ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF COASTAL CONSERVATION · MAY 2015

Impact Factor: 1.10 · DOI: 10.1007/s11852-015-0389-5 ·

Ali Masria(1), Abdelazim Negm(2)

1Egypt–Japan University of Science and Technology (E–Just), Energy Resources and Environmental

Engineering Department, P.O. Box 179, New Borg El Arab City 21934, Alexandria, Egypt, Email:

ali.ali@ejust.edu.eg

1Egyptian Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE).

2Chair of Environmental Engineering Dept., and Prof. of Hydraulics, School of Energy, Environmental and

Chemical and Petrochemical Engineering, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, E-JUST, P.O.

Box 179, New Borg El Arab City 21934, Alexandria, Egypt, Email: negm@ejust.edu.eg.

Moheb M. Iskander(3), Oliver C. Saavedra(4)

2Associate Professor, Head of Hydrodynamic Department, Coastal Research Institute, Alexandria, Egypt.

4Dr. of Eng., Associate Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology (2-12-1

Oookayama, Meguro, Tokyo 152-0033, Japan), Also Adjunct Faculty at E-JUST

Abstract – The rapid erosion in most coastlines is considered a major problem not only in Egypt, but

also around the world. The main causes are due to anthropogenic activities and/or coastal hydrodynamics.

The coastal zone suffer from sedimentation , accretion, and pollution problems as well as the side effect of

climate change. The climate change will increase sea level rise , salt water intrusions, and storm surge.

Major efforts has been exerted to manage coastal erosion problems and to restore coastal capacity in order

to protect housing, infrastructure and the cultivated land. These problems was encountered with various

types of hard structures but most of these methods response were limited due to lack in evaluation for the

entire ecological situation. This encouraged the coastal engineers to think about new types of environmental

friendly structures work better with ecological situation.

In this study, the protection measures worldwide are reviewed and divided mainly into four groups, hard ,

soft, combined, innovative measures. The usage and side effect of each type is mentioned briefly. It is clear

that there is a predominant approach towards the soft engineering , the eco-engineering techniques or

combination between them in order to enhance ecological situation. Recently, there are several efforts to

apply these new technologies to protect the coastal zone as well as the environment with taking into

consideration the effect of climate change. These new approaches in coastal protection are multi used,

environmentally friendly, easy to modify and maintain, and efficient from economic perspective.

Previous efforts in solving coastal problems in Egypt are analyzed and discussed taking into

consideration the experience from similar cases worldwide. It is clear that the environmental friendly coastal

structure is more suitable to solve most of our coastal problems with saving our ecosystem and reduce the

protection cost.

Keywords: coastal erosion, hard, soft, protection, Egypt, innovative.

1. Introduction

Coastal erosion is a global problem[1]. Erosion is

mainly caused by natural processes and to a little extent

by anthropogenic activities over a long period of time.

The continuous decline in the size of the zone might also

be influenced by steady rise in sea levels accompanied by

subsistence of the lower delta plain[2]. The problem will

be amplified if the sea level rises accomplish with the

occurrence of greater and more frequent storms, as

coastal flooding and erosion problems will become

exacerbated in vulnerable coastal areas [3]. At least

70% of the sandy beaches around the world are retreated

[4]. About 86% of the United States east coast barrier

beaches have experienced erosion during the past 100

years [5]. Widespread erosion is also well documented in

California [6] and the Gulf of Mexico [7].

Previously, protection works were focused only on

solving the local problem which causes in many cases the

Coastal Protection Measures: Review paper

Masria et. al.

transformation of the problems to the adjacent coastal

area.

Coastal protection structures such as seawalls and rock

revetments have been used for centuries to protect and

prevent further loss of coastal lands that are bases of

economic activities. Whilst successful in preventing

shoreline retreat, preserving the dynamic coastal

landscape, but their presence often contributes to the

denigration of natural coastal habitats. These concerns

were the impetus for research into alternatives to hard

protection [8].

With the beginning of the last century, the

environment impact assessment revealed and new

concepts as the environment protection and sustainable

development have been established. With this new

approach, the concept of coastal protection is changed

from hindering the natural forces to building with nature,

[9].

This new approach, which is building with nature,

requires the knowledge of the exact behavior of the

coastal zone, and hence addresses the main reasons for

the problem in order to choose its suitable protective

structure. This should be followed by the environmental

impact study to identify the side effects of this structure

and its mitigation measures. Accordingly, over the last

two decades, as the importance of preserving natural

coastal resources were realized on a global scale, efforts

have been made to migrate from the conventional

approach of hard engineering to soft engineering and

eco-engineering especially in environmentally sensitive

areas[10]. The novelty of these solutions is their ability

to sustain natural resources and even add-value to the

coastline. In addition, new approaches to deal with the

coastal problems appear. Three basic choices are

possible: no action, re-planning the coastal zones and

relocating the existing structures to be far from the sea,

and executing positive corrective measures.

Egypt constructed the first economic harbor

worldwide west of Pharos Island, Alexandria about 1800

B.C., [11]. Egypt as one of the pioneers in coastal

protection should start work with these new concepts to

protect its coastal environment and increase its economic

values. This environmental approach requires the

cooperation of all the social communities, executive

sectors, and educational institutions.

This contribution presents an overview of the various

available methods for shore stabilization and beach

erosion control, highlight on the new approach in coastal

protection in order to recommend a proper solution for

the Egyptian coastal problems.

2. Coastal protection measures around

world

Protection of the coast and the shore against the

forces of waves, currents, storm surge and flood can be

performed in many ways.

There are two kinds of protective measures for

controlling coastal erosion: structural measures and non-

structural measures [1]. Structures can be divided into

hard and soft structures. Nonstructural measures include

land-use controls, setting warning lines such as the

coastal setback line and coastal construction control line

to protect the coast from improper construction, and

prohibition of unreasonable sand mining and

reclamation.

3. Types of Coastal protection measures

and Their Usage

The coastal protection structures can be classified into

four classes: hard structures, soft structures, combination

between both, and new innovation one. Hereafter is a

brief note about each class and its subdivisions.

3.1. Hard defenses

Hard-engineered structures are designed to reduce or

prevent shoreline erosion and retreat [12]. They succeed

at local scales [13]. However, hard-engineered structures

hinder the propagation of the sand to the coast [14].

Additional problems exist in the fact that hard structures

can impede the recreational use of beaches and can be

costly to construct and maintain [11]. These costs and

benefits need to be considered .There are many types of

hard structures like;

Seawalls

Sea wall is constructed parallel to the coastline to act

as a barrier ranging from concrete to sand bags, and can

vary in term of design[15],The major benefit of sea walls

is that it can provide a great defense against flooding and

erosion while also immobilizing the sand of the adjacent

beach, fig (1). Unfortunately, these structures are

expensive and their effectiveness depends on shape and

size. A sloped wall requires more space on which to

build. Reflection of a wave off of a vertically built sea

wall causes turbulence and therefore erodes the sand at

the base of the structure. This erosion can weaken the sea

wall itself and result in large maintenance costs [15].

Revetments

A revetment is, just as a seawall, a shore parallel

structure fig. (1). The main difference is that it is more

sloping than a seawall. A revetment has a distinct slope

(e.g. 1:2 or 1:4), while a seawall is often almost vertical,

the surface of a revetment might be either smooth or

rough (a seawall is mostly smooth) and that the height of

a revetment does not necessarily fill the total height

difference between beach and mainland (a seawall often

covers the total height difference). Although revetments

provide hard face to cliff, easily installed, cheaper than

sea wall, deflects and absorbs wave power, but it needs

frequent maintenance.

Bulkhead

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Bulkheads are normally constructed in the form of a

vertical wall built in concrete, stone, steel or timber. The

concrete, steel or timber walls can be piled and anchored

walls, whereas the concrete and stone walls can also be

constructed as gravity walls fig. (2). The function of a

bulkhead is to retain or prevent the sliding of land at the

transition between the land, filled or natural, and the sea.

Bulkheads are only suitable for low energy protected

sites where large waves are not anticipated

Dikes and Levees

Sea dikes are onshore structures with the principal

function of protecting low-lying areas against flooding.

Sea dikes are usually built as a mound of fine materials

like sand and clay with a gentle seaward slope in order to

reduce the wave run-up and the erodible effect of the

waves. The surface of the dike is armored with grass,

asphalt, stones, or concrete slabs., fig. (2). The

advantages is that they often form the cheapest hard

defense when the value of coastal land is low, and

reduce wave loadings on the structure compared to

vertical structures . The disadvantages is the requiring of

large volumes of building materials and wide area in

order to resist high water pressures on their seaward

faces.

Groins

Groins are straight structures perpendicular to the

shoreline, fig(3). They work by blocking (part of) the

littoral drift, whereby they trap or maintain sand on their

upstream side. Groins can have special shapes; they can

be emerged, sloping or submerged, and they can be

single or in groups, the so-called groin fields. Types of

groins are wooden groins, sheet-pile groins, concrete

groins and rubble-mound groins made of concrete blocks

or stones, as well as sand-filled bag groins. The

advantages are; building up the beach, makes a wider

beach, provides calm water, and encourages tourism. The

disadvantages are; need repairs, suitable with medium

waves but strong waves still get to cliff face, and leads

to faster cliff erosion down the coast by robbing it of

potential beach material.

Figure 1: Sea wall at Saint Jean de Luz ,(left)[16]. Major rock armour

revetment in front of dune system, (right)[17].

Figure 2: Bayley Bulkhead, Scarborough, ME (left)[18]. A levee keeps

high water on the Mississippi River from flooding Gretna, Louisiana, (right)[19].

Breakwaters

There are two types of breakwaters; the first one is

detached breakwaters which are straight shore-parallel

structures, fig.(3), normally built as rubble-mound

structures with fairly low crest levels that allow

significant overtopping during storms at high water. The

low-crested structures are less visible and help promote

a more even distribution of littoral material along the

coastline. Submerged detached breakwaters are used in

some cases because they do not spoil the view, but they

do represent a serious nonvisible hazard to boats and

swimmers . This decrease of transport results in trapping

of sand in the lee zone and some distance upstream.. The

second type is the breakwater that is connected to the

coast, i.e. it is extending from the coastline to the

offshore direction. This type of structures is used to

protect harbors and navigation channels from wave

action to create a calm area for ships and may be for

swimming.

Jetties

A jetty is any of a variety of structures used in river,

dock, and maritime works that are generally carried out

in pairs from river banks, or in continuation of river

channels at their outlets into deep water, fig. (4). Jetties

are used for stabilization of navigation channels at river

mouths and tidal inlets, and are in most cases designed as

rubble-mound structures (breakwaters and groins) except

that the outer part must be armored on both sides.

Figure 3: Two-row pile groins and adjacent shoreline position, Hel Peninsula (the Baltic Sea), (left)[20]. Detached breakwaters at

Happisburgh, Norfolk, UK (right)[21].

Figure 4: Kaumalapau Harbor Breakwater, Island of Lanai, Hawaii

(left). A jetty (right)[22].

3.2. Soft defenses

Increasing awareness of the negative side-effects of

hard structures on erosion and sedimentation patterns has

led to growing recognition of the benefits of „soft‟

protection and the adaptation strategies of retreat and

accommodate [23].

Beach Fills

Beach nourishment requires the addition of sand to an

eroded beach. Sand is imported and spread to increase

beach width and elevation [24]. It is used worldwide as a

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form of soft engineering to protect coastal development

from the impacts of unmanaged erosion [25]. It serves to

maintain the value of coastal investments [26]and retain

the value of beach amenity to tourism and recreation

[27]; [28], figure (5-I). It allows the sand to shift

continuously in response to changing waves and water

levels.

The advantages are: reducing the detrimental impacts

of coastal erosion by providing additional sediment

which satisfies erosional forces , beach nourishment is a

flexible coastal management solution, in that it is

reversible, and as a result of sediment redistribution by

longshore drift, beach nourishment is likely to positively

impact adjacent areas which were not directly

nourished.

The disadvantages; nourishment is not a permanent

solution to shoreline erosion, periodic re-nourishments,

will be needed to maintain a scheme‟s effectiveness.

Sediment deposition can generate a number of negative

environmental effects, including direct burial of animals

and organisms residing on the beach.

Dredging or Sand Bypassing

Sand bypassing is the hydraulic or mechanical

movement of sand, from an area of accretion to a

downdrift area of erosion, across a barrier to natural sand

transport such as large scale harbor or jetty structures.

The hydraulic movement may include natural movement

as well as movement caused by man. Bypassing

commonly takes place by two main methods. First,

pumping equipment and piping can be constructed that

transfers sand from the updrift side of the littoral barrier,

and deposits it as a slurry of sand and water on the

downdrift side, figure (5-II).

The second method involves the dredging or

excavation of sand from the updrift side, using dredges or

heavy machinery, figure (5-III), and the placement of this

material on the downdrift side by the dredge (water based

transport), or by trucks and other heavy equipment (land

based transport). The advantages are: adding to tourist

amenity by making bigger beach, attractive, and work

with the natural processes of the coast. The

disadvantages; needs frequent renewal of more sand, and

does not protect cliff face from winter storm waves.

Sand dunes stabilization

Sand dunes are naturally wind-formed sand deposits

representing a store of sediment in the zone just landward

of normal high tides [29]. Dune/sand stabilization

involves using structural controls and native vegetation

to stabilize, build, or repair dunes. Vegetation can be

used to encourage dune growth by trapping and

stabilizing blown sand, figure (5-IV). Dunes provide

habitat for highly specialized plants and animals,

including rare and endangered species. They can protect

beaches from erosion and recruit sand to eroded beaches.

The side effects of these methods are nearly negligible

and their costs are low compared with the hard structures.

Sand dune stabilization commonly is used in conjunction

with beach nourishment.

Sand dune stabilization face many of the same problems

as does beach nourishment. Also, it hinders the

development in the beach area , as the dunes require

large amounts of land on which to build [15].

Figure 5: Some types of soft defences from.

3.3. Combined protection works:

• Submerged Breakwaters

Submerged breakwaters can reduce beach erosion

and protect coastal structures by dissipating a significant

amount of wave energy [30]. They are coast-parallel,

long or short; figure (6-I). Submerged breakwaters have

small effect on the coastal environment and do not spoil

the view. They have many types and shapes such as the

wide crested breakwaters, narrow crested breakwaters

and reef breakwaters. Recently there are many attempt to

create a predictive empirical model exclusively for

SBWs (submerged breakwaters) in terms of mode

(erosion or accretion) and magnitude (size of salient) of

formation by [31].

Perched Beaches

Is the construction of a low retaining sill to trap sand

and to elevate the beach above its original level. Perched

beaches have many of the same qualities as natural

beaches, and the submerged sill does not intrude on the

view of the waterfront. Perched beaches are appropriate

erosion control measures where a beach is desired and

sand loss is too rapid for convenient or economical

replacement. They can also be used to create a new beach

for recreation and shore protection figure (6-II).

Artificial Headlands

Artificial headlands are rock structures built along the

toe of eroding dunes to protect strategic points, allowing

natural processes to continue along the remaining

frontage, thus trapping littoral drift and creating a stable

embayed beach. This is significantly cheaper than

protecting a whole frontage and can provide temporary or

long term protection to specific assets at risk. Temporary

headlands can be formed of gabions or sand bags, but life

expectancy will normally be between 1 and 5 years,

figure (6-III).

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Figure 6: Some Types of combined protection from.

3.4. Innovations in erosion control

More recent innovations have exploited advancements

in specific areas of engineering associated with erosion

control. Some of these techniques are as following:

4.4.1 Geotextile structures

Geotextile systems utilize a high-strength synthetic

fabric as a form for casting large units by filling with

sand or mortar. Geotextile systems can be bags,

mattresses, tubes, containers and inclined curtains. All of

which can be filled with sand or mortar.

Geotextile bags, or tubes are now gaining wide

acceptance in coastal protection. They have been used

as nearshore breakwaters (placed parallel to shore), as

groins (placed perpendicular to shore) and even as

revetments. Nearshore, low geotextile breakwaters are

designed to a height sufficient enough to eliminate storm

waves from reaching the shoreline but allows smaller

waves to penetrate. Figure(7-I) show geotextile sand-

filled breakwaters.

Sand-filled bags are relatively flexible and can be

repaired if some of the original bags are dislodged

figure (7-II). In addition, stacked bags are suitable as

temporary emergency protection measures. On the other

hand, they are limited to low energy areas, have a

relatively short service life compared to other revetments,

and generally have an unattractive appearance.

Installing structures of this type is rapid and less costly

than heavy structures. They do not disturb the littoral

ecosystem very much.

Figure 7: Geotextile types for coastal defences

4.4.2 Beach Drainage Systems (BDS)

Beach drain concept initiated fifty years earlier . It

worked in two parallel fields of coastal research: the

role of beach face permeability in controlling erosion or

accretion[32]and the tidal dynamics of beach

groundwater [33]. The installation within the last ten

years of prototype beach dewatering systems in

Europe and the United States (Lenz, 1994) signified

the transition of the beach dewatering concept from the

hypothetical to the practical [34] .

The Beach Drainage Systems (BDS) working principle

is based on the concept that by keeping the groundwater

level low, back-swash is inhibited by increased grain

friction in a non-saturated medium. Percolation of 'swash

water' into the beach means less backwash energy, which

encourages suspended sand to settle out on the beach

face. Saturated sand allows less sand to accrete than non

saturated sand [35]. Increasing swash infiltration also

slows longshore sand transport, which increase sand

accretion locally [36]. Twenty four beach drainage

systems have been installed since 1981 in Denmark,

USA, UK, Japan, Spain, Sweden, France, Italy and

Malaysia. There are two innovations based on improving

the beach drainage have been tried and are discussed

below:

Beach Management System

The Beach Management System (BMS) works on the

principle that a saturated beach is more erodible than an

unsaturated beach. This is achieved by draining water

from buried, almost horizontal, filter pipes running

parallel to the coastline. The pipes are connected to a

collector sump and pumping station further inland. The

buried shore-parallel drains of the BMS are in the form

of perforated pipes wrapped in geotextile. Gravity drains

the ground water beneath the beach and through the pipes

to the sump and then the water is pumped from the sump.

The sand filtered seawater can be returned to the sea or

used for other purposes[37]. Figure 8 presents a

schematization of the BMS.

Figure 8: Figure 8: Beach Management System - schematization,[37]

Pressure Equalization Modules

This marine engineering system consists of polyvinyl

chlorine (PVC) pipes strategically placed within the up-

rush zone to boost the vertical infiltration of seawater

into the bed [8]. Several benefits from the

implementation of this technology in coastal areas

include the increase of erosion-resistance and the

negligible alteration of biological and physicochemical

beach characteristics [38],(see Figure 9). The infiltration

of seawater into the bed is limited by the existing level of

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groundwater. Hence, if the groundwater can be lowered,

more water from the run-up can percolate into the bed

and less will run down the surface dragging sediments

with the flow.

In summary, the PEM increases vertical infiltration of

uprush in the swash zone. The potential advantages of a

beach drainage system include:

1. minimal environmental impact of the operating system

compared with nourishment or existing hard

engineering solutions,

2. provide a buffer zone from storm events and seasonal

erosion and improved recovery time to pre-storm

equilibrium following storm events,

3. protect of coastal fresh water environments from sea

over-topping and seepage contamination,

4. better „natural character‟ outcomes than hard

engineering or nourishment

The disadvantages are represented in the following;

limited to certain types of beaches. Also, sediment under

the foreshore must be thick and permeable (between

0. 1 and 0. 5 mm) to allow pipelines to be installed

and avoid clogging. Furthermore, a very slight slope

is preferable from 1/10 to 1/50). Moreover, draining

weakens one erosion process and does not solve the

sedimentary deficit problem; thus it is better suited to bay

head beaches (that make up a sedimentary compartment

themselves).

Figure 9: Pressure qualisation Module-schematisation (left), and Pressure Equalisation Module pipe at Teluk Cempedak beach( right),

(36).

4.4.3 Ecological engineering

Ecological engineering integrates engineering

principles with ecological and geomorphological

processes [39] to create new ecosystems or restore

systems that have experienced degradation or been

destroyed [40]. For example, enhancing foredune

vegetation increases sand accretion rates and dune

elevation, which provide a greater buffer from advancing

seas [41].

Ecological engineering can be used with the other

adaptation options [42]. Preexisting hard engineered

adaptation options can be retrofitted with design features,

such as holes and caves that provide habitat [41]. For

example, artificial habitat structures are attached to the

seawalls in Sydney Harbor, Australia [43]. Increasing

habitat and potential niches on hard-engineered structures

at existing and/or new construction sites serves to

facilitate decolonization of species displaced by hard-

engineered options [44].

Ecosystem engineering uses pioneer species to

reengineer the environment or create habitat suitable to

recruit other species forming an ecosystem [45]. For

example, dune vegetation is commonly used in the

rehabilitation of coastal dune systems as it stabilizes

sandy beaches and captures windblown sand forming

dunes [46]. Pioneer species can restart successional

processes and prepare the new environment for

subsequent colonizers. For example, dune plants reduce

wind and wave erosion and protect less-tolerant plants

from salt spray and storm damage [47].

4.4.4 Bio-technical Concepts

The concept of bio-technical is based on producing

coastal restoration products. Bio-technical structures are

“soft” measures that both simulate natural coastal

structures and enhance the growth of marine flora. For

instance, “artificial seagrass systems”, when securely

attached to the seafloor, play a crucial role in enhancing

fish habitats [48]; [49]and reducing the velocity of the

water current [50]. Similar to artificial sea grass habitats,

“artificial mangrove roots” are another promising type

of bio-technical structure. Based on the natural

characteristics of the mangroves and their function as an

efficient wave breaker, artificial structures provide

protection to the shoreline developments in an event of

storm surges, and also protect young mangrove seedlings

from being washed away due to wave action [51].

Artificial Sea grass

Many attempts at placing artificial seaweed mats in

the near shore zone in an effort to decrease wave energy

by the process of frictional drag were accessed

,figure(10). The most successful trials have been in areas

of very low wave conditions, low tide range and

relatively constant tidal current flows, when some

sedimentation was found to take place. On open coast

sites there have been major problems with the installation

of the systems and the synthetic seaweed fronds have

shown very little durability even under modest wave

attack. The synthetic seaweed has tended to flatten under

wave action, thereby having minimal impact upon waves

approaching the coast. Field trials in the United Kingdom

have been unsuccessful and the experiments were

abandoned in all cases, due to the material being ripped

away from the anchorage points. As it behaves as a drag

barrier against often strong currents, much of the success

of artificial grass systems are dependent on secure

anchoring to the sea bed. Concrete block bases are

frequently used as the anchoring mechanism [52].There

are many experimental studies conducted to address the

effect of sea grass on the wave dumping and velocities

[53].

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Figure 10 : Natural sea grass (left) and artificial sea grass (right),[8].

Artificial reefs

Artificial reefs reduce the wave energy liberated on

the beaches behind them, it can be set on offshore or

fore shore. They slow down the long-shore drift and

favour foreshore growth, thus limiting erosion. They

react in the same way as submerged breakwaters,

and are often made up of coils or bags of geotextile,

but other materials that can be used include sand, large

blocks, concrete or pit run material. Low crested and

submerged structures as detached breakwaters and

artificial reefs are becoming very common coastal

protection measures used alone or in combination with

artificial sand nourishment, [54]. The main purpose is to

reduce the hydraulic loading to a required level allowing

for a dynamic equilibrium of the shoreline. To obtain this

goal, they are designed to allow the transmission of a

certain amount of wave energy over the structure in

terms of overtopping and transmission through the

porous structure (emerged breakwaters) or wave breaking

and energy dissipation on shallow crest (submerged

structures).

Due to aesthetical requirements low, freeboards are

usually preferred (freeboard around SWL or below).

However, in tidal environment and frequent storm surges

they become less effective when design as a narrow

crested structures. That is also the reason that broad-

crested submerged breakwaters (called also, artificial

reefs) became popular, especially in Japan (Fig. 11).

However, broad-crested structures are much more

expensive and their use should be supported by a proper

cost-benefit studies. On the other hand the development

in alternative materials and systems, for example, the use

of sand-filled geo-tubes as a core of such structures, can

reduce effectively the cost ([55][56].

Figure 11: Example of Aqua reef, [57],( left), and Reef Balls units,

[58], (right)

The relatively new innovative coastal approach is to

use artificial reef structures called “Reef Balls” as

submerged breakwaters, providing both wave attenuation

for shoreline erosion abatement, and artificial reef

structures for habitat enhancement. An example of this

technology using patented Reef Ball is shown in Fig. 11.

Reef Balls are mound-shaped concrete artificial reef

modules that mimic natural coral heads [58]. The

modules have holes of many different sizes in them to

provide habitat for many types of marine life. They are

engineered to be simple to make and deploy and are

unique in that they can be floated to their drop site

behind any boat by utilizing an internal, inflatable

bladder. Stability criteria for these units were determined

based on analytical and experimental studies.

Artificial Mangrove Root Systems

Mangrove systems minimize the action of waves and

thus prevent the coast from erosion. The reduction of

waves increases with the density of vegetation and the

depth of water. This has been demonstrated in Vietnam.

It is proved the tall mangrove forests, the rate of wave

reduction per 100 m is as large as 20% . Another work

has proved that mangroves form „live seawalls‟, and are

very cost effective as compared to the concrete seawall

and other structures for the protection of coastal erosion

[59]. Another function of this type is to trap sediment

and thus acting as sinks for the suspended

sediments . The mangrove trees catch sediments by

their complex aerial root systems

and thus function as land expanders. Experimentally, the

influence of strength, shape and configuration (or

arrangement) of an „engineered‟ mangrove root-system is

currently being studied by local researchers to determine

how they interact with waves [60]. Numerically, Zakaria

and Febrina[61] studied the dispersion effects of wave

propagation over mangrove models in shallow water

environments. Figure 12 shows the natural and artificial

mangrove.

:

Figure 12: Natural mangrove roots (left) and an artificial mangrove roots system,south-east coast of India, (right),[62].

Though the limitations based on morphological,

hydrodynamical and water quality conditions, to realize a

combination between traditional engineering and

ecological engineering is revealed, the inclusion of

ecological engineering in coastal protection is shown to

be a promising approach to integrate multiple functions

in areas where demands for space are becoming more

urgent every day [41]. Full-scale field projects are

probably the only way to determine the effectiveness of

eco-based techniques. However, when coastal projects

are implemented, tried and tested methods are generally

preferred over new innovations unless sufficient proof of

success at pilot sites have been confirmed. Without major

scale field experiments, bio-technical systems may be

confined to be used as ancillary protection schemes.

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4.5 Potential Adaptation Responses

In order to address the potential risks of climate

change to existing assets and people, some form of

protection is required for coastal environments, such as

cities, ports, deltas and agriculture areas.

Although the main focus is only on mitigation measures

for climate, adaptation is necessary as climate changes

and its effects are now inevitable [63],especially for

coastal areas where there is a strong „commitment to sea-

level rise and a commitment to adaptation‟ [64] Coastal

protection to sea-level rise is often a costly, but a

straightforward way to overcome the adverse impacts of

climate change. Despite developing countries have very

limited capacity to adapt, global and regional studies

have highlighted that adaptation to climate change in

developing countries is very vital and is an urgent

priority. However, limitations both in human capacity

and financial resources make adaptation difficult for the

poorer nations such as Tanzania for example ([65].

The generic adaptation strategies are the following :

1. (Planned) Retreat – the impacts of sea-level rise are

allowed to occur and human impacts are minimized

by pulling back from the coast via appropriate

development control, land use planning, and set-

back zones, etc. Managed retreat has been employed

in a number of countries, including Australia and the

United Kingdom, as an alternative to the

construction and maintenance of hard- engineered

structures [66]. However, to date, it has primarily

been used in areas such as agricultural land, where

the minimum economic impact is expected [67].

2. Accommodation – the impacts of sea-level rise are

allowed to occur and human impacts are reduced by

adjusting human use of the coastal zone to the

hazard through early warning and evacuation

systems, increasing risk-based hazard insurance,

increased flood resilience (e.g., raising houses on

pilings), etc.

3. Protection – the impacts of sea-level rise are controlled

by soft (e.g., beach nourishment) or hard (e.g., dikes

construction) engineering, reducing human impacts

in the coastal zone that would be impacted without

protection. However, a residual risk always remains,

and complete protection cannot be achieved even in

the richest and more developed countries, such as

The Netherlands. A list of the physical impacts of

sea-level rise and some examples of potential

adaptation responses illustrating these three generic

strategies can be seen in[68]; [64] .

The choice and use of these adaptation strategies with

the objective of protecting the human use of the coastal

zone would generally depend on the nature

characteristics of the coastal zone and the type and

extent of impacts [64]. For instance, unlike the first

option (protection), the two adaptation strategies

(accommodation and retreat) reduce or avoid the problem

of „coastal squeeze‟ (preventing onshore migration of

coastal ecosystems) between fixed coastal defences and

rising sea levels. However, soft protection measures

(such as beach/shore nourishment and sediment re-

cycling) can minimize this problem. It is also important

to identify the benefits of applying adaptation strategies

(see [69]), for example dikes can be combined with

building codes/flood-wise buildings and flood warning

and evacuation systems, and quite different adaptation

strategies might be applied in a city versus a rural area.

In regards to local shoreline management options,

responsibility may fall either upon an individual property

owner or on a community as a whole ([70]. In addition, ”

there are three major constraints on what an individual

can do in terms of coastal management. These constraints

include: “…local and state rules and regulations

including building standards that pertain to land use and

development in shoreline areas [71].

4.6 Egypt coastal protection measures

Nile Delta suffers a lot of coastal issues such: shore

line retreat, pollution , salt water intrusion, etc. Also, an

important parameter is the vulnerability to the impact of

climate change and related sea level rise. Due to large

subsidence in the Nile delta region, Egypt is considered

one of the top five countries expected to be mostly

impacted with a 1 m sea level rise resulting from global

warming [72]. Egypt is ranked as the fifth in the world

concerning the impact on the total urban areas, Egypt‟s

GDP would be significantly impacted, and Egypt‟s

natural resources such as coastal zone, water resources,

water quality, agricultural land, livestock and fisheries

maybe subjected to vulnerability. Moreover, Egypt may

face environmental crises such as shore erosion, salt-

water intrusion, and soil salinity.

The adaptation measures that were identified to deal

with the impact of climate change on coastal zone areas

include: beach nourishment, construction of groins and

breakwaters, tightening legal regulations, integrated

coastal zone management and introducing changes in

land use [73].

4.6.1. Traditional coastal measures (Hard)

• Seawalls: The old Mohamed Ali seawall at Abu

Quir bay, the old Burg El Burullus seawall, and the old

seawall west of Damietta Nile estuary are some examples

of the usage of this structure in the past to protect the

Egyptian coast.

Mohamed Ali seawall is the oldest seawall in the country

which constructed to protect the low lying industrial

district of Alexandria (some of it up to 3 m below sea

level). However, extensive erosion is identified in front

of this wall before its modifications to slope the face

which improved the situation, [74].

• Revetments : This kind of structures is widely used in

Egypt in the east and west of Rosetta estuary, the east

side of Burg El Burullus, east of Damietta Nile estuary,

and for the protection of the sea road west of Port-Said.

Masria et. al.

These structures increase the erosion rate in front of them

and shift the erosion problem to the downdrift areas, so

they are used when no beaches in front of them are

required.

• Breakwaters: This type is widely used in Egypt at

northwestern coast as in Marabella and 6th of October

resort village, and Delta coast as in Baltim, Damietta,

and El Gamil areas. The second type is the breakwater

that is connected to the coast, i.e. it is extending from the

coastline to the offshore direction. This type of structures

is used to protect harbors and navigation channels from

wave action to create a calm area for ships and may be

for swimming. In Egypt this type is used in Sidi Kerair

port, Sidi Kerair coastal resort, Edku LNG harbor. All of

these structures cause sedimentation and erosion

problems in the updrift and downdrift zones respectively,

[75], [76] .

• Groins: Some examples of using this structure along

the Egyptian coast can be found in: the middle part of

Marina El-Alamien center, El Mandara beach, east and

west of Rosetta protection works, east Baltim sea resort,

and on the western and eastern sides of El Arish port,.

Typical shoreline changes are observed around these

structures.

• Jetties: They are widely used in Egypt on the both

sides of the artificial lagoon inlets of El Alamien marina

center, Maadia outlet, Burullus lake outlet, Damietta Nile

estuary and El-Bardawil Lake outlets,. Sand accumulated

on the western side of these jetties and noticeable erosion

found in the eastern sides. It is clear that the tradition

coastal structures, which used along the Egyptian coasts,

have side effects on the environment and considered as

overload on Egypt‟s economy.

In general, applying hard defenses in Egypt proved to

be unsuccessful as it conveys the problem from one side

to another as it represent a constraint for the natural

process.

4.6.2 Soft protection measures

• Beach Fills: Six successful projects of sand

nourishment were executed within Alexandria coast

during the period from 1986 to 1995. Most of these

beaches are still acting well.

• Dredging or Sand Bypassing: Some dredging

projects are executed within the Egyptian coast in Edku

LNG harbor and its navigation channel, Rosetta estuary

outlet, Damietta harbor navigation channel, and El

Manzala lake outlets. The soft approach may be the most

successful option with or without the hard one.

4. Proposed Coastal Protection for the

Egyptian coasts

It is difficult to obtain a proper technique for all kinds

of coastal problems or preferred from an environmental

standpoint[77]. We have consider the environmental side

for each region, and address the suitable alternatives of

protection measures based on identifying coastal

processes in order to obtain an idealized solution.

4.1. Proposals

1. Apart from the protection already in place, Coastal

Research Institute, Egypt has a list of proposals for

more barriers to be built. The international highway

could be elevated to 5 m above the sea level with „a

wall on the side facing the sea‟; sand dunes should

be protected and restored to function as natural

walls; all development in the Delta ought to be

subject to integrated management and planning to

ensure that no new structures are put in the wrong

place, [74]. Beaches should be nourished. A method

already deployed with some success, beach

nourishment entails a regular, recurrent deposition of

sand onto beaches to uphold and strengthen their

lines of defense against the sea. Large-scale

transportation of sand could be organized on the

basis of Egypt‟s practically unlimited desert

reserves.

2. Proposals for solving problems in the Nile Delta

coastal zone, [77]:

First of all, there is an erosion problem due to the

lack in sediment supply from the River Nile. This

problem can be overcome by dividing the beaches

into small cells by using headlands. The numerical

and physical modeling can identify the suitable cell

size .This solution may have the ability to minimize

the sediment transport outside each cell and stop the

retreat of the beaches.

The flood problems of the low land and sabakha can

be partially stabilized by using sand dunes with

vegetation to support the outside face.

Siltation problem of the lake entrances, drains and

river outlets can be solved by dredging or by

increasing the water velocity across the mouth by

using the equilibrium cross section or by using open

cycle pumping system. Constructed jetties with sand

bypass from upstream side to downstream side can

also solve this problem.

The pollution problem in the northern lakes can be

solved by controlling the pollution sources or by the

increase of circulation system between the lakes and

the sea.

3. A new technique to overcome Rosetta shoreline

erosion is under development depending on

reestablishment of natural hydrologic conditions

such as providing a unique discharge processes and

sediments through the estuary to enhance the

stability of Rosetta estuary, Masria PhD study.

5. Conclusion

This paper has investigated the different types of

coastal protection defenses used around the world. In this

investigation, the aim was to assess each type of coastal

protection by identifying its advantages and

Masria et. al.

disadvantages in order to suggest suitable protection

method for the Egyptian coasts . The protection types are

divided into four categories, hard, soft, combined, and

innovative ones.

One of the more significant findings to emerge from

this study is that you can't stop the invasion of the sea by

putting obstacles in front. It is shown from above cases

that most traditional ways of protection which were used

around the world , and our Egyptian coast have side

effect on the environment and beach morphology. Also it

has a relatively high construction and maintenance cost.

The findings of this study suggest that , using the

innovative techniques with the soft ones (beach

nourishment, sand dune stabilization) can affect

significantly on the restoration of the beach without

affecting the environment , and the habitat of aquatic

organism. The second major finding particularly in

Egyptian coast is that, many coastal problems can be

solved by reach the natural situation before the building

of Aswan high dam. Because the stop of sediments and

flow create a disrupted situation represented in severe

erosion, water degradation. This situation can be

achieved by artificial flood, sand engine and redistribute

the end points of the drainage system.

Further work needs to be done to identify whether the

innovative techniques are suitable for Egyptian coast.

Also, more experimental work needed to be done in order

to address the all characteristics of these techniques.

Also, the ICZM strategy is the predominant attitude of

almost all the world to achieve the sustainable use of

coastal zone resources, preserving biodiversity and

habitat.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT The first author would like to thank Egyptian

Ministry of Higher Education (MoHE) and Egypt-Japan

Masria et. al.

University of Science and Technology(E-JUST) for their

support.

AUTHORS’ INFORMATION

1,2,4 Department of Environmental Eng., Egypt-Japan University of

Science and Technology, E-JUST . 3Hydrodynamic Department, Coastal Research Institute, Alexandria,

Egypt.

The group is very interesting in the fields of hydrodynamics. The group

is interesting in using SMS in simulating the coastal processes and

sediment transport.