Contemporary Slavery: the Silent Crime

Master Degree in International Relations

SLAVERY: THE CONTEMPORARY SILENT CRIME

Instituto Séneca & UNIR Instituto Séneca & UNIR Instituto Séneca & UNIR Instituto Séneca & UNIR


Final Paper


Elisabet Matamala MirElisabet Matamala MirElisabet Matamala MirElisabet Matamala Mir

Academic mentorAcademic mentorAcademic mentorAcademic mentor: Ana Amelia Ugarte: Ana Amelia Ugarte: Ana Amelia Ugarte: Ana Amelia Ugarte

Instituto Séneca & UNIR Instituto Séneca & UNIR Instituto Séneca & UNIR Instituto Séneca & UNIR (International University of La Rioja)(International University of La Rioja)(International University of La Rioja)(International University of La Rioja)



Elisabet Matamala MirElisabet Matamala MirElisabet Matamala MirElisabet Matamala Mir

: Ana Amelia Ugarte: Ana Amelia Ugarte: Ana Amelia Ugarte: Ana Amelia Ugarte

(International University of La Rioja)(International University of La Rioja)(International University of La Rioja)(International University of La Rioja)

2013 2013 2013 2013 ---- 2014201420142014

Slavery: the Contemporary Silent Crime INSTITUTO SÉNEA

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APPRECIATIOS

This paper would have not been possible without the valuable contribution of some

people. Without them, the content and the essence of this paper would have not been the

same. First of all I want to thank to my parents for trusting me and for their strong

support in these difficult times; without them I would have not been able to finish this

master, and probably, neither to start. Then, thanks to Josep, whose help and strong

empathy has always reached and moved me even despite the long distance.

I also want to thank all those people who I have come across during the last two years;

years in which I experienced a complete turn in my life. Each of these people has had a

particular contribution in building the person I am. Without them, my determination,

strength and high motivation to focus my life in the field of Human Rights would

probably have not been possible. First of all, thanks to Alex Julca and Mika Tapio, for

all the advices, support and for encouraging me to face my weaknesses and capitalize

my strengths at the same time. Thanks for your time, patience and for believe in me.

Secondly, thanks to David Bondia, for reminding me of the high importance of the

concept “coherence”; also, for showing me that it is possible and necessary to keep

“values” and “passion” when dealing with Human Rights issues. And finally, for

organizing the awesome Course on Human Rights at the Institute for Human Rights of

Catalonia (IDHC) which I had the opportunity to attend and where I met wonderful

people like Saray; with whom I share the passion, energy and worldview. She

transmitted me her determination and willingness to push for a change, no matter how

difficult it might be. Even the slightest change, is a change. Therefore, please change all

what you can but not yourself; many thanks for being like you are Saray.

And finally, I want to thank to my academic mentor, Any; for all the personal and

professional advices provided, as well as for helping me to go into the reality of

International Relations through this Master Degree, which I have very much enjoyed.

Without all of you, this paper - and I - would not be the same.

With Warm Regards,

Elisabet Matamala


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TABLE OF COTETS

ITRODUCTIO ..................................................................................................... PAGE 6

1. Argument of the work .............................................................................. page 6

2. Hypothesis and objectives ........................................................................ page 7

3. Methodology ............................................................................................. page 7

4. Limitations ................................................................................................ page 8

COCEPTUAL-THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ....................................................... PAGE 9

1. Concept and features of slavery ................................................................ page 9

1.1. Conceptualization of the modern forms of slavery .................... page 11

1.2. Conditions of a person to be enslaved ........................................ page 20

1.3. Indicators of an enslaved person ................................................ page 21

2. History of Slavery ..................................................................................... page 22

2.1. Origins of Slavery ....................................................................... page 23

2.2. Evolution of slavery ................................................................... page 24

2.3. Changes throughout history ........................................................ page 32

2.4. The abolitionist movement ......................................................... page 34

3. Contemporary Slavery .............................................................................. page 37

3.1. Why slavery still exist? ............................................................. page 39

3.2. Current situation ......................................................................... page 43

3.3. Our behaviour in front of a case of slavery ................................ page 51

4. International protection ............................................................................. page 52

4.1. What can a victim or a witness of slavery do? ........................... page 56

FIELDWORK ........................................................................................................ PAGE 58

1. Improvement Plan: Human Rights Education .......................................... page 58

FIAL REMARKS ................................................................................................. PAGE 65

1. Recommendations and Considerations ..................................................... page 65

2. Conclusions .............................................................................................. page 67

3. Bibliography ............................................................................................. page 69

4. Appendix 1 ............................................................................................... page 73

5. Appendix 2 ............................................................................................... page 77


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ITRODUCTIO

1. Argument of the work

The history of slavery has always drawn me the attention very much because of its

cruelty. Sadly, many people still tend to believe that slavery is a practice of the past,

probably an image from the workers of the American plantations, the Ancient Egypt or

the gladiators in the Classical Rome. This fact makes me think that slavery has not been

internationally discussed as the importance it has. Nevertheless, when I started to collect

some information about this topic, I became shocked of discovering the extent to which

modern slavery is still present in our society, and ashamed of how little knowledge I

had about it. Reading about such chilling and nightmarish events had a deep emotional

impact on me.

This situation, together with an article I read in an online newspaper were the main

reasons why I decided to focus my final paper on “slavery”.

The article mentioned was written by Jillian Keenan, a freelance writer for The New

York Times1. She advised that giving money to beggars was the least generous thing a

tourist could do in India. She explained in pretty good detail how many children in India

are kidnapped annually and forced to work as beggars in the streets. However, since

criminal groups have perceived that disabled child beggars get more money from

tourists than healthy children, due to their disadvantageous physical condition, criminal

groups usually cut children’s eyes or amputate them a limb so that tourists feel more

pity and give them more money. Children then are obliged to give this money to the

criminal groups they are working with, which will result in increasing the profits of

these groups and hence, perpetuating these cruel practices. According to Jillian Keenan,

the activities of organized begging have been found in countries all over the world, no

country is immune to human trafficking - which is a particular form of modern slavery -.

This example is just a little piece of the global situation concerning slavery, which

confirms that in the world we live in, human practices that inspire a profound outrage as

the practice of enslaving a human being, still persist. Nevertheless, having the

possibility of writing about such topic will allow me to contribute in rising awareness

1 KILLIAN KEENAN, “Keep the Change: Giving money to child beggars is the least generous thing a tourist can do”. September 30, 2013, SLATE.COM Online article available at: http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2013/09/giving_money_to_child_beggars_don_t_do_it.html,


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and impact to those who read this paper, so that they can become more concerned about

slavery today. Even the slightest change is a change, or as Mahatma Gandhi said:

“You must be the change you wish to see in the world”

2. Hypothesis and objectives

There is a twofold objective I would like to achieve writing this paper. On one hand, I

have a strong interest in enhancing my own knowledge of this topic, from both a

historical and current approach. The information I have collected for this paper as well

as the conclusions achieved will allow me to explain in more detail the concept and the

present situation of slavery to other people. On the other hand, it is my desire to provide

accurate and shocking information concerning the current overwhelming practices of

slavery, in order not to leave the readers indifferently about the topic. Additionally, I

tried to write the paper from a practical perspective, providing information about

possible actions to be undertaken in order to eradicate slavery practices. In my opinion,

if such situations are occurring in the present world, we are all somehow responsible,

and therefore, we should be at least aware of them.

3. Methodology

This paper is divided in three main sections. The methodology used for the first part, the

Conceptual-Theoretical Framework, consists on conducting a research about the

concept, forms and the history of slavery, from its origins until the present day;

stressing as well other aspects such as the abolition and the international protection the

victims receive nowadays. The second part is the Fieldwork, where I elaborated an

Improvement Plan by providing some additional guidance that should be included or at

least taken into account when elaborating a Human Rights Education Program. I also

emphasized the high importance of having such programs in all countries, and how

small actions that every single person could do in his daily life could contribute in

slavery eradication. The last part of the paper contains the Final Remarks, which are

directly linked with the conclusions of the Improvement Plan as well as with the rest of

the all the topics previously analyzed in the paper.


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4. Limitations

One of the objectives of my paper consisted on interviewing directly people who had

suffered the horrors of having been enslaved. However, after contacting several

associations and NGOs - at the national and international levels -, it has not been

possible to establish any contact with the victims. The reasons I have been given are

perfectly understandable, victims of slavery are usually in a very weak and fragile

emotional state, which means that they are still not ready to speak about the awful

experiences they have lived. The second idea consisted on interviewing experts or

professional people who were in contact with the victims or had great knowledge about

modern slavery, although it has not been easy due to geographical reasons. Finally, after

attending the 32nd Annual Course on Human Rights organized by the Human Rights

Institute of Catalonia, I decided to provide some guidelines for the elaboration of a

Human Rights Education Program. However, it is important to mention that the

elaboration of a proper Human Rights Education Program would need to be developed

and explained in much more detail, and not in just few pages. This is the reason why I

focused only on the guidance, but always from my point of view.

Therefore, my first intention was to get first-hand information about the horrible

experiences a victim of slavery might have suffered from, but eventually, instead of just

explaining real experiences, I decided to focus on what can be done to eradicate - or at

least reduce - slavery practices.


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COCEPTUAL-THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

1. Concept and features of Slavery

Throughout the history, slavery has been a condition in which a human being was

owned by another. A slave was considered by law as property, and was deprived of

freedom as well as of most of the rights that free people held. According to Jeremy

Black, “Slavery is a state with different meanings in particular contexts, but with a

fundamental element of an absence of freedom”2. On the other hand, the Walk Free

Foundation has been using a more operational definition of slavery: “Slavery is the

possession and control of a person in such a way as to significantly deprive that person

of his or her individual liberty, with the intent of exploiting that person through their

use, management, profit, transfer or disposal. Usually this exercise will be achieved

through means such as violence or threats of violence, deception and/or coercion”3.

According to experts in the field such as Kevin Bales, “slavery is a relationship between

(at least) two people, whose different outcomes are exploitative in nature:

appropriation of labor for productive activities resulting in economic gain, use of the

enslaved person as an item of conspicuous consumption, sexual use of an enslaved

person, and the savings gained by using unpaid and non-free workers”4.

Despite all definitions, an international-accepted definition of “slavery” does not exist

yet. There are legal definitions coming from the international treaties and conventions5

and definitions that exist in the public mind or provided by organizations against slavery

such as those abovementioned. The complexity that slavery entails and the differences

between societies and territories makes difficult to come up with a formal definition of

the concept. According to a report of the OHCHR6, the definition of slavery has been

controversial for several reasons. Firstly, there is not a global agreement on what sort of

practices should be considered slavery and thus, whether they should be eliminated.

2 JEREMY BLACK, “A brief history of Slavery” London, 2011, p. 6-7 3 Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”, 2013, p. 11 http://www.ungift.org/doc/knowledgehub/resource-centre/2013/GlobalSlaveryIndex_2013_Download_WEB1.pdf 4 KEVIN BALES, “Testing a Theory of Modern Slavery”, Yale University, February, 2006, p. 1 5 Slavery Convention (1926), Article 1: Slavery is the status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the

powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised. 6 Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights (OHCHR), “La Abolición de la Esclavitud y sus formas contemporaneas”, 2002, http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/slaverysp.pdf


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Secondly, since almost all definitions involve the implementation of policies by

Governments in order slavery to be eradicated, then disagreement reappears.

The main difference between modern and traditional slavery is that in the past it was

legal. Slaves were used as properties and could be bought and sold, traded, leased, or

mortgaged like livestock. Given the vulnerable situation of slaves, who were under the

personal dominion of an owner, they were subject to sexual exploitation as well as to

cruel punishments. In many cultures, slaves were branded, tattooed, or obliged to wear

distinctive clothing in order to dishonor their original culture by using symbols.

Despite the fact that slavery has been abolished in all countries in the world, its

practices still persist. Due to the hidden nature of slavery in the global society, it is

considered a silent crime, which is poorly understood by a great part of the civil society.

Therefore, modern slavery is a global issue and involves an extreme abuse of power,

which is not always immediately apparent because it requires understanding the people

and the relationships involved in order to define the concept. Accordingly, there is a

core of central attributes that define a relationship of slavery, which are embedded in a

wide variety of forms and combinations reflecting cultural, religious, social, political,

ethnic, commercial, and psychological influences7. Therefore, slavers are people who

meet the following features:

� Be under the control of another person

� Suffer violence (exploitation8) or threat of violence in order to maintain such

control

� Work for free (or almost) during long hours

Some countries have bigger contribution into slavery than others but the crimes

involved affect all of us. It is estimated that there are about 28.9 million people in

modern slavery today9, although it is difficult to achieve accurate statistics given its

clandestine nature. Many experts in the field confirm that the amount of slaves today

7 KEVIN BALES, “Testing a Theory of Modern Slavery”, Yale University, February, 2006, p. 1 8 ‘Slavery is generally regarded as the most extreme form of dependency and exploitation’. See: DAVID ELTIS and STANLEY L. ENGERMAN, "Dependence, Servility, and Coerced Labor in Time and Space," The Cambridge World

History of Slavery. Cambridge University Press, 2011, p. 1 9 Walk Free Foundation, “Global Slavery Index 2013”, 2013, p. 1 http://www.ungift.org/doc/knowledgehub/resource-centre/2013/GlobalSlaveryIndex_2013_Download_WEB1.pdf


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has almost doubled the total number of slaves involved in the Transatlantic Slavery10.

This situation is due to the rapid growth of the population throughout the history,

especially in the last centuries.

1.1. Conceptualization of the modern forms of Slavery

Contemporary slavery affects people of all ages, gender and races, and it takes various

forms. In addition, modern-day slaves are found in unexpected places, not only in

developing countries as many people might believe. The Fusion magazine stresses that

slavery has never been eradicated; it has only changed the form in order to be updated to

the new times and get unnoticed among the noise and the speed of the current society11.

Figure 1: Slavery in the 21st century Data source: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc.

According to an information brochure published by the OHCHR in the “International

Day for the Abolition of Slavery” (2nd Dec), the same sort of families or groups of

people are usually victims of several forms of contemporary slavery, and the factor that

links all these forms are the poverty that the victims suffer12. However, the list of

modern forms of slavery provided differ from other sources such as press media or

several NGOs, which have other classifications. Despite the inexistence of a formal and

globally-accepted list of all modern forms of slavery, the most common ones are:

10 LISA KRISTINE, photographer of slavery-like practices, https://www.lisakristine.com/press-and-media-video-archives/; KEVIN BALES, founder of Free the Slaves, TED Talk, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HUM2rCIUdeI 11 Fusion Magazine, “Esclavos del siglo XXI”, written by Mariló Hidalgo, Febuary 2004 http://www.revistafusion.com/2004/febrero/temac125.htm 12 Office of the High Commissioner of Human Rights, “Folleto informativo No.14: Formas Contemporáneas de la

Esclavitud”, http://www2.ohchr.org/spanish/about/publications/docs/fs14_sp.htm


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1.1.1. Bonded Labor or Debt Bondage

A person can become a bonded laborer by being tricked into taking a loan that

they will never be able to pay off; no matter how many long hours this person

spends working. Some bonded laborers receive basic food and shelter as

payment for their work, but these services are subjected to penalties and

exorbitant interest rates. The debt may also be inherited by other family

members. Furthermore, bonded labors are not allowed to work for anyone else.

South East of Asia is the most affected region of this type of slavery. The debt is

the main feature of this category; it prevents the victim from leaving the job until

the money is repaid. Bonded labors tend to be illiterate; otherwise, they would

have been able to read the conditions of the contact they probably signed. These

people, who are usually offered a job abroad, often borrow big amounts of

money in order to pay for the costs of their journey to the traffickers. When at

the destination it turns out that the promised job does not exist, they cannot leave

anywhere until the debt is paid off. A common practice consists of the

confiscation of the passports from the migrant workers in order to assure that

they do not escape. In many

cases, bonded labors are kept

under surveillance, or even

under lock. They are also

subjected to repeatedly violence

and work all day long.

Figure 2: A slave in a brick kiln industry Data source: Lisa Kristine, http://www.lisakristine.com/

The brick kiln industry in Pakistan, India or epal is an example of this kind

of slavery. India has more slaves than any other country: 14.7 million. The

extreme poverty that these countries suffer makes debt bondage an endemic

problem. Lisa Kristine, a well-known photographer devoted to photographing

enslaved people in order to raise awareness of the outrageous situation that

victims experiment, explained that when she was in India and Nepal taking

pictures, her camera became terribly hot and full of dust. Then, she had to find

fresh air urgently and clean her camera in order to continue working. At the time


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she was doing so, she thought that her camera was receiving a better treatment

than those people working in brick kiln industries13.

Figure 3: A slave in a brick kiln industry Data source: Lisa Kristine, http://www.lisakristine.com/

1.1.2. Forced Labor

Forced labour consists of any work or services that people are forced to do

against their will, under the threat of violence, punishment or other

penalties. The workers are illegally recruited and forced to work intensively,

especially in the following fields:

� Agriculture and fishing

� Domestic work

� Construction, mining, quarrying and brick kilns

� Manufacturing, processing and packaging

� Prostitution and sexual exploitation

� Market trading and illegal activities

It is important to emphasize that almost all slavery practices contain some

element of forced labour. The ILO estimates that there are now about 21 million

people worldwide who are direct victims of forced labour14.

Some companies take advantage of using chain slaves; fruit and charcoal

industries are some of the common ones. In Honolulu (Hawai) for instance, fruit

industries using food chain slaves in their production processes is common. To

achieve it, some American firms go to the rice camps in Thailand to recruit

workers. Traffickers use the same methodology than debt bondage; they lie

13 For the past two years, photographer Lisa Kristine has traveled the world, documenting the unbearably harsh realities of modern-day slavery. TED Talk, 2012, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a1A91MEpDvU The Atlantic, article: “slavery still exists” written by Lisa Kristine, September 2012, available at: http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/09/slavery-still-exists/262847/ 14 International Labor Organization, report: “ILO Global Estimate of Forced Labour 2012: Results and Methodology”, 2012, http://www.ilo.org/washington/areas/elimination-of-forced-labor/WCMS_182004/lang--en/index.htm


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telling that in America workers will get a much better-paid job. Once in the

country of destination, the passports of the workers are usually confiscated in

order to avoid that they escape. Without money and isolated in remote fields, the

workers see themselves trapped.

Figure 4: Food chain slavery in the USA

Data source: Beyond Meds, http://beyondmeds.com/2012/09/28/food-chain/

Other examples can be found in the gold and mining industries in countries such

as Ghana or the DRC15, were labor slavery is common.

Figure 5: Slaves working in the gold industry in Ghana Data source: Lisa Kristine, http://www.lisakristine.com/

Figure 6: Mining industry in Ghana Data source: Lisa Kristine http://www.lisakristine.com/

15 Democratic Republic of Congo


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Forced Labor category can include the following sub classification:

Child labor

Child labor consists of the transfer of an under 18-year old child to

another person in order the first to be exploited by the second one.

Children must work between 12 - 14 hours per day earning very little or

no money at all; and usually far away from home. The most part of these

children are also exposed to sexual and physical abuses. In extreme cases,

some of them can even be chained at night to avoid that they run away.

This cruel sort of slavery prevents children from receiving education

services as well as enjoying their childhood. Increasingly, children can be

trafficked within and across national borders for sexual exploitation,

petty theft, begging, working on construction sites, plantations or in

domestic work, or for drug trading. The vulnerability of these children is

even greater when they arrive in another country. Often they do not have

contact with their families,

situation that leaves those

children totally at the mercy

of their employers.

Figure 7: Child in slavery Data source: International Labor Organization (ILO)

The practice in which parents sell their children in exchange of money is

also mainly common in some parts of Asia and in Haiti. Another

example of child slavery is the fish industry in Ghana, which often uses

child labour16.

Figure 8: Fish industry in Ghana. The picture shows the situation that James Kofi Annan used to live as slave. He is a survival child of trafficking (picture taken in 2010).

Data source: James Kofi Annan, TED Talk

16 Children and young boys are separated from their families and forced to work in the fishing industry. They are taken to boats where they have to fish during long hours, even though they do not know how to swim.


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Even though the global number of children in child labour has declined

since the year 2000, the ILO estimates that more than a half of them are

still involved in hazardous work. This is work that irreversibly threatens

children’s health and development, through their exposure to, for

instance, dangerous machinery or toxic substances, which may even

endanger their lives17.

Prison slaves

According to the program “Slavery, the 21st century evil” from the Al-

Jazeera television, the prison system and detention facilities in China

have been converted into a factory system. Many political or religious

dissidents are sent to such prisons and are forced to work. In these places,

brainwashing is a pretty common practice, so that prisoners can give up

their former convictions, which are considered “wrong” for the Chinese

system. The word Laogai means “reform through labor” in Mandarin. It

is the name of the Chinese system of labour prison factories, detention

centres, and re-education camps. It is considered the most extensive

system of forced labour camps in the world, but unfortunately, it is not

the only example that exists18. Originally, the Laogai system was a way

to punish and reform criminals in a manner useful to the state, producing

thought reform and economic gain. The system is still present nowadays

and continues to deprive individuals of basic human rights. Once inside

the Laogai, prisoners are subject to

cruel and degrading treatment and

oftentimes torture19.

Figure 9: Laogai system in China Data source: Laogai Research Foundation, http://www.laogai.org/

17 International Labor Organization, Child Labor, http://www.ilo.org/global/topics/child-labour/lang--en/index.htm 18 Another example is the prison system in some parts of the United States. Global Research, “The Prison Industry in

the United States: Big Business or a 6ew Form of Slavery?” written by Vicky Pelaez, Dicember 2013, http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-prison-industry-in-the-united-states-big-business-or-a-new-form-of-slavery/8289 19 HARRY WU, activist who spent 19 years in a Chinese prison labor camp. Interview at DW, “life in a laogai camp”, January 2013, http://www.dw.de/life-in-a-laogai-camp/a-16522971


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1.1.3. Forced Marriage

This practice includes early marriage and the sale of wives. It predominately

affects young women and girls who are married without choice, and forced into

a life of servitude often accompanied by physical violence or even sexual

exploitation. Sadly, marriages involving children less than 18 years old remains

a widely culturally accepted practice in many parts of the world. Bride slaves

can also be considered a form of sexual and forced slavery. These kinds of

marriages tend to be arrangements between two families for property purposes.

Women usually got drugs in order not to escape, and some girls are even

kidnapped and then sold to men who pay for marrying them. As a consequence,

the options of these women are extremely

limited. The ICRW estimates that if the present

trend of forced marriages continues, 142

million girls will be married before their 18th

birthday over the next decade20.

Figure 10: Bride slave in India Data Source: Al-Jazeera, “Slavery, the 21st century evil”

India and South Sudan are considered some of the hottest spots of child

marriage. According to Human Rights Watch, about 48% of girls get married

under the age of 15 in South Sudan. Here, the bride is paid to the family usually

in exchange of cattle. Girls who try to resist marriage are beaten by their

families; and if they try to escape from their husbands, they can be even tortured.

The younger a pregnant girl is the higher is the risk that she dies or gets ill21.

1.1.4. Human Trafficking

The Article 3 of the “U.N. Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking

in Persons, Especially Women and Children, Supplementing the United Nations

Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime,” defines human

trafficking as: "The recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt

20 The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), http://www.icrw.org/child-marriage-facts-and-figures 21 Human Rights Watch, “Child marriage: South Sudan”, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qFP4au5WbMQ


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of persons, by means of the threat or use of force or other forms of coercion, of

abduction, of fraud, of deception, of the abuse of power or of a position of

vulnerability or of the giving or receiving of payments or benefits to achieve the

consent of a person having control over another person, for the purposes of

exploitation”. Most coverage of the trafficking issue has focused on trafficking

for sexual exploitation, although trafficking for labour exploitation is also very

common. Sex trafficking is the fastest growing form of forced labour; leading

hotspots of commercial sexual exploitation of children can be found in Thailand,

Cambodia, Brazil, Mexico and India. The law enforcement in India is sporadic

and weak, and “gang-rape” is a practice that is currently growing.

According to the OHCHR, sex trafficking implies the recruitment, clandestine

transport and exploitation of women as prostitutes. Additionally, the organized

prostitution of children in many countries is well documented. The vast majority

of people who are trafficked are migrant workers, who seek to escape from

poverty and discrimination, improve their lives and send money back to their

families. They hear about well-paying jobs abroad usually through "recruitment

agencies" (this situation also occurs with “bonded slavery”), but when they

arrive in the country of destination they find that the work they were promised

does not exist and instead, they are forced to work as prostitutes under harsh

working conditions. Traffickers can coerce people to work using a variety of

mechanisms; for instance, by confiscating the passports of the victims (as it

happens with bonded labor and forced labor), by intimidation, violence, torture

and rape, or even by threats of violence to the victims’ family. The main feature

of this form of slavery is the transportation of the victim.

Figure 11: Sex slave in Katmandu Data source: Lisa Kristine http://www.lisakristine.com/


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According to the program “Slavery, the 21st century evil” from the Al-Jazeera

television, the Republic of Moldova is an example of this sort of slavery. Young

women from this country are conducted into sex trafficking into western

European countries. In fact, sex trafficking is a common practice is several

countries of Eastern Europe.

Due to the hidden nature of human trafficking, it is difficult to get accurate

statistics about it. Nevertheless, the International Labour Organization (ILO)

estimates that there are some 2.5 million people who have been trafficked and

are being subjected to sexual or labour exploitation.

1.1.5. Children Forced to be Involved in Armed Conflict

This form of slavery can also be considered “forced labor” and might include

forcing children to become soldiers. According to the OHCHR, forcible

recruitment of children into military service has been reported in many parts of

the world. The consequences of such practice can be fatal. During the armed

operation for instance, children die or become disabled, whereas others are

interrogated, tortured, beaten or rest as war prisoners. Furthermore, it is

important to mention that this category do not only include child soldiers but

also porters or girls taken as “wives” for soldiers and militia members. Children

involved in conflicts are severely affected by their experiences and can suffer

from long-term trauma. This is sadly a pretty

common practice in many countries in Africa,

where conflicts and wars persist. In South Sudan

for example, army groups often use “food” as a

mean to recruit soldiers, as most people are

starving22.

Figure 12: Child soldiers in Uganda Data source: Invisible Children Organization, http://invisiblechildren.com/

22 Human Rights Watch, “Child marriage: South Sudan”, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qFP4au5WbMQ


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1.1.6. Descent-Based Slavery

When I was conducting the research of the modern forms of slavery I was going

to remove “descent-based slavery” from this section; I thought it was a

traditional form that did not exist in the present days. Unfortunately and to my

surprise, I saw that descent-based slavery still exists in regions like the north of

Mali23. A person can be involved in this form of slavery if he/she is either born

into a slave class or comes from a group in which some parts of the society can

perceive as slave labour to be used. It usually exists in countries with strict

hierarchical social structures, and this practice is justified by reference to custom,

ethnicity, or even religion. Slaves and their descendants are at the very bottom of

the caste system and suffer discrimination because of their place on the social

ladder. Any child born under such situation is automatically considered a

“property” of their masters. Descent-based slavery can be so culturally ingrained

in a society that it is difficult to perceive its existence.

Finally, it is important to highlight that many forms of slavery can be

interconnected and share common features.

1.2. Conditions for a person to be enslaved

The central feature for a person to be enslaved is the “control of one person by another”,

depriving the first of his/her freedom for exploitation purposes; this feature is common

in all forms of modern slavery. There is general agreement among the experts in the

field of slavery that most of the following characteristics should be present in order to

consider a person a slave:

� Forced to work - through mental or physical threat - without receiving any

or almost any kind of remuneration

� Owned or controlled by a master, usually through mental or physical abuse

or the threat of abuse

� Having restrictions on the freedom of movement

� Dehumanized, which means being treated as a commodity or bought and

sold as a property

23 Anti Slavery International, “Descent based slavery in Mali” www.antislavery.org/english/slavery_today/descent_based_slavery/slavery_in_mali.aspx


21

According to Kevin Bales, in order to determine whether we are in front of a case of

slavery, we must pay attention to the relationship between the slave and the

slaveholder. The nature of that relationship is what determines whether the interaction

we are observing is or is not slavery24. Therefore, a situation of slavery could be found

if the relationship between (at least) two people shows one of the following patterns:

1. Exploitation

2. Servitude

3. Mistreatment

4. Abuse

5. Oppression

1.3. Indicators of an enslaved person

Some victims of slavery do not see themselves as “victims”, especially those who suffer

from sexual exploitation, because they tend to develop a psychological dependence on

their abuser. Victims rarely look and ask for help to other people or entities. This is the

reason why it is so important that any single person could be able to identify a possible

case of slavery; the witness would be able to ask for help on behalf of the victim.

Some of the indicators that might show we are in front of a possible case of slavery are

the following ones:

� The lack or falsification of the identity documents.

� The absence of pay or the precarious conditions of the job.

� People under the age of 18 who are working at the time they should be at school.

� Absence or shortage of purchasing power, because the trafficker is the person who

manages the money.

� Being unable to move to another place or leave their job, which would lead to a

situation of social isolation.

� Lack of freedom to communicate with friends or the family.

� Difficulties to communicate in the local language of the destination country,

especially if the person arrived time ago to this country.

� Little motivation to speak about themselves or even lies.

24 KEVIN BALES, “Testing a theory of modern slavery”, Yale University, February, 2006, p. 2


22

� Behavior under instructions can be observed.

� The anxiety of the victims can easily be perceived.

� They are often kept under surveillance.

� Signs of malnutrition and starvation can be observed; and even sexually transmition

diseases.

� Victims usually have an unkempt and neglected appearance.

� Bruising, broken bones, or other signs of untreated medical problems, or any

evidence of violence or abuses can be easily seen on their face.

� Post-traumatic stress or psychological disorders.

2. History of Slavery

The roots of the word “slave” refers to Slavic, people from Central and Eastern Europe,

many of whom were sold into slavery in Europe and the Islamic world during the

Middle Ages. It was only in the 15th century that slavery became linked to people from

sub-Saharan Africa. When Europeans began to colonize the New World at the end of

the 15th century, they were already well aware of the institution of slavery.

Unfortunately, due to the rapid growth of the dynamic and complex institution of

slavery throughout the history, it has not been possible to get accurate data of the exact

number of people that have been enslaved.

The Greek philosopher Aristotle developed the concept of “natural slave”, which was a

justification for slavery. According to him, slaves lacked the qualities of the soul

necessary for freedom. Before the 18th century, Europeans associated “whiteness” with

“purity”, whereas black was considered the color of the Devil. It was not until the late

18th century that pseudo-scientific racism provided the basic justification for slavery25.

The main sources of slavery supply throughout the history of slavery came from captive

warriors and civilians in wars; criminals and rebels; victims kidnapped in armed raids as

lootings; and people who fail to pay their debts, who were usually obliged to sell

themselves or their children in exchange of money, condemning them to slavery.

25According to Prof. JONATHAN MARKS, “Scientific racism is the act of justifying inequalities between natural

groups of people by recourse to science”, (…) and “the term pseudoscience refers to any work that appeals to the

authority of science despite being methodologically flawed or incompetently reasoned, even if carried out by

credentialed scientists. Such misrepresentations are usually caused by a conflict of interest, whether it be personal

ambition, class or financial interests, or ideological commitment”, p.1, http://personal.uncc.edu/jmarks/pubs/Enc%20race%20Sci%20Racism%20Hist.pdf


23

General features of the History of Slavery:

� Slavery dates back to prehistoric times, although at that time it was apparently

modelled on the domestication of animals.

� From the earliest periods of recorded history, slavery was found in the world's

most advanced regions. The earliest civilizations along the Tigris and

Euphrates rivers in Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, the Indus Valley of India,

and China's Yangtze River Valley practiced slavery; although in the Ancient

Greece is where the first real slave society emerged.

� Slavery was considered a legal and accepted institution in most societies.

� It was usually hereditary and promoted inequality among societies.

� Slavery has been treated as a marginal aspect of the history, although it played

a crucial role in the development of the Modern World.

� The ideas of “freedom” and “democracy” emerged in a slave society

2.1. The Origins of Slavery

Historians believe that conflicts between groups of nomads existed from the earliest

times. As a consequence, some people must have probably been taken as captives rather

than killed. Despite the fact that slavery is rarely visible in the archaeological record, it

is thought that in largely nomadic hunter-gathering societies of pre-history slavery was

present in a small-scale, which means that it was not a central part of their culture and

economy. The supervision and control of slaves was a problem for nomads due to their

life-style and economic activities, which made unable to maintain and control

substantial numbers of slaves. Escape would have been relatively easy.

Historians believe that slavery as a major institution probably occurred during the

Neolithic Revolution, which began around 8,000 B.C.E. During this period of the

history the agriculture began to develop, and as a result, civilizations started to flourish.

In fact, the rise of civilization brought with it the emergence of social inequality and

created the conditions in which humans had the opportunities to enslave one to each

other26. However, slavery practices varied substantially from civilization to civilization.

Slavery could be found in societies as diverse as Ancient Assyria, Babylonia, China,

26 PARKER PEARSON, M. “Warfare Violence and Slavery in Prehistory”, book reviewed by JOHN J. CRANDALL, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, October, 2012, p. 23 - 25


24

Egypt, India, Persia, Mesopotamia, Classical Greece and Rome, in Africa, the Islamic

world, the pre-Columbian civilizations of the Americas, as well as among some Indian

tribes of the Pacific Northwest. However, historians also believe that the first true slave

society emerged in the Ancient Greece between the 6th and 4th centuries. Warfare and

raiding were classic means of acquiring slaves, besides punishment for crime, endebted

people, child abandoned and the birth of slave children from slaves.

Therefore, slavery existed before the first written laws were established, and in cultures

without a written legal code. Nevertheless, in order to get a complete understanding of

warfare, violence and slavery within the total social fabric of slavery in history, it is

important to analyze them in a holistic approach, rather than as independent variables.

2.2. Evolution of Slavery

Slavery has existed beyond recorded history, when mankind went from hunting and

gathering to farming for subsistence. The first documented evidence of slavery was

found in the Indus Valley, in India. Children sold into bondage or forced to work, as

well as women who were forced to prostitute were some of the forms of slavery that

sadly, have remained until the present days. Slavery was also recorded in the

Babylonian Code of Hammurabi 27 (1750 BC) and in the Hittite Code of the

esilim28 (1650 - 1500 BC). In China some references to slavery were found during the

Shang-dynasty China (about 1500-1066 BC). During that period, slaves were war

captives or kidnapped victims. Some people even sold themselves as slavers to satisfy

debts; others instead, sold their wives and children.

The Greek civilization, which founded the world’s first democracies with the

establishment of the polis (cities), defended the institution of slavery to the extent that

Greece became the first true “slavery-based society” between the 6th and 4th centuries

BC. Slaves were made of war captives, victims of piracy, and of those people in debt.

Each city state had its own laws regarding slavery, allowing slave owners any type of

punishment except death. Slaves could buy their own freedom or receive it as a gift for

27 The Babylonian Code of Hammurabi is the earliest system of law that recognized “slavery” (circa 1750 BC). Slaves under this code had the status of property or merchandise, although they have rights. For example, slaves were permitted to own property, conduct business, and even marry free women. 28 The Hittites were an indo-European people who established itself in Anatolia - the present Turkey -. The Hittite Code of the esilim (about 1650-1500 B.C.) is considered more human, as it conceded that a slave was a human being, although of an inferior order.


25

outstanding service. However, an ex-slave could almost never become a Greek citizen,

unlike freed Roman slaves, who could become Roman citizens. Romans inherited the

institution of slavery from the Greeks and the Phoenicians. During the Punic Wars

Romans began enslaving enemy captives from all over Europe and the Mediterranean,

which became central to the Roman economy, as it occurred in Greece. Nevertheless,

Rome became even more dependent upon the use of slavery when a form of agricultural

slavery called “estate slavery” was introduced on a wide scale. Thus, large plantations

were possible and profitable. A great number of slaves were also used to work in the

mines, usually under atrocious conditions and brutal overloads. Others were used to

work as servants or artisans in the cities, as domestics in private household, or as

amusement, such as gladiators and sex slaves. Roman law treated slaves brutally. A

cruel example is that if a slave owner died violently within his own house, his slaves

could be executed because they had not prevented his owner from death. Such brutal

treatment and oppression resulted in the outburst of several slave revolts. The Third

Servile War led by Spartacus, who was born as a free man but was caught to become a

gladiator, was the most famous and severe one.

The form and nature of slavery varied greatly in ancient society. In Mesopotamia,

slavery was also an accepted institution. War captives seemed to have been the major

source of slaves. The only references to slavery have been found in Sumeria, Assyria

and Babylonia. Manumission29 was allowed through both self-purchase or adoption by

the owner. Slavery was also an important institution in Persia. Given its aggressively

expansionary military empire, war was also the primary source of slaves. Persian law

made slavery hereditary. The legal status of slaves in the region was the same as

livestock or any other moveable property. The ancient civilization of Egypt was similar

to Mesopotamia, in the sense that both were based on agriculture and organized on the

basis of small elite controlling a large productive peasantry. The societies generated

great wealth, but it was inequitably shared with the peasantry. The major source of

slaves was war captives, warriors or civilian population; they also came from law

violators and some people sold themselves or family members into slavery. It was

29 Manumission was the art of a slaveholder to free his or her slaves.


26

commonly thought that major construction projects, such as the famous pyramids, were

undertaken by a large number of slaves. In 1250 A.D., the Mamluks30 rose to rule Egypt.

After the fall of the Roman Empire in the 5th century, slavery persisted in the Arab

world and in central Europe. The Islamic World was a main factor in the history of

slavery. After the Muslim conquests of North Africa (647 - 709 AD) and most of the

Iberian Peninsula (711 - 718 AD), the Islamic world became a huge importer of slaves

from Central and Eastern Europe. Islamic law forbade Muslims to enslave fellow

Muslims. During the Viking Age (793 - 1066 AD), the Norse raiders often captured and

enslaved peoples they encountered, most from the British Isles and Eastern Europe. The

Vikings kept some slaves as servants known as thralls, and they also sold most captives

to the Byzantine and Islamic markets. The Viking slave trade slowly ended in the 11th

century, as the Vikings settled in the European territories.

Slavery also existed in Africa before the arrival of Europeans, as did a slave trade that

exported a small number of sub-Saharan Africans to North Africa, the Middle East, and

the Persian Gulf; it is important to emphasize that the Arabic Slave Trade31 was

different than the Transatlantic Slave Trade: While two out of every three slaves

shipped across the Atlantic were men, the proportions were reversed in the Arabic slave

trade. Women were preferred by the Muslims. In fact, most of the slaves in the

continent were female 32 . It is estimated that the mortality rate for slaves being

transported across the Atlantic was much higher than in the Trans Sahara and East

African slave trade. Another difference between both slave trades is that almost all the

slaves shipped across the Atlantic were for agricultural work, whereas most of the

slaves destined for the Muslim Middle East were for sexual exploitation. In addition,

while some slaves who went to the Americas could marry and have families33, most of

the male slaves destined for the Middle East were castrated, and most of the children

born to slave women were killed at birth34. In Sub-Saharan Africa, hereditary slavery

was rare. Slavery early in the region took a variety of forms. While most slaves were

30 The Mamluks were Turks brought to Egypt as slaves in the early 1200s. Egyptians gave them military training and positions of power in the army and government. 31 Arabs were involved in the capture and transport of slaves northward across the Sahara desert and the Indian Ocean region into the Middle East, Persia, and the Indian subcontinent. The trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean slave trade was much older than the Transatlantic Slave Trade; and it continued into the 19th century. 32 Women were preferred because they bore children and because they performed most field labour. 33 Slaves needed the permission of their owners. 34 ROBERT C. DAVIS, "Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters - White Slavery In the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast

and Italy", November 2004, p. 34 - 38


27

field workers, some served in royal courts, where they served as officials, soldiers,

servants, and artisans. Under a system known as pawnship35, youths - usually girls -,

served as collateral for their family's debts. If their parents defaulted on debts, then

these young girls were forced to labour to repay them. In many examples, these young

women eventually married into their owner's lineage, and their family's debt was

cancelled. Under a system known as clientage36

, slaves owed a share of their crop of

their labour to an owner or a lineage. West African slaves were different to the

previous groups of slavers. In this region, slaves were often part of the family as well as

private property. Furthermore, slavery was not a lifetime status; a person could be born

free, be enslaved for a few years, and then become free again for the rest of his life. In

contrast to slavery in Europe or in the Americas, West African slaves had rights. They

could marry, own property, and inherit goods from their owner.

In the 13th century, during the Mongol invasions and conquests, Mongolians enslaved

individuals and sold them throughout Eurasia. Many of these slaves were also shipped

to the slave market in Novgorod, in the North West of Russia. Among many other

European slave markets, Genoa, and Venice were some well-known markets, whose

importance and demand grew after the Black Death of the 14th century, which

decimated much of the European work force. Venetian and Genoese merchants were

involved in the slave trade with the empire of the Golden Horde37 and they also traded

from the Crimea to the Mamluk Egypt. However, in 1444 the first slave market for the

sale of imported African slaves - the Mercado de Escravos - opened in the maritime

town of Lagos, Portugal.

In the Middle Ages, Ireland and Denmark were markets for captured Anglo-Saxon

and Celtic slaves. Meanwhile, in the South West of Europe, Spain and Portugal were

the scene of constant warfare between Muslims and Christians. Periodic raiding

expeditions were sent in Al-Andalus38 in order to loot the Iberian Christian kingdoms,

bringing back booty and slaves. After Medieval Europe, slavery declined in

northwestern Europe and persisted in Sicily, southern Italy, Russia, southern France,

35 A sort of Debt bondage 36 Another sort of Debt bondage 37 People from the Golden Horde were a mixture of Turks and Mongols that eventually broke up to three Tartar khantes: Kazan, Astrakhan and the Crimea. 38Al-Andalus was a medieval Muslim state occupying the present Spain, Portugal, Andorra, and part of southern France.


28

Spain, and North Africa. Most of these slaves were "white," coming from areas in

Eastern Europe or near the Black Sea; although as early as 1300s, Europeans were also

using black and Russian slaves to raise sugar on Italian plantations. Before 1400s,

leaders of the Catholic Church in Europe were opposed to the Islamic religion, practiced

by Muslims. Southern Spain was occupied by Muslims at that time, and the Catholic

Church felt threatened by it. Due to this situation, Iberian Christians started to enslave

what they considered “infidels”39. They created a well-articulated language of racial

inferiority and applied it to non-Christians and non-whites. Islamic Africans were

distinguished from “white” Moors by the term “Negro”. Therefore, by the second half

of the 15th century, the term “Negro” was essentially synonymous of “slave”.

Additionally, in 1452 Pope Nicholas V, as part of the fight against Islam, issued the bull

Dum diversas, which granted King Alfonso V of Portugal the right to reduce to

“perpetual slavery” all “Saracens and pagans and other infidels and enemies of Christ”

in West Africa40. This bull served as a justification for the subsequent era of slave trade

and European colonialism, as it signaled to the rest of Christian Europe that the

enslavement of sub-Saharan Africans was acceptable and even encouraged. On the other

hand, the Barbary pirates, sometimes called Barbary corsairs or Ottoman corsairs,

were pirates and privateers who, from the 16th to the 19th century, operated

throughout the North of Africa. They were based primarily in the ports of Algiers, Tunis,

and Tripoli; area known in Europe as the Barbary Coast. The Barbary pirates were

authorized by their governments to attack the ships of Christian countries, and thus, they

ranged all around Britain's shores. Coastal dwellers from Britain lived in terror of being

kidnapped by such pirates as well as of being sold into slavery in North Africa. This

Mediterranean slavery was not “race slavery”, but a “religious slavery”, as Muslims

took Christians slaves, some Christian states held Muslims in slavery.

After the discovery of the ew World in 1492, Spain began to build its empire on the

new domains in the Americas. However, slavery already existed in some Pre-

Columbian Native American Tribes. In Mesoamerica for instance, the most common

forms of slavery were those of prisoners-of-war and debtors. People unable to pay back

a debt could be sentenced to work as a slave to the person owed until the debt was

39 Primarily Muslims, but also Jews, Gypsies, Slavs, among others. 40 JAMES H. SWEET, “Spanish and Portuguese Influences on Racial Slavery in British 6orth America, 1492-1619”,

Florida International University, November, 2003, http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Sweet.pdf


29

worked off. Warfare was important to the Maya society, because raids provided the

victims required for human sacrifice and the slaves for the construction of temples. In

the Inca Empire, slavery was not usually hereditary; workers were subject to a mita41.

The first people to be enslaved by the Spanish and Portuguese in the West Indies and

Latin America were the Native Americans, this was due to the enormous need for

labour that the colonies had. Nevertheless, the Indian population experienced a sharp

decline due to the illnesses - such as measles and the flu - that the Europeans brought to

the New Continent. As a result, the Spanish authorities decided to replace the local

Indian labour by enslaving Africans, who were immune to these illnesses. Therefore,

when the Europeans turned to West Africa looking for manpower in the 15th century,

they tapped into this existing trade network42. Furthermore, with the European conquest

of South and Central America, slavery became a major economic importance in the 16th

century. Europe had begun to outpace the Arab world with its slave traffic from Africa

to the Americas. Some African rulers took advantage of the increasing demand for

slaves in America and earned great profits by controlling the regional slave trade, even

by kidnapping people or through armed raids.

The Atlantic slave trade began in 1441. The British were the prime slavers, bringing

goods from England to exchange for African slaves whom then were supplied to

Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the New World; these were the roots of the

Triangle Slave Trade. This concept has been used for historians to link the trade

between Africa, the metropolis in America and Europe. Goods and commodities were

shipped from Europe to West Africa to buy slaves, who were taken into America to

grow tobacco, sugar and other valuable crops. These crops were then sold to Europe in

order to manufacture them and export to Africa, from where they get slaves again. As a

result, the Transatlantic Slave Trade was a very profitable business for the Europeans,

especially for Britain. Part of the wealth coming from that period of the history

contributed in the flourishment of the Industrial Revolution in Britain. The slave trade is

considered the largest forced migration in the recorded human history. Nevertheless, it

is important to highlight that the majority of slaves sold to Europeans had not been

41 Mita was a mandatory public service that the Inca’s society paid by working for the government; each family could decide which family member to send to do the work (the Spanish adopted the mita system, particularly for their mines in Bolivia). 42 It consisted of a developed regional slave trade followed by ancient caravan routes across the Sahara to the Mediterranean and Arab world.


30

slaves in Africa. They were free people who were captured in war, victims of banditry

or were enslaved as punishment for certain crimes. In Senegambia, the Guinea Coast,

and the Slave Coasts of West Africa, war was the most important source of slaves. In

Angola, kidnapping and condemnation for debt were common. In fact, Africans did not

think of themselves as Africans, but as members of separate nations. Many professional

European slave traders set up bases along the West African coast where they purchased

slaves from Africans in exchange for firearms and other goods. Zanzibar was once the

East Africa's main slave-trading port43. Before the end of the 17th century, England,

France, Denmark, Holland, and Portugal had all established slave trading posts on the

West African coast and were all involved in the slave trade. However it was the British

master of the sea who led to the domination of the slave trade.

It is estimated that for every 100 slaves who reached the New World, 40 died when

being obliged to march barefoot hundreds of miles to the Atlantic coast in Africa, or

during the Middle Passage. The captives who survived the forced march to the sea were

then examined by European slave traders. Those who were bought were branded with

hot irons, assigned numbers, and forced to board ships; the others were simply

abandoned. However, the most serious danger was dehydration due to inadequate water

rations. Diarrhea was widespread and many Africans arrived in the New World covered

with sores or suffering fevers. On shipboard, slaves were chained together and crammed

into spaces sometimes less than five feet high. Conditions within the slave ships were

unspeakably awful. Urine, vomit, mucous, and

horrific odors filled the hold where slaves had to

stay during the passage. The Middle Passage

usually took more than seven weeks. It is estimated

that between 10 and 16 million Africans were

forcibly transported across the Atlantic between

1500s and 1900s44.

Figure 13: Plans of a ship for transporting slaves (1790) Data source: The Granger Collection, New York

43 The African rulers of Zanzibar relied very much on slave labor, to the extent that during the 19th century, African slaves composed up to 90% of the island's population. 44 Digital History, “The Middle Passage”, http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3034


31

White slave owners thought they were superior to black people. Nevertheless, new

notions of human rights and freedom sprang out of the European Enlightenment of the

18th century. In fact, the American Civil War (1861 - 1865) was fought, in part, over

slavery.

In Oceania, in the first half of the 19th century, small-scale slave raids took place

across Polynesia to supply labor and sex workers for the whaling and sealing trades. By

the 1860s this trade had grown to a larger scale operation with Peruvian slave raids in

the South Sea Islands in order to collect labor for the guano industry45. In ew Zealand

lived the Māori society; warriors that fought between other tribes (iwi). The losers often

became slaves or were even eaten. In fact, the Maori believed that they could gain the

enemy’s power by eating the body of the enemy.

In Russia, slavery remained a minor institution until 1723, when Peter the

Great converted the household slaves into house serfs46. Those Polish and Russian serfs

and kholops47

who escaped, formed autonomous communities in the southern steppes,

known as Cossacks (outlaws). During the existence of the Soviet Union (1922 - 1991),

about 14 million people had been working in Gulags48 . In most of these camps,

prisoners felled timber, labored on general construction projects - such as the building

of canals and railroads -, or worked in mines. Most prisoners labored under the threat of

starvation or execution if they refused.

In China between 1920s and 1930s, young girls (mui tsai)49 were traded and enslaved

as prostitutes. The practice was also prevalent before the World War II in Hong Kong,

Singapore and other parts of Southeast Asia. After the Communist Revolution in 1949,

the Chinese government established concentration camps called laogai. Moreover, due

to the extremely poverty that some Chinese families suffered, it was accepted to sell

unwanted girls instead of killing them; as Chinese families needed a male offspring.

In the center of Europe, Germany was not involved in the slave trade as other European

countries before the 20th century for being a young state. However, with the accession to

power of Adolf Hitler in 1933, the Nazi Germany enslaved millions of people coming

45 The guano is a natural fertilizer made from bird droppings, which was a prized commodity during the 19th century and heavily traded by European and American traders. 46 In fact, Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into serfs earlier in 1679. 47 A Kholop was a feudally dependant person, whose status was close to serf. 48 Chief Administration of Corrective Labour Camps. 49 Mui tsai means “little sister” in Cantonese.


32

from many different groups - communists, socialists, Jews, Gypsies, gays, prostitutes,

Soviet prisoners of war, among others -. They were all sent to concentration camps

where prisoners worked to death in chemical and rocket factories; and those who were

too weak to work were killed. These slave camps were part of a larger Nazi

extermination effort in which millions of Jews and other people were methodically

killed (The Holocaust). As a consequence, at the end of World War II, over 700,000

people had been enslaved50.

Even though the History of Slavery is much more complex than what has been

explained in the previous pages, it is important to remember that “this history has not

come to an end yet”.

To sum up, we can state that slavery played a crucial role in the development of the

modern world economy. Between the early 1500s and the early 1800s, the slave trade

became one of Europe's largest and most profitable industries and it played a pivotal

role in the growth of the commercial capitalism in the colonies. Although it did not

create a major share of the capital that financed Europe's industrial revolution, slave

labor produced the products for the first mass consumer markets. The African slave

trade also stimulated European shipping, manufacturing, and gun making. Finally, it is

important to mention that the relationship between religion and slavery is a complex

area of debate. Although the practice of slavery seems antithetical to the statutes of any

religion, religion has been used to condemn and to support slavery throughout history.

2.3. Changes throughout history

Slavery has existed for thousands of years and it is still present in today’s society;

however, the social, economic and legal position of slaves has changed throughout the

history and from one territory to another.

Fundamental aspects about Historical Slavery that differ from Modern Slavery:

� There are more slaves than ever before, although they are a smaller proportion of

the world population. This situation is due to the population explosion that the

society has experienced throughout its history.

50 Unites States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Center for Advanced Studies on Holocaust, “Forced and Slave Labor

in 6azi-Dominated Europe”, 2004, pp. 46-48, file:///C:/Users/Usuari/Desktop/MASTER%20RI/TFM/THEORY/Papers/Read/Holocaust%20Mermorial.pdf


33

� No-one defends slavery any more in a serious and official way.

� Slavery is illegal in any country of the globe. However, the absence of rule of law

makes difficult to fight against slavery practices, even nowadays, because if

people do not have the protection of the rule of law, violence can be easily used.

Furthermore, corruption and crime are the two main pillars for its continuity.

� Slavery in the classical and the early medieval periods was not based on racial

distinctions. Racial slavery was originated during the Middle Ages, when

Christians and Muslims increasingly began to recruit slaves from east, north,

central, and west Africa. However, it was not until after the 15th century that

slavery began to be link to black people.

� Slavery has not always been a permanent condition. In societies such as Ancient

Greece and Rome, manumission of slaves was common, and former slaves carried

little stigma due to their previous status.

� Most slaves in Africa, in the Islamic world and in the New World prior to

European colonization worked as farmers, household servants, or served as

concubines or eunuchs. These slaves were seen as symbols of prestige, luxury,

and power rather than as a mere source of labor.

� As a consequence of the slave trade, the sex ratio was skew in Africa; there were

fewer adult men. This situation also generated violence, spread disease, and

resulted in massive imports of European goods, undermining the local industries

of the continent.

� Slaves as a source of labor were considered a cheap workforce, able to generate

high economic returns. Nevertheless, slave prices are even cheaper nowadays due

to the increase of disposable people.

� No industry depends nowadays on slavery as occurred with the plantations during

the Atlantic slave trade. However, forced labor is widespread in today’s society,

although it remains an invisible situation.

� The increase in the extreme poverty - caused mainly by civil wars and ethnic

clashes - has left many people in the present world living below poverty levels,

increasing its vulnerability to be enslaved.

� The victims of slavery tend to be the same than centuries ago: poor and weak

people. Even the objective of enslaving people is the same: power and money.


34

“If we look closely at the lives of slaves throughout human history we find that the core

characteristics of slavery are the same. Slavery means the loss of free will, it means that

violence will be used to maintain control over the slave, and it means that the slave will

be exploited, normally in some sort of economic activity, but possibly for sex or even as

an object of conspicuous consumption. Slaves may be kidnapped or captured, tricked

into or born into slavery, but their lives will be controlled through violence and they

will be exploited. 6ormally the life of a slave is marked as well by the fact that they

receive no payment for their work, only subsistence”51. (Kevin Bales, 2007)

2.4. The Abolitionist Movement

The evolution of the slavery institution trigged a revolution in values and sensibility.

For the first time in history, religious and secular groups denounced slavery as a sin and

as a violation of natural rights. During the 1760s, the first movements in history began

to denounce slavery practices. The main goal of the Abolitionist Movement was the

immediate emancipation of all slaves and the end of racial discrimination as well as

segregation. However, when a large number of countries began to abolish slavery in the

19th century, they were actually only ending the legal permission for practicing it. The

reality is that slavery has continued up to the present day, although in different forms.

More than 200 years after the first direct shipment of slaves from Africa to the

Americas (1518), the State of Vermont52, which was an independent Republic after the

American Revolution, became the first sovereign state to abolish slavery in the

Americas (1777); this occurred close before the Trans-Atlantic slave trade reached its

peak in 1787, and at the same year than Olaudah Equiano53, a freed slave, published his

autobiography “The Interesting 6arrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano or Gustavus

Vassa, the African”, which was the first anti-slavery book to reach a wide audience.

Figure 14: Olaudah Equiano’s life.

Data source: School Discovery Education

51 KEVIN BALES, report: “Measuring Modern Slavery”, 2007 52 Slavery in the North, “Slavery in Vermont”, http://slavenorth.com/vermont.htm 53 Olaudah Equiano (1745 – 1797) was an African writer whose experiences as slave prompted him to be involved in the British movement for the abolition of the slave trade. He was enslaved as a child in the Kingdom of Benin - the present Nigeria -, shipped to the West Indies, moved to England, and there, he successfully purchased his freedom.


35

In 1792, Granville Sharp 54 and Thomas Clarkson 55 founded the Society for the

Abolition of the Slave Trade in Britain. In 1803, Denmark banned the importation of

slaves to its colonies in the West Indies. Britain passed the “Act for the Abolition of the

Slave Trade” 56 in 1807, which abolished the slave trade in the British Empire, but

not slavery itself. A year later (1808), the United States also passed legislation banning

the slave trade. In 1811, Spain abolished slavery even in its colonies57. In 1823 a British

Anti-Slavery Society58 was formed, being William Wilberforce59 one of its members;

and ten years later, Britain also passed the “Slavery Abolition Act”60, which declared

that slavery was officially abolished in the British Empire, ordering its gradual abolition

in its colonies.

The abolition of slavery in the Netherlands became effective in 1846, in France in 1851,

and in Portugal in 1858. The election of Abraham Lincoln (1860) as president of the

United States, who opposed the spread of slavery to the West of the country, marked a

turning point in the movement. In 1863, he issued the “Emancipation Proclamation”,

which aimed at freeing all slaves, and in 1865, the 13th Amendment of the U.S.

Constitution banned slavery. This occurred during the American Civil War (1861-1865).

In 1926 the League of Nations61 adopted the “Slavery Convention”62. However, after

the Second World War, where the Nazi Regime in Germany organized mass detention

and extermination of Jews, Gypsies, Communists, gay men, among other groups, States

54 Granville Sharp (1735-1813) was a leading British abolitionist and instigator of the first settlement of freed African slaves in Sierra Leone. His interest in slavery began in 1765 after he befriended Jonathan Strong, a slave who had been badly beaten by his master. When Strong's former owner attempted to sell him back into slavery in the Caribbean, Sharp took a successful case to the lord mayor and Strong was freed. Sharp then devoted his time to forcing a definitive legal regulation. 55 Thomas Clarkson (1760-1846) was a leading campaigner against the slave trade and slavery in Britain and the British Empire. 56 The National Archives, “The Abolition of the Slave Trade Act (1807)” http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/slavery/pdf/abolition.pdf 57 Cuba was the only Spanish colony that continued to deal in slaves until 1888 58 The Anti-Slavery Society was the name of two British organizations. The first one, founded in 1823, was committed to the abolition of slavery in the British Empire; and the second one was a successor organization formed in 1839 committed to worldwide abolition. The organization continues today and is called Anti-Slavery International, the world’s oldest international Human Rights organization. 59 William Wilberforce (1759 - 1833) was an English member of the Parliament and social reformer who contributed in the abolition of the slave trade and slavery itself in the British Empire. The abolitionist Thomas Clarkson had an enormous influence on Wilberforce. He and others were campaigning for the abolition of the slave trade and for 18 years he regularly introduced anti-slavery motions in parliament. It was not until 1833 that an act was passed giving freedom to all slaves in the British Empire. 60 “Slavery Abolition Act (1833)”, http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/05/Slavery-Abolition-Act-1833.pdf 61 International Organization that preceded the present United Nations. 62 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), “The Slavery Convention” (1926) http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/ProfessionalInterest/slavery.pdf


36

fail to prevent it and no international institution guaranteed the security of these groups.

Such atrocities led States to recognize that a common international understanding about

human rights was crucial. As a consequence, in 1948 the United Nations adopted the

“Universal Declaration of Human Rights”63. From that day on, the United Nations

celebrate each 2nd of December the “International Day for the Abolition of Slavery”.

Awareness of the importance of the Human Rights principles was gradually rising and

two main key concepts emerged64:

a) Universalization of Human Rights. It means the acceptance (at least in

rhetoric) of the concept of individual human rights by all societies and

governments, as it is reflected in national constitutions and law.

b) Internationalization of Human Rights. It refers to the agreement, at least

in political-legal principle, that individual human rights are of international

concern and a proper subject for diplomacy, international institutions and

international law. As a result, the principle of sovereignty became limited.

Throughout the history we can find outstanding examples of people who fight and

sacrificed themselves for freedom. Slave revolts and fights against the practice of

slavery have been constant and largely documented. However, it is important to

emphasize that those countries that first abolished slave trade became in an

economically disadvantage with those who did not, because they could not officially

count on cheap labor any more.

Key dates in the Abolition of Slavery65

1794 France abolished slavery, although the decree would be revoked by Napoleon some years after.

1814 Spain and Great Britain signed some treaties in which slave trade was banned.

1864 Abraham Lincoln signed the 13th amendment to the US Constitution, which established the abolition of slavery in the whole Union.

1926 The League of Nations recognized the need to prevent that forced labor leads to similar conditions to slavery through the Slavery Convention

63 United Nations, “The Universal Declaration of Human Rights” (1948), http://www.un.org/en/documents/udhr/ 64

LOUIS HENKIN, “The Age of Rights”, New York: Columbia University Press. 1990, pp. 22-26 65 See Appendix 1: Key dates in the Abolition of Slavery


37

1948

Article 4 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights declared: “No one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms”.

1956 United Nations defined a list of practices66 considered similar to slavery and legislated against them.

1981 The African Union declared that “all forms of exploitation and human degradation, particularly slavery (…) will be banned”.

2005 The Council of Europe made a call to fight against human trafficking as well as to guarantee gender equity.

3. Contemporary Slavery

When we think about slavery what usually comes to our mind is the Trans-Atlantic

Slavery Trade, where Africans were captured and transported to the West Indies and

America to work mainly in the sugar plantations. Unfortunately, even though slavery

was abolished in 19th century, in the 21st century people are still sold like objects and

forced to work for little or no pay at all. Young children have their childhoods stolen,

and teenagers, who look for a better life, can find themselves tricked into accepting the

offer of a job far away from their home that turns into the nightmare of slavery.

According to the Walk Free Foundation, 1.82% of the estimated total 29.8 million

people in modern slavery are in Europe. The countries of Western Europe have the

lowest overall risk of enslavement by region, although some of them fail to bring

sufficient resources to bear on human trafficking and slavery. Many of these countries

could, with sufficient political will, be slavery-free. An estimated 3.78% of people in

contemporary slavery - also called modern slavery - are in the Americas. There is a

lower level of risk of enslavement and other violations of human rights in the

Caribbean67 than in Latin America. A 72.14% of the total is located in Asia68. 16.36%

in Sub-Saharan Africa69 ; and 3.36% are in Russia and Eurasia70 . Finally, it is

66 See: “The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and

Practices Similar to Slavery” (1956) 67 Haiti, however, is a special case within the region of the Caribbean basin; and Mexico as well, which is a critical transit country for South and Central Americans seeking to enter the United States, resulting in a highly developed criminal economy that preys on economic migrants, trafficking and enslaving them. 68 India is the country of far more modern slavery than any other country in the globe, although the risk of enslavement varies across the country. 69 Countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Mauritania reflect centuries-old patterns of enslavement, often based on colonial conflicts and injustice exacerbated by contemporary armed conflict. Ongoing conflicts, extreme poverty, high levels of corruption, as well as the impact of exploitation to feed global resource markets increase the risk of enslavement in many African countries.


38

estimated that 2.54% of the people in modern slavery are in the Middle East and

orth Africa71.

Figure 15: Share of each country's population that is enslaved. Data source: Walk Free Global Slavery Index 2013 (Max Fisher / The Washington Post)

Mauritania is the country with the higher likelihood to be enslaved (about 4% of its

population is enslaved). The rate of slavery is also alarmingly high in Haiti, Pakistan

and India. In all these countries, more than 1% of the population is estimated to live in

slavery. Then there are the worst-affected regions such as Sub-Saharan Africa, where

the legacies of the transatlantic slave trade and European colonialism are still present in

the region. In Southeast Asia and Eastern Europe sex trafficking is a particularly

common slavery-like practice72.

70 Three of the troubled former Soviet Republics of Central Asia (Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan) show very high levels of risk for enslavement and significant threats to basic human rights. 71 The level of risk of enslavement is relatively high across the region. Trafficking of migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa and Asia is widespread. Globally, this region has the highest measured level of discrimination against women. One result is the high level of forced and child marriages within the region, as well as the widespread exploitation of trafficked women in forced prostitution and as domestic workers. However, the rapid political change following the Arab Spring calls into question continuing political commitment to the implementation of anti-slavery policies in a number of key countries. 72 The Washington Post, “This map shows where the world’s 30 million slaves live. There are 60,000 in the U.S.” written by Max Fisher, October 17, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/10/17/this-map-shows-where-the-worlds-30-million-slaves-live-there-are-60000-in-the-u-s/


39

Figure 16: The number of slaves living in each country. Data source: Walk Free Global Slavery Index (Max Fisher / The Washington Post)

The country that is most marked by slavery is India. There are an estimated 14 million

slaves in the country. Forced labor is common, which is due in part to a system of

hereditary debt bondage present in the country, meaning that many Indian children are

born "owing" sums of money that they will never possibly pay to their masters, who

control them as chattel during their entire lives73. China follows India with an estimated

2.9 million enslaved people, and eventually Pakistan, with 2.1 million.

3.1. Why slavery still exist?

According to Kevin Bales, the core attributes of modern slavery remain the same than

the ones that determined the status of enslavement in the past: the state of control

exercised over the slave, which is based on the use of violence; a lack of remuneration

beyond subsistence; and the appropriation of the labor or other qualities of the slave for

economic gain. Therefore, slavery is considered an “economic crime” because victims

are used in order to gain profits. Nevertheless, the majority of people who currently fall

into slavery are not usually kidnapped as occurred years ago; vulnerable people are

simple asked “do you want a job”? But since they usually suffer from very vulnerable

situations such as extreme poverty, they have no other choice.

73 The Washington Post, “This map shows where the world’s 30 million slaves live. There are 60,000 in the U.S.” written by Max Fisher, October 17, 2013, http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/worldviews/wp/2013/10/17/this-map-shows-where-the-worlds-30-million-slaves-live-there-are-60000-in-the-u-s/


40

Modern slavery is a crime that is especially difficult to measure; however, the “risk of

enslavement” is a new area of research that is currently being explored. According to

the Organization “Free The Slaves”, there are three main trends that have contributed to

the rise of modern slavery:

1. A recent population explosion, which has tripled the number of people in the

world. The increase in the number of “disposal people” has driven to the fall in

slavery prices today, compared to the past74. Slavery distorts local economies

in two crucial ways: spreading up the economic ladder in the society as well as

affecting economic and social development. The first way means that enslaved

labour can depress the wages of free labour in the same economic sector in

which they work. And the second one consists of the removal of enslaved

workers and their families from local economies as consumers75.

Figure 17: Average price of slavers over 4000 years Data source: Kevin Bales, TED Talk, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HUM2rCIUdeI

2. Rapid social and economic change, which has displaced many people to urban

centers and their outskirts, where people have no safety and job security at all.

3. Government corruption around the world, which allows slavery practices to

keep unpunished, although it is officially illegal everywhere.

74 KEVIN BALES, founder of Free the Slaves, TED Talk, http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HUM2rCIUdeI 75 KEVIN BALES, “Testing a Theory of Modern Slavery”, Yale University, February, 2006


41

Figure 18: Factors increasing or decreasing the risk of enslavement in a country Data source: Kevin Bales, “The theory of modern slavery”, Yale University

Modern slavery is profitable, even Karl Marx recognized the capitalist nature of slavery

before some historians did76. In 2008 for example, the Vienna Forum to fight against

human trafficking stressed that forced labor and human trafficking generate at least

US$32 billion in profits per year, which is more than the entire output of Iceland,

Nicaragua, Rwanda, and Mongolia combined. And what is more is that this is not just a

problem in poor countries; nearly half of the total profits have been obtained in wealthy

industrialized countries77. In 2009, slave labor contributed to the production of at least

122 goods from 58 countries worldwide 78 . The research conducted by the US

Department of Labor identified many products - such as diamonds from Africa, bricks

from Brazil, and shrimp from Southeast Asia - as products that are commonly obtained

by using slave labor.

Focusing on the different forms of contemporary slavery, we can observe that bonded

labour exists because of the persistence of poverty and the existence of people who are

76 Ransom, Roger L., Sutch, Richard, “Capitalists Without Capital: The Burden of Slavery and the Impace of

Emmancipation”, Department of Economics UC Berkeley, February 15, 1988, p. 1 77 International Labor Organization, “Vienna Forum to Fight Human Trafficking, combating human trafficking and forced labour”, 13-15 February 2008, http://www.ilo.org/global/about-the-ilo/newsroom/features/WCMS_090351/lang--en/index.htm 78 The U.S. Department of Labor (DOL), News release: “Statement by U.S. Secretary of Labor Hilda L. Solis on

reports detailing international child labor and forced labor”, October 10, 2009 http://www.dol.gov/opa/media/press/ilab/ILAB20091111.htm


42

prepared to take advantage of the desperation of others. For instance, concerning the

case of bonded slavery in Pakistan, it is important to observe that many of the houses in

the country are made of bricks whose production has taken advantage of slaves’ work in

the country. Despite its illegality, governments are rarely willing to enforce the law or

to ensure that those who profit from it are punished. Access to justice and education is

limited, and there is no way the victims can get out of poverty, since the debt is never

going to be paid. Child labour continues in great demand because it is cheap and also

because children are naturally more docile, easier to discipline than adults. In addition,

children are particularly vulnerable to sexual and other physical abuse, their small

physique and nimble fingers are seen as assets by unscrupulous employers for certain

kinds of work. In addition, in about 10% of the cases, the State or the military power are

directly responsible for the use of forced labour. Notable examples can be found in

Burma, North Korea and China. However, in the vast majority of cases, forced labour

is used by private individuals who are seeking to make profits from the exploitation of

other people; although the most lucrative form of slavery is sexual slavery.

In contrast to many short-crimes such as burglary, mugging or assault, the crime in

slavery can last days, weeks, years, or even decades. For the entire period that the crime

continues, the victim cannot report it and it continues being practiced clandestinely,

hidden from the society. This situation makes difficult to have a clear picture of the

scale of contemporary slavery, as abovementioned. The problem is compounded by the

fact that the victims of slavery-like abuses generally come from the poorest and most

vulnerable social groups. Therefore, their fear and the need to survive do not encourage

them to speak out. Some of the factors that contribute to the continuity of slavery are:

Poverty in the areas where slavery occurs

� Lack of financial institutions, which push poor people to borrow money from

unregulated money-lenders.

� Poverty can trap people in debt bondage, because interest may add burden to the

debt as fast as the person in debt can pay it off.

� Poverty also makes impossible for a worker to challenge an illegal labour

situation.


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Lack of alternatives

� If the alternative to slavery is starvation, then slavery might be seen as the “least

bad choice”.

� Employers restrict employment opportunities.

� Social systems, groups or institutions such as the caste a person belongs to may

restrict the labour choices of a person.

Barriers to the free movement of labour

� Poverty makes impossible for the poor to move to an area where they can get

employed as free workers.

� People may be prevented from moving to new areas to find work, for instance,

through the confiscation of the passport and other relevant documentation.

Population growth

� This situation has produced a vast pool of people in need of work.

International anti-slavery law is not effectively enforced

� There is a lack of institutions and procedures to enforce anti-slavery law.

� If the alternative to slavery is wholesale starvation, then the government may

choose not to enforce the law against slavery.

Corruption and crime

� Both are significant obstacles to the enforcement of anti-slavery laws in some

countries.

Global sales of goods using slave labour in the supply chain

� Many multinational corporations insist on proper labour practices by their

suppliers to promote their corporate image; although in the practice, profits are

often the main corporate goal.

3.2. Current situation

According to “Global Slave Index 2013”, the ten countries with the highest numbers of

enslaved people79 are India, China, Pakistan, igeria, Ethiopia, Russia, Thailand,

the Democratic Republic of Congo, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Taken together, these

countries account for 76% of the total estimate 29.8 million people in modern slavery80.

India is the country with the largest estimated number of people in modern slavery; debt

79 Figures provided in “absolute terms”. 80 The Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”, 2013, p. 7-9


44

bondage and bonded labour are the most common forms of slavery in this country. On

the other hand, if we focus on the prevalence81 of modern slavery the list of countries is

shown in the following table:

Figure 19: Countries with highest prevalence of Modern Slavery

Data source: Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”

Due to the high complexity that modern slavery entails, in this paper, we will only

explore the slavery practices that the previous countries in the ranking perform and

provide the list of international conventions that each country has ratified. Nevertheless,

it is very important to remember that almost all countries in the globe are directly or

indirectly related to the slavery-like practices worldwide.

MAURITAIA

Mauritania is a West African nation where hereditary slavery is still present; its

continuity is mainly because slavery practices are deeply entrenched in the countries’

culture. It is estimated that there are between 140,000 - 160,000 people enslaved in

Mauritania, while the country has a population of 3.8 million. High levels of child

marriage, sexual exploitation and human trafficking persist; although slavery also takes

form of chattel slavery - adults and children in slavery are the full property of their

masters - and can pass down through the generations. Harmful traditional practices such

as female genital mutilation are also frequent. It is estimated that about 4% of the

population in Mauritania is enslaved. Even though the country has ratified some

international conventions against slavery-like practices and slavery has long been

officially abolished there; the law has never been enforced. Furthermore, there is no

specific law regarding violence against women and marital rape is not considered a

crime.

81 Prevalence means the total number of people living in modern slavery in a given population at a specific time.


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Figure 20: International Conventions that Mauritania has ratified


HAITI

Haiti is a Caribbean country plagued by conflict and natural disaster. Due to the

catastrophic earthquake in January 2010, which killed an estimated 300,000 people and

forced an estimated 1.5 million into camps for IDP82, the country has been sunk in

extreme poverty. From that moment on, many parents were obliged to sell their children

in exchange of money to survive. As a consequence, the country has a large number of

children who serve in deplorable situations. These children are

called Restavec, which means “staying with”; and it is a term

used for children who are sent to live with other families as

slaves. The Restavec children are usually in a situation of

unpaid domestic service where they are deprived of their most

basic rights83.

Figure 21: Restavec child in Haiti Data source: Courageous Women, www.matenwa.org/CourageousWomen/index.htm

High levels of poverty combined with a lack of access to social services and

information regarding the dangers of human trafficking have allowed the Restavek

system of child labour to thrive in the

country. An estimated 200,000 -

220,000 people are in modern slavery

in Haiti, having the country a

population of 10.2 million.

Figure 22: International Conventions that Haiti has ratified Data source: Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”

82 Internally Displaced People 83 Restavec Freedom Alliance, BEM Inc. http://www.rfahaiti.org/


46

PAKISTA

Pakistan has a large population of displaced persons and weak rule of law. It is

estimated that there are between 2,000,000 - 2,200,000 people in various forms of

modern slavery in the country, which has a population of over 179 million people.

Poverty and illiteracy are severe in Pakistan, both of which make people, especially

children, vulnerable to various forms of modern slavery. Modern slavery practices can

be found in primary industries, manufacturing, commercial sexual exploitation, forced

begging and domestic servitude. Bonded labour is the greatest problem in Pakistan,

especially in the brick industry.

Figure 23: Child slaves in a brick kiln industry Data Source: Al-Jazeera, “Slavery, the 21st century evil”

Figure 24: International Conventions that Pakistan has ratified


IDIA

Poverty and the caste system in India are significant contributing factors to its modern

slavery problem. A full spectrum of different forms of modern slavery are exhibited in

the country; from severe forms of inter-generational bonded labour across various

industries to the worst forms of child labour, as well as forced and servile marriage.

According to the program “Slavery, the 21st century evil” from the Al-Jazeera television,

bride trafficking is a widespread practice in India84. Women are sold and usually sexual

abused and mistreated by their husbands.

84 The India’s “paros” refers to the practice of “bride buying” in the country.


47

Figure 25: Bride slave in India

Data Source: Al-Jazeera, “Slavery, the 21st century evil”

Sexual exploitation is also highly widespread in the country. Forced labour has been

identified in factory work, agriculture, brick making, mining and quarrying, the textiles

and garments industries, domestic work, and forced begging. Bonded labour is usual in

stone quarries, brick kilns, construction and mining. Reports consistently note that the

most significant challenge is the high number of Indian citizens in various forms of

modern slavery within India’s borders. People are not usually moved from one place to

another, they are enslaved in their own villages85. Furthermore, cross-border migration

affects India on a massive scale. Low skilled migrant workers - internal and foreign;

regular and irregular - are at

particular risk of exploitation. Many

Nepali and Bhutanese migrants86 fall

victim to unscrupulous exploiters

who take advantage of their

vulnerability as new arrivals.

Figure 26: International Conventions that India has ratified Data source: Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”

EPAL

Nepal is considered a source, transit and destination country for men, women and

children in modern slavery. Within Nepal itself, modern slavery takes the form of

forced labour, especially in brick kilns and embroidered textiles, as well as forced sex

work. Historical forms of bonded labour also persist in agriculture, cattle rearing, brick

kilns, the stone-breaking industry and domestic work. Large numbers of Nepali workers

migrate for work and many Nepali female migrant workers have been abused and

exploited. The line between legal and illegal recruitment is often drawn playing

corruption a role at many steps in the process.

85 Some reports suggest that 90% of trafficking in India is internal. 86 Citizens from Nepal and Bhutan are exempt from Indian migration visa regulations, situation that promotes migration.


48

Figure 27: International Conventions that Nepal has ratified


According to Lisa Kristina, walking through the brick kilns industry in Nepal - like in

India - is like walking among the Ancient Egypt. There are entire families working 16

hours per day or more, without brakes for food or water. Slaves work in silence.

Figure 28: Slaves in the brick kiln industry Data source: Lisa Kristine, http://www.lisakristine.com/

MOLDOVA

Moldova is a country that reflects regional inequalities and trafficking patterns. The fact

that its GDP is among the lowest in Europe creates a push factor for emigration. About

65% of Moldovan emigrants are less than 39 years old and leave the country for

employment opportunities abroad. Moldovan citizens have been identified in modern

slavery situations such as exploitation in the sex industry, construction, agriculture, and

domestic work. According to the Walk Free Foundation, trafficking for the purpose of

organ removal was identified in the country in the beginning of the millennium. The

most vulnerable Moldovan citizens to human trafficking are victims of domestic

violence, families in extreme economic hardship, single mothers and fathers, disabled

people and children whose parents are working abroad.


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Figure 29: Sex trafficking in Moldova Data source: Moldova.org

Figure 30: International Conventions that Moldova has ratified


BEI

Modern slavery in Benin involves mainly women and children who are trafficked

internally or from abroad for the purpose of sexual exploitation, domestic work or

forced labour. Children are usually trafficked mainly from Niger, Togo, Burkina Faso

and Nigeria; and some women from other parts of Africa, are trafficked through Benin,

mostly en route to Europe

Figure 31: International Conventions that Benin has ratified


CÔTE D’IVOIRE

Côte d’Ivoire is also a source, transit and destination country with victims subjected to

forced labour and sexual exploitation. The majority of victims are children who end up

in situations of forced labour in agriculture 87 , mining, fishing, construction and

domestic work. They are also forced to work as street vendors and shoe-shiners and

girls are trafficked both internally and from neighboring countries such as Benin,

Burkina Faso, Ghana, Nigeria Mali, Mauritania and Togo for the purpose of forced

87

Children working in cocoa farms is one of the worst forms of child labor that can be found in Côte d’Ivoire


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domestic work and sexual exploitation. Côte d’Ivoire’s primary export is cocoa,

providing 40% of the world’s cocoa;

which makes it the world’s leading

supplier. Many children subjected to

work in hazardous conditions in this

sector were discovered in the

beginning of the millennium88.

Figure 32: International Conventions that Côte d’Ivoire has ratified Data source: Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”

GAMBIA

The most prevalent forms of modern slavery in Gambia are forced begging, child

marriage, domestic servitude and forced prostitution, including child sex tourism89 .

Forced begging victims are primarily boys exploited by unscrupulous teachers in local

madrassas, which are religious schools where children study the Islam. Women, girls

and boys are trafficked to The Gambia from Senegal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ghana,

Nigeria, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau and

Benin for commercial sexual

exploitation; even in some Western

European countries.

Figure 33: International Conventions that Gambia has ratified Data source: Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”

GABO

Gabon is considered a destination and transit country for victims of modern slavery

from other parts of West and Central Africa. Girls and boys under 18 years old are

trafficked into and within Gabon. Girls are primarily trafficked into domestic

servitude90 or sexual exploitation, and boys are mainly used for manual labour in the

88 “Oversight of Public and Private Initiatives to Eliminate the Worst Forms of Child Labor in the Cocoa Sector in Côte d’Ivoire and Ghana” (2011) Payson Centre for International Development and Technology Transfer, Tulane University: http://www.childlabor-payson.org/ 89 Child sex tourism (CST) is tourism for the purpose of engaging in sexual acts with a child; child sex tourists may be preferential abusers, who deliberately seek out children for sex. 90 It is common practice in the West African region that a large number of young girls are entrusted as domestic workers to relatives or wealthy families.


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informal sector. Forced and child marriages are also common. Other forms of forced

labour include street vending and work in small workshops, agriculture, animal

husbandry, fishing, and mining. Children are often bought and sold without their

consent, and forced to work for no pay.

Figure 34: International Conventions that Gabon has ratified


3.3. Our behaviour in front of a case of slavery

Today, when a situation of extreme exploitation is detected, it is important to ask

ourselves: Can this person walk away? However, above all the core characteristics, the

most important is the presence of violent control. After violent control, slavery is

established and then it can take any of the aforementioned forms: human trafficking,

debt bondage, forced labor, among others. The next question is: what can we do in front

of a case of slavery? The treatment that a victim of slavery should differs according to

his/her situation. There are different stages in which a victim of slavery can be:

Process in which the victim is subject into slavery:

This person will probably be reluctant to speak about his/her situation. However, the

indicators outlined in the beginning of this paper can help us determine whether we are

in front of a case of slavery. If so, we should try to contact to an organization or

institution that supports victims of slavery or deals with migrant and non-discrimination

issues, in order to help the person to get out of his/her situation. It is not recommended

to help victims alone, since they are usually working for powerful people who have lots

of contacts, and can easily resort to any kind of threat to protect their interests.

Process of rehabilitation - The victim is no longer subjected to slavery:

It is of high importance to deal with a victim of slavery with normality; help this person

to regain his self-stem and dignity by encouraging him/her to reintegrate into the society.


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4. International protection

Slavery exists today despite the fact that it is illegal in all countries, even where it is

practiced. International concern regarding slavery and its suppression has been the

theme of many International Agreements of the 19th and 20th centuries; and nowadays

slavery is defined as a "crime against humanity", which is punishable by International

Law. With the formation of the United Nations in 1945, every member state

progressively outlawed slavery. The most relevant International Agreements adopted so

far, related to slavery or to a particular form of slavery, are the following ones:

UITED ATIOS

The Slavery Convention (1926): This Convention was the first international treaty

directly related to the issue of slavery, adopted by the League of Nations91. Slavery is

defined in the article 1(1) as “the status or condition of a person over whom any or all

of the powers attaching to the right of ownership are exercised”. The Convention also

defines slave trade and commits governments to abolish slavery92.

The Forced or Compulsory Labour Convention (1930): The Convention was

administered by the International Labour Organization (ILO) and includes forced or

compulsory labor in its definition of slavery. The article 2(1) defines forced or

compulsory labor as “all work or service that is exacted from any person under the

menace of any penalty for which the said person has not offered himself voluntarily93.”

The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948): According to the article 4 of

the UDHR: “6o one shall be held in slavery or servitude; slavery and the slave trade

shall be prohibited in all their forms94 .” The UDHR is a nonbinding treaty that

provides the normative basis for international human rights standards95. It is striking

and important to mention that all countries have supported and agreed with the

91 Predecessor of the United Nations 92 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), The Slavery Convention 1926, http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/38440/12815475701Slavery_Convention_%281926%29.pdf/Slavery%2BConvention%2B%281926%29.pdf 93 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), The Forced Labor Convention

(1930) http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/38445/12815485821ILO_Convention_29.pdf/ILO_Convention_29.pdf 94 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) http://www.ohchr.org/EN/UDHR/Documents/UDHR_Translations/eng.pdf 95 See Appendix 2: Portico of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by René Cassin


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Declaration. Furthermore, due to cultural relativism during the Cold War, the UDHR

was split into two separate treaties:

1) The International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)

2) The International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights

(ICESCR)

The Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and of the

Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1949): It was approved by the General

Assembly resolution 317. This legal instrument contributed in the consolidation of a

number of pre-existing treaties on the prohibition of slavery, trafficking in women and

children, and prostitution96.

Protocol Amending the Slavery Convention (1953): This protocol amended the

Slavery Convention signed in 1926 and was approved by the General Assembly

resolution 794. The States that ratified the Convention undertook to prevent and

suppress the slave trade and to bring about the abolition of slavery in all its forms97.

The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956): The United Nations agreed to

broaden the 1926 Convention's definition of slavery to include other slavery-like

practices such as debt bondage, servile forms of marriage, and the exploitation of

children and adolescents; as well as forced labor98. The Supplementary Convention has

been so far ratified by 123 States99.

Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (1957): This convention fully defined in its

article 1 the forms of slavery that U.N. members must commit to preventing in their

countries: "Each Member of the International Labour Organization which ratifies this

96 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), The Convention for the Suppression

of the Traffic in Persons and of the Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others (1949), http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/38444/12815479071Convention_for_the_Suppression_of_the_Traffic_in_Persons_and_of_the_Exploitation_of_Others.pdf/Convention%2Bfor%2Bthe%2BSuppression%2Bof%2Bthe%2BTraffic%2Bin%2BPersons%2Band%2Bof%2Bthe%2BExploitation%2Bof%2BOthers.pdf 97 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Protocol Amending the Slavery

Convention (1953), http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/38442/12815188621Protocol_amending_the_Slavery_Convention_%281953%29.pdf/Protocol%2Bamending%2Bthe%2BSlavery%2BConvention%2B%281953%29.pdf 98 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of

Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery (1956), http://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/SupplementaryConventionAbolitionOfSlavery.aspx 99 United Nations Treaty Collection, Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and

Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery, status at 28th March 2014, https://treaties.un.org/pages/ViewDetailsIII.aspx?&src=TREATY&mtdsg_no=XVIII~4&chapter=18&Temp=mtdsg3&lang=en


54

Convention undertakes to suppress and not to make use of any form of forced or

compulsory labour”. The Convention was administered by the ILO100.

The Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989): The Convention offers protection

to children at risk from sexual, economic, and other forms of exploitation, including

their sale, trafficking and involvement in armed conflict. The article 32 of this

Convention says: the "State Parties recognize the right of the child to be protected from

economic exploitation and from performing any work that is likely to be hazardous or to

interfere with the child's education or to be harmful to the child's health or physical,

mental, spiritual, moral or social development101.”

Convention concerning the Prohibition and Immediate Action for the Elimination

of the Worst Forms of Child Labour (1989): This Convention was administered by

the International Labor Organization. The ILO Convention bans the worst forms of

child labour including sale and debt bondage, forced labour, recruitment for armed

forces, prostitution, drug trafficking or other illicit activities and work which harms the

health, safety and morals of children.

The Palermo Protocols (2000) 102 : They were adopted by the United Nations to

supplement the 2000 Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime103 and

were administered by the UNODC. The protocols are:

� The Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons,

especially Women and Children

� The Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea and Air

� The Protocol against the Illicit Manufacturing and Trafficking in Firearms,

Their Parts and Components and Ammunition

Durban Declaration Against Racism Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and

Related Intolerance (2001): The United Nations World Conference Against Racism,

Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance took place in Durban,

100 International Labor Organization (ILO), Abolition of Forced Labor Convention (1957), http://www.ilocarib.org.tt/projects/cariblex/conventions_11.shtml 101 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, The Convention of the Rights of the Child (1989), http://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/crc.aspx 102 United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), The United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime and The Protocols Thereto, http://www.unodc.org/documents/treaties/UNTOC/Publications/TOC%20Convention/TOCebook-e.pdf 103 The Palermo Convention


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South Africa; over 7000 representatives from governments and civil society participated

in the Forum104.

How do the United Nations monitor if a country is committed to ensure human rights

for all its citizens?

� Each covenant/convention has a corresponding committee105.

� When a country signs up to a covenant/convention it must submit a report on

how the country is implementing the rights from the convention, to the

committee, every four years.

� The committee then reports back to the country on where it is falling short and

outlines recommendations on how the country can improve.

AFRICA UIO

African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights (1981): The Article 5 of the treaty

stipulates that "all forms of exploitation and degradation of man particularly slavery,

slave trade, torture, cruel, inhuman or degrading punishment and treatment shall be

prohibited106."

COUCIL OF EUROPE

European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental

Freedoms (1950): The article 4 of this treaty highlights the prohibition of slavery and

forced labor; it also defines what should not be considered forced or compulsory

labor107.

ORGAIZATIO OF AMERICA STATES (OAS)

American Convention on Human Rights (1969): The Convention entered into force

in 1978. The Article 6 (freedom from slavery) states that "6o one shall be subject to

104 United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Durban Declaration Against

Racism Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance (2001), http://portal.unesco.org/culture/en/files/19539/10812667841Durban_Declaration_2001.pdf/Durban_Declaration_2001.pdf 105 For example, the Convention on the Rights of the Child is monitored by the Committee on the Rights of the Child, the Convention against Torture is monitored by the Committee against Torture 106 African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights, African Charter on Human and Peoples' Rights, http://www.achpr.org/instruments/achpr/ 107 European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), European Convention on the Protection of Human Rights and

Fundamental Freedoms (1950), http://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Convention_ENG.pdf


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slavery or to involuntary servitude, which are prohibited in all their forms, as are the

slave trade and traffic in women108."

4.1. What can a victim or a witness of slavery do?

Being subject to slavery for a given period of time must be much more than horrible,

but the situation once the person is free is neither easy. Many victims after being freed

keep on feeling themselves vulnerable because they do not know who they can rely on.

Firstly, it is crucial that the victim ask for support and assistance to local non-

governmental organizations, associations or local institutions fighting against slavery or

assisting people in need. Secondly, denouncing the situation the person have suffered

from would contribute in reducing the power of employers, as many associations that

fight for this cause are unable to do anything unless they have a formal accusation.

However, this is usually a harsh process for the victim because it means that this person

will have to face, remember and cope with the burden of not forgetting the harrowing

experience lived until the process concludes, which can last years. For this reason, it is

crucial that people join movements against slavery and complain about this practice.

Furthermore, easy access to information about the local organizations operating in the

country must be directly provided to migrant people and citizens should have at least

some knowledge about such organizations.

Accordingly, there are a vast number of organizations and associations working to fight

slavery at the international, national and local levels. Some international non-

governmental organizations which are very active in organizing international campaigns,

bringing visibility to silent crimes and determining standards for the abolition of and

protection against any slavery-like practice are:

� Anti-Slavery International (ASI)

� Free The Slaves (FTS)

� Amnesty International (AI)

� Human Rights Watch (HRW)

� End Slavery 0ow109

� International Justice Mission (IJM)

108 Organization of American States (OAS), American Convention on Human Rights (1969), http://www.oas.org/dil/treaties_B-32_American_Convention_on_Human_Rights.htm 109 Charitable Organisation, http://www.endslaverynow.com/?goto=main&section=ngo


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Some examples of organizations that combat slavery at the national level are:

� Coalition to Abolish Slavery & Trafficking (CAST)

� SOS Slaves in Mauritania110.

� The 0ational Association for the Advancement of Colored People111 (NAACP)

is the oldest civil rights organization in the U.S.

Some organizations working to combat and prevent trafficking and sexual servitude are:

� La Strada112 works throughout Central and Eastern Europe to prevent trafficking

and assist victims of sexual servitude.

� The Coalition Against Trafficking in Women113 raises awareness

internationally on behalf of sexually exploited women.

� The Protection Project114 collects legal data and survivor stories regarding

trafficking in women and children.

An example of the many ongoing projects aiming at ending slavery is:

� Alliance To End Slavery and Trafficking115 (ATEST) is a coalition of diverse,

U.S.-based organizations, united by the shared goal of combating slavery; this

alliance was formerly known as the Action Group.

110 Two Mauritanian organizations - The underground movement El Hor (The Free) and SOS Esclaves - which were led by ex-slaves, work to free slaves at great risk in the country. 111 http://www.naacp.org/ 112 http://lastradainternational.org/about-lsi 113 http://www.catwinternational.org/ 114 http://www.protectionproject.org/ 115

http://www.endslaveryandtrafficking.org/


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FIELDWORK

IMPROVEMENT PLAN

Guidance for a global Human Rights Education Program

Argument of the Improvement Plan

Effective government policies, the rule of law, political stability as well as social and

economic development would make slavery less likely; as those who would exploit

vulnerable people would face higher penalties and greater risk of getting caught. A

fundamental factor in preventing slavery is “discrimination”. A society that does not

provide enough protection to women, ethnic groups or minorities leads them to become

vulnerable groups, more likely to become trapped into slavery. In this regard, education

in values is considered a pillar to sustain the social cohesion in a society and thus, avoid

discrimination. Nevertheless, this kind of education has been used throughout the

history, but often for bad purposes contrary to human rights, as occurred in Germany116,

Rwanda117 or in the ex Yugoslavia118. In all these countries education was an essential

tool in promoting fanaticism and hatred.

According to the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights,

“education shall be directed to the full development of the human personality and the

sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human rights and fundamental

freedoms119.” Several NGOs have been recently emphasizing the need to revise the

“education in values” that students receive, as education is considered a key mechanism

to solve the problems that the society faces. The number of students from other

countries, races, religions is progressively increasing in schools; therefore, it is of high

importance to deal with cultural diversity aligned with tolerance and respect. The more

cultivated is a society - especially in terms of values -, less intolerance, discrimination

and violence exist. In fact, Socrates had already come up with this idea. According to

116 Nazi Germany in the beginning of the 1940s 117 Rwanda Genocide in 1994 118 Yugoslavia conflict (1991-1999) 119 Article 13 of the International Covenant on Economic Social and Cultural Rights says: “The States Parties to

the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to education. They agree that education shall be directed to the

full development of the human personality and the sense of its dignity, and shall strengthen the respect for human

rights and fundamental freedoms. They further agree that education shall enable all persons to participate effectively

in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among all nations and all racial, ethnic or

religious groups, and further the activities of the United 6ations for the maintenance of peace”.


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the Greek philosopher, intellectualism allows that “a person will do what is right or best

just as soon as this person truly understands what is right or best”. This virtue is

considered a purely intellectual matter, since virtue and knowledge are cerebral relatives,

which a person accrues and improves with dedication and effort to reason. This concept

has been called the “Socrates’ Moral Intellectualism120”. Furthermore, it is crucial to

understand the concept of socialization in order to fully understand the importance of

education. Social institutions such as the family, the school and the media play a

fundamental role in this process of socialization.

The United Nations define Human Rights Education (HRE) as “education, training

and information aimed at building a universal culture of human rights through the

sharing of knowledge, imparting of skills and moulding of attitudes to prompt action

directed at strengthening respect for human rights, fundamental freedoms, tolerance,

equality and peace, among individuals, within societies and among nations121.” Human

Rights Education seeks that people perceive human rights as “a way of live”, not just

study them or like them. Once a person has truly assimilated the principles of human

rights, this person no longer considers discrimination, violence or intolerance part of the

society’s life; but behaviors to be rejected. In addition, this person will be able to act as

an “educator” and “student” at the same time, which means that this person will be able

to teach the principles of human rights to others and simultaneously, keep on enhancing

his knowledge in the field122. Therefore, the promotion of human right standards -

state responsibility to uphold human rights - and human rights culture - personal

responsibility to promote and protect human rights - are essential for a common

understanding and thus, a mutual respect, which will in turn, address political and social

differences equitably and celebrate cultural diversity. The main goal of HRE is to build

a culture of respect for and action in the defense and promotion of human rights for all.

For this reason, it is essential to be coherent in what we say and what we do, otherwise

we cannot be an example of human rights behavior to others.

120 Filosofía, “Sócrates: Intelectualismo moral”, 10 de agosto de 2012 http://filosofia-colegio.blogspot.com.es/2012/08/socrates-intelectualismo-moral.html 121 Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR), report on “Human Rights Education in Primary

and Secondary School Systems: A Self-assessment Guide for Governments”, 2012 http://www.ohchr.org/Documents/Publications/SelfAssessmentGuideforGovernments.pdf 122 Human Rights Education needs to be considered as a progressive learning in order to keep improving.


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Purpose and Scope

In a world experiencing rapid change in the traditional ways of life, education has a

major role to play in promoting social cohesion and peaceful coexistence through

engaging dialogue between students of different cultures, beliefs and religions.

Education can take place at any age, and through social institutions such as the family,

the community or the work environment. Since education has always been considered a

fundamental pillar in the evolution of a society, I reckon that if we - as a society -

concentrate intensive efforts on improving the international education system, human

rights violations such as slavery could be eradicated.

My idea consists on providing some advices I consider important to elaborate an

education program in order to achieve a human rights-based educational system.

Schools can effectively promote the human rights principles of equality and non-

discrimination, participation, inclusion, fairness, transparency and accountability, which

are crucial to establish a social environment that reflects and upholds human rights

values. An International Human Rights Education Program would not be difficult to

achieve if only there was political will, and empathy was an extended value in our

society. Nevertheless, the history tells us that most changes in the society have been

trigged by a young cultivated society. Accordingly, it would be necessary to start from

the very beginning: by educating children. Children properly educated in human rights

principles would grow up surrounded by the values of respect and solidarity. Then, most

of them would be able to face and not promote the vast economic interests that are

progressively damaging our world at fast speed. They would also take care of the Earth

and think on the future generations. The plan is intended to raise human rights

awareness in children and educate them against discriminatory attitudes and behaviors,

thus equipping them with skills to confront them. It aims to promote human rights

values through a cross-cultural understanding of injustices perpetrated in the present

world, by teaching children how to integrate the following values in their life:

� Diversity-oriented people

� Empathetic

� Respectful

� Non discriminative

� Peaceful


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� Solidarity

� Responsibility

� Fully aware of international human rights and thus, of their own rights

My proposal consists on providing guidance for an “international” plan with the same

principles of respect and empathy, where it does not matter the religion, the origin or

whatever feature that can make individuals different. The core principles should remain

the same. Sadly, I am fully aware that putting in practice such system would be

impossible without global political will and until the economic interests would not

interfere. Nevertheless, raising awareness of the successful and positive implications of

acting according to human rights principles can be a good beginning and a peaceful

weapon as powerful as any current weapon, but with the difference of not damaging and

hurting. The consequence of using this “peaceful weapon” is that the number of

conflicts would most likely decrease.

Methodology

In my opinion, it is important that children, from a very early age, have already some

contact or knowledge about the challenges that the world is facing (starvation, thoughts,

wars, and so on). The society tends to hide such situations because of the political and

economic interests that are behind, and many people grow up without being concern of

them. However, awakening the interest and curiosity of children, from the very

beginning, about the situation in the world and induce them to reflection from a global

approach, is more necessary than ever, especially due to the globalization process. The

education plan would mainly need the cooperation of non-governmental organizations.

Structure

Education Polices

� Human Rights Education is both an educational aim in itself and an approach to education delivery; by integrating HRE into the education content, kids learn about their rights and responsibilities in the society, and by integrating the promotion of human rights principles and fundamental freedoms into education delivery, they assimilate respect for human rights.

� Defining HRE objectives, standards, principles and outcomes as well as reflecting them consistently across the educational materials allows children to understand the importance of studying human rights’ issues.

� The process used to developed education policies must always be in line with human rights principles.


62

� The education policies should clearly indicate the desired change in the education content with regard to human rights. To do so, it is necessary to analyze the current situation in the education system and identify all the gaps as well as challenges that need to be addressed in order to introduce human rights principles in all dimensions of the education system.

� The teaching approach must be student-centered and it is crucial to use participatory learning methods.

� Clearly describe the structures and mechanisms for coordination and communication among stakeholders such as NGOs.

� Clearly indicate the desirable impact on children let by the integration of human rights in the educational content.

� Introducing HRE in schools implies that the children studying in these schools will become a model of human rights learning and practice.

Methodology

� Multicultural learning123. Children as major players in education should have direct and equal participation when addressing human rights’ issues.

� The participation of all children in promoting human rights should also be encouraged in extracurricular activities and to the whole community.

Class Activities � Topics to be addressed: introduction to human rights, history and philosophy

of human rights, human rights instruments, generations and categories of human rights; exploration of specific human rights issues, such as the right to life, freedom from torture, children’s rights, rights of persons with disabilities, migrants, refugees and minorities; mechanisms for defending human rights; what can be done when human rights abuses occur; and sensitize children with the mechanisms of exclusion and poverty.

� Use the “Service-learning” methodology124, which help children to learn and develop through active participation, dialogue and reflection upon a given service that is conducted in their communities.

� Given the fact that a better understanding of cultures makes easier to respect them, “Intercultural Education”125 should be directly linked to HRE. To do so, it is necessary to keep children in constant contact with other cultures126.

� Promote discussion with children on contemporary international affairs by providing real-life examples 127 . This practice would engage critical reflection on human rights violations.

� Share best practices at class through dialogue and mutual respect. In

123 The term multicultural describes the culturally diverse nature of human society, referring to elements of ethnic, national culture, linguistic, religious and socio-economic diversity. Multicultural learning is a learning process that allows students to develop a positive attitude of the diverse cultural groups, as well as to integrate and explore the rich tapestry of perspectives reflected in our diverse world. 124 KRISTINE BELISLE and ELISABETH SULLIVAN, “Human Rights Resources for Educators: Service-

Learning”, 2006, p. 23, http://www.hrea.org/pubs/AIUSA-HREA-ServiceLearning.pdf 125 According the article 8 of the UESCO Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions, interculturality has been defined as “the existence and equitable interaction of diverse

cultures and the possibility of generating shared cultural expressions through dialogue and mutual respect”. 126 If in the class there is no child from a different culture, organizing workshops could be a good option; whereas if there is cultural diversity in the class, peer learning and meditation should be put into practice besides the workshops. 127 For instance, explaining to children real stories about poor children at their same age who are living in difficult conditions and are suffering human rights violations in other parts of the world.


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addition, Internet enables children from different countries to compare their experiences. This practice helps them to learn about injustices as well as to enhance understanding about different cultures.

� Children at school should have the opportunity to volunteer in a developing country128 for some months or during the summer holidays. To do so, the children will have had basic lessons of international relations at school, then they will choose a country where to volunteer, and the necessary training as well as information about the country chosen will be provided to the child129. This practice would allow them to be able to compare the awful situation in which other children live with the comfortable situation the pupils have. These can result in a shocking experience for children; as a consequence, many of them will probably grow up looking at life differently to what they would have done if they had never experienced poverty before. In fact, this will probably contribute that children pay much more attention to their surroundings from a global approach, not only to their leisure life. This practice would promote experiential learning where human rights should be put into practice.

� All subjects - in particular history - need to be explained from a passionate point of view130.

� Use films and the theater131. � Provide children a space where they can voice their concerns on human

rights practices; the teacher would serve as the moderator. This activity will provide the children with the opportunity to share knowledge and learn from others’ experiences and thoughts, as well as raise their awareness of the international situation and thus, build their own worldview.

� Children could contribute in voluntary activities with the school132. � Lectures at schools from NGOs would probably be difficult because of their

lack of time and sometimes even resources. Therefore, a student - a different one each time - could go to a particular NGO, observe, follow the activities that NGOs tackle and then, go back to school and give the lecture. This exercise would also be a kind of training for children, as it would provide them with real experience and the challenge to having to explain what they have seen and learn to their other classmates.

� Incentives and rewards for students innovating with regard to the promotion of human rights should be taken into consideration.

Assessment � Check the fulfilment of the set objectives and examine the implementation

process as well as the performance. � Use self-evaluation as well as independent external evaluation to review

128 For example, the Erasmus System is used for university students in order to gain work experience; this would be a similar system, but instead of work experience, children would gain “life experience” during the school period. 129 In fact, this service is already provided by many NGOs; it would only be necessary to link this service to the education system. NGOs could also contribute in providing the training to children. 130 For example, the Second World War should not be explained as a line of facts and figures; showing shocking images using films or documentaries would raise the curiosity of kids and thus, a debate between the teacher and the children would begin. Once their attention is drawn, children are much more receptive to the educational content. 131 For instance, in the theater children can perform roles of people involved in unfair situations that are occurring around the world. Such practice might help them to be in the place of people suffering human rights violations. 132 For example, going to centers where poor people eat and assisting them or helping with the organization of campaigns for NGOs. Such practices would help children to understand what is the role and work of these institutions.


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implementation133. � Ongoing self-assessment is essential in order to continuously improve the

learning environment for human rights. � Acknowledge, collect, document, and disseminate the achievement of the

results, tools, lessons learned and good practices in human rights education, and made them available to the children, their families and the whole civil society (e.g. through the school website).

� The training and evaluation process make children cultivate greater sensitivity, understanding and acceptance of the values of diversity, multiple perspectives, equity, inclusion, social cohesion and human rights.

The learning Environment

� Teachers must have enough capacity and empathy to perform at the same time as guides and advisors of human rights principles. In addition, professional learning and networking opportunities for school personnel to empower them to promote a learning environment for human rights should be provided to educators.

� Educators must be coherent on what they teach and how they behave; they should be examples for children. If they start to be incoherent, it would be crucial that they stop teaching and meditate, rethink or do whatever is necessary to redirect the education process with the quality it deserves. Volunteering for some weeks in a developing country would also be a good way to keep coherence. Educators would disconnect from the comfortable life for some time. Such experience would help them to maintain a humble behavior, as well as be fully aware of the need to promote human rights.

� Provide lectures regarding different topics in the field of human rights to families, for being the first institution that are more in contact with children. Thus, it is necessary to keep coherent education at school and at home.

� Emphasis on equal participation between girls and boys in order to promote a genuine culture of peace and acceptance in the school environment.

� NGOs can provide assistance by giving lectures to children and helping with the training for those kids who would volunteer in a developing country.

Characteristics � School values and culture must promote equality, non-discrimination,

respect, peace, fairness, accountability, participation and inclusion. � School policies and codes of conduct should uphold shared responsibility

among children and the staff for the promotion of equality, respect and peaceful conflict resolution as well as a school free from discrimination, violence, sexual abuse and corporal punishment.

� School leadership and management practices should emphasize respect for rules and regulations that reflect human rights principles.

� Policies and procedures should always be developed and discussed with children in order them to start knowing the importance of being involved in political issues. In addition, rules imposed tend to be ineffective.

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Make sure that families also contribute in the assessment of the education system. This would be an easy way to

verify that we are all “in the same boat”.


65

FIAL REMARKS

1. Recommendations and Considerations

It would be interesting to launch the project at the local level, and once there is evidence

of improvements in the outcomes, the project could start to be expanded to other

countries, until reaching a global approach. Some would say that without “political will”

human rights violations will persist; however, could things change if there was “social

will”? The starting point would be that people with deep human rights values were

willing to share their knowledge to children in order to push for a real change. “Pushing

for a change” implies the need to eradicate situations of inequality, discrimination and

subordination. Even though we acknowledge that such situations exist, they can be

“transformed”. Since we - as a society - construct, learn and perpetuate these situations

from a cultural and social level, we can also deconstruct, unlearn and eradicate them.

So far, it has not been debatable that the worst enemy of a person is another person.

Nevertheless, what is perhaps most striking about the prevalence of slavery around the

world is how similar the lives of slaves are. Therefore, since all individuals deserve

humanity and human treatment, what can we do as civil society or as a single person?

Another starting point would be to rethink the impact of slavery on victims, in which

ways we are involved in, and how we can contribute to eradicate slavery-like practices.

Everyone has a contribution to achieve that the world we live in no longer tolerates

inhumane exploitation. A change in the world order would be necessary to eradicate

slavery practices. Therefore, it is of high importance to be aware of the outrageous

situations that slavery triggers. Some recommendations are presented below which

consists of very simple and easy contributions that everybody can do in his daily basis

and can have a huge impact on diminishing, and hopefully, eradicating slavery practices:

Recommendation 1

Many transnational companies use slavery workforce in some steps of its production

chain. As consumers, we contribute in the perpetuation of such practices just by buying

the foods of these companies. Thanks to the wide range of products and the vast amount

of information we can easily collect from companies through internet, we have a

tremendous opportunity to “choose” what kind of products to buy. The sentence “we are

what we eat” has much more importance that we may consider.


66

Recommendation 2

Explaining all the stories we heard or read about enslaved people to others will

contribute in raising their awareness of current slavery practices; which in turn, might

have a multiplying effect. Being aware of and concerned about what is occurring in our

world is the first step to prevent them.

Recommendation 3

Prevent young people from becoming vulnerable and provide them with humanistic

values by using human rights education at home. Also, bringing our children to schools

with a human rights-based approach will make a difference in their childhood and future.

Recommendation 4

Address problems from the roots in order to completely solve them, especially when

dealing with children and young people regarding systemic problems such as gender

issues, gender based-violence, racism and discrimination. The main goal consists on

looking for long-term gains, not just trying to solve short-term problems.

Recommendation 5

It is essential to listen to the victims and capitalize their skills so as they can regain their

dignity and restore their own lives. Some of these people have used their cruel

experiences to prevent others and help victims. However, paying attention to those

people who abuse of others is also of high importance. We cannot understand why a

person behaves in a particular way if we do not analyze his/her situation and the context;

and in order to prevent abusive practices it is vital to “understand” why they occur.

Recommendation 6

Since Human Rights are rights inherent to all human beings, whatever the nationality,

place of residence, sex, ethnic origin, color, religion, language, or any other status, it is

of high importance that we “know our rights” as human beings and that we learn to

complain of unfair situations in a peaceful way. This is a step forward in the prevention

of vulnerability.


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2. Conclusions

If children could grow up having some idea of the truth reality of the world, no matter

how cruel and deplorable the situations are, I do believe they would grow up having

much higher humanistic values than the majority of current children. Furthermore,

children would understand the great importance of knowing their own rights and how to

defend them, which in turn, could positively contribute in the fight against human rights

violations. Sadly I have heard from some people that they prefer not to be informed

about cruel practices - it is their way to feel less guilty -; however, in my opinion the

level of culpability is much higher in these cases. Since the world is becoming more

globalized, in which a global approach is necessary, we should consider the “world” our

“house”, a house in which all members should be respected (all the population).

Even though the article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights says that “all

human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights”, the reality is much

different; the contrast between poverty and wealthy is wider than ever, and the most

vulnerable groups lack protection. In fact, International Law says that the State has the

obligation to “guarantee” the liberty and security to all individuals under its jurisdiction.

Before starting this paper I had always related Human Rights to the education field,

arguing that education in values was the main tool to disseminate human rights

principles, which could be perceived in people’s behavior. Nevertheless, now I reckon

that this argument is not completely true. Education in Human Rights is just the first

step, the second one goes beyond. It consists on integrating and consolidating human

rights values and principles in our daily life. This would contribute in a social coherence

and harmony where human rights would remain at the top of the pyramid in terms of

social values and the state powers -executive, legislative, political, corporate, and so on-;

or better said, these powers should played their role within the society by integrating

human rights in all their polices or actions automatically. Therefore, an order should be

established: firstly, education in human rights and secondly, the consolidation of human

rights by the society to the extent that they are taken into account in our daily life. I also

used to believe that human rights education involved only two main players: the

educator and the student. An educator willing to teach human rights principles and

transmit human rights values; and a student who was motivated enough to learn any

issue concerning human rights. However, now I reckon that every single person should


68

behave as an “educator” and a “student” at any point of time in his life. As an educator,

a person would be able to disseminate human rights principles and values to others; and

as a student, the person would be a life-long learner in human rights’ issues, which in

turn, would allow the evolution of human rights. The consolidation of human rights

should be considered a dynamic process that goes in line with the evolution of the

society, but keeping always the “essence” and purpose of human rights.

The film industry has been a useful tool in disseminating historical tragedies such as

genocides or wars. In 2013 a film called “12 years a slave” received an international

recognition. Such sort of films is one of the many instrumental tools that can be used in

order to raise awareness of what slavery is and what does it entail; otherwise, this crime

against humanity would be even much more silenced.

Even though it is very difficult to eradicate slavery, it is very necessary to start attacking

discrimination, combating poverty, promoting education dedicated to justice and

tolerance, and providing access to justice for all. Finally, it is of high importance that

we ask ourselves what kind of world we live in when we allow such outrageous

practices to persist. We cannot deny the fact that is the human condition, which

encompasses the unique and common features of every human being, what makes us all

equal on the face of this Earth.


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BIBLIOGRAPHY

BLACK, J. (2011) “A brief history of Slavery”, (eds.) Constable & Robinson Ltd,

PARKER PEARSON, M. (2005) “Warfare, Violence and Slavery in Prehistory”, (eds.) BAR International, Oxford. Reviewed by JOSEPH CRANDALL, J., Department of Anthropology, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, United States. Available at: <http://scholarworks.umass.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1024&context=lov>

EQUIANO O. (1789) “The Interesting 6arrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano”, edited by Hogarth Blake Ltd, 2008. Link: <http://www.hh-bb.com/equiano.pdf>

BALES K. (2006), “Testing a Theory of Modern Slavery”, Yale University

ROBERT C. DAVIS (2004) "Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters - White Slavery In the

Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast and Italy"

JAMES H. SWEET (2003), “Spanish and Portuguese Influences on Racial Slavery in British

6orth America, 1492-1619”, Florida International University, available at: <http://www.yale.edu/glc/events/race/Sweet.pdf>

LOUIS HENKIN (1990), “The Age of Rights”, New York: Columbia University Press.

KRISTINE BELISLE and ELISABETH SULLIVAN (2006), “Human Rights Resources for

Educators: Service-Learning”. Available at: http://www.hrea.org/pubs/AIUSA-HREA-ServiceLearning.pdf

KILLIAN KEENAN (2013), “Keep the Change: Giving money to child beggars is the least generous thing a tourist can do”. SLATE.COM Online article available at:

http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2013/09/giving_money_to_child_beggars_don_t_do_it.html

Office of the High Commissioner for the Human Rights (OHCHR), <http://www.ohchr.org/EN/Pages/WelcomePage.aspx>

International Labor Organization (ILO) <http://www.ilo.org/global/lang--en/index.htm>

United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), <http://en.unesco.org/>

United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC), <https://www.unodc.org/>

European Court of Human Rights (ECHR), <http://www.echr.coe.int/Pages/home.aspx?p=home>

Organization of American States (OAS), <http://www.oas.org/en/default.asp>

The Walk Free Foundation, “The Global Slavery Index 2013”, available at: <http://www.ungift.org/doc/knowledgehub/resource-centre/2013/GlobalSlaveryIndex_2013_Download_WEB1.pdf>

Anti-Slavery International <http://www.antislavery.org.au/resources/fact-sheets/211-fact-sheet-13-what-is-the-difference.html>


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Free the Slaves, “Slavery in History”, <https://www.freetheslaves.net/SlaveryinHistory>

Free Walk <http://www.walkfree.org/learn/>

Human Rights Watch, “Child marriage: South Sudan”, <https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qFP4au5WbMQ>

Human Rights Education Association, “Slavery and forced labor”, <http://www.hrea.org/index.php?base_id=160>

The International Center for Research on Women (ICRW), <http://www.icrw.org/child-marriage-facts-and-figures>

Manos Unidas, “La Esclavitud hoy un problema de todos”. <http://www.manosunidas.org/publicaciones/folletos/n6/sumario.htm>

Arab Slave Trade <http://www.arabslavetrade.com/>

History World, “History of Slavery”, <http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/plaintexthistories.asp?historyid=ac41>

Enciclopedia Britannica, “Black History”, <http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24180>

Digital History, “The Middle Passage”, <http://www.digitalhistory.uh.edu/disp_textbook.cfm?smtID=2&psid=3034>

End the Slavery Now <http://www.endslaverynow.com/>

The Laogai Research Foundation, <http://www.laogai.org/>

Unites States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Center for Advanced Studies on Holocaust (2004), “Forced and Slave Labor in 6azi-Dominated Europe”, <file:///C:/Users/Usuari/Desktop/MASTER%20RI/TFM/THEORY/Papers/Read/Holocaust%20Mermorial.pdf>

Restavec Freedom Alliance, BEM Inc <http://www.rfahaiti.org/>

Al-Jazeera, “Slavery: a 21st century evil”, http://www.aljazeera.com/

GENERA - Association for the rights of women <http://www.genera.org.es/>

Vidas Esclavas <http://vidasesclavas.wordpress.com/>

Red Española contra la trata de personas <http://www.redcontralatrata.org/spip.php?article149>

Alliance Against Mondern Slavery <http://www.allianceagainstmodernslavery.org/information>

Coursera : « International Human Rights Law » and « Introduction aux Droits de l’Homme », https://www.coursera.org/courses


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APPEDIX 1

1700 – 1900: The Age of Abolition Begins

1781 The Emperor Joseph II abolishes serfdom in the Austrian Habsburg dominions.

1787 The Society for the Abolition of the Slave Trade was founded in Britain.

1789

On August 26th, during the French Revolution, the National Assembly adopts the “Declaration of the Rights of Man”, one of the fundamental charters of human liberties. The article 1 says: “Men are born and

remain free and equal in rights.”

1791 Toussaint Louverture led a slave rebellion in the French colony of Saint Domingue. By 1804, the French were expelled from the colony and independence was declared under its original Arawak name, “Haiti.”

1803 Denmark-Norway becomes the first country in Europe to ban the African slave trade.

1807

Thomas Jefferson signed the “Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves”, forbidding the importation of African slaves into the United States. After prolonged lobbying by abolitionists in Britain, led by William Wilberforce and Thomas Clarkson, the British Parliament makes illegal for British ships to transport slaves and for British colonies to import them.

1813 Sweden bans the African slave trade.

1814

During the Congress of Vienna, largely through the efforts of Britain, the assembled powers proclaim that the slave trade should be abolished as soon as possible. The Congress leaves the actual effective date of abolition to negotiation among the various nations.

1820 The government of Spain, pursuant to a treaty with Britain, abolishes the slave trade in the south of the Equator, although slave trade in Cuba continues until 1888.

1833

The British Parliament’s Factory Act of 1833 establishes a normal working day in textile manufacture. The act bans the employment of children under the age of 9 and limits the workday of children between the ages of 13 and 18 to 12 hours. The law also provides government inspection of working conditions.

1834

In Britain the “Abolition Act” of 1833 abolishes slavery throughout the British Empire, including its colonies in North America. The bill emancipates the slaves in all British colonies and appropriates nearly $100 million to compensate slave owners for their losses.

1837 Thomas F. Buxton begins a campaign to abolish coolie labor in India. After the abolition of slavery, this type of labor has become a preferred source of cheap labor.


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1840

The new British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society calls the first World Anti-Slavery Convention in London to mobilize reformers to monitor and assist abolition and post-emancipation efforts throughout the world. A group of abolitionists from the United States travels to London to attend the Convention, but Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott, as well as several male supporters, leave the meeting in protest when women are excluded from seating on the convention floor.

1848 After the French Revolution of 1848, the new government abolishes slavery in all French colonies.

1850

The government of Brazil adopts the Eusébio de Queirós Law, which ends the country’s participation in the slave trade. The law declares slave traffic to be a form of piracy and it prohibits Brazilian citizens from taking part in the trade.

1861 By decree Alexander II, czar of Russia, emancipates all Russian serfs, who number around 50 million.

1863

In the United States, President Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation takes effect, freeing all slaves in the U.S. except those in states, or parts of states, that were no longer under Confederate control.

The government of the Netherlands takes official action to abolish slavery in all Dutch colonies.

1888 Slavery ends in South America when the legislature of Brazil frees the country’s slaves by enacting the Lei Aurea (Golden Law)

1865 – 1920

Following the Civil War in the U.S., hundreds of thousands of African-Americans are re-enslaved in an abusive manipulation of the legal system called “peonage.” Across the Deep South, African-American men and women are falsely arrested and convicted of crimes, then “leased” to coal and iron mines, brick factories, plantations, and other dangerous types of work. The system begins to slow after the First World War, but it does not fully end until the 1940s.

1900 - 1950: Abolition Spreads Worldwide

1909

The campaign of the Congo Reform Association (CRA) to end forced labor in the Congo Free State succeeds. The CRA had its main objective the end forced labor in the Congo Free State (known today as the Democratic Republic of the Congo). King Leopold II of Belgium had undertaken personal administration of this huge territory and forced local people to produce rubber for sale in Europe, where an increasing number of cars and bicycles intensify demand for rubber tires. Workers who refused to labor for King Leopold’s officials had their hands cut off and their houses burnt and pillaged.

1910

The “International Convention for the Suppression of the White Slave Trade” is signed in Paris on May 4th. The Convention obligates the parties to punish anyone who recruits a woman below the age of majority into prostitution.


73

1913

In 1909, W.E. Hardenburg, an American civil engineer, had arrived in London with accounts of the inhuman exploitation of indigenous Indians in Peru by the Peruvian Amazon Company, a British entity. In the ensuing four years, the Indians have been trapped by debt and forced to work for the company, which exploited and tortured indigenous people. When journalists take up the story, there is a public outcry in Britain.

1915 The colonial government of Malaya officially abolishes slavery.

1919

The League of Nations is founded and its existence continues until the formation of the United Nations in 1946. The International Labor Organization (ILO) is founded to establish a code of international labor standards. The ILO seeks to solve problems and to make recommendations concerning pay, working conditions, trade union rights, safety, woman and child labor, and social security. It will be brought into relationship with the United Nations in 1946.

1920 Buxton’s Campaign against coolie labor (see 1837) succeeds.

1923 British colonial government in Hong Kong passes a law banning the selling of little girls as domestic slaves.

1926

The League of Nations approves the “Slavery Convention”, and more than 30 governments sign the document, which defines slavery as “status or condition of a person over whom any or all of the powers

attaching to the right of ownership are exercised.” Burma abolishes legal slavery.

1927 Slavery is legally abolished in Sierra Leone, a country founded as a colony by the British in the 18th century.

1929 To fully achieve the abolition of slavery, Burma begins to compensate slaveholders for their “losses”.

1930 The “Forced Labor Convention” is issued due to the combined efforts of the League of Nations and the International Labor Organization. The Convention seeks to protect the rights of colonial laborers.

1936 Pursuant to a treaty with Great Britain, Ibn Sa’ud, King of Saudi Arabia, issues a decree ending the importation of new slaves into the country, regulating the condition of existing slaves and providing manumission.

1938

The Japanese military establishes “Comfort Stations” (brothels) for Japanese troops. Thousands of Korean and Chinese women are forced into sexual slavery during the years of World War II as “military comfort women.”

1939 - 1945 The German Nazi government uses slave labor throughout the war in farming and industry. Up to 9 million people are forced to work until they are worn out, at which time they are sent to concentration camps.


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1941

The campaign to protect children in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) succeeds with the passage of the “Adoption of Children Ordinance Law”, which ensures the registration of all children who are adopted and requires regular inspections to prevent adopted children from working as slaves.

1948 The United Nations produces the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Article 4 provides: “6o one shall be held in slavery or servitude;

slavery and the slave trade shall be prohibited in all their forms.”

1949

The “Convention for the Suppression of the Traffic in Persons and Exploitation of the Prostitution of Others” prohibits any person from procuring, enticing, or leading away another person, for the purposes of prostitution, even with the other person’s consent. The convention consolidates earlier laws and will form the legal basis for the international protection against traffic in people until the present day.

1950 - 1999: Abolition in Recent Times

1950 – 1989

During the Cold War much of the anti-slavery work in international bodies such as the U.N. and the ILO slows as the Soviet bloc argues that slavery can only exist in capitalist societies, and the Western Bloc argues that all people living under communism are slaves. The result is that both new and traditional forms of slavery in the developing world receive little attention.

1954 China passes the State Regulation on Reform through Labor allowing prisoners to be used for labor in the laogai prison camps.

1956 The Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery regulate practices involving the sale of wives, serfdom, debt bondage and child servitude.

1957 The British and Foreign Anti-Slavery Society changes its name to the Anti-Slavery Society for the Protection of Human Rights. (In the 1990’s the name will be changed to Anti-Slavery International.)

1962 Saudi Arabia and Yemen abolish slavery.

1964 The 6th World Muslim Congress pledges global support for all anti-slavery movements.

1973 The U.N. General Assembly adopts the “International Convention on the Suppression and Punishment of the Crime of Apartheid”.

1974

Leaders of El Hor in Mauritania insist that emancipation is impossible without realistic means of enforcing the anti-slavery laws and providing former slaves with the means of achieving economic independence. The influence of El Hor was strong, and the organization still exists today.

1975 The UN Working Group on Contemporary Forms of Slavery is formed to collect information and make recommendations on slavery and slavery-like practices around the world.

1976 India passes a law banning bonded labor, but the practice still persists.


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1977 The ILO adopts a Tripartite Declaration of Principles concerning Multinational Enterprises and Social Policy, a set of recommended standards with no means of enforcement.

1980

Slavery is abolished for the 4th time in the Islamic republic of Mauritania, but the situation is not fundamentally changed. Although the law decrees that “slavery” no longer exists, the ban does not address how masters are to be compensated or how slaves are to gain property.

1989

The National Islamic Front takes over the government of Sudan and begins to arm Baggara tribesmen to fight the Dinka and Nuer tribes in the south of the country. These new “militias” raid villages, capturing and enslaving the inhabitants. The U.N. Convention on the Rights of the Child seeks to promote the basic health care and education of the young, as well as their protection from abuse, exploitation or neglect, at home, at work, and in armed conflicts. All countries ratify the convention with the exception of Somalia and the United States of America.

1992 The Pakistan National Assembly enacts the “Bonded Labor Act”, which abolishes indentured servitude and the peshgi (bonded money) system. Unfortunately, the government failed to enforce the law’s provisions.

1994 The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) adopts the “Declaration and Decisions on International Investment and Multinational Enterprises”.

1995

The U.S. government issues the Model Business Principles, a voluntary model business code. The Principles urge all businesses to adopt and implement voluntary codes of conduct, including the avoidance of child and forced labor, as well as discrimination based on race, gender, national origin or religious beliefs. Christian Solidarity International, a Swiss based charity, begins the campaign to liberate slaves by buying them back in Southern Sudan. The policy ignites widespread controversy among international agencies, which cite that buying back slaves supports the market in human beings and feeds resources back to slaveholders.

1996

The International Organization of Employers, a subsidiary of the ILO, calls on employers and employers’ organizations immediately to end slave-like, bonded and dangerous forms of child labor and simultaneously to develop formal policies with a view toward the eventual elimination of child labor in all sectors. The Rugmark campaign is established in Germany to ensure that hand woven rugs were not made with illegal slave labor. The Rugmark seal guarantees that the entire production of the rug was made without slave or child labor. In 2010, RugMark changes its name to GoodWeave. The World Congress against Commercial Sexual Exploitation of Children is held.


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1998

The Global March against Child Labor is established. This organization plans and coordinates demonstrations against child labor worldwide. One aim is a new Convention in the U.N. on the Worst Forms of Child Labor.

1999

A consortium of non-governmental agencies calls for international aid and a cease-fire in Sudan to help end slavery there. The United Nations collects sufficient evidence to condemn government-sponsored slavery in Burma. The ILO passes the “Convention against the Worst Forms of Child Labor”, which establishes widely recognized international standards protecting children against forced or indentured labor, child prostitution/pornography, use of children in drug trafficking, and other work harmful to the health, safety, and morals of children. The “Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Woman and Children”, supplementing the United Nations Convention Against Transnational Organized Crime is signed with the purpose of combating trafficking in women and children, assisting trafficking victims, and promoting cooperation between countries for the purpose of accomplishing anti-trafficking goals.

2000 - Present: Abolition in the 21st Century

2000

Free the Slaves, the American sister-organization of Anti-Slavery

International, is launched in the United States. The government of Nepal bans all forms of debt bondage after a lengthy campaign by human rights organizations and freed laborers. The “Trafficking Victims Protection Act” is passed by U.S. Congress for the purpose of combating the trafficking of persons as a form of modern slavery. The U.N. General Assembly adopts the Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict to the Convention on the Rights of the Child, establishing 18 as the minimum age for engagement in armed conflict or compulsory recruitment into armed groups. The Protocol enters into force in 2002.

2001

The documentary film Slavery: A Global Investigation, which is the first major documentary film on contemporary slavery, is broadcast in the U.S. and Europe, breaking the story of slavery and forced child labor in the cocoa and chocolate industry.

2002

The countries of the Economic Community of Western African States (ECOWAS) agree on an action plan to confront slavery and human trafficking in the region. The International Cocoa Initiative is established. The “Optional Protocol on the Convention of the Rights of the Child” is promulgated with specific attention paid to the sale of children and child prostitution.

Slavery: A Global Investigation

2003 The U.S. Congress issues the Reauthorization Bill approving continued funding for the Trafficking Victims Protection Act of 2000.


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2004 Brazil launches the National Pact for the Eradication of Slave Labor. The U.N. appoints a Special Rapporteur (Reporter) on Human Trafficking.

2005 The ILO publishes the Global Report on Forced Labor.

Appendix 1: Key dates in the Abolitionist Movement of Slavery Data source: Free the Slaves. Adapted from “6ew Slavery: a Reference Handbook” by Kevin Bales, 2nd

Edition, Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2004, pp. 55-68

APPEDIX 2

Appendix 2: René Cassin’s portico of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

Data source: Reproduced in Mary Ann Glendon, “A World Made 6ew: Eleanor Roosevelt and the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights (2002)”. Course undertaken in “International Human Rights Law: Prospects and Challenges” by Prof. Laurence R. Helfer, Duke University, April 2014 (Coursera)

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