Decolonization in Hawai’i

DIRECTOR

LeAnn Onyegbula

VICE DIRECTOR

Harvi Karatha

MODERATOR

Isobel Bird

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ContentsEquity Disclaimers 3

Model United Nations at U of T Code of Conduct 4

Letter from the Director 6

Topic A: U.S. Imperialism and its Effects on the Kanaka Maoli people 7

Introduction 7

Historical Background on the Colonization of

the Kanaka Maoli people 7

Social and political effects of settler colonialism 8

The Erasure of Native Language and Identity 8

The Forced Reconstruction of Gender 9

Land Claim Disputes and Increase in Homelessness 10

Questions to consider 10

Topic B: Construction of the TMT 11

History of the Militarization of Hawai’i and Use of Hawaiian Land by Foreign Power 11

The Debate Over the Construction of the TMT 12

Questions to consider 14

Topic C: Topic C: International relationship with the U.S and the status of Kanaka Maoli

people 15

Treaties of past 15

United states public law 103-150, or The Apology resolution 16

The Congress 16

Current UN involvement and the status of the Kanaka

Maoli people 16

Movement for Kanaka Maoli Sovereignty 17

Questions to Consider 19

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Research Advice 19

Bibliography 20

Topic A 20

Topic B 21

Topic C 21

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This Background Guide presents topics that may be distressing to some Delegates, including but not limited to: present day and historical colonialism and its effects, the suppression of traditional Hawaiian conceptions of gender, the erasure of language, militarization, and the desecration of sacred land in Hawaii.

Equity Disclaimers

Throughout this committee, delegates will be engaging in complex debates and discussions covering a wide array of topics. As UTMUN seeks to provide an enriching educational experience that facilitates understanding of the real-world implications of issues, our committees’ contents may involve sensitive or controversial subject matter strictly for academic purposes. We ask for delegates to be respectful, professional, tactful, and diplomatic when engaging with all committee content, representing their assigned country’s or character’s position, communicating with staff and other delegates, and responding to opposing viewpoints.

UTMUN recognizes the sensitivity associated with many of our topics, and we encourage you to be aware of and set healthy boundaries that work for you. This may include: refraining from reading certain parts or all of the background guide, preparing yourself before reading this background guide, doing some self-care or seeking support after reading the background guide, or anything that can help make you feel more comfortable. We ask that all Delegates remain considerate of the boundaries that other Delegates set.

As delegates, UTMUN expects that all discussions will remain productive and respectful of one another. If you have any equity concerns or need any assistance in setting boundaries or navigating sensitive subject matter, please do not hesitate to reach out to me or our Equity Director, Jess Prentice, at equity@utmun.org. We want you to feel safe and comfortable at UTMUN!

If you wish to switch committees seeing the content warnings for this committee, please:

a) Contact your Faculty Advisor/Head Delegate with your request if you are a part of a group delegation

b) Email our Director of Academics, Karrie Chou, with a brief explanation of why you would like to switch committees if you are NOT a part of a group delegation.

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Model United Nations at U of T Code of Conduct

The below code of conduct applies to the behaviour of all attendees of UTMUN for the entire duration of the conference, while engaging in any conference-related activities, including but not limited to committee sessions, conference socials, committee breaks, and the opening and closing ceremonies.

1. Harrassment and bullying in any form will not be tolerated, the nature of which includes, but is not limited to, discrimination on the basis of race, national origin, ethnicity, colour, religion, sex, age, mental and physical disabilities, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, gender identity, and gender expression,

a. Harassment and bullying include, but are not limited to, insulting and/or degrading language or remarks; threats and intimidation; and intentional (direct or indirect) discrimination and/or marginalization of a group and/or individual;

i. The above prohibition on harassment, bullying, and inappropriate behaviour extends to any and all behaviour as well as written and verbal communication during the conference, including notes, conversation both during and outside committees, and general demeanour at all conference events;ii. UTMUN reserves the right to determine what constitutes bullying and/or inappropriate behaviour toward any individual and/or group;

b. Attendees must not engage in any behaviour that constitutes physical violence or the threat of violence against any groups and/or individuals, including sexual violence and harrassment, such as, but not limited to,

i. Unwelcome suggestive or indecent comments about one’s appearance;ii. Nonconsensual sexual contact and/or behaviour between any individuals and/or groups of individuals;iii. Sexual contact or behaviour between delegates and staff members is strictly forbidden;

2. UTMUN expects all attendees to conduct themselves in a professional and respectful manner at all times during the conference. Specific expectations, include, but are not limited to,

a. Attendees must, if able, contribute to the general provision of an inclusive conference and refrain from acting in a manner that restricts other attendees’ capacity to learn and thrive in an intellectually stimulating environment;b. Attendees must adhere to the dress code, which is Western business attire;

i. Exceptions may be made on a case-by-case basis depending on the attendees’ ability to adhere to the previous sub-clause;ii. Attendees are encouraged to contact Director of Equity, Jess Prentice, with questions or concerns about the dress code or conference accessibility;

c. Attendees must refrain from the use of cultural appropriation to represent their character

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and/or country, including the use of cultural dress, false accent, and any behaviour that perpetuates a national or personal stereotype; d. Delegates must not use music, audio recordings, graphics, or any other media at any time unless approved and requested to be shared by the Dais and/or the Director of Equity, Jess Prentice;e. Attendees must abide by instructions and/or orders given by conference staff members;

i. Attendees are exempt from this above sub-clause only if the instructions and/or orders given are unreasonable or inappropriate;

3. Delegates, staff, and all other conference participants are expected to abide by Ontario and Canadian laws and Toronto by-laws, as well as rules and regulations specific to the University of Toronto. This includes, but is not limited to,

a. Attendees, regardless of their age, are strictly prohibited from being under the influence and/or engaging in the consumption of illicit substances, such as alcohol or illicit substances for the duration of the conference; b. Attendees are prohibited from smoking (cigarettes or e-cigarettes, including vapes) on University of Toronto property;c. Attendees must refrain from engaging in vandalism and the intentional and/or reckless destruction of any public or private property, including conference spaces, venues, furniture, resources, equipment, and university buildings;

i. Neither UTMUN nor any representatives of UTMUN is responsible for damage inflicted by attendees to property on or off University of Toronto campus; ii. Individuals will be held responsible for any damages.

4. The Secretariat reserves the right to discipline delegates and/or attendees for not adhering to/violating any of the above stipulations. Disciplinary measures include, but are not limited to,

a. Suspension from committee, in its entirety or for a specific period of time;b. Removal from the conference and/or conference venue(s);c. Disqualification from awards;d. Disqualification from participation in future conference-related events.

5. If online, additional rules apply to delegate and staff conduct, including but not limited to Zoom background usage. Delegates must use either conference-provided Zoom backgrounds, the blurred background, solid colours, or no background.6. UTMUN reserves the right to the final interpretation of this document.

For further clarification on University of Toronto Model United Nations’ policies regarding equity, questions, concerns, or for any equity violations that attendees would like to raise, please contact equity@utmun.org, or fill out this anonymous form.

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Letter from the DirectorDear Delegates,

Welcome to the Decolonization in Hawai’i committee. I am the director for the committee, and alongside myself we have __ as our Vice Director and Isobel Bird as our moderator. We are excited to have you as our delegate! This committee was designed to explore topics associated with the sovereignty and independence of Hawai’i and the Kanaka Maoli people. We hope that at the end of our discussion, you will have a more in-depth understanding of Kanaka Maoli culture, history and their movement for sovereignty.

The topics we have chosen for this committee are 1) U.S. imperialism and its effects on the Kanaka Maoli people; 2) Construction of the Thirty Meter Telescope; 3) International relationship with the U.S and the status of Kanaka Maoli people today. Each topic is designed to explore a different aspect of the Kanaka Maoli independence movement, and give insight into the history of the relationship between the U.S and Hawai’i.

We wish you the best of luck in your research, and we look forward to meeting you in February 2022. Please do not hesitate to reach out to me or anyone on the UTMUN Secretariat if you have any questions or concerns!

Sincerely,LeAnn Onyegbula Director, Decolonization in Hawai’ihawaii@utmun.org

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Topic A: U.S. Imperialism and its Effects on the Kanaka Maoli people

IntroductionThe word Kanaka Maoli is the indigenous term, popularized by Hawaiian Independence

advocates, that refers to native Hawaiians who have full Native Hawaiian ancestry.1 The history of this resilient people is one filled with decades of struggle for sovereignty, independence and freedom. From imperialism to annexation, the Kanaka Maoli people have always fought to preserve their right to self-governance over their land and lives. This struggle still continues today as advocates for Hawaiian independence highlight the ever increasing injustices that the Kanaka Maoli people face today - even as one of America’s 50 official states.

Historical Background on the Colonization of the Kanaka Maoli people

The islands of Hawai’i were settled over 800 years ago. Some anthropologists believe that these settlers were Western Polynesians from the Society Islands.2 As they settled in, a new sense of identity arose, as well as a new religion that focused on community and the individual’s interaction with their land and society. In 1795, Kamehameha the Great conquered the sovereign islands of Oʻahu, Maui, Molokaʻi, and Lānaʻi to form the united Hawaiian Kingdom. And in 1810, the islands of Kauaʻi and Niʻihau joined the Kingdom to make up the present-day Hawaiian archipelago.3 During the early and mid 19th centuries, trade between the Kingdom of Hawai’i and the United States was strong, eventually leading to economic treaties that allowed duty free sales of Hawaiian sugar and resulted in the Kingdom becoming a protectorate of the United States. At the same time, immigration from the United States and Asia increased massively into Hawai’i.4 With more foreign subjects, the legislature of the Hawaiian Kingdom and Constitutional Government started to use terms such as Kanaka Kupa to distinguish foreign, but naturalized subjects from the Kanaka Maoli.5 Conversations and debates over the annexation of Hawai’i started thereafter. In 1893, under Queen Liliuokalani - who worked to make the monarchy stronger, Hawai’i was overthrown by Stanford Dole - an American businessman in support of Hawaiian annexation. Noteworthily, the overthrowing of the Hawaiian Kingdom was aided by

1Davianna Pomaikaʻi McGregor and Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie. “Moʻolelo Ea O Nā Hawaiʻi: History of Native Hawaiian Governance in Hawaiʻi”. The Office of Hawaiian Affairs, (2014): 4-5. https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.opengov.ibmcloud.com/files/uploads/Moʻolelo%20Ea%20O%20Nā%20Hawaiʻi(8-23-15).pdf2 Patrick Vinton Kirch, and Roger C. Green. Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (2001): 99-111. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511613678.3 “Kanaka Maoli (Hawaiian) history,” Independent Agroecologies. May 31, 2016. Accessed October 15, 2021, https://indigenousagroecologies.wordpress.com/kanaka-maoli-hawaiian-history/4 Ibid5 Davianna Pomaikaʻi McGregor and Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie. “Moʻolelo Ea O Nā Hawaiʻi: History of Native Hawaiian Governance in Hawaiʻi”. The Office of Hawaiian Affairs, (2014): 6. https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.opengov.ibmcloud.com/files/uploads/Moʻolelo%20Ea%20O%20Nā%20Hawaiʻi(8-23-15).pdf

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U.S. ambassador John L. Stevens.6 Dole was named president and Hawai’i as a republic, with the consent of U.S President Grover Cleveland. However, Hawai’i was not made an American territory until 1900 under U.S. President William McKinley. Hawai’i was made an American state in 1959.7

Social and political effects of settler colonialismU.S imperialism, the overthrowing of the Kingdom of Hawai’i, and the annexation of

Hawai’i had strong effects on Hawaiian society. The effects of the US settler colonialism are seen in the erasure of the Hawaiian language and identity, the reconstruction of gender, and land claim disputes that resulted in a substantial increase in homelessness.

The Erasure of Native Language and IdentityʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi is the Hawaiian native language. It originates from the Austronesian

language family. Before US Imperialism and Western contact, the Hawaiian native language represented a cultural identity that linked Kanaka Maoli to their ancestor’s past, their present, and their descendents futures. It was a medium for transmitting the values of the Kanaka Maoli.8

After annexation, ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi was banned as a means of instruction in schools, as well as in the government.9 And in 1983, only 2,000 native speakers of ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi remained.10 The ban restricted the spread of Hawaiian myths, religious teachings and oral history, and older generations of the Kanaka Maoli were unable to pass down traditions to the younger members of society. In just a the few decades, Hawaiian identity and conceptual semantics of words were lost. The Kanaka Maoli identity was supplanted by American, Anglo traditions passed through English.

However, in recent times there has been a push to revive ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi. Activists have advocated for and successfully used ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi immersion schools for children, Hawaiian language and study programs in universities as methods of revitalising the lost Hawaiian language.11 Many advocates believe that through the increasing use of ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, that a revitalisation of native Hawaiian identity will occur. In addition to other efforts at revitalisation, ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi was designated as an official second language of Hawai’i.12

While there is optimism in the prospects of revitalisation, the current situation does not reveal much progress towards the reinstatement of ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi to its widespread pre-colonisation usage. As of 2016, only 18,610 of the Hawaiian population spoke ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi.13 Furthermore, although Ōlelo Hawaiʻi has official status in Hawai’i, it is not used by the government

6 “Annexation of Hawaii, 1898,” U.S. Department of State. 2001. Accessed October 15, 2021, from https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm 7 Ibid8 Jacqueline Ng-Osorio and Brandon C. Ledward. Aia ke ola i ka ‘olelo Hawai‘i: Revival of the Hawaiian language. Honolulu, HI: Kamehameha Schools–Research & Evaluation (2011): 2. https://www.ksbe.edu/assets/research/collection/11_0108_ngosorio.pdf9 Ibid10 Shari Nakata. Language suppression, revitalization, and Hawaiian Native Identity. Inland Counties Legal Services 2. (2017): 15. https://www.chapman.edu/law/_files/publications/2017-dsj/nakata.pdf 11 Ibid12 Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie et al, Native Hawaiian law: A treatise. (Kamehameha Publishing, 2015). 13 Research and Economic Analysis Division Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism. “Detailed languages spoken at home in the state of Hawaii [Report]”. Hawaii State Data Center, (2016): 7-8. https://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/census/acs/Report/Detailed_Language_March2016.pdf.

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or courts.14

The Forced Reconstruction of Gender U.S. settler colonialism in Hawai’i changed the role of gender and the roles associated

with male and female. Before Western influence, gender on its own did not categorise the Kanaka Maoli. Instead, genealogical rank and ancestral lineage determined an individual’s social position in the community.15 People were not limited by stringent patriarchal rules and gender roles. Both men and women worked in the public sphere as leaders and paramount chiefs, kinship was traced through both maternal and paternal lines, and women were capable of holding high religious ranks in society.16 However, colonialism caused a shift in the status and rank of men and women. After annexation, Western laws, such as those that disenfranchised Kanaka Maoli women, created a trend of domestic subjugation of women in the social, political and economic aspects of society.17 By the mid-1840s legal status of women in Hawai’i had changed and it no longer matched the valuation of their role in the local community. However, even with the degradation of Kanaka Maoli women’s position in society, women were still able to hold ranks in local government - although became challenging to do so.18 American cultural imperialism also brought with it the hyper sexualization of Hawaiian women. Kanaka

Maoli women were seen as exotic and provocative in American culture, when historically they were viewed as strong and respected cultural links to the Kanaka Maoli history and traditions.19

There was also a sharp shift in the idea of gender identity within the Kanaka Maoli after US imperialism. Gender identity in Hawai’i was fluid and was not limited to a male/female binary. Many Kanaka Maoli viewed themselves as ma hu , a gender identity that was seen as liminal and encompassed both traditional male and female characteristics.20 Furthermore, in Kanaka society sexual practice did not define an individual, and sex in itself was openly discussed in the public sphere.21 Sexual practices and gender were distinct from each other, and a person’s gender category was solely based on their participation in gendered practices viewed as male, female or ma hu . This allowed for a variation of sexual practices in Kanaka Maoli society, such as aikāne and punalua, that could be practiced alongside heterosexual relationships.22 Today, the Kanaka Maoli view of gender and sexuality is heavily influenced by the Western gender binary of male and female. American cultural imperialism changed gender categories to either

14 Shari Nakata. Language suppression, revitalization, and Hawaiian Native Identity. Inland Counties Legal Services 2. (2017): 14. https://www.chapman.edu/law/_files/publications/2017-dsj/nakata.pdf 15 J. K?haulani Kauanui. “Native Hawaiian Decolonization and the Politics of Gender.” American Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2008): 281–87. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40068536. 16 Ibid17 Ibid18 Ibid19 Megan Medeiros. “Hawaiian History: The Dispossession of Native Hawaiians’ Identity, and Their Struggle for Sovereignty”. Master’s thesis, California State University Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations 557. (2017): 15-18. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1611&context=etd20 Kaylilani Minami. “Eh, You Māhu? An Analysis of American Cultural Imperialism in Hawai’i through the Lens of Gender and Sexuality”. Senior Thesis, Claremont McKenna College Senior Theses 1611. (2017): 15. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2720&context=cmc_theses 21 Mary Kawena Pukui et al. Nana i ke Kumu (Look to the Source). (Honolulu, Queen Lili’uokalani Children’s Center, 1972), 75-104. 22 Kaylilani Minami. “Eh, You Ma hu ? An Analysis of American Cultural Imperialism in Hawai’i through the Lens of Gender and Sexuality”. Senior Thesis, Claremont McKenna College Senior Theses 1611. (2017): 15. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2720&context=cmc_theses

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man or woman and transformed the ma hu from a third gender to an insult used to challenge a boy’s masculinity.23

Land Claim Disputes and Increase in HomelessnessThe concept of land in precolonial Hawai’i differed significantly from the American

construct of land rights and ownership. Traditionally, the Kanaka Maoli appreciated land as a communal resource. Originally, the monarch owned the land and granted land to chiefs and access to makaʻainana (Kanaka term for commoners).24 This view was modified in the mid-19th century with Western influence and settlement. Land became viewed as a resource that can be privately owned, but still belonged to the community. During this period the Māhele land redistribution system was made to divide the land into thirds between the monarch and chiefs, the makaʻainana, and foreigners who wanted to purchase land.25 However, only a few Kanaka Maoli claimed their portion of land, as land ownership was a new concept for most. After the coup of Hawai’i, the new president Stanford Dole dismissed the land distribution system and the land initially dedicated to makaʻainana was bought by American settlers. Many Kanaka Maoli were left homeless.26 Today, the housing prices and property and real estate taxes in Hawaiian cities are the highest in the country.27 The competitive housing market restricts many Kanaka Maoli from buying and owning property- while rich settlers are able to take advantage of the market’s condition and afford to buy multiple properties. Many Kanaka Maoli rely on the government for housing, and in cities like Honolulu they represent over half of the homeless community.28

Questions to consider What would it take to restore the sovereignty of the Kanaka Maoli?Can the empowerment of the Kanaka Maoli occur outside of independence? Or is independence an integral part of empowerment? How has the effects of colonialism led to the rise of the Kanaka Maoli sovereignty movement?In what ways has colonialism affected the identity of Kanaka Maoli people? What are the repercussions of an identity crisis when it affects a collective group?What are some other social and political effects of colonialism? How have they affected the Kanaka Maoli?What initiatives can the government implement to address the effects of colonialism?

23 Ibid24 “Aloha ‘Āina: Native Hawaiian Land Restitution,” Harvard Law Review. Accessed October 15, 2021, from https://harvardlawreview.org/2020/04/aloha-aina-native-hawaiian-land-restitution/ 25 Jaylin Venn Stevenson. “Kānāwai: Using Ancient Hawaiian Law to Prepare for the Future”. UCLA Law Review, (2020, March 26). Accessed October 15, 2021, from https://www.uclalawreview.org/kanawai-using-ancient-hawaiian-law-to-prepare-for-the-future/#_ftn7 26 Ibid27 Noe Tanigawa. “Native Hawaiians Overrepresented Among Unsheltered”, Hawai’i Public Radio (2020). Accessed October 15, 2021, from https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2020-11-18/report-native-hawaiians-overrepresented-among-unsheltered

28 Ibid

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Topic B: Construction of the TMTThe TMT, or the Thirty Meter Telescope, is a record-breaking telescope planned for

construction on the island of Hawai’i. Once constructed, it will be the largest telescope to date, with 12 times the resolution of the Hubble Telescope.29 It will be built on the dormant volcano of Mauna Kea, a land reserve and sacred place in Hawaiian tradition, thereby contributing to the long history of foreign use and militarization of Hawaiian land.30

History of the Militarization of Hawai’i and Use of Hawaiian Land by Foreign Power

One could say that the beginning of the militarization of Hawai’i was in 1842, when President John Tyler of the United States “claimed” Hawai’i as part of the United States’ “sphere of influence.” In 1873, General John M. Schofield searched for ports in Hawai’i that the US could use as naval bases, claiming that Ke Awalau o Pu’uloa (the Kanaka Maoli name for Pearl Harbour) was “the key to the Central Pacific Ocean” and “the gem of these islands.” In 1887, King David Kalakaua was forced to sign the “Bayonet Constitution” at gunpoint (hence the name), which allowed the United States exclusive access to Pearl Harbour.31 The United States continued to commit illegal acts of war against Hawai’i, sabotaging attempts to restore the Native Hawaiian power to the Kingdom of Hawai’i, despite condemnations by US President Grover Cleveland.32 On July 6th of 1898, Congress voted to annex Hawai’i as a state, almost instantly transforming Hawai’i into a strategic military outpost in the Pacific, where it served as a launch pad for colonial and imperial endeavors in Asia.33

Leading up to World War II, the elite haole of Hawai’i formed an alliance with US forces to achieve industrialisation of Hawai’i and maintain white settler rule. Continued attempts to this effect set the stage for the institution of military discipline in Hawaii, justified by the bombing of Pearl Harbour and leading to the years of military rule from 1941 to 1945.34

As a result of the 1941 bombing of Pearl Harbour, the United States joined the war, declared martial law throughout Hawai’i and seized the island of Kaho’olawe for use as a bombing range. At the time, it was uninhabited due to poor conditions, erosion, lack of precipitation and overgrazing, but the island had deep spiritual meaning for the people of Hawai’i, representing a

29 Amanda Hurley.“An Astronomical Controversy: The Thirty Meter Telescope and the need for indigenous voices in science,” Catalyst for Science Policy (2020, March 4). Accessed October, 2021. https://casp.wisc.edu/an-astronomical-controversy-the-thirty-meter-telescope-and-the-need-for-indigenous-voices-in-science/30 “Mauna Kea.” The Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA). 2017. Accessed October 2021. https://www.oha.org/maunakea/31 Candace Fujikane and Jonathan Y. Okamura. Asian settler colonialism: from local governance to the habits of everyday life in Hawai’i. University Of Hawai’i Press, 2008.32 Candace Fujikane and Jonathan Y. Okamura. Asian settler colonialism: from local governance to the habits of everyday life in Hawai’i. University Of Hawai’i Press, 2008.33 Ibid34 Carl J. Johnson.“Remembering “the American Island of Oahu”: Hawai`i under Military Rule. Hawai`i.” Pacific University. (2011): 1941-1945.

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connection to the past.35 Under the Navy’s jurisdiction for 50 years after the end of World War II, Kaho’olawe was subject to bombings and explosions of extraordinary magnitude. In Sailor’s Hat, for example, explosions caused the island rock to crack, allowing valuable fresh groundwater to leak into the ocean. Cultural artifacts on the island that had previously allowed the people of Hawai’i to learn about those who used to live on Kaho’olawe, their customs and traditions, were lost forever. This led to outrage over the blatant disregard for culture and the ecology of the island for far longer than was necessary or agreed upon, but the only complaints that US forces responded to were those of noise.36

In response to the ongoing abuse of Kaho’olawe, the Protect Kaho’olawe ‘Ohana (PKO) was formed – a political organization dedicated to reclaiming the land for Hawai’ian use and restoring it. They began protesting in 1976, and only managed to reach an agreement to stop the daily bombing of the island in 1990. They also secured resources to aid with ordinance cleanup and environmental rehabilitation. The cleanup was not the most thorough, however, leaving only ¾ of the island safe for access. The PKO also, importantly, formed the Kaho’olawe Island Reserve Commission (KIRC) to manage restoration efforts. The KIRC was left with the arduous challenge of restoring an island that had been bombed daily for over half a century, causing extensive damage to every aspect of the island.37

Another example of the militarisation of Hawai’i is the Pohakuloa Training Area (PTA).38 The PTA is located on the “Big Island,” home to Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa, some of Hawai’i’s most sacred places. It sits in a conservation district of huge significance and occupies 133,000 acres of land. It is used for battleground simulations and training, resulting in large amounts of ammunition and ordnance in the area, much of it unexploded. Among other concerns are radioactive weapons being used, contamination of the local water supply, and danger to the local flora and fauna. The ongoing efforts surrounding the PTA are attempting to stop the use of live fire in the PTA and stop the lease of the area being extended.39

Land is Hawai’i’s most prized possession, and the murky history of the government’s ability to seize land without consequence combined with the lands’ military value makes this a battle that is most challenging to fight.

The Debate Over the Construction of the TMTThe TMT is a 30-metre-lens telescope (nearly three times as large as any other telescope

on earth) that could point us towards the origins of the universe and detect signs of life.40

Mauna Kea was selected for the construction of the Thirty Metre Telescope after much

35 Kai Bernier-Chen. “Aloha ʻĀina: The United States Military and Its Controversial Use of Hawaiian Land,” Senior Projects Spring 2016. (2016): 199. https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/senproj_s2016/19936 Kai Bernier-Chen. “Aloha ʻĀina: The United States Military and Its Controversial Use of Hawaiian Land,” Senior Projects Spring 2016. (2016): 199. https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/senproj_s2016/19937 Ibid38 Ibid39 Kai Bernier-Chen. “Aloha ʻĀina: The United States Military and Its Controversial Use of Hawaiian Land,” Senior Projects Spring 2016. (2016): 199. https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/senproj_s2016/19940 Katie Worth. “World’s Largest Telescope Faces Opposition from Native Hawaiian Protesters.” Scientific American. 2015. Accessed October 2021. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-largest-telescope-faces-opposition-from-native-hawaiian-protesters/

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consideration by the TMT Observatory Corporation out of locations in five different countries. It was chosen for its atmospheric conditions and lack of light pollution.41 Support and funding for the TMT comes from the governments of China, India, Japan, and Canada, while funding from the United States comes mainly from institutions like the National Science Foundation.42, 43, 44

Construction first began in 2014, but protesters and activists obstructed initial progress with physical protests as well as lawsuits in court, claiming lack of consideration for cultural and environmental effects. After some compromise, involving the promise to remove all existing telescopes, construction began again in 2019. Protests again broke out, halting construction for a second time.

Hawai’ian opposition to the construction of the TMT is rooted in their beliefs regarding the land. Mauna Kea is not simply a representation of the past or a historical territory – the land itself is understood to be the ancestor of the people. The mountain is believed to be the first-born child of Wakea and Papahanaumoku, the Sky and the Earth. In addition, the land is equated with the ancestors because, once buried, the ancestors become a part of the land.45

The United States overthrew the Hawaiian monarchy in the late 19th century, and since then, Native Hawai’ian culture has frequently been overlooked and thrown aside in favour of assimilation with the larger mainland United States. This cultural conflict, combined with the rallying powers of social media (a force not present with the construction of the previous telescopes on Mauna Kea), leads to immense opposition to the construction of the TMT.46

Environmental activists also have their concerns. Mauna Kea is home to rare species, including the wekiu bug, found nowhere else in the world.47 Construction of the TMT has the potential to harm rare flora and fauna, damage the surrounding landscape, and construction runoff could influence areas beyond the actual site.

TMT leadership has claimed that they have taken all these factors into account. Only 0.8 hectare of the sacred land and rare ecosystem will be affected, and in return, the world gains valuable knowledge and astronomical capabilities never seen before. They also claim that construction of the TMT will create jobs and boost the local economy.48 In recent years they have

41 Amanda Hurley.“An Astronomical Controversy: The Thirty Meter Telescope and the need for indigenous voices in science,” Catalyst for Science Policy (2020, March 4). Accessed October, 2021. https://casp.wisc.edu/an-astronomical-controversy-the-thirty-meter-telescope-and-the-need-for-indigenous-voices-in-science/42 “Seven days: 5–11 December 2014.” Nature 516. (2014).:148–149. https://doi.org/10.1038/516148a43 Ivan Semeniuk. “With $243-million contribution, Canada signs on to mega-telescope in search of first stars and other Earths.” The Globe and Mail, 2015, April 6. Accessed October 2021. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/harper-announces-243-million-contribution-for-thirty-meter-telescope-project/article23818767/44 Yudhijit Bhattacharjee. “Thirty Meter Telescope Gets Small Grant to Make Big Plans,” Science (2013). Accessed October, 2021 https://www.science.org/content/article/thirty-meter-telescope-gets-small-grant-make-big-plans45 Amanda Hurley.“An Astronomical Controversy: The Thirty Meter Telescope and the need for indigenous voices in science,” Catalyst for Science Policy (2020, March 4). Accessed October, 2021. https://casp.wisc.edu/an-astronomical-controversy-the-thirty-meter-telescope-and-the-need-for-indigenous-voices-in-science/46 Amanda Hurley.“An Astronomical Controversy: The Thirty Meter Telescope and the need for indigenous voices in science,” Catalyst for Science Policy (2020, March 4). Accessed October, 2021. https://casp.wisc.edu/an-astronomical-controversy-the-thirty-meter-telescope-and-the-need-for-indigenous-voices-in-science/47 Katie Worth. “World’s Largest Telescope Faces Opposition from Native Hawaiian Protesters.” Scientific American. 2015. Accessed October 2021. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-largest-telescope-faces-opposition-from-native-hawaiian-protesters/48 Ibid

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engaged in dialogue with the locals, trying to gain support – something that early TMT leadership did not. Despite this, there remains a small but vocal community committed to reclaiming and protecting Hawaiian land and rights against TMT construction.49

Questions to considerCan the value of Mauna Kea be quantified?Can the value of the scientific knowledge from the TMT be quantified?If not, what is a productive way to discuss the opposing values at stake?Who is being harmed by the TMT? Does the existence of the TMT necessarily harm them or are there compromises that could be made?What historical or cultural factors outside of Mauna Kea must be considered when discussing construction of the TMT?Hawaiian land is valuable for many reasons and for many people. How can the people of Hawai’i ensure the protection of their rights when other ventures are undertaken on Hawaiian land?Is there a way to compensate those harmed while continuing with TMT construction?

49 Ibid

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Topic C: Topic C: International relationship with the U.S and the status of Kanaka Maoli people

Treaties of past The United States first indirectly recognized Hawai’i as an independent nation on

December 3rd, 1826, when it signed a treaty with the Hawaiian Government.50 This treaty was entitled the “Treaty of Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation Between the United States and the Sandwich Islands,” now known as Hawaiian Islands, “which confirmed the peace and friendship between the peoples of the two countries.”51 Notably, this was “the first treaty that the Kingdom of Hawaii signed with any foreign power,” and while “it was never ratified by [the American] Congress,” “both countries acted in accordance with its articles.”52

The relationship between the countries was so good natured that on January 30, 1875, a Treaty of Reciprocity was signed. “This treaty provided for duty-free import of Hawaiian agricultural products into the United States. Conversely, the Kingdom of Hawaii allowed U.S. agricultural products and manufactured goods to enter Hawaiian ports duty-free.”53 This treaty was originally intended to last for seven years, but it was reenacted in 1884 when the previous legislation expired. Though this treaty was drafted to seem mutually beneficial, it ultimately “foreshadowed the annexation of Hawaii in many ways.”54 The treaty “road-[mapped] a system of preference for importing Hawaiian goods by eliminating tariffs. American goods were likewise given the same preference in Hawaii. Exporting goods from Hawaii to the United States were also given preference in the same manner.”55 The treaty worked to “establish the control and monopoly of the United States over Hawaii. By closely aligning itself with Hawaiian sugar trade, the United States was strengthening its business interests in the islands.”56 Though this treaty hinted at the end of the Kanaka Maoli’s governance of Hawaii, it nevertheless was an international treaty between two sovereign nations.

Diplomatic relationships continued until Hawaii was annexed, which ended the sovereign rule of the Kanaka Maoli people over the archipelago.57 Ultimately, annexation shifted the power structure between the United States and the Kanaka Maoli: two nations that traded freely with one another quickly transformed into a paternalistic relationship of domination and control.

The next significant shift in the relationship between the US and Hawaii occurred between 1946 and 1959, which saw the incorporation of Hawaii as an American State. It is important to note that “the drive behind statehood in Hawaii came not from Indigenous Hawaiians, but from

50 “A Guide to the United States’ History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Hawaii,” U.S. Department of State, https://history.state.gov/countries/hawaii.51 Ibid.52 Ibid.53 Ibid.54 Farr, Kate. “Reciprocity Treaty of 1875.” Dartmouth University. https://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S26%20-%20Reciprocity%20Treaty%20of%201875.htm. 55 Ibid.56 Ibid.57 “A Guide to the United States’ History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular Relations, by Country, since 1776: Hawaii,” U.S. Department of State, https://history.state.gov/countries/hawaii.

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the settler and immigrant population.”58 This is particularly problematic, as the United States had an obligation under Chapter XI and Resolution 742 (VIII) of the United Nations “to consider independence for the Hawaii Non Self-Governing Territory.”59 This obligation was ignored: “when Hawaii was incorporated into metropolitan borders, the United States exhibited no interest in preparing Hawaii for independence. Rather, the only option examined in context of Hawaii’s self-determination, was ‘statehood.’”60 Therefore, the United States has been slowly reinforcing their domination of the Hawaiian archipelago illegally for over a century.

United states public law 103-150, or The Apology resolutionIn 1993, US President Bill Clinton signed legislation that formally apologized for the illegal

annexation of Hawaii. While the apology was “meant as a means of reconciliation with Native Hawaiians” and “[acknowledged] the historic significance of the event,” “the apology [did] not provide federal recognition to Native Hawaiians as other federal laws provide to [Native American] tribes.”61 The action items from the Apology Resolution are as follows,

“Now, therefore, be it Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America in Congress assembled,

The Congress• apologizes to Native Hawaiians on behalf of the people of the United States for the

overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii on January 17, 1893... and the deprivation of the rights of Native Hawaiians to self-determination;

• expresses its commitment to acknowledge the ramifications of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii, in order to provide a proper foundation for reconciliation between the United States and the Native Hawaiian people; and

• urges the President of the United States to also acknowledge the ramifications of the overthrow of the Kingdom of Hawaii and to support reconciliation efforts between the United States and the Native Hawaiian people.”62

• Notably, the resolution does not promise any tangible reconciliatory actions on behalf of the United States Government. Though the resolution acknowledged that the annexation of Hawaii was illegal, it did not reinstate sovereign power for the Kanaka Maoli.

Current UN involvement and the status of the Kanaka Maoli people

On the 14th of December, 1946, the General Assembly of the United Nations signed Chapter XI of the Charter of the United Nations. This chapter defines and sets out legal rights

58 Lopez-Reyes, Ramon. “The Re-Inscription of Hawaii on the United Nations’ List of Non-Self-Governing Territories.” Peace Research 28, no. 3 (1996): 71–96. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23607288.59 Ibid.60 Ibid.61 “President Clinton Apologizes for 1893 Overthrow of Hawaiian Monarchy - Timeline - Native Voices,” U.S. National Library of Medicine (National Institutes of Health), https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/578.html. 62 “United States Public Law 103-150,” Apology Resolution Excerpts (Hawaiian Independence Web Database), https://www.hawaii-nation.org/publawsum.html.

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for Non-Self-Governing Territories, which are “territories whose people have not yet attained a full measure of self-government.”63 The Kanaka Maoli were originally included in the “list of 72 Territories to which Chapter XI of the Charter applied.”64 This is because Hawaii “was considered not to be a part of the metropolitan United States, and because its native peoples were subjugated to alien domination, exploitation and colonization.”65

The United States were legally “obligated to heed subsequent United Nations pronouncements on the self-determination of non-self-governing territories, those that were promulgated by the various organs of the Organization.”66 This means that Hawaii should have been given the right to self governance and the ability to “resume its prior active independent role in the international community of sovereign states.”67 Instead, however, the United States conducted a plebiscite in 1959 that “excluded the option of independence for the Territory.”68 The result from this vote was a declaration that the region had achieved self governance, which was promptly reported to the UN. Due to the United States plebiscite that pronounced that the Kanaka Maoli were self-governing, when they in fact had not even been given the option of independence, Hawaii was removed from the list of territories protected under Chapter XI of the UN Charter.

Today, there is much debate as to whether Hawaii should once again be protected by Chapter XI. Doing so would allow for an external body to measure progress towards sovereign government for the Kanaka Maoli, thus checking the complete domination that the United States currently exercises in Hawaii. Crucially, “the United Nations, the guarantor of non-self-governing territories, is obligated to protect the Hawaii Non-Self-Governing Territory from the United States permanent state of aggression.”69 Ultimately, “the colonized peoples of Hawaii, who are the beneficiaries of Chapter XI of the United Nations Charter, should be given the rightful opportunity to exercise their self-determination.”70

Movement for Kanaka Maoli SovereigntyToday, “the U.S. government acknowledges Native Hawaiians as “a distinct and unique

indigenous people with a historical continuity to the original inhabitants” of Hawaii. But Congress has never formally recognized them as it has 573 Native American tribes and nations, and Native Hawaiians have never established a formal government.”71 There has been a recommendation by the U.S. Civil Rights Commission that “Congress officially recognize Native Hawaiians, making them eligible for the same government-to-government relationship and benefits given to hundreds of Native American tribes.”72 However, the Kanaka Maoli are not fully in support of shifting their

63 Ibid.64 “Non-Self-Governing Territories | The United Nations and Decolonization,” United Nations, https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt. 65 Lopez-Reyes, Ramon. “The Re-Inscription of Hawaii on the United Nations’ List of Non-Self-Governing Territories.” Peace Research 28, no. 3 (1996): 71–96. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23607288.66 Ibid.67 Ibid.68 Ibid.69 Ibid.70 Ibid.71 Cecily Hilleary, “Native Hawaiians Divided on Federal Recognition,” VOA (Voice of America, February 7, 2019), https://www.voanews.com/a/native-hawaiians-divided-on-federal-recognition/4775275.html. 72 Ibid.

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relationship with the US government in this way, as it compromises on what they believe they are entitled to. Many Kanaka Maoli “oppose recognition, arguing the overthrow violated international law and the kingdom, in fact, never stopped existing.”73 While being classified in similar ways to Native American nations may be able to temporarily receive certain benefits, it would ultimately work against the desire for self governance. Ka’opua, a Kanaka Maoli scholar, succinctly states that the United States government would like their relationship to be “a nation within a nation, that is, federal recognition status,” while Native Hawaiians are “asserting [their] claim for a country independent from the United states.”74

The Ka Lahui is an important group that is taking action to achieve Native Hawaiian sovereignty. They are “the evolutionary product of three generations of Hawaiians who have sought to regain their Native lands and to re-establish themselves as a self-governing people. Its government structure is democratic in nature, its political process is the elective process, and its cultural process is Lokahi.”75 The Ka Lahui currently boasts 8,000 citizens, with their primary goal being to assert the sovereignty of Native Hawaiians. They intend to achieve sovereignty through the “inclusion for the Hawaiian people in the existing U.S. federal policy that affords all Native Americans the right to be self-governing, and to obtain access to the federal courts for judicial review. Once this is achieved, the sovereign nation can explore with the state, federal and county governments, resolution of claims relating to the Native trusts and other entitlements. Ka Lahui believes that the nation should be created before Native entitlements are negotiated. It is the right of the sovereign entity to advance the claims of the people and to explore ways to resolve conflicts with the State and the U.S.”76 It is crucial to note that the Ka Lahui would like to be included in the current US federal policy that exists for Native Americans, but only after Native Hawaiians have formulated a state. This would allow for a more even playing field in negotiations, hopefully ensuring that the Kanaka Maoli are able to assert their own sovereignty.

Sovereignty for the Kanaka Maoli is incredibly diverse and not all Native Hawaiians necessarily have the same approach. For example, Hawaiian sovereignty has already been claimed,

“In a place called Pu’uhonua o Waimānalo, on the island of O’ahu, Kanahele and other sovereignty supporters have planted the seeds of the self-proclaimed Nation of Hawai’i. In this village, there are more than two-dozen dwellings occupying the sloping foot of the Ko’olau Mountains, where villagers work in restored taro paddies and drive cars that carry Nation of Hawai’i license plates. An estimated 60 to 80 citizens populate Pu‗uhonua, where children are educated on-site, and much of what is used on the premises is either produced there or donated, making it an almost completely self-sustaining township. The land itself is leased from the state as part of an 55-year agreement between the two organizations to ―get rid of a 200-resident tent city the group had used to occupy beachfront, as well as to put an end to members passing out leaflets on the beaches of Waikīkī asking non-native Hawaiian tourists to leave the islands.”77

While individual approaches to what sovereignty should look like may differ amongst

73 Ibid.74 Ibid.75 “FAQ,” Ka Lahui Hawaii, October 10, 2009, https://kalahuihawaii.com/faq/. 76 Ibid.77 Kāhealani Pacheco, Amanda Mae. “Past, Present, and Politics: A Look at the Hawaiian Sovereignty Movement.” intersections 10, no. 1 (2009): 341-387.

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the Kanaka Maoli, there is nevertheless overwhelming support for a recognition of their right to sovereign self governance.

Questions to ConsiderShould Hawai’i be added to the list of territories protected under Chapter XI of the UN Charter again?How should the United States government classify their relationship with the Kanaka Maoli?What are the necessary elements for Kanaka Maoli to attain self governance? Consider economic support, land back, official recognition, etc.

Research AdviceFirst, we would recommend that you familiarize yourself with UTMUN procedures.

Revising UTMUN procedure is essential for both returning and first-time delegates. This ensures that you are not sidetracked during the debate, and you know how to properly express yourself as a delegate. In addition, you should research your character and their stance. This will allow you to contribute the most arguments to the debate.

While researching your organization, first look for your character’s group involvement, past actions, and their current projects. This makes drafting resolutions easier, and will allow you to be more engaged during caucus. Look into your character’s affiliates and their stance on specific topics that might be discussed in committee sessions. If you cannot find your character’s stance on a specific topic, use your overall knowledge of your character to infer their stance.

You are welcome to use the background guide to give you a basic understanding on the issues that will be discussed. However, we advise that you go beyond the sources provided to construct your arguments. A good place to look for external sources is the reference lists of research papers cited in the bibliography. These references help frame and give context to the topics discussed in the background guide.

We wish you the best of luck in your preparation and research!

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Bibliography Topic A

“Annexation of Hawaii, 1898,” U.S. Department of State. 2001. Accessed October 15, 2021, https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/gp/17661.htm

“Aloha ‘Āina: Native Hawaiian Land Restitution,” Harvard Law Review. Accessed October 15, 2021, https://harvardlawreview.org/2020/04/aloha-aina-native-hawaiian-land-restitution/

“Kanaka Maoli (Hawaiian) history,” Independent Agroecologies. May 31, 2016. Accessed October 15, 2021, https://indigenousagroecologies.wordpress.com/kanaka-maoli-hawaiian-history/

Kauanui, J. K?haulani. “Native Hawaiian Decolonization and the Politics of Gender.” American Quarterly 60, no. 2 (2008): 281–87. http://www.jstor.org/stable/40068536.

Kirch, Patrick Vinton, and Roger C. Green. “Hawaiki, Ancestral Polynesia: An Essay in Historical Anthropology.” Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, (2001): 1-375. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511613678.

MacKenzie, Melody Kapilialoha et al. Native Hawaiian law: A treatise. Kamehameha Publishing, 2015.

McGregor, Davianna Pomaikaʻi and Melody Kapilialoha MacKenzie. “Moʻolelo Ea O Nā Hawaiʻi: History of Native Hawaiian Governance in Hawaiʻi.” The Office of Hawaiian Affairs, (2014): 1-62. https://www.doi.gov/sites/doi.opengov.ibmcloud.com/files/uploads/Moʻolelo%20Ea%20O%20Nā%20Hawaiʻi(8-23-15).pdf

Medeiros, Megan. “Hawaiian History: The Dispossession of Native Hawaiians› Identity, and Their Struggle for Sovereignty.” Master’s thesis, California State University Electronic Theses, Projects, and Dissertations 557. (2017): 15-18. https://scholarworks.lib.csusb.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1611&context=etd

Minami, Kaylilani. “Eh, You Māhu? An Analysis of American Cultural Imperialism in Hawai’i through the Lens of Gender and Sexuality.” Senior Thesis, Claremont McKenna College Senior Theses 1611, (2017): 1-64. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=&httpsredir=1&article=2720&context=cmc_theses

Nakata, Shari. “Language suppression, revitalization, and Hawaiian Native Identity”, Inland Counties Legal Services 2. (2017): 14-27. https://www.chapman.edu/law/_files/publications/2017-dsj/nakata.pdf

Ng-Osorio, Jacqueline and Brandon C. Ledward. “Aia ke ola i ka ‘olelo Hawai‘i: Revival of the Hawaiian language.” Honolulu, HI: Kamehameha Schools–Research & Evaluation (2011): 1-4. https://www.ksbe.edu/assets/research/collection/11_0108_ngosorio.pdf

Pukui, Mary Kawena et al. Nana i ke Kumu (Look to the Source). Honolulu, Queen Lili’uokalani Children’s Center, 1972.

Research and Economic Analysis Division Department of Business, Economic Development and Tourism. “Detailed languages spoken at home in the state of Hawaii [Report].” Hawaii State Data Center, (2016): 1-29. https://files.hawaii.gov/dbedt/census/acs/Report/Detailed_Language_March2016.pdf.

Tanigawa, Noe. “Native Hawaiians Overrepresented Among Unsheltered,” Hawai’i Public Radio (2020). Accessed October 15, 2021, from https://www.hawaiipublicradio.org/local-news/2020-11-18/report-native-hawaiians-overrepresented-among-unsheltered

Venn Stevenson, Jaylin. “Kānāwai: Using Ancient Hawaiian Law to Prepare for the Future.” UCLA Law Review, (2020, March 26). Accessed October 15, 2021, from https://www.uclalawreview.org/kanawai-using-ancient-hawaiian-law-to-prepare-for-the-future/#_ftn7

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Topic BBernier-Chen, Kai, “Aloha ʻĀina: The United States Military and Its Controversial Use of

Hawaiian Land,” Senior Projects Spring 2016 199, (2016). https://digitalcommons.bard.edu/senproj_s2016/199Bhattacharjee, Yudhijit. “Thirty Meter Telescope Gets Small Grant to Make Big

Plans,” Science (2013). Accessed October, 2021 https://www.science.org/content/article/thirty-meter-telescope-gets-small-grant-make-big-plans

Fujikane, Candance and Jonathan Y. Okamura. Asian settler colonialism: from local governance to the habits of everyday life in Hawai’i. University Of Hawai’i Press, 2008.

Hurley, Amanda.“An Astronomical Controversy: The Thirty Meter Telescope and the need for indigenous voices in science,” Catalyst for Science Policy (2020, March 4). Accessed October, 2021. https://casp.wisc.edu/an-astronomical-controversy-the-thirty-meter-telescope-and-the-need-for-indigenous-voices-in-science/

Johnson, Carl J.“Remembering “the American Island of Oahu”: Hawai`i under Military Rule. Hawai`i.” Pacific University. (2011): 1941-1945.

“Mauna Kea.” The Office of Hawaiian Affairs (OHA). 2017. Accessed October 2021. https://www.oha.org/maunakea/

Semeniuk, Ivan. “With $243-million contribution, Canada signs on to mega-telescope in search of first stars and other Earths.” The Globe and Mail, 2015, April 6. Accessed October 2021. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national/harper-announces-243-million-contribution-for-thirty-meter-telescope-project/article23818767/

“Seven days: 5–11 December 2014.” Nature 516. (2014).:148–149. https://doi.org/10.1038/516148a

Worth, Katie. “World’s Largest Telescope Faces Opposition from Native Hawaiian Protesters.” Scientific American. 2015. Accessed October 2021. https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/world-s-largest-telescope-faces-opposition-from-native-hawaiian-protesters/

Topic C“A Guide to the United States’ History of Recognition, Diplomatic, and Consular

Relations, by Country, since 1776: Hawaii.” U.S. Department of State, n.d. https://history.state.gov/countries/hawaii.

Farr, Kate. “Reciprocity Treaty of 1875.” Dartmouth University. Accessed January 2, 2022. https://www.dartmouth.edu/~hist32/History/S26%20-%20Reciprocity%20Treaty%20of%201875.htm.

“FAQ.” Ka Lahui Hawaii, October 10, 2009. https://kalahuihawaii.com/faq/. Hilleary, Cecily. “Native Hawaiians Divided on Federal Recognition.” VOA. Voice of

America, February 7, 2019. https://www.voanews.com/a/native-hawaiians-divided-on-federal-recognition/4775275.html.

Lopez-Reyes, Ramon. “The Re-Inscription of Hawaii on the United Nations’ List of Non-Self-Governing Territories.” Peace Research 28, no. 3 (1996): 71–96. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23607288.

“Non-Self-Governing Territories | The United Nations and Decolonization.” United Nations. https://www.un.org/dppa/decolonization/en/nsgt.

“President Clinton Apologizes for 1893 Overthrow of Hawaiian Monarchy - Timeline

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- Native Voices.” U.S. National Library of Medicine. National Institutes of Health. Accessed January 2, 2022. https://www.nlm.nih.gov/nativevoices/timeline/578.html.

“United States Public Law 103-150.” Apology Resolution Excerpts. Hawaiian Independence Web Database. https://www.hawaii-nation.org/publawsum.html.

Kāhealani Pacheco, Amanda Mae. “Past, Present, and Politics: A Look at the Hawaiian Sovereignty Movement.” intersections 10, no. 1 (2009): 341-387.