The Amer. Jrnl. of Distance Education, 25:91–104, 2011 ISSN 0892-3647 print / 1538-9286 online DOI: 10.1080/08923647.2011.565241 Design and Teaching: A Bibliographic Essay As published in Distances et Savoirs (D & S—7/2009. À la croisée des recherches, pages 601 to 613) Janette R. Hill, Denise P. Domizi, and Nicole D. Collier The University of Georgia Abstract: Distance education, particularly online education, is becoming a standard experience in formal learning environments, particularly at the postsecondary level. As more faculty and students have expectations that distance education is a part of the learning experience, we need to build a deeper understanding of how to design effective environments to enhance and extend the learning process. Further, we need to explore how to best facilitate learning in these contexts. This bibliographic essay explores the literature related to design and teaching in distance education as presented in the third section of Moore’s (2007a) Handbook of Distance Education (Table 1 provides an overview of all the chapters in the Design and Teaching section of the Handbook). Distance education, particularly online education, is becoming a standard expe- rience in formal learning environments, particularly at the postsecondary level. As more faculty and students have expectations that distance education is a part of the learning experience, we need to build a deeper understanding of how to design effective environments to enhance and extend the learning process. Further, we need to explore how to best facilitate learning in these contexts. This bibliographic essay explores the literature related to design and teach- ing in distance education as presented in the third section of Moore’s (2007a) Handbook of Distance Education (Table 1 provides an overview of all the chapters in the Design and Teaching section of the Handbook). We started our review by reading all of the chapters in the section. Our analysis began with the identification of themes. After comparing our indi- vidual analyses, we narrowed the list of themes to seven: interact, assess, scaffolding, transactional distance, learner, roles, authentic. Our next step was to identify the key resources within each theme. We created a spreadsheet to This article first published by Lavoisier and CNED, with permission. Correspondence should be sent to Janette R. Hill, University of Georgia, 412 River’s Crossing, Athens, GA 30602. E-mail: [email protected]
Transcript
The Amer. Jrnl. of Distance Education, 25:91–104, 2011ISSN 0892-3647 print / 1538-9286 onlineDOI: 10.1080/08923647.2011.565241
Design and Teaching: A Bibliographic Essay
As published in Distances et Savoirs (D & S—7/2009.À la croisée des recherches, pages 601 to 613)
Janette R. Hill, Denise P. Domizi, and Nicole D. CollierThe University of Georgia
Abstract: Distance education, particularly online education, is becoming a standardexperience in formal learning environments, particularly at the postsecondary level. Asmore faculty and students have expectations that distance education is a part of thelearning experience, we need to build a deeper understanding of how to design effectiveenvironments to enhance and extend the learning process. Further, we need to explorehow to best facilitate learning in these contexts. This bibliographic essay explores theliterature related to design and teaching in distance education as presented in the thirdsection of Moore’s (2007a) Handbook of Distance Education (Table 1 provides anoverview of all the chapters in the Design and Teaching section of the Handbook).
Distance education, particularly online education, is becoming a standard expe-rience in formal learning environments, particularly at the postsecondary level.As more faculty and students have expectations that distance education is a partof the learning experience, we need to build a deeper understanding of howto design effective environments to enhance and extend the learning process.Further, we need to explore how to best facilitate learning in these contexts.
This bibliographic essay explores the literature related to design and teach-ing in distance education as presented in the third section of Moore’s (2007a)Handbook of Distance Education (Table 1 provides an overview of all thechapters in the Design and Teaching section of the Handbook).
We started our review by reading all of the chapters in the section. Ouranalysis began with the identification of themes. After comparing our indi-vidual analyses, we narrowed the list of themes to seven: interact, assess,scaffolding, transactional distance, learner, roles, authentic. Our next step wasto identify the key resources within each theme. We created a spreadsheet to
This article first published by Lavoisier and CNED, with permission.Correspondence should be sent to Janette R. Hill, University of Georgia, 412 River’s
Table 1. Chapters in the Design and Teaching Section
Chapters Citations
18 Shearer, R. 2007. Instructional design and the technologies: Anoverview. In Handbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G.Moore, 219–232. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
19 Bonk, C. J., and V. P. Dennen. 2007. Frameworks for design andinstruction. In Handbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G.Moore, 233–246. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
20 Naidu, S. 2007. Instructional designs for optimal learning. In Handbookof distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 247–258. Mahwah,NJ: Erlbaum.
21 Sharma, P., K. M. Oliver, and M. J. Hannafin. 2007. Teaching andlearning in directed environments. In Handbook of distanceeducation, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 259–270. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
22 Hill, J. R., D. P. Domizi, M. J. Hannafin, M. C. Kim, and H. Kim. 2007.Teaching and learning in negotiated and informal environments. InHandbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 271–284.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
23 Davis, D. J. 2007. Developing text for Web-based instruction. InHandbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 285–294.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
24 Anderson, T., and A. Kuskis. 2007. Modes of interaction. In Handbookof distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 295–309. Mahwah,NJ: Erlbaum.
25 Sammons, M. 2007. Collaborative interaction. In Handbook of distanceeducation, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 311–321. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
26 Moisey, S., and M. Ally. 2007. Fulfilling the promise of learningobjects. In Handbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G.Moore, 323–337. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
27 Dede, C., E. Dieterle, J. Clarke, D. J. Ketelhut, and B. Nelson. 2007.Media-based learning styles. In Handbook of distance education, 2nded., ed. M. G. Moore, 339–352. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
capture all of the unique references (n = 528) in the Design and Teaching sec-tion of the Handbook. We then identified the references that coordinated witheach of the major themes. Finally, we identified the resources that were citedmultiples times (i.e., cited in at least two chapters) in the section, making it akey resource.
It should be noted that there are limitations to this essay. The themesare based on our reading of the chapters in the Design and Teaching sectionof the Handbook. We did not look to other literature to inform our majorcategories. Another limitation relates to the number of references we had forconsideration. Although 528 may seem like a significant number, a quick
DESIGN AND TEACHING 93
search in a more comprehensive database such as ERIC reveals that muchmore literature is available for each of our themes (e.g., scaffolding is akeyword in 1,466 articles in ERIC).
Although there are limitations, we feel that the results of our analysis indi-cate a few core references that readers can turn to as they begin their explorationof a particular topic. We have organized the essay by major themes. Withineach theme we provide a description of the theme and an overview of the refer-ences cited in the chapter. We end each theme section with a discussion of keyresources related to the theme.
INTERACT/INTERACTION
Interact was a major theme in the Design and Teaching section. Our analysisindicated 111 references related to interact or a related term, interaction. Thetheme was present throughout the section, with references in all of the chapters,18–27.
Interact or interaction refers to the ways in which communication isengaged within a distance education context (Shearer 2007, chapter 18).Several perspectives on interact/interaction are represented in the section.For example, Shearer points out that interaction is much more than justverbal communication, citing Moore’s (1989) distinctions of learner–learnerinteraction, learner–interface, and dialogue. Bonk and Dennen (2007, chap-ter 19) talk extensively about interaction within their frameworks for designand teaching, providing frameworks for enhancing and extending interac-tion, particularly learner–instructor and learner–learner. Other authors describeinteraction within the context of design (e.g., Naidu 2007, chapter 20; Sharma,Oliver, and Hannafin 2007, chapter 21; Moisey and Ally 2007, chapter 26), stat-ing the importance of creating opportunities for interaction during the designof the learning environment. The types of interaction (e.g., peer, instructor,resource) and the types of environments in which they occur were also notedin the section (e.g., Hill et al. 2007, chapter 22; Anderson and Kuskis 2007,chapter 24). The opportunities afforded for interaction in online environmentswas a focal point in Davis’s (2007) chapter 23. Sammons (2007, chapter 25)highlights the message that interaction does not just happen; rather it is gen-erated and facilitated. Dede et al. (2007, chapter 27) closes the section with adiscussion of mediated interaction and the expectations of neomillenials.
A common theme cutting across all the chapters is the importance of inter-action in online learning. Being attentive to the different types of interactionand how to engage learners was particularly highlighted in the section.
There were three key resources in the Design and Teaching section ofthe Handbook related to interact/interaction: Garrison and Baynton (1989),Garrison and Cleveland-Innes (2005), and Moore (1989). Garrison andBaynton explore interaction in terms of who is controlling the experience.
Table 2. Key Ideas and Resources for Interact/Interaction
Key ideas Resources
Control of thelearning experience
Garrison, D. R., and M. Baynton. 1989. Beyondindependence in distance education: The concept ofcontrol. In Readings in principles of distanceeducation, ed. M. G. Moore and G. C. Clark, 16–28.University Park, PA: American Center for the Studyof Distance Education.
Interaction andpresence
Garrison, D. R., and M. Cleveland-Innes. 2005.Facilitating cognitive presence in online learning:Interaction is not enough. The American Journal ofDistance Education 19 (3): 133–148.
Types of interaction Moore, M. G. 1989. Three types of interaction. TheAmerican Journal of Distance Education 3 (2): 1–6.
Garrison and Cleveland-Innes link into another theme of presence as they dis-cuss how to facilitate cognitive presence in online learning. Moore (1989)describes three types of interaction and how those can be used effectively indistance education contexts. Each resource provides insight into the impor-tance of interaction in distance education (for a summary of the key ideas andresources, see Table 2).
ASSESSMENT
The topic of assessment was a common theme throughout the Design andTeaching section of the Handbook. In fact, nine of the ten chapters addressedthe topic of assessment either in a broad sense or to refer to specific types ofassessment.
Assessment is often seen as the primary means for both educators andlearners to gauge whether learning has happened. Sharma, Oliver, and Hannafin(2007, chapter 21) discuss different types of assessment, from more tradi-tional quizzes, exams, tests, papers, and projects (Mason, Pegler, and Weller2004), to alternative assessments such as portfolios, discussions, concept maps,reflections, and field experiences (Benson 2003).
Regardless of format, several forms of assessment were considered asways to provide formative feedback. Four chapters (20, 21, 22, 23) discussself-assessment and tools that are used to scaffold and improve the learner’sproficiency by reflecting on his or her own learning. Peer assessment is alsodiscussed (chapters 21, 22, 27) as a way for learners to benefit from the feed-back and reactions of their peers. Both self-assessments and peer assessmentsgive learners the opportunity to reflect upon and adjust their understandingsduring the process of learning.
Assessment formats Mason, R., Pegler, C., and M. Weller. 2004.E-portfolios: An assessment tool for online courses.British Journal of Educational Technology 35 (6):717–727.
Authentic assessment, where scenarios or real situations are identified togive learners a problem or condition that mirrors real-world application, arediscussed in chapters 20 (Naidu 2007) and 22 (Hill et al. 2007). Examplesof authentic assessment are scenario-based learning (Naidu et al. 2005) andproblem-based learning (Barrows 1994; Barrows and Tamblyn 1980; Schmidt1983).
There was one key resource with regard to assessment, and this wasMason, Pegler, and Weller (2004). Both chapters (21, 22) that reference thisarticle do so to cite the authors’ examples of typical assessment formats. Masonet al. found that students used artifacts from various courses to build authenticand meaningful e-portfolios (for a summary of key ideas and resources, seeTable 3).
SCAFFOLDS
Chapters 20, 21, 22, 25, and 26 of the Handbook all delve into the conceptof scaffolds. Although discussed in various ways, scaffolding was consis-tently presented as an important element to support student learning in distanceeducation.
Scaffold is a metaphor used to describe a process or tool that helps learnersachieve what they could not unaided (Azevedo and Hadwin 2005; Pea 2004;Wood, Bruner and Ross 1976). Scaffolds provide support as needed, meaningthey are adjusted and faded once needs change. Simply stated, effective scaf-folds support learners at the right place and time, in the right way (Naidu 2007,chapter 20). Because of this inherent flexibility, there is no singular way toscaffold. Scaffolds may be hard (technology-based) or soft (human) (Sharmaand Hannafin 2007) and may support learners with procedural, conceptual,metacognitive, or strategic processes (Hill and Hannafin 2001; Muirhead andJuwah 2004).
Although they are often associated with constructivist principles, scaffoldscan be implemented in both constructivist and objectivist learning environ-ments (see Sharma, Oliver, and Hannafin 2007, chapter 21; Hill et al. 2007,chapter 22). In distance education, scaffolds can help learners to master
content, meet personal learning goals, maintain focus and sense of locationin hypertext environments, and interact collaboratively with peers and expertsacross time and/or space.
There were no duplicates among the citations on scaffolds, althoughWood, Bruner, and Ross’s (1976) work is widely regarded as one of thefoundational pieces on scaffolding. We think this lack of overlap stems, inpart, from the diversity of purposes and ways to scaffold. As Sammons(2007, chapter 25) mentioned, scaffolding is contingent on the circumstancesand conditions. Distance learning environments can be structured to scaffoldcontent mastery, conceptual understanding, navigational practices, thinkingand reflection, or relationships. The authors who discussed scaffolds pointedto empirical or theoretical research about the way scaffolds were used orconceptualized in a particular instance rather than scaffolding as a generalconcept.
TRANSACTIONAL DISTANCE
The theory of transactional distance is discussed at length in Moore’s (2007b)chapter 8 in the Handbook; it is also a theme in the Design and Teachingsection, along with similar terms such as transactional presence and socialpresence, in chapters 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, and 25.
In distance education, transactional distance refers to the interplay betweendialogue (communication between learner and instructor), structure (amountof control learner has on structure of course, assignments, outcomes), andlearner autonomy (Moore 1989). Each of these elements interacts to affecttransactional distance. For example, Moore (1989) proposed that as dialogueincreases, transactional distance decreases; as structure increases, transactionaldistance also increases.
To look at it from a different perspective, Sammons (2007, chapter 25)discusses Shin’s (2003) theory of transactional presence, which describes theextent to which learners feel connected to others (e.g., instructor, other stu-dents). In either case, the important aspect, as described by Shearer (2007,chapter 18), is the perceived “psychological separation of the learner from theinstructor” (220). This is also referred to as the idea of social presence, wherethe emphasis is on how “real” the person with whom the learner is interactingis perceived to be (Shin 2003).
There was one key resource in this section of the Handbook with regard totransactional distance, and this was Richardson and Swan (2003). Both timesit was referenced (chapters 23 and 25) was to present the results of their study,which concluded that students who perceived more social presence in theircourses reported more satisfaction with their experience, felt they learned more,and had higher opinions of their teachers (for a summary of key ideas andresources, see Table 4).
Table 4. Key Ideas and Resources for Transactional Distance
Key ideas Resources
Social presenceand learners
Richardson, J., and K. Swan. 2003. Examining socialpresence in online courses in relation to students’perceived learning and satisfaction. Journal ofAsynchronous Learning Networks 7 (1): 68–81.
LEARNERS
Almost all the authors in this section of the Handbook mention learners in somerespect, but Bonk and Dennen (2007), Naidu (2007), and Dede et al. (2007,chapters 19, 20, 27) delve most deeply into learner characteristics. Online dis-tance education provides learning opportunities to a wide range of people,resulting in a complex tapestry of characteristics that must be considered.
Not only do designers consider learning styles, cognitive variability, andmotivation but learner age, employment, and family structures must also betaken into account (Moore 1987; also see Hill et al. 2007, chapter 22, fordiscussion). Bonk and Cummings (1998) suggest several frameworks thatlink APA learner-centered psychological principles to guidelines for effectiveonline instruction (see also Bonk and Dennen 2007, chapter 19). Frameworkssuch as these highlight the myriad factors incorporated into effective design.Design is further complicated by the expectations and skills learners bring todistance education from their everyday experiences. Whether a learner finds agiven activity valuable or not is impacted by daily interactions with technologyand other artifacts (Dede et al. 2007, chapter 27).
Learner autonomy is chief among the distance design considerations. Howmuch or how little structure is appropriate for a given learner to experiencesuccess (Shearer 2007, chapter 18)? Less structure may be suitable for moreexperienced learners, whereas more structure is important for novices (Davis2007, chapter 23; Jonassen, Mayes, and McAleese 1993). Moreover, learnersmay need encouragement in order to feel a sense of community (Anderson andKuskis 2007, chapter 24) or support to ensure they are comfortable collabo-rating with their peers (Liaw and Huang 2000; Rourke et al. 1999; Sammons2007, chapter 25; Sims 2003).
Garrison and Baynton’s (1989) article was a key resource for learnercharacteristics. Their work discusses the negotiation necessary to main-tain the proper proportions of learner independence, support, and power.Considerations include internal factors such as motivation, learning style,attitude and maturity, and external factors like finances, support of familymembers, and institutional structures. Creating the ideal learning environmentinvolves a nuanced approach to understanding and meeting the needs of diverselearners (for a summary of key ideas and resources, see Table 5).
Negotiation for learnerindependence, support,and power
Garrison, D. R., and M. Baynton. 1989. Beyondindependence in distance education: The conceptof control. In Readings in principles of distanceeducation, ed. M. G. Moore and G. C. Clark,16–28. University Park, PA: American Center forthe Study of Distance Education.
ROLES OF LEARNER, INSTRUCTOR, DESIGN, AND MEDIA
The role of the learner and instructor was a repeating theme in the Design andTeaching section. Our analysis indicated fifteen references related to roles in anonline learning environment. The theme was present in five of the ten chaptersof the section, including 19–22, 24, and 26.
Role of the learner refers to the actions and/or activities engaged by thelearner in an online learning environment. This can range from being a pas-sive recipient of the instruction to being actively involved in the facilitation ofthe learning environment. Several perspectives on the role of the learner arerepresented in the section. For example, Bonk and Dennen (2007, chapter 19)advocate giving the learner multiple roles within the context of online discus-sions (e.g., leader, summarizer). The role of peer support is also important,particularly in the context of online interactions (Hill et al. 2007, chapter 22).Anderson and Kuskis (2007, chapter 24) discuss ways that the learner canbecome more engaged in online interactions, taking a more active role in thelearning experience.
The role of the instructor can be just as varied as that of the learner, rangingfrom the “sage on the stage” to a “guide on the side.” Throughout the section theauthors discuss the role of the instructor, advocating more of a facilitative roleand one that is very active and engaged (Moisey and Ally 2007, chapter 26). Forexample, Bonk and Dennen (2007, chapter 19) describe the role of the instruc-tor in the context of online discussions, indicating that it could take on moreof an authoritarian model or one that is more informal and spontaneous, thuslikely eliciting more interaction from learners. Anderson and Kuskis (2007,chapter 24) describe the important role of the instructor in selecting content,specifically content learning objects. Throughout the section, being active andengaged, whether from the learner or instructor perspective, is a key theme.
Other roles were discussed in the section, including the roles of instruc-tional design and media. The role of media is an important consideration inonline learning. For example, Sharma, Oliver, and Hannafin (2007, chapter 21)made reference to the role of discussion boards in online learning. Naidu (2007,chapter 20) talked extensively about the role of instructional design and the
DESIGN AND TEACHING 99
Table 6. Key Ideas and Resources for Roles of the Learner and/or Instructor
Key ideas Resources
Importance of roles indistance education
Dennen, V. P. 2005. From message posting to learningdialogues: Factors affecting learner participation inasynchronous discussion. Distance Education 26 (1):125–146.
need to give careful attention to the design of goals and learning outcomes tobuild effective environments.
All the roles discussed earlier were important elements in the text; how-ever, there was only one key resource in the Design and Teaching section of theHandbook related to the roles of the learner and/or instructor: Dennen (2005).The article is discussed in two of the chapters in the section. Bonk and Dennen(2007, chapter 19) cite the article when discussing the role of the learner andinstructor. Sharma, Oliver, and Hannafin (2007, chapter 21) cite the article inreference to the role of the learner in terms of interaction during asynchronousand synchronous communication (for a summary of key ideas and resources,see Table 6).
OTHER KEY RESOURCES RELATED TO DESIGN AND TEACHING
It is important to note that there were four other noteworthy resources citedin the section. Although none were explicitly related to the themes describedearlier, we felt they were worthy of mention due to their prevalent citationacross chapters in the section.
Two citations of note are more related to the theoretical and design aspectsof online learning. Moore’s 1989 article, “Three Types of Interaction,” was fre-quently cited in the section. His work in the area of interaction has continuedsince this piece was published. Anyone interested in online learning, partic-ularly in terms of interaction, should review Moore’s work for his importantinsights. Schon’s (1983) work on reflection was also cited several times in thesection. His book, The Reflective Practitioner, is another good resource foronline practitioners.
Two other resources related to the implementation of online learning.Salmon’s 2002 book, E-tivies: The Key to Active Online Learning, was cited asa source for information on various activities in online environments. Finally,the work of the Cognitive and Technology Group at Vanderbilt (CTGV) wascited in terms of anchored instruction and situated cognition. Although no oneresource was highlighted, the cross section reference to its work makes it animportant consideration for those exploring online learning environments (seeCTGV 1990, 1991, 1993).
The section on Design and Teaching in the Handbook of Distance Educationis filled with research and scholarship related to design and teaching for dis-tance environments. We identified seven major themes in the chapter—interact,assess, scaffolding, transactional distance, learner, roles, authentic—and pre-sented the key resources related to each of these areas. We also presented otherkey resources related to online learning that were present in the section.
Our review of the section clearly indicated that there is a considerablebody of knowledge about distance education; it is wide ranging and covers aconsiderable breadth. That said, there is a need to develop more depth in whatwe know about the various aspects of learning in online environments. We needto continue our exploration of online learning within the themes we identifiedas well as other key areas. Online learning will no doubt remain an importantarea of research for years to come.
REFERENCES
Anderson, T., and A. Kuskis. 2007. Modes of interaction. In Handbook ofdistance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 295–309. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
Azevedo, R., and A. F. Hadwin. 2005. Scaffolding self-regulated learningand metacognition: Implications for the design of computer-based scaffolds.Instructional Science 33 (5–6): 367–379.
Barrows, H. S. 1994. Problem-based learning applied to medical education.Springfield, IL: Southern Illinois University School of Medicine.
Barrows, H. S., and R. Tamblyn. 1980. Problem-based learning: An approachto medical education. New York: Springer.
Benson, A. D. 2003. Assessing participant learning in online environments.New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education 100:69–78.
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Bonk, C. J., and V. P. Dennen. 2007. Frameworks for design and instruction.In Handbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 233–246.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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Davis, D. J. 2007. Developing text for Web-based instruction. In Handbookof distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 285–294. Mahwah, NJ:Erlbaum.
Dede, C., E. Dieterle, J. Clarke, D. J. Ketelhut, and B. Nelson. 2007. Media-based learning styles. In Handbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G.Moore, 339–352. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Dennen, V. P. 2005. From message posting to learning dialogues: Factorsaffecting learner participation in asynchronous discussion. DistanceEducation 26 (1): 125–146.
Garrison, D. R., and M. Baynton. 1989. Beyond independence in distanceeducation: The concept of control. In Readings in principles of distanceeducation, ed. M. G. Moore and G. C. Clark, 16–28. University Park, PA:American Center for the Study of Distance Education.
Garrison, D. R., and M. Cleveland-Innes. 2005. Facilitating cognitive pres-ence in online learning: Interaction is not enough The American Journal ofDistance Education 19 (3): 133–148.
Hill, J. R., D. P. Domizi, M. J. Hannafin, M. C. Kim, and H. Kim.2007. Teaching and learning in negotiated and informal environments. InHandbook of distance education, 2nd ed., ed. M. G. Moore, 271–284.Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
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The third section of the Handbook edited by Michael G. Moore deals with afield of research that is designated in French by the term ingénierie: Designis generally translated by ingénierie pédagogique and Teaching by ingénieriedidactique. This field of research, which was a critical issue in France duringthe 1980s, is now quite deserted. Hence, French-speaking researchers shouldbe highly interested by this section.
This section contains ten chapters: an overview of instruction design andtechnologies (chapter 18), frameworks for design and instruction (chapter 19),a vision of how design can optimize learning (chapter 20), thoughts aboutteaching and learning in directed environments (chapter 21), its counter-part with teaching and learning in negotiated and informal environments(chapter 22), a proposal for developing text for Web-based instruction(chapter 23), works on modes of interaction (chapter 24), works on collabora-tive interaction (chapter 25), a standing point on learning objects (chapter 26),and an approach of media-based learning styles (chapter 27).
The paper that is presented in this note is not a summary of the HandbookSection III chapters, as announced: the authors have decided to analyze thechapters and to identify themes that were repeated across the chapters, topresent a synthesis of these themes, and to add to each theme a “bibliographi-cal essay”—that is, to present the references they consider “key resources” forthe theme. Seven themes are announced, but only six are presented accordingto their plan, and we do not know why the seventh disappeared.
Finally, we have a text presenting the authors’ viewpoint on the follow-ing themes: interact/interaction; assessment; scaffolds; transactional distance;learners; and roles of learners, instructor, design, and media. Authentic is thetheme that was announced but not presented. To present this theme wouldhave been interesting because, in the field of educational sciences, the themehas a particular meaning, which has no equivalence in French: it designatesa learning situation that reproduces accurately a work situation or a daily-lifesituation.
104 HILL, DOMIZI, COLLIER
Most of the key resources for these themes do not belong to the Handbook,and when they are in it, they belong to a section other than the one to whichthe article refers. Some of them were published more than twenty years ago.So, the reader who wishes to know more about the current state of research onDesign and Teaching in the English-speaking world has to read the Handbookitself!
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