This article explores migration from Zimbabwe to the UK and South Africa and the experiencesof the receiving countries from the perspective of the migrants It provides a critical examination ofthe impact of structural barriers in both the UK and South Africa on the economic experiences ofmigrants The effects of immigration status due to the exclusion of asylum-seekers in the UK andthe presence of undocumented migrants in the UK and South Africa is explored in relation toemployment and remittance activities The clear evidence of the deskilling taking place among themajority of Zimbabwean migrants ndash and its impact on remittances and other forms of trans-national support ndash is also examined The article concludes that any real commitment to alleviatingglobal poverty on the part of the worldrsquos migrant receiving countries must include a re-examinationof barriers to employment education and the use of skills since these barriers not only have ashort-term impact on remittances to the sending country and fiscal capacity to contribute in thereceiving country but will also impact on longer-term development should the migrants return totheir country of origin
Keywords
Migration Receiving countries Employment Remittances Zimbabwe
Introduction
At the start of the twenty-first century international migration continues tobe high on the global policy agenda for both destination and sending countriesSome
per cent of the global population now live outside their country oforigin and one of the main policy concerns is how to maximize the benefitsof such migration and minimize the costs (IOM
) It is difficult to measurethe total impact of migration because it has economic social and culturalconsequences at the individual family community and national levels More-over the effects of migration are not evenly distributed but vary accordingto the nature of migration and the transnational links between sending anddestination countries (HCIDC
)
Address for correspondence
Alice Bloch Department of Sociology City University NorthamptonSquare London EC
V
HB Email ablochcityacuk
copy
The Author(s)
There has been much international debate focusing on the importance ofmigration for both sending and receiving societies The receiving countrieswhile recognizing the benefits of migration especially economically have anagenda that sets out to manage migration especially forced migration (thesearch for asylum) (Flynn
Spencer
) However there is far lessknown about the situation and perspectives of the migrants themselves ndash andthe case of Zimbabweans in the UK and South Africa is no exception WhileZimbabwe South Africa and Britain feature in so many debates ndash politicaleconomic ethical ndash on the state of Southern Africa this article focuses onthem simply as sending society and receiving countries respectively
It draws on data from a survey of Zimbabweans in the UK and SouthAfrica in order to explore the impact of migration and to consider the waysin which the potential benefits of migration might be better facilitated forboth sending and destination countries The potential costs and benefits aredifferent for all concerned The article shows that both the UK and SouthAfrica benefit from Zimbabwean workers but could benefit much more ifthese migrantsrsquo skills and experience were better utilized This in turn wouldensure that skills were not lost
and
that greater amounts could be remittedby migrants back to Zimbabwe and elsewhere The structural barriersencountered by asylum-seekers in the UK as well as the exploitation ofundocumented migrants especially in South Africa is another area thatcosts society as well as the migrants themselves and their families Mean-while for Zimbabwe as the sending country the loss of its skilled labour forceis a matter of great concern and has left shortages in some sectors mostnotably health care and education This could be compounded in the longerterm ndash should the migrants return ndash by the under-employment and resultantskills loss meanwhile taking place among Zimbabwean migrants in the twolargest receiving countries ndash the UK and South Africa
The migration is diverse in terms of its characteristics and motivationsFirstly it encompasses those who have migrated for political and economicreasons or for a combination of these plus ndash to a lesser extent ndash other factorssuch as the desire to study abroad Secondly the skills base of Zimbabweansfalls along a continuum ranging from highly educated skilled professionals tounskilled workers (Zinyama
) Thirdly it is characterized by largethough unquantifiable numbers of undocumented migrants who have eithercrossed into South Africa irregularly have overstayed a visa or have had theirasylum case rejected (UK and South Africa)
This article will examine the migrantsrsquo motivations for migration their skillsbase their acquisition of new skills their use of these skills in the labour marketand their social and economic remittance activities The backcloth against whichthis analysis takes place is that of the social policy-inspired structural barriersoperating especially against those with insecure or irregular status that impedeaccess to regularized economic and social opportunities and provisions
Migration The Zimbabwean Context
Historically Zimbabwe was a country of immigration (unusual in SouthernAfrica) importing labour from neighbouring states including Zambia and
copy
The Author(s)
Malawi but also from Europe and Asia (Zinyama
) but this changed afterindependence in
(Tevera and Zinyama
) In the post-independenceperiod (
ndash
) between
and
whites left Zimbabwe In the
s conflict in Matabeleland and the resultant massacre of over
Ndebele people led to a further black exodus from Zimbabwe The currentcontext for emigration which began in the early
s was the introductionof the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme which resulted ineconomic decline and the out-migration of many skilled workers By the endof the
s Zimbabwe was in economic crisis and the government hadadopted violent and repressive policies aimed at curbing political opposition(McGregor
)Zimbabwe is still in crisis with unemployment levels estimated to be around
per cent and inflation running at
per cent
1
Migration has become acrucial way for households to diversify their livelihood survival strategies(Tevera and Zinyama
) However emigration from the black majority (whomake up
per cent of Zimbabwersquos population
2
) has also been for politicalreasons (Zinyama
) The deterioration of human rights in Zimbabwesince
(see eg Human Rights Watch
Amnesty International
)is reflected in the increasing numbers of Zimbabweans seeking asylum withthe largest number coming to the UK (peaking at
in
Heath
et al
) followed by South Africa (UNHCR
) The human rights problemshave been recognized by the UK government to the extent that in August
it halted deportations of lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers so that the HomeOffice could consider evidence about their safety on return
It is difficult to quantify the total number of Zimbabweans outside ofZimbabwe for three main reasons Firstly some migrants will by now havetaken up the nationality of the destination country Secondly in the UKsome Zimbabwean migrants will have been former white colonial and post-colonial migrants not subject to immigration controls due to the system oflsquopatrialityrsquo operating in the UK (Solomos
) Lastly there is an unquan-tifiable number of undocumented Zimbabwean migrants in the SouthernAfrican region due to the extensive shared land borders facilitating cross-border migration (Zinyama
) Estimates vary but the largest place thenumbers of Zimbabwean migrants at around
million in South Africa and
million in the UK (Mbiba
)
The Research Design
This article is based on data from a survey of
Zimbabweans ndash
inthe UK and
in South Africa The data were collected using a combina-tion of self-completion online questionnaires (
) of which
were com-pleted by Zimbabweans in the UK and
by those in South Africa printedself-completion questionnaires (
) of which were completed in the UKand in South Africa and face-to-face interviews () all of which wereadministered in South Africa Using different methods of data collection canresult in mode effects because the way in which questionnaires are administeredcan affect the way in which people respond (de Vaus ) but it was necessaryfor three reasons Firstly in South Africa some of the target population had
copy The Author(s)
low levels of English language literacy and would have been excluded if face-to-face interviews had not been used Secondly especially in the UK therewas a preference expressed for an online version of the questionnaire to beused as it was deemed to be more confidential and anonymous and easierto access and complete The advantage of using a web-based questionnairewas that a greater geographical spread could be achieved Thirdly the self-completion print version was necessary to ensure that those without accessto the online version were included in the study The fieldwork took placebetween July and September
In the absence of a sampling frame three non-probability techniques wereused network or snowball sampling advertising and outcropping (Lee )Extensive networking was carried out with groups organizations and employersthat worked with and for Zimbabweans or had Zimbabwean employees sothat a wide range of different types of organization in different geographicallocations helped to publicize the survey and distribute the questionnaireIncluded were political social cultural and community groups and organi-zations health projects consular and embassy services human rights groupsand individuals with large numbers of Zimbabwean contacts The survey wasalso advertised on Zimbabwean websites and chatrooms and an interviewover-viewing the survey was also held on a UK-based Zimbabwean radiostation The objective of using so many points from which to start the net-working was to ensure that the sample was as heterogeneous as possible(Bloch ) Relying on a small number of initial contacts as starting pointsfor the snowballing would have reduced the diversity of the sample and ledto respondents with more similar characteristics (Welch ) In SouthAfrica outcropping ndash the placement of researchers at a site where large numbersof the target population are located ndash was used to access agricultural workersat the actual farms where they were employed
Respondents were ultimately self-selecting which meant that there wasno control over who completed the questionnaire However comparisons ofthe sample characteristics in this study with data from other surveys ofZimbabweans in the UK and South Africa revealed similarities betweenthem in terms of employment and educational profiles (Kirk Chetsangaand Muchemje )
Characteristics of the Sample
The questionnaire included social and demographic data on gender agemigration patterns immigration status and region Questions were not askedabout ethnic group or about first-language skills that would have helpedobtain a measure for ethnic group This was due to the sensitivity of askingsuch questions particularly in the UK where exploratory interviews withcommunity representatives and the piloting process revealed that these ques-tions would deter respondents However questions were asked about fluencyand literacy in all languages and this provided a quasi-measure of ethnicgroup as virtually no white Zimbabweans speak the main languages of Shonaand Ndebele or other African languages (English being so widely spoken) Ananalysis of the language data suggests that nearly all our respondents were
copy The Author(s)
black Zimbabweans Only were monoglot English speakers and ofthese lived in the UK Some per cent spoke English fluently per centspoke Shona fluently and per cent spoke Ndbele fluently Some percent spoke both Shona and Ndebele fluently Other African languages werealso spoken fluently ndash Zulu and Venda most often
Respondents were drawn from different regions in the UK and provincesin South Africa In the UK a third of respondents were based in Londonand two-thirds elsewhere In South Africa more than half of respondents( per cent) were living in the Gauteng region while around a quarter ( percent) were living in Limpopo which shares a border with Zimbabwe andwhere there is a sizeable number of seasonal agricultural workers and cross-border traders
Of the final sample per cent were male per cent were aged oryounger and per cent had last lived in Zimbabwe in or later (mean-ing only one-third had left Zimbabwe in or earlier) The South Africansample included a larger proportion of more recent arrivals ( and after)than did that of the UK ( and per cent respectively) This was due inpart to the imposition of visa restrictions on Zimbabweans travelling to theUK in however it was also due to the declining economic situationand high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe which made it necessary fora further diversification of livelihood strategies in that country by travellingto the neighbouring countries of South Africa and Botswana for the purposesof work and cross-border informal trade Notable in this latter trend hasbeen the feminization of migration (Crush et al ) Women now accountfor half the worldrsquos migrants and as Hothschild notes lsquofor men and womenalike migration has become a private solution to a public problemrsquo ( )
Migration from Africa is characterized mainly by economic necessity com-pounded by political insecurity and war so refugees form a key group ofmigrants (Sander and Maimbo ) In the present case nearly a quarter( per cent) had at some point been refugees or asylum-seekers yet therewere differences in the immigration status of those now living in South Africaand the UK Figure shows that nearly a third of respondents in South Africawere undocumented migrants whereas in the UK the largest proportionwere on working visas
The data on immigration status are cross-sectional Because immigrationstatus is fluid ndash with people moving in and out of categories when necessaryor expedient ( Jordan and Duumlvell ) or when their position changes (suchas asylum-seekers becoming refugees or refugees becoming citizens of theircountry of refuge) ndash this does not necessarily reflect the reasons for the initialmigration However the importance of immigration status is that it bringswith it certain rights together with a pattern of inclusions and exclusionsThe included are the global economic and political elites as well as thosewho have obtained citizenship ndash or else a relatively secure status such asindefinite leave to remain or refugee status The excluded are undocumentedmigrants and asylum-seekers This exclusion impacts on their social politicaland economic rights in the destination country and in turn on their potentialto contribute to poverty reduction in the sending country through remit-tances In South Africa regularized farm workers have received a minimum
copy The Author(s)
wage since March but undocumented workers are not covered byunemployment or health insurance and can easily be exploited In the UKas elsewhere in Europe the asylum system creates barriers to employmentopportunities and remittances since asylum-seekers are not allowed to worklegally It is such structural barriers that have a major impact on migrantsrsquoability to contribute in any direction as this article will bear out
Pre-migration Characteristics
The pre-migration characteristics of migrants are known to impact on theirexperiences in the destination country Better language and literacy skills ahigher skills base the presence of social networks in the destination countryand the motivations for migration all help in the initial post-migration period(Bloch Robinson )
The similarities rather than the differences between lsquoforcedrsquo and lsquovoluntaryrsquomigrants are increasingly stressed in the migration literature The notionof the lsquoasylumndashmigration nexusrsquo which emphasizes the multitude ofreasons why people migrate and the relationship between poverty war andpolitical persecution is one that has obtained currency and challenges thelegitimacy and validity of simplistic categorization (Castles and Van Hear) The present data demonstrate just how mixed were the motives formigration Table shows that nearly everyone ( per cent) had multiplereasons for leaving Zimbabwe However it also shows differences in thebalance of motivations between those now resident in the UK and those inSouth Africa
The motives for migration to South Africa were predominately economicSome per cent cited the economic situation lack of employment or thewish to work abroad as their main reason for leaving In the UK by contrastonly per cent gave the economic situation lack of employment or the wish
Figure
Immigration status by country of residence
Missing
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy
The Author(s)
There has been much international debate focusing on the importance ofmigration for both sending and receiving societies The receiving countrieswhile recognizing the benefits of migration especially economically have anagenda that sets out to manage migration especially forced migration (thesearch for asylum) (Flynn
Spencer
) However there is far lessknown about the situation and perspectives of the migrants themselves ndash andthe case of Zimbabweans in the UK and South Africa is no exception WhileZimbabwe South Africa and Britain feature in so many debates ndash politicaleconomic ethical ndash on the state of Southern Africa this article focuses onthem simply as sending society and receiving countries respectively
It draws on data from a survey of Zimbabweans in the UK and SouthAfrica in order to explore the impact of migration and to consider the waysin which the potential benefits of migration might be better facilitated forboth sending and destination countries The potential costs and benefits aredifferent for all concerned The article shows that both the UK and SouthAfrica benefit from Zimbabwean workers but could benefit much more ifthese migrantsrsquo skills and experience were better utilized This in turn wouldensure that skills were not lost
and
that greater amounts could be remittedby migrants back to Zimbabwe and elsewhere The structural barriersencountered by asylum-seekers in the UK as well as the exploitation ofundocumented migrants especially in South Africa is another area thatcosts society as well as the migrants themselves and their families Mean-while for Zimbabwe as the sending country the loss of its skilled labour forceis a matter of great concern and has left shortages in some sectors mostnotably health care and education This could be compounded in the longerterm ndash should the migrants return ndash by the under-employment and resultantskills loss meanwhile taking place among Zimbabwean migrants in the twolargest receiving countries ndash the UK and South Africa
The migration is diverse in terms of its characteristics and motivationsFirstly it encompasses those who have migrated for political and economicreasons or for a combination of these plus ndash to a lesser extent ndash other factorssuch as the desire to study abroad Secondly the skills base of Zimbabweansfalls along a continuum ranging from highly educated skilled professionals tounskilled workers (Zinyama
) Thirdly it is characterized by largethough unquantifiable numbers of undocumented migrants who have eithercrossed into South Africa irregularly have overstayed a visa or have had theirasylum case rejected (UK and South Africa)
This article will examine the migrantsrsquo motivations for migration their skillsbase their acquisition of new skills their use of these skills in the labour marketand their social and economic remittance activities The backcloth against whichthis analysis takes place is that of the social policy-inspired structural barriersoperating especially against those with insecure or irregular status that impedeaccess to regularized economic and social opportunities and provisions
Migration The Zimbabwean Context
Historically Zimbabwe was a country of immigration (unusual in SouthernAfrica) importing labour from neighbouring states including Zambia and
copy
The Author(s)
Malawi but also from Europe and Asia (Zinyama
) but this changed afterindependence in
(Tevera and Zinyama
) In the post-independenceperiod (
ndash
) between
and
whites left Zimbabwe In the
s conflict in Matabeleland and the resultant massacre of over
Ndebele people led to a further black exodus from Zimbabwe The currentcontext for emigration which began in the early
s was the introductionof the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme which resulted ineconomic decline and the out-migration of many skilled workers By the endof the
s Zimbabwe was in economic crisis and the government hadadopted violent and repressive policies aimed at curbing political opposition(McGregor
)Zimbabwe is still in crisis with unemployment levels estimated to be around
per cent and inflation running at
per cent
1
Migration has become acrucial way for households to diversify their livelihood survival strategies(Tevera and Zinyama
) However emigration from the black majority (whomake up
per cent of Zimbabwersquos population
2
) has also been for politicalreasons (Zinyama
) The deterioration of human rights in Zimbabwesince
(see eg Human Rights Watch
Amnesty International
)is reflected in the increasing numbers of Zimbabweans seeking asylum withthe largest number coming to the UK (peaking at
in
Heath
et al
) followed by South Africa (UNHCR
) The human rights problemshave been recognized by the UK government to the extent that in August
it halted deportations of lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers so that the HomeOffice could consider evidence about their safety on return
It is difficult to quantify the total number of Zimbabweans outside ofZimbabwe for three main reasons Firstly some migrants will by now havetaken up the nationality of the destination country Secondly in the UKsome Zimbabwean migrants will have been former white colonial and post-colonial migrants not subject to immigration controls due to the system oflsquopatrialityrsquo operating in the UK (Solomos
) Lastly there is an unquan-tifiable number of undocumented Zimbabwean migrants in the SouthernAfrican region due to the extensive shared land borders facilitating cross-border migration (Zinyama
) Estimates vary but the largest place thenumbers of Zimbabwean migrants at around
million in South Africa and
million in the UK (Mbiba
)
The Research Design
This article is based on data from a survey of
Zimbabweans ndash
inthe UK and
in South Africa The data were collected using a combina-tion of self-completion online questionnaires (
) of which
were com-pleted by Zimbabweans in the UK and
by those in South Africa printedself-completion questionnaires (
) of which were completed in the UKand in South Africa and face-to-face interviews () all of which wereadministered in South Africa Using different methods of data collection canresult in mode effects because the way in which questionnaires are administeredcan affect the way in which people respond (de Vaus ) but it was necessaryfor three reasons Firstly in South Africa some of the target population had
copy The Author(s)
low levels of English language literacy and would have been excluded if face-to-face interviews had not been used Secondly especially in the UK therewas a preference expressed for an online version of the questionnaire to beused as it was deemed to be more confidential and anonymous and easierto access and complete The advantage of using a web-based questionnairewas that a greater geographical spread could be achieved Thirdly the self-completion print version was necessary to ensure that those without accessto the online version were included in the study The fieldwork took placebetween July and September
In the absence of a sampling frame three non-probability techniques wereused network or snowball sampling advertising and outcropping (Lee )Extensive networking was carried out with groups organizations and employersthat worked with and for Zimbabweans or had Zimbabwean employees sothat a wide range of different types of organization in different geographicallocations helped to publicize the survey and distribute the questionnaireIncluded were political social cultural and community groups and organi-zations health projects consular and embassy services human rights groupsand individuals with large numbers of Zimbabwean contacts The survey wasalso advertised on Zimbabwean websites and chatrooms and an interviewover-viewing the survey was also held on a UK-based Zimbabwean radiostation The objective of using so many points from which to start the net-working was to ensure that the sample was as heterogeneous as possible(Bloch ) Relying on a small number of initial contacts as starting pointsfor the snowballing would have reduced the diversity of the sample and ledto respondents with more similar characteristics (Welch ) In SouthAfrica outcropping ndash the placement of researchers at a site where large numbersof the target population are located ndash was used to access agricultural workersat the actual farms where they were employed
Respondents were ultimately self-selecting which meant that there wasno control over who completed the questionnaire However comparisons ofthe sample characteristics in this study with data from other surveys ofZimbabweans in the UK and South Africa revealed similarities betweenthem in terms of employment and educational profiles (Kirk Chetsangaand Muchemje )
Characteristics of the Sample
The questionnaire included social and demographic data on gender agemigration patterns immigration status and region Questions were not askedabout ethnic group or about first-language skills that would have helpedobtain a measure for ethnic group This was due to the sensitivity of askingsuch questions particularly in the UK where exploratory interviews withcommunity representatives and the piloting process revealed that these ques-tions would deter respondents However questions were asked about fluencyand literacy in all languages and this provided a quasi-measure of ethnicgroup as virtually no white Zimbabweans speak the main languages of Shonaand Ndebele or other African languages (English being so widely spoken) Ananalysis of the language data suggests that nearly all our respondents were
copy The Author(s)
black Zimbabweans Only were monoglot English speakers and ofthese lived in the UK Some per cent spoke English fluently per centspoke Shona fluently and per cent spoke Ndbele fluently Some percent spoke both Shona and Ndebele fluently Other African languages werealso spoken fluently ndash Zulu and Venda most often
Respondents were drawn from different regions in the UK and provincesin South Africa In the UK a third of respondents were based in Londonand two-thirds elsewhere In South Africa more than half of respondents( per cent) were living in the Gauteng region while around a quarter ( percent) were living in Limpopo which shares a border with Zimbabwe andwhere there is a sizeable number of seasonal agricultural workers and cross-border traders
Of the final sample per cent were male per cent were aged oryounger and per cent had last lived in Zimbabwe in or later (mean-ing only one-third had left Zimbabwe in or earlier) The South Africansample included a larger proportion of more recent arrivals ( and after)than did that of the UK ( and per cent respectively) This was due inpart to the imposition of visa restrictions on Zimbabweans travelling to theUK in however it was also due to the declining economic situationand high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe which made it necessary fora further diversification of livelihood strategies in that country by travellingto the neighbouring countries of South Africa and Botswana for the purposesof work and cross-border informal trade Notable in this latter trend hasbeen the feminization of migration (Crush et al ) Women now accountfor half the worldrsquos migrants and as Hothschild notes lsquofor men and womenalike migration has become a private solution to a public problemrsquo ( )
Migration from Africa is characterized mainly by economic necessity com-pounded by political insecurity and war so refugees form a key group ofmigrants (Sander and Maimbo ) In the present case nearly a quarter( per cent) had at some point been refugees or asylum-seekers yet therewere differences in the immigration status of those now living in South Africaand the UK Figure shows that nearly a third of respondents in South Africawere undocumented migrants whereas in the UK the largest proportionwere on working visas
The data on immigration status are cross-sectional Because immigrationstatus is fluid ndash with people moving in and out of categories when necessaryor expedient ( Jordan and Duumlvell ) or when their position changes (suchas asylum-seekers becoming refugees or refugees becoming citizens of theircountry of refuge) ndash this does not necessarily reflect the reasons for the initialmigration However the importance of immigration status is that it bringswith it certain rights together with a pattern of inclusions and exclusionsThe included are the global economic and political elites as well as thosewho have obtained citizenship ndash or else a relatively secure status such asindefinite leave to remain or refugee status The excluded are undocumentedmigrants and asylum-seekers This exclusion impacts on their social politicaland economic rights in the destination country and in turn on their potentialto contribute to poverty reduction in the sending country through remit-tances In South Africa regularized farm workers have received a minimum
copy The Author(s)
wage since March but undocumented workers are not covered byunemployment or health insurance and can easily be exploited In the UKas elsewhere in Europe the asylum system creates barriers to employmentopportunities and remittances since asylum-seekers are not allowed to worklegally It is such structural barriers that have a major impact on migrantsrsquoability to contribute in any direction as this article will bear out
Pre-migration Characteristics
The pre-migration characteristics of migrants are known to impact on theirexperiences in the destination country Better language and literacy skills ahigher skills base the presence of social networks in the destination countryand the motivations for migration all help in the initial post-migration period(Bloch Robinson )
The similarities rather than the differences between lsquoforcedrsquo and lsquovoluntaryrsquomigrants are increasingly stressed in the migration literature The notionof the lsquoasylumndashmigration nexusrsquo which emphasizes the multitude ofreasons why people migrate and the relationship between poverty war andpolitical persecution is one that has obtained currency and challenges thelegitimacy and validity of simplistic categorization (Castles and Van Hear) The present data demonstrate just how mixed were the motives formigration Table shows that nearly everyone ( per cent) had multiplereasons for leaving Zimbabwe However it also shows differences in thebalance of motivations between those now resident in the UK and those inSouth Africa
The motives for migration to South Africa were predominately economicSome per cent cited the economic situation lack of employment or thewish to work abroad as their main reason for leaving In the UK by contrastonly per cent gave the economic situation lack of employment or the wish
Figure
Immigration status by country of residence
Missing
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy
The Author(s)
Malawi but also from Europe and Asia (Zinyama
) but this changed afterindependence in
(Tevera and Zinyama
) In the post-independenceperiod (
ndash
) between
and
whites left Zimbabwe In the
s conflict in Matabeleland and the resultant massacre of over
Ndebele people led to a further black exodus from Zimbabwe The currentcontext for emigration which began in the early
s was the introductionof the Economic Structural Adjustment Programme which resulted ineconomic decline and the out-migration of many skilled workers By the endof the
s Zimbabwe was in economic crisis and the government hadadopted violent and repressive policies aimed at curbing political opposition(McGregor
)Zimbabwe is still in crisis with unemployment levels estimated to be around
per cent and inflation running at
per cent
1
Migration has become acrucial way for households to diversify their livelihood survival strategies(Tevera and Zinyama
) However emigration from the black majority (whomake up
per cent of Zimbabwersquos population
2
) has also been for politicalreasons (Zinyama
) The deterioration of human rights in Zimbabwesince
(see eg Human Rights Watch
Amnesty International
)is reflected in the increasing numbers of Zimbabweans seeking asylum withthe largest number coming to the UK (peaking at
in
Heath
et al
) followed by South Africa (UNHCR
) The human rights problemshave been recognized by the UK government to the extent that in August
it halted deportations of lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers so that the HomeOffice could consider evidence about their safety on return
It is difficult to quantify the total number of Zimbabweans outside ofZimbabwe for three main reasons Firstly some migrants will by now havetaken up the nationality of the destination country Secondly in the UKsome Zimbabwean migrants will have been former white colonial and post-colonial migrants not subject to immigration controls due to the system oflsquopatrialityrsquo operating in the UK (Solomos
) Lastly there is an unquan-tifiable number of undocumented Zimbabwean migrants in the SouthernAfrican region due to the extensive shared land borders facilitating cross-border migration (Zinyama
) Estimates vary but the largest place thenumbers of Zimbabwean migrants at around
million in South Africa and
million in the UK (Mbiba
)
The Research Design
This article is based on data from a survey of
Zimbabweans ndash
inthe UK and
in South Africa The data were collected using a combina-tion of self-completion online questionnaires (
) of which
were com-pleted by Zimbabweans in the UK and
by those in South Africa printedself-completion questionnaires (
) of which were completed in the UKand in South Africa and face-to-face interviews () all of which wereadministered in South Africa Using different methods of data collection canresult in mode effects because the way in which questionnaires are administeredcan affect the way in which people respond (de Vaus ) but it was necessaryfor three reasons Firstly in South Africa some of the target population had
copy The Author(s)
low levels of English language literacy and would have been excluded if face-to-face interviews had not been used Secondly especially in the UK therewas a preference expressed for an online version of the questionnaire to beused as it was deemed to be more confidential and anonymous and easierto access and complete The advantage of using a web-based questionnairewas that a greater geographical spread could be achieved Thirdly the self-completion print version was necessary to ensure that those without accessto the online version were included in the study The fieldwork took placebetween July and September
In the absence of a sampling frame three non-probability techniques wereused network or snowball sampling advertising and outcropping (Lee )Extensive networking was carried out with groups organizations and employersthat worked with and for Zimbabweans or had Zimbabwean employees sothat a wide range of different types of organization in different geographicallocations helped to publicize the survey and distribute the questionnaireIncluded were political social cultural and community groups and organi-zations health projects consular and embassy services human rights groupsand individuals with large numbers of Zimbabwean contacts The survey wasalso advertised on Zimbabwean websites and chatrooms and an interviewover-viewing the survey was also held on a UK-based Zimbabwean radiostation The objective of using so many points from which to start the net-working was to ensure that the sample was as heterogeneous as possible(Bloch ) Relying on a small number of initial contacts as starting pointsfor the snowballing would have reduced the diversity of the sample and ledto respondents with more similar characteristics (Welch ) In SouthAfrica outcropping ndash the placement of researchers at a site where large numbersof the target population are located ndash was used to access agricultural workersat the actual farms where they were employed
Respondents were ultimately self-selecting which meant that there wasno control over who completed the questionnaire However comparisons ofthe sample characteristics in this study with data from other surveys ofZimbabweans in the UK and South Africa revealed similarities betweenthem in terms of employment and educational profiles (Kirk Chetsangaand Muchemje )
Characteristics of the Sample
The questionnaire included social and demographic data on gender agemigration patterns immigration status and region Questions were not askedabout ethnic group or about first-language skills that would have helpedobtain a measure for ethnic group This was due to the sensitivity of askingsuch questions particularly in the UK where exploratory interviews withcommunity representatives and the piloting process revealed that these ques-tions would deter respondents However questions were asked about fluencyand literacy in all languages and this provided a quasi-measure of ethnicgroup as virtually no white Zimbabweans speak the main languages of Shonaand Ndebele or other African languages (English being so widely spoken) Ananalysis of the language data suggests that nearly all our respondents were
copy The Author(s)
black Zimbabweans Only were monoglot English speakers and ofthese lived in the UK Some per cent spoke English fluently per centspoke Shona fluently and per cent spoke Ndbele fluently Some percent spoke both Shona and Ndebele fluently Other African languages werealso spoken fluently ndash Zulu and Venda most often
Respondents were drawn from different regions in the UK and provincesin South Africa In the UK a third of respondents were based in Londonand two-thirds elsewhere In South Africa more than half of respondents( per cent) were living in the Gauteng region while around a quarter ( percent) were living in Limpopo which shares a border with Zimbabwe andwhere there is a sizeable number of seasonal agricultural workers and cross-border traders
Of the final sample per cent were male per cent were aged oryounger and per cent had last lived in Zimbabwe in or later (mean-ing only one-third had left Zimbabwe in or earlier) The South Africansample included a larger proportion of more recent arrivals ( and after)than did that of the UK ( and per cent respectively) This was due inpart to the imposition of visa restrictions on Zimbabweans travelling to theUK in however it was also due to the declining economic situationand high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe which made it necessary fora further diversification of livelihood strategies in that country by travellingto the neighbouring countries of South Africa and Botswana for the purposesof work and cross-border informal trade Notable in this latter trend hasbeen the feminization of migration (Crush et al ) Women now accountfor half the worldrsquos migrants and as Hothschild notes lsquofor men and womenalike migration has become a private solution to a public problemrsquo ( )
Migration from Africa is characterized mainly by economic necessity com-pounded by political insecurity and war so refugees form a key group ofmigrants (Sander and Maimbo ) In the present case nearly a quarter( per cent) had at some point been refugees or asylum-seekers yet therewere differences in the immigration status of those now living in South Africaand the UK Figure shows that nearly a third of respondents in South Africawere undocumented migrants whereas in the UK the largest proportionwere on working visas
The data on immigration status are cross-sectional Because immigrationstatus is fluid ndash with people moving in and out of categories when necessaryor expedient ( Jordan and Duumlvell ) or when their position changes (suchas asylum-seekers becoming refugees or refugees becoming citizens of theircountry of refuge) ndash this does not necessarily reflect the reasons for the initialmigration However the importance of immigration status is that it bringswith it certain rights together with a pattern of inclusions and exclusionsThe included are the global economic and political elites as well as thosewho have obtained citizenship ndash or else a relatively secure status such asindefinite leave to remain or refugee status The excluded are undocumentedmigrants and asylum-seekers This exclusion impacts on their social politicaland economic rights in the destination country and in turn on their potentialto contribute to poverty reduction in the sending country through remit-tances In South Africa regularized farm workers have received a minimum
copy The Author(s)
wage since March but undocumented workers are not covered byunemployment or health insurance and can easily be exploited In the UKas elsewhere in Europe the asylum system creates barriers to employmentopportunities and remittances since asylum-seekers are not allowed to worklegally It is such structural barriers that have a major impact on migrantsrsquoability to contribute in any direction as this article will bear out
Pre-migration Characteristics
The pre-migration characteristics of migrants are known to impact on theirexperiences in the destination country Better language and literacy skills ahigher skills base the presence of social networks in the destination countryand the motivations for migration all help in the initial post-migration period(Bloch Robinson )
The similarities rather than the differences between lsquoforcedrsquo and lsquovoluntaryrsquomigrants are increasingly stressed in the migration literature The notionof the lsquoasylumndashmigration nexusrsquo which emphasizes the multitude ofreasons why people migrate and the relationship between poverty war andpolitical persecution is one that has obtained currency and challenges thelegitimacy and validity of simplistic categorization (Castles and Van Hear) The present data demonstrate just how mixed were the motives formigration Table shows that nearly everyone ( per cent) had multiplereasons for leaving Zimbabwe However it also shows differences in thebalance of motivations between those now resident in the UK and those inSouth Africa
The motives for migration to South Africa were predominately economicSome per cent cited the economic situation lack of employment or thewish to work abroad as their main reason for leaving In the UK by contrastonly per cent gave the economic situation lack of employment or the wish
Figure
Immigration status by country of residence
Missing
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
low levels of English language literacy and would have been excluded if face-to-face interviews had not been used Secondly especially in the UK therewas a preference expressed for an online version of the questionnaire to beused as it was deemed to be more confidential and anonymous and easierto access and complete The advantage of using a web-based questionnairewas that a greater geographical spread could be achieved Thirdly the self-completion print version was necessary to ensure that those without accessto the online version were included in the study The fieldwork took placebetween July and September
In the absence of a sampling frame three non-probability techniques wereused network or snowball sampling advertising and outcropping (Lee )Extensive networking was carried out with groups organizations and employersthat worked with and for Zimbabweans or had Zimbabwean employees sothat a wide range of different types of organization in different geographicallocations helped to publicize the survey and distribute the questionnaireIncluded were political social cultural and community groups and organi-zations health projects consular and embassy services human rights groupsand individuals with large numbers of Zimbabwean contacts The survey wasalso advertised on Zimbabwean websites and chatrooms and an interviewover-viewing the survey was also held on a UK-based Zimbabwean radiostation The objective of using so many points from which to start the net-working was to ensure that the sample was as heterogeneous as possible(Bloch ) Relying on a small number of initial contacts as starting pointsfor the snowballing would have reduced the diversity of the sample and ledto respondents with more similar characteristics (Welch ) In SouthAfrica outcropping ndash the placement of researchers at a site where large numbersof the target population are located ndash was used to access agricultural workersat the actual farms where they were employed
Respondents were ultimately self-selecting which meant that there wasno control over who completed the questionnaire However comparisons ofthe sample characteristics in this study with data from other surveys ofZimbabweans in the UK and South Africa revealed similarities betweenthem in terms of employment and educational profiles (Kirk Chetsangaand Muchemje )
Characteristics of the Sample
The questionnaire included social and demographic data on gender agemigration patterns immigration status and region Questions were not askedabout ethnic group or about first-language skills that would have helpedobtain a measure for ethnic group This was due to the sensitivity of askingsuch questions particularly in the UK where exploratory interviews withcommunity representatives and the piloting process revealed that these ques-tions would deter respondents However questions were asked about fluencyand literacy in all languages and this provided a quasi-measure of ethnicgroup as virtually no white Zimbabweans speak the main languages of Shonaand Ndebele or other African languages (English being so widely spoken) Ananalysis of the language data suggests that nearly all our respondents were
copy The Author(s)
black Zimbabweans Only were monoglot English speakers and ofthese lived in the UK Some per cent spoke English fluently per centspoke Shona fluently and per cent spoke Ndbele fluently Some percent spoke both Shona and Ndebele fluently Other African languages werealso spoken fluently ndash Zulu and Venda most often
Respondents were drawn from different regions in the UK and provincesin South Africa In the UK a third of respondents were based in Londonand two-thirds elsewhere In South Africa more than half of respondents( per cent) were living in the Gauteng region while around a quarter ( percent) were living in Limpopo which shares a border with Zimbabwe andwhere there is a sizeable number of seasonal agricultural workers and cross-border traders
Of the final sample per cent were male per cent were aged oryounger and per cent had last lived in Zimbabwe in or later (mean-ing only one-third had left Zimbabwe in or earlier) The South Africansample included a larger proportion of more recent arrivals ( and after)than did that of the UK ( and per cent respectively) This was due inpart to the imposition of visa restrictions on Zimbabweans travelling to theUK in however it was also due to the declining economic situationand high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe which made it necessary fora further diversification of livelihood strategies in that country by travellingto the neighbouring countries of South Africa and Botswana for the purposesof work and cross-border informal trade Notable in this latter trend hasbeen the feminization of migration (Crush et al ) Women now accountfor half the worldrsquos migrants and as Hothschild notes lsquofor men and womenalike migration has become a private solution to a public problemrsquo ( )
Migration from Africa is characterized mainly by economic necessity com-pounded by political insecurity and war so refugees form a key group ofmigrants (Sander and Maimbo ) In the present case nearly a quarter( per cent) had at some point been refugees or asylum-seekers yet therewere differences in the immigration status of those now living in South Africaand the UK Figure shows that nearly a third of respondents in South Africawere undocumented migrants whereas in the UK the largest proportionwere on working visas
The data on immigration status are cross-sectional Because immigrationstatus is fluid ndash with people moving in and out of categories when necessaryor expedient ( Jordan and Duumlvell ) or when their position changes (suchas asylum-seekers becoming refugees or refugees becoming citizens of theircountry of refuge) ndash this does not necessarily reflect the reasons for the initialmigration However the importance of immigration status is that it bringswith it certain rights together with a pattern of inclusions and exclusionsThe included are the global economic and political elites as well as thosewho have obtained citizenship ndash or else a relatively secure status such asindefinite leave to remain or refugee status The excluded are undocumentedmigrants and asylum-seekers This exclusion impacts on their social politicaland economic rights in the destination country and in turn on their potentialto contribute to poverty reduction in the sending country through remit-tances In South Africa regularized farm workers have received a minimum
copy The Author(s)
wage since March but undocumented workers are not covered byunemployment or health insurance and can easily be exploited In the UKas elsewhere in Europe the asylum system creates barriers to employmentopportunities and remittances since asylum-seekers are not allowed to worklegally It is such structural barriers that have a major impact on migrantsrsquoability to contribute in any direction as this article will bear out
Pre-migration Characteristics
The pre-migration characteristics of migrants are known to impact on theirexperiences in the destination country Better language and literacy skills ahigher skills base the presence of social networks in the destination countryand the motivations for migration all help in the initial post-migration period(Bloch Robinson )
The similarities rather than the differences between lsquoforcedrsquo and lsquovoluntaryrsquomigrants are increasingly stressed in the migration literature The notionof the lsquoasylumndashmigration nexusrsquo which emphasizes the multitude ofreasons why people migrate and the relationship between poverty war andpolitical persecution is one that has obtained currency and challenges thelegitimacy and validity of simplistic categorization (Castles and Van Hear) The present data demonstrate just how mixed were the motives formigration Table shows that nearly everyone ( per cent) had multiplereasons for leaving Zimbabwe However it also shows differences in thebalance of motivations between those now resident in the UK and those inSouth Africa
The motives for migration to South Africa were predominately economicSome per cent cited the economic situation lack of employment or thewish to work abroad as their main reason for leaving In the UK by contrastonly per cent gave the economic situation lack of employment or the wish
Figure
Immigration status by country of residence
Missing
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
black Zimbabweans Only were monoglot English speakers and ofthese lived in the UK Some per cent spoke English fluently per centspoke Shona fluently and per cent spoke Ndbele fluently Some percent spoke both Shona and Ndebele fluently Other African languages werealso spoken fluently ndash Zulu and Venda most often
Respondents were drawn from different regions in the UK and provincesin South Africa In the UK a third of respondents were based in Londonand two-thirds elsewhere In South Africa more than half of respondents( per cent) were living in the Gauteng region while around a quarter ( percent) were living in Limpopo which shares a border with Zimbabwe andwhere there is a sizeable number of seasonal agricultural workers and cross-border traders
Of the final sample per cent were male per cent were aged oryounger and per cent had last lived in Zimbabwe in or later (mean-ing only one-third had left Zimbabwe in or earlier) The South Africansample included a larger proportion of more recent arrivals ( and after)than did that of the UK ( and per cent respectively) This was due inpart to the imposition of visa restrictions on Zimbabweans travelling to theUK in however it was also due to the declining economic situationand high levels of unemployment in Zimbabwe which made it necessary fora further diversification of livelihood strategies in that country by travellingto the neighbouring countries of South Africa and Botswana for the purposesof work and cross-border informal trade Notable in this latter trend hasbeen the feminization of migration (Crush et al ) Women now accountfor half the worldrsquos migrants and as Hothschild notes lsquofor men and womenalike migration has become a private solution to a public problemrsquo ( )
Migration from Africa is characterized mainly by economic necessity com-pounded by political insecurity and war so refugees form a key group ofmigrants (Sander and Maimbo ) In the present case nearly a quarter( per cent) had at some point been refugees or asylum-seekers yet therewere differences in the immigration status of those now living in South Africaand the UK Figure shows that nearly a third of respondents in South Africawere undocumented migrants whereas in the UK the largest proportionwere on working visas
The data on immigration status are cross-sectional Because immigrationstatus is fluid ndash with people moving in and out of categories when necessaryor expedient ( Jordan and Duumlvell ) or when their position changes (suchas asylum-seekers becoming refugees or refugees becoming citizens of theircountry of refuge) ndash this does not necessarily reflect the reasons for the initialmigration However the importance of immigration status is that it bringswith it certain rights together with a pattern of inclusions and exclusionsThe included are the global economic and political elites as well as thosewho have obtained citizenship ndash or else a relatively secure status such asindefinite leave to remain or refugee status The excluded are undocumentedmigrants and asylum-seekers This exclusion impacts on their social politicaland economic rights in the destination country and in turn on their potentialto contribute to poverty reduction in the sending country through remit-tances In South Africa regularized farm workers have received a minimum
copy The Author(s)
wage since March but undocumented workers are not covered byunemployment or health insurance and can easily be exploited In the UKas elsewhere in Europe the asylum system creates barriers to employmentopportunities and remittances since asylum-seekers are not allowed to worklegally It is such structural barriers that have a major impact on migrantsrsquoability to contribute in any direction as this article will bear out
Pre-migration Characteristics
The pre-migration characteristics of migrants are known to impact on theirexperiences in the destination country Better language and literacy skills ahigher skills base the presence of social networks in the destination countryand the motivations for migration all help in the initial post-migration period(Bloch Robinson )
The similarities rather than the differences between lsquoforcedrsquo and lsquovoluntaryrsquomigrants are increasingly stressed in the migration literature The notionof the lsquoasylumndashmigration nexusrsquo which emphasizes the multitude ofreasons why people migrate and the relationship between poverty war andpolitical persecution is one that has obtained currency and challenges thelegitimacy and validity of simplistic categorization (Castles and Van Hear) The present data demonstrate just how mixed were the motives formigration Table shows that nearly everyone ( per cent) had multiplereasons for leaving Zimbabwe However it also shows differences in thebalance of motivations between those now resident in the UK and those inSouth Africa
The motives for migration to South Africa were predominately economicSome per cent cited the economic situation lack of employment or thewish to work abroad as their main reason for leaving In the UK by contrastonly per cent gave the economic situation lack of employment or the wish
Figure
Immigration status by country of residence
Missing
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
wage since March but undocumented workers are not covered byunemployment or health insurance and can easily be exploited In the UKas elsewhere in Europe the asylum system creates barriers to employmentopportunities and remittances since asylum-seekers are not allowed to worklegally It is such structural barriers that have a major impact on migrantsrsquoability to contribute in any direction as this article will bear out
Pre-migration Characteristics
The pre-migration characteristics of migrants are known to impact on theirexperiences in the destination country Better language and literacy skills ahigher skills base the presence of social networks in the destination countryand the motivations for migration all help in the initial post-migration period(Bloch Robinson )
The similarities rather than the differences between lsquoforcedrsquo and lsquovoluntaryrsquomigrants are increasingly stressed in the migration literature The notionof the lsquoasylumndashmigration nexusrsquo which emphasizes the multitude ofreasons why people migrate and the relationship between poverty war andpolitical persecution is one that has obtained currency and challenges thelegitimacy and validity of simplistic categorization (Castles and Van Hear) The present data demonstrate just how mixed were the motives formigration Table shows that nearly everyone ( per cent) had multiplereasons for leaving Zimbabwe However it also shows differences in thebalance of motivations between those now resident in the UK and those inSouth Africa
The motives for migration to South Africa were predominately economicSome per cent cited the economic situation lack of employment or thewish to work abroad as their main reason for leaving In the UK by contrastonly per cent gave the economic situation lack of employment or the wish
Figure
Immigration status by country of residence
Missing
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
to work abroad as their main reason Some per cent gave the politicalsituation as their main reason for leaving compared with per cent ofthose in South Africa Such differences of motivation reflect on the onehand the greater geographical proximity of South Africa to Zimbabwefor those in search of employment and on the other the greater skills baseamong Zimbabweans in the UK itself a characteristic of the compara-tively better-off with the resources for travelling longer distances (deHaan )
Previous research with Zimbabweans has revealed a higher average levelof qualifications than among other migrants in their countries of settlement(Kirk Chetsanga and Muchemje ) Certainly in both South Africaand the UK Zimbabwean migrants have on average higher educationalqualifications than the non-migrant population In Zimbabwe itself percent of the population are enrolled in tertiary education Table shows that per cent of our respondents held a degree or higher on leaving Zimbabweand an additional per cent had either a diploma in higher education ora professional qualification or diploma However fewer Zimbabweans inSouth Africa than in the UK held a formal qualification on arrival ( and per cent respectively)3 There was also a greater gender differential inSouth Africa with per cent of men holding a qualification comparedwith per cent of women whereas in the UK there was little differencebetween men and women ( and per cent respectively) The data raiseserious issues about lsquobrain drainrsquo since the loss of such highly qualified
Table
Main reason and additional reasons for leaving Zimbabwe by country of residence ()
UK main
South Africa main
Total main
UK additional
reasons
South Africa
additional reasons
Total additional
reasons
Economic situation Political situation Lack of employment To work abroad 8 To study abroad Join family abroad Join friends abroad mdash Other Never lived therea mdash mdash No other reasons
Total
a per cent of respondents are not included as they had not lived in ZimbabweNot applicable
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
people can have a pronounced negative impact on developing countries ndashdue as much to the loss of short-term tax revenue from potential high earnersas to the longer-term importance of human resources generally in development(Newland Wickramasekara )
Prior to migration more than two-thirds of respondents had been working( per cent of those who went to South Africa and per cent of those whowent to the UK) However a larger proportion of those who went to SouthAfrica had previously been unemployed and looking for work comparedwith those who went to the UK ( and per cent respectively) Further-more the data in table 3 on pre-migration employment show that thosegoing to the UK were more likely to have worked in more highly skilled jobsndash managers teachers nurses or health professions4 and accountants ndash thanthose who went to South Africa of whom more had been working in thetrades (builders mechanics electricians carpenters) as hawkers and streettraders in factory or production operative jobs and as agricultural labourers
One of the challenges for the future development of sending countriesshould migrants return is the extent to which migrants manage to lsquocapacity-buildrsquo andor use their pre-migration skills in the destination country in themeantime The data show that the skills base of Zimbabwean migrants fallsalong a continuum from highly educated skilled professionals to unskilledworkers There is evidence of some capacity-building through educationHowever with some exceptions there is little evidence of such skills beingfully (if at all) utilized in the new environment
Table
Highest level of qualification on arrival by country of residence ()
UK South Africa Total
Postgraduate Degree Diploma in higher education Diplomaprofessional qualification National certificate A-level Cambridge Higher School Certificate mdash O-level Cambridge School Certificate Other
Total
Missing Source Bloch ( )
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
Education and Employment in the Destination Country
Some per cent of respondents had obtained a new qualification in thedestination country ndash more than two-thirds having obtained a degree orhigher-level qualification ( per cent) There was a clear element of lsquobraingainrsquo among many of those who had obtained such a qualification Of thosewho had arrived in their current country of residence without any qualifica-tion per cent had subsequently obtained one Some per cent of thosewho had arrived with a qualification had obtained a further qualification inthe destination country ndash per cent of these being higher-level qualifica-tions than the ones they had before Set against this nearly a third ( percent) had obtained a new qualification which was at a lower level than theone they had on arrival and per cent had merely studied at the same levelas before
Those who had been refugees or asylum-seekers at some point were lesslikely to have obtained a qualification than others ( and per centrespectively) Figure shows the relationship between immigration status andqualifications at the time of survey Asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were less likely than others to have obtained a qualification due inpart to the regulations around tuition fees in the UK which require thepayment of prohibitively expensive overseas fees for non-residents5 In SouthAfrica undocumented migrants were on the whole unskilled with low levelsof education and had been motivated to migrate by economic factors ratherthan any other considerations
Table
Titles of jobs done most often prior to migration by country of residence (frequencies)
UK South Africa Total
All managerial including managing directors Teachers Administration and clerical Finance clerks cashiers other Trades builders mechanics electricians carpenters Lecturers SecretarialPA Engineering Technicianslab assistants Retail sales cashiers and shop assistants Nursessisters Accountants Factoryproduction operatives Agricultural labourers IT Hawkersstreet traders Health other (including radiography pharmacy)
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
Another structural barrier faced by asylum-seekers in the UK and by allundocumented migrants is access to the regular labour market In the UKasylum-seekers are not able to work legally which was also the case in SouthAfrica until when their rights to work were reinstated However evenin South Africa asylum-seekers have difficulties obtaining the correct andnecessary documentation or access to social and financial services and thisleaves them excluded and vulnerable (Landau ) Table shows that bothin the UK and South Africa citizens and permanent residents and those onworking visas were the most likely to be employed or self-employed In theUK per cent of asylum-seekers were not working due to the restrictionsimposed by their immigration status In the UK per cent of refugees andthose with related status (Indefinite leave to remain and Humanitarian pro-tection) were working ndash which is a much larger proportion than that foundin research with other refugee groups where the average levels of employ-ment were as low as per cent (Bloch ) One of the major factors inthe comparative economic success of Zimbabweans in the UK has to betheir high skills level and their fluency in English
Nevertheless both in the UK and South Africa racism and xenophobiaare features that underlie the social and economic structure of society withrefugees asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants increasingly targetedby the authorities and the general population (Handmaker and Parsley Schuster ) The disadvantaged labour market activity of these groups isevident in table When Cramers V6 is explored it is clear that there is acorrelation between main activity and immigration status and that the cor-relation is slightly stronger in South Africa than in the UK
The vulnerability of asylum-seekers (in the UK) and undocumentedmigrants (UK and South Africa) extends not only to access to the labour
Figure
Proportion obtaining a formal qualification in country of residence by current immigration status ()
Base number
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy T
he Author(s)
Table
Main activity at the time of the survey by immigration status and country of residence ()
Citizenpermanent
resident
Working visa
Student visa
RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain or
Humanitarian status
Asylum-seeker
Undocumented
UKEmployedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working for other reasons Other Total Missing Cramers V =
South AfricaEmployed Unemployed looking for work Student Home and family Not working Other Total Missing Cramers V =
Other included voluntary work internship accompanying spouse
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
market but also to the terms and conditions of employment since they areforced to work in the unregulated labour market This is apparent forinstance in the differential wages earned All of those who were working atthe time of the survey ndash or who had worked in the past ndash were asked their lasttake-home pay The data showed that asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants were in receipt of lower wages than others In the UK per centof citizens and permanent residents earned more than pound per monthwhereas no asylum-seekers earned this amount of money In South Africa asimilar pattern was evident At one extreme were the citizens and permanentresidents per cent of whom were earning more than Rand amonth while at the other extreme were the undocumented migrants percent of whom were earning less than Rand a month Some undocu-mented migrants were working extremely long hours for very little pay Noless than per cent of undocumented migrants were working more than hours a week for as little as Rand a month The impact of such lowwages affects not only the individuals concerned but their families ndash andtheir ability to contribute much in the way of remittances as remarked below
Of particular significance for capacity-building ndash or at the very minimumskills retention ndash is the level of employment carried out in the destinationcountry relative to pre-migration activity together with the level of employ-ment relative to any qualifications subsequently obtained A comparison ofemployment before and since migration showed a shift to care jobs in theUK while in South Africa the movement has been into agricultural labour-ing jobs In the case of the UK this represented a downward shift while inSouth Africa it meant entrance for some into the labour market from aprevious position of unemployment (see table 5)
Analysing employment with qualifications obtained since migration revealedthat some Zimbabweans are not using their qualifications in the labourmarket This is most apparent in the UK where of those working as carersor care assistants had a degree-level qualification or higher from the UKOther research has found the same pattern of over-qualified Zimbabweansworking in the UK care industry as well as in cleaning domestic jobs andwarehouse work (Mbiba ) There were however instances where migra-tion had enabled the acquisition and use of new skills as was evident amongthe respondents in the UK who were working as nurses Most had trainedin the UK and had successfully entered professional employment
In South Africa migration had resulted in some positive changes for theundocumented migrants who for the most part had been unemployed inZimbabwe but who had found work as labourers in South Africa Although low-paid most sent remittances which would have a positive impact on the situationof their families in Zimbabwe However the data show that those who hadformerly worked as teachers or in trades were not using these skills in SouthAfrica and so the pattern of deskilling as in the UK was evident here too
Remittances
Research carried out in Zimbabwe in found that per cent ofhouseholds had remittances as one of their income strands (C-Safe ) The
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
continued trend of out-migration since means that the proportion ofhouseholds receiving remittances is likely to be higher than this Remittancesinclude cash goods and social exchanges (Nyberg Soslashrensen ) thoughtheir role certainly as reported in the development literature is not withoutcontention (Ammassari and Black ) On the positive side most remittancesgo directly to the migrantrsquos family in the sending country and can help toreduce poverty within particular households They may also have a widerimpact due to improved education health housing and therefore betterhuman development (HCIDC ) Moreover if remittance money is spenton locally produced goods and in employing local people ndash for example tobuild a house ndash then this will have a wider impact on the local economythrough job generation
Economic remittances
Economic remittances can be the reason for migration ndash assuming that migrantsremain linked to their families and communities through networks of mutual
Table
Main changes in current or recent job by country of origin and country of residence (frequencies)
Job title before emigrating to
Current or most recent job title in
Increase (+) or
decrease(minus) UK SA Total UK SA Total
Agricultural labourers +Carerscare assistants +Teachers minusAll managerial including
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
obligation (Curran and Saguy ) Remittance activity as with othertransnational activities incorporates networks of migrants as well as those inthe sending country Certainly this study pointed to there being a large flowof economic remittances from migrants back to Zimbabwe ( per cent sentremittances) and to a lesser extent to Zimbabweans in other countries (per cent) Furthermore most ( per cent) said their main reason for sendingremittances was to support family members as figure shows
A number of factors influenced the propensity to send remittances themost notable being immigration status the location of close family membersthe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and the main activity in the destina-tion country There was little difference between men and women or betweenthose who had been refugees and asylum-seekers at some point and those whohad not Table shows the proportions that sent remittances to Zimbabweby different explanatory variables
Some per cent of those who were working at the time of the survey senteconomic remittances to Zimbabwe A direct correlation between the amountssent in remittances and the average monthly salary among those who wereworking was evident with the highest earners sending the most money toZimbabwe Nevertheless among some of the lower earners remittances madeup a substantial proportion of their monthly earnings
The data on immigration status showed that asylum-seekers were lesslikely than others to be sending remittances but this also correlated withmain activity and the greater likelihood for asylum-seekers not to be working
Figure
Main and any reasons in addition to the main reason for sending remittances ()
Base number main reason Missing Base number additional reasons Missing Other includes fuel one-off money for weddings or funerals food education costs
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
Just over two-thirds of citizens and permanent residents sent remittances ndashthose with close family members in Zimbabwe being the most likely to doso Those who were on working visas who had left Zimbabwe to work abroadand who were employed were also the most likely to be sending remittancesHowever it is significant that half of those who were unemployed and percent of others who were not working were still sending remittances this musthave had a large impact on the quality of their own everyday lives
Table
Proportion who sent remittances and non-monetary gifts and who provided in-kind support to Zimbabwe by immigration status whether respondent had close family members in
Zimbabwe main reason for leaving Zimbabwe and main activity at the time of the survey
Sent remittances
()
Sent non-monetary gifts
()
Provided in-kind help and support
()
Immigration statusCitizenpermanent resident Working visa Student visa RefugeeIndefinite leave to remain Asylum-seeker Undocumented Other Total
Close family in ZimbabweYes No Total
Main reason for leaving ZimbabweEconomic situation Political situation Lack of employment in Zimbabwe To work abroad To study abroad To join family Other Total
Main activity at time of survey Employedself-employed Unemployed looking for work Student Not working ndash other reasons Other Total 971 969 934
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
An analysis of the ways in which economic remittances were transferredshows that only a minority ndash a third ndash transferred money through formalroutes Family and friends going to Zimbabwe was the way in which moneywas transferred most often ( per cent) followed by the lsquoblackrsquo market( per cent) and personal visits to Zimbabwe ( per cent) High money-transfercosts negatively impact on the development impact of financial flows (IOM) and because of this some sending country governments have tried topromote and guide the nature of economic transnational activities (Portes et al) Means of encouraging remittance flows include offering investmentbreaks and joint ventures with migrant associations (Nyberg Soslashrensen et al) In June the governor of the Reserve Bank of Zimbabwe GideonGono visited the UK South Africa and elsewhere in an effort to encourageZimbabweans to remit money through government channels rather thanother routes to bring in much-needed foreign currency reserves
Remittances in kind
In addition to monetary remittances more than two-thirds ( per cent) ofrespondents sent non-monetary gifts ndash most often this was clothes ( per cent)followed by food ( per cent) An additional per cent provided other helpand support to family and friends in Zimbabwe It was significant that mostof this help related to migration the largest proportion ( per cent) helpingnew arrivals with accommodation in the UK or South Africa per centproviding advice about moving per cent providing financial help withmoving and per cent helping to obtain visas
The characteristics of respondents sending non-monetary support andproviding in-kind assistance were similar to the patterns found for thosesending monetary remittances as table shows Gender seemed to have noimpact with similar proportions of men and women sending both economic andsocial remittances to Zimbabwe However the data highlight the importanceof structural barriers in not only affecting the everyday lives of Zimbabweansin the UK and South Africa but impacting also on their families in ZimbabweIn short the ramifications of UK and South African policies extend wellbeyond their own borders If there is to be a real commitment to alleviatingpoverty and enhancing development in Zimbabwe and elsewhere then thedomestic policies of receiving countries in respect of their migrant communitieshave to be a part of any overall strategy
Discussion
The article has shown that Zimbabwean migrants are on the whole wellqualified and migrate with a strong skills base and good employmentexperience though migrants to the UK are better qualified and possessed ofmore pre-migration employment experience in professional jobs thanthose who have gone to South Africa Many of the migrants to SouthAfrica had low levels of qualifications (if any) and had never worked prior tomigrating Furthermore the majority were undocumented migrants in SouthAfrica
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
However among those who arrived in either receiving country withqualifications and work experience often at a high level there was a clearpattern of under-employment and downward occupational mobility Somehad obtained additional qualifications in the receiving country but with fewnotable exceptions (such as those who had trained as nurses and were work-ing in this field) most had been unable to use their new qualifications in thelabour market Undocumented migrants and asylum-seekers were the leastlikely to have been able to obtain a qualification ndash and these were the two groupsexperiencing exclusion as a result of structural barriers to their participationin the regular economy
Both the UK and South Africa operate hierarchical systems of rights thatdifferentially exclude certain categories of migrants In the UK asylum-seekersand undocumented migrants cannot work legally so those that are workinghave to be in the unregulated labour market In South Africa since asylum-seekers have been allowed to work though undocumented migrantsstill do not have legal access to the labour market The survey found thatasylum-seekers in the UK were less likely to be working than others whereasboth refugees and asylum-seekers were the groups with highest levels ofunemployment in South Africa Undocumented migrants were working forthe most part as low-paid agricultural labourers in South Africa in otherwords working long hours and earning less than the minimum wage withno employment rights in contrast to documented agricultural labourers
At a societal level both the UK and South Africa can be said to bebenefiting as Zimbabweans fill important gaps in the labour market In theUK this is especially the case in the areas of social care and health In SouthAfrica agriculture depends on migrant labour from the Southern Africanregion However the facts of migrants not working to their capacity of beingunemployed or of working in the irregular labour market all limit theircapacity to contribute to the economy through taxation In the UK the policyof excluding asylum-seekers from work also costs the government money fortheir housing and subsistence support
Most respondents in the study maintained strong transnational ties withtheir families and remittances were sent to support them in Zimbabwe andelsewhere However the structural barriers experienced as a result of immigra-tion status impacted on the capacity of asylum-seekers and undocumentedmigrants to send remittances andor on the volume of remittances sentNevertheless for the families and communities of these migrants there arebenefits through the receipt of economic and social remittances even if theyare necessarily limited Meanwhile the sending country as a whole experiencescosts from migration through lsquobrain drainrsquo In the Zimbabwean case it isevident that many out-migrants are skilled and this has left a deficit in somesectors of which the health sector has been highlighted The loss of humancapital must impact negatively on reconstruction and development ndash and theunder-employment of Zimbabwean migrants abroad may have a furtherlong-term impact Nevertheless the remittances sent to Zimbabwe bymigrants can be crucial in the meantime in the context of high unemployment
In the short term it seems unlikely that people will return voluntarily tolive in Zimbabwe Those who do return are most likely to have been sent
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
back involuntarily due to a breach in immigration regulations (undocu-mented migrants) or as lsquofailedrsquo asylum-seekers In South Africa as many as undocumented Zimbabwean migrants were deported between Januaryand March 7 Nevertheless there is generally an increasing interest involuntary return programmes as part of a wider international developmentstrategy using the lsquoreturn of human capitalrsquo argument (Blitz et al ) Forexample IOM has set up a skills transfer programme called Migration forDevelopment in Africa (MIDA) with IOM acting as an intermediary tryingto match skilled people to jobs Given the situation in Zimbabwe howeverit is unlikely that this will attract return migrants to that country in theforeseeable future
Respondents in this study were asked if they would be interested in returningto Zimbabwe to live some time in the future Two-thirds of them said that theywould definitely like to return to Zimbabwe and per cent said that theymight want to return However nearly three-quarters of those interested inreturning gave both economic and political changes as the necessary conditionsfor their return ( per cent) Better health ( per cent) and education forchildren ( per cent) were also voiced as concerns It hardly needs saying thatZimbabwe is currently a long way from creating a viable return environment ndashwhich according to IOM entails an improvement in the lsquosocial economicand political conditions in migrantsrsquo home countriesrsquo ( )
Ultimately the success of return migration as a development strategy willdepend on who returns and on the quality of their experiences meanwhilein the destination country (Oslashstergaard-Nielson ) It is the experiences in thedestination country which are currently the most relevant in the Zimbabweancase Policy-makers in general need to re-examine their migrant policies in orderto maximize the opportunities and capacities of migrants in the destinationcountries as a means of ensuring that the necessary skills base exists for anyfuture returns It is the structural barriers making up part of the managedmigration agenda which are curtailing the immediate benefits of migrationfor both the receiving countries and migrantsrsquo families but these will alsoimpede longer-term development by reducing the skills base and employmentexperiences that return migrants could have to bring back with them
If migrant receiving countries the majority of which are highly industrializedare committed to reducing global poverty and inequality and to facilitatingdevelopment by maximizing the benefits of migration then a more inclusiverather than exclusionary strategy for the reception of migrants is called forThe benefits of such policies would be seen at both micro and macro levelsand could have a positive impact on both receiving and sending societies
Acknowledgements
Thanks to Catherine Finer for her comments and engagement with this article
Notes
Source data International Monetary Fund and Standard Bank accessed on August at httpwwwedstandardbankcozaresearchZWGE_MWRP_PDF
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
Some per cent of the population are white and per cent are Asian or of mixedheritage backgrounds
In the UK the proportion of the total population which has participated intertiary education is per cent while in South Africa the proportion is percent see httpwwwnationmastercomcountryziPeople
In addition to the jobs shown in table nine respondents who subsequentlymigrated to the UK had worked as doctors
Some asylum-seekers and undocumented migrants would previously have hadother statuses such as working visas or student visas that enabled easier access toeducation
Cramers V is a statistical measure of association between two variables where suggests no association and equals perfect association
Email received from Southern African Regional Poverty Network based on pressbriefing notes from IOM August
ReferencesAmmassari S and Black R () Harnessing the Potential of Migration and Return to
Promote Development Geneva IOMAmnesty International () Amnesty International Report Available at http
webamnestyorgreportzwe-summary-engBlitz B Sales R and Marzano L () Non-voluntary return The politics of
return to Afghanistan Political Studies ndashBloch A () Refugeesrsquo Opportunities and Barriers to Training and Employment Research
Report Leeds Department for Work and PensionsBloch A () Survey research with refugees a methodological perspective Policy
Studies ndashBloch A () The Development Potential of Zimbabweans in the Diaspora A Survey of
Zimbabweans Living in the UK and South Africa Geneva International Organizationfor Migration
Castles S and Van Hear N () The migrationndashasylum nexus definitions anddimensions Paper presented at the th International Association for the Study of ForcedMigration (IASFM) Biennial Conference Satildeo Paulo Brazil ndash January
Chetsanga C J and Muchemje T () An Analysis of the Cause and Effect of the BrainDrain in Zimbabwe Harare Scientific and Industrial Research and Development CentreAvailable at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdZimbabwe_Brain_Drainpdf
Crush J Williams V and Peberdy S () Migration in Southern Africa GenevaGlobal Commission on International Migration
C-Safe () Zimbabwean Baseline Survey Report of findings Available at httpwwwsarpnorgzadocumentsdindexphp
Curran S and Saguy A C () Migration and cultural change a role for genderand social networks Journal of International Womenrsquos Studies ndash
De Haan A () Migrants Livelihoods and Rights The Relevance of Migration in DevelopmentPolicies DFID Social Development Working Paper no London DFID
De Vaus D () Surveys in Social Research th edn London RoutledgeFlynn D () Tough as Old Boots Asylum Immigration and the Paradox of New Labour
Policy London Joint Council for the Welfare of ImmigrantsHandmaker J and Parsley J () Migration refugees and racism in South Africa
Refuge ndashHCIDC (House of Commons International Development Committee) () Migra-
tion and Development How to Make Migration Work for Poverty Reduction Sixth report ofsession ‒ vol London Stationery Office
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
Heath T Jefferies R and Purcell J () Asylum Statistics in the UK nd ednLondon Home Office
Hothschild A () Love and gold In B Ehrenreich and A R Hochschild (eds)Global Women Nannies Maids and Sex Workers in the New Economy London GrantaBooks pp ndash
Human Rights Watch () Under a Shadow Civil and Political Rights in ZimbabweHuman Rights Watch Briefing Paper Available at httphrworgbackgrounderafricazimbabwehtml
IOM (International Organization for Migration) (ed) () World Migration Costs and Benefits of International Migration Geneva IOM
Jordan B and Duumlvell F () Irregular Migration The Dilemmas of Transnational MobilityCheltenham Edward Elgar
Kirk R () Skills Audit of Refugees Home Office Online Report Availableat httpwwwhomeofficegovukrdspdfsrdsolrpdf
Landau L () Democracy and discrimination black African migrants in SouthAfrica Global Migration Perspectives Global Commission on International MigrationGeneva
Lee R () Doing Research on Sensitive Topics London SageMcGregor J () Professionals relocating family money and mobility ndash
Zimbabwean nurses and teachers in Britain Draft paper submitted to Environmentand Planning
Mbiba B () Contentious transformations and global citizenship Zimbabwersquosglobal citizens in Harare North (United Kingdom) Paper presented at The NordicAfrica Institute Conference Uppsala Sweden ndash May
Newland K () Migration as a Factor in Development and Poverty Reduction MigrationInformation Source Available at httpwwwmigrationinformationorgFeaturedisplaycfmID=
Nyberg Soslashrensen N () The Development Dimension of Migrant Remittances Migra-tion Policy Research Working Paper Series no Geneva IOM
Nyberg Soslashrensen N Van Hear N and Engberg P () The migrationndashdevelopmentnexus evidence and policy options In Van Hear N and Nyberg Soslashrensen N(eds) The MigrationndashDevelopment Nexus Geneva IOM
Oslashstergaard-Nielson E () International migration and sending countries keyissues and themes In E Oslashstergaard-Nielson (ed) International Migration and SendingCountries Perceptions Policies and Transnational Relations Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan
Portes A Haller W and Guarnizo L E () Transnational Entrepreneurs The Emergenceand Determinants of an Alternative Form of Immigrant Economic Adaptation TransnationalCommunities Working Paper Available at httpwwwtranscommoxacukworkingpapersWPTC--Portespdf
Robinson V () Marching into the middle classes The long-term resettlementof East African Asians in the UK Journal of Refugee Studies ndash
Sander C and Maimbo S M () Migrant Labor Remittances in Africa ReducingObstacles to Developmental Contributions World Bank Africa Regional Working PaperSeries no Available at httpwwwworldbankorgafrwpswppdf
Schuster L () Common sense or racism the treatment of asylum seekers inEurope Patterns of Prejudice ndash
Solomos J () Race and Racism in Britain rd edn Basingstoke Palgrave MacmillanSpencer S () Introduction to special issue lsquoThe Politics of Migration Managing
Opportunity Conflict and Changersquo Political Quarterly ndashTevera D and Zinyama L () Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on International
Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town Southern AfricanMigration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
copy The Author(s)
UNHCR () Global Refugee Trends Overview of Refugee Populations New ArrivalsDurable Solutions Asylum-seekers and Other Persons of Concern to UNHCR Geneva UNHCRAvailable at httpwwwunhcrchstatistics
Welch S () Sampling by referral in a dispersed population Public Opinion Quarterly ndash
Wickramasekara P () Policy Responses to Skilled Migration Retention Return andCirculation Geneva International Labour Organization
Zinyama L () International migrations to and from Zimbabwe and the influenceof political changes on population movements ndash International MigrationReview ndash
Zinyama L () International migration and Zimbabwe an overview Chapter In D Tevera and L Zinyama (eds) Zimbabweans who Move Perspectives on Inter-national Migration in Zimbabwe Migration Policy Series no Cape Town SouthernAfrican Migration Project
