Convergence of Personality and Interests: Meta-Analysis of the Multidimensional Personality...

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Journal of Career Assessment

DOI: 10.1177/1069072707305760 2007; 15; 423 Journal of Career Assessment

Gena D. Staggs, Lisa M. Larson and Fred H. Borgen Personality Questionnaire and the Strong Interest Inventory

Convergence of Personality and Interests: Meta-Analysis of the Multidimensional

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Convergence of Personality and Interests:Meta-Analysis of the MultidimensionalPersonality Questionnaire and the Strong Interest Inventory

Gena D. StaggsLisa M. LarsonFred H. BorgenIowa State University

Using meta-analysis, we revised Ackerman and Heggestad’s (1997) identification of four trait complexes that propose personality and interest (P-I) linkages. Studies thathad reported correlations between general and specific measures of vocational interests(Strong Interest Inventory [Strong; Hansen & Campbell, 1985; Harmon, Hansen,Borgen, & Hammer, 1994]) and personality (Multidimensional Personality Question-naire [MPQ: Tellegen, 1982, 2000; Tellegen & Waller, in press]) were located. These meta-analysis was based on 2,023 people from five databases including giftedadolescents, college students, and adult career clients. The substantive P-I correlationsranged from |.20| to |.49|—reflecting between 4% and 24% shared variance. Within the Science/Math complex, we found Harmavoidance to be negatively linked with Realistic and Science interests and Achievement to be positively linked withInvestigative, Math, and Science interests. Within the Intellectual/Cultural complex,Absorption was related to general and specific Artistic interests. Within the Social com-plex, Social and Enterprising interests were differentiated based on the former beingrelated positively to Wellbeing and negatively to Aggression and the latter being relatedpositively to Social Potency. Sex was not found to be a substantial moderator of P-I correlations.

Keywords: personality, interests, trait complexes, Multidimensional PersonalityQuestionnaire, Strong Interest Inventory, convergence, meta-analysis

Efforts by psychologists to answer the question of how individual differencescontribute to important vocational outcomes have resulted in the emergence ofseveral integrative models. Interest and personality are two central constructs insuch models. For example, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) proposed a modelwhereby interests provide the motivation for the selection of activities, whereas

423

Correspondence should be addressed to the second author at [email protected]; W116 Lagomarcino, IowaState University, Ames, IA 50011; fax: (515) 294-6424.

JOURNAL OF CAREER ASSESSMENT, Vol. 15 No. 4, November 2007 423–445DOI: 10.1177/1069072707305760©2007 Sage Publications



personality and abilities determine the success of those actions. Lubinski andBenbow (2000) described a model whereby people are drawn to occupationaland educational activities by their interests, personality, and abilities; and overtime, occupational niches are created based on these stable predispositions.Other efforts toward broad-scale synthesis include theoretical, literature-basedreviews (e.g., Holland, 1999; Walsh & Eggerth, 2005) and meta-analytic reviews(i.e., Barrick, Mount, & Gupta, 2003; Larson, Rottinghaus, & Borgen, 2002).One area of focus in this literature has been the question of whether and how thedomains of interest and personality intersect within individuals. With ampleempirical support for at least moderate degrees of overlap between certain broadinterest and personality domains, the focus of research has shifted from questionsof the existence of personality–interest (P-I) overlap to investigations of the natureof this overlap, the specific loci of convergence and distinction, and the con-struction of models that explain shared underlying dimensions and developmen-tal pathways for the two domains.

The two meta-analyses yielded similar results, providing consensus of P-I conver-gence at the broad level of the Big Five personality model and Holland’s Big Sixtypology of interests. Holland’s Big Six (or RAISEC) is comprised of Realistic,Investigative, Artistic, Social, Enterprising, and Conventional domains. The follow-ing are the four strongest correlations found by Larson et al. (2002) and Barrick et al. (2003), respectively: (1) Openness with Artistic (.48, .39), (2) Extraversion withEnterprising (.41, .41), (3) Extraversion with Social (.31, .29), and (4) Opennesswith Investigative (.28, .25).

The existing conceptual and empirical reviews provide the foundation for theorydevelopment and counseling applications in the areas of vocational and educationaloutcomes. For example, the Extraversion-Enterprising overlap provides informationto the vocational counselor who has two clients, one extraverted and one intro-verted, who each have enterprising interests and are considering careers in sales.The client who is extraverted is more likely to enjoy and be successful at sales thanthe second client who does not have the extraverted personality disposition.

Although such broad-level applications are useful in providing general direction,they lack the specificity that is possible and necessary for more complex career coun-seling and theory development. Several psychologists have moved beyond thesebroad-scale analyses toward mapping more precise P-I convergence (e.g., Blake &Sackett, 1999; Waller, Lykken, & Tellegen, 1995). Sullivan and Hansen (2004) pro-vide an example of the usefulness of examining personality traits at a more preciselevel. They found that extraversion’s underlying facets (e.g., warmth vs. assertive-ness) related differentially to enterprising and social interests. This work demon-strates the value of differentiating the social dominance component of extraversionfrom the sociability component—a distinction that is not possible by simply exam-ining extraversion at the broader level. Returning to the counseling example, theextraverted client who expresses interest in a sales career is more likely to be suc-cessful and happy in that career if she has the assertiveness/social dominance dispo-sition that is related to enterprising interests than if she possesses primarily thewarmth/sociability disposition that is related to social interests.

424 JOURNAL OF CAREER ASSESSMENT / November 2007



Psychologists have also begun to examine interest correlates at a more precise levelthan the RIASEC, often by incorporating the Basic Interest Scales (BISs) of the StrongInterest Inventory in addition to the Strong's general Occupational Themes (GOTs)(Strong; Hansen & Campbell, 1985; Harmon, Hansen, Borgen, & Hammer, 1994).Findings of such studies indicate that greater specificity in interest assessment leads tomore precision in the prediction of important vocational outcomes such as educa-tional major (e.g., Gasser, Larson, & Borgen, in press) and occupational category (e.g.,Donnay & Borgen, 1996).

Waller et al. (1995) were the first to calculate and conceptualize the interrelat-edness of interest and personality variables at a more precise level in both domains.Waller et al. measured precise interests by developing 25 interest categories. To mea-sure personality more precisely, they implemented the 11 lower-order constructs ofTellegen’s Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire (MPQ; Tellegen, 1982,2000; Tellegen & Waller, in press). The MPQ identifies three overarching factors(rather than five) and 11 primary scales that are subsumed under the Big Three. Thehigher-order factors are Positive Emotional Temperament (PEM), NegativeEmotional Temperament (NEM), and Constraint (CT). The factors PEM andNEM are interpreted as complementary emotional temperament dimensions, andCT as a behavioral constraint parameter. The 11 primary scales are Wellbeing,Social Potency, Achievement, Social Closeness, Stress Reaction, Alienation,Aggression, Control, Harmavoidance, Traditionalism, and Absorption.

Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) also examined correlations between interestmeasures and the specific primary scales of the MPQ to conceptualize P-I conver-gence. As part of a larger study focused on intelligence, Ackerman and Heggestad(1997) proposed that specific personality traits, interests, and abilities converge toform four major trait complexes, namely Science/Math, Intellectual/Cultural,Social, and Clerical/Conventional. Drawing from only a few empirical studies thatreported P-I correlations between diverse measures of the RIASEC and three mea-sures of personality, including the MPQ, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) identi-fied the largest correlations (generally > |.20 |) believed to be the most meaningfulfor depicting coherent sets of relations. Ackerman (2000) found support for themodel; these trait complexes differentiated subtypes of adults based on their univer-sity major. Likewise, Ackerman and Beier (2003) provided evidence that these com-plexes differentially predicted career choice.

The P-I convergence articulated in Ackerman and Heggestad’s (1997) model isconsistent with the four main relations reported by the Big Five/Big Six meta-analyses—namely, Investigative (I) and Artistic (A) interests with Openness, and Social(S) and Enterprising (E) interests with Extraversion. Ackerman and Heggestad alsoemphasized relations between Conventional (C) interests and Conscientiousness.

Beyond the Big Five/Big Six relations, Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) proposedthe following P-I convergence between the RIASEC and the MPQ scales. Withinthe Science/Math complex, they identified realistic and investigative interests butno personality attributes. Within the Intellectual/Cultural trait complex, they iden-tified Absorption as most associated with artistic interests. Within the Social com-plex, they related personality traits of Social Potency and Wellbeing to social and

Staggs et al. / META-ANALYSES OF SPECIFIC P-I CONVERGENCE 425



enterprising interests. Within the Clerical/Conventional complex, they proposed thatControl and Traditionalism were associated with conventional interests. A systematicexamination of their conceptual map, noteworthy for including personality traitsmore specific than the Big Five, has not been done. One purpose of this article is toinvestigate how existing data support the proposed P-I relations of their model.

For career counselors, using these trait complexes is appealing. Instead ofthinking about a grid involving multiple personality factors, vocational interests,and abilities of the clients, the counselor can hone in on a specific complex thatseems most suited to the particular client. For example, for undecided clientswho seem open to multiple experiences, counselors may speculate that theseclients would be well suited for majors in the arts, theatre, literature, or music,and that they would enjoy learning and writing. In fact, verbal abilities and crys-tallized intelligence have been most associated with the Intellectual/Culturalcomplex (e.g., Ackerman & Heggestad, 1997; Ackerman, Kanfer, & Goff, 1995).

In addition to studies already mentioned, several studies have examined theinterrelatedness of MPQ dimensions and vocational interests since Ackerman andHeggestad (1997) proposed their integrated model. The following studies wentbeyond measuring general P-I overlap and are noteworthy for implementing themore specific BISs of the Strong. Morfitt (1998) sampled adult career clients inmetropolitan Minnesota. Schmidt (1998) and Larson and Borgen (2002) sampledintellectually gifted adolescents from Iowa and Nebraska, respectively. Larson,Borgen, and Gasser (2003) and Staggs, Larson, and Borgen (2003) sampled collegestudents in Iowa. Combined with studies such as Waller et al. (1995) and Blake andSackett (1999), some empirical patterns have begun to emerge. Most of the link-ages extend beyond the general P-I relations reported in prior meta-analyses(Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002).

EMPIRICAL FINDINGS OF P-I CONVERGENCE PROPOSED BY ACKERMAN AND HEGGESTAD (1997)

In relation to Ackerman and Heggestad’s (1997) four-complex model, some oftheir proposed P-I links have been supported by subsequent empirical data. Forother links, the data provide mixed or contradictory findings.

Science/Math Complex

Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) did not propose any substantial P-I linkageswithin this complex. However, researchers have found that people who show littleHarmavoidance—the tendency to avoid excitement and danger and prefer safe activ-ities (Tellegen & Waller, in press)—may generally prefer vocational pursuits that arecharacteristic of the realistic and investigative domains, specifically skilled trades,mechanical activities, and science/exploring (Kanfer, Ackerman, & Heggestad,1996; Larson & Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al., 2003; Waller et al., 1995). The substan-tial correlations between Harmavoidance and the Realistic GOT are particularly




noteworthy given that Big Five/Big Six meta-analyses (Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002) did not report any substantial P-I correlations involving Realistic inter-ests. Moreover, Larson and Borgen and Staggs et al. found that people who expressmore orientation to Achievement—the tendency to work hard and enjoy demand-ing projects (Tellegen & Waller, in press)—may have more investigative interests,specifically in science.

Intellectual/Cultural Complex

Absorption, the tendency to be responsive to evocative sights and sounds (Tellegen& Waller, in press) strongly relates to artistic interests generally (Ackerman, 2000;Blake & Sackett, 1999; Larson & Borgen, 2002; Morfitt, 1998; Staggs et al., 2003).Absorption also has been related specifically to Holland’s artistic interests in art, writ-ing, and music/drama (Larson & Borgen; Staggs et al.).

Social Complex

Ackerman and Heggestad’s (1997) model does not differentiate between person-ality traits that relate more or less to enterprising versus social interests. However, sup-port for a distinction has emerged in the literature. Social Potency captures the socialdominance aspect of PEM, namely being forceful, decisive, and influential (Tellegen& Waller, in press). It seems to be positively related to enterprising-type interests(Blake & Sackett, 1999; Larson & Borgen, 2002; Morfitt, 1998; Staggs et al., 2003;Waller et al., 1995). On the other hand, Wellbeing, which captures cheerfulness and a happy disposition, seems to be more associated with social interests (Larson &Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al.).

In addition, Social Closeness—the tendency to be sociable, like people, and turnto others for comfort (Tellegen & Waller, in press)—has been linked to social inter-ests (Ackerman, 2000; Larson & Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al., 2003), a finding whichis consistent with the relations Sullivan and Hansen (2004) reported betweenWarmth and social interests. Finally, a substantial relation not proposed byAckerman and Heggestad (1997) has been reported between Traditionalism—thetendency to desire a conservative social environment and endorse high moral stan-dards (Tellegen & Waller, in press)—and the Religious Activities BIS, which is oneof the Social BISs (Larson & Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al.).

Clerical/Conventional Complex

Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) proposed that Control and Traditionalismwould relate to conventional interests. However, the relation between Control—characterized by being reflective, cautious, careful, rational, and planful (Tellegen& Waller, in press)—and conventional-type interests has been mixed. Some studiesfound substantive relations (Morfitt, 1998; Waller et al., 1995), whereas otherresearchers did not (Blake & Sackett, 1999; Larson & Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al.,2003). Traditionalism has not been shown to relate to conventional interests.




P-I CONVERGENCE OF THE MPQ’S BIG THREE WITH GENERAL AND SPECIFIC INTERESTS

Conceptual work has not specifically articulated the intersection of the MPQ’sBig Three with vocational interests. In the empirical work, PEM was positivelycorrelated with the Investigative and Social GOT, and with two EnterprisingBISs—namely, Public Speaking and Organizational Management (Larson &Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al., 2003). It appears that NEM relates minimally tovocational interests in general (Blake & Sackett, 1999; Morfitt, 1998; Larson &Borgen, 2002; Staggs et al., Waller et al., 1995). Constraint correlated inverselywith the Realistic GOT and the Mechanical Activities BIS in the Staggs et al.study, but did not predict as much variation in those interest scales as did the CT-affiliated primary trait, Harmavoidance. In the Larson and Borgen (2002) study,Constraint correlated inversely with the Realistic GOT and positively with theSocial GOT, the Religious Activities BIS, and the Domestic Arts BIS. (The lastscale was a 1985 Strong Social BIS of the 1985 Strong.)

SUMMARY OF DISCREPANCIES AMONG P-I RESEARCH

The above discussion reveals considerable agreement across recent studies; how-ever, a number of discrepancies also exist and warrant further investigation. Severalcorrelation differences were quite substantial between Larson and Borgen (2002)and Staggs et al. (2003), such as the correlations of Harmavoidance with theMathematics BIS (–.08, –.39), PEM with the Music/Dramatics BIS (.08, .27), andStress Reaction with the Religious Activities BIS (.07, –.28), respectively. Also note-worthy is the finding that the third Investigative BIS, Medical Science, correlatedwith Harmavoidance quite differently in the Staggs et al. study (.03) than in theLarson and Borgen study (–.20). Finally, some relations involving conventionalinterests, CT, and CT-affiliated traits of Control and Traditionalism were posited orsupported by Blake and Sackett (1999), Waller et al. (1995), or Morfitt (1998), butwere not substantial in the results of Larson and Borgen (2002) and Staggs et al.

THE PRESENT STUDY

One purpose of this study is to empirically test Ackerman and Heggestad’s (1997)assumptions of P-I convergence by synthesizing studies that used specific scales ofthe MPQ and the Strong. A second purpose is to propose some specific P-I linkagesnot identified by the two prior meta-analyses or by Ackerman and Heggestad.Finally, we will shed some light on the discrepancies and mixed findings.




In essence, the present study aims to enhance the usefulness of P-I conver-gence data for counseling applications and theory development by clarifyingareas of both convergence and divergence between specific domains of interestand personality. That is, we would like to estimate population parameters relat-ing specific personality traits to general and specific interests. Meta-analysis isideally suited for combining individual samples in a manner that increases theprecision of population parameters, with 95% confidence intervals around theestimates (Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Wang & Bushman, 1999). For practical pur-poses, this allows vocational counselors to substantiate some hunches while dis-pelling other beliefs that are not supported by the data. Moreover, results can begeneralized to those populations from which the samples were drawn.

Meta-analysis was conducted to determine effect sizes across P-I studies con-ducted to date that used the MPQ’s Big Three and 11 primary scales to measure per-sonality traits and the Strong’s 6 GOTs and 25 BISs to measure interests. Forprecision and clarity, we chose to exclude studies measuring interests that did notmap onto Holland’s RIASEC model. Using the two prior meta-analyses (Barrick et al., 2003; Larson et al., 2002) and the conceptual review by Ackerman andHeggestad (1997) as guides, we made suppositions about those effect sizes ≥ |.20|.The proposed P-I linkages are presented in Figure 1.

Predicted Relations

Within the Science and Math complex, we anticipated that Harmavoidancewould inversely relate to the Realistic GOT generally, and to the MechanicalActivities and Agriculture BISs specifically. We also expected Harmavoidance toinversely relate to the Investigative GOT generally, and to the Science BIS in spe-cific. Finally, we expected Achievement to relate to the Investigative GOT and theScience BIS. Within the Intellectual/Cultural trait complex, we expected thatAbsorption would relate generally to the Artistic GOT and specifically to the Writing,Art, and Music/Drama BISs. Within the Social complex, we expected Social Potencyto relate to the Enterprising GOT as well as to the Enterprising BISs of PublicSpeaking, Law/Politics, Merchandising, Sales, and Organizational Management.Finally, we predicted that the Social GOT would relate positively to Wellbeing andSocial Closeness, and negatively to Aggression—an inverse marker for the Big FiveAgreeableness factor.

METHOD

Literature Search Procedure

An exhaustive search of the literature was conducted to identify published andunpublished studies in which participants’ vocational interests were measuredaccording to Holland’s RIASEC model, and participants’ personality traits were




measured using the MPQ. The primary literature search was conducted withPsychLit and ERIC databases (no restrictions) using keywords “MPQ” and“Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire.” Each title and abstract of theidentified MPQ studies (n = 163) was examined to identify studies that adminis-tered both the MPQ and an interest measure. A second computer search wasconducted of PsychLit and ERIC databases using the pairing of keywords forinterests, vocation, and personality (e.g., “int* and personal*”). In this manner,all studies including pairings of any form of these keywords were identified. Thislist of studies was reviewed to identify any studies possibly missed in the initialsearch. In addition, reference lists in relevant review articles, chapters, and bookswere reviewed.

As a result of these searches, nine studies were identified for possible inclusion.All but one of the nine studies measured interest with either the 1985 Strong(Hansen & Campbell) or the 1994 Strong (Harmon et al.). The Waller et al. (1995)study was excluded because they developed a unique occupational interest measurenot related to Holland’s RIASEC (1999). Three other studies (i.e., Blake & Sackett,


R

SE

I

A

Science/Math

Intellectual/Cultural

Social

HARMAVOIDANCE ACHIEVEMENT

ABSORPTION

SOCIAL POTENCY WELLBEING

SOCIAL CLOSENESS

AGGRESSION

Mechanical ActivitiesAgriculture

Science

WritingArtMusic/Drama

Public SpeakingLaw/PoliticsMerchandisingOrg. MgmtSales

Figure 1. Proposed Expanded Personality-Interest Convergence

Dotted lines represent negative relations, personality variables are in capital letters, and the StrongBISs are in the smallest font. The predicted relations are identified below.



1999; Heiss, 1995; Losoff, 2000) were excluded because they shared the same dataas one of the other included studies.

Sample Descriptions

When separated by sex, 10 samples across 5 studies were retained. These fivestudies are marked with an asterisk in the references. Sample sizes ranged from137 to 324 for women and from 63 to 460 for men. The total number of partici-pants (2,023) includes 1,032 females, 981 males, and 10 individuals that did notreport sex. The samples represent three distinct populations—namely, adultcareer clients assessed over a 10-year period at a vocational assessment clinic in amajor metropolitan city (Morfitt, 1998); gifted adolescents from more than 100high schools across two states, collected over several years (Larson & Borgen,2002; Schmidt, 1998); and undergraduate students from diverse majors, col-lected across three semesters at a large university (Larson et al., 2003; Staggs et al., 2003). All samples were U.S. samples and predominantly (more than 85%)Caucasian. Because percentages for racial/ethnic groups were not provided byseveral studies, ethnicity could not be analyzed as a potential moderator. In eachstudy, either the 1985 Strong or the 1994 Strong was administered. Given theestablished continuity of the 1985 and 1994 Strong (median r = .99; Harmon et al., 1994), the form of the Strong was not evaluated as a potential moderator.

Computation of Effect Sizes

Data were analyzed using the Biostat Comprehensive Meta-Analysis computerprogram (Borenstein & Rothstein, 1999). This program was used to calculate meaneffect sizes for correlations between MPQ and Strong scales according to standardmeta-analytic methods (Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Wang & Bushman, 1999).Combining a small number of large-sample studies can provide an accurate esti-mate of a common correlation (Hedges & Olkin, 1985; Rosenthal, 1995; Wang &Bushman, 1999). The five large-sample studies used in the present meta-analysisproduced very accurate correlation estimates within our male and female subpopu-lations. In comparison to traditional correlational analyses that require an N of 30 toensure stability, meta-analyses of correlations can be conducted on as little as twostudies with stable findings (Rosenthal, 1995). The danger in meta-analyses of onlyusing only significant findings is not relevant in this meta-analysis because we usedcomplete correlation matrices that included nonsignificant correlations as well asstatistically significant correlations (Hedges & Olkin, 1985).

Thus, effect sizes were estimated for the pairwise correlations between 31interest dimensions (Strong: 6 GOTs and 25 BISs) and 14 personality dimensions(MPQ: 11 primary and 3 higher-order scales). Using the Biostat program, meancorrelation estimates and 95% confidence intervals were calculated by first trans-forming each correlation to a Fisher’s Z, next calculating the mean for the Zs, andfinally transforming the mean Z back to a mean r. Means were weighted by the




sample size of each study, so that results for larger samples were weighted moreheavily than results for smaller samples.

Analyses for Sex as a Moderator

Analyses were conducted to assess the impact of sex as a moderating variableof P-I correlations. Using the Biostat program, a series of Analyses of Variance(ANOVAs) was run, which provided estimates for the total variance for eacheffect, and partitioned the total variance to between- and within-groups sourcesof variance. Significance levels for the magnitude of between-sex variance wereused to determine statistical significance of differences between females andmales for each of the 434 pairwise correlations of interest (Strong) and personal-ity (MPQ) scales. Separate correlations for the female and male samples were notattainable for the Schmidt (1998) sample of gifted adolescents; thus, the sex-spe-cific meta-analysis was based on four of the five studies, for total sample sizes of709 females and 521 males (1,230 combined).

RESULTS

The meta-analytic results are presented in Table 1 (the more extensive infor-mation including the upper and lower level confidence intervals is available fromthe second author). The differences between the upper and lower confidenceintervals were small, ranging from .07 to .18 in magnitude. The narrow confi-dence intervals imply stability in the findings. Using Larson et al. (2002), Barricket al. (2003), and Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) for comparison, only thosecorrelations ≥ |.20| will be discussed. The |.20 | correlation corresponds to 4% ofthe variance shared between the two constructs.

P-I Convergence Across the Trait Complexes

Science/Math Complex. Harmavoidance correlated inversely with the RealisticGOT (r = –.31). Achievement correlated .27 with the Investigative GOT.Harmavoidance was negatively related to three of the Realistic BISs (Agriculture,Military Activities, and Mechanical Activities) and one of the Investigative BISs(Science), with correlations ranging from –.20 to –.28. Achievement correlated .21with the Science BIS and .22 with the Mathematics BIS. Aggression positively cor-related .21 with Military Activities.

Intellectual/Cultural Complex. The strongest relation of a personality primaryscale with a GOT was the .44 correlation between Absorption and the ArtisticGOT. Absorption correlated .35 to .40 with all but one of the Artistic BISs. It also correlated .26 with Nature (a Realistic BIS) and .20 with Social Service (a Social BIS).




433

Tabl

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Pear

son

Pro

duct

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latio

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rong

Sca

les

With

MP

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GSR

CT

CT

LH

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R10

0703

12–1

307

0315

–04

–15

–06

–31

0309

Ag12

1301

0801

02–0

405

–07

–09

–10

–21

1211

Nat

1516

–01

1101

–04

–11

–11

–02

–03

01–1

107

26M

il09

0410

08–0

912

0621

–03

–11

–06

–24

0605

Ath

2420

2009

2100

–06

18–1

2–0

8–1

0–1

512

–06

Mec

h06

03–0

112

–16

0806

15–0

7–1

3–0

5–2

800

04I

2012

0827

–03

-02

–05

–02

–05

–05

07–1

900

15Sc

i10

05–0

221

–13

0300

02–0

5–0

506

–20

–02

09M

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1207

0222

–03

–01

0001

–08

0610

–07

08–0

5M

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1211

1807

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502

–04

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05–1

403

09A

1711

1106

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–13

06–1

1–0

6–0

6–1

044

MuD

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1314

0509

–01

–06

–15

07–0

7–0

4–0

3–0

440

Art

1108

0400

0301

–05

–12

09–0

9–0

6–0

5–0

939

AppA

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0802

05–0

605

–02

–05

01–1

4–0

8–1

5–0

935

Wri

1407

1009

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7–1

510

–06

–02

–01

–10

35C

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2408

0719

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–13

–13

–01

1406

1617

18S

3126

1717

29–1

0–1

0–2

2–0

417

0811

2216

Tea

2119

0915

18–1

1–1

0–2

2–0

110

0608

0915

SocS

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2113

1026

–08

–09

–23

0311

0512

1020

Med

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1814

0613

13–0

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105

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711

09R

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1012

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2413

0937

12

(con

tinue

d)



434

Tabl

e 1

(con

tinue

d)

PE

MW

BSP

ACH

SCN

EM

AL

IAG

GSR

CT

CT

LH

AT

RA

AB

S

E28

1736

0920

0501

1002

–03

–06

–05

0710

PubS

pk37

1949

1817

01–0

202

–04

–06

–05

–08

0216

Law

Pol

2811

4117

0902

–02

10–0

5–0

9–0

1–1

1–0

709

Mer

ch22

1329

0618

0401

0403

01–0

302

0509

Sale

1909

2900

1707

0513

–01

–05

–09

–05

0502

Org

Mgt

2916

3514

1603

0107

–03

0504

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ata

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Com

p =

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tiviti

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ffSer

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ffice

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vice

s.




Social Complex. The following substantial correlations were found between per-sonality primary scales and GOTs: Social Potency with the Enterprising GOT (.36);Social Closeness with the Social GOT (.29) and with the Enterprising GOT (.20);Wellbeing with the Social GOT (.26); Aggression negatively with the Social GOT(–.22); and, Traditionalism with the Social GOT (.22). Some of the strongest rela-tions of personality traits with specific interests were the correlations between SocialPotency and each of the Enterprising BISs, ranging from .29 to .49, as shown inTable 1. The following additional relations were observed between the primaryscales and the BISs. Wellbeing correlated with one Social BIS, Social Service (.21).Social Closeness correlated .26 with the Social Service BIS. Aggression negativelycorrelated with all but one (Medical Service) of the Social BISs (–.22 to –.24).Athletics, a Realistic BIS, correlated with most of the personality traits aligned withthe Social Complex, including Wellbeing (.20), Social Potency (.20), and SocialCloseness (.21). Culinary Arts, an Artistic BIS, correlated with Wellbeing (.24).Finally, Traditionalism correlated .37 with the Religious Activities BIS.

Overlap of the MPQ’s Big Three With the GOTs and BISs

The MPQ higher-order dimension, PEM, related to the Social (.31) andEnterprising GOTs (.28), with some relation to the Investigative GOT (.20). Theother two higher-order factors, NEM and CT, did not overlap ≥ |.20| with any of the GOTs. The largest correlation between CT and interests was its .19 correlationwith the Conventional GOT. The PEM higher-order dimension was substantiallyrelated to 11 of the BISs. PEM was related to all but one of the Enterprising BISs,with correlations ranging from .20 to .37 (PEM correlated .19 with the Sales BIS).Moreover, PEM was related to two of the four Social BISs, namely Teaching (.21)and Social Service (.24), and to two of the Artistic BISs, namely Music/Drama (.20)and Culinary Arts (.21). Finally, PEM correlated .24 with one Realistic BIS,Athletics. Not surprisingly, NEM was not related to any BISs. Constraint wascorrelated .24 with Religious Activities (a Social BIS) and .20 with Office Services(a Conventional BIS).

Sex as a Moderator

Overall, sex was not a substantial moderator of P-I relations. Of the 434 total pair-wise comparisons, only 15 statistically significant differences (p < .01) emerged incomparing the female sample’s correlations to the male sample’s correlations. Thesedifferences are presented in Table 2. (The correlations by sex are available from theauthors). Of the 15 statistically significant differences, five involved a correlation thatwas ≥ |.20| for one sex but not the other; these effect sizes are in bold in Table 2. Forfemales only, Absorption was related to the Realistic GOT (.24) and to theMechanical Activities BIS (.21). Also among females only, Achievement was relatedto the Law/Politics BIS (.24). Finally, for males only, Traditionalism was related tothe Agriculture BIS (r = .20). Interestingly, Alienation was negatively related to theCulinary Arts BIS (–.21) for females and positively related for males (.14).




DISCUSSION

Confirmation of the Big Five/Big Six P-I Convergence

One important contribution of this work is that we used an alternative personalitymodel to corroborate the four largest P-I linkages reported by studies using the Big Five. The MPQ markers identified in the literature for the Big Five are: StressReaction for Neuroticism, Social Potency or Social Closeness for Extraversion,Absorption for Openness to Experience, Aggression (inversely) for Agreeableness,and Control for Conscientiousness (Blake & Sackett, 1999; Church, 1994; Tellegen& Waller, in press). First, the substantial overlap between Absorption (Openness to Experience) and Artistic interests (.44) in the present study is consistent withLarson et al. (2002) and Barrick et al. (2003). Second, Social Potency, identified by Blake and Sackett (1999) as an Extraversion marker, correlated meaningfully withthe Enterprising GOT (.36), confirming both prior meta-analyses. Third, Social

Table 2 Significant Differences in Personality–Interest Correlations by Sex

Females Males

MPQ Scale Strong Scale r L U r L U

PEMAchievement Law/Politics (E) .24 .17 .31 .09 .01 .18*Social Potency Medical Science (I) .03 –.05 .10 .19 .10 .27*Social Potency Medical Service (S) –.05 –.13 .02 .16 .07 .24**Achievement Writing (A) .13 .06 .20 –.08 –.16 .01**Achievement Music/Dramatics (A) .07 .00 .15 –.10 –.19 –.02*Achievement Artistic .09 .01 .16 –.07 –.15 .02*

NEMAlienation Culinary Arts (A) –.21 –.31 –.10 .14 –.01 .29**Absorption Realistic .24 .17 .31 .08 –.01 .17*Absorption Mechanical Activities (R) .21 .14 .28 .05 –.04 .14*NEM Culinary Arts (A) –.11 –.22 .00 .15 .00 .30*Alienation Law/Politics (E) –.10 –.17 –.02 .06 –.03 .14*

ConstraintTraditionalism Agriculture (R) .05 –.03 .12 .20 .12 .28*CT Medical Service (S) .09 .01 .16 –.07 –.15 .02*Control Medical Service (S) .10 .03 .18 –.07 –.16 .02*Traditionalism Realistic –.05 –.13 .02 .14 .05 .22*

Note. Effect sizes (r) ≥ |.20| are in bold. Sample size: n = 709 F, 521 M, except for BISs new to the 1994Strong (ApArt, Comp, Culinary, Data), for which n = 322 F, 164 M college students. Higher-order scalesare abbreviated: PEM = Positive Emotional Temperament; NEM = Negative Emotional Temperament;CT = Constraint; R = Realistic; I = Investigative; A = Artistic; S = Social; E = Enterprising.*p < .01. **p < .001.



Closeness, identified by Church (1994) as an Extraversion marker, correlated withEnterprising (.20) and Social interests (.29) in a manner consistent with Larson et al.and Barrick et al. Fourth, Aggression (inverse of Agreeableness) was negatively relatedto Social interests (–.22), confirming Larson et al.’s findings.

MPQ-Strong Convergence Hypotheses

Studies of the Big Five/Big Six have laid the groundwork for P-I convergence.The purpose of this article was to take the next logical step and empirically exam-ine more precise P-I linkages by using the MPQ’s 11 primary traits and theStrong’s BISs. Figure 2 displays the effect sizes for the hypothesized relationsbetween MPQ primary scales and Strong interest scales. In the figure, we haveorganized the robust P-I linkages around the Ackerman and Heggestad (1997)model, with Ackerman and Heggestad’s complexes in bold and the MPQ pri-mary scales in capital letters. The related RIASEC GOTs are each representedwith a single capital letter around the hexagon in the center of the figure. Thesolid and dotted lines represent effect sizes ≥ |.20|, with the dotted lines indicat-ing negative relations. The P-I effect sizes revealed in these meta-analyses con-firm our hypotheses, as visually displayed in Figure 1. (Note: In Figure 2, effectsizes in parentheses were not hypothesized.)

Science/Math Complex. As proposed in Figure 1, Harmavoidance was inverselyrelated to Realistic interests, and shared specific inverse relations with MechanicalActivities and Agriculture interests. Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) did not iden-tify this relation, and neither Barrick et al. (2003) nor Larson et al. (2002) reportedany associations between the Big Five and Realistic interests. Thus, the present find-ing that preference for excitement and danger tends to be affiliated with specificrealistic interests that involve constructing and repairing objects or working withone’s hands outdoors (Waller et al., 1995) is an important advancement. Also con-sistent with Waller et al., Harmavoidance was related inversely to the Science BIS.That is, a person with a physical risk-taking personality is more likely to express inves-tigative interests, particularly in the sciences. (The correlation of Harmavoidance andInvestigative interests approached .20 [.19]). Finally, people who tend to work hard and enjoy difficult tasks (Achievement) endorsed more investigative interests,and specifically endorsed more scientific interests.

Intellectual/Cultural Complex. As previously mentioned, Absorption was robustlylinked to the Artistic GOT. Thus, the tendency to be entranced by external stimuliclearly seems linked to the preference for artistic endeavors, and supports the con-ceptualization of the Intellectual/Cultural complex presented by Ackerman andHeggestad (1997). Absorption’s connection with several Artistic BISs (i.e., Music/Drama, Art, Applied Arts, and Writing) was the most substantial cluster of correla-tions in the correlation matrix. These relations support Sullivan and Hansen’s





(2004) finding that Aesthetics, a facet of Openness to Experience, is related to theArtistic BISs.

Social Complex. Our intent was to differentiate the P-I convergence involvingenterprising and social interests, as shown in Figure 1. Our hypotheses were mostlysupported by the meta-analyses. As depicted by Figure 2, the present findings pro-vide empirical confirmation of what career counselors already knew: Individualswith predominantly enterprising interests are distinct from individuals with pre-dominantly social interests. In the present study, Social Potency was robustly linkedto enterprising interests and only marginally linked with social interests. Moreover,Social Potency correlated only with the Enterprising BISs, with the exception ofAthletics, a Realistic BIS. These findings corroborate Waller et al. (1995) and are

Science/Math

Social

R

SE

I

A

Intellectual/Cultural

HARMAVOIDANCEACHIEVEMENT

ABSORPTION

SOCIAL POTENCY TRADITIONALISMWELLBEING

AGGRESSION

-.31 .27

.44

.26

-.22

(.22)

.29

.36 (.2)

PubSpk .49Law/Pol .41Merch .29Sales .29OrgMgmt .35

SOCIAL CLOSENESS

Mech -.28Ag -.21

Wri .35Art .39Mu/Dr .4

Sci ..21

-.20

Figure 2. Meta-Analytic Findings for MPQ-Strong Convergence HypothesesNote. Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) complexes are in bold, the MPQ primary scales are in capitalletters, the RIASEC GOT interests are labeled on the hexagon in the center of the figure, and thehypothesized BISs have been abbreviated. The dotted lines represent negative relations. Effect sizes inparentheses were not hypothesized. Abbreviations: Ag = Agriculture; Mech = Mechanical Activities;Sci = Science; MuDr = Music/Dramatics; Wri = Writing; PubSpk = Public Speaking; LawPol =Law/Politics; Merch = Merchandising; OrgMgt = Organizational Management.



consistent with Sullivan and Hansen (2004), who found that Assertiveness, a facetof Extraversion, was related to the Enterprising BISs. Social Closeness linked morewith Social interests than with Enterprising interests. These findings emphasize thedistinguishing social dominance aspect of Extraversion that was noted by Sullivanand Hansen (2004), suggesting that those who like to persuade, sell, and influenceothers are more likely to be socially dominant and sociable, but not more cheerful(Wellbeing) or more likely to turn the other cheek (inverse of Aggression). In con-trast, those who want to serve other people (social interests) are more likely to (a)turn the other cheek (inverse of Aggression), (b) have a cheerful disposition and opti-mistic outlook (Wellbeing), (c) enjoy people (Social Closeness), and (d) be moresocially conservative and hold higher moral standards (Traditionalism). This lastlinkage of social interests with Traditionalism was not expected. In sum, the currentmeta-analytic findings add clarity and precision to Ackerman and Heggestad’s(1997) Social Complex by differentiating Enterprising and Social interests. The P-Ifindings within this complex also demonstrate how personality traits can be used tounderstand congruent interest domains on Holland’s hexagon.

Clerical/Conventional Complex. We did not expect nor find substantive P-Iconvergence within the Clerical/Conventional complex, despite Ackerman andHeggestad’s (1997) contention that Control would relate to conventional inter-ests. Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) also anticipated that Traditionalism wouldrelate to conventional interests, but that relation did not emerge from these meta-analyses.

Additional P-I Convergence

Figure 3 visually presents robust MPQ/Strong BIS linkages that emergedbeyond our original hypotheses. In the figure, the P-I linkages are organizedaround Ackerman and Heggestad’s (1997) complexes, which are designated bybold font.

Within the Science/Math complex, Harmavoidance was inversely related toMilitary Activities. This relation is noteworthy because Waller et al. (1995) didnot find a relation of Harmavoidance with their military scale. Also, Aggressionwas positively related to Military Activities, and Achievement was related toMath. In the Intellectual/Cultural complex, Absorption was moderately relatedto Applied Arts; it was also related to Nature (a Realistic BIS) and to SocialService (a Social BIS). Within the Social complex, the additional P-I linkageswere complex involving five of the MPQ personality traits. Aggression was nega-tively related to three of the four Social BISs, namely Teaching, Social Service,and Religious Activities; Wellbeing and Social Closeness both related to SocialServices; Wellbeing also related to Culinary Arts. Traditionalism correlated withReligious Activities. The Athletics BIS (Realistic) related to Social Closeness,Social Potency, and Wellbeing.





Shedding Light on P-I Discrepancies

Some of the existing discrepancies among P-I studies are illuminated by thecombination of Table 1 with Figures 2 and 3. The present meta-analysis indicatesthat Harmavoidance relates minimally with Mathematics (–.07) or MedicalScience (–.14). Stress Reaction seems to have little relation with ReligiousActivities (–.01), and PEM does seem to relate to interests in Music/DramaticArts (.20). Conventional interests did not relate above the threshold effect size of|.20| with CT, the overarching behavioral regulation dimension, or with CT’s

SCIENCE/MATH

SOCIAL

R

SE

I

AC

HARMAVOIDANCEACHIEVEMENT

ABSORPTION

SOCIAL POTENCY

TRADITIONALISM

WELLBEING

SOCIALCLOSENESS

AGGRESSION

MilitaryActivities Math

Teaching

Culinary ArtsAthletics

Nature

Applied Arts

Social Service

ReligiousActivities

INTELLECTUAL/CULTURAL

AGGRESSION

.21

-.24 .22

.26

.35

.20

.21

.20

-.22 -.23

-.24

.26.21

.20

.24

.37

Figure 3. Additional Meta-Analytic Findings of MPQ-Strong BIS Convergence

Note. Ackerman and Heggestad (1997) complexes are in bold, the Big Six interests are abbreviatedin the center of the figure, the personality traits are in capital letters with lines drawn between thoseMPQ/Strong BIS linkages not hypothesized that were ≥ |.20|. The dotted lines represent negativerelations.




affiliated traits, namely Control and Traditionalism. However, the correlationbetween Conventional and CT did approach the threshold (.19). These resultsare consistent with the findings of Staggs et al. (2003) and Larson and Borgen(2002).

Specific P-I Linkages Inconsistent With Holland’s Theory

In examining specific P-I relations within each of the RIASEC dimensions, twoBISs do not fit the pattern of the other BISs within that Holland code, as illustratedby Figure 3. First, the Athletic BIS does not seem to fit within the Realistic theme.The correlations between Athletics and the personality traits resemble the correla-tions of the Social BISs rather than the Realistic BISs. (Note: The exception is thatAthletics is positively correlated with Aggression in males [.19]. This relation is notpresent in females [.05].) Interestingly, the Athletics BIS was a Social BIS in the 1985 Strong but was changed to a Realistic BIS in the 1994 Strong. Second, the P-I correlations with the Nature BIS resemble the P-I correlations involving theArtistic BISs more than the Realistic BISs. For example, the correlation between theNature BIS and Absorption is the only substantive P-I correlation involving Nature.

The specific P-I relations identified in our meta-analysis was consistent withSullivan and Hansen’s (2004) attempt to move beyond the general Big Five/BigSix relations identified by Barrick et al. (2003) and Larson et al. (2002). Sullivanand Hansen examined whether the relations identified in those meta-analyseswere caused mostly by the relation of the GOT and BISs with facets of the NEO-Personality Inventory-Revised rather than with Extraversion, Agreeableness, orOpenness to Experience, per se.

Summary of Convergence of the Big Three With Interests

If one overarching statement could be made from this meta-analytic review, itwould be that Positive Emotional Temperament intertwines with vocational inter-ests. That is, a person’s engagement with the world, the self, and with other peoplefundamentally and substantially relates to her/his pattern of preferences for voca-tional activities. In examining Table 1, the striking feature is that three of the sixRIASEC themes (i.e., Investigative, Social, and Enterprising) overlap with this over-arching personality dimension. Moreover, PEM relates to all of the EnterprisingBISs, two of the Social BISs, two of the Artistic BISs, and one each of the Realisticand Investigative BISs. It seems that PEM percolates across the RIASEC, resonatingparticularly with interests most associated with social interaction and artistic expres-sion. In contrast, NEM, that is, the presence (or absence) of negative engagementwith the world, self, and others, seems to have very little to do with vocational inter-ests either at the general level of the GOTs or at the specific level of the BISs. Itseems NEM is unrelated to specific interests. Finally, CT, a behavioral regulationdimension, seems to modestly relate to Conventional interests and showed a mod-est linkage to Religious Activities and Office Services.




Sex as a Moderator

Sex as a moderator altered six P-I relations in the matrix, as shown in Table 2.Although these sex differences warrant mention, it should be noted that none ofthese differences reflects P-I overlap that exceeds 6% for either sex; thus, sub-stantial clinical meaningfulness is not indicated. The relative lack of sex differ-ences found in the present study is consistent with conclusions by Larson et al.(2002) and Barrick et al. (2003) in their Big Five/Big Six meta-analyses.

Counseling Implications

In counseling that involves career guidance, personality assessment is common,and knowledge of a client’s personality style is useful in a variety of ways. In addi-tion to correlating with career interests and job satisfaction, personality data informwhat methods of career guidance the client might enjoy and be successful using(e.g., self-paced computer research, group workshops, individual counseling ses-sions). Personality data may also inform the counselor of clients’ typical decision-making processes, areas in which they may encounter roadblocks in their pursuitof identity development and career information, and strengths and weaknesses thatmay impact their academic performance and job search efforts.

Because of restrictions of time and resources, formal personality assessment isnot always possible in career counseling situations; yet, the interview can providevaluable information. Results of the present study indicate that recognizing cer-tain personality traits among clients would be particularly valuable in enhancingthe counselor’s vocational guidance. Among MPQ primary scales, we identifiedAbsorption, Harmavoidance, and Social Potency as potentially the most infor-mative personality factors related to career interests.

Consider, for example, a sophomore college student who tells her counselor thatshe is considering changing her major from premed to political science. Althoughshe thought she wanted to pursue a career as a pediatrician, she reports that she isneither enjoying nor doing well in her biology classes and believes she would liketo pursue a career in law instead. To meet the course registration deadline, shemust decide by the following day if she is going to switch. While talking with thisstudent, the counselor asks her what she enjoyed most about high school, whatorganizations she has been involved in, and if she has held any positions of leader-ship. The student reports that she has been a student class officer every year sincethe 8th grade, was the student body president her senior year in high school, andthe previous year participated in campaigning with the Young Democrats on cam-pus. Based on the client’s interaction with the counselor and her reported leader-ship experience, the counselor determines that this client is forceful and decisive,fond of influencing others, and fond of leadership roles. Thus, this client would beexpected to score highly on the MPQ Social Potency scale. The correlationbetween Social Potency and the Law/Politics BIS in the present study was .41, indi-cating about 16% shared variance between these two constructs. Given knowledgeof the relatively high degree of overlap between these two scales (compared with



the .09 correlation between Law/Politics and Social Closeness, for example), thecounselor could feel more comfortable encouraging the client to pursue prelawcourses.

Limitations

In meta-analysis using a fixed effects model, the findings can be generalizedto the disparate populations that were sampled. The five large-sample studiesused in the present meta-analysis produced very accurate correlation estimateswithin our male and female subpopulations. However, the ethnic diversity in thesamples was not reported across all studies. Although future investigation of P-Iconvergence in more diverse ethnic groups is warranted and important, results ofthe present study are considered meaningful for groups other than CaucasianAmericans given that both the Strong and the MPQ have been demonstratedvalid for a variety of ethnic groups (e.g., Ben-Porath, Almagor, Hoffman-Chemi,& Tellegen, 1995; Harmon et al., 1994). Furthermore, the diversity in age, edu-cation level, and range of majors and career interests is a strength of this study.

Conclusion

This meta-analysis propels researchers and counselors alike further down theroad in their understanding of the complex interplay between personality andinterests. First, this empirical review corroborates some of the P-I convergenceand P-I distinctiveness that were demonstrated from two previous meta-analysesusing an entirely different model of personality, namely the Big Five. Second,this article shines a light on entirely new findings that take the reader beyondprior work by increasing our understanding of the relation of Holland’s Big Sixwith dimensions of personality previously not studied. Third, this article isgroundbreaking because for the first time, convergence and divergence of spe-cific interests with general and specific dimensions of personality are reviewedempirically in the literature. Finally, implications for theory development andempirical research are highlighted by these results.

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Convergence of Personality and Interests: Meta-Analysis of the Multidimensional Personality...

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