“Effecting A Participation-Volunteer System To Overcome Cultural Obstacles Within The EFL-Classroom Environment (Part I),” Kiyou (Journal of Kyoto Seika University), 10/1996, p. 271-292.

Our postures, gestures, facial expressions, the look in our eyes, indeed the total body participation give

substance to our responses as much as do our thoughts, experiences, words, the tone of our voice,

our silence, inner feelings, motives, intentions. Shakti Gattegno

Effecting A Participation-Volunteer System To Overcome Cultural

Obstacles Within The EFL-Classroom Environment (Part I)

As foreign language teachers in Japanese universities realize, several

elements of students' socialization process can cause problems if they wish to

conduct classes in which students are active participants. The Japanese concept

of Wa or harmony, the secondary school system, the methods of language

instruction, and the students' passive role in the Japanese university system are

social and organizational aspects of the culture that create a situation in which

classroom interaction is minimal (Benedict, Christopher, Kelly, Johnson,

Johnson-Seto, Hall, Miller, Onishi, Reischauer, Sower, Uekawa, van Wolferen).

Although students are often able to read a foreign language, in this case

English, in many situations, “Japanese students are unlikely to initiate

discussion, bring up new topics, challenge the instructor, ask questions for

clarification, or volunteer answers ” [emphasis mine] (Miller: 32). One

explanation for this is the teacher-centered structure of the traditional

classroom, where “most Japanese students will talk only if specifically called

upon, and only then if there is a clear-cut answer,... at which time, their answers

may be preceded by a pause so long that the instructor is tempted to supply the

answer first” (Anderson: 102). A principal reason for this, is the students'

scholastic background which is usually characterized by “information loading—

(and) not the development of critical thinking skills or facility in self-

expression” (Rohlen: 245). This type of pedagogy appears to be the primary

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aim of instruction in the Japanese system, an objective which often creates non-

expressive learners who's goal is to memorize correct answers for periodic tests.

The educational culture which socializes students to be passive, often

causes dilemmas in the EFL classroom for many language teachers in Japan in

general, and at Japanese universities in particular. Rohlen (245) goes on to

explain that “to the Western mind, such passivity implies a negligent attitude

toward learning. American and European schools generally encourage a lively

exchange of ideas in the classroom, the goal of which is the stimulated student

—attentive, intelligent, and expressive.” This does not seem to be the case in

the Japanese university, where the prevailing social and cultural mind-set helps

to shape the norms of college instruction.

Examining Japanese society and the educational culture of the classroom,

it is evident that the most powerful form of student anxiety stems from standing

out and separating themselves from the group. As Edward Hall describes Japan,

“you have no real identity unless you belong”(113). In private meetings,

students often describe this feeling as being “afraid” or having a “fear” of

speaking in front of their peers. This standing out can take many forms: being

vocal, making a mistake, being correct too often, mispronouncing words, or

giving personal ideas. For a student to straightforwardly express that she1 wants

to participate and volunteer in the whole group means taking a severe cultural

risk or gamble, because to be openly assertive is viewed as aggressive,

discourteous, unrefined, and disrespectful.

Teachers2 in Japan sense many students want to participate, but, because

of social pressure, will not take a chance in front of the group. Teachers inviting

participation or questioning the class may see pupils respond, even in the most

subtle terms—a twitch of their head, an eye movement, an apparent look of

interest on their face or some other form of body language. All of these indirect

gestures communicate that there is some repressed interest. Thus, given these

signals, some teachers find themselves asking questions about their students'

behavior: “If students are interested, why don't they verbalize their thoughts?”

and “Why can’t they raise their hand and say something in class, since outside

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they are communicating well with their peers?” It soon becomes apparent that

one problem lies in creating an environment in which students feel safe enough

to topple some of the powerful cultural obstacles of classroom participation.

Although these perspectives of Japanese culture and the education system

are challenging for language educators, teachers have been able to work with a

strategy discussed at length in this paper, called the Participation-Volunteer

System.3 In order to overcome some of the aforementioned limitations imposed

upon the EFL classroom, this system encourages students to become active

rather than passive participants in these classes, while also providing them with

the opportunity to develop the skills needed for active participation.4

Blueprint of the Participation-Volunteer System

In order activate the Participation-Volunteer System, it is important to

consider the following questions: “If the group mentality is really this powerful,

how can EFL teachers use it to our own advantage?” And, “How would the

mentality of the group be affected if all of the students did raise their hands?”

One answer to these questions is a system which causes all of the students

to participate but is immersed in the Japanese mind-set. Mary Catlett, a

university teacher in Japan, created a volunteer system, a measure which used a

quantitative method: every time students volunteered in any manner, e.g.,

simply raising their hand or coming to the board, they marked down one point

on a form in a volunteering column.5 Also, when students spoke and said

anything in class, they also received points which they marked down on the form

in a speaking column. Every day, students made a total computation of how

many points they earned during each class. The teacher would then collect the

students’ sheets several times throughout the term and base a considerable

amount of her grading on this. Catlett (1992) laid down this general framework

for teachers to follow, but left the system open for instructors to use and modify

to suit their own teaching methods. The base components of this system were

subsequently examined, documented, reflected on, clarified and ultimately

modified for language teachers.

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The remainder of this paper introduces how a comprehensive framework

and explicit guidelines were developed in order to use a Participation-Volunteer

System in a variety of activities. This created tools to rely on to make the

Participation-Volunteer System an ongoing part of the class structure.

The Goals of The Participation-Volunteer System

The aim in using the Participation-Volunteer System is to create an

atmosphere in which teachers work with the group mentality from a reverse

perspective; that is, to make everyone volunteer and expresses themselves in

class. This technique uses students’ collective thought to help meet the

objective of activating student participation by actually making independence

the basis for conformity. In essence, then, the non-participating students become

the “nails standing out.” The system also encourages students to overcome their

standard cautious, reserved character in the class while practicing the skills

which are necessary to become active classroom participants: independently

interacting with each other, the teacher, and the material.

To do this, teachers must initially create an atmosphere in which the

typically inhibited, or “shy,” Japanese university students feel the reason they

are volunteering is because of their responsibility within a newly structured,

educational environment of the classroom. By incorporating a structured

Participation-Volunteer System, teachers simply change the social system,

structure, and organization of the class. In other classes, the pupils’ clearly

defined role is to be static, passive members of the group; within this system,

instructors invert the prescribed roles of the students. What is important in both

of these social systems, the standard Japanese classroom and the one the EFL

teacher sets up, is that the students’ roles are clearly defined. The goal in using

the Participation-Volunteer System is to encourage students to not act shy or

passive, but instead to take on different, highly structured roles in the language

class. The impression teachers are trying to communicate to the group is that it

is not individual students who want to volunteer, but that volunteering and Page #4

participating is something established by an instructor whose culture encourages

this type of classroom behavior. The Participation-Volunteer System, and

therefore participating, is clearly part of the composition of the courses’ social

structure, not a culturally dangerous assertion made by an individual pupil.

Through using the Participation-Volunteer System, participating and

volunteering in class becomes the norm; lack of participating separates students

from the group. Hence, this technique creates a feeling of anxiety for students

who don't participate and act accordingly in this social context, making the

passive students stand out. The pupils without their hands raised are then

unique. Thus, when they come to oral English class, for their one-and-half-hour

weekly lesson, the students know they are going to play like a group of gaijin6

and act like Americans for part of the period by volunteering and speaking in

front of their peers.

Teachers bring about this situation by using activities that help students to

become aware of their own capabilities of open expression, by taking them

though a gradual process, and by shifting students from passive to active

participants in the language class. Instructors who incorporate the system should

realize that this is a slow but vital process which trains students to interact and

actively participate in the language classroom. It is also important for teachers

to recognize that this system is to be used only with passive students who have

limited experience in a western style setting where there is usually an active

interchange of views in the classroom.

Background Information for the Activities

This paper examines only the first two activities7 which use the

participation system—introducing the system and retraining students to raise

their hands. Although these activities are very basic and may appear simplistic,

it is fundamental to understand the general elements of the Participation-

Volunteer System so that they can later be used in more open and difficult

lessons. The activities begin from the very first class of the semester, in which

the students are typically passive, and moves to activities in which the pupils are

Page #5

actively engaged with the content of the course. These activities work with the

students’ prior knowledge, both intellectual and social, in effort to shift their

behavior, through a gradual process, from inactive to active. Teachers, should

analyze these activities by focusing on the principle components of the

Participation-Volunteer System in order to more clearly understand it

themselves, to refine it to fit their teaching needs, and to share the information

with other teachers.

The format to examine each activity is threefold. First, the activity is

explained along with some of its important broad elements. This section

familiarizes the reader with the structure of the activity and defines some of the

specific teaching objectives. Second, an actual activity is described in detail

using the Participation-Volunteer System.8 In order to have a practical idea of

how to apply this technique to her own teaching situation and philosophy, a

lesson is explained, and the reader can observe what transpires. Third, we

examine some cultural and teaching observations based on what occurred in the

lesson. This component follows up with comments about how the activity

works within the Participation-Volunteer System, how it correlates to the goal of

active participation, how it relates to the students’ cultural and educational

background, and how it employs the author's teaching philosophy.

Before taking an in-depth view of the Participation-Volunteer System, it is

useful to know about the classroom environment and some of its important

attributes. The students described in these activities are first and/or second year

university students in mandatory spoken English classes. In these classes,

students are required to bring their text, a notebook and workbook to each class.

On the back page of the workbook pupils staple their Participation-Volunteer

sheet (see appendix), giving them easy access to use it each class. Student

participation points accumulated through class activities are recorded each day,

by both the students and the teacher, as part of the attendance procedure which

will be described later.

It is significant to note that each lesson throughout the year has several

activities which incorporates the Participation-Volunteer System. This system is

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not something that is done intermittently. In the beginning of the term teachers

work with very simple, secure activities in which the students do not have to

take any chances of over-exposing themselves in front of the group. These

activities are extremely focused, and teachers maintain the majority of control

while trying to initiate student activity and participation. As the term progresses

and students become more accustomed to participating actively, activities

become more open and less restricted. Although each activity has a specific

theme, it is important to focus on the general components of the Participation-

Volunteer System. These are principles which can be adapted for any topic

teachers may be working with in a course. After each of the two activities are

described in this paper, a list some of the primary tenets of the system is given,

and the list increases with each subsequent lesson.9

Again, it is important to understand that the results of the Participation-

Volunteer System constitutes the majority of their grade. Aside from this aspect

of evaluation, teachers take into consideration student-initiative and desire to

improve their English. Teachers may take note of how students make an attempt

to better understand the language and culture, and engage themselves in daily

lessons. Teachers do not base their marks on objective linguistic ability. Since

these are conversation classes, student participation is checked each class with a

running account of their progress; there is typically no need to give

comprehensive examinations.

The goal of the Participation-Volunteer System is that through various

activities, the students will ultimately see the benefits of and instill in themselves

a desire for active participation.

If this country [Japan] ever develops an anarchist movement, it will be the best damn organized

anarchist movement in the world. Author unknown

Introducing The Participation Volunteer System—Fostering Student’ Responsibility

Page #7

Introduction & Goals of Activity #1

The first activity of the semester using the Participation-Volunteer System

highlights several goals of the technique. It is important to educate students to

volunteer information to the whole group, to design activities which give

students the option to express themselves more than once, and to create a system

in which students are accountable for their class performance. In essence, the

students understand that they are responsible for their own grades. From the

outset, this lesson focuses on the students and their work with the class material.

In appendix 1 and 2 is a copy of the Participation-Volunteer Sheet which

is given to the students to use in this activity and throughout the year. This

double-sided hand-out has the guidelines for the system on side #1 and a form to

keep a record of participation on side #2.

An Observation of Activity #1

The teacher asks if anyone would like to volunteer with any questions

before class begins—few students do—the teacher moves on.

The volunteer sheet is passed out and the teacher plainly asks if anyone

would like to volunteer to read the first phrase on the top of the form. The

teacher waits. After a minute one pupil raises her hand and reads,

“PARTICIPATION-VOLUNTEER SHEET.”

The teacher asks her name, writes it on the board and makes a mark (as in

counting = 5) below it. The teacher asks if any one else would like to

volunteer to read the next sentence, waits, and the same student volunteers

again. She reads the second sentence,

“YOU WILL BE GRADED ON HOW MUCH YOU PARTICIPATE IN

CLASS AND THIS WILL ACCOUNT FOR SEVENTY-FIVE PERCENT

(75%) OF YOUR GRADE.”

The teacher makes another mark (thus indicating | |) under her name and

moves on. The teacher notices some pupils looking bewildered. The teacher

asks for volunteers again and two new students raise their hands. The teacher

picks one, she reads, the teacher asks her name, makes the appropriate mark and Page #8

then turns to the other pupil, the one who volunteered but didn’t say anything.

The teacher writes her name and makes a mark. The class seems to get excited,

and four people raise their hands. Within a few minutes the teacher is writing

names and marking points all over the board. When students read down the

sheet to the PARTICIPATION COUNT section, the teacher turns the sheet

over and explains to those who have volunteered where they should mark their

points (e.g., = 5) on the volunteer sheet. After thoroughly going over the

participation sheet the class returns to the original activity.

As time in the class runs down, the teacher informs the students that they

should count their volunteer and speaking points and mark them in pen in the

daily point box. The teacher writes a sentence on the board: “Today I have •••••

speaking and ••••• volunteer points.” The teacher calls each of the students’

name, they use the sentence as a support to report their results, filling in their

numbers for the day, the teacher records the results and dismisses the class.

Cultural & Teaching Observations

To coincide with the students’ previous experiences in the classroom this

initial volunteer class utilizes their ability to read, is structured, and is teacher-

centered.

As can be seen in this activity, working with the students’ capabilities, in

this case their ability to read, is a common element of the Participation-

Volunteer System. One of the main points of using the Participation-Volunteer

System to promote active participation is to always work within the limits of

their ability. If the teacher pressures the students and asks them to do what they

are not capable of at a given point in time they may revert back to their prior

passive behavior.

In order to create an environment in which students are aware of what

they need to accomplish to move from passive to active participants, each

activity has clear boundaries; in this case they raise their hands and they receive

points. In a very short time the teacher will know they have internalized the

concept of the Participation-Volunteer System because of their reaction to the Page #9

content and the other students. The teacher will find that this method of

introducing the Participation-Volunteer System is extremely effective in raising

students’ awareness about how it works while calming their “fear” about

participating.

By allowing the students to read the material, the teacher is beginning to

incorporate some of the primary tenets of the Participation-Volunteer System—

reducing anxiety while placing responsibility on the students. Trying to initially

engage them in the process of openly volunteering may be terrifying for many

students, therefore, the activity has explicit guidelines. The teacher is in control

of what occurs in this lesson: handing out the papers, beginning the activity,

choosing the students, writing their names, giving the points, and directing when

to begin and stop; but the students must initiate participation by volunteering

and reading.

Students also begin to realize, that in conjunction with taking initiative,

they are accountable for their own participation. By marking the points on the

board, having them transcribe them on their volunteer sheet, and reporting them

to the teacher, they can see that what they do in each class is registered by the

instructor and themselves. This reinforces that this is an ongoing part of the

class framework and they will be responsible for it each meeting. In the

appendix 3 is a sample copy of a student’s record sheet after the first class.

As seen in the following guidelines for teachers, it is always necessary for

the obligatory participation system to have explicit parameters while being open

to what students need to participate; the teacher should work with students’

abilities, and pupils should clearly know the principles of the system.

General Guidelines For Using The Participation-Volunteer System

Teachers

• Teachers make use of skills students already possess, (e.g., ability to read) and move on to what they do not know.

Students

Page #10

• Students are aware that they are responsible for participating and will be rewarded for their actions.

The System

• While using the Participation-Volunteer System, especially in its beginning stages, each activity has clear parameters.

• Activities are set up so that students have an alternative choice of answers—they can answer more than once.

• The system is part of an ongoing process to be worked with to some extent every class. It is not a technique to be used once and discarded.

While the students work on the challenge offered by the teacher, the teacher works on what the students

are doing, hence getting feedback all the time. Caleb Gattegno, “on feedback”

Retraining Students To Raise Their Hands—Observing Responses

Introduction & Goals of Activity #2

An important teaching objective is to work with students on what they

do not know, in this case, skills which are necessary to move from passive to

active participation. An important aspect of teaching students to participate

actively is how to work with an existing physical challenge, how to counteract

years of social conditioning and actually retrain them to effectively raise their

hands. In order for students to practice and become accustomed to raising

their hands the teacher incorporates a focused activity in the beginning of the

term.

An Observation of Activity #2

The teacher asks and motions for all of the students to raise their hands.

The teacher picks one pupil who has her arm completely extended straight

Page #11

above her head and expresses that it is correct. The teacher then jokingly

models the wrong way to volunteer, with a bent elbow, hand and arm idly in

front of her chest or close to her ear lobe.

Next, the teacher creates a small YES◊NO symbol which is placed in the

upper left corner of the board. Using a long pointer held in her right hand the

teacher begins to ask the students a series of uncomplicated yes/no questions

using a consistent grammatical structure.

In a light tone the teacher asks the question, “Do you live in Japan?”

lightly taps the ‘No’ side of the YES◊NO symbol with the pointer and no

hands go up. The teacher then taps the ‘YES,’ eagerly all hands are raised.

“Do you attend •••• University?” taps ‘YES’ and they raise their hands. “Do

you live in Kansai10 now?” taps ‘YES,’ they all correctly raise their hands.

“Do you live in Kanto11 now?” taps ‘YES,’ no response; taps ‘NO,’ they all

respond. “Do you live in Kyoto?” taps ‘YES’ and about half of the students

respond; taps ‘NO’ and the other half go up. “Do you live in Osaka?” taps

‘YES’, a small group raise their hands; taps ‘NO,’ the rest respond. At this

time a few students are only raising their hands part way; the teacher motions

to them and says “Maybe” with a rising intonation; they laugh and then

completely raise their hands. The questions move on with, “Do you live

someplace other than Kyoto or Osaka?” they look a little baffled. “Not Kyoto

or Osaka?” and three young women in the front raise their hands. The teacher

says “Where?” One says “Kobe,” while the other two state “Takatsuki.” The

teacher quietly acknowledges their response and moves on to the topic of food.

“Do you like sushi?” taps ‘YES’ and all students reply, some quietly saying

“yes.” “Do you like Natto?” taps ‘YES’ and a third of the students raise their

hands; taps ‘NO’ and the remainder of the them volunteer.

Cultural & Teaching Observations

In this activity the students are involved with the process of overcoming

their fear of participating in the group. An environment is being created in

Page #12

which students are raising their hands and conveying knowledge to the teacher

and their classmates.

It is important to recognize that the idea of raising hands is problematic

for many pupils in that it inherently relates to asking questions, declaring

personal convictions, clarifying points and establishing active contact with the

teacher. In the stratified social order of Japan, Japanese teachers are senior

authority figures whose thoughts are to be respected and not openly questioned.

Although the teacher feels it is important for students to contribute ideas to the

class, university students are not at an age in Japanese society where they

should be offering ideas to their elders.

Given their cultural background, teaching students to raise their hands in

this way is crucial for a successful Participation-Volunteer System, and thus

engagement. If they do not practice and become accustomed to fully extending

their hands, even the most assertive students are often in a mode of constant

hesitation. Pupils will only partially raise their hands and also be apprehensive

about participating if they perceive that initiating a response in the group is

inappropriate.

In this type of activity many of the questions are extremely simple and

may seem trivial—thus, similar activities should be done with a good sense of

amusement. “Play” is useful in creating a safe climate in which to volunteer

because it further expresses that through our behavior in the class teachers can

accomplish a great deal—it can be rewarding while also being fun. Although

students are unfamiliar with raising their hands the teacher attempts to make it

something they can learn and occasionally laugh about, without fear. While

using the Participation-Volunteer System it is important to think of the

participatory style of interaction as a valuable form of “play.” The term “play”

is not implying that the teacher should make an attempt to perpetually use

jokes, act like a comedian or constantly incorporate games into her lessons.

Although sometimes appropriate, this method of teaching in not invariably

useful to their learning. “Play” refers to being engaged in what is occurring in

the class, of experiencing something inventive and productive without a rigid

Page #13

feeling of anxiety. By using the participation technique, through “play,”

students raise a powerful awareness about how to interact in a unique manner

within the Japanese educational culture. The result from this play and

experience is that students invariably learn about language and culture because

they are involved with what oral language classes are designed for—to have

students learn and grow used to expressing themselves, with an ultimate goal

of being able to communicate in the target language.

As can be seen in this activity and reviewed in the teachers’ guidelines,

another essential element of the Participation-Volunteer System is for the

instructor to constantly observe the students while they are working with the

task at hand; in this case acknowledging when students are raising their hands

correctly. To work effectively, the teacher has to cue in on the students’

energy and reactions. If the students are unable to volunteer the teacher must

try to see if there is any way she can remove what was keeping them from

participating by simplifying or changing to a more comprehensible activity.

The following additional guidelines also point out that it is essential for the

students to work on the physical aspect of volunteering, raising hands, while

the new type of open interaction, or “play,” diverts them away from the

standard anxiety which occupies the classroom.

General Guidelines For Using The Participation-Volunteer System

Teachers

• The instructor observes the students’ reactions and energy while they are participating—the students work with the material.

• Teachers make use of skills students already possess, (i.e., ability to read) and move on to what they do not know.

Students

• Students learn or re-learn how to correctly raise their hands completely above their heads.

• Students are aware that they are responsible for participating and will be rewarded for their actions.

The SystemPage #14

• The interaction within the Participation-Volunteer System is to be thought of as a productive form of “Play.”

• While using the Participation-Volunteer System, especially in its beginning stages, each activity has clear parameters.

• Activities are set up so that students have an alternative choice of answers—they can answer more than once.

• The system is part of an ongoing process to be worked with to some extent every class. It is not a technique to be used once and discarded.

Implications for Teachers and Students

The implications of this technique are varied. As seen in these two

introductory lessons the students were actively participating in the EFL class.

Throughout history, educators have stated that in order for students to better

learn, in this case about the specific notions of western culture and language, it

makes sense for them to do so experientially; being involved in a class setting

in which some of the interaction resembles and nourishes a spirited give and

take of impressions—the goal of which is the revitalized learner—observant,

understanding, and revealing. The educational environment established in these

classes after using the Participation-Volunteer System for periods of time is not

only composed of language and culture, but also is organized to give students

the chance to express themselves.

In order to give teachers further support when attempting to incorporate

this system in their classes, the complete guidelines for using this technique are

enclosed in the appendix. In Effecting A Participation-Volunteer System To

Overcome Cultural Problems Within The EFL-Classroom Environment (Part

1Where it is awkward, to be gender neutral, personal pronouns will be feminine regardless of reality. Sower, Craig. IYP (Interim Year Practicum) #2 School for International Training, Japan, December 1992.2Names of individual instructors are in the bibliography.3For an in-depth analysis of the Japanese university system see, A Participation-Volunteer System In Japanese Universities: Making Independence Into Conformity .4See “The Participation Paper.” The Language Teacher Vol. XVI, No. 11 (November 1992): 69. 5See appendix.6The literal translation for this often used term is ‘outside person,’ meaning foreigner.7Subsequent activities to be explored in Effecting A Participation-Volunteer System To Overcome Cultural Problems Within The EFL-Classroom Environment (Part II).8In her 1986 book, Techniques and Principles In Language Teaching, Diane Larsen-Freeman writes, "it is assumed that observing a class in this way will give the readers a greater understanding of these particular methods (or activities) than if they were to simply read a description of it." 9This format is maintained in all parts of the paper: Part I, Part II, Part III, & Part IV.10West Japan.11East Japan.

Page #15

II) a more advanced class will be examined in detail. This activity will involve

how to establish some of the class rules for the course.

APPENDICES

Side one of the Participation-Volunteer Sheet.

Side two of the Participation-Volunteer Sheet.

Sample Participation-Volunteer Sheet after the first class.

Complete Guidelines for the Participation-Volunteer System.

Appendix: (Side # 1)Page #16

PARTICIPATION-VOLUNTEER SHEET

You will be graded on how much you participate in class. This will account for seventy-five percent {75%} of your grade.

• T O P A R T I C I P A T E M E A N S •

#1. SPEAKING IN ENGLISH, USING COMPLETE SENTENCES:

#2. VOLUNTEERING:

A) “Raising Your Hand To Speak”B) Giving AnswersC) GuessingD) Giving SuggestionsE) Doing PresentationsF) Giving Opinions G) Asking QuestionsH) Being Open With Your ThoughtsI) Not Waiting To Be Picked By The TeacherJ) Giving Information k) Coming to the board to share information

YOU DO NOT HAVE TO SPEAK CORRECTLY, BUT YOU MUST SPEAK

“PARTICIPATION COUNT”

I. Most important class rule, mistakes help you learn. Mistakes are OK.

II. Guessing and using your imagination makes participating easy. If you make a guess you will receive volunteer points.

III. Any time you use a sentence with four words or more, to the teacher or another student, write one point on the back of this sheet of paper in the Speaking Section.

IV. When you “Volunteer” at any time give yourself one point in the Volunteer Section. (see #2)

V. At the end of each day your point total will be counted by the teacher.

Page #17

NAME: ______________ CLASS PERIOD: ______ Ss. # ________DateSpeaking Points

Volunteer Points

Appendix:Side #2

Page #18

(An example after the first class)

DateSpeaking Points

Volunteer Points

Name: Yukiko Seto Class Period: 3d Student Number #294 7

23

Page #19

Comprehensive General Guidelines For Using The Participation-Volunteer System

Teachers• The language teacher remains silent whenever the students are able to

participate without her assistance. Remaining silent expresses that the students are the primary participants in the process of learning, the teacher is simply a guide.

• When teachers ask students to generate material to volunteer, give a specific minimum amount, i.e., write at least ten ••••• environmental problems that effect the world today.

• Teachers provide clear time limits for each activity and stick to them as much as possible. If the entire class is still volunteering after an allotted time, i.e., four minutes, stop the activity anyway. To sustain motivation it is profitable to keep them wanting more.

• Teachers constantly address the meaning in the words, stress, rhythm and intonation of the language.

• Teachers spend minimal time with error correction in the midst of a volunteer activity, they work with problem language later.

• The instructor observes the students’ reactions and energy while they are participating—the students work with the material.

• Teachers make use of skills students already possess, (i.e., ability to read) and move on to what they do not know.

Students• Students use a Japanese-to-English dictionary only, not vice versa. If during the

class students need an English-to-Japanese dictionary they can use the teacher’s.• Students are encouraged to work in pairs to look for and find explanations for

themselves. If they can raise their own awarenesses they will be more invested in the lesson.

• Students are never praised for volunteering—it is the expected norm of the class, the same as bringing a pen.• Students are encouraged to use self-generated material whenever possible.• Students learn or re-learn how to correctly raise their hands completely above

their heads.• Students are aware that they are responsible for participating and will be

rewarded for their actions.

The System• As the term progresses and volunteering becomes more natural, proceed from

the point system to a grade system, in which the students give themselves a letter grade for each lesson and a reason why they deserve it. This is negotiable between the teacher and student.

• The Participation-Volunteer System uses a consistent attendance policy.• While using the Participation-Volunteer System allow time for focused

practice in the whole group and in pairs.Page #20

• The interaction within the Participation-Volunteer System is to be thought of as a productive form of “Play.”

• While using the Participation-Volunteer System, especially in its beginning stages, each activity has clear parameters.

• Activities are set up so that students have an alternative choice of answers—they can answer more than once.• The system is part of an ongoing process to be worked with to some extent every class. It is not a technique to be used once and discarded.

SOURCES CONSULTED

PUBLISHED WORKS

Anderson, Fred. “The enigma of the college classroom: Nails that don't stand out.” in A Handbook for Teaching English at Japanese Colleges and Universities, ed. Paul Wadden, New York: Oxford Univ. Press, 1993, 101-110.

Benedict, Ruth. The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. Tokyo, Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1952.

Catlett, Mary. “The Participation Paper.” The Language Teacher Vol. XVI, No. 11 (November 1992) : 69.

Christopher, Robert C. The Japanese Mind. Tokyo, Japan: Charles E. Tuttle Company, 1987.

Gattegno, Shakti. “on feedback,” Educational Solutions News Letter Vol. VII No. 4 (April 1978): 9-12.

Hall, Edward. Beyond Culture. New York: Anchor/Doubleday, 1976.

Johnson, Wayne K. A Participation-Volunteer System In Japanese Universities: Making Independence Into Conformity, Master's Thesis, School For International Training, Brattleboro, Vermont, 1994.

Kelly, Curtis “The Hidden Role of Japanese Universities.” In The Guide to

Teaching at Japanese Colleges and Universities ed., Paul Waden, 172-191. New York: 1993.

Larsen-Freeman, Diane. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. New York: Oxford University Press, 1986.

Miller, T. (1995). Japanese Learners' Reactions To Communicative English Lessons. JALT Journal, 17(1), 31-52.

Onishi, Yoshihisa. “Juken Eigo, by Kazuaki Uekawa.” (Review), The Language Teacher Vol. XVII, No. 8 (August 1993): 55.

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Rohlen, T.P. (1983). Japan's High Schools. Berkeley: University of California.

van Wolferen, Karel. The Enigma of Japanese Power. New York: Alfred A. Knof, 1989.

UNPUBLISHED WORKSGattegno, Shakti. Lectures at The School for International Training,

Summer 1991 & 1992.

Discussions with: Mary Catlett, Kyoto, Japan, 1990-94.Joseph Cravotta, Kyoto, Japan, 1990-95.Liz Forrest, Kyoto, Japan, 1991-95.Richard Hodge, Kyoto, Japan, 1990-95.Brian Long, Kyoto, Japan, 1994-95.Yukiko Johnson-Seto, Kyoto, Japan, 1991-1995.Craig Sower, Osaka, Japan, 1989-1994.

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