995),

Collins Cobuild English Dictionary (CCED; 1995),

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (CODCE; 1976)5,

Funk & Wagnalls College Standard Dictionary of the English Language (FWCSD;

1946),

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE; 1978),

Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE; 1981)6,

The New Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE; 1998),

5 Despite the word ‘concise’ included in the title, it is generally known that this dictionary contains highly

detailed definitions of word senses. 6 I decided to include the LLCE in this section as it offers the same definitions of meaning for each of the

three verbs as the LDCE except for one subtle difference in the definition of claim, which will be,

however, commented on.

31

The New Penguin English Dictionary (NPED; 2000),

New Webster’s Dictionary and Thesaurus of the English Language (NWDTEL; 1991),

Oxford English Dictionary (OED; online),

The Random House Dictionary of English Language (RHDEL; 1987),

Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English (WNWDAE; 1991), and

Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (WSNCD; 1970).

3.1.1.1 Claim

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (LDCE; 1978: 189)

claim /kleɪm/ v 1 [I (on, for); T] to ask for or demand (a title, property, money, etc.) as the rightful owner

or as one’s right: Did you claim on the insurance after your car accident? 2 [T] to take (a title,

property, money, etc.) as the rightful owner: The prince hoped to claim the English crown with the help

of a foreign army 3 [T] to call for; deserve; need; REQUIRE (often in the phr. claim attention): This

difficulty claims our undivided attention 4 [T] to declare to be true; […]

Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE; 1981: 321)

claiming and announcing

claim 1 [T] to ask for or demand (a title, property, money, etc which one does not yet possess) as the

rightful owner or as one’s right: The King of France claimed the Spanish crown as his by right. Did you

claim on the insurance after your car accident? 2 [T] to call for; deserve; need: This difficult document

claimed all our attention for several weeks. 3 [T] to take (a title, property, money, etc.) as the rightful

owner: Passengers should claim their property as soon as they leave the plane. Lost property which is

not claimed in three months is sold. 4 [T] to declare to be true; […]

The first two entries I decided to quote come from the LDCE and the LLCE.

While the LDCE is a standard dictionary of the English language, the LLCE is a lexicon

in which words are organized along semantic principles. The LLCE brings together

words with related meanings, and lists them in sets to illustrate differences between

them. Thus, the verb claim is included in the section “claiming and announcing”.

Both the dictionaries provide the same definitions of the verb claim; they

suggest that the sense of ‘to ask for’ is synonymous to demand, and the sense of ‘to call

for; deserve; need’ is synonymous to require, which is, however, stated explicitly only

in the LDCE, the other two senses are ‘to take something as the rightful owner’ and ‘to

32

declare to be true’. The last sense is not the subject of this work as the verb claim is

never synonymous in it with the verbs demand and require. On the other hand, sense 1

in both the dictionaries is worth a comment. Its definition was slightly changed in the

LLCE: the phrase “which one does not yet possess” was added, and the collocation

claim the crown thus shifted from the sense of ‘to take something as the rightful owner’

to the sense of ‘to ask for or demand as the rightful owner or as one’s right’.

Collins Cobuild English Dictionary (CCED; 1995: 284)

claim /kleɪm/ claims, claiming, claimed ♦♦♦♦♦

1 If you say that someone claims that something is true, you mean they say that it is true but you are not

sure whether or not they are telling the truth. […] He claims a 70 to 80 per cent success rate.

VERB = maintain; V that, V to-inf, V with quote, V n

2 […]

3 If you say that someone claims responsibility or credit for something, you mean they say that they are

responsible for it, but you are not sure whether or not they are telling the truth. An underground

organization has claimed responsibility for the bomb explosion… He was too modest to claim the

credit.

VERB, V n

4 If you claim something, you try to get it because you think you have a right to it. Now they are

returning to claim what was theirs.

VERB, V n

5 […]

6 If someone claims a record, title, or prize, they gain or win it; used in journalism. Zhuang claimed the

record in 54.64 seconds… Steffi Graf claimed a fourth Wimbledon title in 1992.

VERB, V n

7 […]

8 If something or someone claims your attention, they need you to spend your time and effort on them.

There is already a long list of people claiming her attention.

VERB, V n

9 If you claim money from the government, an insurance company, or another organization, you

officially apply to them for it, because you think they are entitled to it according to their rules. Some 25

per cent of the people who are entitled to claim State benefits do not do so… John had taken out

redundancy insurance but when he tried to claim, he was refused payment… They intend to claim for

damages against the three doctors. […]

VERB, V n, V, V for n

10 If you claim money or other benefits from your employers, you demand them because you think you

deserve or need them. The National Union of Teachers claimed a pay rise worth four times the rate of

inflation. […]

VERB, V n

11 If you say that a war, disease, or accident claims someone’s life, you mean that they are killed in it or

by it; a formal use. The war in Bosnia claimed the life of a U.N. interpreter yesterday… Heart disease

is the biggest killer, claiming 180,000 lives a year.

VERB = take, V n

[…]

The CCED provides important information on frequency: the words are divided

into five frequency bands represented by black diamonds next to each entry. The most

33

frequent words in English have five black diamonds, the less frequent words have less

black diamonds; words which do not occur very often but are still included in the

dictionary do not have any black diamonds. The word claim obtained five black

diamonds, which indicates that it belongs to the core vocabulary of English.

As is apparent form the entry, the CCED distinguishes even the slightest

differences in meaning of the verb claim which are neglected in other dictionaries (for

instance, other dictionaries always put senses 9 and 10 together), and therefore, it offers

longer definition of claim than them. In contrast with the dictionaries above, the CCED

lists two other meanings of claim: ‘to gain; win’ (claim a record/title/prize) and ‘to

cause death’ (claim someone’s life). Besides, it informs the readers of style or register in

which claim in these special meanings can be found. For claim a record/title/prize, it is

journalistic style, and claim someone’s life is, according to the CCED, typical of formal

register.

Cambridge International Dictionary of English (CIDE; 1995: 235)

claim obj SAY /kleɪm/ v [T] to say that (something) is true or is a fact although you cannot prove it and

other people might not believe it • […] [+ (that) clause] • […] [+ to infinitive] • […] • All parties have

claimed success in yesterday’s elections. • An unknown terrorist group has claimed responsibility for

this morning’s bomb attack. • […] • If an organization or group claims a particular number of

members, that number of people are believed to belong to it: The Baptists claim 29 million members

worldwide.

claim (obj) DEMAND /kleɪm/ v to ask for (something of value) because you think it belongs to you or

because you think you have a right to it • The police said that if no one claims the watch, you can keep

it. [T] • When King Richard III died, Henry VII claimed the English throne. [T] • If you claim money

from the government or an organization, you make a written demand for it because you think you have

a right to it: The number of people claiming unemployment benefit has risen sharply this month. [T] ◦

Don’t forget to claim for your travelling expenses after the interview. [I] ◦ When my bike was stolen, I

claimed on the insurance and got £150 back. [I] ◦ (Br) My new TV doesn’t work, so I’ll either ask the

shop for a replacement or claim my money back. [T] • If you claim damages after an accident, you

make an official request for money from the person who caused your injuries. [T] • If a violent event or

fighting claims someone’s life, that person is killed during it: The war, which has been raging in the

country for over three months, has claimed thousands of lives. • If someone claims the moral high

ground, they say that they are morally better than someone else: Both the media and the politicians are

trying to claim the moral high ground.

The CIDE is the only dictionary which provides two entries for claim. It

suggests that in the first entry, claim is synonymous to the verb say, and it usually

34

appears with (that) clause or to infinitive; however, it may also combine with a direct

object, as in claim success/responsibility/(a number of) members. In the second entry,

the CIDE mentions demand as the synonym for the verb claim, and it is the very

meaning on which this work focuses. Moreover, the CIDE lists other important

collocations which have not been included in the dictionaries commented on above,

such as: claim unemployment benefit, claim damages and claim the moral high ground.

As far as the collocation claim the moral high ground is concerned, it is not clear why it

was placed in the second entry for the definition given refers to the meaning in which

claim is synonymous to say rather than to demand.

The Random House Dictionary of English Language (RHDEL; 1987: 379)

claim (klām), v.t. 1. to demand by or as by virtue of a right; demand as a right or as due: to claim an

estate by inheritance. 2. to assert and demand the recognition of (a right, title, possession, etc.); assert

one’s right to: to claim payment for services. 3. to assert or maintain as a fact: […] 4. to require as due

or fitting: to claim respect. ―v.i. 5. to make or file a claim: to claim for additional compensation.

The RHDEL introduces the sense which is actually a mixture of the senses of ‘to

declare to be true’ and ‘to ask for or demand’ mentioned above, i.e. ‘to assert and

demand the recognition of’. By using claim in this very sense, the speaker does not only

want to assert that something is theirs but they also seek to have a certain fact

recognized by the others.

The New Penguin English Dictionary (NPED; 2000: 252)

claim /klaym/ verb trans 1a to ask for (something), esp as a right: She claimed Income Support. b to

require or demand (something). c to take or account for (something, esp a life): Bubonic plague claimed

thousands of lives. 2 to take (something) as the rightful owner. 3 to assert (something) in the face of

possible contradiction […] ► verb intrans 1 to make a claim; to claim something: Amazingly, some

Lottery winners fail to claim. 2 (+ for) to make a claim under the terms of e.g. an insurance policy.

The meanings of verbs in the NPED are divided into two categories according to

verb transitivity. It is interesting that in the group where claim is transitive, the

collocation claim a life meaning ‘to take or account for’ occurs together with the

subsenses of ‘to ask for’ and ‘to require or demand’.

35

Claim in the rest of the consulted dictionaries

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English (CODCE; 1976: 183)

claim v.t. Demand as one’s due or property (recognition etc., to be, that one should be, recognized etc.);

have as achievement or consequence (the fire claimed many victims); represent oneself as having (claim

the victory, accuracy); profess to (be the owner, have told the truth); demand recognition of the fact

that; contend, assert; (of things) deserve (esp. attention) […]


1946: 226)

claim, 1 klēm; 2 clām, v. I. t. 1. To demand on the ground of right; lay claim to. 2. To hold to be true

against implied denial or doubt. […] II. i. To derive a right; make a claim; be entitled to something.

Syn.: see ALLEGE; ASSERT; ASSUME; DEMAND.

The New Oxford Dictionary of English (NODE; 1998: 336)

claim ► verb [reporting verb] state or assert that something is the case, typically without providing

evidence or proof: […] | [with obj.] not every employee is eligible to claim unfair dismissal.

▪ [with obj.] assert that one has gained or achieved (something): his supporters claimed victory in the

presidential elections. ▪ [with obj.] formally request or demand; say that one owns or has earned

(something): if no one claims the items, they will become Crown property. ▪ [with obj.] make a

demand for (money) under the terms of an insurance policy: she could have claimed the cost through

her insurance | [no obj.] the premiums are reduced by fifty per cent if you don’t claim on the policy. ▪

call for (someone’s notice and thought): a most unwelcome event claimed his attention. ▪ cause the

loss of (someone’s life)

New Webster’s Dictionary and Thesaurus of the English Language (NWDTEL; 1991:

181)

claim (kleim) v.t. to demand as a right || to profess, to claim peaceful intentions || (of things) to need,

require, it claims all his spare time

Oxford English Dictionary (OED; online)

claim, v. /kleɪm/

1.a. trans. To demand as one’s own or one’s due; to seek or ask for on the ground of right.

c1320 Sir Beues 3002 He..come ...And cleime his eritage. […] 1340-70 Alisaunder 80 Hee fared on

in haste, To clayme his kingdome. […] 1788 J. POWELL Devises (1827) II. 317 That one has a right to

claim a share. 1871 R. ELLIS Catullus l. 20 What if Nemesis haply claim repayment?

b. with inf. phr. or subord. clause.

c. To make a claim for (indemnity), esp. upon an insurance company.

1897 Act 60 & 61 Vict. c. 37 § 1(2)(b) When the injury was caused by the personal negligence or wilful

act of the employer..the workman may, at his option, either claim compensation under this Act, or take

the same proceedings as were open to him before..this Act. 1947 W. A. DINSDALE Princ. & Pract.

Accident Insurance II. ix. 98A If an assessor is employed, it sometimes happens that the assessor

recommends the payment of more than the amount claimed. […] 1982 in E. Rudinger et al. Which? Bk.

Insurance (1984) 107 There is nothing to force a policyholder to claim indemnity under his policy

where there are no personal injuries involved.

2.a. To assert and demand recognition of (an alleged right, title, possession, attribute, acquirement, or the

like); to assert as one’s own, to affirm one’s possession of.

(Sense 1 claims the delivery of a thing, sense 2 the admission of an allegation.)

b. with inf. phr., obj. compl., or subord. clause.

36

c. ‘Often loosely used (esp. in U.S.) for: Contend, maintain, assert’.

3. Of things: To call for, demand, or require; to be entitled to, deserve, have a right to.

[…] 1667 MILTON P.L. IX. 566 Such wonder claims attention due. 1767 GOOCH Treat. Wounds I. 87

What Doctor Friend has written…claims an attentive reading. 1860 TYNDALL Glac. II. §20. 334

There is one other point…which claims our attention. […]

[…]

8. intr. To put forward a claim, assert a right. […]

Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English (WNWDAE; 1991: 257)

claim (klām), vt. 1 to demand or ask for as rightfully belonging or as due to one; assert one’s right to (a

title, accomplishment, etc. that should be recognized) [to claim a record in the high jump] 2 to call for;

require; deserve [a problem that claims attention] 3 to state as a fact or as one’s belief […] ―SYN. DEMAND

Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (WSNCD; 1970: 152)

claim \’klām\ vt 1 a : to ask for esp. as a right b : to call for : REQUIRE 2 : to assert in the face of

possible contradiction : MAINTAIN syn see DEMAND

3.1.1.2 Demand


demand /dɪmɑ:nd, -mænd/ demands, demanding, demanded ♦♦♦♦♦

1 If you demand something such as information or action, you ask for it in a very forceful way. The

Labour Party has demanded an explanation from the government... Russia demanded that Unita send a

delegation to the peace talks... The hijackers are demanding to speak to representatives of both

governments... ‘What do you expect me to do about it?’ she demanded.

VERB, V n from/for n, V that, V to-inf, V with quote

2 If one thing demands another, the first needs the second in order to happen or be dealt with

successfully. He said the task of reconstruction would demand much patience, hard work and

sacrifice... There would be fewer international crises demanding his attention... But he could also turn

on the style when the occasion demanded.

VERB = require; V n, V

[…]

The first dictionary giving information on the verb demand quoted here is the

CCED. It is interesting that whereas every slight nuance in the meaning of claim was

worth a separate paragraph in this dictionary, this time only two meanings of demand

are distinguished: ‘to ask for something forcefully’ and ‘to need’. However, the CCED

still provides important information on frequency of demand. Since it has five black

diamonds, it is ranked among the most basic words in English along with claim.

Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE, 1981: 322, 724)

insisting and emphasizing

37

demand [T] to claim as if by right; ask or ask for and not take “No” for an answer: I demand my

rights/my money! I demanded his name/a clear answer. The letter demands £10,000 for your

daughter’s life. I demand to know the truth! I demand that he (should) go there at once! ‘What is the

meaning of this?’ he demanded. I’m not just asking, I’m demanding.

making necessary, requiring, etc

demand [T] fml to need urgently: This work demands your attention without delay!

The LLCE mentions the verb demand twice: first, it occurs in the section

“insisting and emphasizing” and second, in the section “making necessary, requiring”.

The LLCE also says that demand meaning ‘to need, require’ belongs to formal register.


de∙mand (di mand’, -mänd’), v.t. 1. to ask for with proper authority; claim as a right: He demanded

payment of the debt. 2. to ask for peremptorily or urgently: He demanded sanctuary. She demanded that

we let her in. 3. to call for or require as just, proper, or necessary: This task demands patience. Justice

demands objectivity. 4. Law. a. to lay formal legal claim to. b. to summon, as to court. ―v.i. 5. to make

a demand; inquire; ask.

―Syn. 3. exact. DEMAND, CLAIM, REQUIRE imply making an authoritative request. To DEMAND

is to ask in a bold, authoritative way: to demand an explanation. To CLAIM is to assert a right to

something: He claimed it as his due. To REQUIRE is to ask for something as being necessary; to

compel: The Army requires absolute obedience of its soldiers.

The RHDEL further specifies the senses presented in the above dictionaries, and

lists five meanings of demand instead of two: ‘to ask for authoritatively; claim as one’s

right’, ‘to ask for peremptorily or urgently’, ‘to call for or require’, ‘to lay legal claim or

to summon’, which is typical of legal English, and ‘to inquire; ask’ – in the last sense,

the verb is used intransitively.

Apart from listing all the possible senses of a word, the RHDEL sometimes adds

a remark on its synonyms and the nuances that make it possible to differentiate between

the words concerned. Thus, the RHDEL comments on sense 3 in which all the three

verbs analyzed in this work are synonymous. The RHDEL contrasts them, and explains

the difference in their meanings; however, it does not go into great detail. It emphasizes

the role of authority for demand, the importance of one’s right to something for claim

and the existence of some pressing necessity for require.


38

demand verb trans 1 to ask or call for (something) with authority; to claim (it) as due or just: They

demanded payment of the debt. 2 to call for (something) urgently, peremptorily, or insistently. 3 to ask

authoritatively or earnestly to be informed of (something): The man demanded the reason for her visit.

4 to require (something): The task demands your full attention.

The NPED mentions only the transitive use of demand. It is worthy of note that

demand meaning ‘to ask (to know); inquire’ may also co-occur with direct object, as in

the collocation demand the reason.


dėma’nd v.t. Ask for (thing) as of right or peremptorily or urgently (of or from person; demand an

answer, to know, that one be told); require, need (piety demands it; task demands skill); ask to be, insist

on being, told (demand person’s business, what he wants) […]

The CODCE does not introduce any new senses of demand; in fact, it manages

with three of them. This dictionary, however, provides information on the ditransitive

constructions this verb allows: demand sth of sb and demand sth from sb.

Demand in the rest of the consulted dictionaries


de∙mand (obj) /£ dɪ’mɑ:nd, $-’mænd/ v to ask for forcefully, in a way that shows that a refusal is not

expected, or to need • The headteacher demanded an explanation of why the boys had behaved badly

during lessons. [T] • The car workers’ union is demanding a 7% pay rise this year. [T] • He has

always demanded the highest standards of behaviour from his children. [T] • “And where do you think

you’re going?” demanded the police officer. [+ clause] • I demanded to see the person in charge. [+ to

infinitive] • She demanded that he return the books he borrowed from her. [+ that clause] • This is a

very difficult piece of music to play – it demands (=needs) a lot of concentration. [T] • He seems to lack

many of the qualities demanded of (=needed by) a successful politician. [T]


1946: 314)

de-mand, 1 dɪ-mand; 2 de-mănd, v. I. t. 1. To claim as due; ask for peremptorily; insist upon. 2. To have

pressing need for; require. 3. Law. To summon to court. 4||. To ask or question formally or

authoritatively; interrogate. II. i. To inquire urgently, authoritatively, or peremptorily.


demand v 1 [T] to claim as if by right; ask or ask for and not take “No” for an answer: I demand my

rights/my money!|I demanded his name/a clear answer.|I demand to know the truth!|I demand that John

(should) go there at once! 2 [T] to need urgently: This work demands your attention without delay!


39

demand ► verb [reporting verb] ask authoritatively or brusquely: [with direct speech] […] [with clause] […]

▪ [with obj.] insist on having: an outraged public demanded retribution | too much was being demanded

of the top players. ▪ require; need: a complex activity demanding detailed knowledge.


254)

demand v.t. to ask for peremptorily, claim as one’s due || to require, call for, his job demands great skill ||

to inquire with authority, the policeman demanded the man’s business || v.i. (with ‘of’) to make a

demand


demand, v. /dɪ’mɑ:nd/

I. To ask (authoritatively or peremptorily) for:

* a thing.

1. trans. To ask for (a thing) with legal right or authority; to claim as something one is legally or

rightfully entitled to.

[…] 1489 CAXTON Faytes of A. III. xiv. 199 Hys heyre myght haue an actyon for to demande the hole

payement of hys wages. 1568 GRAFTON Chron. II. 114 He was compelled to demaund an ayde and

taske of all England for the quieting of Irelande. 1594 R. CROMPTON L’Authoritie des Courts 8 The

Serjeant of the Parliament should..demaund deliuery of the prisoner. 1628 COKE On Litt. 127a, He

shall defend but the wrong and the force, & demand the iudgement if he shall be answered. 1634 SIR T.

HERBERT Trav. 182 And for every tun of fresh water, they demanded and was payed..foure shillings

and foure pence. 1670 Tryal of Penn & Mead in Phenix (1721) 321, I demand my Liberty, being freed

by the Jury. 1763 Gentl. Mag. Sept. 463 The peace officer..demanding entrance, the door was opened a

little way. 1894 MIVART in Eclectic Mag. Jan. 10 To all men a doctrine was preached, and assent to

its teaching was categorically demanded.

b. with inf. phr. or subord. clause.

[…]

2. spec. in Law. To make formal claim to (real property) as the rightful owner.

1485 Act 1 Hen. VII, c. 1 That the demandant in euery such case haue his action against the Pernour or

Pernours of the profits of the lands or tenements demanded. 1531 Dial. Laws Eng. ix. 18b, If the

demandaunt or plaintyffe hangyng his writ wyll entre in to the thyng demaunded his wryt shal abate.

1628 COKE On Litt. 127b, Demandant, peteur, is hee which is actor in a reall action because he

demandeth lands, etc. 1783 BLACKSTONE Comm. (ed. 9) II. App. xviii, Francis Golding Clerk in his

proper person demandeth against David Edwards, Esq., two messuages.

3. To ask for (a thing) peremptorily, imperiously, urgently, or in such a way as to command attention.

[…]

[…] 1600 E. BLOUNT tr. Conestaggio 273 By his letter, hee had demaunded pardon of the Catholique

King. 1632 J. HAYWARD tr. Biondi’s Eromena 108 He was to intreate his father to demand for him a

wife. […] 1812 M. EDGEWORTH Vivian xi, The physician qualified the assent which his lordship’s

peremptory tone seemed to demand. 1887 BOWEN Virg. Æneid II. 71 Trojans eye me in wrath, and

demand my life as a foe!

b. with object expressed by inf. phr. or subord. clause.

[…] 1600 E. BLOUNT tr. Conestaggio 242 They demaunded secretly..to borrow beds of silke, silver

vessels, and other things fit for a kings service. 1754 HUME Hist. Eng. I. v. 304 Anselm..demanded

positively, that all the revenues of his see should be restored to him. […]

c. absol.

1509 HAWES Past. Pleas. XXXIII. xxii, Whan I had so obteyned the victory, Unto me than my verlet

well sayd: You have demaunded well and worthely. […]

4. […]

5. To ask for (a person) to come or be produced; to ask to see; to require to appear; to summon.

[…]

6. fig. Said of things:

a. To call for of right or justice; to require.

40

[…] 1779 COWPER Lett. 2 Oct., Two pair of soles, with shrimps which arrived last night demand my

acknowledgments. 1836 J. GILBERT Chr. Atonem. vi. (1852) 168 Holiness may demand, but not

desire the punishment of transgressors. […]

b. To call for or require as necessary; to have need of.

[…] 1855 BAIN Senses & Int. II. ii. §6 Sensibility everywhere demands a distribution of nerve fibres.

1878 MORLEY Carlyle Crit. Misc. Ser. I. 199 Government..more than anything else in this world

demands skill, patience, energy, long and tenacious grip.

** a person for or to do a thing.

[…]

II. To ask (authoritatively) to know or be told:

* a thing.

9. To ask to know, authoritatively or formally; to request to be told.

1548-9 (Mar.) Bk. Com. Prayer, Baptism, Then the prieste shall demaunde the name of the childe. 1593

SHAKES. Lucr. Argt., They..finding Lucrece attired in mourning habit, demanded the cause of her

sorrow. 1600 E. BLOUNT tr. Conestaggio 262 The Portugals demaunded the state of the realme. 1634

SIR T. HERBERT Trav. 77 In bravery and shew of insolence, demanding her businesse. […]

b. with the object expressed by a clause.

[…]

*** intr.

12. To ask, inquire, make inquiry. […]

Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English (WNWDAE; 1991: 366)

de∙mand (di mand’, -mänd’), vt. 1 to ask for boldly or urgently 2 to ask for as a right or with authority 3

to order to appear; summon 4 to ask to know or be informed of 5 to call for as necessary; require; need

[the work demands patience] 6 Law to ask relief in court for (what is due one) ―vi. to make a demand


demand vb vi : to make a demand : ASK ~ vt 1 : to ask for peremptorily or urgently 2 a : to ask for

legally as a rightful owner b : to claim as due, just or fit c : to ask for authoritatively 3 a : to ask

authoritatively or earnestly to be informed of b : to require to come : SUMMON 4 : to call for as useful

or necessary […]

3.1.1.3 Require

Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English (LLCE; 1981: 239, 724)

not having things

require fml to need: We require more money; arrange it with the bank. Do you require any further

assistance (= help), sir? He is required at once in the Manager’s office.

making necessary, requiring, etc

require 1 [T] esp fml to need: This suggestion requires careful thought. The floor requires washing. His

health requires that he (should) go to bed early. I’m looking for the required ladder. 2 [T] fml to

demand; order, expecting obedience: All passengers are required to show their tickets. Do you require

anything of me? He passed the required examinations to become a doctor. He requires that they

(should) work all night.

The first entry providing information on require comes from the LLCE. The

LLCE mentions this verb in two sections. First, in the section “not having things” where

its meaning is ‘to need something which one does not yet possess’, and second, in the

section “making necessary, requiring” where require has not only the sense of ‘to need’

41

but also of ‘to demand; order’. As regards the second section, it is the very section in

which the LLCE also lists the verb demand. Moreover, the LLCE suggests that require

always belongs to formal register.


require /rɪkwaɪər/ requires, requiring, required ♦♦♦♦◊

1 If you require something or if something is required, you need it or it is necessary; a formal use. If you

require further information, you should consult the registrar… This isn’t the kind of crisis that requires

us to drop everything else… Some of the materials required for this technique may be difficult to

obtain.

VERB = need; V n, V n to-inf, V-ed

2 If a law or rule requires you to do something, you have to do it; a formal use. The rules also require

employers to provide safety training… At least 35 manufacturers have flouted a law requiring prompt

reporting of such malfunctions… The law now requires that parents serve on the committees that plan

and evaluate school programs… Then he’ll know exactly what’s required of him.

VERB, V n to-inf, V n, V that, be V-ed of n

3 If you say that something is required reading for a particular group of people, you mean that you think

it is essential for them to read it because it will give them information which they should have. … an

important research study that should be required reading for every member of the cabinet.

PHRASE: v-link PHR, oft PHR for n

The CCED confirms the information on the register in which the verb require is

to be found given by the LLCE, and adds a remark on frequency. According to this

dictionary, require still occurs quite frequently; it is not, however, as common in

English as the two verbs above. The CCED further points out the collocation required

reading meaning something that must be read as imposed by an authority.


rėquīr’e v.t. 1. Order (person), demand (of or from person), to do (they require me or of me to appear);

demand or ask in words (person’s action, act of person, thing at person’s hands, that, etc.) esp. as of

right (they require my appearance, an oath of me, a gift at my hands or from me, that I should appear).

2. Lay down as imperative (had done all that was required by the Act; Gray’s ‘Anatomy’ is required

reading for nurses). 3. Need, depend for success, fulfilment, etc., on, (the emergency requires it, that it

should be done; irony requires care in its use, to be used with care; place would require an army to

take it; machine requires no attention; it required all his authority to keep them under control); wish to

have (do you require tea?). […]

The CODCE mentions other meanings of require than ‘to demand; order’ and

‘to need; make necessary’. These are ‘to lay down as imperative’ where the CODCE

lists the phrase required reading, and ‘to wish to have’, which is classified as the

subsense of ‘to need’. This dictionary also contains a wealth of examples to illustrate

42

the verb require in all these senses, and presents the ditransitive constructions require

allows: require sth of sb and require sth from sb.


require /rɪ’kwɪe·ə/ verb trans 1a to have to have (something) because it is necessary or essential; to need

(it): All living beings require food. b to wish to have (something): How many seats do you require? 2 to

call for (something) as suitable or appropriate: The occasion requires formal dress. 3 to regard

(something) as obligatory; to demand (it): required by law. 4 to impose an obligation on (somebody); to

compel (them): You will be required to pass an examination before you can practise.

The NPED lists one meaning of require which has not appeared yet, i.e. ‘to call

for something as suitable or appropriate’. Besides, it is notable that the NPED splits the

meaning ‘to lay down as imperative’ introduced in the CODCE into two separate

senses: ‘to regard as obligatory’ and ‘to impose an obligation on somebody’.


re·quire (ri kwīər’), v., -quired, -quir·ing. ―v.t. 1. to have need of; need: He requires medical care. 2. to

call on authoritatively; order to enjoin to do something: to require an agent to account for money spent.

3. to ask for authoritatively or imperatively; demand. 4. to impose need or occasion for; make necessary

or indispensable: The work required infinite patience. 5. to call for or exact as obligatory; ordain: The

law requires annual income-tax returns. 6. to place under an obligation or necessity: The situation

requires me to take immediate action. 7. Chiefly Brit. to desire; wish to have: Will you require tea at

four o’clock? ―v.i. 8. to demand; impose obligation: to do as the law requires.

The meaning of the verb require is divided into more senses in the RHDEL than

in any other dictionary quoted in this work. Since the examples illustrating some senses

are either non-existent or insufficient, it is difficult to differentiate between these senses.

In my opinion, the problem may arise especially with senses 2 and 3. As regards require

meaning ‘wish to have’, the RHDEL suggests that it is more common in British English

rather than American.

Require in the rest of the consulted dictionaries


re·quire (obj) /£rɪ’kwaɪər, $-‘kwaɪr/ v to need or make necessary • Bringing up children often requires

you to put their needs first. [T + obj + to infinitive] • You are required by law to stop your car after an

43

accident. [T + obj + to infinitive] • The rules require that you can only bring one guest to the dinner.

[+ that clause]


1946: 968)

re-quire’, 1 rɪ-kwɑɪr’; 2 re-kwīr’, v. I. t. 1. To demand, or to request authoritatively; claim. 2. To have

imperative need of; want. 3†. To request. 4†. To search for. II. i. 1. To be requisite. 2. To feel under a

necessity to do something. 3. To make request. Syn.: see ASK; COMMAND; DEMAND; DICTATE;

MAKE.


re·quire /rɪ’kwaɪər/ v 1 [T] to need: This suggestion requires careful thought.|The floor requires

washing.|His health requires that he (should) go to bed early.|I’m looking for the required ladder. 2 [T]

fml to demand; order, expecting obedience: All passengers are required to show their tickets.|Do you

require anything of me?|to pass the required examinations to become a doctor|He requires that they

(should) work all night


require ► verb [with obj.] need for a particular purpose; depend on for success or survival: three patients

required operations.

▪ cause to be necessary: it would have required much research to produce a comprehensive list. ▪

specify as compulsory: the minimum car insurance required by law.

▪ [with obj. and infinitive] (of someone in authority) instruct or expect (someone) to do something: you

will be required to attend for cross-examination.

▪ (require something of) regard an action, ability, or quality as due from (someone) by virtue of their

position: the care and diligence required of him as a trustee. ▪ wish to have: please indicate how

many tickets you require.


846)

re·quire (rɪkwáiər) pres. part. re·quir·ing past and past part. re·quired v.t. to stipulate, the law requires

that the report must be made annually || to place an obligation on (someone), the law requires you to

report annually || to need, this requires careful consideration


require, v. Brit. /rɪ’kw٨ɪə/ U.S. /rə’kwaɪ(ə)r/, /rɪ’kwaɪ(ə)r/

I. To make a request or demand of a person.

[…]

5. trans.

a. To order, instruct, or oblige (a person) to do something. In later use freq. in pass.

Also with infinitive implied.

[…]

b. With that-clause. Now arch. and rare.

[…]

II. To request, demand, or need a thing.

6. […]

b. trans. To demand (a thing) authoritatively or as a right; to demand, claim, or insist on having

(something) from or of someone.

44

[…] a1425 WYCLIF Sel. Eng. Wks. (1869) I. 336 e blood of just Abel shal be requyrid of Cayn. […]

1490 CAXTON tr. Eneydos viii. 34 [They] notefyden vnto the quene, how the sayd kyng had requyred

her in maryage. 1526 W. BONDE Pylgrimage of Perfection II. sig. Ii, Of all these benefytes..he wyll

requyre streight accountes. […] 1591 H. SAVILE tr. Tacitus Hist. in Ende of Nero III. x. 119 His death

was now violently required. a1616 SHAKESPEARE Tempest (1623) V. i. 134, I..require My

Dukedome of thee, which, perforce I know Thou must restore. 1667 MILTON Paradise Lost V. 529

Our voluntarie service he requires. […] a1720 W. SEWEL Hist. Quakers (1722) I. III. 80 Oliver

Cromwell..requir’d, both of the Soldiers and others, the Oath of Fidelity. […] 1856 J. A. FROUDE

Hist. Eng. II. ix. 347 The royal commissioners appeared at the Charterhouse to require the submission

of the brethren. […] 1957 I. MURDOCH Sandcastle ii. 20 At least a nominal faith of an Anglican

variety was required by the Governors in any candidate for the Headship. 2001 Chicago Tribune 22

Oct. I. 5/6 All city facilities will be locked down and IDs required of all employees.

7. trans.

a. To demand or call for (something) as appropriate or suitable in a particular case; to need for a

particular purpose.

(a) With simple object and in adverbial clauses introduced by as.

[…] 1526 W. BONDE Pylgrimage of Perfection Pref. sig. Aiv, The condicions requyred to a pilgreme

that entendeth to go to the erthly Ierusalem. 1560 J. DAUS tr. J. Sleidane Commentaries f. xiij, Howe

can men discerne such vertues in him as be required in a mightye prynce? […] 1668 BP. J. WILKINS

Ess. Real Char. Ep. Rdr., That great Industry, or Accurate judgment,..required to such a Work. 1691 J.

DUNTON Voy. round World III. x. 380 Yet this is not to maim the Man, but to render him more Divine

by the fewness of Organs required to the Function of Life. 1723 E. CHAMBERS tr. S. Le Clerc Treat.

Archit. I. 2 A Computation of the expences of the Building, and of the time required to go through with

it. 1759 R. BROWN Compl. Farmer 110 An acre of ground will require ten pound of seed. 1776 A.

SMITH Inq. Wealth of Nations I. I. xi. 191 To bring the ground into this condition requires more

expence. 1810 G. CRABBE Borough i. 3 Cities and Towns, the various haunts of men, Require the

pencil; they defy the pen. […] 1884 Mil. Engin. I. II. 59 The tools required are..1 rammer, 1 key-

hammer, 2 beaters. 1904 J. CONRAD Nostromo III. iv. 318 The material interests required from him

the sacrifice of his aloofness. […] 2006 ‘A. ANT’ Stand & Deliver i. 7 Every now and then I’d try to

remember how to play ‘Chopsticks’, an impressive tune requiring the use of only two fingers.

(b) With that-clause as object.

[…]

b. Of a law, custom, a general principle, etc.: to demand as necessary or essential.

(a) With simple object and in adverbial clauses introduced by as.

c1405 (c1390) CHAUCER Melibeus (Hengwrt) (2003) l. 473 He shal punysshe hem as the lawe axeth

& requereth. c1450 (1415) Crowned King 37 in W. W. Skeat Langland’s Piers Plowman 525

A..subsidie..To be rered in the reaume as reson requyred. […] a1500 (c1451) in C. Monro Lett.

Margaret of Anjou (1863) 121 We praye..that ye suffre oure said clerke to rejoyse his said hospital..as

right, law, and good conscience requiren. 1548 Hall’s Vnion: Henry VIII f. lxxxii, The kinges rode

about the felde as honor of armes required. 1549 COVERDALE et al. tr. Erasmus Paraphr. Newe Test.

II. Rom. Prol. sig. ++iiiiv, The lawe requireth a fre, a willinge, a lusty and a louynge hearte. 1562 Reg.

Privy Council Scotl. I. 223 To wair thair lyfes as thair dewetie and detfull obedience requyris.

1649 MILTON vi. 61 The Law and his Coronal Oath requires his undeniable assent to what Laws the

Parlament agree upon. 1679 W. PENN Addr. Protestants II. 144 An Imposing Church..will be both

Party and Judge: it requires Assent without Evidence, and Faith without Proof. […] 1793 R. BELL

Cases decided in Court of Session 1790-2 73 The law requires the oath of the creditor as well as the

voucher of the debt. […] 1874 S. J. P. THEARLE Naval Archit. 104 The Liverpool rules require chain

riveting for all double and treble riveted joints and butts. 1903 Edinb. Rev. Apr. 454 The oath of

membership required fidelity..to the Church as well as the State. […] 1967 G. VIDAL Washington

D.C. II. i. 58 He had been invited not because the President wanted him but because protocol required

his presence. 2005 M. FITZMAURICE & O. ALIAS Contemp. Issues in Law of Treaties vii. 280 The

compromise position it adopts still requires the assent of the third organization.

(b) With that-clause.

[…]

c. With dummy subject: there is need for (a thing or person) in order to achieve some purpose.

(a) it requires. (Chiefly with infinitive or (occas.) for and clause indicating the purpose.)

[…] 1644 K. DIGBY Two Treatises II. xi. 440 It requireth no further particular insistance vpon it, to

shew [etc.]. 1690 J. LOCKE Ess. Humane Understanding I. ii. 12 It requires more time plainly to form

in his Mind those general Idea’s, they stand for. 1724 R. WODROW Corr. (1843) III. 130 It requires a

much better memory than mine to resume such long work. 1774 O. GOLDSMITH Hist. Earth VII. 47

45

It requires a year for the peopling a muscle-bed. 1796 J. SINCLAIR Statist. Acct. Scotl. XVII. 343 It

requires the utmost exertion of his industry..to..afford a maintenance, very sober indeed, to his family.

1820 W. IRVING Sketch Bk. I. 44 Surely it does not require a palace to be happy with Mary. 1845 M.

PATTISON Ess. (1889) I. 18 It required all the personal influence of the king to check..his irritated

followers. 1895 Law Times 99 476/2 It requires the talents of a Boileau..to play the part of a flâneur

with any success. 1936 J. BUCHAN Island of Sheep i. 16 It required all kinds to make a world. 1963

Connecticut Hist. Soc. Apr. 64 It requires a good deal of scholarly courage to undertake a study of..the

celebrated Underground Railroad of a century ago. 1997 J.-C. MILLER Body Art Bk. ix. 114 It requires

a very steady and skilled hand to turn something the consistency of mud into a beautiful, ornate design.

(b) there requires. (Sometimes with infinitive indicating the purpose.)

[…] 1620 I. C. Two Merry Milke-maids I. ii. sig. B4v, Prythe let’s, there requires not much wit about it.

[…] 1745 E. HAYWOOD Female Spectator I. i. 32 There requires a more strong Discernment than

Youth will ordinarily admit of, to distinguish it from innocence. 1793 Rep. Comm. Ho. Comm. (1803)

XIV. 233 Between Day’s and Sutton Locks there requires a stop or pound lock at or near Clifton Ferry.

1862 H. SPENCER First Princ. (1875) I. iv. §24 79 To produce that orderly consciousness..there

requires the assimilation of each impression to others. 1890 Pop. Sci. Monthly Nov. 14 To obtain the

greatest pleasure in this and other things, there requires both likeness and difference. 1914 Ann. Rep.

Comm. Dict. Columbia I. 280 The present hospital laundry is situated in the female workhouse and

there requires a separate boiler and engineer to give service. 2008 A. F. ALTSCHUL Lady Lazarus 548

There requires a storyteller.

d. To depend on for success or survival; to stand in need of; to need.

?c1425 tr. Guy de Chauliac Grande Chirurgie (Paris) 224 Arteries woundede..requiren o er techinges

in here crafte. […] a1538 T. STARKEY Dial. Pole & Lupset (1989) 10 In many thyngys..nature

requyryth the dylygence of man. 1563 N. WINзET Certain Tractates (1888) I. 61 The defence of fraud

and falset necessarlie requeris a cloke of finзeit eloquence. 1606 E. MELVILLE Godlie Dreame sig.

A2v, Thirstie ground requyres a showre of raine. 1638 F. DU JON Painting of Ancients 46 So doth one

of these two alwayes require the others helpe. 1671 MILTON Paradise Regain’d II. 412 Great acts

require great means of enterprise. c1721 W. GIBSON True Method Dieting Horses V. 78 Young

Horses require a greater Quantity of Food, as that is necessary for the Accretion and Growth of their

Bodies. […] 1793 tr. A. R. J. Turgot Refl. Formation & Distrib. Wealth §20. 20 This method requires

great labour and assiduity on the part of the proprietor. 1827 D. CARMICHAEL in W. J. Hooker Bot.

Misc. (1831) II. 50 The African requires nothing but instruction to render his intellectual, as well as his

mechanical talents, equal to those of the European. 1871 B. JOWETT tr. Plato Dialogues I. 59 The

body which is in health requires neither medical nor any other aid. 1903 W. W. JACOBS Odd Craft

(1936) 184 He had been..told that his valuable services would no longer be required. 1952 Science 29

Feb. 223/2 The astronomical photometrist requires, above all else, a clear sky. 1991 ‘W. TREVOR’

Two Lives (1992) xxix. 210 More than anything else, Elmer requires a drink.

8. trans. With infinitive.

a. Of a thing: to call for or be subject to a necessity to do something.

[…]

b. Of a person: to wish or feel a need to do something.

[…]

c. With passive infinitive. Of a thing: to need to be subjected to a particular action. Of an action: to

need to be performed.

[…]

Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English (WNWDAE; 1991: 1140-1)

re·quire (ri kwīr’) vt. -quired’, -quir’ing 1 to ask or insist upon, as by right or authority; demand [to

require obedience] 2 to order; command [to require someone to be present] 3 to be in need of; need [to

require help] 4 to call for as necessary or appropriate [work that requires a steady hand] 5 to demand

by virtue of a law, regulation, etc. [what is required by law] 6 [Archaic] to ask for; request ―vi. [Now

rare] to make a demand ―SYN. DEMAND, LACK


re·quire \rɪ-’kwī(ə)r\ vb vt 1 a : to claim by right and authority : DEMAND b archaic : REQUEST 2 a : to

call for as suitable or appropriate b : to demand as necessary or essential : NEED, WANT 3 : to impose

46

a compulsion or command on : COMPEL 4 : to feel or be constrained – used with a following infinitive

~ vi, archaic : ASK syn see DEMAND, LACK

3.1.1.4 Shared Sense and Specifications

The analysis of the dictionary entries of each of the three verbs once finished, it

deserves summarizing. The following table provides the information gathered so far on

the semantic content of claim, demand and require. It identifies the senses which all the

three verbs share as well as the senses which are specific to only one or two of them.

Furthermore, it clarifies the nature of the thing which is to be asked for, investigates the

means whereby one actually claims, demands or requires that thing, looks at the ways

of doing so, describes any specific contexts in which one claims, demands or requires,

and finally, it presents information on register and frequency.

Table 1 – Senses

claim demand require

basic/shared

sense to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due

specific senses

- to declare to be true

- to assert and demand

recognition of sth

- to need7

- to gain or win

- to cause death

- to ask (to know);

inquire

- to order (to ask for

authoritatively or

forcefully)

- to need

- Law. to lay formal

legal claim; to

summon

- to need

- to lay down as

imperative → to

impose an

obligation; to regard

as obligatory

- to order

- to call for something

as suitable or

appropriate

- to wish to have

- (obs. to request)

- (obs. to search for)

specification of

the thing

- sth which is true but

which one cannot

prove

- a particular number

of members

- sth which one does

not yet possess

- a question

- sth one thinks they

have a right to

- sth over which one

exerts power

- sth necessary or

needed


have a right to

- sth obligatory

- sth necessary,

essential or needed

- sth suitable or

appropriate

7 Although this sense is mentioned in the columns of all the three verbs, it cannot be marked as ‘basic’

since as far as claim is concerned, some dictionaries do not list it. However, even though in the case of

claim, the sense of ‘to need’ is to be regarded as marginal, for the remaining two verbs, it is the sense in

which they normally occur.

47


have a right to

- money or benefit

one deserves;

indemnity; damages

- sth needed

- one’s attention, time

or thought

- a victory, title, prize,

record or position

- a life

- justice - sth wanted or

desired

specification of

the means

- by stating a fact

- by making an

official request

- by submitting a

written application

- as a result of one’s

interest or sth’s

difficulty or

importance

- by winning or

achieving sth

- as a result of a war,

violent event,

disease or accident

- by asking a question

- by making a formal

claim to

- by stating one’s wish

- by making an urgent

request

- by giving a

command or an

order

- as a result of sth’s

difficulty,

importance or

exceptionality

- by imposing an

obligation on sb/sth

- by giving an order

- as a result of the

existence of some

inner necessity or

compulsion

- by having special

needs or exigencies

- as a result of a

special occasion

- by expressing one’s

wish

specification of

the way

- rightfully

- officially

- legally, formally

- rightfully

- forcefully, firmly,

peremptorily,

insistently, earnestly

- urgently, brusquely

- authoritatively,

boldly, arrogantly

- wrongfully

- authoritatively

- imperatively

- appropriately

specific contexts

- insured event

- mainly journalism

competition, contest;

battle

- war, fighting,

disease, disaster,

accident

- legal proceeding - subject-matter of a

contract/law/set of

rules or regulations

- special occasion

register - formal

frequency ♦♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦♦♦ ♦♦♦♦◊

3.1.1.5 Collocational Possibilities and Other Grammatical Features

This subchapter seeks to present a comprehensive list of the lexical items that

are to be found in the environment of the verbs claim, demand and require as

introduced in the consulted dictionaries. The main focus is placed upon the collocates

48

occupying the syntactic position of direct object. The purpose of this list of collocations

is to make an inventory that can be tested against the data taken from the BNC, which

allows of the evaluation of the extent to which the dictionary definitions and examples

reflect the present state and the actual usage of language.

The list of direct objects was compiled with the intention to highlight the

differences in the senses of each of the three verbs. The abbreviation of the dictionary

from which a particular collocation was taken is given in brackets.

Direct objects:

claim

• a fact or one’s belief (an act, a plan, etc.):

unfair dismissal (NODE); peaceful intentions (NVDTEL)

• a characteristic that should be recognized:

responsibility (CIDE, CCED); the credit (CCED); the moral high ground (CIDE);

accuracy (CODCE)

• things8 one owns and has a right to:

property (LDCE, LLCE); the watch (CIDE); the items (NODE)

• things which one does not yet possess but to which they think they have a right:

the crown (LDCE, LLCE); the throne (CIDE); heritage, kingdom (OED); an estate

(RHDEL)

• something abstract such as an attitude one thinks they have a right to:

respect (RHDEL)

• one’s notice, cognitive state, time:

attention (CCED, LDCE, LLCE, OED, CODCE, NODE, WNWDAE); spare time

(NWDTEL)

• money or benefit:

money (CIDE, CCED, LDCE, LLCE, NODE); unemployment benefit (CIDE);

damages (CIDE); the cost (NODE); State benefits, a pay rise (CCED); Income

Support (NPED); a share, repayment, compensation, the amount, indemnity (OED);

payment (RHDEL)

• an achievement that should be recognized:

title (CCED, LDCE, LLCE, WNWDAE); victory (CODCE, NODE); the record

(CCED, WNWDAE); success (CIDE)

• one’s life:

life (CIDE, CCED, NPED); victim (CODCE)

demand

• information:

8 physical objects

49

explanation (CIDE, CCED, RHDEL); an answer (LDCE, LLCE, CODCE); one’s

name (LDCE, LLCE, OED); one’s business (OED, CODCE, NWDTEL);

information (CCED); the reason for (NPED); the cause of (OED)

• an action from an institution or someone exerting power:

an action (CCED, OED); the delivery of the prisoner, judgement, liberty,

punishment (OED); retribution (NODE); sanctuary (RHDEL)

• something abstract one thinks they have a right to:

rights (LDCE, LLCE); entrance (OED)

• things9 which one does not own but to which they think they have a right:

lands, messuage, the state of realm, one’s life, a wife (OED)

• an act, a condition or practice of someone in relation to someone else:

aid, assent, pardon, acknowledgement (OED); obedience (RHDEL)

• one’s notice, cognitive state, quality, skill or effort:

attention (CCED, LDCE, LLCE, NPED); patience (CCED, OED, RHDEL,

WNWDAE); skill (OED, CODCE, NWDTEL); the highest standards of behaviour,

concentration, qualities (CIDE); hard work, sacrifice (CCED); energy, grip (OED);

too much, knowledge (NODE); objectivity (RHDEL)

• money:

payment (FWCSD, NPED, OED, RHDEL); money (LDCE, LLCE); a pay rise

(CIDE); shillings (OED)

• anything essential:

a distribution of nerve fibres (OED)

require

• one’s notice, cognitive state, quality, skill or effort:

care (CODCE, NODE); careful thought (LDCE, LLCE); diligence (OED, NODE);

steady and skilled hand (OED, WNWDAE); patience (RHDEL); attention

(CODCE); virtues, judgement, sacrifice, faith, fidelity, insistence, memory, talents,

influence (of sb in power), courage, wit, discernment, eloquence, labour, assiduity

(OED); authority (CODCE); consideration (NWDTEL)

• an act, activity or a condition of someone in relation to someone else:

examination (LDCE, LLCE); an oath (OED, CODCE); help (OED, WNWDAE);

obedience (RHDEL, WNWDAE); reporting (CCED); assistance (LLCE);

appearance (CODCE); service, submission, assent, instruction, aid (OED)

• an act or activity of someone in relation to something:

reading (CCED, CODCE); washing (LDCE, LLCE); riveting, exertion of one’s

industry (OED); research (NODE)

• a quality of something:

assimilation, likeness, difference (OED)

• the use of something such as materials, tools or equipment:

a ladder (LDCE, LLCE); materials (CCED); pound lock, pencil, tools, boiler

(OED)

• anything imposed by a law, rule or regulation:

insurance (NODE); the oath of the creditor as well as the voucher of the debt,

presence of sb (OED)

• anything essential, necessary, appropriate or desired10:

9 as well as people as found in the OED 10 The dictionary examples suggest that it is possible to require almost anything; for this reason and also

due to the wide range of collocates listed only once, I decided not to divide this group any further.

50

tea (CODCE, RHDEL); information (CCED); food, seats, formal dress (NPED); the

blood of Abel, death, dukedom, IDs, conditions, time, organs, seed, year, palace, all

kinds (to make a world), engineer, shower of rain, means of enterprise, quantity of

food, clear sky, drink (OED); gift (CODCE); tickets (NODE); an agent (RHDEL)

• money:

payment (FWCSD); money (LLCE); accounts, expense (OED); income-tax returns

(RHDEL)

• medical intervention:

medical care (RHDEL); operation (NODE)

As the examples show, the nouns in the position of direct object are both

concrete and abstract; nevertheless, the number of abstract nouns designating non-

material entities predominates in the case of each of the three verbs. At this point, is it

appropriate to mention the notion of transitivity, i.e. the property of a verb to take a

direct object. As regards the verb claim, it may be used both transitively and

intransitively, as in Amazingly, some Lottery winners fail to claim (NPED) or in the

patterns claim on sth (usually the insurance) and claim for sth, e.g. Don’t forget to

claim for your travelling expenses after the interview (CIDE). However, the intransitive

usage of claim in the sense which is the subject of this work is not as common as of

claim meaning ‘to declare to be true’, which usually appears with (that) clause, to

infinitive or a quote. Besides, some of the dictionaries mention claim in a ditransitive

construction whose position of direct object is occupied by the words denoting money,

i.e. to claim money from the government or an organization. The verb demand is

usually used not only transitively and intransitively, e.g. But he could also turn on the

style when the occasion demanded (CCED), but also ditransitively. The ditransitive

construction takes the form of to demand sth from sb (The Labour Party has demanded

an explanation from the government...; CCED) or to demand sth of sb (too much was

being demanded of the top players; NODE). The same holds true for the verb require; it

is intransitive in to do as the law requires (RHDEL), transitive in all the examples

51

above and ditransitive in the patterns require sth of sb (Do you require anything of me?;

LDCE) and require sth from sb (they require a gift from me; CODCE).

Concerning the syntactic position of subject, the majority of words belong to the

category of personal pronouns and nouns that designate human beings or institutions.

Other possibilities are listed for each of the three verbs separately. In the case of the

verb claim, its subject may be a noun denoting anything whose property such as

urgency or difficulty usually claims one’s attention; and as to claim meaning ‘to cause

death’, its subject is occupied by the terms such as war, fighting, disaster or accident.

The subject of the verb demand may also refer to anything whose property demands

one’s attention but also skill or any other personal quality. Besides, the LLCE includes

a phrase in which a document demands money (The letter demands £10,000 for your

daughter’s life). In the case of require, its subject may be a noun that designates literally

anything from animals, properties of somebody or something, eventualities, documents

and law to physical objects. Moreover, require is often to be found with the dummy

subject it (It requires a very steady and skilled hand to turn something the consistency

of mud into a beautiful, ornate design; OED) as well as with the pronoun there (There

requires a storyteller; OED); both the constructions seek to suggest that ‘there is a need

for’.

The ratio of active verb forms to passive ones is also worthy of note. Claim is to

be found in the passive constructions only occasionally, namely in connection with

one’s lost property, as in Lost property which is not claimed in three months is sold

(LLCE). As the dictionary examples show, the occurrence of demand in the passive

voice is rare as well; one such example comes from the OED: To all men a doctrine was

preached, and assent to its teaching was categorically demanded. In contrast with claim

and demand, require allows the passive constructions quite often, especially if it is a

52

law, regulation or set of rules that requires something, e.g. the minimum car insurance

required by law (NODE).

The last point that should be mentioned concerns the occurrence of modifiers

found in the dictionary entries of each of the three verbs. Whereas the meaning of both

claim and require was explained almost without the usage of modifiers, the definition of

demand seems to remain elusive without them. However interesting the usage of

modifiers in the dictionary definitions may be, it is more important to ascertain whether

and what modifiers actually appear in the environment of claim, demand and require

respectively. This will be the object of corpus analysis; nonetheless, in the meantime,

modifiers listed in LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (1997: 227, 232) may be

presented. This dictionary provides only the expressions modifying claim and demand;

modifiers that are to be found with require are not mentioned.

CLAIM

confidently, falsely, honestly, justifiably, legitimately, reasonably, rightfully, seriously claim

DEMAND

angrily, persistently, promptly demand

This quote indicates that someone may claim something only if they believe they act in

accordance with law or are within their rights, which is, however, of little importance to

those who demand. This suggestion will be checked later in this work.

53

3.1.2 Thesauri and Dictionaries of Synonyms

This section presents the definitions of claim, demand and require, as they

appear in various thesauri and dictionaries of synonyms. Its aim is to show the ways in

which these synonymous expressions are described with relation to each other, and to

emphasize the differences in their meanings that allow of their distinct usage. A brief

summary of findings is provided at the end.

The thesauri and dictionaries quoted in this subchapter are the following:

Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related Words (CMGS; 1971),

Chambers Thesaurus: A Comprehensive Word-Finding Dictionary (CT; 1988),


1946),

Mark my Words: A Guide to Modern Usage and Expression (MMW; 1949),

The Merriam-Webster Pocket Dictionary of Synonyms (MWPDS; 1972),

The Oxford Thesaurus: A Dictionary of Synonyms (OTDS; 1991),

The Pan Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms (PDSA; 1980),

The Penguin Dictionary of English Synonyms & Antonyms (PDESA; 1986), and

Webster’s Collegiate Thesaurus (WCT; 1988).

The Merriam-Webster Pocket Dictionary of Synonyms (MWPDS; 1972: 89-90)

demand, claim, require, exact shared meaning: to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or

due. Demand implies peremptoriness and insistence and the claiming of a right to make requests that

are to be regarded as commands < he no longer demanded such recognition. Instead he prayed for it –

Sherwood Anderson > < students demanding a share in academic control > Claim implies a demand

for the delivery or concession of something due as one’s own or one’s right; thus, one who claims a

piece of property demands its delivery to him as his own; one who claims to have made a discovery

demands recognition of the truth of his assertion < there is no right to freedom or life. But each man

does claim such freedom – Samuel Alexander > Require, often interchangeable with demand, may

distinctively imply an imperativeness arising from inner necessity and may seem less strident but more

coolly insistent and exigent < his measure … to require all Congressmen to make public their spending

on junkets overseas was buried in committee – Current Biog. > < to curtail the rising dropout rate will

require creative and unorthodox ideas – John Hopkins Mag. > Exact implies not only demanding but

getting what one demands < exact a promise from a friend > < exact payment of a note > < the mistake

54

of exacting reparation in money and then lending Germany money with which to pay – Harry S

Truman >

The first dictionary entry quoted in this section comes from the MWPDS, which

lists the words in an alphabetical order. If a word is mentioned but the comment on its

meaning and senses is not added, the dictionary redirects its users to the relevant –

usually more general – term under which all the synonymous expressions are subsumed.

Only then, the shared meaning as well as the nuances that exist among the semantically

related words are identified, explained and illustrated by example phrases and

sentences.

In the present case, the headword being demand, and the verbs described are

claim, require and exact. The meaning ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s

right or due’, which is considered to be the basis of the verbs’ interchangeability, has

already been mentioned in the previous subchapter. Concerning the distinctions among

the verbs under examination, the MWPDS treats them one verb after another. It is

pointed out that if someone demands something, they make requests which suggest an

imperative need and may be regarded as commands. Further, the MWPDS says that

people who claim something represent themselves as virtually having a right to that

thing. As to require, the dictionary indicates that it is somehow more synonymous with

demand than the other two words mentioned; in contrast with demand, require is,

however, less strident but, on the other hand, exigent in a more depersonalized way.

Besides, require implies the existence of some inner necessity imposed on someone.


1946: 314)

de-mand

Syn.: ask, ask for, call for, challenge, claim, exact, request, require. Demand is a determined and often

an arrogant word; one may rightfully demand what is his own or his due, when it is withheld or denied;

or he may wrongfully demand that to which he has no claim but power. Require is less arrogant and

obtrusive than demand, but is exceedingly strenuous; as, the court requires the attendance of witnesses.

Request is milder than demand or require: a creditor may demand or require payment; a friend requests

55

a favor. We may speak of a humble request, but not of a humble demand. […] Ant.: decline, deny,

refuse, reject, repudiate. […]

I decided to quote the entry from the FWCSD rather than from The Funk &

Wagnalls Standard Handbook of Synonyms, Antonyms and Prepositions11 (FWSHS;

1947: 67-8) for it provides more information relevant to the purpose of this work than

the latter. After explaining the meaning of a given word (see section 3.1.1.2), the

FWCSD mentions its possible synonyms, and sometimes adds a comment on their

nuances. The entry usually concludes with a list of antonymous expressions.

The FWCSD distinguishes demand from the verbs require and request, and

claims that demand is an arrogant word (therefore, it is not possible *to demand

humbly), and that if someone demands something, it does not mean that they have a

right to that thing, they only exert power over it. On the other hand, require is not as

arrogant as demand; nonetheless, it contains fierce exigency in its meaning.

Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related Words (CMGS; 1971: 144-5, 489-

90)

DEMAND ask claim exact order request require

These verbs all refer to rather forceful communications between a speaker and another person. Demand

most commonly suggests a speaker in authority who bluntly insists upon being obeyed and does not

intent to be contradicted: demanding your compliance with all our regulations. Its forcefulness may be

weakened in some uses to a less blunt insistence: a book that demands your full attention; to be

surrendered when the bearer demands payment. Request is considerably weaker than any sense of

demand; it suggests a courteous statement of desire: requesting the orchestra to play her favourite tune.

The word has a special relevance here, however, in that it is more and more used as euphemism for

demand in order to disguise that latter’s harshness: The chairman firmly requested the manager’s

resignation. Require may suggest a stated set of rules listing necessary conduct: employers who

require perfect punctuality and flawless performance. Require is like demand in suggesting authority

and insistence, but unlike the latter in that it stresses need and may suggest an impartial code drawn up

in advance. [No rational person would require such constant reassurances as she demanded.]

Ask is like request in depending on context for whatever overtone of harshness or force it may

suggest: asking timidly if he might see a menu; political parties that ask for the complete surrender of

all individuality. By contrast, order is like demand in its peremptoriness, suggesting power and

11 ASK

adjure, appeal, apply for, apply to, beg, beseech, crave, demand, entreat, implore, petition, pray, request,

require, solicit, supplicate

[…] Demand is a determined and often an arrogant word; one may rightfully demand that to which one has no

claim but power. Require is less arrogant and obtrusive than demand, but is exceedingly peremptory; as, the court

requires the attendance of witnesses. […] The FWSHS compares and contrasts the meanings of the majority of synonymous words contained in a

group in question, in this case, the group of verbs that denote ‘asking for something’.

56

authority on the part of the person who directs someone else to do something. It is further removed than

demand, however, from any suggestion of anger; it may be, like require, quite impersonal, especially in

a military context. [I’m not asking you to fall out for drill, I’m ordering you.]

Claim and exact involve a slightly different situation than those other words. Claim suggests

that a right is being asserted: claiming this land in the name of the queen; unions that claimed a right to

share in the company’s profits. Exact is stronger than claim in suggesting someone with enough

authority to back up his claim, possibly with force, if necessary: a dictator who exacts extremes of

obedience from his underlings. In this, it is similar to but stronger than some uses of require. In other

uses, the word shades off, like require, into impersonality, with less suggestion of force: countries that

exact tolls on their motorways.

antonyms: FORGO, RELINQUISH.

REQUIRE lack need want

These words all mean to wish for or to desire something, or to consider it, for some reason, absolutely

necessary. Require is the mildest, most formal, and most general of these. It might be used for a simple

statement of things necessary for a given task: an explanation of duties that would require a doubling of

floor space and the hiring of six more typists. It can also be used to state, somewhat dispassionately,

more fundamental necessities: organisms that require water as much as food and oxygen.

[…]

antonyms: GET, POSSESS.

The CMGS adopts the same approach in describing synonyms as the MWPDS;

it focuses on the shades of meaning that allow of the differentiation among synonymous

words, and illustrates them with several examples. Once again, the verbs claim, demand

and require are all arranged under the headword demand.

This book emphasizes the importance of one’s authority for demand, and

suggests that the one who demands insists upon being obeyed and does not expect the

other(s) to say “No”. If the other does, however, contradict, the situation results in the

clash of intentions between the speaker and his or her opponent, which may produce

some negative or unpleasant consequences for one or both of them: the stance they have

taken has to be modified or abandoned shortly. Require is considered to be as

authoritative and insistent as demand; however, unlike demand, it refers to the rules

which had been formulated before the situation in which something had to be required

even arose. Require, therefore, evokes the notion of impartiality, and places emphasis

upon a pressing need. It is also interesting to notice the example No rational person

would require such constant reassurances as she demanded which illustrates well the

non-acceptance of the other’s refusal as indicated by demand, and the objectivity

inherent in the meaning of require. The CMGS mentions require twice: first, under the

57

headword demand and second, together with the verbs lack, need and want. In the latter

sense, require expresses a simple desire or wish for a thing which is, for some reason,

necessary or indispensable. As regards claim, the CMGS holds that it is only the one to

whom a right to a particular thing has been assigned who may actually claim that thing.

Mark my Words: A Guide to Modern Usage and Expression (MMW; 1949: 79, 123-4)

The prisoner does not BEG for justice; he DEMANDS it as his inalienable right under the findings of

the court.

Beg implies the plea of pity; demand, the plea for what is justly due. In view of the fact that a court

finds in favor of a prisoner, his demand is right; if it does not so find, his demand is without foundation.

Demand under the latter circumstance would be an arrogant and presumptuous word. […]

They await your COMMANDS, without making any DEMANDS whatever upon you for loss of time.

Command implies intrinsic right or authority; demand implies insistence, positiveness, perhaps

arrogance. He who or that which commands is sure of the right and authority to do so; he who or that

which demands may or may not be. The one is formal, official, dignified, confident, imperative; the other

may be, but it may also be merely peremptory and arbitrary without justification. […] Claim is to demand

(perhaps to obtain) what may be shown by legal or other right to be one’s own; it is to seek or demand

what one is certain that he has a right to, be it money or achievement or proof. […]

The MMW differs from the works quoted above in that the words are not

organized alphabetically; instead, they are arranged according to their signification. The

topic which is to be dealt with in the section that follows is always introduced by an

illustrative sentence which contrasts two or three synonymous expressions, and which

thus indicates what meaning is in question. The sense distinguishing one word from its

synonyms is accurately described and, if necessary, a comment on the context of its

usage is added.

The verb demand occurs in the MMW twice: first, it is compared with the verbs

such as beg, beseech, entreat, pray, supplicate, importune, etc., and second, it is

mentioned along with the verbs command, order, enjoin, exact and claim. The MMW

suggests that only if one’s request is found without justification, demand should be

regarded as an arrogant word; otherwise, the usage of demand is well-founded. Claim,

according to the MMW, implies a demanding of something as rightfully belonging to

the one who claims. As to require, since it is mentioned in the section devoted to the

58

words expressing necessity only briefly, and the remark itself does not provide any new

or interesting information, it is not quoted.

As far as the other dictionaries and thesauri are concerned, they generally do not

explain or comment on differences in meaning; instead, they simply list the expressions

synonymous with the word under examination. In order to present the data obtained in a

lucid way, I decided to summarise them in the following table.

The verbs which are the focus of concern of the present work (i.e. claim, demand

and require) are printed in italics, the synonyms appearing in all the three entries of a

given dictionary are put in bold, and the synonyms found in two entries of a given

dictionary are underlined. The only book which does not differentiate the senses is the

CT; therefore, the senses in which the three verbs are not synonymous (‘to declare to be

true’ of claim and ‘to ask (to know); inquire’ of demand) are printed in a smaller font.

Concerning the rest of the dictionaries and thesauri presented, the senses which are not

shared by at least two of the verbs are excluded.

Table 2 – Synonyms

dictionary claim demand require

Chambers Thesaurus

(CT; 1988: 97, 148,

533)

affirm, allege, arrogate,

ask, assert, challenge,

collect, demand,

exact, hold, insist,

maintain, need, profess,

request, require, state,

take, uphold

ask, call for,

challenge, claim,

exact, expect, inquire,

insist on, interrogate,

involve, necessitate,

need, order, question,

request, require,

take, want

ask, beg, beseech,

bid, command,

compel, constrain,

crave, demand,

desire, direct, enjoin,

exact, force, instruct,

involve, lack, make,

miss, necessitate,

need, oblige, order,

request, take, want,

wish

The Oxford

Thesaurus: A

Dictionary of

Synonyms

(OTDS; 1991: 58, 88,

394)

1 demand, seek, ask

or call (for), exact,

insist (on or upon),

require, command,

be entitled to

2 […]

1 require, order, bid,

call (for); insist,

command

2 claim, ask (for),

require, insist on;

exact

3 require, call for,

need, want,

necessitate, cry out

1 order, command,

ask (for), call (for),

press (for), instruct,

coerce, force; insist,

demand; make

2 need, want, lack, be

lacking, be missing,

be short (of); desire

59

for

4 […]

The Pan Dictionary

of Synonyms and

Antonyms

(PDSA; 1980: 52, 86,

262)

1 demand, require,

request, ask for

2 […]

1 ask for, claim,

request

2 command, direct

3 require, need

1 need, want

2 demand, oblige;

command, order

The Penguin

Dictionary of English

Synonyms &

Antonyms

(PDESA; 1986: 70,

117, 348)

demand, call for,

require, request, ask

for, exact, requisition,

commandeer,

appropriate, usurp,

take.

request, ask for,

solicit, claim, insist

on, order, exact.

require, need,

necessitate, call for,

involve.

need, lack, want,

desire, necessitate,

involve, call for,

demand.

ask, request, bid,

enjoin, instruct,

direct, order,

command, oblige,

compel.

Webster’s Collegiate

Thesaurus

(WCT; 1988: 128,

196, 618)

1 syn DEMAND 1,

call, challenge, exact,

postulate, require,

requisition, solicit

1 to ask for sth as or

as if one’s right or

due

< the physician

demanded payment of

his bill >

syn call, challenge,

claim, exact,

postulate, require,


2 to have as a need or

requirement

< it demands

considerable practice

to master the piano >

syn ask, call (for),

crave, necessitate,

require, take

1 syn DEMAND 1,

call, challenge,

claim, exact,

postulate,


2 syn DEMAND 2,

ask, call (for), crave,

necessitate, take

3 syn LACK, need,

want

The entry found in the WCT is worthy of note. This thesaurus suggests that the

verb demand is the most general word of these three for it is referred to in the entries of

both claim and require, and it is the only verb whose definitions of senses as well as

examples are offered. Besides, it implies that whereas in sense 1, demand is

synonymous with both claim and require, in sense 2, it is the synonym for require

alone. It is also interesting that the WCT mentions three senses of require, the last of

which, i.e. ‘to lack’, is not involved in the meaning of the remaining two verbs.

It should be pointed out that all the books, with the exception of the WCT, list

claim solely as the synonym for demand and not require, and that demand and require

60

share far more synonymous expressions than the other combinations of the verbs

concerned. Finally, it is appropriate to mention the most frequently cited synonyms that

all the three verbs share: ask (for), call (for), exact and request.

According to the above consulted thesauri and dictionaries of synonyms, the

meaning which claim, demand and require share is ‘to ask or call for something as or as

if one’s right or due’; however, there still exist subtle nuances which allow of the

differentiation among these three synonymous verbs. It is suggested that claim contains

the notion of ‘right’ already incorporated into its meaning. On the other hand, one may

demand something even without having a right to that thing for they occupy or think to

occupy a position of power or authority which allows them to do so. As regards require,

this verb implies a strenuous request made as a result of some inner necessity or

compulsion of a law, regulation, rule, or situation.

61

3.2 CORPUS ANALYSIS

This chapter is devoted to the analysis of objects and modifiers which collocate

with the verbs claim, demand and require. Its main aim is to examine the verbs’

semantic content as well as their collocational restrictions. The research is based on the

data taken from two large databases of texts: the British National Corpus (BNC) and the

Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). Although the actual analysis is

carried out using solely the information gathered from the BNC, or rather the program

called Sketch Engine which assembles and summarises the data presented, as regards

the chapters dealing with general frequency and occurrence of direct objects mentioned

by the consulted dictionaries in real-life texts, the results from the BNC are compared

with those from COCA.

The reason the findings from COCA are included in this work is that, as far as

corpus size, genre coverage and the date of publication of the texts are concerned,

COCA gains advantage over the BNC. While the BNC is a 100 million word collection

of texts, COCA contains more than 410 million words, which means that it is more than

four times as large as the BNC. Besides, in the BNC, the ratio of written to spoken

samples of language is 90 % to 10 % whereas “in COCA the corpus is nearly evenly

divided (20 % in each genre) between spoken, fiction, popular magazines, newspaper,

and academic” (Davies online). Finally, the most recent texts which are to be found in

the BNC date back to the 1990s, while COCA is regularly updated (the most recent

texts are from Summer 2010); therefore, this corpus seems to represent contemporary

English (albeit American) more accurately. The only drawback which renders the

utilization of COCA for the actual comparative analysis of objects difficult is that

COCA does not sort items by their grammatical relations to a word in question, and

62

thus, lists collocates occupying different syntactic positions together. Owing to this fact,

this work is predominantly based on the data obtained from the BNC and not COCA.

The chapter is divided into several subchapters. The first one focuses on the

occurrence of claim, demand and require in both the corpora; moreover, it also analyses

distribution of each of the verbs throughout various text types, domains and genres. In

the following subchapters, the object collocates that all the three verbs share are

examined first, only then the objects which are to be found in the collocations of two or

just one of the verbs are presented. One of the subchapters also compares the

information gained from the dictionaries with the results from the corpora, and the final

one deals with modifiers which tend to occur in the environment of each of the verbs.

The findings are accompanied by illustrative sentences whose source is marked by the

document-id code given in brackets.

63

3.2.1 General Frequency

This subchapter provides information on frequency of each of the three

synonymous verbs. It works with data obtained from both the BNC and COCA. It is

important to note, however, that the senses that are not related to the shared sense of ‘to

ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due’ also count towards the numbers.

The following tables thus show the total number of occurrences of each of the verbs as

well as all their verb forms, i.e. the base form and the infinitive (VVI), the -s form, the -

ed form, which includes the past tense form (VVD) and the past participle form (VVN),

and finally, the -ing form.

Table 3 – Frequency (BNC)

claim

› VVI

4,655

› 2,736

demand

› VVI

2,089

› 929

require

› VVI

6,836

› 3,777

claims 3,662 demands 733 requires 5,249

claimed

› VVD

› VVN

8,158

› 5,334

› 2,824

demanded

› VVD

› VVN

3,509

› 2,623

› 886

required

› VVD

› VVN

14,359

› 762

› 13,597

claiming 2,197 demanding 1,767 requiring 1,812

18,672 8,098 28,256

Table 4 – Frequency (COCA)

claim

› VVI

13,069

› 6,344

demand

› VVI

7,703

› 3,651

require

› VVI

27,495

› 15,753

claims 11,178 demands 2,714 requires 23,011

claimed

› VVD

› VVN

14,463

› 10,478

› 3,985

demanded

› VVD

› VVN

8,683

› 6,749

› 1,934

required

› VVD

› VVN

32,406

› 2,173

› 30,233

claiming 6,015 demanding 6,347 requiring 7,308

44,725 25,447 90,220

According to the corpora, the verb require is the most frequent of the group; the

number of its occurrences considerably exceeds the number of occurrences of the

remaining two verbs, which is, nevertheless, in direct contradiction to what the Collins

Cobuild English Dictionary indicates. As is described on p. 32, this dictionary divides

words into five frequency bands, and whereas claim and demand belong to the first

64

band (are ranked among the most frequent words in English), require is to be found in

the second band. On the other hand, demand is the least frequent verb of this trio.

Concerning the most frequent verb form, it is the -ed form for all the three verbs.

However, while claim and demand usually take the form of the past tense, require is far

more often to be found in the past participle form, whether it adopts the perfect form or

allows the passive construction. Since in the BNC, the passive constructions (ca 30,000)

of require substantially outnumber the perfect forms, it is possible to draw a conclusion

that the corpus data support the claim made in section 3.1.1.5 that require frequently

appears in the passive. On the other hand, the -ing form of each of the verbs is not so

common.

Moreover, the BNC provides information on distribution of words throughout

various written text types and domains. This corpus suggests that all the three verbs

usually occur in written books and periodicals, and as regards domain, both claim and

demand are to be found mostly in domain of world affairs; however, demand also

frequently appears in imaginative literature. Require is, according to the BNC, usually

used in domain of social science. Besides, the BNC sorts texts by the perceived level of

difficulty. As the following graph shows, claim and demand mainly occur in the texts

whose perceived level of difficulty is medium, while require is typical of the texts

which are perceived to be rather difficult.

65

Graph 1 – Text Difficulty (BNC)

1 972

10 968

5 161

571

1 712

4 391

1 824

171

3 618

11 319

12 684

671

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%


Perceived Level of Difficulty

low medium high n/a

COCA investigates the occurrence of words in five registers: spoken, fiction,

magazine, newspaper and academic. The following table and graph show the

distribution of claim, demand and require among these registers. The abbreviation ‘per

mil.’ stands for the normalized frequency of a token per million words.

Table 5 – Registers (COCA)

register claim demand require

freq. per mil. freq. per mil. freq. per mil.

spoken 8,479 97.33 3,444 39.53 7,647 87.78

fiction 5,136 62.85 5,030 61.55 4,312 52.76

magazine 10,130 116.22 5,416 62.14 21,859 250.79

newspaper 9,175 109.86 5,594 66.98 16,705 200.02

academic 11,805 142.38 5,963 71.92 39,697 478.77

66

Graph 2 – Registers (COCA)

0

4 000

8 000

12 000

16 000

20 000

24 000

28 000

32 000

36 000

40 000

f

r

e

q

u

e

n

c

y


Claim , demand and require in different registers

spoken fiction magazine newspaper academic

As is apparent from both the table and graph, each of the verbs is mostly to be

found in academic register; however, it is require whose number of occurrences in

academic register is significantly higher than in any other register. This fact may thus

imply that require belongs to formal style, which would confirm the conclusion the

dictionary analysis has come to. The graph also shows that claim is less frequent in

fiction, demand is more or less equally distributed among all registers, with the

exception of spoken, and require does not usually occur in fiction or spoken register.

Besides, both the table and graph indicate that whereas in magazine, newspaper and

academic register, it is require that is used more often than the other two verbs, in

fiction, on the other hand, both demand and claim are preferred to require, and in

spoken register, it is claim that is most likely to be found.

67

3.2.2 Object Collocates (BNC)

This subchapter seeks to examine objects that collocate with claim, demand and

require. First of all, it presents objects which all the three verbs share, and then, it also

focuses on objects that collocate with two or only one of the verbs. The comparative

analysis was performed using the Sketch Engine function called the Sketch Difference.

The Sketch Difference compares grammatical and collocational behaviour of two

lemmas, and “shows those patterns and combinations that the two items have in

common, and also those patterns and combinations that are more typical of, or unique

to, one word rather than the other” (“Getting Started”). The Sketch Difference does not

provide only the numbers indicating frequency of occurrence of a particular pattern or

combination but also the salience scores for the collocate with both lemmas. If the

difference between the salience scores is lower than 1, the lexical item is common to

both words; if it is higher than 1, the item is more often to be found with one word

rather than the other. It is also important to bear in mind that for the purpose of this

work, the Sketch Difference default setting, which displays the first 25 items, is kept;

therefore, not all the possible collocations are listed.

3.2.2.1 Objects that Collocate with All the Three Verbs

This section presents words all the three verbs collocate with. It is divided into

two parts: the first one contains the lexical items which appear in the Sketch Difference

in all or two of the pairs, and the second mentions the items which are to be found in the

Sketch Difference of only one of them, although strongly collocating with the third verb

as well. The degree of object collocability is measured by the salience scores, and the

numbers referring to the objects which collocate with any of the verbs more frequently

are put in bold.

68

I. Collocates appearing in the Sketch Difference of all or two of the pairs

Table 6 – Object collocates of claim, demand and require I

BNC

examples


freq. sal. freq. sal. freq. sal.

compensation

72 7.8 30 6.8 10 3.7

Up to 200 children infected with HIV, the Aids virus by tainted blood products

are expected to claim compensation from the Government. (AAL)

[…] the Third World lined up to demand compensation in the form of aid

and technology transfers for the ‘looting’ of their resources by Western

imperialism. (AB6)

The Iranian Foreign Office described the decision as a “violation of

international rights and commercial relations” and demanded financial

compensation. (HLH)

[…] the plaintiff who had been injured in the course of his employment in

Dubai was paid by his employer, the defendants, the amount of compensation

required by the law of Dubai. (H81)

attention

19 4.3 82 6.5 143 6.6

But in February of this year a most unwelcome event claimed his attention.

(EFX)

The driving demanded constant attention. (HTT)

Parents’ views are explored and this will be of value in the implementation of

the new Children Act 1989 which will require greater attention to parents’

views. (CN6)

repayment

21 6.5 11 5.9 7 3.3

Similarly, those who claim repayment of tax on building society and bank

interest and dividends will not be affected. (CBY)

Technically, the banks can demand immediate repayment on the bonds.

(AJH)

[…] President Mitterrand announced a reduction in the debt repayments

which would be required from four middle-income countries […] (HKV)

payment

14 4.3 49 6.2 43 5.2

The employee may thus bring an unfair dismissal complaint or claim a

redundancy payment. (CHS)

On 4 February 1992 the bank terminated the facility and demanded payment

of the sum of £879,026.73. (FCD)

The balance should then be forwarded direct to the hotel, though if contacted

some hotels do not require full payment in advance – this is entirely at the

hotel’s discretion. (EC9)

money

34 4.3 84 5.6 61 4.8

But it’s important to remember that if you do have a grievance, you can only

claim the money back from the company you bought the machine from, not

the manufacturer. (CTX)

In the next 10 days they were joined by hundreds of unemployed youths who

looted shops, damaged cars and demanded money from passers-by. (HLK)

Money was required not only for more powerful transmitters but also for the

building of regional studio centres to make programmes for the entire country

[…] (CDU)

support

65 5.5 6 2.2 79 5.4

To claim Income Support or a payment from the Social Fund contact your

local Social Security office. (HT4)

People who devote their lives to looking after an elderly or disabled relative or

69

friend are again demanding more support from the government. (K1C)

A team of skilled staff is available each weekday to provide advice, education

information and treatment to people who require support. (K97)

sum

21 5.4 14 5.0 26 4.8

Whilst this change has not yet been made, the £500 limit is now calculated

without reference to any sum claimed or amount involved in a counterclaim.

(GVH)

Crooks was in dispute with Leeds earlier in the season and was put on offer at

£250,000, by far the biggest sum demanded for an English rugby league

player. (AA0)

He mentioned that the sum required for restoration of the monument would

be in the range of £20 000 to £30 000 punts. (ALV)

share

27 4.7 8 3.0 9 2.6

Personal computer network service company Maddox Group Plc, […], is

already making profits, claims a 4% share of the corporate market, and

intends to keep on growing by acquisition. (CPU)

Everyone seems to want to get into television to claim their share of fame and

fortune. (EVF)

As one might expect, the debate in the art world is already fierce, with artists

on one side demanding a share in the profits they claim their works have

created. (EBS)

If offers are received in respect of at least the number of shares which the

company wishes to purchase, the company will calculate the lowest price

(striking price) acceptable to sufficient shareholders to ensure that all the

shares required are sold. (J7E)

protection

15 4.6 11 4.3 35 5.0

We will only provide the insurance described in this policy if: anyone

claiming protection has met all its terms and conditions; and the information

you gave on your proposal form and declaration is, as far as you know, correct

and complete. (HB5)

Some creditors will demand extra protection, such as restrictive covenants

attached to their loans laying down what the firm must do if things go wrong.

(ABJ)

With greater levels of competition as a result of structural reregulation, it was

felt that a tightening up of investor protection was required. (K8V)

expertise

7 4.4 6 4.4 38 5.6

Freemantle goes on to assert that she was never extremely fond of poetry, and

could claim no expertise in literature. (AN4)

As a result, customers are demanding not just expertise on information

systems, but also effective project management and implementation skills,

industry sector knowledge and suitable support services. (CLB)

This work requires expertise in programming using the ‘C’ language,

Windows application developer, and Advanced Revelation database

management system. (HJA)

amount

18 4.1 9 3.1 127 6.4

A defendant to any action may wish to dispute all or part of the liability

asserted by the plaintiff, or may disagree with the amount claimed whilst

admitting liability, or may wish to dispute the claim and make a counterclaim

against the plaintiff. (GVH)

Little acts of kindness which required the body’s co-operation, such as helping

with the washing-up after a good meal, demanded a prodigious amount of

persuasion; while a really big thing, like finishing Student Cross, just met with

stubborn resistence. (GVT)

Here we see an illustration of the almost universal law that the term Normal

70

being taken to refer to a short period of time an increase in the amount

demanded raises the normal supply price. (HH2)

The table shows the types of deposit and the minimum amount

required.(AYP)

Being a top sports person requires a certain amount of selfishness […] (KS9)

knowledge

14 3.9 11 3.6 145 6.7

The best reason for wanting some account of certainty in our analysis of

knowledge is that people are rightly hesitant to claim knowledge when they

are less than certain. (F9K)

Maybe it is the implication that drawing and painting buildings demands a

sound knowledge of perspective that deters many artists from attempting such

work. (CL0)

As a result segmentation of the signal into the constituent units of speech is

difficult and requires knowledge of the language. (HGR)

application

11 3.3 11 3.4 44 4.8

But Arundel Liberal Democrat councillor Roger Johnston claims applications

for the post were left forgotten in a drawer for six weeks. (K97)

Managers are now therefore far more likely to demand sophisticated computer

applications and to play a leading role in their development and

implementation. (HRK)

Plantations have very little biological diversity, and some of the fastest

growing ones, such as eucalyptus, may require the application of fertilizer

and pesticides, and impoverish the soil by leaching out its nutrients. (J34)

The table shows that most of the objects common to all the three selected verbs

have a connection either with money, for instance, compensation, repayment, payment,

money and sum, or with an act, action or faculty someone or something expects from

someone or something else, e.g. attention, protection, expertise and knowledge.

The examples from the BNC suggest that compensation one demands may be

both financial and material, the repayment which is usually claimed is that of tax, the

kind of payment one often claims is redundancy payment, and collocations composed of

sum are most often to be found in the passive. As regards support, it may but does not

have to be in the form of money; nevertheless, if one claims support, in the majority of

cases, they expect to be given money, and the support one usually claims is income

support. The same holds true for share: a part or portion in question may be expressed

in money (share in the profits) but may also refer to something abstract (share of fame).

The amount one claims denotes a quantity of money; however, the amount one demands

or requires can refer to a quantity of anything (persuasion, selfishness).

71

Concerning the collocations claim expertise/knowledge/application, all the

examples in the BNC show that the verb claim is used in the sense of ‘to declare to be

true; assert’, which is not shared by the other two selected verbs.

Perhaps the most interesting sentence in the above table is the one containing the

collocation demand money since it illustrates well the situation in which the youths do

not have any right to money; however, they ask for it forcefully. According to the

dictionaries of synonyms, it is just the context in which neither claim nor require can be

used, and the verb demand is, therefore, the only verb to choose from.

As is apparent from the table, there are two objects which collocate with each of

the three verbs with similar frequency: sum and protection. The other objects are more

typical of only one or two of the verbs. Thus, the words compensation and repayment

are mostly to be found with claim and demand; attention, payment and money usually

co-occur with demand and require; support with claim and require; share with claim;

and expertise, amount, knowledge and application collocate more frequently with

require. Besides, it is worthy of note that the collocates that denote something needed or

necessary for a successful completion of a task are more typical of require rather than of

claim or demand.

II. Collocates appearing in the Sketch Difference of one pair

Table 7 – Object collocates of claim, demand and require II12

BNC

examples



increase

9 3.4 25 4.9 26 4.3

Again, the workers in an industry might claim a wage increase of ‘X and their

employers might resist it and offer’ Y […] (EBM)

The authors claim the increase must be seen against a background of changes

in the labour market, making equality of pay, opportunity and status more

difficult. (K4M)

The start of the new school year was suspended by the government on Feb. 20

after teachers went on strike demanding a 100 per cent pay increase. (HKV)

12 The numbers in italics indicate the verbs in whose Sketch Difference the relevant object appears (e.g.

increase is mentioned only in the comparison of claim and demand).

72

The Energy Committee’s own calculation was that it would require a 90 per

cent increase in gas consumption worldwide to reduce carbon dioxide

emissions by 10 per cent. (AB6)

price

6 1.9 24 4.0 10 2.3

An MP is calling for an investigation into supermarket pricing, claiming high

prices are to blame for keeping inflation from falling further. (K1E)

Drafix CAD Ultra 4.2 Drafix CAD is an MS-DOS based CAD drawing

package that has long been the choice of users who have been unwilling to pay

the price demanded for the industry standard – AutoCad. (HAC)

This, of course, ignores the theory of the second best, where the existence of

price distortions in related markets may require a price which exceeds

marginal cost in the market under consideration. (FRN)

performance

14 3.8 10 3.4 18 3.6

It is offering optimised Pentium compilers for those that want to do the job

themselves, but Santa Cruz claims performance increases by 170 % on

Pentium from an 80486 even without recompiling – and around 230 % with

recompilation. (CLC)

The process is difficult, and demands the performance of millions of

calculations to reach even the most elementary prediction. (GX3)

It is designed for workgroups requiring fast performance and large amounts

of on-line data, and attaches up to eight Ethernet local area networks with

storage capacities of 8Gb to 144Gb. (CNK)

product

17 3.6 8 2.5 15 3.0

The House of Commons environment committee has proposed introducing

tighter laws to prevent manufacturers from falsely claiming their products are

environment friendly. (J30)

Organisations compete for survival, and the form of organisation that survives

in an activity is the one that delivers the product demanded by the customers

at the lowest price while covering costs […] (EX2)

The three sales office personnel will be able to let a customer know at the

touch of a key exactly what is the pack size, price and availability of the

product required. (ALV)

goods

8 3.5 6 3.2 27 4.5

Not only can the transferee claim the goods on the same legal basis as his

transferor, but he also acquires the rights of a seller and secured creditor to the

proceeds of the shipped goods. (FR7)

The government was treated as the supplier of certain political goods not just

the political good of law and order in general, but the specific political goods

demanded by those who had the upper hand in running that particular kind of

society. (FP8)

Households supply labour and demand goods; firms supply goods and

demand labour. (H9M)

Should the sender require goods to be delivered by a certain date and having

shown this date on the consignment note, the carrier is committed to meet that

delivery date. (AMH)

Orders should be in duplicate and numbered and should state exactly the goods

required, quoting catalogue numbers when possible. (EA9)

service

8 1.2 12 1.8 170 5.4

Manchester claimed its services for disabled people were so good, people

moved into the area to benefit from them. (FT6)

Thus the products and services demanded have reflected this change in

cultural values. (K94)

Important markets should be visited more frequently, particularly if technical

assistance or after-sales service is required. (K94)

73

work

8 1.0 21 2.4 145 5.0

The Owens claim the work will take several years and they’ll face noise levels

of up to 68 decibels. (K1W)

More rarely, such stories are told at other times to demonstrate the reverse: that

policemen and women are human beings and are affected by emotionally

demanding work. (A5Y)

The activities would demand collaborative work, role allocation and sparing.

(F9T)

Considerable further work would be required to analyse and describe the

information objects which would be candidates for indexing, and/or electronic

filing. (B2M)

time

9 0.4 24 1.8 192 4.7

Two-Dogs claimed his time was almost up, and was drinking even more

heavily than usual. (CH0)

From that day, healing work claimed all his spare time. (ED9)

Very often it demands considerable time and careful exploration to help the

patient decide precisely what his problems are. (B30)

Do not underestimate the time required to prepare a cocktail party – a four-

course dinner often takes less time! (ABB)

The time required for an eye movement is approximately 150 msecs, and so

if the stimulus is presented for less than 150 msecs we can be certain that the

image is projected only to one hemisphere directly. (HSC)

form

8 1.8 9 2.0 68 4.6

This is because there are undoubtedly some people who are out of work and

seeking jobs, but are not claiming any form of social security benefit […]

(BNW)

The problem of the nature of locality, raised by EPR, clearly demanded some

form of empirical investigation. (EW6)

‘The knowledge society’ requires new forms of dialogue between

professionals and citizens, if society is to comprehend and effectively confront

the problems facing it. (G0R)

help

5 n/a 8 3.6 82 6.1

In certain circumstances, local authorities can claim help for emergency

repairs. (K47)

Manufacturers continue to demand more help from the Government in the

shape of increased capital allowances […] (CBU)

Some families require extensive help over a prolonged period to overcome

long-standing emotional problems in the family which have culminated in a

child who is failing to thrive or is obese. (CGT)

return

6 n/a 42 6.0 25 4.4

If Winder’s challenge to the resolution succeeded this would mean that all the

council’s tenants would be in a position to refuse to pay the increased rent, and

maybe to claim return of overpaid rent. (EBM)

Twenty travellers are staging a protest outside a police station demanding the

return of their vehicles. (K1P)

Private financiers will, of course, require a return on their investment, and

this will almost inevitably mean rent rises. (G20)

The objects mentioned in Table 7 refer to money (e.g. price and wage/pay/salary

increase) or something (an accomplishment, act or physical object) necessary, needed

or wanted (e.g. performance, help and goods).

74

As regards collocations composed of the verb claim, in the majority of cases,

claim is to be found in the sense of ‘to declare to be true; assert’, which is not shared by

the other two verbs under examination; therefore, claim cannot be regarded as their

synonym. This fact can be exemplified by the sentences containing the phrases claim

price/performance/product/service/work. Furthermore, the BNC also shows that in the

collocations claim increase/time, claim occurs both in the sense of ‘to declare to be true;

assert’ and the sense of ‘to ask or call for something’.

Concerning the individual collocations, six out of eight examples of claim goods

come from one source, which casts doubts on the word goods being a strong collocate

of claim. In the collocation demand goods, goods usually denotes articles of trade, as

used in economic terminology – particularly in the phrase ‘supply and demand’;

however, sometimes it also refers to a benefit, e.g. political goods. As to require, the

collocate goods occurs either in the phrase require the goods to + infinitive or in the

passive construction the goods required. The word work is often to be found in the

collocation demanding work that designates work which calls for intensive effort or

attention; although this sense (‘to call for something’) is shared by all the three verbs,

the phrases *claiming work or *requiring work are not probable in English. The BNC

also suggests that the verb require and the noun time usually form the passive

construction the time required which is followed by to or for. Whenever a form is

claimed, demanded or required, the preposition of is added, and it is explicitly stated

what form is meant. Finally, if one claims return, they seek to have their money back;

on the other hand, if one demands or requires return, they want to have anything they

regard as their own back.

One of the most interesting sentences in the above table is the one containing the

collocation require increase since unlike the other illustrative sentences in the box, it is

75

an objective situation that calls for increase, and not people pursuing their interests.

This example thus supports the claim that the notion of impartiality in incorporated in

the meaning of require made by the Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms and Related

Words.

As the table shows, the only object with which claim, demand and require

collocate with similar frequency is performance. The words product and goods are

mostly to be found with claim and require; however, since in claim product, the verb is

used in the sense that is not shared by the other two verbs, it is possible to state that the

collocate product is the most typical of require. The words that collocate most

frequently with demand are price and return, and as far as the rest of the objects

appearing in the table are concerned, they form the strongest collocations with require.

3.2.2.2 Objects that Collocate with Claim and Demand

Table 8 – Object collocates of claim and demand

BNC

examples

claim demand

freq. sal. freq. sal.

dismissal

38 7.2 7 5.1

He claimed unfair dismissal, but the company argued that he was not an

employee and so he was not eligible. (CDP)

If the terms and conditions are altered as part of Newco’s rationalisation of the

business, employees may be entitled to resign and claim constructive

dismissal. (J6S)

On April 8 a crowd of more than 7,000 people converged on the presidential

palace to demand the dismissal of the government. (HLJ)

right

61 6.0 33 5.2

For example, a third party may claim the right to accede to a treaty in

accordance with its terms. (EF3)

A group of over 300 former Beijing students, unhappy with their enforced

exile, travelled to the capital and staged a sit-in demonstration outside the city

hall in June 1985, demanding the right to return home. (CG0)

status

26 5.2 6 3.2

A woman from Somalia with kidney failure arrived in Britain claiming

political refugee status. (AK8)

He is in prison for committing violent crimes against English imperialism and

he is demanding status as a political prisoner. (BN1)

rights

32 5.1 15 4.0

They are designed not only to keep out black people but to try and intimidate

black workers already in Britain and make it harder for them to claim their

76

basic human rights. (A6V)

We demand the same rights, protection and civil liberties that other European

workers enjoy. (HLU)

independence

6 3.9 12 5.1

The Bank of England is directly controlled by the Government, while the

Bundesbank claims independence. (CH2)

It was unclear whether the Bloc demanded complete independence or was

prepared to settle for greater autonomy within the Canadian confederation.

(HKX)

pay

7 4.1 9 4.7

He refused to accept the transfer, was dismissed and claimed redundancy pay.

(CHS)

On 5 September the Rangoon police went on strike, demanding better pay.

(FAN)

pound

8 3.8 8 3.9

If he could not persuade the man to desist from dying, then he would claim his

pound of flesh and his right to Jesus ’s soul on the Cross […] (CCE)

A farmer is claiming twenty thousand pounds in compensation from an

electricity company after a quarter of his cattle herd was electrocuted. (K20)

He was a monster, a hard, unyielding monarch, a Mafia boss whose power was

everywhere, a merciless creditor who demanded his pound of flesh. (C8V)

The player has denied demanding two thousand pounds to keep his mouth

shut. (K1J)

The objects that collocate with claim and demand often refer to one’s state,

condition or due, for instance, dismissal, right(s), status and independence, and money,

e.g. pay and pound.

The table shows that in most of the collocations, the verb claim is used in the

sense of ‘to assert and call for the recognition of something as rightfully belonging to

one’, for example, claim dismissal, which is either unfair or constructive as suggested

by the BNC, and claim right(s). As to the phrase claim independence, the sense in

which claim occurs is ‘to declare to be true; assert’ which is unique to claim and,

therefore, not shared by demand.

It is apparent that if one claims dismissal, it is always their own dismissal they

have in mind; on the other hand, if one demands dismissal, it is only dismissal of

someone else they ask for. It thus seems that the verb claim is used here in the sense

commented on in the previous paragraph; yet, demand is to be found in the sense of ‘to

ask for peremptorily’. Concerning the phrases claim right(s) and demand right(s), it can

77

be assumed that those who demand right(s) also seek to have these rights recognized by

the others, which indicates that the sense of demand in these collocations is close to the

sense of ‘to assert and call for the recognition of something as rightfully belonging to

one’ characteristic of claim; it is, therefore, possible to suggest that this very shade of

meaning is common to claim and demand but not to require. Furthermore, the

collocation claim right is usually followed by to + infinitive, and demand right always

takes either to + infinitive or the preposition for. The object pound may designate a

monetary unit or a unit of weight. In the latter sense, pound is often used figuratively in

the idiom pound of flesh coming from Shakespeare’s play The Merchant of Venice and

denoting ‘a debt whose payment is harshly insisted on’.

The objects that collocate with similar frequency with both the verbs are right,

pay and pound. Independence is usually to be found with demand, and the rest of the

objects, i.e. dismissal, status and rights, are typical of claim.

3.2.2.3 Objects that Collocate with Claim and Require

Table 9 – Object collocates of claim and require

BNC

examples

claim require


privilege

22 6.2 85 6.8

Thus if a member has a sound reason for believing that some malpractice is

occurring in connection with the council’s funds, he is under a public duty to

inform the council. If the statement he makes is found to be true it will not be

defamatory […]. If it is found not to be true, the member may claim qualified

privilege if he acted without malice. (B0S)

No special LIFESPAN privileges are required to use this option but you must

either be the user associated with the charge code or an ascendant or

descendant of that user. (HWF)

authority

22 3.4 150 5.8

In most contemporary societies the law is the only human institution claiming

unlimited authority. (ANH)

Effective economic management would require the authorities to take action

as soon as a disturbance occurs which is judged to have an adverse impact on

the desired combination of macroeconomic objectives. (EC3)

majority

7 3.4 41 5.2

Although Bush has managed to reduce Clinton’s lead since the convention,

Clinton is still in a better position to win. He needs only 39 % of the toss-up

78

votes to claim a majority, compared with the 63 % Bush requires. (CBW)

He claimed the majority of taxpayers would be £1.50 a month worse off as

any gains from the widening of the 20 per cent tax band would be lost by the

freeze on general allowances. (K5H)

The reform, which required a two-thirds majority in parliament, would

allow a new government a period of 18 months to establish its programme and

policies before it could be subject to a confidence motion. (HL1)

membership

15 5.1 7 2.9

The Christian Democratic People’s Party met in September 1989 for the first

time in 40 years and elected a permanent leadership, claiming a membership

of 3,000. (HKY)

Entry is free, no membership is required, and it is open to any adult to enter,

be served a drink and relax. (A0B)

indemnity

7 5.1 6 3.2

Lord Diplock suggested that in that case someone down the chain of

distribution who suffers economic loss […], might well be able to claim

indemnity direct from the negligent manufacturer under the principle in

Donoghue v. Stevenson. (H7U)

If the house is already in the joint names of the husband and wife subject to a

mortgage and the husband alone is to assume liability, then again the wife will

require an indemnity from the husband. (JXH)

company

29 3.1 106 4.8

Pressure continued on the community to end its resistance, with Raybestos

claiming it had lost orders of £1 million in the past six months alone and

another source claiming the company was suffering from a ‘crisis of

consumer confidence’. (CDD)

The Institute has published a booklet explaining the practical implications of

those 1985 Companies Act provisions that require companies to keep

accounting records. (CBX)

court

8 2.0 65 4.8

Those who had received poor service, he said, could consider their right of

action and if necessary start proceedings in the Small Claims Court. (K4S)

The court is required to appoint a guardian ad litem for the child, unless it is

satisfied that it is not necessary to do so in the interests of the child. (FBX)

grant

13 4.7 7 2.9

The grower can also claim an EC grant of £250 an acre. (K1Y)

Not only did he require a grant of 57,000 acres of the drained land, but,

according to Dugdale, he intended to transform the village of Manea into a

town to be called Charlemont, which would command the new river system.

(AS4)

The examples presented by Table 9 suggest that claim is usually used in the

senses of ‘to declare to be true’ (see the illustrative sentences containing claim

company/majority) and ‘to assert and call for the recognition of something as rightfully

belonging to one’ (e.g. claim privilege/authority/majority/membership). Since in neither

of these two senses, claim is to be regarded as a synonym of require, which always

refers to something obligatory, needed or desired, indemnity and grant are the only two

79

objects that collocate with claim and require in the same sense (i.e. ‘to ask or call for

something as or as if one’s right or due’). Besides, in five out of eight occurrences of

claim court, the noun claim appearing in the phrase Small Claims Court is wrongfully

listed as verb; in the remaining three examples, claim is to be found in the sense of ‘to

declare to be true’.

The table also shows that in the majority of cases, it is a code, a set of rules or

regulations, or constraints of a situation that require something (to be done). For this

reason, require is often followed by to + infinitive. Furthermore, all the examples of the

phrase require privilege come from the same source, which does not, therefore, provide

reliable information on privilege being a collocate of require. Whenever a majority is

required, it is often mentioned what majority it is (qualified, two-thirds, simple, etc.).

The BNC suggests that there is only one object that forms collocations with

claim and require with similar frequency: privilege. As regards the rest of the objects,

membership, indemnity and grant are to be found mostly with claim, and authority,

majority, company and court usually co-occur with require.

3.2.2.4 Objects that Collocate with Demand and Require

Table 10 – Object collocates of demand and require

BNC

examples

demand require


skill

32 5.2 294 7.7

At the same time, however, the politician’s inevitable inability to satisfy all of

his friends demanded great management skills to mollify the disappointed.

(CRR)

Normally, of course, bees would not travel such vast distances. However, their

daily search for food takes them on journeys requiring considerable

navigation skills, and their time sense helps them here as well. (FEV)

information

22 3.4 344 7.1

Taxpayers, ratepayers, policy makers and administrators all demanded

information about the way in which the money they provided was being

spent. (FAM)

If you require further information on the Forests and recreational areas that

Northern Ireland has to offer please write to the following address […] (B29)

effort 13 3.8 177 6.9

80

This is not an unduly difficult task but it does demand a little effort. (HAC)

There is no doubt that improving your interpersonal skills by extending your

repertoire of behaviours is not easy. As with the acquisition of any skill it

requires conscious effort as each skill is practised to the point where it

becomes effortless […] (B2F)

treatment

9 3.4 161 6.9

Mr Clarke also stressed the role of schools in combating juvenile crime and

demanded more effective treatment of disruptive pupils. (CFB)

Patients have the right to decline treatment – but they do not have the right to

demand treatment which the doctor can not, in conscience, provide. (CH1)

It would be foolish here to enter the debate over the survival of party under the

early Hanoverians: such a subject would require extensive treatment in a

separate book. (HY9)

Bacterial meningitis is quite a rare disease but it can be very serious and

requires urgent treatment with antibiotics. (B1M)

explanation

39 6.5 72 6.2

Angry parents are demanding an explanation from a bus company after one

of its drivers took their children on a six mile detour. (K1C)

There is in sociolinguistics an implicit assumption that where women’s speech

differs from men’s, it is the behaviour of the women rather than the men that

requires explanation; men are the norm from which women deviate. (CGF)

action

60 5.3 153 6.2

We must integrate environmental concerns into every area of policy; demand

tough action against pollution, enforced by effective, independent agencies,

and campaign for stronger inter-national action to protect the ozone layer,

reduce acid rain, and tackle global warming. (CAL)

There was widespread feeling that urgent legislative action was required to

deal with increasing economic problems and with a sharp deterioration in law

and order. (HKX)

care

7 2.5 117 6.1

He drank his own tea while getting on with his work, work that demanded

care and concentration. (CKE)

But most families in Britain are familiar with using hospitals and demand in-

patient care for their relatives when a crisis arises. (FYW)

Great care is required in differentiating between those acts that are negligent

but result from carelessness as opposed to recklessness. (HB3)

Indeed, only two studies have followed up patients for more than 6 months

after discharge: one involved the rural elderly, the other involved patients with

severe pneumonia who required intensive care. (HWU)

investment

8 3.4 86 6.1

We have got to protect not only our members’ rights, but our public services,

and from this conference today we’ve got to make it quite clear, to central

government, that we demand investment in our public services. (HUD)

After all, the transportation of such huge and heavy slabs of rock, often over

long distances, must have required an incredible investment of effort on the

part of any society possessing only rudimentary technology. (CET)

investigation

24 5.6 64 6.0

Friends and relatives of a man who was found dead in a prison cell are

demanding a full investigation into his death. (K1B)

Cracks under 1mm are acceptable, up to 2mm they require minor repair; above

that they require further investigation by a builder or structural engineer.

(AS1)

obedience 10 6.0 9 3.7

Parents have no right to demand servile obedience from their children. (CGE)

81

J.J. Hecht in his study of domestic servants in the eighteenth century argues

that these conflicts were common as masters pressed their authority, requiring

the obedience and loyalty to which they were theoretically entitled, while

servants attempted to retain independence and reduce their obligations. (AN4)

removal

15 6.0 15 4.3

The crowd also demanded the removal of the two remaining statues of Stalin

from central Ulan Bator, one of which was taken down by the authorities on

Jan. 16. (HKP)

In his judgement, the inspector pointed out that the development would extend

into the wooded part of the site requiring the removal of some trees. (C88)

abolition

11 5.9 5 2.8

In the south, the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA) had since its

emergence in 1983 demanded the abolition of Islamic sharia law and the

restoration of regional autonomy. (HL4)

The Article 67 Directive, which requires the abolition of any domestic

restrictions on movements of capital between persons resident in member state,

was to be implemented before 1 July 1990 […] (BP5)

change

64 4.9 156 5.8

As consumers we can demand a change in the manufacture of products that

are threatening our health now. (HSL)

To win a significant amount of new business would require a big cultural

change at the company. (BMB)

degree

15 4.2 73 5.8

For many patients, brief problem-orientated outpatient care seems to be a very

satisfactory means of helping them tackle the difficulties. This does not

demand a high degree of psychotherapeutic experience, but does require a

good deal of common-sense. (B30)

Sometimes, of course, all that had arisen was a lump of anxiety in her throat at

being interrupted for so long in the middle of work which required a high

degree of concentration and often had to be done to a deadline. (C8Y)

Social class 1 consists of occupations requiring a university degree or high

professional equivalent. (G0U)

consideration

5 3.3 55 5.7

‘The disciplined use of decorative devices demands proper consideration of

their function,’ he emphasizes, ‘even if or perhaps especially if that function is

just to be eye-catching […].’ (FTA)

The admission of a tenant already showing signs of dementia requires very

careful consideration in the individual case. (FTY)

reform

31 5.7 12 3.4

In what was widely described as the worst civil unrest since independence,

rioting erupted in Bamako, the capital, on Jan. 21 after the police banned two

anti-government demonstrations demanding political reforms and the

introduction of multiparty democracy. (HL3)

The basic problem with budgetary reform is that it not only requires

administrative reform, but also strong political support. (FAV)

sacrifice

9 5.7 12 4.1

Sacrifices could be demanded in the name of democracy which could not be

expected for mere patriotism for the social order as it was. (EVP)

To stabilise its currency and comply with EC law will require big sacrifices

(possibly 10,000 jobs will go in the Italian steel industry, the biggest in Europe

after Germany’s). (CRA)

surrender 7 5.5 5 2.9

The parley was unproductive, with Miles demanding unconditional

82

surrender of all arms and Joseph requesting that his people be allowed to

return peaceably to the Wallowa, while returning half their guns for hunting.

(ALX)

Unfortunately, they often had little experience in civil administration and

although the system may have seemed effective in suppressing Lombard

leadership, ultimately it acted against Frederick’s interests due to its inherent

inefficiency and unpopularity. In this case, however, unconditional surrender

was now required. (ASW)

proof

11 5.4 35 5.5

The snag is that with a presidential election due in 1995, this excuse will soon

wear thin and right-wing challengers for the presidency will demand proof

that the French economy is improving. (CRA)

But criminal prosecution requires proof beyond reasonable doubt that the

person charged committed the offence. (K96)

fee

20 5.4 13 3.7

Of the 19 national museums that receive direct public grants, only eight

demand a fee at the door. (ABD)

On obtaining a prospectus and asking for an application form, you will find

that every drama school will require an audition fee, and this can vary

between £15 and £25. (A06)

cash

20 5.4 11 3.5

He told the jury that the first raid occurred on April 3 at Sattherthwaite’s

confectioners in Crosby when they threatened two women employees with a

screwdriver and demanded cash. (K3K)

The discount houses have their origins in the early nineteenth century. Their

role at that time was to discount bills for holders requiring immediate cash for

payments which were due in perhaps two or three months. (HY4)

As is apparent from the table, the list of object collocates demand and require

share is far longer than the two lists above; moreover, in all the collocations presented,

demand and require are used either in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as or as

if one’s right or due’ or in the sense of ‘to need’. This fact thus seems to support the

hypothesis formulated by some thesauri and dictionaries of synonyms that demand and

require are more synonymous with each other than with claim.

The only difference in the usage of these two verbs can be observed in the

context of situation in which one demands or requires. Demand is typical of subjective

contexts: one often demands something without being able to justify their demand;

whereas require calls for an objective context: it is usually a situation or a code adopted

in advance that requires something. The sentences containing the objects obedience,

reform and cash illustrate this point well. However, it should be added that in many

83

cases, this difference is so subtle that it is often ignored, which allows of great

interchangeability of demand and require.

As regards the individual objects, the word treatment refers to both the act and

manner of treating and the application of medicine. The same holds true for care since

this word denotes attention, concern and medical control. Concerning investment, it may

but does not have to be in the form of money. Finally, degree is usually preceded by a

modifier (e.g. certain, high and considerable) and followed by the preposition of. In the

collocation require degree, the noun can designate not only an extent or measure of

something, as found in all the phrases with demand, but also a university qualification.

The table shows that there are five objects that collocate with demand and

require with similar frequency: explanation, action, investigation, change and proof.

The nouns skill, information, effort, treatment, care, investment, degree and

consideration prefer the verb require to demand. On the other hand, obedience,

removal, abolition, reform, sacrifice, surrender, fee and cash are more typical of

demand.

3.2.2.5 Objects that Collocate with Claim

Table 11 – Object collocates of claim

BNC claim

examples freq. sal.

damages 106 8.55 The buyer can claim damages for non-delivery or for breach of

any other condition or warranty. (H7U)

benefit 176 7.48

Bear in mind that in order to claim maternity benefits or

redundancy pay and to have protection against unfair dismissal,

you need to have worked for at least two years and 16 hours

each week. (G2T)

responsibility 144 7.47

The Irish Republican Army (IRA) claimed responsibility for a

mortar attack on the Prime Minister’s residence at 10 Downing

Street, London, shortly after 10 a.m. on Feb. 7. (HL4)

relief 65 6.99

An owner-occupier is allowed to claim tax relief on the interest

paid on a loan to purchase his house (up to a maximum loan of

£30,000). (CE8)

allowance 49 6.97 Registered blind people can claim an allowance of £1,080 a

year. (CMK)

84

credit 59 6.83

Under the legislation, manufacturers can claim a credit of 25

per cent of the market value for each computer they give away

to schools. (B7M)

In the normal course of events they would not have publicised

their conclusion without further tests. But, fearing that others

would claim the credit for the discovery, they went into print.

(FBK)

victory 59 6.78

ANTI-POLL tax activists have claimed a victory after sheriff

officers were forced to call off their visit to a house in

Bonnyrigg. (K5D)

descent 25 6.75

Japan has […] been reigned over by an imperial house which

claims descent from the Yamato clan, whose control of the

central part of Japan long predates written record. (EE2)

exemption 25 6.72

Without border checks, traders may be tempted to claim

exemption from VAT on goods ostensibly destined for export

but which, in fact, never leave the country or are reimported.

(A3U)

hurricane 20 6.66

The German pilots involved in the attack claimed four

Hurricanes destroyed, two by Müncheberg and one each by Lt.

Johannsen and Obfw. Laub […] (CA8)

victim 44 6.48

Liver cancer is one of the 10 most common cancers in the world

and also one of the most deadly. It is particularly prevalent in

developing countries where it claims 250000 victims each year.

(B74)

refund 15 6.33 Delay: You may claim a full refund of the fee if an item fails to

meet its advertised delivery standard. (EEJ)

immunity 16 6.23

A fourth accused, former Economy Minister Panayotis

Roumeliotis, claimed immunity from prosecution as a member

of the European Parliament. (HL5)

rebate 13 6.07

Claimants in receipt of income support, students and others on a

low income may claim a rebate […], but must pay at least 20

per cent themselves. (FS6)

asylum 12 5.77

Can the Government be held to blame for such claims as this – a

Turkish Cypriot claiming asylum on the basis that her mother

did not get on with her husband and was trying to break up her

marriage? (HHW)

wicket 12 5.69

He became the first Australian leg-spinner since Bill O’Reilly

against South Africa in 1936-37 to claim five wickets in an

innings at the MCG. (CBG)

superiority 11 5.63

His rejection of the right of a religion to claim superiority for

itself over other religions underlines his claim that no particular

religion can embody what he calls the one, true and perfect

Religion. (C9B)

scalp 9 5.55 Three Conference sides beat League clubs, Altrincham claiming

their 15th Cup scalp by beating Chester 2-0. (CEP)

expense 19 5.55

Euro MPs can claim travel expenses without producing receipts,

yet to claim Income Support pensioners must supply a whole

booklet of information. (CBC)

In the same way as the list of object collocates shared by demand and require is

the longest of the three lists showing objects common to two of the selected verbs, so

85

the list of objects collocating solely with claim is the longest of those comprising

objects unique to only one of the verbs. The nouns forming collocations with claim

usually denote money or benefit (e.g. damages, benefit, relief, allowance, refund, rebate

and expense) and a fact that should be recognized (e.g. responsibility, descent and

superiority). The senses in which claim is to be found in the phrases above are: ‘to

declare to be true’ (claim hurricane), ‘to assert and call for the recognition of something

as rightfully belonging to one’ (claim responsibility/credit/descent/wicket/superiority),

‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due’ (all the collocations with

objects referring to money and claim exemption/immunity/asylum), ‘to gain or win’

(claim victory/scalp) and ‘to cause death’ (claim victim).

Concerning the individual collocations, the examples in the BNC suggest that if

a benefit is claimed, it is usually mentioned what kind of benefit it is (for instance, state,

unemployment, housing, invalidity, etc.), the relief claimed is often that of tax, the

exemption one claims may be from tax, duty and fee, i.e. a sum of money (to be) paid,

as well as an obligation, and the credit claimed designates either a sum of money or

commendation, approval or acknowledgement. The collocation claim responsibility is

always followed by the preposition for and the collocation claim descent by the

preposition from. Furthermore, it is worthy of note that all the examples of the phrase

claim hurricane come from the book dealing with the history of a British fight aircraft

called Hurricane, and that the collocation claim wicket is to be found only in the texts

about cricket.

3.2.2.6 Objects that Collocate with Demand

Table 12 – Object collocates of demand

BNC demand

examples freq. sal.

resignation 51 7.67 All over Vienna posters appeared demanding the resignation of

86

the police chief who had given the orders to shoot. (AA9)

ransom 16 6.83

Sams, 51, of Barrel Hill Road […], has admitted kidnapping

Birmingham estate agent Stephanie Slater, unlawfully

imprisoning her and demanding a £175,000 ransom with

menaces. (K4E)

release 44 6.73

The strikers, supported by left-wing parties outside the

government coalition, were demanding the release of all

political prisoners still imprisoned from the Pinochet regime.

(HLD)

withdrawal 21 6.36 On Aug. 14 the Iraqi government demanded the immediate

withdrawal of all Turkish forces from northern Iraq. (HLA)

apology 14 6.31

British MPs are demanding an apology from the Australian

Prime Minister, Paul Keating, after he accused Britain of

deserting his country during World War Two. (K1G)

inquiry 27 6.19

MPs are demanding an inquiry into claims that Britain’s

largest compact disc maker is deliberately sacking workers

before they become entitled to redundancy pay. (K1M)

respect 21 6.05 The president demands appropriate respect. (HSF)

dissolution 8 5.59 The protesters demanded the dissolution of parliament and a

general election. (HL1)

referendum 8 5.33

Baroness will today lead an all party campaign in the House of

Lord, demanding a referendum on the Maastricht Treaty.

(FXT)

equality 8 5.28 The first stage was for women to demand equality with men

(‘liberal’ feminism). (CGF)

reinstatement 5 5.20 The court imposed the maximum fine on each charge and also

demanded complete reinstatement. (AR9)

The table shows that the objects that collocate with demand refer to a sum of

money to which the one who demands may but does not have to have a right (ransom

and reinstatement), an action from an institution or someone exerting power (release,

withdrawal, inquiry, dissolution, referendum and equality) and an act or a condition of

someone in relation to someone else (resignation, apology and respect). All the

examples found in the BNC indicate that the verb demand is used in these collocations

only in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due’. As to the

collocations demand resignation/release/withdrawal/dissolution, it is always stated of

whom or what these things are demanded.

87

3.2.2.7 Objects that Collocate with Require

Table 13 – Object collocates of require

BNC require

examples freq. sal.

approval 125 7.18 The necessary constitutional changes would require approval

by a three-quarters majority in the 70-seat Assembly. (HLC)

consent 104 6.98

A parent may, for example, give or withhold consent to the

adoption or marriage of a child in care although in the case of

marriage, the local authority’s consent is also required. (J76)

permission 95 6.82 For what kind of building work is planning permission

required? (FAU)

disc 65 6.40

Secret Agent is an excellent scrolling adventure game that

should keep you playing for weeks. Requires Hard Disc &

EGA. (HAC)

minimum 53 6.18

They found their pupils thriving on a kind of learning which

requires a minimum of factual knowledge, a large element of

challenge and a great deal of experience in dealing with

situations using particular kinds of thinking and practical skills.

(H88)

notice 69 6.17

The main change is that the periods laid down for these notices

are now in days instead of hours: two days notice is required

for the commencement of building works. (CLG)

modification 50 6.08

The staff heads, who are accustomed to functioning as ‘experts’

in their particular functions, may need to become supporters,

facilitators, and leaders in long-range thinking – a major change

requiring behavioral modification. (FA8)

energy 84 6.03 Making profitable decisions requires energy, stamina and a

good blood supply to the brain. (EW5)

disclosure 45 6.01

The Securities Act (1933) attempted to regulate the financiers of

the Wall Street stock market. It required the full disclosure of

the condition of any firm wishing to issue new shares. (EWG)

assistance 56 5.99 Tenants may require assistance in negotiations with landlords

or in approaches to housing officials. (FTY)

adjustment 47 5.96

Industrialism requires a very delicate adjustment of

demographic growth: not too fast; because that will lower wages

[…]; not too slow, for that will raise wages […]. (HR0)

Unlike the two tables above, Table 13 gives no examples of object collocates

denoting money; instead, it lists nouns that designate acts of someone in relation to

someone else (approval, consent, permission and assistance), and things – both

concrete (disc) and abstract (minimum, notice, modification, energy, disclosure and

adjustment) – that are regarded as essential, necessary or needed. As to the individual

collocates, the BNC suggests that the type of permission one usually requires is

planning permission, and the word minimum always takes the preposition of. Besides,

88

all the examples of the phrase require disc come from a periodical called Practical PC,

and it is always hard disc a particular program would not function without.

3.2.2.8 Object Collocates Sorted by Raw Frequency

This section presents object collocates of the verbs under examination sorted not

by salience scores but by raw frequency of occurrence as displayed in the Word Sketch

of each of the three selected verbs. The nouns which have not been included in the

previous parts of this work are put in bold and subsequently commented on. To

facilitate the comparison of the collocations sorted by their raw frequency with the

results the BNC yields when the sorting of collocations according to their salience

scores is kept, the numbers referring to the first five objects whose salience scores are

the highest are put in bold in the case of each of the verbs.

Table 14 – Object collocates sorted by raw frequency


collocates freq. sal. collocates freq. sal. collocates freq. sal.

benefit 176 7.48 money 84 5.60 information 344 7.05

responsibility 144 7.47 attention 82 6.48 skill 294 7.70

life 107 4.89 change 64 4.85 time 192 4.71

damages 106 8.55 action 60 5.28 effort 177 6.94

compensation 72 7.81 resignation 51 7.67 service 170 5.41

relief 65 6.99 payment 49 6.19 treatment 161 6.88

support 65 5.55 release 44 6.73 change 156 5.84

right 61 6.02 return 42 5.97 action 153 6.21

credit 59 6.83 explanation 39 6.49 authority 150 5.84

victory 59 6.78 right 33 5.21 knowledge 145 6.65

allowance 49 6.97 skill 32 5.16 work 145 5.03

victim 44 6.48 level 32 3.82 attention 143 6.64

place 44 4.10 reform 31 5.70 amount 127 6.36

success 41 5.52 compensation 30 6.77 approval 125 7.18

dismissal 38 7.22 standard 29 4.79 care 117 6.06

night 38 4.70 inquiry 27 6.19 company 106 4.81

money 34 4.26 response 26 4.96 consent 104 6.98

member 34 3.62 increase 25 4.91 permission 95 6.82

government 33 3.31 end 25 3.58 level 88 4.98

rights 32 5.07 investigation 24 5.61 investment 86 6.05

cost 29 4.21 price 24 3.98 privilege 85 6.78

company 29 3.13 time 24 1.82 energy 84 6.03

interest 28 3.69 answer 23 5.29 use 84 5.12

share 27 4.67 information 22 3.41 help 82 6.14

status 26 5.22 withdrawal 21 6.36 person 82 5.26

89

The table shows that in the case of claim, the first five most frequent objects

correspond to the first five objects obtaining the highest salience scores; the only

exception being the noun life which is listed as the third object collocate claim is usually

to be found with. Besides, it is interesting and should be pointed out that the word life

does not appear in any of the lists above. On the other hand, in respect of demand, the

situation is more complicated. Only its fifth most frequent collocate (i.e. resignation)

also ranks among the five objects with the highest salience scores, and the object with

the second highest salience score (i.e. ransom that co-occurs with demand in sixteen

examples, and whose salience score thus reaches 6.83) is not even included in the table.

As to require, the numbers indicating frequency of occurrence more or less coincide

with the salience scores. Only the nouns time and service which belong to the five most

frequent object collocates are replaced with approval and consent in the list sorted by

salience scores.

The following table contains the nouns ranked among each of the verbs’ twenty-

five object collocates with the highest frequency of occurrence which have not been

commented upon yet. It provides a summary of frequency of occurrence and salience

scores for all the nouns in bold listed in Table 14 with each of the three verbs.

Table 15 – Object collocates not mentioned in the previous parts

BNC

examples



life

107 4.9 - - - -

Whooping cough claims around 600,000 young lives each year – half of those

deaths are of children less than 1 year old. (A7G)

place

44 4.1 5 1.0 15 2.3

It is because values can be most effectively defined and expressed in words

that the study of literature claims a central place in humane studies. (FBA)

But it was Vose who came through with a strong finish on the final circuit to

claim second place, but he could not match Pearson’s strength on the hills.

(K4T)

[…] leading figures in the majority party practically demand a Cabinet place –

and a ministry of their choice […] (G3L)

As the number of places is limited, those requiring a place are advised to

contact the crèche as far in advance as is practicably possible. (B3B)

90

The first two questions require an answer with two decimal places although

there is only one in the question. The third question requires only one decimal

place to be given […] (FVV)

success

41 5.5 - - - -

Police are claiming success for a new campaign to tackle crime in the

countryside. (K24)

night

38 4.7 - - - -

MASS graves containing the bodies of 200 Moslem civilians killed by Serbs

have been found in Mostar southwest Bosnia, it was claimed last night. (CH6)

member

34 3.6 - - 47 3.9

At its height, the organization claimed 90,000 national members and 250,000

additional supporters organized at local level. (ASB)

The world’s dominant religions require members to worship at least once a

week and to attend a major festival every three months. (EAA)

government

33 3.3 10 1.6 37 3.3

Lawyers representing relatives of the three victims claim the Government was

in breach of the Human Rights Convention, article 2 of which guarantees ‘the

right to life’. (K2F)

The opposition Civic Forum, which rejected the Communist-dominated

cabinet […], is demanding a more representative government staffed mainly

by experts. (A8W)

In turn the government was required to submit to the UN a list of members

of the armed forces to be purged for human rights violations. (HLR)

cost

29 4.2 - - 18 3.1

MPs are allowed to claim all costs of living away from home, whether hotel

accommodation or the full charge of running a private flat in the capital.

(A3W)

[…] many countries in the Americas require the costs of judicial acts to be

borne by the interested parties […] (EDL)

interest

28 3.7 - - 18 2.8

The function of a library service is to provide so far as resources allow, all

books, periodicals, etc., other than the trivial, in which its readers claim

legitimate interest. (BMH)

She also wants property returned and is claiming daily interest on the money

due to her. (CBF)

Simply to understand how a decision is made requires a positive interest, an

awareness and a wish to see how the management process works. (HPX)

[…] a seller may require interest on late payments, or offer discounts for

early payment […] (J7C)

standard

- - 29 4.8 70 5.5

In a practical sense, he encouraged and demanded higher standards of

literacy from his churchmen and governors, and issued various proclamations

condemning their ignorance of Latin. (ALT)

Your notes are not to be imperishable works of art, but merely businesslike

tools to help you in your studies and in reaching the standard required by

examiners. (FEU)

response

- - 26 5.0 63 5.5

Those images of chaos and of a nation purportedly tearing itself apart – despite

much evidence to the contrary – demanded an immediate political response.

(CMB)

Elicitation procedures which measure a child’s comprehension of spoken

language generally only require a relatively simple response. (CG6)

end - - 25 3.6 5 0.9

91

Pro-democracy demonstrators demanded an end to one-party rule, the

holding of multiparty elections, and major changes in the country’s economic

structure. (HL2)

[…] ecologically responsible development would require an end to inefficient

and environmentally damaging production, a change in production

programmes, and a review of the current methods of energy production.

(HKY)

answer

- - 23 5.3 35 5.0

‘The fact that you are here in my office gives me the right to ask questions and

demand answers, and you’re going to tell me what I want to know, Lisa.’

(HA6)

[…] he lifts an eyebrow indicating he requires an answer to his question […]

(HD5)

level

- - 32 3.8 88 5.0

The process of assessment, then, is complex and demands a high level of

professional expertise. (GWJ)

Traditional drainage has accelerated this problem in two ways: by promoting

farming methods which require high levels of fertilizer, and by stripping out

the buffer of vegetation between the riverside and the fields. (AS4)

use

- - 14 2.9 84 5.1

Statistical analysis techniques in taxonomy demand the use of powerful

workstations, as would chemotaxonomic methods. (HJA)

The methods used in statistics depend on many branches of mathematics and

their implementation requires extensive use of computers but the subject has

its own logical concepts and theory. (HTE)

person

- - - - 82 5.3

The summons requires the person to attend the court to explain to the

magistrate why the sum has not been paid. (HHX)

Table 15 shows that whereas the verb claim does not form collocations with any

other of the selected nouns than those found in its own Word Sketch, all the object

collocates of demand, except for end (in whose case, the difference between the salience

scores is 2.7), strongly collocate with require, and require, on the other hand, takes

(among others) all the objects demand is able to take. The table contains two objects

that are common to all the three verbs, i.e. place and government; however, place is still

most typical of claim and the word government prefers either claim or require to

demand. From what has already been told about the object collocates of each of the

verbs in this paragraph, it follows that whenever any of the objects presented is to be

found in the environment of two of the verbs, these verbs are either claim and require

or, more probably, demand and require. Thus, member, cost and interest are the nouns

collocating with claim and require, and as the BNC also suggests, with similar

92

frequency. The objects standard, response, end, answer, level and use are to be found

with demand and require; life, success and night with claim; and person collocates with

require.

As far as the collocations composed of the two objects shared by all the verbs in

question are concerned, claim place usually means ‘to gain or win’; however, the BNC

also gives a few examples of the verb claim appearing here in the sense of ‘to declare to

be true’. On the other hand, if someone demands or requires place, they ask for it, and if

something requires decimal places, it simply needs them. As to the object government,

all the examples found in the BNC suggest that claim of the phrase claim government

occurs in the sense of ‘to declare to be true’, and whenever a government is demanded,

it is always specified what kind of government is asked for. The phrase require

government is always followed by to + infinitive, by which a speaker does not seek to

express that they ask for a government itself, it is rather an action on the part of the

authorities that is required. It is, therefore, possible to conclude that in the case of the

noun place, only the verbs demand and require may be regarded as synonyms, and

concerning government, the examples show that each of the verbs is used in a different

sense.

Since the verb claim is usually to be found in a lot of different senses, it seems

appropriate to comment on the senses claim is used in the phrases above. In the majority

of the collocations listed in Table 15, claim occurs in the sense of ‘to declare to be true’.

The examples include the collocations claim night (and it was often last night when

someone maintained something), claim member and claim government. In the

collocation claim success, claim conveys the sense of ‘to assert and call for the

recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’. Furthermore, the phrase claim

life means ‘to cause death’ and claim place is usually used in the sense of ‘to gain or

93

win’. If someone claims cost, they seek to have a sum of money they have a right to

returned. Finally, if the noun interest found in the phrase claim interest denotes concern,

claim occurs in the sense of ‘to declare to be true’, however, if it refers to a sum charged

for borrowing money, claim is to be found in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something

as or as if one’s right or due’.

As regards the verbs demand and require, they convey the sense of ‘to ask or

call for something as or as if one’s right or due’ or ‘to need’. The standard someone

demands is often high, higher or the highest, and whenever an end is demanded, it is

always mentioned to what. The phrases require member/person/cost are usually

followed by to + infinitive, and the objects level and use always take the preposition of

in the case of both demand and require.

It seems appropriate to explain here why the results form COCA are not

included in this section, although this corpus also provides information on raw

frequency of items occurring in the environment of a word in question. The reason is

that COCA does not sort items by their grammatical relations to a selected word, and

therefore, puts collocates that are to be found in different syntactic positions together.

For the categorization of items would be unnecessarily demanding and also due to the

significant overlap of collocates as presented by COCA and the BNC, the list of

collocates yielded by COCA is not mentioned.

94

3.2.3 Corpora and Dictionaries of the English Language

This subchapter aims at testing the inventory of direct objects presented in

section 3.1.1.5 against the data derived form both the BNC and COCA. The reason the

results form COCA are included is that the size of this very corpus makes it possible to

perform a highly detailed analysis of occurrence that this subchapter seeks to provide. It

should be noted, however, that since there is no need to check the real-life usage of the

direct objects found in the Oxford English Dictionary for this dictionary draws its

examples from a wide range of English books and magazines, and also since some of

the phrases may be out-of-date (although the objects keeping company to the verbs used

in the senses listed as obsolete were not taken into consideration), the nouns mentioned

only by the OED are excluded. The following tables thus show the raw frequency as

well as examples of each of the verbs’ co-occurrence with the objects the selected

dictionaries contain.

3.2.3.1 Objects of Claim

Table 16 – Objects of claim as found in the dictionaries

claim BNC CO

CA examples

intention 2 14

In the absence of clear evidence of this nature, the court is likely

to infer that the squatter neither had had nor had claimed any

intention of asserting a right to the possession of the land.

(HXW)

[…] the fact is that some owners manumitted their slaves and

that others freed or at least claimed their intention of doing so

in their wills. (American Studies Int.)

(moral high)

ground 7 24

The Public Windows Initiative […] will try to claim the moral

high ground on the issue of open specifications and is likely to

cloak Microsoft in what used to be IBM Corp’s mantle. (CPP)

In these three testimonies from 1985, Wiesel attempted to claim

the moral high ground by his presentation of an innocent

political self […] (Journal of Church & State)

accuracy 0 3 The authors were skeptical of German follow-up studies that

claimed 98 percent accuracy […] (Armed Forces & Society)

property 8 30 The armed robber does not claim your property but demands it.

95

(EF3)

Police are appealing for the owners of hundreds of stolen items

to come forward and claim their property. (K23)

When the parents die, relatives often claim the property, selling

the house and leaving the orphans with no place to go. (African

Arts)

watch

(timepiece) 1 0

see item (HAX)

item 8 5

The following items have not been claimed: Various pound

notes, clock, canvas bag containing a lunch box and chocolate

biscuits, two watches, spectacles marked ‘Rob to Rossini’,

earrings, silver chain and rings, pen and an umbrella. (HAX)

His research showed that if an item wasn’t claimed within three

days of being found, there was a ninety-six percent chance it

would never be claimed. (Literary Review)

throne 9 17

Mary Tudor rode to London in order to claim the throne and

with the intention of reinstating the Roman Catholic Church […]

(ALY)

In 1314, after his forces defeated the English at Bannockburn,

Robert the Bruce claimed the Scottish throne. (Int. Social

Science Review)

crown 8 33

Through the right of his mother, Edward had himself claimed

the French crown when it fell vacant in 1328 […] (F9L)

Texas, which rallied on the final day to claim the league men’s

crown, and Oklahoma State are both ranked in the top five and

could challenge for an NCAA championship. (Houston

Chronicle)

estate 4 7

An uncle appears as nearest agnate, ready to claim the estate on

intestacy; but the trustee claims the estate for his own, since the

intended beneficiary has died. (B2P)

Although the house is not the “estate” Audrey claimed, it

certainly ain’t a shack either. (Mov:Eight Scenes from the life of

Hank Williams)

respect 0 1

It is, as Hauser observed, that frontality “shows and claims

respect,” sparing both subject and the subject filmed the

fraudulence of a facile illusionism. (October)

pay rise 0 0

title 23 151

As rivals in the individual stakes, though, McColgan starts as the

leading British challenger and is strongly fancied to stop

American Lynn Jennings claiming a third successive title.

(K4T)

Venus won the Williams derby in last year’s Wimbledon final to

claim her fifth title there and rounded off the year by winning

the WTA Championship. (Associated Press)

record 11 28

His institute claims the record for growing bananas at the

highest altitude using passive solar heating alone, among other

more widely applicable examples of energy efficiency. (ANX)

Shezad performs under the name Shelvis, and he has claimed

recently the Guinness world record for continually singing Elvis

songs. (NPR_ATCW)

As is suggested by the table, the objects accuracy, watch, respect and pay rise

do not seem to be the real collocates of the verb claim. Nevertheless, in spite of only

96

one instance of watch, it is still possible to consider any words denoting items of

someone’s property to be the collocates of claim for this is what the illustrative sentence

(HAX) referring to the noun item indicates; and although owners do not usually claim

watches, they do not cease claiming other things that rightfully belong to them. As to

respect, it has already been classified as object collocating solely with demand (see

Table 12). The BNC thus does not provide any example of the phrase claim respect, and

COCA contains just one. From this fact, it follows that claim does not collocate with

respect; the occurrence of the phrase claim respect in the RHDEL is, therefore,

surprising. Both the corpora also suggest that no one ever claims pay rise but

pay/wage/salary increase as Table 7 shows.

As regards other objects, the wording of the phrase by which one seeks to

express that they remain moral is not only the moral high ground but also the high

moral ground. Crown one claims may denote both a symbol of sovereignty and a sign

of success or victory; in the latter sense, the word is to be found mostly in texts about

sport.

It is also desirable to point out the sentence The armed robber does not claim

your property but demands it since it emphasizes the difference in meaning between

claim and demand: one may claim something only if they think they have a right to it

whereas one may demand something despite the lack of right to that thing for it is the

position of power they are in that enables them to do so.

In sum, the data obtained from both the BNC and COCA confirm that all the

objects, except for respect, pay rise and (perhaps) accuracy, are collocates of the verb

claim.

97

3.2.3.2 Objects of Demand

Table 17 – Objects of demand as found in the dictionaries

demand BNC CO

CA examples

(one’s) name 4 30

But when the paparazzi responded by taking pictures of

Buckingham Palace-based Mr Arbiter, he angrily demanded

their names. (CBF)

You may be greeted by a log-in screen demanding your user

name and password, which you’ll find in your manual. (PC

World)

(one’s)

business 1 0

‘I am James Menzies, owner of this place, and I demand to

know your business.’ (A0N)

reason for 5 5

Simple answers like this seem to delight younger kids, who

demand a reason for everything. (CHE) He cast a cold fish eye on Lucian and the jumble of documents

and demanded to know the reason for such disorder.

(BkJuv:Arkadians)

retribution 5 9

An outraged public demanded swift justice and retribution.

(ANK)

For two days, crowds of Muslim militants have converged on

government offices demanding retribution.

(CNN_WorldNews)

sanctuary 0 1

Even his own enemy can demand sanctuary of him and rest

assured of protection because the owner’s obligation to respect

the sanctity of his own home takes precedence over his right and

temptation for vengeance. (Ethnology)

patience 0 19 Resolving conflicts and improving work habits demand

patience and persistence. (Arab Studies Quarterly)

concentration 7 20

Weather and sea conditions during the service were extremely

hazardous, demanding absolute concentration to maintain

control of the lifeboat. (EDR)

[…] certain clearly defined learning tasks demand intense

concentration and unbroken periods of study. (Clearing House)

quality 16 24

So why aren’t we, the British public, demanding better quality

from our fashion manufacturers and retailers? (A7N)

Consumers around the world are demanding higher quality in

products and services. (Futurist)

Physical attractiveness has been used as a criterion in similar

jobs demanding traditional feminine qualities (Generations)

objectivity 0 2

The industrial revolution was going to demand objectivity and

empiricism and that would continue to bolster individualism.

(Social Studies)

pay/wage rise 12 0 The health-care workers were demanding a 300 per cent pay

rise and extra funding for health care. (HLK)

Table 17 shows that the objects (one’s) business, sanctuary and objectivity are

not typical of demand. Besides, it is worthy of note that both sanctuary and objectivity

are mentioned only in the RHDEL; this dictionary thus seems to fail to properly reflect

98

the actual usage of English. As to (one’s) business, the corpora provide only one

example of the word business denoting one’s occupation found in the environment of

demand. This example, however, shows that someone does not demand another one’s

business as such but, instead, they demand to know what their business is.

The nouns patience and (pay/wage) rise should be commented upon as well.

Whereas there is no occurrence of demand patience in the BNC, COCA lists 19

examples; on the other hand, while the BNC provides 12 examples of pay/wage rise,

COCA does not give any. The fact that the BNC does not show any example of a

particular phrase is not as surprising as the fact that a larger corpus does not offer any

example of a phrase which occurs quite frequently in a corpus considerably smaller.

This finding thus casts doubts on the degree of collocability of the lexical items

concerned, i.e. demand and (pay/wage) rise.

As regards other objects, COCA suggests that one never demands the reason for

something but they always demand to know that reason, which is, however, in

contradiction to what the BNC shows. Furthermore, quality one asks for may denote a

personality/character trait as well as a property of something.

3.2.3.3 Objects of Require

Table 18 – Objects of require as found in the dictionaries

require BNC CO

CA examples

thought 36 97

The organisation of a classroom to bring about the acquisition of

concepts and the learning of skills requires considerable

thought. (CMU)

The appropriate response to prevailing educational practices

requires continuing thought and discussion. (Academic

Questions)

diligence 2 15

SFA’s rules impose certain restrictions on the types of

investment advertisement that may be issued, require due

diligence to be taken in preparing the advertisement and also

prescribe certain mandatory contents. (J70)

Lackadaisical customer service at a part-time high school job

99

can deteriorate into a neglect of responsibility in an adult

position that requires diligence and sacrifice. (USA Today

Magazine)

hand 5 60

[…] it is impossible to wield a double-handed axe and a halberd

as both require two hands to use. (CMC)

Like racing, dentistry requires a steady hand and a gentle

touch. (Boys Life)

patience 21 252

Teaching any type of child requires patience and understanding

fused with the necessary degree of firmness and discipline […]

(ANA)

Effective teaching requires skill and patience and involves

much more than the simple ability to disseminate information.

(Journal of Instructional Psychology)

examination 47 133

Researching gender, then, requires an examination of the

cultural creation of male dominance as well as the creation of

female subordinance. (FA6)

Hence, Cuba’s purported potential for business require serious

examination. (World Affairs)

oath 9 25

The Temperance movement, requiring an oath to moderate

drinking or to abstain from certain drinks, seems to have begun

in America. (EA6)

Certain groups and societies require an oath of their members.

(Raritan)

reporting 4 61

Law reporting is required because those who wish to rely upon

a previous decision of the court to further their own case must

have a clear and reliable record of the decision and the reason

for the decision in the earlier case. (FAU)

Similarly, the EU Directive requires public reporting of

emissions and allowance data. (Environment)

appearance 3 11

The divorce stage no longer requires a court appearance,

except for the children’s appointment in chambers, at which the

petitioner attends. (EB2)

Accidents with injuries […] usually require a court

appearance. (Atlanta Journal Constitution)

reading 16 124

The planning permission granted is obviously fundamental and

its precise terms are therefore very important and require

careful reading. (BME)

The book is highly informative and well set out and will be

required reading for many farming and veterinary students […]

(EER)

Although the latter can provide valuable information, especially

eye-witness statements, each report requires careful reading to

avoid attributing credibility to statements that may be

exaggerated or fabricated. (Geographical Review)

[…] Petroski’s publications are also required reading in many

engineering design offices. (Mechanical Engineering)

washing 3 3

They are rigid, completely impermeable to water and almost

maintenance-free, simply requiring occasional washing to

remove surface grime. (A16)

Before you buy anything, check the label to see if it requires

hard washing or some other exotic treatment – say, ironing.

(Prevention)

research 34 230 The reconstruction of ancient earthquakes requires painstaking

research into diaries, histories, chronicles, travellers tales etc

100

[…] (B7C)

It is clear from the literature that a number of issues for

environmental health in relation to disaster management require

further research. (Journal of Environmental Health)

ladder 0 6

Each palm can grow upward of 50 feet tall; picking at that

height requires hyperextended ladders and mobile steel towers

with catwalks. (Sunset)

material 37 112

Boatbuilders would probably say that the 38ft yacht I have

described is too expensive to produce. It requires top quality

materials and labour-intensive construction methods. (G37)

Hot-section components for land-based engines typically

require materials with superior mechanical properties and good

corrosion/oxidation resistance at elevated temperatures.

(Mechanical Engineering)

insurance 15 38

Expatriates need details of the cost of treatment and whether

medical insurance is required. (CHS)

Insurance is required for operating a business and, in most

states, for purchasing a home or automobile. (Consumers

Research Magazine)

tea 1 0 Will you be requiring tea or coffee in the morning? (JXS)

food 21 37

The body requires food for a number of reasons, which

scientific study has only relatively recently revealed. (AD0)

Growing uses energy, which requires food. (USA Today)

seat 6 23

Empire Theatre, Mansfield. Do you require seats, sir? We have

an excellent show this week. (KAT)

In Texas, child safety seats are required for children younger

than 5 and less than 36 inches tall. (Houston Chronicle)

dress 0 5 Japanese etiquette and rules of formality require the proper

dress with great attention to detail. (Ethnology)

gift 6 6

In addition, gifts would be required in any negotiations with

foreign powers, especially if they culminated in a marriage

alliance. (HY0)

Of course, really creative thought spanning several disciplines

requires special gifts. (Mechanical Engineering)

ticket 7 58

‘The Classical Show’. Admission free – no tickets required.

(KS8)

Admission is free to all events, but tickets are required.

(Chicago Sun-Times)

agent 6 33

For example, the general law requires an agent to account to a

principal for any profit made e.g. by way of commission, out of

the principal’s business. (HAJ)

When inadequate response occurs or there is difficulty in

compliance owing to the need to ingest a large bulk of exchange

resins, a further agent may be required […] (B0X)

The statute even required the agent to reveal if a house had the

reputation of being haunted. (BkJuv:NoPlaceLike)

Thinking is an activity; every activity requires an agent;

consequently. (Cross Currents)

operation 47 67

Altogether 347 patients had uncomplicated appendicitis, 73 had

complicated appendicitis, 14 had other surgical disease

requiring operation, and 144 had an unnecessary operation.

(EC7)

Delivering her baby and repairing her wounds would require

three operations.(USA)

101

Since one may require anything they need or find essential, the list of objects

require takes is the longest. There is only one phrase that is to be found less than five

times in the corpora: require tea; the RHDEL, which mentions it, says that require is

used here in the sense (of ‘wish to have’) considered to be a chiefly British way of

expressing; yet still, require tea appears in the BNC only once. Nevertheless, it would

still be quite courageous to claim that tea or any other noun cannot collocate with

require.

Concerning the objects listed above, the corpora indicate that patience, which

also occurs in Table 17 devoted to demand, is more typical of require than demand.

Besides, it is apparent from the table that appearance one (usually the law) requires is

often a court appearance, the word reading can designate a practice of reading (see

BME and Geographical Review) as well as a matter to be read, i.e. required reading,

gift may be used in both concrete and abstract sense, and whenever agent in the phrase

require agent refers to a person, and not to an active principle or substance, it is

followed by to + infinitive.

102

3.2.4 Modifiers (BNC)

The difference in meaning of the individual verbs is not reflected only in the

choice of objects they take but also in the variety of modifiers that tend to occur in their

environment. This subchapter thus examines modifiers, as presented by the Sketch

Engine, each of the three verbs collocates with. The chapter is divided into several parts

according to whether a particular expression is to be found with all the three verbs or

only two or one of them. Besides, the occurrence of the modifiers listed in LTP

Dictionary of Selected Collocations (see section 3.1.1.5) is checked.

The following tables show frequency and salience scores, if provided, for the

verb in question with a particular modifier (both left and right contexts are explored).

The degree of collocability is measured by the salience scores, and in the case of

modifiers used with all the three or just two verbs, the numbers referring to the

expressions which collocate with any of the verbs more frequently are put in bold.

3.2.4.1 Expressions Modifying All the Three Verbs

Table 19 – Modifiers of claim, demand and require

BNC

examples



immediately

9 5.2 10 5.5 9 5.0

Until a month ago when a trainee passed his or her exams, Saks immediately

claimed money back for their training from Teesside Training and Enterprise

Council. (K4V)

No group immediately claimed responsibility and an interior ministry

statement on the blast made no accusations. (K5M)

The Thai government immediately demanded the release of the officials, but

the situation was complicated by the outbreak of fighting in the area between

Myanman troops and Karen rebels. (HKS)

Nowadays, fewer and fewer people become managers without first having had

some introduction to statistics. However, many more then proceed to do a

management job and soon forget this brief introduction because they are not

immediately required to apply statistical learning to real life situations. (AYJ)

reasonably

7 5.8 1 n/a 41 8.0

Indeed, the music industry can reasonably claim its market to include anyone

from 5 years to 50, taking in both sexes and every social class. (A6A)

The upland areas have already suffered extensive depopulation because the

103

local agricultural economy will no longer support the standard of living which

their inhabitants quite reasonably demand. (FPR)

Medical expenses cover any form of service, treatment, medicine or appliance

reasonably required. (J6X)

clearly

1 n/a 5 4.1 31 6.5

The ‘south’ of the country is clearly claiming ‘more than its share’ of the so-

called sunrise sectors. (FA0)

The problem of the nature of locality, raised by EPR, clearly demanded some

form of empirical investigation. (EW6)

The courts will clearly require expert evidence in setting the appropriate

standard. (J76)

simply

2 n/a 6 4.3 24 6.0

[…] holists expect to supersede the need for any individualist explanations,

and thus undertake to provide powerful and wide-ranging social theories. In

their more tentative moods, by contrast, they simply claim a place for their

approach, leaving its scope a matter for debate. (CMN).

Finally colonizing nations discovered more direct ways of profiting from Third

World peoples: they simply demanded money from them. (HH3)

They are rigid, completely impermeable to water and almost maintenance-free,

simply requiring occasional washing to remove surface grime. (A16)

rightly

13 7.2 4 n/a 2 n/a

With an increased Democratic majority in Congress, the President could

rightly claim a massive mandate for his Great Society programmes. (EWG)

[…] we can all work together to establish the quality service that our patients

rightly demand. (FT3)

Such an approach rightly requires the design of a component to be conducted

with due consideration to its functional operation, both at an elemental and

global level. (FE6)

The BNC mentions five expressions that modify all the three selected verbs, i.e.

immediately, reasonably, clearly, simply and rightly. However, with the exception of

immediately, there is still one verb that dominates the usage and whose frequency of

occurrence with a given modifier is in stark contrast to the other two verbs; thus,

reasonably, clearly and simply usually collocate with require, and rightly is typical of

claim.

The examples provided by the BNC suggest that whereas both demand and

require are to be found mostly in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as or as if

one’s right or due’, which all the three verbs share, claim is used in this sense only in

the phrase clearly claim and in some of the instances of immediately claim. The sense in

which claim usually occurs is ‘to declare to be true’ (reasonably/simply/rightly claim).

Moreover, the BNC also offers some examples of claim used in the sense of ‘to assert

104

and call for the recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’ (immediately/

simply claim).

3.2.4.2 Expressions Modifying Claim and Demand

Table 20 – Modifiers of claim and demand

BNC

examples

claim demand


angrily

4 n/a 26 8.9

GRAEME SOUNESS angrily claimed he would quit football if the tactics

used by Crystal Palace last night ever prevail in the English game. (CBG)

But when the paparazzi responded by taking pictures of Buckingham Palace-

based Mr Arbiter, he angrily demanded their names. (CBF)

‘Where do you think you’re going?’ she demanded angrily. (HHB)

successfully

11 8.3 4 n/a

Sir John Pope Hennessy, an Irish adventurer, successfully claimed immunity

from arrest for the recovery of the huge debts he accumulated while the

Member for King’s County in the 1860s. (BPH)

At issue is whether a foreign country can identify and successfully demand

the repatriation of antiquities that it admits it did not even know existed until

they turned up in a museum’s collection. (ABK)

publicly

7 6.2 4 n/a

He had publicly claimed responsibility for the theft of arms and ammunition

from the South African Air Force headquarters […] (HKY)

As early as 29 September 1959, Anibal Escalante had publicly demanded

Sino-Soviet support for Cuba. (G1R)

repeatedly

3 n/a 6 6.5

While whole hops are repeatedly claimed to produce the best hop character in

a beer, problems may be encountered. (A14)

All eight had been detained since June […] and their release had been

repeatedly demanded by the FIS as a precondition to FIS participation in the

election. (HLD)

Parents may be confronting their children repeatedly demanding them to do

what is asked and find that this produces immense negative emotional

reactions […] (CGT)

loudly

2 n/a 5 6.5

The fellow loudly claimed he had in his battered, leather coffer some of the

most marvellous relics of Christendom[…] (K95)

Here he crossed to one of the small outbuildings and, making his voice sound

pompous, loudly demanded entrance in the King’s name. (H9C)

unlawfully

1 n/a 7 7.5

This was a clear case where the defendant was in a position to and did in fact

exert duress to require payment of the sum unlawfully claimed. (FCL)

It is capable however, of being correct in its application to a case where the

Food Controller had unlawfully demanded and received payment as a

condition of allowing any purchase of milk. (FLC)

fiercely

1 n/a 6 6.8

Only a mysterious, mounting, electric tightness in her stomach and her groin, a

build-up of sensation so extraordinary that she clung to his hard back as he

105

moved rhythmically, fiercely claiming possession; she dug in her nails

without conscious thought of injury, heard herself cry out in astonished

delight. (GUE)

‘Why did you do it? Why did you lend him all that money?’ she demanded

fiercely, as if somehow trying to put the blame on to him. (HGM)

Just like Table 19, Table 20 also suggests that in each case, there is only one

verb strongly preferred by a particular modifier. It is thus apparent that successfully and

publicly co-occur more frequently with claim, whereas angrily, repeatedly, loudly,

unlawfully and fiercely collocate better with demand.

Although the BNC provides seven modifiers common to claim and demand,

there is only one among them that co-occurs with both the verbs used in the sense of ‘to

ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due’, i.e. unlawfully. Besides, in the

case of both unlawfully claim and unlawfully demand, it is a word referring to a sum of

money that occupies the syntactic position of direct object. As to unlawfully demand, it

should be mentioned, however, that all the examples come from the same source.

Concerning the senses present, claim modified by the expressions above usually

appears in the sense of ‘to declare to be true’ (angrily/publicly/repeatedly/loudly/

fiercely claim) and sometimes also in the sense of ‘to assert and call for the recognition

of something as rightfully belonging to one’ (successfully/publicly claim). On the other

hand, in the majority of examples found, demand occurs in the sense of ‘to ask or call

for something as or as if one’s right or due’ (unlawfully/successfully/publicly/

repeatedly/loudly demand); yet, there are also two phrases in which demand means ‘to

ask (to know); inquire’, i.e. demand angrily/fiercely.

3.2.4.3 Expressions Modifying Claim and Require

Table 21 – Modifiers of claim and require

BNC

examples

claim require


legitimately 8 7.0 1 n/a

106

Exactly what academic (as opposed to, say, more general civil) rights might

students legitimately claim? (G0R)

De Gaulle could legitimately claim that the result was the most lukewarm

endorsement conceivable […] (HXU)

[…] the applicants in the main proceedings stated in the first place that the flag

state might legitimately require some measure of onshore representation […]

(FCJ)

The table gives only one example of the expression modifying both claim and

require, i.e. legitimately. However, as to require, it is not clear how significant the

degree of collocability of the words legitimately and require is for the BNC provides

only one example of this phrase, and does not, therefore, display the salience score. As

regards the senses of both the verbs, claim in the phrase legitimately claim is to be

found in the sense of ‘to declare to be true’ as well as of ‘to assert and call for the

recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’, and require appears in the

sense of ‘to ask for’.

3.2.4.4 Expressions Modifying Demand and Require

Table 22 – Modifiers of demand and require

BNC

examples

demand require


urgently

5 6.6 58 9.0

[…] To follow his father’s model: he asks, he begs for a keen horse, Urgently

demands weapons, quiver and swift arrows […] (HPT)

Such views, of course, helped to justify the treatment of newly colonized

tribesmen as savages urgently requiring the European’s civilizing attentions.

(CS0)

technically

10 7.6 5 5.5

Until recently, research in molecular biology was limited by the expensive and

technically demanding procedures needed to detect abnormalities within the

genome. (HWS)

Ancillary consents are those which technically require formal consent but

which the purchaser does not consider as being significant to the business.

(J6N)

necessarily

3 n/a 21 6.8

[…] some subject areas, and the treatment of them, necessarily demand a

more complex form of language than others. (B07)

It is easy to forget that people are individuals, and do not necessarily require

the same kind of preparation. (K97)

increasingly 14 6.1 8 4.9

As governments increasingly demand cost-effective public transport, poorly

107

used routes are likely to have their services curtailed. (FB2)

Theological arguments can justify and indeed increasingly require the

ordination of women to the priesthood. (AT9)

legally

2 n/a 20 7.4

Therefore, he could not legally demand the fare. (HXE)

[…] the country’s 3.9 million electors looked set to put the treaty – which

legally requires endorsement by all 12 EC states – back on track. (E9T)

obviously

2 n/a 16 6.2

The Liberal Democrats would obviously demand some good ‘spots’ in such a

show. (AJ0)

The use of computers or programmable logic controllers in systems which

have a direct impact on safety obviously requires special care. (HPF)

constantly

8 6.3 3 n/a

He may use a type of emotional blackmail against you and other people close

to him, by constantly demanding attention […] (AS0)

[…] the rebuilding of reserves in a period of financial stringency, when the

unit of resource is reducing and greater efficiencies are constantly being

required of universities, is becoming increasingly difficult to achieve. (HCG)

Once again, in the case of each of the expressions listed in Table 22, the number

of co-occurrences of a particular modifier with one verb significantly exceeds the

number of its co-occurrences with the other verb. Therefore, the expressions

technically, increasingly and constantly are usually used with demand and the

expressions urgently, necessarily, legally and obviously are more typical of require. The

examples show that both the verbs occur either in the sense of ‘to ask or call for

something as or as if one’s right or due’ or ‘to need’; this finding thus seems to be the

indicative of a high degree of their interchangeability. Only in the phrases composed of

the adverb technically, the replacement of one verb by the other is not probable for

demand always takes the -ing form, and a process may be only technically demanding,

not requiring.

3.2.4.5 Expressions Modifying Claim

Table 23 – Modifiers of claim

BNC claim

examples freq. sal.

falsely 16 7.96

Pressure increased yesterday when a Lords report attacked

‘excessive’ government criticism of the draft Social Charter and

Tory members of the European Parliament complained that the

108

Government was falsely claiming their support. (A8X)

justifiably 11 7.46

This was, is, and ever will be, Dick Hudson’s, which may

justifiably claim to be the most famous pub in all Yorkshire, or

indeed the world. (HSG)

proudly 10 7.11

I am not like the odious Du Camp, who would proudly claim

many years of friendship with Gustave, but would always deny

him genius. (G1A)

The table lists three modifiers which are unique to claim: falsely, justifiably and

proudly. The only thing worth a comment is the sense claim occurs in the case of each

of the adverbs. In all the phrases, claim conveys the sense of ‘to declare to be true’;

however, in falsely claim, it occasionally appears also in the sense of ‘to assert and call

for the recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’.

3.2.4.6 Expressions Modifying Demand

Table 24 – Modifiers of demand

BNC demand

examples freq. sal.

physically 24 8.37

In general, the working man may function at any level from the

senior partner in high technology operations to the provider of

muscle power in physically demanding jobs. (CLP)

indignantly 8 7.72 ‘Who would do such a thing?’ Claudia demanded indignantly.

(H8J)

irritably 7 7.48 ‘What was I supposed to do?’ he demanded irritably. (HHA)

emotionally 7 7.19 […] policemen and women are human beings and are affected

by emotionally demanding work. (A5Y)

accusingly 5 7.13 ‘Have you been watching me while I’ve been asleep?’ she

demanded accusingly. (H8F)

furiously 6 6.99

Reagan had tried to meet the families once or twice, the first

time in a school library in Chicago Heights; the relatives

furiously demanded help from him, boxing him in with a semi-

circle of school chairs. (ADL)

‘Don’t you care about wildlife?’ he demanded furiously.

(CEB)

suspiciously 5 6.94 ‘Are you sure you’re in property?’ she demanded suspiciously.

(H9V)

harshly 5 6.88 ‘Or,’ he demanded harshly, ‘do you have someone other than

me lined up to pay your mortgage?’ (JY1)

coldly 5 6.80 ‘What, exactly, does this office job entail?’ she demanded

coldly while glancing round the room. (HHB)

sharply 8 6.53 ‘What makes you imagine such a thing?’ Silas demanded

sharply. (HHB)

silently 5 6.43 Why? she demanded silently. Why does it matter? (HGT)

roughly 5 6.24 ‘Do you require an apology?’ he demanded roughly.

109

(JYC)

softly 5 5.80 ‘You really think I would hurt you?’ he demanded softly, his

eyes narrowed on her tense expression. (GUE)

At first glance at Table 24, it should be noticed that a large number of illustrative

sentences consist of questions. The reason is that demand is used in these sentences in

the sense of ‘to ask (to know); inquire’. Nevertheless, the table also shows a few

examples in which demand conveys a different sense: the phrases physically/

emotionally demanding in which demand always takes the -ing form, and one instance

of furiously demand where it also appears in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as

or as if one’s right or due’.

3.2.4.7 Expressions Modifying Require

Table 25 – Modifiers of require

BNC require

examples freq. sal.

alternatively 11 6.81 Also, effects require or alternatively require other conditions

as well as causes. (EVX)

Table 25 gives only one example of the expression modifying solely require, i.e.

alternatively. It should be mentioned, however, that all of the illustrative sentences

containing this phrase come from a book called Mind and Brain. The sense in which

require occurs is either ‘to ask for’ or ‘to need’.

3.2.4.8 The BNC and Dictionary of Collocations

Section 3.1.1.5 lists several expressions used to modify claim and demand, as

they appear in LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations. The aim of this section is to

check the occurrence of the modifiers offered against the data of the BNC. Since some

of the adverbs have already been mentioned in the preceding parts of this work, they are

left out, and only those modifiers which are not included in any of the tables above, are

110

examined. The only reason this section does not provide salience scores is that the BNC

simply does not display them.

LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (1997: 227) mentions the following

expressions that modify the verb claim: confidently, falsely (freq.: 16), honestly,

justifiably (freq.: 11), legitimately (freq.: 8), reasonably (freq.: 7), rightfully and

seriously. Four of them which have not been commented on yet are presented in Table

26.

Table 26 – Modifiers of claim as found in LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations

claim BNC

freq. examples

confidently 1

Those who most confidently claim to speak for British interests

sometimes seem to have the least confidence that those interests are

likely to prevail. (HHW)

honestly 4

Not only is he one of the best goalkeepers the country ever produced,

but the only Scottish internationalist who can honestly claim he was

involved in the mysterious case of the missing meat. (B1L)

rightfully 3

The Karma of the Eastern mind is so similar to the interdependent

forces that scientists […] claim are both the stuff of matter and the

stuff of thought, that Yogis might rightfully claim that karma does

exist because Western science has proved it. (CB9)

seriously 2

The newspapers in Europe were seriously claiming the battle was

close and that Dukakis could even win enough States to pull it off.

(ADK)

The table shows that the sense in which claim is to be found in all the phrases

yielded by the BNC is ‘to declare to be true’. As in the remaining ‘adverb + claim’

collocations mentioned by the dictionary the verb also appears in this very sense, it is

possible to conclude that the expressions listed are used to modify only that claim by

which a speaker is able to ‘maintain’ something. It should be added, however, that the

number of occurrences of the phrases in Table 26 is considerably smaller than the

number of occurrences of the phrases presented earlier.

LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations (1997: 232) contains only three

expressions used to modify demand: angrily (freq.: 26), persistently and promptly. Only

111

angrily, which is also the most frequent modifier of demand, has already been

introduced.

Table 27 – Modifiers of demand as found in LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations

demand BNC

freq. examples

persistently 3

So those who persistently demanded succour when they were no

longer entitled to it and irritatingly pricked the conscience of the rich

were particularly apt for denunciation as witches. (CS0)

promptly 2 At 13 she took a weekend job with a local paper and promptly

demanded a pay rise. (CEK)

Whereas in the phrase demand angrily, the verb is always to be found in the

sense of ‘to ask (to know); inquire’, in both persistently demand and promptly demand,

demand appears in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or

due’. The number of occurrences of these two phrases is not, however, any significant.

3.2.4.9 Overview of Modifiers

This section provides an overview of all the modifiers mentioned in this work.

The expressions are divided into several groups according to the sense of the verb a

particular adverb collocates with. The modifiers that occur in the environment of all the

three verbs used in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or

due’ are put in bold, and those that are to be found with any two of the verbs used either

in the sense just mentioned or in any other sense (e.g. of ‘to need’) are underlined.

claim

1. ‘to declare to be true’

reasonably, simply, rightly, angrily, publicly, repeatedly, loudly, fiercely,

legitimately, falsely, justifiably, proudly, confidently, honestly and seriously

2. ‘to assert and call for the recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’

immediately, simply, successfully, publicly and falsely

3. ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due’

immediately, clearly, unlawfully and legitimately

demand


112

immediately, reasonably, clearly, simply, rightly, unlawfully, successfully, publicly,

repeatedly, loudly, urgently, technically, increasingly, legally, obviously, constantly,

physically, emotionally, furiously, persistently and promptly

2. ‘to ask (to know); inquire’

angrily, fiercely, constantly, indignantly, irritably, accusingly, furiously,

suspiciously, harshly, coldly, sharply, silently, roughly and softly

3. ‘to need’

clearly, necessarily, constantly, technically, physically and emotionally

require


immediately, reasonably, clearly, simply, rightly, legitimately, legally, constantly

and alternatively

2. ‘to need’

clearly, simply, rightly, technically, necessarily, obviously and alternatively

As is apparent from the overview, only two expressions are capable of

modifying all the three verbs used in the shared sense of ‘to ask or call for something as

or as if one’s right or due’, i.e. immediately and clearly. Besides, far more modifiers are

common to demand and require than to claim and demand or claim and require

respectively. It is also suggested that it is claim meaning ‘to declare to be true’ that

often calls for a modifier whereas claim in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as

or as if one’s right or due’ is not very keen to have itself modified. On the other hand, it

is the verb demand employed in the sense which allows of the three verbs’

substitutability that takes the greatest number of modifiers.

Concerning the differences in meaning of the verbs dealt with in this work, the

data gathered indicate that the verb claim used in its marginal sense of ‘to need’ (e.g.

the phrases claim attention/time) is never modified by the expressions listed in this

chapter. As regards demand, the expressions, such as repeatedly, urgently, increasingly,

constantly and furiously which form strong collocations with this verb, further reinforce

(or illustrate) the notions of authority, peremptoriness and insistence incorporated into

the meaning of demand.

113

4. CONCLUSION

The thesis aims at examining internal lexical structure and collocability of the

verbs claim, demand and require. Since these three verbs are regarded as cognitive

synonyms, it is obvious that their semantic content is remarkably similar; however, the

existing differences between them render their perfect substitutability impossible. This

work is thus concerned with the identification of the sense the verbs share as well as the

nuances that prevent their interchangeability in some contexts.

The thesis is divided into four parts: introduction, theoretical and practical part

and conclusion. The theoretical part provides the necessary theoretical background to

the subsequent semantic analysis of the verbs. In the practical part, the research into the

meaning and usage of the verbs in question is conducted.

The theoretical part consists of three chapters. The first one is devoted to the

notion of ‘meaning’. It presents different approaches to defining ‘meaning’, and to the

classification of meaning according to various scholars; it also lists processes leading to

the change of meaning. Besides, one of the subchapters introduces the term ‘sense’, and

shows how the notion of ‘sense’ is treated in linguistic literature. The second chapter

offers the definition of ‘synonymy’, examines different degrees of synonymity, and

suggests three methods for the delimitation of synonymy. The third chapter deals with

the theory of collocations, mentions the concept of predictability, which is considered to

be crucial to the discussion of a collocational typology, and investigates collocational

restrictions.

The practical part consists of two chapters: analysis of the dictionary definitions

and corpus analysis. The first chapter brings a survey of meanings of each of the three

selected verbs, lists direct objects found in the environment of the verbs, and looks at

the ways the verbs are explained with relation to each other. It works with both the

114

standard dictionaries of the English language and the thesauri and dictionaries of

synonyms. The second chapter is based on the data provided by the British National

Corpus (BNC) and the Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA). First, it

analyzes the general frequency of occurrence and the distribution of each of the verbs

throughout various text types, domains and registers. After that, the work focuses on the

objects and modifiers which tend to co-occur with the verbs, and compares the

information gained from the dictionaries with the results obtained from the corpora.

The dictionary analysis shows that the sense claim, demand and require share is

‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or due’; however, even in this sense

the verbs reveal several differences. It is suggested that those who claim something

represent themselves as having a right to that thing. On the other hand, those who

demand something do not have to have a right to that thing, they simply ask for it in an

authoritative way, and insist upon being obeyed. Demand is, therefore, often regarded

as an arrogant word. Require implies imperativeness arising from inner necessity or

compulsion of a law, regulation, rule or situation, and seems to be less strident but far

more strenuous and exigent than demand.

Moreover, it should be pointed out that another sense common to all the three

verbs is that of ‘to need’. However, as far as claim is concerned, some dictionaries do

not mention it, which may signify that claim occurs in this sense only rarely. This is

also what the thesauri and dictionaries of synonyms suggest. They indicate that demand

and require are more synonymous with each other than with claim, and ascribe this fact

to the frequent appearance of demand and require in the situations where something is

needed.

As regards corpus analysis, the investigation of objects and modifiers collocating

with claim, demand and require is undertaken using solely the information obtained

115

from the BNC. The reason is that COCA does not sort items by their grammatical

relations to a word in question, and therefore, puts collocates that are to be found in

different syntactic positions together. The data gathered from COCA are thus processed

only in the sections devoted to the general frequency of occurrence, and to the

examination of the objects found in the dictionaries of the English language. In the latter

case, COCA allows to perform a highly detailed analysis which makes it possible to

differentiate the real object collocates of each of the three verbs from the words the

dictionary-makers only think of as collocates.

The corpora show that the verb require is far more frequent than the other two

verbs, and that demand is, by contrast, the verb with the smallest number of

occurrences. Concerning the most frequent verb form, it is the -ed form in the case of

each of the three verbs; however, whereas claim and demand usually take the form of

the past tense, require is to be found mostly in the past participle form. In addition,

require often allows the passive construction, especially in the situations where it is a

set of rules which requires something. As regards the distribution of the verbs

throughout various text types and domains, the BNC suggests that all the three verbs

usually occur in written books and periodicals, and that whereas claim and demand

often appear in domain of world affairs, require is usually used in domain of social

science. Besides, the BNC indicates that claim and demand are to be found mostly in

the texts whose perceived level of difficulty is medium while require is typical of the

texts which are perceived to be rather difficult. This fact may thus imply that require

belongs to formal style, which some of the dictionaries have also suggested. As to

registers, claim predominates in spoken register, in fiction, both claim and demand are

used more often than require; on the other hand, in magazine, newspaper and academic

register, it is require which is most likely to be found.

116

The BNC further shows that the objects that all the three verbs share have a

connection either with money, for instance, compensation, repayment, payment, money

and sum, or with an act, action or faculty someone or something expects from someone

or something else, for example, attention, protection, expertise and knowledge. The

only two objects which collocate with each of the three verbs with similar frequency are

sum and protection. Moreover, it should be pointed out that the collocates that denote

something needed or necessary are more typical of require rather than of claim or

demand.

As far as the objects collocating with only two of the verbs are concerned, the

collocates of claim and demand usually refer to one’s state, condition or due, such as

dismissal, right(s), status and independence, and money, for example, pay and pound.

Besides, the contexts of situation in which one demands right(s) indicate that the sense

of demand in these collocations is close to the sense of ‘to assert and call for the

recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’, which is characteristic of

claim. Concerning claim and require, the only two collocations in which these verbs are

to be found in the same sense (i.e. ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right or

due’) are claim/require indemnity and claim/require grant. As has been already stated,

demand and require appear to be more synonymous with each other than with claim; it

is not, therefore, surprising that the list of object collocates common to both demand

and require is far longer than the lists of claim and demand or claim and require. The

only difference in the usage of these two verbs can be observed in the context of

situation in which one demands or requires. While demand is typical of subjective

contexts, require calls for an objective context. However, in many cases, this difference

is so subtle that it is often ignored.

117

As regards the objects collocating with only one of the verbs, the nouns that tend

to co-occur with claim usually denote money and benefit (e.g. damages, benefit, relief,

etc.), or a fact that should be recognized (e.g. responsibility, descent and superiority). In

the latter case, the sense in which claim is always to be found is that of ‘to assert and

call for the recognition of something as rightfully belonging to one’. The objects that

collocate with demand refer to a sum of money (e.g. ransom and reinstatement), an

action from an institution or someone exerting power (e.g. release, withdrawal, inquiry,

etc.), and an act or a condition of someone in relation to someone else (e.g. resignation,

apology and respect). In the case of require, its most frequent collocates designate acts

of someone in relation to someone else (e.g. approval, consent, permission, etc.), and

things which are considered to be essential, necessary or needed (e.g. modification,

energy, adjustment, etc.).

The corpus analysis of the objects found in the dictionaries of the English

language revealed that the noun respect, mentioned in the Random House Dictionary of

English Language (RHDEL), and the phrase pay/wage rise do not collocate with claim.

The only verb of the three verbs in question with which respect forms collocation is

demand. Besides, if one wants to have more money for their job, they always claim

pay/wage/salary increase and not rise. As to demand, the nouns sanctuary and

objectivity, both listed in the RHDEL, do not rank among its typical objects. The

corpora further show that one hardly demands one’s business/the reason for something,

they rather demand to know one’s business/the reason. The corpora also contain only

one occurrence of the phrase require tea, which is mentioned again in the RHDEL. It

follows from this that the only dictionary of those consulted in this work which fails to

properly reflect the actual usage of English is the RHDEL.

118

As far as modifiers are concerned, the only two expressions capable of

modifying all the three verbs used in the sense of ‘to ask or call for something as or as if

one’s right or due’ are immediately and clearly. The BNC also shows that demand and

require share far more modifiers with each other than with claim, and the verb claim is

mostly modified only when it conveys the sense of ‘to declare to be true’. Besides, some

of the expressions strongly collocating with demand, such as repeatedly, urgently,

increasingly, constantly and furiously, seem to reinforce the notions of authority,

peremptoriness and insistence incorporated into the meaning of this verb.

To sum up, the meaning that the verbs claim, demand and require share and that

can be, therefore, called ‘cognitive’ is ‘to ask or call for something as or as if one’s right

or due’. However, the observations reported in this thesis indicate that the verbs differ

in respect of the other meanings. Some differences may be found in their affective

meaning (demand is regarded as an arrogant word, and require is considered to be

exceedingly strenuous), stylistic meaning (require is formal) and collocative meaning

(unlike require, both claim and demand collocate with the noun right). From what has

been said in this work, it should thus be evident that claim, demand and require belong

to the group of cognitive synonyms.

119

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Works Cited

Bolinger, D. Aspects of Language. New York: Harcourt, Brace and World, 1968.

Cann, R. Formal Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1993.

Cruse, D. A. Lexical Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1985.

---. Meaning in Language: An Introduction to Semantics and Pragmatics. New York:

OUP, 2000.

Crystal, D. Linguistics. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985.

Frawley, W. Linguistic Semantics. Hillsdale: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1992.

Hanks, P. “General Introduction.” In Lexicology, vol. I, ed. Hanks, P. London:

Routledge, 2008. 1-91.

Hladký, J. and Růžička, M. A Functional Onomatology of English. Brno: Masaryk

University, 1998.

Kempson, R. M. Semantic Theory. Cambridge: CUP, 1977.

Kjellmer, G. “A Mint of Phrases.” In English Corpus Linguistics, ed. Aijmer, K. and

Altenberg, B. London: Longman, 1991. 111-27.

Leech, G. Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1981.

Lyons, J. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge: CUP, 1968.

---. Language and Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1981.

---. Linguistic Semantics: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1995.

---. Semantics: Volume 1. Cambridge: CUP, 1977.

Palmer, F. R. Semantics. Cambridge: CUP, 1986.

Peprník, J. “Lexical Semantics.” In Rudiments of English Linguistics, ed. Štekauer, P.

Prešov: Slovacontact, 2000. 133-76.

120

Persson, G. Meanings, Models and Metaphors: A Study in Lexical Semantics in English.

Stockholm: Acta Universitatis Umensis, 1990.

Radford, A. et al. Linguistics: An Introduction. Cambridge: CUP, 1999.

Saeed, J. I. Semantics. Chichester: Blackwell, 2009.

Sinclair, J. Corpus Concordance Collocation. Oxford: OUP, 1991.

---. “Beginning the Study of Lexis.” In Lexicology, vol. V, ed. Hanks, P. London:

Routledge, 2008a. 16-34.

---. “The Lexical Item.” In Lexicology, vol. V, ed. Hanks, P. London: Routledge, 2008b.

51-72.

Taylor, J. R. Linguistic Categorization. Oxford: OUP, 2003.

Ullmann, S. Semantics: An Introduction to the Science of Meaning. Oxford: Basil

Blackwell, 1967.

Sources

Cambridge International Dictionary of English. Cambridge: CUP, 1995.

Cassell’s Modern Guide to Synonyms & Related Words. London: Cassell, 1971.

Chambers Thesaurus: A Comprehensive Word-Finding Dictionary. Edinburgh:

Chambers, 1988.

Collins Cobuild English Dictionary. London: Harper Collins, 1995.

The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English. Oxford: Clarendon, 1976.

Funk & Wagnalls College Standard Dictionary of the English Language. New

York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1946.

Funk & Wagnalls Standard Handbook of Synonyms, Antonyms, and Prepositions. New

York: Funk & Wagnalls, 1947.

Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English. Harlow: Longman, 1978.

Longman Lexicon of Contemporary English. Harlow: Longman, 1981.

121

Mark My Words: A Guide to Modern Usage and Expression. New York: Harper, 1949.

The Merriam-Webster Pocket Dictionary of Synonyms. New York: Pocket, 1972.

The New Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Clarendon, 1998.

The New Penguin English Dictionary. Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2000.

New Webster’s Dictionary and Thesaurus of the English Language. New York:

Lexicon, 1991.

The Oxford Thesaurus: A Dictionary of Synonyms. Oxford: Clarendon, 1991.

The Pan Dictionary of Synonyms and Antonyms. London: Pan, 1980.

The Penguin Dictionary of English Synonyms & Antonyms. London: Penguin, 1986.

The Random House Dictionary of English Language. New York: Random, 1987.

Webster’s Collegiate Thesaurus. Springfield: G. & C. Merriam, 1988.

Webster’s New World Dictionary of American English. New York: Prentice-Hall, 1991.

Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield: G. & C. Merriam, 1970.

Internet Sources

Davies, M. The Corpus of Contemporary American English. Brigham Young

University, 2010. 25 Aug. 2010. <http://corpus.byu.edu/coca/>.

Hjørland, B. Semiotic Triangle. 27 July 2006. 5 June 2010.

<http://www.iva.dk/bh/Core%20Concepts%20in%20LIS/articles%20a-

z/semiotic_triangle.htm>.

British National Corpus. 31 Aug. 2010. <http://corpora.fi.muni.cz/anglistika/>.

Getting Started with the Sketch Engine. Sketch Engine Trac, 2009. 31 July 2010.

<http://trac.sketchengine.co.uk/wiki/SkE/GettingStarted#a1.Background>.

Oxford English Dictionary. OUP, Sep. 2010. 11 Sep. 2010.

<http://dictionary.oed.com/>.

122

CZECH RÉSUMÉ

Práce zkoumá interní lexikální strukturu a kolokabilitu sloves claim, demand

a require. Jelikož jsou tato slovesa považována za kognitivní synonyma, je zřejmé,

že jejich sémantický obsah bude velmi podobný, nicméně některé odlišnosti tohoto

obsahu budou v jistých kontextech příčinou nenahraditelnosti jednoho slovesa jiným.

Tato práce si tedy klade za cíl nalézt jak smysl, který tato tři synonymní slovesa sdílejí,

tak i rozdíly, jež vylučují jejich úplnou zaměnitelnost.

Práce je rozdělena do čtyř částí: úvodu, teoretické a praktické části a závěru.

Teoretická část vysvětluje důležité teoretické pojmy, jejichž pochopení je nezbytné

pro následnou sémantickou analýzu sloves. Praktická část pak představuje samotný

výzkum významu a užití daných lexémů.

Teoretická část se skládá ze tří kapitol. První se věnuje pojmům ‚význam‘

a ‚smysl‘. Druhá kapitola předkládá definici ‚synonymie‘, vymezuje její stupně a nabízí

několik způsobů jejího testování. Třetí kapitola se zabývá kolokacemi a principy jejich

tvoření.

Praktická část je rozdělena do dvou částí: analýzy slovníkových definic

a korpusové analýzy. Nejprve práce tudíž zkoumá, jak je význam jednotlivých sloves

zachycen v různých slovnících a tezaurech, a poté pomocí Britského národního korpusu,

a co se týká obecné četnosti výskytu a ověření užívání předmětů nalezených

ve slovnících, i Korpusu současné americké angličtiny podrobuje tato slovesa důkladné

sémantické analýze. Závěr práce shrnuje všechny významové rozdíly nalezené

mezi claim, demand a require.

123

ENGLISH RÉSUMÉ

The work examines internal lexical structure and collocability of the verbs

claim, demand and require. Since these three verbs are regarded as cognitive synonyms,

it is obvious that their semantic content is remarkably similar; however, the existing

differences between them render their perfect substitutability impossible. This work

thus deals with the identification of the sense the verbs share as well as the nuances that

prevent their interchangeability in some contexts.

The thesis is divided into four parts: introduction, theoretical and practical part

and conclusion. The theoretical part provides the necessary theoretical background to

the subsequent semantic analysis of the verbs. In the practical part, the research into the

meaning and usage of the verbs in question is undertaken.

The theoretical part consists of three chapters. The first one is devoted to the

notions of ‘meaning’ and ‘sense’. The second chapter offers the definition of

‘synonymy’, examines different degrees of synonymity, and proposes several methods

for the delimitation of synonyms. The third chapter focuses on collocation and

principles of its formation.

The practical part consists of two chapters: analysis of the dictionary definitions

and corpus analysis. Thus, first of all, the meanings of each of the three synonymous

expressions are studied in various dictionaries and thesauri of the English language, and

only then, the research into the real-life usage of each of the verbs is conducted with the

help of the British National Corpus (BNC) and, as far as the general frequency of

occurrence and the examination of the objects found in the dictionaries of the English

language are concerned, also with the help of the Corpus of Contemporary American

English (COCA). The thesis is concluded by the identification of differences between

the cognitive synonyms under examination.

Date post:	24-Feb-2023
Category:	Documents
Upload:	khangminh22
View:	0 times
Download:	0 times

Claim, Demand, Require - IS MUNI

Documents