erosion, floods, surface runoff, invasive plant species, water ...

DT 2.2.2

Transnational Cluster Manual for Practitioners

Cluster 2: Land use and vegetation cover along

torrents, small rivers and their catchments – erosion,

floods, surface runoff, invasive plant species, water

pollution

Final version 7.12.2018

Project co-funded by the European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

2

Project co-funded by European Union funds (ERDF, IPA)

Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 5

2. RELEVANT RISKS BY TORRENTS, SMALL RIVERS AND WATER FROM

DISCHARGE LINES ............................................................................................................................. 8

3. LIST OF STAKEHOLDERS ..................................................................................................... 14

ROMANIA Practitioners: ................................................................................ 17

4. NATIONAL “BEST PRACTICE MANUALS” FOR RISK MINIMIZATION ..................... 21

AUSTRIA ........................................................................................................ 21

4.1. Manual for greening measures on areas at risk of erosion .................... 21

4.2. Assessment of surface runoff potential for land use units of the Upper

Styrian Enns Valley – a manual for land owners and practitioners ................. 23

4.3. A Practical Guide to Spatial Planning in Catchments and small river

stretches ....................................................................................................... 25

BULGARIA ..................................................................................................... 26

4.4. Afforestation activities for erosion and torrent control ........................ 26

4.5. Forest fires prevention measures after the fire in small river catchments ......................................... 28

4.6. Assessment of the role of the buffer forest green belts around the settlements in the area ............ 29

4.7. Combating Bark beetle infestation ...................................................................................................... 30

4.8. Developing of the alerting forest fire system ...................................................................................... 31

4.9. Role of natural regeneration of the forests in the process of erosion and torrent control ................ 33

4.14. Knowledge transfer, demonstrations and field trips with stakeholders ............................................. 39

3


4.15. Assessment of surface runoff potential for land use units of the Putna river basin – a manual for land

owners and practitioners .................................................................................................................................. 40

4.16. Complex planning strategy for watersheds, especially for vulnerable areas with regard to water

resources .......................................................................................................................................................... 41

4.17. Guide to good farming practices for mitigating the effect of climate change on agriculture ............. 45

4.18. Guide to prevent landslides ................................................................................................................. 46

4.19. Guide for prevention of floods and flash floods .................................................................................. 46

4.20. Flood hazard mapping ......................................................................................................................... 48

4.21. Flood risk mapping .............................................................................................................................. 50

4.22. Flood hazard mapping for frequent floods .......................................................................................... 51

4.23. Flood scenarios catalogue ................................................................................................................... 53

4.24. Hydrological and meteorological monitoring of environmental response ......................................... 55

4.25. Protection of floodplains ......................................................................................................................... 57

5. TRANSNATIONAL “BEST PRACTICE MANUALS” FOR RISK MINIMIZATION ....... 59

5.7. Forest regeneration and reforestation ................................................. 66

5.8. Erosion control ..................................................................................... 69

5.9. Forest fire management ....................................................................... 71

5.10. Combating bark beetle ......................................................................... 72

5.11. Invasive Plant Species .......................................................................... 74

5.12. Beaver management ............................................................................ 77

5.13. Awareness raising ................................................................................ 80

ANNEXES: ...................................................................................................... 82

Tailored forest management in torrential watershed .................................... 82

4


Practical Guide to Spatial Planning in Catchments and River Stretches .......... 82

Beaver management ..................................................................................... 82

Hydrotechnical measures mitigating flood risks & establishing of flood

forecasting maps in torrential watersheds and along rivers .......................... 82

Control of invasive plant species ................................................................... 82

Awareness raising ......................................................................................... 82

6. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 82

5


1. INTRODUCTION

Environmental resources are used across borders and go beyond national interests. The

unique flora and fauna of the region is under increasing strain from human activities.

Cooperation should have an impact on the overall quality of the environment in the Danube

Region.

The loss of natural habitats, the fragmentation of ecosystems, the intensification of land use

and urban sprawl represent burdens and additionally increase the potential for damage caused

by natural hazards.

The focus is therefore on the

Restoration and assurance of water quality,

Management of environmental risks (flood and soil protection under consideration of

climate change)

Conservation of landscapes, biodiversity and the quality of air and soil.

The three pilot action clusters are a central element of the pilot activities which were

conducted in CAMARO-D project. Therefore, three manuals for practitioners in the sphere of

water and land-use management were elaborated. It can be highlighted that the clusters are

put into relation with the vegetation cover respectively land use and the relevant water-types

(groundwater resources, torrents and small rivers, rivers and accumulation lakes), allowing to

delineate the best practices in the various contexts, always with a transnational aspect.

This transnational approach means that certain “problems” were identified in several

countries of the Danube River Basin and the respective best practices were elaborated by the

whole project consortium. In the course of the development of the three cluster-manuals which

– according to the application form – concentrate on transnational issues, the partnership

elaborated 11 transnational best practice manuals (BPMs), some of them covering even more

than one cluster and two of them applicable for all clusters (table 1). This concerns the manual

about the control of invasive plant species and the manual on awareness raising. The latter one

meets the needs to include also indirect measures and therefore puts the emphasis on the

question: how is it possible to communicate with the relevant target groups & stakeholders

and how can they be involved in the relevant process and convinced that their contribution is

needed. For certain issues it seemed also important to include national experiences to show a

wide range of possible solutions, which are applicable also in other countries.

6


Since the manuals are directed mainly to practitioners in land-use management, meaning

above all decision-makers, public authorities on different levels and other institutions in the

watershed area and especially at the pilot action sites, their knowledge of best practices and

relevant awareness raising activities on the spot is of great importance to guarantee the

cooperation with all affected stakeholders.

In the three manuals, decision makers can get an overview not only about the status in the

countries of the Danube River Basin, but also get new ideas of how to solve existing conflicts

between land uses or vegetation cover and protection of water resources as well as flood

prevention challenges.

The following overview-table (table 1) shows the three clusters with the eleven BPMs and

where they are included. After this introductory chapter, each transnational cluster-manual

gives an overview of the main issues the reader can expect to find, pointing out

applicable/implemented best practices and solutions, without neglecting to hint at hindering

factors or problems that popped up.

7


Table for cluster 02:

Table 1: Transnational best practice manuals (BPMs) along the three pilot action clusters.

CLUSTER 1 Groundwater resources

CLUSTER 2 Torrents and small rivers

CLUSTER 3 Rivers and accumulation lakes

(1) Groundwater protection through targeted silviculture (4) Tailored forest

management in torrential watersheds

(5) Adapted agriculture for optimal surface water and soil

protection under climate change

(2) Best practice restrictions for drinking water quality in

agricultural land

(6) Conversion from arable land to grassland mitigating

soil erosion

(7) Practical Guide to Spatial Planning in Catchments and River Stretches

(3) Mountain grassland management towards

groundwater protection

(8) Beaver management

(9) Hydrotechnical measures mitigating flood risks & establishing of flood forecasting maps in torrential watersheds and along rivers

(10) Control of invasive plant species

(11) Awareness raising

8


2. RELEVANT RISKS BY TORRENTS, SMALL RIVERS and

WATER FROM DISCHARGE LINES

Type of risks

PP1 PP3&PP4 PP6 PP9

Erosion Type of erosion: -deep erosion, side erosion, -cattle rambling: phenomenon, also known as "cattle manoeuvring" soil erosion, “Blaiken” (maily pasture land, ski slopes): Improper human land use, e. g. removal of the protective vegetation by overgrazing or deforestation,. the loss of the topsoil, Straightening and embankment of streams and rivers, draining and filling of floodplains, the additional discharge of water into running waters (e. g. through sewage treatment plants) or, in some cases, the artificial change of riverbank vegetation lead to changes in the flow regime at

Type of erosion: Water erosion: rill erosion (related to bad practices in forest management: new forest roads, wood storage on slopes and riparian areas), gully erosion, erosion of floodplains Gravity erosion: landslides on steeper slopes usually coincide with precipitation when soil is saturated with water, areas of clear-cuts or sanitary cutting (after sleet in 2014) Landslides in upland river basin of Iška where slopes are steep, riparian areas, alluvial fan of Iška - floodplain

Type of erosion: Torrential erosion, surface erosion - in the mountain area; deep erosion, landslides, muddy streams, crumblings Risk potentials : -Expanding the degradation processes in the neighboring areas and removing agricultural and forest lands from the productive circuit - uncontrolled drains on the slopes and hydrographic network, increased erosion and alluvial transport, loss of retention capacity and infiltration of water into the soil

Type of erosion: -Gravity erosion: landslides on steeper slopes usually coincide with precipitation when soil is saturated with water and where no vegetation cover exists /poor soil mixed with stone formations mainly in the lower part of the watershed/. Erosion caused by heavy rain

9


least locally in numerous running waters, which is primarily reflected in an increase in the flow velocity. This leads to an increase in the depth or bottom erosion rate and thus to an accelerated deepening of the gutter of the affected water bodies (in this context, the term bottom erosion is also defined as accelerated depth erosion caused by anthropogenic causes) The consequences are damage to the ecosystems linked to the respective water bodies, among other things by the drying up of the increasingly above water level natural floodplains, as well as a greater risk of flooding of the regions at the lower reaches due to the faster flooding of the upper reaches.

Soil compaction and soil quality

The main reason of soil compaction is caused by intensive agriculture in the watershed esp.:

x Medium The soil compaction is in the village of Eliseina due to the existing

10


agricultural equipment, machines

vehicle weight, divided by the number of wheels,

the tires (type, width, air pressure),

Number of crossings in the same lane

Selection of agricultural crops adapted to soil conditions( monocultures)

village spatial infrastructure. Loss of cultivated area, soil degradation, increase flood risk resulting from soil sealing. Low risk

Floods Due to frequent flooding (every 5-10 years), the settlement area, infrastructural facilities (railway, roads) and agricultural land are endangered Increased urbanization leads to higher flood risk and to a decrease in retention functions; Soil sealing in the catchment area causes an increase in surface run-off and thus leads to a higher risk of flooding Intensification of agricultural cultivation in the river basin leads to a decrease in biodiversity and may cause pollution and

Alluvial fan of Iška – floodplain is part of The Ljubljana Moor which is the largest flood-prone area in Slovenia. Iška channel conveyance equals to Q5, at Q100 over 50 % of water spill onto floodplains – about 300 buildings, transport infrastructure, water facility Brest and agricultural lands are endangered.

The high frequency of "flash floods" formed on small basins as a result of particularly torrential and short-lasting rains.

The existing village is endangered in case of water raising simultaneously in the Iskar river and its tributary Ochindolska river – Ochindolska river backup in the mouth. Village flooded in case of torrent rain due to lack of the village sewerage system

11


losses in flood retention;

Water pollution

no Pollution of soil and subsequently groundwater with uncontrolled use of pesticides, phyto-pharmaceuticals and fertilizers in agriculture on floodplains, insufficient wastewater network and treatment and/or insufficient control.

Big problems with waste disposal in riverbeds Warmer water discharged by the population leads to change in biodiversity

Problems with drinking water supply when domestic waste is disposed close to Water sanitary zones The Sanitary protected zones are not maintained according to the relevant legislation, RBMP and the Management Plan of Nature Park “Vrachanski Balkan”

Surface runoff

Development of settlements, agriculture, and tourism causes an increase in surface run-off and thus leads to a higher risk of flooding and flash floods .

Wastewater emission into watercourses – risk is pollution of surface waters. High runoff and shorter time of concentration – risk is flooding of inhabited areas (settlements) and increased erosion (watercourses, floodplains).

Soil loss and reduction to cancellation of production capacity Between torrential processes and erosion processes there is a close interconditioning: torrential processes are the origin of erosion, and the latter by reducing or removing the soil layer from the surface of the terrain and updating the less permeable soil and rock

Intensive surface runoff caused after heavy rains or poor vegetation cover and vegetation in bad condition endangers the village and infrastructure The Sanitary protected zones are not maintained according to the relevant legislation. Climate change (trends and extreme

12


horizons, contributes to the increase of the surface water flow and the increase of the torrential processes. At the base of these processes are the aggressive precipitation regime, in the conditions of altering the hydrological functions of the vegetation and the soil, by inappropriate management.

events) are identified.

Invasive plant species

Risk potentials: Obvious

negative effects of invasive plants in terms of protection against natural hazards, like narrowing or blocking cross sectional areas of channels, increased mechanical damages to constructions and consequently a higher risk of structure failures and flooding.

Impatiens glandulifera

no Species: False Vinegar - Ailanthus altissima; Amorpha - Amorpha fruticosa American Maple - Acer negundo Risk potentials : Reducing biodiversity and ecosystem services Increased risk of flooding and soil erosion in the case of False Vinegar (Ailanthus altissima), caused by the elimination of bank stabilizing vegetation near

no

13


promotes erosion along riparian zones of water courses.

A decrease of water quality is feared due to increasing surface erosion and consequently the entering of greater amounts of nutrient-rich sediment into the water courses.

There are signs that some of these new invasive plants influence runoff behaviour, the whole site water balance and even slope stability.

climate changes, esp. the increasing CO2 concentrations, may additionally increase risks from invasive species.

this tree;

Surface and groundwater interaction

no no Accidental pollution Hydrometeorological phenomena

The changes of the meteorological factors and land use changes

14


(erosion, deforestation, soil compaction, forest fires, etc.) – decrease of infiltration and groundwater

Other risks no no no Forest fires /mainly caused due to burning of stubble after harvesting; climate changes and trends – increase of drought periods/ Annually more than 95% of the forest fires in Bulgaria are caused by human activities.

3. LIST OF STAKEHOLDERS

AUSTRIA

Practitioners:

Farmers, foresters: work practically in a certain field, they implement e.g. management plans

for Natura 2000 sites or measures to protect groundwater, they are land / forest managers,

respectively owners,

Spatial planners: develop the local land use concepts, land use plans and building regulation

plans for communities:

15


Administration Authorities:

Municipalities: mayor = highest building authority

Austrian Service for Torrent and Avalanche Control: responsible for flood hazard zone maps

(torrents) = expert opinion, responsible for technical and green protection measures and

consultation during construction negotiations

Forest Services of Federal States:

Regional/local Forest Authorities:

Consulting Bodies (transfer of knowhow, control institutions, BPM at site level;

demonstration activities):

AMA (Agrarmarkt Austria Marketing GesmbH (Ltd.), inspection of implementation ÖPUL –

Agrarumweltprogramm, Rural Development Programme (Compliance with the fertiliser

guidelines)

Austrian Mountain and Nature Rescue Service (removal and awareness activities invasive plant

species)

Chambers of Agriculture and Forestry, ÖWAV, ÖVGW, …

NGOs: Nature Protection Association, ….

Ocupational

group /

Institution

Role, function in

general/ in CAMARO

Competencies, responsibilities

based on groundwater risks

Obligations /

legal basis

Support

Training, Info

Funds for

protection of floods,

erosion, landslides,

surface runoff, …

Farmer Land use, arable

farming

Management of

wetland areas

Land use management Natura

2000 wetland areas

Protection of erosion

Drainages, change of crops, …

Chamber Agriculture,

support funding

submission, ÖPUL & ,

ÖWAV Training

Afforestation, (Rural

development

programme)

Forester Forest Management Practical implementation of

forest measures to protect

natural hazards (erosion,

land slides, floods, forest

fire…)

Forest Act

DWPZ-Degree

Forest authorities

(support funding

submission),

trainings

Spatial planer Development local

land use concepts,-

plans, building

regulation

Consideration of DWPZs in

the planning process

Spatial planning laws

(federal states

Municipalities Authority

… …

16


BULGARIA

Practitioners:

State Forest Enterprise Mezdra: Local foresters, heads of the local forest units

Foresters from Nature park administration

Experts from Mezdra Municipality


Municipalities: mayors - The mayors of the three villages - Ochin dol, Eliseina and Zli dol

villages

Municipality Mezdra

Fire safety service “Mezdra”

State Forest Enterprise "Mezdra"

Regional Forest Directorate Berkovitsa

Danube River Basin Directorate

Nature Park Directorate “Vrachanski Balkan”

National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology

Water supply service “Vratsa”

NGOs: WWF-Bulgaria

Ocupational

group /

Institution

Role, function in

general/ in CAMARO


based on torrents and small

rivers

Obligations /

legal basis

Support

Training, Info

Funds for



surface runoff, …

Foresters Management of forest

territories within pilot

area, consultation of

CAMARO-D team

Practical implementation of

forest measures to protect

natural hazards (erosion, land

slides, floods, forest fire…)

Forest Act

Environment

protection law

Biodiversity protection

role

Forest authorities

trainings and rising

awareness

Afforestation, (Rural

development

programme)


Danube River

Basin Directorate

Water management

Legislative initiatives in

the sphere of water and

forest protection and

management.


water measures to preserve

water quality and mitigate

flood hazard.

Waters Act and related

regulations

Management plan for

the river basins in the

Danube region

National Institute

of Meteorology

and Hydrology

R&D on the field of

hydrology and water

management

Scientific support on the fields

of water management and

preparation of River basin

management plans

Fire safety Fire prevention Participation in Ordinance on the rules

17


service “Mezdra” activities, demonstration of fire alerting

system

and principles for fire

safety in the activities

of agricultural lands,

Program for the

protection of forests

against fires 2017-

2023

Water supply

service “Vratsa”

Manager of public

water supply system

and pumping facility

Maintenance of public water

supply system and

accompanying facilities for

supply of drinking water

Waters Act, Rules on

drinking water, etc.

ROMANIA

Practitioners:

- administrators and forest owners:

-State Forest Vrancea Branch; Local foresters, heads of the local forest units (private units ,

different associations of forest owners); Foresters from Nature park administration, i.e.

Nature Park “Putna-Vrancea”: all implements plans for managing national forest (state and

private), Natura 2000 sites, implement protection plans or afforestation of areas affected by

erosion or landslides, projects to develop watershed, construction and maintenance forest

roads, etc.

- Focsani Forestry Guard : the management/supervisory body for forest preservation

-Romanian Forestry Institute – INCDS “Marin Drăcea” (Research-Development and

Experimental-Production Focşani Branch and Experimental Base Vidra): research and

development activities the preservation and enhancement of biodiversity and stability of

forests for sustainable management and their performance in the context of the socio -

economic and environmental; control management through forest management plan for

optimal condition; R&D and practical work in forest area, realize and implement forest

management plans specifically of forests on degraded lands, ecological rehabilitation of

degraded forests and lands, torrent correction e.a., they implement management plans for

Natura 2000 sites (Măgura Odobeşti) and sites with other land use restrictions/regulations,

-administrators and owners of agricultural terrains:

County Department of Agriculture (DJA) Vrancea; Vrancea Country Local Action Group

and other associations of landowners have the following objectives: implementation of

agri-environmental measures for the management of agricultural land, implementation of

land use plans, development and modernization of agricultural holdings, diversification and

development of rural economy;

National Agency for Land Reclamation (ANIF) Vrancea: implementation of agricultural

measures to lands protection, disaster prevention works (creation of soil erosion and

stabilizing the land pitch) on agricultural land;

18


Agency for Payments and Intervention in Agriculture Vrancea implementing measures to

compensate land users in areas where agricultural activities are affected by unfavorable

natural conditions and applying best practices in land use etc

Authorities:

County Council Vrancea

Municipalities: mayors - The mayors of the villages – Valea Sarii, Barsesti, Tulnici, Vidra,

Bolotesti, Năruja, Nereju ş.a.

County Inspectorate for Emergency Situations Vrancea

National Meteorological Administration (Lăcăuţi Meteo Branch)

National Institute of Hydrology and Water Management (SGA Vrancea)

Water supply service (CUP Focşani)

National Agency for Environmental Protection (APM Vrancea)

Other institutions: "Simion Mehedinţi" school group Vidra Ocupational

group /

Institution

Role, function in

general/ in

CAMARO


based on torrents and small

rivers

Obligations /

legal basis

Support

Training, Info

Funds for

protection of

floods, erosion,

landslides,

surface runoff,

…

Foresters Management of

forest lands within

pilot area,

consultation of

CAMARO-D team


forest measures to

management and protect

lands affected by natural

hazards (erosion, land slides,

floods, forest fire…)

-Forest Code (law

46/2008 updated)

-Environment

protection law

137/1995 updated

Biodiversity,

antierosional

protection role

- Law no. 100/2010 on afforestation of degraded lands

Forest

authorities

trainings

and rising

awareness

Environmental

fund, Rural

development

programme –

PNDR 2014-

2020

INCDS

“Marin

Drăcea” –

Focsani

branch

R&D and practical

implementation of measures

to forest management

especially of forests on

degraded lands, ecological

rehabilitation of degraded

forests and lands, torrent

correction

Farmers Manageмеnt of

agricultural lands

Land use management in

protected areas, soil erosion

works, drainage works, crop’s

rotation, etc.

Compliance with

regulations and

inspectorate of

environment

Chamber of

Agriculture,

support

funding

submission

Rural

development

programme

19


National

Agency for

Land

Reclamation

(ANIF)

Soil erosion,

landslides and water

management

prevention works


agricultural measures to

protect natural hazards

(erosion and landslides)

Law 138/2004 of Land

reclamation, updated

Rural

development

programme

Municipalitie

s

Management of

lands

implementation of measures

to environmental protection

Environment

protection law

137/1995

Law 138/2004 of Land

reclamation

Rural

development

programme

National

Meteorologic

Administrati

on – Lăcăuţi

meteo

branch

Monitoring of

meteorological

parameters

Scientific support in

meteorology

National

Institute of

Hydrology

and Water

Management

R&D and monitoring

on the field of

hydrology and water

management


of water management and

preparation of River basin

management plans

County

Inspectorate

for

Emergency

Situations

Fire prevention

activities,

Participation in

demonstration of fire alerting

system

Ordinance on the rules

and principles for fire

safety in the activities

of agricultural lands,

Water

supply

service “CUP

Focsani”

Manager of public

water supply system

and pumping facility


supply system and



Waters Act, Rules on


Agenţia

Naţională

pentru

Protecţia

Mediului –

APM Vrancea

Monitoring of

environmental

parameters


of soil, water e.a. pollution

and management

Environment

protection law

137/1995. updated

20


SLOVENIA

Practitioners:

Farmers: practical work in agriculture, they implement management plans for Natura 2000 sites

or measures to protect groundwater, they are landowners,

Spatial planners: individual enterprises working for municipalities and government - they

develop land use concepts and plans.


Municipality of Ig and national government: highest authority for construction and spatial

planning.

Slovenia Forest Service and Slovenian Forestry Institute: R&D and practical work in forestry,

they implement management plans for Natura 2000 sites and sites with other land use

restrictions/regulations, they are management/supervisory body for forest preservation.

Slovenian Water Agency: governmental agency responsible for management of water bodies and

water-related issues, complying with legislation provided by ministries.

Consulting Bodies (transfer of knowhow, control institutions, BPM at site level; demonstration

activities):

Ljubljana Marsh Nature Park, Chamber of Agriculture and Forestry of Slovenia, Geological

Survey of Slovenia, Ljubljana Public Water Supply – manager of pumping facility at water field

Brest and public water supply system.

Ocupational

group /

Institution

Role, function in

general/ in CAMARO


based on water risks

Obligations /

legal basis

Support

Training, Info

Funds for



surface runoff, …

Farmer Land use, arable

farming

Land use management in

Natura 2000 areas, protection

of erosion, drainages, change

of crops, etc.

Compliance with

regulations and

inspectorate of

environment

Chamber of

Agriculture, support

funding submission

Slovenia Forest

Service &

Slovenian Forest

Institute

Forest management Research and practical

implementation of forest

measures to prevent natural

hazards (erosion, landslides,

floods, forest fire…)

Act on Forests and

related regulations

Spatial planer Development of local

land use

concepts/plans

Consideration of DWPZs and

flood-prone areas in process

of planning.

Legislation with spatial

planning content,

expert studies (e.g.

flood hazard,

21


protection of

environment, etc.)


Ljubljana Marsh

Nature Par

Management of

wetlands, preservation

of natural and cultural

heritage.

Slovenian Water

Agency

Water management Practical implementation of

water measures to preserve

water quality and mitigate

flood hazard.

Waters Act and related

regulations

Chamber of

Agriculture and

Forestry of

Slovenia

Consulting body Consultancy for practitioners,

emission monitoring in

agriculture

Geological

Survey of

Slovenia

R&D in geology and

hydrogeology,

groundwater modelling

of water field Brest

Ljubljana Public

Water Supply

Manager of public

water supply system

and pumping facility at

water field Brest


supply system and



Waters Act, Services of

General Economic

Interest Act, Rules on


4. NATIONAL “BEST PRACTICE MANUALS” for RISK

MINIMIZATION

AUSTRIA

4.1. Manual for greening measures on areas at risk of erosion

1) Legislation

Relevant directives, laws, regulations:

Council Directive 66/401/EEC of 14 June 1966 on the marketing of fodder plant seed

Council Directive 2002/53/EC of 13 June 2002 on the common catalogue of varieties of

agricultural plant species

22


Commission Directive 2010/60/EU of 30 August 2010 providing for certain derogations for

marketing of fodder plant seed mixtures intended for use in the preservation of the natural

environment Text with EEA relevance

BGBL II Nr. 417/2006 idgF. (§ 4 „Erhaltungssorten“)

ÖNORM L1113

2) Problem and hot spots

In the European Alps, thousands of hectares of ground are annually levelled, mainly within the

sphere of tourism development, infrastructural adaptation and natural erosion. All those

interventions are leading to intensive building activity, after which restoration is required.

With increasing altitude, especially in the sub-alpine and alpine zone, restoration becomes

more difficult due to rapidly worsening climatic conditions. In some parts of the alpine region,

inadequate but cheap restoration processes are still in use, combined with non-site-specific,

cheap plant and seed material. The ecological, and often economic, damage caused is

considerable; soil erosion, increased surface drainage, insufficient vegetation cover, high costs

for ecologically questionable fertilising measures, disproportionate cultivation expenditure

and flora adulteration are only some of the resulting effects. Ecological restoration, according

to the developed state of the art, should become a precondition for the permission of technical

interventions.

Despite the successful developments described, an Alpine-wide implementation of the current

ecological standards still lacks on success due to the following reasons: lack of a binding

definition of Alpine Standards for ecological restoration; lack of implementation of such a

guideline into national/regional law; lack of knowledge about the practical potential of

ecological restoration; lack of materials (e.g. seeds of subalpine and alpine plants); lack of

know-how transfer to authorities, planning agencies, restoration companies, ecological site

supervision.

3) Measures

Setting up a transnational framework which promotes an environmental-friendly restoration

approach of mountain areas. Through the implication of national authorities, guidelines are

proposed to coordinate the environmental policy with respect to restoration projects in the

high valuable mountain ecosystems.

Support the public authorities in the policy making process

Define the state of the art concerning the use of native seeds for greening measures

23


Establish a network of the stakeholders

Exchange information and knowledge

Issue guidelines on ecological restoration

The main target groups for the manuals are spatial planners, local authorities, farmers (seed

producers), skiing companies and other contracting bodies.

4) Group of participants

Public administrations, local authorities, research centres, parks, NGOs, farmers and their

organisations, seed companies, ski resorts.

4.2. Assessment of surface runoff potential for land use units of the

Upper Styrian Enns Valley – a manual for land owners and

practitioners

1) Legislation

EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)

EU Floods Directive (2007/60/EC)


Intensive land use (e.g. settlements, agriculture, tourism, forestry, industry and trade) and

sealed areas reduce the seepage capacity of the soil. This often leads to a negative influence on

the runoff conditions and a worsening of the flooding situation in both convective

(thunderstorm) and advective precipitation (continuous rain).

During heavy precipitation, the rainwater increasingly drains off at the surface and can thus

become a danger for settlements and infrastructure facilities.

Undeveloped areas are contributing to surface runoff and runoff in receiving water courses

only to a secondary extent.

3) Measures

Simulation of heavy rain is an established method to study infiltration behavior, runoff and

erosion characteristics in alpine catchments.

In the Styrian Enns Valley rain simulations were carried out at different representative land

use units (pastures, meadows, forest) to gain information about the runoff behavior.

24


Therefore a transportable spray irrigation installation was used. Water intensity applied was

about 100 mm h-1.

According to the results, a runoff coefficient map was established for the valley floor and the

adjoining lower lateral hillslopes of the region (figure 1). These results and an adapted land use

map are used to delineate hotspots with high risk of runoff damage to settlements, areas within

the future settlement borders and infrastructure facilities.

Final surface runoff coefficient map for the pilot region (BFW, 2018).

25



Decision makers, administrative bodies: municipalities, district administration authorities,

province governments, ministries

Relevant institutions: Austrian Service for Torrent and Avalanche Control, Federal Water

Engineering Administration, NGOs

Practitioners: spatial planners, farmers, foresters

Experts from relevant fields of action

4.3. A Practical Guide to Spatial Planning in Catchments and small

river stretches

1) Legislation

EU Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)

EU Floods Directive (2007/60/EC)


Riparians of fluvial systems as well as torrents are linked by the gravitational flow of water.

Flood control schemes aimed at protecting vulnerable areas, as well as the intensification of

land uses (e.g. land development, soil sealing or drainage of wetlands) accelerate flood runoff

and increase the downstream peak discharge. On the other hand, downstream riparians can

benefit from upstream measures of flood prevention (e.g. flood polders) or the extensification

of land uses (e.g. restoration of wet lands, natural retention areas) in the form of attenuated

and delayed peak flows. Addressing these interdependencies – commonly referred to as

upstream-downstream relations – calls for regional approaches in flood risk management and

a coordination at the scale of catchments or river stretches, as mandated by the EU Floods

Directive (2007/60/EC).

3) Measures

Solutions for spatial misfits as well as for upstream-downstream-conflicts can be provided by

measures aiming at cooperation at regional or supra-regional level, which enable formal

and/or informal coordination and compensation mechanisms. With regard to spatial planning

and relevance for practitioners, two appropriate governance approaches are proposed:

Regional planning as a regulatory, highly institutionalised governance approach, including

spatial planning and water-related planning at regional level:

regulatory spatial planning instruments (such as regional plans) may designate suitable

26


areas to secure the necessary land resources for flood retention and flood runoff as well as

for future flood control measures. Such top-down planning directives are legally binding and

generally entail zoning restrictions, which have to be implemented in local land use plans.

Voluntary cooperation at the level of catchments and river stretches representing governance

approaches with a comparatively weak institutionalization:

Upstream-downstream cooperation: voluntary cooperation between upstream and

downstream riparians represents an option to encourage catchment-oriented planning. Such

bottom-up cooperation is flexible in scope and in scale. Moreover, compensation

mechanisms may be tailored according to the interests and needs of the cooperation

members.


Water administration, water associations, water cooperatives; local, regional and national

authorities; experts such as spatial planners

BULGARIA

4.4. Afforestation activities for erosion and torrent control

1) Legislation – Ordinance for forest nurseries , Forest Act, etc.

2) Problem and hot spot

The steepest slopes of the watershed “Ochindolska reka”/pilot area/ - are situated above the

village of Eliseina. The inclination is 30 o. The soils are brown and grey forest soils. The terrain

is steep and rocky with rear vegetation. The stand is poor and dry. The main risk is in case of

heavy rain. Floods and landslides cause problems to infrastructure and buildings.

3) Measures

Direct seeding in torrential area above the village

Standard planting of such terrains is expensive and difficult for implementation. It requires

much efforts and much human power. The selected tree species for the area are Betula

pendula and Syringa vulgaris, which are autochthone vegetation and very adaptive in such

conditions.

In such areas direct seeding is recommended because of the method is:

• Cost effective

• Time efficient

27


• Designed for larger areas

• Allows a greater variety of species to be planted - more “close-to-nature”

silviculture option

• Allows planting of remote or inaccessible sites or sites with rocky soils

• Allows restoration of disturbed areas where natural regeneration is not adequate or

possible

Direct seeding in watershed “Ochindolska reka”

There are some disadvantages of the method, which have to be considered before taking the

measures in every similar region:

• Competitive vegetation

• Seed Predation

• Lower survival rate in comparison with standard planting – about 20%

• Slower growth of direct seedlings compared with planted seedlings

• Depends strongly on microsite environment

• Depends on tree species and seed quality

• Soil condition and timing of seeding

• Depth of covering

• Grazing of the seedlings from wild animals


Foresters: experts from Executive forest agency /national level/; experts from Regional Forest

Directorate /regional level/, local foresters from State Forest Directorate Mezdra /local level/,

mayor of the village of Elisina /municipality, local level/

5) Monitoring

First results could be monitored after 3, 4 months and the relevant recommendations could be

derived according to the success of the practical measure.

28


4.5. Forest fires prevention measures after the fire in small river

catchments

1) Legislation – Forest Act, Ministry of the Interior Act, Ordinance for conditions and order for

protection of forest areas from fires, Ordinance for inventory and planning in forest areas,

Forest management plan of SFD Mezdra, etc.

2) Problems and hot spot

In 2017 in the territory of SFD Mezdra we have reported 13 forest fires with 124.9 ha affected.

From 12 to 16 April 2017 three of these forest fires occurred in the watershed and affected a

total of 3.3 ha of forest land. To avoid soil erosion on the steepest slopes of the watershed

“Ochindolska reka”/pilot area/ after the fire the burned forest stand have to be cleaned and

prepared for regeneration. In the future some fire prevention measures can be proposed in the

Forest management plan.

Burned forest lands, 12-16 April, 2017 – SFE Mezdra

3) Measures

In 2018, SFD Mezdra foresees the felling and cleaning of the forest areas affected by the fire in

2017. Over the next 3 years, the process of natural forest regeneration will be monitored and, if

necessary, assisted.

In the future, the construction of a mineralized strip near the railway and the road is proposed

wherever possible, as well as establishing at least one water source /water spot for fire trucks/

in the Ochindolska River. Some of forest fires preventive measures, as fire breaks, mineralized

strips etc. have to be renewed every year.

29





mayor of the village of Eliseina /municipality, local level/

5) Monitoring

First results could be monitored after 2-3 years and revised in the end of ten-year period of

operation of the Forest management plan.

4.6. Assessment of the role of the buffer forest green belts around

the settlements in the area

1) Legislation and Administrative acts: Forest Act, Common spatial planning plan

2) Problems and hot spot

After the evaluation of the status of the green belt around village of Eliseina the risks for the

houses in case of heavy rain was identified. The main tree species are Carpinus orientalis,

Pinus nigra and bushes formations. The highest level of erosion in the whole watershed was

identified in the green belt above the village. There is a big difference between the condition of

the green belt on both sides of the river respectively of the village related to the exposition and

the inclination of the slopes. The municipality is small (260 citizens) and there is a lack of

financial resources for infrastructure maintenance.

3) Recommended measures

On the eastern slopes of the watershed /left picture/, where the drinking water reservoir for

the village is situated, Afforestetation with P. nigra was carried out in the past. The Austrian

pine is mixed with C. orientalis with natural origin. The aim of afforestation was to protect the

neighboring houses from landslides and floods. To protect the road infrastructure, additional

30


rocky bracket walls were build. The stand is in very good condition, the soil is stable and there

are no indications for landslides or torrent activities.

On the west side the situation is different. The slope is very steep /inclination is 30 o/ and the

stand is poor and rocky. The main species are Carpinus orientalis and Pinus nigra. The pine

plantation is part of antierosion activities done 40 years ago. The natural regeneration from

those species is insufficient and is randomly distributed. The pine plantation is not in very

good condition, because of the poor site and shallow soil.

To improve the stability of the steepest slopes around the village the direct seeding of two

pioneer species is recommended and elaborated. Additionally it was recommended to the

municipality /mayor of the village/ to construct the stone thresholds in the gullies and ditches

along the road. Because of lack of financial resources such a measures could not be currently

implemented.

In such cases, which are typical for small municipalities in the country, the only solution is to

support natural regeneration of the forest or using afforestation as a measure to protect the

green belt around the village.




mayor of the village of Elisina /municipality, local level/

5) Monitoring

First results could be monitored after 3,4 months and the relevant recommendations could be

derived according to the success of the practical measure.

4.7. Combating Bark beetle infestation

1) Legislation – Forest Act, Ordinance for inventory and planning in forest areas, etc. Ordinance

for forest fellings implementation.


Coniferous plantations, afforested 40-50 years ago out of their natural areal with the main aim

to control the erosion in the country reached their utmost growth limit. As a result they are

very susceptible to bark beetle or other forest pests. Climate change and drought in recent

years have had a significant impact on the condition of artificially created forests. Drying of

coniferous crops with an average age of 40-50 years, created in areas with altitudes of up to

31


700-800 meters, has a pronounced pathological nature and is due to the intensification of pest

attacks. Recently on the territory of the country about 30 000 ha coniferous plantations are

affected. There is a need of urgent measures, e.g. cutting of the affected forests and

encouragement of natural regeneration of the broadleaf species in their natural areal. On the

territory of the watershed plantations from P. nigra and P. sylvestris are attacked by bark

beetle, which leads to deforestation of certain areas and risk of erosion and torrents.

3) Measure

Bark peeling of attacked fallen trees, especially into inaccessible areas;

Use of trap trees and pheromone traps to monitor the bark beetle development;

Use of trap trees to fight with bark beetle;

Removing the fresh top parts of the stems and branches thicker than 4-5 cm

Implementation of sanitary fellings



Directorate /regional level/, local foresters from Nord – West State Enterprise Vratsa and State

Forest Directorate Mezdra /local level/, ,mayors and forest owners /municipality, local level/,

etc.

5) Monitoring

Regular observation of the pine plantations established out of their natural areal.

4.8. Developing of the alerting forest fire system

1) Legislation – Forest Act, Ministry of the Interior Act, Ordinance for conditions and order for

protection of forest areas from fires, Ordinance for inventory and planning in forest areas, etc.


Over the last decades, we have seen a trend of summers continuously getting hotter and drier

while the wildfire seasons have gotten longer. At the same time, our attitudes and actions

toward wildfires are still mainly focused on defense and suppression instead of prevention.

Special automatic systems for observation and alerting of forest fires can help as to be more

effective in prevention and protection of forest ecosystems. Such system was build 3 years ago

by Nature Park Vrachanski Balkan. Part of the pilot water catchment is covered by the observing

system, but it needs to be widened in the future.

32


Lookout tower – part of the automatic system for observation and alerting of forest fires – Nature Park Vrachanski Balkan 3) Measures

As example of best practices a demonstration to the stakeholders of the alerting forest fire

system is planned in June 2018.

A simulation of forest fire will be conducted during the meeting to show the detection of the

forest fire from the surveillance system and its capabilities.

At the same time interaction and reaction of different responsible services for fire suppression

in the nature will be demonstrated.




Forest Directorate Mezdra /local level/, firefighters from Fire Station Mezdra /local

level/,mayors and local peoples /municipality, local level/, etc.

5) Monitoring

First results of developing of the automatic systems for observation and alerting of forest fires

could be expected after 2-3 years and revised in ten-year period.

33


4.9. Role of natural regeneration of the forests in the process of

erosion and torrent control

1) Legislation – Forest Act, Ordinance for inventory and planning in forest areas, etc.



to control the erosion in the country reached their utmost growth limit. As a result they are very

susceptible to bark beetle or other forest pests. Climate change and drought in recent years have

had a significant impact on the condition of artificially created forests. Drying of coniferous

plantations planted in areas with altitudes of up to 700-800 meters, has a pronounced

pathological nature and is due to the intensification of pest attacks.

Coniferous plantations out of their natural areal

The natural regeneration with native species is presented in the watershed, but in most cases it

needs support activities.

The biggest problem occurs on the spots where no natural regeneration is presented and which

are on the steepest slopes, rocky terrain around the river bed and near settlements. This can

cause erosion, landslides or torrential activity in settlements and to destroy infrastructure.

3) Measures and recommendations

The natural regeneration with native species is presented in the watershed, but in most cases it

needs support activities. The main efforts must be directed to decrease canopy closure and to

34


ensure the light regime of the natural regeneration. No pasture must be allowed in those areas.

All sylvicultural activities must be directed to preservation of the undergrowth, expansion of

natural regeneration and transformation of coppice stands into seed stands.

In the bare plots of the watershed afforestation should be considered. The use of autochthones

species is recommended. The method of direct seeding or using container plants are the most

appropriate methods in such cases. The planting density must be high, which is typical of

antierosion afforestation. For faster control of torrential activities bush species could be used

initially to reduce the surface runoff and landslides and then afforestation with pioneer species

could be initiated.




Forest Directorate Mezdra /local level/, firefighters from Fire Station Mezdra /local

level/,mayors and local peoples /municipality, local level/, etc.

5) Monitoring

Natural regeneration need to be monitored yearly by the competent authorities /on local level-

forest services/

4.10. Suggestions for proper management in drinking water protected areas, integrated water and forest management and increase water retention capacity

1) Legislation – Water Act, Forest Act, Biodiversity Law, Protected areas law, etc.


The Sanitary protected zones are not maintained according to the relevant legislation, River

Basin management plan (RBMP) and the Management Plan of Nature Park “Vrachanski

Balkan”. Climate change (trends and extreme events) and land use changes (land degradation,

soil compaction, forest fires, etc.) decline water retention capacity and increase flood and

drought risk.

3) Measures

Regulation regimes for proper management in water protection zones, the sanitary

protection zones (SPZ) and the buffer zones, in order to protect drinking water,

according to the River Basin Management Plans (RBMP) 2016-2020 and the

Management Plan of Nature Park “Vrachanski Balkan” are suggested.

35


Based on the RBMP 2016-2020 and Protected areas law, some measures and good

practice for integrated water and forest management under conditions of climate

change and extreme phenomena (flood and drought) are proposed.

The Hydrologic Soil-Cover Complexes retention is analysed. Measures with synergic

effects are recommended - not only to protect water quantity and quality, but also for

climate change adaptation, flood risk prevention, erosion control, to increase of water

retention capacity, etc.

Water protected area /Zone I/- capture and tank © EFA

It is necessary to integrate the efforts of the different institutions with relevance to the

protection of water and natural resources and their management, including control and

conservation of the water-preservation and protected areas. The regulations of the Ordinance

№3/2000 and Annex 1 of the RBMP measures catalog have to be sychronized.


Experts from the Executive Forest Agency /national level/; experts from Regional Forest

Directorate /regional level/, experts from National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology,

local foresters /local level/, Basin Directorate /regional level/, Water Supply and Sewerage

Company (WS&S ), municipality /local level/,

5) Monitoring

The relevant recommendations could be derived according to the success of the practical

measure. WS&S Company should develop their investment programme for the territory of the

Nature Park “Vrachanski Balkan” and Ochindolska river, in the direction of monitoring and

sanitary-protection zone maintenance and upgrading of infrastructure.

36


4.11. Review of the deviation and drainage system for rain waters and sewage net in Eliseina village and measures to avoid floods when torrential rain occurs

1) Legislation – Law of Water, Law of Spatial Planning;


The population uses septic pits which today are considered as non-adequate municipal waste

disposal structures and should be escaped. As a rule they are absorption ground pits not

connected to some drainage system. Although this type of septic pits is forbidden by the Law

they still exist. They need periodic cleaning by pumping out and this is a difficult and expensive

operation. In case of torrential rains the domestic waste water can cause water and land

pollution.

On the other hand intensive and durable rain waters can cause some flooding of the village

because of the lack of sewerage system, system for rain surface runoff deviation, soil

compaction due to the existing village spatial infrastructure and respectively the diminished

soil retention capacity.

There is a necessity of creation a sewerage system for avoiding floods in urban territories and

protect the streets, stores, home yards and ground floors of houses; A reasonable regulation of

urban infrastructure development and settlements expansion.

Flooded towns as a result of heavy rains

3) Measures

a review and analysis of existing and designed sewage systems is made. Usually rain

and waste waters are discharged by means of mixed sewage system but in many cases

the capacity of such system is not sufficient in case of torrent rain. It is preferably the

design and creation of modified separate sewage system where the rain waters are

collected and discharged through separate syst.

37


In the field of spatial planning it is necessary to improve engineering standards

concerning the spatial territory planning related to the flood risk decreasing and soil

sealing.


Experts from Executive Forest Agency (national level), experts from Regional Forest

Directorate (regional), local foresters from State Forest Directorate Mezdra, mayor of the

village of Elisseina; experts from Danube RBD.

BMPs: creation of sewerage systems in the small settlements. Best spatial planning of urban

territories related to the flood risk decreasing and soil sealing.

5) Monitoring

It is difficult to say when “Water supply and sewerage Vratsa” Co. will include in its Business

plan the creation of sewerage system in the Elisseina village.

4.12. Recommendations for cleaning and removing the siltation in river bed and raising the awareness of local society not to throw agricultural and domestic wastes in the river bed

1) Legislation – Law of Water, River Basin Plan Management; prohibition from the part of the

Eliseina Mayor population not to throw artificial deposits in the river bed;


The natural features of a watershed–big longitudinal river slope, very steep slopes, climate

conditions are conditions for high wave formation during heavy rains. The uncleaned river bed

(availability of vegetation, agriculture and domestic wastes)additionally increases the risk of

flooding creating some obstacles for free passing of high water (Fig.2-3-4). The frown from the

local population domestic wastes in the river bed worsen the situation and transform the river

in sewer.

Flooded road above the Village of Elisseina

38


3) Мeasures

the state of the whole river Ochinska bed is examined during the visit in the pilot area;

it is reported on the meeting with some of the local stakeholders about the importance

to maintain the river bed clean and to provide measures supporting the natural river –

bed capacity. Some discussion with the Elisseina Mayorabout order prohibitingthe

disposalof agricultural and domestic wastesin the bed river.


experts from EFA, local holders, Mayor of Elisseina, experts from Executive Forest

Agency(national level) , Mayor of the village of Elisseina

BMPs and recommendations: - cleaning the river beds from the trees grown in the water

course as well as some snags, bushes and all fallen trees (Law of water); cleaning the river

beds from sediment deposits for providing their normal conductivity (Law of Water);

mandatory cleaning the river bed of Elisseina even once a year and maintaining the river bed

clean; prohibition of not to throw artificial wastes.

5) Monitoring: every year. The river bed maintenance in its natural conditions is a practical

measure that should be applied in recent time..

4.13. Knowledge transfer to local society on how to remove and

dispose the septage from the sewage tanks after the flood

1) Legislation – Law of Water, Law of Spatial Planning;


The septic pts are widely spread in all the small settlements and particularly in Elisseina. The

absorption ground pits not connected to some drainage system are forbidden by the Law. For

their cleaning is used specialized pumping auto machine (gun) for disposal of the faeces from

the sewage tanks. Overflowing of the septic pits content during intensive rain is not acceptable

because of the very bad consequences on land and human health. It should be controlled the

level of contents in the septic pits.

39


3) Tried measure

Some lectures with the local stakeholders, meeting and discussion with the Elisseina

Mayor for solving the problem


experts from EFA, local holders, Mayor of Elisseina, experts from Executive Forest

Agency(national level) ,Experts from the NIMH, Mayor of the village of Elisseina.

5) Monitoring

to escape spilling of domestic waste waters; maintenance the septic pits in proper state;

raising public awareness about the effect of bad maintenance of septic pits.

4.14. Knowledge transfer, demonstrations and field trips with

stakeholders

1) Legislation: in all relevant legislation is a requirement for their active involvement and

public discussions

2) Problem and hot spot –To active involve relevant stakeholders in decision making process

3) Measures:

- workshops and meetings on local, regional and national level by the initiative of the relevant

authorities

- field trips and terrain works in order to raise awareness, to build capacity and to exchange

experience with stakeholders

- preparation of leaflets, web site information, media, etc.

5). Group of participants

All relevant authorities and stakeholders

4) Monitoring

The process of cooperation between the institutions and stakeholders need to be included in the

monitoring procedures of the planned activities in which they are involved.

40


ROMANIA

4.15. Assessment of surface runoff potential for land use units of

the Putna river basin – a manual for land owners and

practitioners

In recent years extreme weather events have been intensified (droughts alternating with rainy

periods, aggressive precipitation accompanied by wind, hail). Surface runoff in heavy rain may

cause significant contributions to torrential runoff. In the last years, a significant increase of

damages to settlements due to runoff from intensively managed or sealed areas (without

connections to torrents) has been observed.

Thus, a simple handbook / evaluation guideline for assessment of surface runoff potential in the

test Basin of Putna river is it necessarily. For this purpose, already existing methodologies for

assessment of areas prone to erosion, torrential processes in Romania will be simplified and

adapted for the test region.

The region is well known in the literature from runoff and erosion point of view because of the

high turbidity by sediments transport in the watercourses. In this area, soil losses locally reach

by about 30-45 tons/ha/year, as against to the natural regenerative capacity of the soil, which is

about 5-6 tons/ha/year, only. For this purpose, already existing procedure for assessment of

surface runoff in the region, based on the runoff plots from Soil erosion and conservation

Research Stations will be simplified and adapted for the test region.

The handbook will comprise

a short description of the most important factors influencing surface runoff

a compact guide how to assess surface runoff characteristics / assign surface runoff

classes based on actual vegetation cover, soil characteristics, way and intensity of land use,

surface morphology

a collection of examples for different plant/soil complexes showing different surface

runoff behaviour, e.g. comprising an overview of the site in question, vegetation and soil

characteristics (and photo)

The manual will be based on

Results of rain, runnof and erosion determined by measuring of the water volume

and the alluvial effusions from well confined experimental plot situated in different stands on

41


eroded lands (plot size 200-300 m²) from representative sites in the test regions (in sum 6 plots

of the CAMARO-D pilot study) and results of natural and/or rain simulation experiments (with

different rainfall intensities, in mm/min; size 40-100 m²: slopes of 15% and, respectively, 20%)

from other representative sites in the region (in sum 6 plots in the frame of the CAMARO-D);

Hydrological results on quality assessment of land use. Based on existing

methodologies for hydrological characterization and classification of the main categories of land

use (based on: Apostol, 1972; Abagiu, P., Munteanu, S., Gaspar, R., 1973; Arghiriade, 1976;

Clinciu, Lazar, 1997; Gaspar, Abagiu 1974; Gaspar, 2008; Miţă, Mătreaţă, 2004), can determine

average erosion index and average retention potential for a given area (river basin). Forests are

classified into 4 categories hydrological, denoted by A, B, C and D in descending order of their

effectiveness while the other categories of use (hay, pastures) are classified in four categories

hydrological other. Depending on the hydrological quality of the land use and the way of using

the land in a hydrographic basin it is possible to make a ranking thereof and to determine the

urgent interventions with rehabilitation works

Site surveys (ca. 80 points in the test region)

Code of Good Agricultural Practices and Code of Forestry;

Potential added value of the code of practice:

The manual can be used to develop surface runoff coefficients maps – forming the basis

for precipitation /runoff modelling e.g. with models like ROMSEM (ROManian Soil Erosion

Model) and to develop management measures for increasing the efficiency of land use

hydrological efficiency, valid for any zone

Raise of problem awareness: Existing handbooks for surface runoff assessment mainly are in use

by specialists in the river basins torential / torrents watershed planning, Afforestation /

afforestation of degraded lands, forest management engineers, civil and hydraulic engineers,

agronomist) up to now. The release of a simplified version shall widen the circle of users (land

owners, communal authorities, etc.) and raise the awareness that careful land management and

site adapted land use are key factors in surface runoff prevention.

4.16. Complex planning strategy for watersheds, especially for

vulnerable areas with regard to water resources

Produced within the CC-WARE includes measures and preparation of the watershed in mountain

areas, mainly forests with torrential risk. The action to improve degraded forest land, the

42


principle of improving the whole, radical and sustainable land initially concerned should adopt a

series of measures and improvement works. This set of measures and works are called complex

ameliorative and components of concrete differs from case to case, depending on the problems

to be solved and arising from the nature and status of the land in question and the nature and

number of factors that waived or limited sky. Ameliorative measures have organizational and

include prohibitions, restrictions and rules of use and land use, measures to ensure peace and

others, seeking to prevent the expansion, intensification or reactivate the process of decay.

Reclamation works have technical and refers only to degraded lands. These include specific

technical interventions and their purpose on the one hand to stop the degradation processes,

and on the other hand the comprehensive overhaul and upgrading of the land included in

premises or objectives pursued by the action of improvement. Recommended medode mapping

land and depending on the shape and intensity of degradation: species and forms of

afforestation, methods of planting, fitting the slopes eroded or sliding consolidation works

ogaselor and ravines for afforestation and peculiarities forest and crop management stands on

the slopes. The hydrographic network is recommended for both afforestation works but mainly

hydraulic works transverse and / or longitudinal (photo 1a,b). The afforestation roughness

increases and enhances resistance to erosion beds and by means gradually reduces the cross-

work riverbed slope and the hydraulic radius decreases. Used with discernment and judiciously

combined the two categories of work can lead to a profile riverbed evolution of "balance",

characterized by a slope to the water torrent can not cause any erosion and transport of

sediments with no detrimental effect.

a

43


b

A successful combination of work on hydrographic network (dams, potting, etc.) To work on slopes (plantings, patios, fences, etc.) în BH Caciu-Bârseşti; foto E. Untaru,1978 (a); C.Constandache, 2015(b)

In the mountains and high hills, where, because of gradients handed and heavy rainfall, small

basins have considerable potential torrents, and where the soil is covered mostly by forests and

meadows - use that if there are not degraded hydrological protects relatively good soil - the most

intense erosion processes are not located on the slopes, but along the river system. The latter

(composed of ditches, trenches, basins, ravines, rivers and river), together with related banks,

account for over 70% of the total volume of sediments transported by flash floods. Assuming

that water balances and thus restore the ecological balance in the watershed is conditional on

removing the causes that generated torrential processes, required measures and works

performed mainly be directed in this direction

Described solutions torrential hydrographic network planning with water management. The

main role of waterworks is to mitigate the effects of any flooding that may occur during their

efficient operation (10-20 years). During this time biological and biotechnical solutions make

their effects felt and hydrological imbalance is removed to a large extent.

The execution of hydraulic works (torrential correction) should prioritize local construction

materials (stone, river stone, gravel, sand, etc.), but only if they correspond in terms of quality

44


In the provenance area or smaller formations are recommended works (longitudinal or

transverse) made of local materials (stone, wood) to stabilize/strengthen land (or whites sides

degraded) and to stop the sources of sediments even at the site of thereof (photo 2). These

works are cheaper, and have a minimal environmental impact and maximum protective effect .

a c

b

Photo 2 - Terraces "vegetable armed" and thresholds vegetative Caps-Bârseşti experimental area, county. Vrancea; Photo E.Untaru, 1980 (a); C.Constandache, 2015 (b)

-dry stone masonry in a ravine in the area Scaune - Putna Vrancea, photo. Constandache, 2008 (c)

Uses of land and their role in the water cycle

Developed within the project CAMARO-D, shows that water and land use are interdependent

components and between them is a very strong link. Some of the most important results of this

link are: leakages (expressed by flood quantity and flow) and sediment transport. Most water

resources have their origins in hill and mountain areas. Vegetation in general, but mainly

forestry acts as a sponge and as a filter, retaining rainwater and slowly releases, feeding the

springs. In the absence of vegetation, water from precipitation flows instantly, causing soil

erosion, landslides and floods.

45


All these influences of vegetation on the water cycle in the ecosystem and on regulating the

water regime in river basins are variable depending on:

- the amount of precipitation and their intensity;

- the air temperature;

- the geological structure of the river basin;

- the hydrographic basin geomorphology, expressed as: surface, relief energy, shape,

slope length and slope inclination, width and depth of the minor bed etc.

- the composition and the physical, mechanical, hydrophysical, thermal and aeration

properties of soils;

- the percentage of afforestation of the river basin and structural features of the stands

(composition, consistency, vertical structure, age, production class, state of vegetation etc.).

Properly maintained forest ecosystems play an important role in: retention, water filtration and

regulation of surface leakage, soil erosion and shrinkage transport; all of which have an effect on

maintaining water quality and ensuring a permanent flow of water.

4.17. Guide to good farming practices for mitigating the effect of

climate change on agriculture

Sustainable crop management and rational use of land are very important in maintaining

agricultural potential, respecting the condition of not emphasize the impact of farming practices

on the environment and climate.

Among the most important measures affecting the water cycle are:

-Position held conservation tillage (no-till agricultural work or minimum) have evolved

more pronounced because they were used as a measure to prevent soil erosion

-Control erosion of agricultural work, great attention is paid to the prevention of soil

erosion in hilly areas. Erosion control through water if you apply proper mangement practices of

soil can control erosion surface. Previous culture management practices include proper

protection of the soil surface and maintaining the vegetal coating and roughness Land.

- Use techniques for saving water: water saving can be considered the main aspect of

integrated water management that environment and climate.

-Introducing agricultural practices that favor carbon sequestration: unsuitable

agricultural practices leading to land degradation and increases soil CO2 emissions are plow

46


works, deforestation, drainage of organic soils / peatlands, subsistence agriculture that

determine fertility depletion, overgrazing and so on.

4.18. Guide to prevent landslides

Developed in MONITOR II project (2012), including measures for the prevention, special

measures for stabilizing landslides, map areas prone to landslides Putna river basin, etc.

Between the prevention of natural forest have an important place. Implementing afforestation

programs slopes, prone to landslides, reforestation (rebuilding premises or parquet forest

where deforestation was out of control). Sectors sources of rivers are part of the priority areas

covered by afforestation and reforestation, as these are the places most frequently exposed to

potential causes and triggering preparatory porniturilor field. At the same time, attention soils is

very important for ensuring the resettlement of forest vegetation. In some cases conservation,

afforestation or reforestation portions at the bottom of the slopes, contributes to their resistance

against disruptive actions by erosion exerted minor river beds of streams from the slopes (photo

3).

Reactivation slides by undermining the base of slopes (BH Milcov tributary BH Putna - Vrancea)

4.19. Guide for prevention of floods and flash floods

Developed in MONITOR II project (2012), includes: general measures to prevent flood maps of

the areas at risk from floods, protection rules, behavior and action of the public in the event of

flooding (photo 4, fig.1)

Among specific measures to prevent forest are:

-works concave bank protection with gabions, or when funds do not allow for expensive works,

shore protection will be achieved by "attaching" the large trees well fastened with şufelor. Over

47


time, if not very strong floods is carried clogging can create a terrace antropico-natural role

riverbank protection; the corresponding

-Maintenance works to torrent and reclamation (ditches, exhaust, etc.)

The effects of flash floods (2005) on the river Milcovel (Putna -Vrancea)

fig.1 –

Pilot area Putna - Vrancea

48


Slovenia

4.20. Flood hazard mapping

1) Legislation

In compliance with Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) the Slovenian Waters Act (Official gazette of

the Republic of Slovenia, 67/02, 2/04 – ZZdrI-A, 41/04 – ZVO-1, 57/08, 57/12, 100/13, 40/14

and 56/15) sets framework for implementation of flood hazard mapping for specific return

periods.

Rules on methodology to define flood risk areas and erosion risk areas connected to floods and

classification of plots into risk classes (Official gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 60/07).

2) Problems, hot-spots

Events with selected return periods of 10-, 100- and 500-years are assessed in flood hazard

maps. Floods with 1 % occurrence probability (100-year return period) are used as benchmark

for planning and design for flood protection measures. Flood hazard is divided into three classes

as shown in the table:

Flood hazard classes

High flood hazard 100-year return period, water depth > 1.5 m or product of water depth and velocity > 1.5 m2/s

Medium flood hazard 100-year return period, water depth 0.5-1.5 m or product of water depth and velocity 0.5-1.5 m2/s

Low flood hazard 100-year return period, water depth < 0.5 m or product of water depth and velocity < 0.5 m2/s

Based on these classes prevention measures (e.g. construction ban in a particular area) and

curative construction measures (e.g. significant flood hazard/risk areas). Floods with 500-year

return period are used for design of areas or objects of higher importance (e.g. critical

infrastructure etc.) and for evaluation and assessment of extreme conditions.

http://www.uradni-list.si/1/objava.jsp?sop=2002-01-3237









49


Flood hazard map for Iška floodplain showing three different water depth classes for flood with 1 % occurrence probability.

Erosion hazard/risk mapping (i.e. erosion, sediment transport and deposition areas ) are done

very seldom, because data (soil characteristics etc.) for such calculation are rarely available.

3) Measures

Flood hazard maps with predetermined return periods (10-, 100- and 500- years) for floods as

well as hazard classes are already existing in Slovenia including Iška River, therefore this will

not be specifically addressed at our pilot action area but could be interesting for other

participating partners. However, the already existing flood hazard maps will be used for

comparison on flood hazard changes based on land-use changes on the Iška River watershed.


Ministry of the environment and spatial planning, Slovenian water agency, Local community and

local authorities, third party enterprises for hydraulic calculation and delivery of maps.

5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps or land-use changes impact on existed flood hazard area distribution

should be performed, when needed, according to changes in spatial planning and particular

spatial development and dispersal land use changes.

50


4.21. Flood risk mapping

1) Legislation

In compliance with Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) the Waters Act (Official gazette of the

Republic of Slovenia, 67/02, 2/04 – ZZdrI-A, 41/04 – ZVO-1, 57/08, 57/12, 100/13, 40/14 and

56/15) sets framework for implementation of flood risk mapping for specific return periods.



Decree on establishment of flood risk management plans (Official gazette of the Republic of

Slovenia, 7/10).

For Flood Risk Management the following scheme is applied:

Disaster risk scheme (United Nations, 2007)


Flood risk is evaluated based on flood hazard and vulnerability. When vulnerability is identified

flood risk can be assessed and mapped with flood risk maps for particular areas of interest, such

as floodplains.

3) Measures

Risk level is dependent on hazard in vulnerability. Flood hazard mapping is already described

(4.4.1) therefore the focus here is on determining the vulnerability. Criteria for determining the

level of vulnerability is expressed as: the number of exposed inhabitants, type and number of

exposed economic and non-economic activities, locations of potential pollution sources,

locations of important objects and other important areas (nature preservation, water resources

protection, etc.). Particular structure or area is classified within four vulnerability classes: high,











51


medium, low and very low. Flood risk is then evaluated according to particular flood hazard and

vulnerability and is divided into four classes: high, medium, low and residual risk.

Flood risk classification


Ministry of the environment and spatial planning, Slovenian water agency, local authorities and

third party enterprises for hydraulic calculation and delivery of maps.

5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps or land-use changes impact on existed flood risk area distribution should

be performed, when needed, according to changes in spatial planning and particular spatial

development and dispersal land use changes.

4.22. Flood hazard mapping for frequent floods

1) Legislation

No specific legislation.


Events with return periods for frequent floods (2, 5 and 20 etc. years), i.e. different occurrence

probability than is determined by the rule for flood hazard mapping, are currently not assessed.

Identification of scope of such events with lower return periods would seem reasonable and

useful for torrents and small rivers due to faster response times of surface runoff. Response time

52


of Iška River catchment is in the scale of up to 4 hours, thus exhibiting very torrential

characteristics where flooding can happen at less-than-extreme precipitation and discharge

quantities with more common return periods. On the other hand, at these frequent flood events

usualy the flood protection measures are already applied in combination disaster response and

disaster relief activities.

3) Measures

Hydrological model of Iška catchment will be set up to identify surface runoff quantities and

temporal distribution for frequent floods for selected scenarios:

afforestation with mixed forest (natural development of afforestation in protected

forests),

afforestation with coniferous forest (increase of coniferous tree percentage) and

sleet/windfall/fire events, resulting in removal of vegetative (forest) cover.

Hydraulic model of Iška catchment will be set up to identify discharge when flooding occurs with

associated locations and scope of flooded areas for frequent floods. According to the selected

scenarios, corresponding input data for hydraulic model will be provided by hydrological model.

Flood hazard mapping can be used as input data for protection and disaster response plans by

Administration for civil protection and disaster relief as well as by local authorities (for spatial

planning, public services etc.). Protection and disaster relief plans include protocols for

protection before hazard onset with intervention activities and rescue activities during or after

hazard event, evacuation paths, meeting locations, etc. Protection and rescue plans specify the

following activities: alarming (issuing warnings of anticipated hazard), human resource

management (organization and training of intervention teams, training for individual civil

protection), material resource management (equipment availability, resources for humanitarian

aid) etc.


Hydrological and hydraulic modelling will be performed in-house at PP3 UL Faculty of Civil and

Geodetic Engineering. Results will be exchanged with stakeholder Municipality of Ig where Iška

River is located and with other interested stakeholders and broader public. Other potential

participants are Slovenian water agency and Administration for civil protection and disaster

relief.

53


5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps or land-use changes impact on existed flood risk area distribution should

be performed, when needed, according to changes in spatial planning, particular spatial

development, significant dispersal land use changes or update of the particular Rescue and

contingency plans.

4.23. Flood scenarios catalogue

1) Legislation

Some of water management related best practices are not obligatory by legislation but are still

implemented by professionals, public services etc. Legislative frame for consultation is derived

from Floods Directive (2007/60/EC), such as Waters Act (Official gazette of the Republic of

Slovenia, 67/02, 2/04 – ZZdrI-A, 41/04 – ZVO-1, 57/08, 57/12, 100/13, 40/14 and 56/15) and

Flood Risk Management Plan for 2017-2021.


Having torrential characteristics Iška River poses danger for bridge clogging at any of the

bridges along the river. Driftwood is caused by lack of sanitary activities in forest in upstream

areas (due to strict protection regimes of forest areas) and by storage of wood and other

materials in riparian areas too close to the river.

There is also a lot of sediment transport and deposits, which has to be removed from

inappropriate locations along the river by the concessionaire (for river maintaining public

service).

Anthropogenic bypass used in the past for sawmill is a potential secondary flood hazard source

if it would get clogged which would result in reduction of effective cross section and all water

would be diverted across the landscape into the river channel. Therefore, flooding can occur that

under normal circumstances (no bypass) would not be present.

Flooding of well field Brest is to be prevented to ensure clean drinking water at all times and to

avoid damage on the pumping facility.









54


3) Measures

Flood scenarios catalogue is not an obligatory document but could be beneficial to decision

makers and stakeholders from different professions, such as spatial planning, civil protection

(intervention maps based on flood hazard maps), water management, etc. Hydraulic study of

Iška River will give results for addressing hot spots and with catalogues scenarios a broad

picture and problem tackling is ensured. Collaboration between different professions,

institutions, agencies and other stakeholders (land owners, NGOs, etc.) can be strengthened.

Intervention

map for flood hazard (Municipality of Mozirje) Preparedness on flood (photo: Goran Rovan).


Municipality of Ig, Administration for civil protection and disaster relief, concessionaire for Iška

River – company Hidrotehnik d.o.o., Slovenian water agency.

5) Monitoring

As a concessionaire – company Hidrotehnik d.o.o. is being monitored by Slovenian Water Agency.

55


4.24. Hydrological and meteorological monitoring of

environmental response

1) Legislation

Slovenian environment agency implemented project BOBER within Operational Program for

environmental and transport infrastructure development.


Insufficient field data and measurements prohibit precise understanding of environmental

response and therefore quality forecasting in meteorology and hydrology. This affects our

preparedness to extreme weather conditions (e.g. droughts, excessive precipitation), resulting

phenomena (e.g. floods) and thus overall quality of environment and built environment.

3) Measures

Through project BOBER (Better Observation for Better Environmental Response) by Slovenian

Environment Agency improved monitoring system was set up. This system includes water

gauges, such as water gauge at Iška vas on test area. The system contributes to better monitoring

of water environment, better understanding and assessing of Slovenian water environment and

consequently better hydrological and meteorological forecasting contributing to real-time

warning issuing and thus evacuation of endangered areas.

Map of BOBER monitoring network

Precipitation radar image

56


57



Slovenian environmental agency, Administration for civil protection and disaster relief,

Slovenian water agency, concessionaires (state and local).

5) Monitoring

Slovenian environmental agency is responsible for management and maintenance of BOBER

infrastructure. Slovenian water agency as an important end user monitor the quality and

applicability of forecast data.

4.25. Protection of floodplains

1) Legislation

Decree on conditions and limitations for constructions and activities on flood risk areas (Official

gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 89/08).

Decree on flood risk management plan (to be implemented).


Inappropriate past spatial planning and illegal constructions or (over)inhabited floodplains from

the past result in increased flood damage potential. On the one hand, arable land of highest

quality coincides with flood prone areas, while on the other hand, plains are attractive for

private investors for housing development which is a negative development of settlements from

a floods perspective.

Illegal constructions areas (yellow) at the village Iška mala vas.

Effect of structural measure for flood hazard mitigation at Iška mala vas –

reduction of flood area

58


3) Measures

Designation (and preservation) of floodplain areas for floods with land use limitations with land

use alternatives in dry periods are necessary for flood damage reduction and control. Based on

Floods Directive Slovenia prepared Flood Risk Management Plan. On the basis of a specially

designed methodology, flood risk areas were ranked. According to a number of criteria, 61

Significant Flood Risk Areas (hot spots) were selected and a special Flood Risk Reduction

Program was prepared for them. No area on the Iška River watershed was ranked among the top

61, but the Ljubljana municipality (or Water Supply Company) wants a more detailed treatment

of the flood risk hazard for the Brest water filed, as a critical infrastructure premises.

Therefore, for the pilot action area of Iška river the following challenges were identified and

assessed:

Well field Brest – protection of drinking water facility is in public interest,

Iška vas (settlement) – high flood risk,

Iška mala vas (settlement) – high flood risk.

If these areas were included in Flood Risk Mitigation Plan they would receive more financial

support for flood hazard mitigation from the government (and/or European funds) and other

floodplain areas could be dedicated for water during floods. Nonetheless, these areas are

recognized by municipality as areas with high flood risk and some preventive measures were

already taken. However, more areas with appropriate land use (e.g. grassland) should be

allocated to water retention in extreme events, to reduce downstream adverse effects.

Modelling hydrological and hydraulic response of the catchment will give flood prone areas

envelope for selected input data by chosen return periods. So, we could show effect of

constructed objects on flood propagation comparing to scenario of flood propagation with no

constructed objects – reduction of space available for floods retention namely increases flood

hazard downstream. Such results can be used by the Municipality of Ig and decision makers for

adequate spatial planning.


Ministry of the environment and spatial planning, spatial planners, Municipality of Ig, Slovenian

water agency.

5) Monitoring

New developed maps or land use changes impact on existed flood risk area distribution would

be performed, when needed, to inform as well alarm stakeholders about the adverse effects of

59


the changes in spatial planning, particular spatial development, significant dispersal land use

changes or update of the particular Rescue and contingency plans.

5. TRANSNATIONAL “BEST PRACTICE MANUALS” for RISK

MINIMIZATION


1) Legislation

Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) and national acts.


Different legislative background and management structures in different countries results in

ununified flood hazard management and flood hazard mapping, such as different map scales,

event return periods and represented elements (flooded area, flooded area water depth and/or

velocity, flooded area runoff direction).

Data shown in flood hazard maps (Müller, U.: Implementation of the Flood Risk Management Directive in Selected European Countries. 2013. Int. J. Disaster Risck Sci.)

Project partner P3 UL was included into Flood Risk Reduction planning for transboundary river

Mura. The Mura river basin is governed by national regulations of four different countries, which

determine the flood hazard mapping.

60


Flood hazard maps – return periods for scenarios mapped for fluvial flooding (Mura River

catchment countries). (EC 2016)

Scenario Austria Croatia Hungary Slovenia Low probability

Return Period (years)

300 1000 1000 500

Medium probability

100 100 100 100

High probability

30 25 30 10

This suggests that zoning of land use in two countries can be very different on both banks of the

same river. Therefore, cooperation within bilateral or multilateral water management

commissions (agreements) is all the more important.

3) Measures

Each EU country is responsible for implementation of Floods Directive, namely their own flood

hazard maps and mapping system is in their own domain. Flood risk maps should be adopted by

all countries as an additional decision tool for spatial planning.

Harmonization of mapping is recommended for better transnational comparison and further

analyses, especially on boundary rivers, both in the case of riparian states and in the case of

upstream - downstream states. If such harmonization is not foreseen within European

legislation it is recommended at least within the Danube river basin, if we want to achieve, that

there will be no adverse effects (both, along and across the river).


Ministries or responsible agencies for water management in cooperation with developers of

maps, usually third-party enterprises such as design bureaus, commissions of main tributaries

for the Danube river and stakeholders.

61



1) Legislation

Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) and national acts.


Similar as flood hazard mapping, while taking into account the vulnerability assessment as well.

Data shown in flood risk maps (Müller, U.: Implementation of the Flood Risk Management Directive in Selected European Countries. 2013. Int. J. Disaster Risck Sci.)

3) Measures


risk maps and mapping system is in their own domain. Flood risk maps should be adopted by all

countries as an additional decision tool for spatial planning. The obligation of each EU Member

State is also to draw up a Flood Risk Reduction Plan, and various methodologies for the Expected

Flood Damage Assessment and the set of criteria for determining Significant Flood Risk Areas

are being developed. Harmonization of Flood Protection Measures (structural, non-structural) is

recommended for better transnational co-operation and further analyzes, needed to prove that

62


there would be no adverse effects, both in the case of riparian states and in the case of upstream-

downstream states.

Harmonization of risk mapping and risk management/reduction is recommended for better

transnational comparison and further analyses. If such harmonization is not directly foreseen

within European legislation, there are existing other international obligations as well and it is

recommended at least within the Danube river basin.






1) Legislation

No specific legislation. Existing flood hazard maps taken into account, hazard mapping for

frequent floods is recommended by professionals in water management sector, which connects

various other sectors, such as agricultural, spatial planning or civil protection sector.


Events with different return periods for frequent floods (2, 5 and 20 years) should be assessed,

especially in torrent and small river watersheds because of fast response times of surface runoff.

Currently there is no standardized analysis and mapping for frequent floods.

3) Measures

For representative flood hazard mapping a hydraulic model of area of interest must be prepared.

Input data can be acquired from water gauge stations or alternatively by hydrological model.

Key steps are:

1) Review of current national legislation on flood hazard mapping and disaster management

(planning, rescue and relief etc. activities)

2) Existing flood hazard maps (return periods, represented elements) promotion in other

sectors activities

3) Input data acquisition (also from the previous flood damage registry, evaluation of the

past civil protection activities, public service duties within disaster events etc.)

63


4) 2-dimensional hydraulic model for return periods of frequent floods (2, 5 and 20 years), as

additional value or information source for other sectors planning, preparation etc. activities.

5) Output: flood hazard map with water depth classes, with flood hazard classes, as input

mapping for other sectors activities (Rescue and relief Plans, …) for more frequent flood events.


Since this content is not covered with legislation, group of participants would consist of

interested parties (municipalities, water agencies, civil protection agencies, design bureaus,

private investors, etc.)

5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps should be performed when needed according to changes in spatial

planning and development of actual land use.

Mapping of frequent floods brings valuable contribution to every day’s live – namely, many

stakeholders are not very concerned of rare events (100- or 500-year return period events), but

very intrigued with more frequent flood damage appearances.


1) Legislation

Flood scenarios catalogues are not obligatory documents. Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) and

national legislation can be used as framework.


There are several most likely to appear scenarios, where several possible hazards are combined

– as a combination of primary hazard with collateral adverse effects (for instance, flooding and

induced pollution, structures failures …), or as combination of several hazards, triggered by the

same hazards source (for instance, because of heavy rain there appear flooding, land slides,…).

So, the number of the scenarios could be large.

Let show as some event’s illustrations:

1) Set of different precipitation and discharge occurrence probabilities or return periods

2) Bridge clogging, then diverted flows and accompanying adverse effects

3) Failure of torrential dams – clogging of torrents

4) Mudflows and landslides in combination with clogged torrent streams

5) Dam overtopping and dam failure

64


Bridge clogged by driftwood on Iška river

3) Measures


makers and stakeholders from different professions, such as spatial planning, civil protection,

water management, etc. Intervention maps based on flood hazard maps lead to better civil

protection and rescue actions. Measures that were identified as most effective for flood risk

mitigation are:

1) Design and construction of structural measures for flood mitigation

2) Regular maintenance of watercourses, hydraulic structures and riparian areas

3) Allocation of finances for water management public services

4) Flood forecasting (difficult for torrential rivers)

5) Implementation of individual (self-protective) flood mitigation measures

6) Identification and preservation of floodplains and flood prone areas

7) Intervention measures during floods


Ministries and agencies responsible for water management, municipalities, counseling and

design bureaus, concessionaires, civil protection agencies, commissions of main tributaries for

the Danube river and stakeholders.

5.5. Backwater effect at confluences

1) Legislation

Scenario evaluation of this type may or may not be legislatively defined but it is recommended

by professionals, mostly as a best practice examples.

65



Confluences can have backwater effect on one or more of the inflow rivers. Due to the complex

nature this problem is listed as an individual sub chapter. While each of incoming rivers

individually might not cause flooding at less-than-extreme discharges, the backwater effect from

confluence may result in flooding at such discharges.

Backwater effect at confluence of rivers Drava, Meža and Mislinja in the Danube river basin could reach also far away upstream areas, especially in case of lowland river stretches. 3) Measures

Scenarios of different discharges (different return periods) for each inflow could be

hydraulically evaluated. The impact of coincidence of confluence rivers is often evaluated as

scenarios, where rivers have different return period discharges (for instance, one 20- other 100-

year return period and then opposite, first 100- and the other 20-year return period). Then, an

envelope of flooding for all scenarios is determined, giving the maximum flood prone area.



design bureaus, civil protection agencies, commissions of main tributaries for the Danube river

and other stakeholders.

5) Monitoring

Flood prone areal envelope caused by backwater effect can be represented in the same way as

flooding by individual rivers where there is no confluence adverse effects, therefore it can be

presented with flood hazard maps for which the same applies as above.

66


5.6. Hydrological and meteorological monitoring of

environmental response

1) Legislation

Individual national legislation, if existing.



response and therefore quality forecasting in meteorology and hydrology. This affects

preparedness of society to extreme weather conditions (e.g. droughts, excessive precipitation),

resulting phenomena (e.g. floods) and consequently overall quality of environment.

3) Measures

Effective meteorological and hydrological monitoring system can improve quality of

environment by providing better field data for understanding of environmental processes.

Consequently, real-time monitoring can drastically improve hydrological and meteorological

forecasting which allows for issuing warnings for hazard onset in real time and thus evacuation

of endangered areas, contributing to flood risk mitigation. Depending on anticipated time for

hazard onset torrential floods can be either forecasted or not, with relying on existing safety

measures or not. Three types of critical points can be identified:

critical points for hazard onset (e.g. landslides)

monitoring points for monitoring level of hazard

intervention and observation points (bridges – clogging, road closing, inhabitants alarming

etc.) for hazard relief


Ministries for water management and other environmental issues, environmental and water

agencies, civil protection agencies, commissions of main tributaries for the Danube river.

5.7. Forest regeneration and reforestation

Regeneration dynamics are of crucial importance for forest succession. The establishment of

vital and stable regeneration of all tree species within forest ecosystems is important for their

sustainability and for their adaptation under climate change conditions. The continuous cover

forest system (CCF), can only be achieved via vital and continuous regeneration dynamics.

67


Regeneration techniques as the group selection system, the single-tree selection system or the

small-gap cut system follow the principle of natural regeneration of desired tree species. The

regeneration processes need to be managed and directed to ensure the forest adaptation and

sustainability in the future. The natural transformation and succession processes have to be

observed and maintained according to the long-term forest management goals.

In torrent catchment areas in which forests have been damaged or destroyed (e.g. clear cutting,

windthrow, game browsing, bark beetles), especially on steep slopes above settlement areas

with risk of landslides or on the banks of torrents, reforestation projects (so-called “land

management projects”) are carried out.

The objective is to resecure the protective function against floods, avalanches, mudslides and

erosion as well as the ecosystem services. This is realised in combination with technical

measures.

In order to be able to implement land management projects, regarding the technical guidelines, a

habitat-adapted wildlife management must be implemented, so that the financing cover by

federal, state and local authorities is guaranteed in the public interest.

1) Legislation

European Forestry Strategy, Individual national legislation


Coniferous plantations out of their natural areal with the main aim to control the erosion

and torrential activities reaching their utmost growth limit. The dieback and bad condition of

plantations leads to deforestation of certain areas and risk of erosion and torrents.

Climate change has an impact in the anuality of hazard events and forest conditions. The

protective function of forests will be reduced.

Increased game densities pose a major threat to the stability of forest ecosystems. This

becomes even more important under the conditions of climate change, since the natural

diversity of tree species in forest ecosystems is a basic prerequisite for their stability and

resilience.

3) Measures

Earlier actions to improve afforestation of degraded land are considered examples of good

practice for the future. The success of afforestation of degraded land depends to a large extent

on the techniques of setting up / consolidating the land for afforestation, species and mixing

68


schemes, subsequent care works, etc. in relation to the physic-geographic conditions and

environmental specificity of the land concerned.

The environmental conditions of the degraded lands require the execution of specific works for

consolidation and preparation of the lands for planting and the use of specific methods of

afforestation. The works of consolidation of eroded lands, ravine slopes and slopes adjacent to

the torrential watershed and landslides (slopes) that have been performed

In the interests of hazard prevention, all forest and property owners are informed to remove

existing sediments before they are inspected and not to carry out any more sediments in future.

The applied silvicultural regeneration techniques have to be carried out on small-scale areas and

to support forest stand stability during the mostly natural regeneration phase. This is an

essential contrast to the clear-cut technique, which is still main silvicultural system in most of

the EU countries. The adequate techniques are e.g. group selection cuts, single tree cuts or small-

scale gap cuts. There has to be given the balance between light provision for the regeneration of

the forest trees and the stability of the remaining forest stand. In case of protected areas when

needed only sanitary fellings to be implemented.

Supporting natural regeneration and transformation of coniferous plantations will lead to

development of natural vegetation in the stands, resistant to the site conditions.

Transformation of coniferous plantations in watershed “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria

Donnersbachwald, 2018 (Mayer, R.)

69



Forest services, Municipalities

5.8. Erosion control

In forest conditions, surface runoff and soil erosion are generally low because of the surface

litter cover. Soil erosion in forests generally follows a disturbance such as road construction, a

logging operation, or fire. Ground cover by forest litter, duff, and organic material is the most

important component of the forest environment for protecting the mineral soil from erosion.

Ground cover amounts can be reduced by the logging operation (harvesting and site

preparation) and burning by either wildfire or prescribed fire. For example, skidder traffic on

skid trails can reduce ground cover from 100 to 10–65%. Burning can reduce ground cover from

100 to 10–90% depending on the fire severity.

1) Legislation



soil erosion is as one of the major natural hazard causing land degradation

torrential activities, especially on steep slopes

the danger of the erosion activities for the nearby settlements and for the population.

Role of the “green belt” around settlements

The dieback and bad condition of plantations leads to deforestation of certain areas and

risk of erosion and torrents.

3) Measures

Modelling of annual soil loss in the catchment area of Ochindolska river can serve as

basis for the development of risk governance practices and land use management. The

methodology is based on satellite remote sensing and GIS information. The mapping of

erosion processes has been done through the implementation of the USLE which is

comprehensive mathematical model for erosion caused by precipitation. Using remote

sensing methods and satellite images for assessment of vegetation and erosion in

torrential watersheds is cheap and correct and could be quickly used in large territories

under risk of natural disaster. It could easily direct the practitioners and stakeholders

attention if a specific problem in the forest occur.

70


Identification of the watersheds susceptible to generate torrential floods represents an

important tool in watershed management on one hand and, in the management the risk

of rapid floods on the other hand.

Avoiding clear-cuts and not allowing large-scale forest die-back (e.g. due to wind-throw,

bark beetle or forest fires) is very important for erosion control.

To avoid soil damage while logging and to minimize erosion and surface runoff, only

clearly defined roads and skid trails should be used on forest soils. Soil-conserving

techniques should be preferred, such as skyline cranes, manual wood processing, horses,

and others.

Soil loss map, watershed Vegetation index /NDVI/ time series “Ochindolska reka”

General view over the improvement perimeter degraded lands Valea Sării in Putna basin, before and after 60 years from afforestation operations (photo Costin, 1954 and Constandache, 2012)

71




5.9. Forest fire management

1) Legislation



Due to the climate changes and global warming in the last decades the risk of forest fires

in all over the Europe is high. Over the last decades, there is a trend of summers

continuously getting hotter and drier while the wildfire seasons have gotten longer. At

the same time, our attitudes and actions toward wildfires are still mainly focused on

defense and suppression instead of prevention.

3) Measures

Traditional fire prevention measures - such as management of fuel material,

establishment and maintenance of firebreaks, mineralized strips, water supply points,

communication equipment, etc. – have been highly improved in recent years, which have

led to a quicker and more effective response to the majority of fires. Nonetheless, there is

always a number of fires for which these measures are not successful. These fires

become, then, big catastrophic wildfires - fires that exceed the so called “extinction

capacity”- and are able to burn high amounts of hectares because fire spread takes place

at high speed through the tree canopies.

The most common forestry practices to reduce the vulnerability to fire of a forest stand

are:

reducing surface-fuel, to limit fire intensity;

thinning and elimination of scale-fuel to lower the probability of vertical fire

development;

combined low and crown thinning, to avoid fire from spreading through tree

canopies

common plans for firefighting between relevant services

72


Special automatic systems for observation and alerting of forest fires can help to be

more effective in prevention and protection of forest ecosystems. Such system was build

3 years ago in Bulgarian pilot area of the project. Part of the pilot water catchment is

covered by the observing system, but it needs to be widened in the future.



Lookout tower and alternative methods for combating forest fires

5.10. Combating bark beetle

Bark beetle outbreaks can significantly influence forest carbon storage and cycling, forest health

and ecosystem stability. Climate changes /higher summer and winter temperatures, prolonged

droughts and shorter winter, changing precipitation patterns and frequent extreme events/ are

driving beetle population outbreaks in susceptible forests, and allowing these insects to persist

in habitats previously constrained by cold temperatures and to continue to proliferate and

thrive in higher elevations. Climate change affects bark beetles by altering their development

and temperature-induced mortality. Climate change may also affect trees’ defense mechanisms

against bark beetle attacks. All above mentioned conditions together with natural disturbances

in the forest may significantly affect the forest ecosystem vitality and compromise the supply of

ecosystem services.

1) Legislation



As a result of the large scale infestations the following main consequences are possible:

Spreading of the coniferous dieback especially in the elevation range from 0 to 800 m

a.s.l.;

Activation of the erosion processes in the affected areas;

73


Increase of forest fire risk, which can lead to increased risk for settlements and civil

population; There is a vice versa effect between forest fires and bark beetle infestation;

Economical losses due to lower quality of the wood and decrease of the wood increment.

3) Measures

Recommended forestry practices for combating bark beetle infestation:

In order to limit the bark beetle distribution in the forest stand the following preventive

and fighting measures are recognized:

use of trap trees and pheromone traps to monitor the bark beetle development;

use of trap trees to fight with bark beetle;

removing the fresh top parts of the stems and branches thicker than 4-5 cm;

implement forest thinnings regularly

implementation of sanitary fellings.

bark peeling of attacked fallen trees, especially into inaccessible areas;

avoidance of mechanical damages on standing trees after the fellings;

cleaning the clearance and maintenance of the stands after fellings;

speeding up the process of transformation of coniferous plantation into indigenous

broadleaved forests.

The preventive measures for combating with bark beetle are limited, expensive and with

doubtful result, because of the biological characteristics of the species. The broadly used

sanitary fellings should be implemented during winter months, when pest are

biologically not active and are in the already dried attacked stems.

The leading principle during the transformation fellings is the individual approach

according to stand condition. Creating small gaps (one to one and a half lengths in a

diameter) on the spots with natural regeneration for toleration of the development of the

indigenous species. Leaving of health and vital pine trees will lead to improvement of the

heterogeneity of the forest structure.

The most important issue during the combating and prevention processes is stakeholder

communication and involvement. People should trained to recognize bark beetle

infestations and to report to the responsible institutions.

74




Bark beetle infestation /July 2017/ and sanitary fellings /October, 2017; © EFA

5.11. Invasive Plant Species

1) Legislation

Regulation (EU) No 1143/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October

2014 on the prevention and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien

species

In order to prevent a further spread of invasive plant species in the EU, the Regulation No.

1143/2014 entered into force on January 1 2015. It is a legal framework for the management of

invasive animal and plant species, binding all Member States to take management measures

(prevention, early detection and response, control) for the species listed.

Further relevant legislation according to invasive plant species on international level:

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)

Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of

natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora)Water Framework Directive

Berne, Bonn and Ramsar Conventions

Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural

Habitats)

Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals)

Ramsar Convention (Convention on Wetlands)

75


2) Relevant species, origin, spread, effects, hot spots


The plant species originating from the Himalayas was imported to Europe because of its beauty

and high attractiveness for bees. It directly spreads through seeds (up to 2500 seeds per plant),

which can also be transported by rivers and small shoot pieces. The Himalayan balsam is often

distributed through contaminated excavation material and garden waste.

Due to its low root mass the invasive plant species promotes soil erosion along the riparian zone

of small watercourses.

Hot spots of Impatiens glandulifera can be found along waterways as well as in wetland areas.

Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigantea

Originally coming from America the goldenrod today is one of the most frequent neophytes.

Each plant can reproduces itself through clones and form up to 15,000 seeds, which are

distributed by the wind.

Solidago canadensis prefers dryer conditions, Solidago gigantea colonizes more humid locations.

Once one of the two species has established at a site, it distributes very quickly and can form a

mono vegetation. Hotspots of the goldenrods are often found on ruderal surfaces, especially

along railway corridors, as well as in semi-natural vegetation.

Fallopia japonica

The Japanese knotweed originates from East Asia and was introduced as an ornamental and

fodder plant (for red deer) to Europe. It spreads though rhizome-parts, whereof even the

smallest pieces are germinable. Once exposed it can be hardly tamed and removal often is very

time- and cost-intensive.

The roots, growing 3-4 meters into the depth, can penetrate into buildings and cause large

damages. The fast-growing, perennial shrubs are extremely invasive and form mass populations,

displacing the autochthonous, site-adapted, embankment-stabilizing vegetation. The danger of

erosion along watercourses increases due to the death of the above-ground plant parts in

autumn.

Hotspots are soils with good water supply and dry ruderal sites, e.g. riparian sites, water banks,

road- and railway embankments, ruderal sites, landfills and seam communities.

3) Measures

A combination of direct management measures as well as indirect measures (communication,

awareness raising and training) has proven to be effective.

76


Direct measures are for instance:


For control measures pulling out and mowing have proved best. In order to prevent balsam

seeds from surviving in the soil, it is essential that the plants are mowed before the ripeness of

fruits. The removal of Impatiens glandulifera also reduces the likelihood of greater nutrient

inputs into aquatic environments, which may affect the water quality.

Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigantea

It is very difficult to control an existing stand because of the high regenerative capacity of the

species. Chances of success are only given if the measures are carried out over several years.

When combating goldenrod, seed formation or seed dispersal must be prevented on the one

hand, and on the other the rhizomes of existing plants must be weakened to such an extent that

the population can be reduced. This can be achieved by mowing, whereby the cut must be as

short as possible. A single cut before flowering can prevent the seed from distribution, but

hardly weakens the plant, so it must be mown more often.

Fallopia japonica

Mowing is successful if it is carried out over years at short intervals, so that the plants have no

possibility of forming leaves for assimilation. In this case the perennial knotweed weakens and

dies. The digging out is only conditionally promising, because if rhizome parts remain in the soil,

the plant sprouts again from it. Special c must be taken to not carry plant material or soil with

rhizome fragments during maintenance and construction work.

The planting of willows or alders, for example, on affected river banks promises a certain degree

of success, but in order to remain competitive, these must be cut free again and again in the first

few years. Under these circumstances, it is possible that the knotgrass will be pushed back. In

order to prevent further colonisation of the knotweed, very competitive site-adapted plants such

as reed-grass (Phalaris arundinacea), butterbur (Petasites hybridus) and black alder (Alnus

glutinosa) should be planted in areas not yet infested.

For all direct measures the proper disposal of the resulting plant material is important. In order

to avoid further spreading, the material must often be heat-treated (prevention of germination).

Education (and involvement) of the public

Awareness raising and training

77


For the implementation of guidelines and protection of Natura 2000 sites, embankments,

contaminated areas, etc. different stakeholders must be integrated in the processes of

protection, removal, disposal and monitoring of invasive species.

Subsidies can provide incentives, but should not be decisive for neophyte management.


Following target groups and practitioners are relevant within the context of invasive plant

species management:

Federal authorities: municipalities, district offices, province government, federal ministries

Nature protection associations and NGOs (e.g. Styrian League for Nature Protection,

Mountain and Nature Rescue Service)

Site owners: Farmers, foresters

Citizens: Volunteers, population, gardeners, pupils and students

Experts: managers of protected areas, biologists

Relevant institutions: Austrian Torrent and Avalanche Control Service, water management

bodies

6) Monitoring

Long-term monitoring is necessary in order to prevent resettlement or regeneration.

Furthermore it also helps to determine effective control methods.

Especially at the beginning of control measures a regular check of the sites is recommended.

Elimination measures must be repeated where necessary.

Monitoring of invasive plant species can also contribute to early detection, before unwanted

species have arrived in an area (very cost-effective).

5.12. Beaver management

1) Legislation

The beaver is protected under the Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation of

European Wildlife and Natural Habitats) and under EU law through the Habitats Directive

(Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992 on the conservation of natural habitats and of

wild fauna and flora). The species is listed in Annex II and IV of the Habitats Directive. EU

member states are thus obliged to guarantee the favourable conservation status of the beaver.

78


In Austria, nature conservation is regulated at provincial level. For the province of Styria the

protection of the beaver is included into the Styrian Nature Conservation Law. The beaver is

listed in the species protection regulation. According to the Styrian Hunting Law §2, the beaver

is considered “wild” and thus conserved all year long.


The Eurasian beaver almost got extinct in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth century.

However, the species is now being re-introduced throughout Europe.

The beavers’ habits of building dams and canals and the consequences of those, like for example

flooding or fallen trees can lead to conflicts with agriculture, forestry, water management,

landowners and other interest groups. These conflicts mostly arise in those areas of the cultural

landscape where anthropogenic uses extend to the edge of waterbodies, where beavers live.

However beavers usually limit their activities to a relatively narrow strip along the waters.

Normally about 90 % of conflicts occur in a 10 m wide strip along the water body and 95 %

within a 20 m wide strip.

3) Measures

There is a wide range of solutions for the prevention of damage. For example protection of

individual trees, electric fences, designation of buffer strips along a watercourse or

extensification of areas. The most important thing, however, is to create a basic understanding of

the beaver's way of life, who cannot adhere to our human borders. That is why wise beaver

management focuses primarily on precautionary measures to prevent damage.

Awareness raising for conflict reduction

It is better to prevent conflicts than to find solutions for them. To implement effective conflict-

strategies, communication is very important. All potentially affected parties should be involved

in preventive measures (e.g. property owners, residents close to the water, politicians,

authorities and different federations). Awareness building and public education is necessary to

learn again the co-existence of beaver and humans.

When developing a beaver management plan, joint solutions need to be developed, that aim at

the best possible conflict reduction for the affected parties, but also cause a minor interference

to the beaver population.

79


Measures to reduce beaver damage

In general, a puffer strip of at least 10 m should be kept to waterbodies where beavers occur

(extensification of intensive land use at the puffer strip). This can, for example, prevent

agricultural vehicles from breaking into a "beaver tube" or a "beaver den".

Individual shrubs can be protected by coating them with a suitable game browsing repellent

or by covering them with wire. The height of the coating should be at least one metre;

galvanised material with a thickness of at least 1 mm should be used.

In autumn, when thinnings are carried out, the branch material from the crown area of

deciduous trees should be stored near the shore in order to reduce the felling activities of

the beaver.

For the protection of crops from feeding damage, it is recommended to install a mobile

electric fence between the field and the water.

Inlets and outlets of fish ponds should be provided with a grid to prevent clogging.

For intervention into beaver dams (e.g. installation of drainages, removal of dams), an

exceptional nature conservation permission (application to the nature conservation

authority) is necessary.

In the event of an imminent danger (e.g. expected flood damage in populated areas due to a

beaver dam), immediate measures can be taken – after expert assessment by the beaver

manager and notification of the nature conservation authority.

Under consideration of EU and national law beavers also might be dislodged if other

solutions are impossible or too expensive. Legal requirements in the participating countries

are normally based on derogative option in the FFH directive. Beavers are caught by traps

that are placed ashore on beaver passages or via using a net. The further treatment is in

most cases subject to the decision of local authorities.


Beaver managers, farmers, water agencies, municipalities, relevant representatives from the

province governments, civil protection agencies, NGOs, experts, chambers of agriculture,

landscape planners

5) Monitoring

It is recommended to establish a beaver observation network in order to improve knowledge

about the current distribution of beavers, to document the area of expansion and to inspect

80


already known areas. At the current range of distribution in the Danube river basin, it seems to

be the best method to observe two different areas:

I. areas where the beaver is in the initial stage of extension

II. areas where beavers already stabilized in different stages

In general, the following methods are used to monitor and map beaver activity:

Visual observation

Video surveillance

Direct observation (observation of activity mainly on the water surface)

Telemetry

Cadaver records of incidental findings of dead

Questionnaire survey (sending of questionnaires at certain intervals to organizations

operating within the territory with the potential beaver occurrence; e.g. stakeholders of

hunting areas, conservation departments).

Terrain mapping of areas – signs of presence (5 categories: Feeding activities – gnaw marks,

droppings, feeding stools, teeth imprints, stocks; Territorial activities - scent marks, Motion

activities – paths, tail or paws prints, slides; Sheltering activities - Resting haunts, burrows,

lodges, semi-lodges; Construction activities – dams, weirs, canals, water reservoirs, water

ponds; Droppings/Faeces)

Standard conditions must be met and data cannot be collected in different seasons. Moreover,

the knowledge of biology and ecology, as well as the experience of observers is crucial for beaver

monitoring.

5.13. Awareness raising

Timely engagement of all relevant target groups and stakeholders is of immense significance for

successful development and implementation of every project. Therefore their involvement in

CAMARO-D project, especially Activities 2.1. Preparation of pilot action cluster and 2.2.

Implementation and survey of pilot action clusters, is essential for the following reasons:

to raise awareness on the watershed problems;

to provide stakeholders with relevant knowledge and skills;

to outline the methods and approaches used within the Clusters for communication and

stakeholders involvement;

to provide stakeholders with the tools to control and management of the risks;

to promote and implement measures;

81


to distribute “lessons learnt” among other relevant actors or general public.

1) Problems / hot spots

In case of not involving stakeholders, an opportunity for gaining better insight in issues

pilot action areas are dealing with, is missed.

Without stakeholder involvement (their feedback, needs and requirements) project’s

success is put to risk. Also it can result in potentially serious long-term negative impacts

on environmental and social outcomes.

In some cases stakeholders might not act in project’s best interest if project does not offer

anything they can benefit from. A specific way of approaching antagonistic stakeholders

should be planned in advance in order to prevent potential conflicts.

Stakeholder engagement is a complex process which should be planned and design in

early stages of projects development. Such early stakeholders’ participation can facilitate

better interaction that can continue throughout project’s implementation and operational

phases.

2) Measures

knowledge transfer;

stakeholder workshops;

field trips;

trainings;

online consultations;

mobile groups on the spot;

distribution of information – website, media, newsletters etc.


The manual is directed mainly at local authorities and practitioners in the watershed area and

especially within the pilot action sites.

4) Monitoring

CAMARO-D project will encompass evaluation of the pilot activities with a strong focus on the

feedback and learning process of the stakeholders after the training-sessions for stakeholders

in the pilot areas.

*See also relevant Annexes –Transnational Cluster manuals- according to Chapter 0:

82


ANNEXES:

Tailored forest management in torrential watershed

Practical Guide to Spatial Planning in Catchments and River Stretches

Beaver management

Hydrotechnical measures mitigating flood risks & establishing of flood

forecasting maps in torrential watersheds and along rivers

Control of invasive plant species

Awareness raising

6. CONCLUSION

The strength of the implementation of BPMs in the selected pilot areas is the possibility to

evaluate the results and to select the most appropriate practices on transnational level. The

diversity of the areas, the diversity of planned interventions and the diversity of the problems

and their solutions are good basis for transnational cooperation in the field of water resources

protection and flood prevention within torrent catchments. Different problems occur in similar

watersheds or similar problems occur within different watersheds. Important benefit is the

exchange of know-how, experience and best practices among all involved practitioners and

specialists. Sharing the problems and solutions and the summary of the results with other

partners is a valuable basis for future cooperation on transnational scale.

http://www.interreg-danube.eu/media/download/29127






ANNEX for D T 2.2.2

Transnational Cluster Manual for

Practitioners

Cluster 2: Land use and vegetation cover along torrents, small

rivers and their catchments – erosion, floods, surface runoff, invasive

plant species, water pollution


2


The following transnational best practice manuals (BPMs) for cluster 02 can be found in

this annex:

CLUSTER 1

Groundwater resources

CLUSTER 2

Torrents and small rivers

CLUSTER 3

Rivers and accumulation lakes

(1) Groundwater protection

through targeted silviculture (4) Tailored forest

management in torrential

watersheds

(5) Adapted agriculture for

optimal surface water and soil

protection under climate change

(2) Best practice restrictions

for drinking water quality in

agricultural land

(6) Conversion from arable land

to grassland mitigating

soil erosion

(7) Practical Guide to Spatial Planning in

Catchments and River Stretches

(3) Mountain grassland

management towards

groundwater protection

(8) Beaver management

(9) Hydrotechnical measures mitigating flood risks &

establishing of flood forecasting maps in torrential watersheds

and along rivers

(10) Control of invasive plant species

(11) Awareness raising


Best practice manual (BPM):

Tailored forest management in

torrential watersheds

Cluster 2


2


Contributors, name and surname Institution

Albena Bobeva Executive Forest Agency, Bulgaria

Elena Rafailova Executive Forest Agency, Bulgaria

Petrisor Vica Romsilva, Romania

Vladimir Konstantinov Executive Forest Agency, Bulgaria

Robert Pache National Forest Administration -

ROMSILVA, Romania

Cătălin Munteanu National Forest Administration -

ROMSILVA, Romania

Cristinel Constandache Forest Research and Management Institute

Vrancea, Romania

Casen Panaitescu Petroleum-gas university of Ploiesti

Aurel Bilanici Plobil Consulting, Romania

Sevastel Mircea University of Agricultural Sciences and

Veterinary Medicine, Bucharest, Romania

Renate Mayer Agricultural Research and Education

Centre Raumberg-Gumpenstein, Austria

Claudia Plank Agricultural Research and Education


Boyan-Nikola Zafirov Trainee at Executive Forest Agency,

Bulgaria and graduate student of Van Hall

Larenstein Univeristy of Applied Sciences,

Netherlands

3


Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 4

2. PROBLEMS AND VULNERABILITY IDENTIFIED ON TRANSNATIONAL LEVEL ...... 4

3. TAILORED FOREST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN TORRENTIAL WATERSHEDS

......................................................................................................................................................... 6

3.1. Forest regeneration and reforestation ................................................................................................. 6

3.1.1. Best Management Practice “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria ................................................................ 6

3.1.2. Best Management Practice „Styrian Enns Valley“, Austria ............................................................... 7

3.1.3. Best Management Practice “Putna Vrancea”, Romania ................................................................. 10

3.2. Erosion control .................................................................................................................................. 15

3.2.1. Best management practice: Erosion modelling in watershed “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria .......... 15

3.2.2. Best management practice, Romania ............................................................................................. 21

3.2.3. Short comparison of the forest road network in Bulgaria, Romania and Austria ........................... 30

3.3. Forest fire management .................................................................................................................... 41

3.3.1. Best Management Practice “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria .............................................................. 42

3.4. Combating bark beetle infestations ................................................................................................... 44

3.4.1. Best Management Practice “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria .............................................................. 45

3.4.2. Best Management Practice „Styrian Enns Valley”, Austria ............................................................. 47

4. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 52

5. REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................ 53

4


1. Introduction

Based on the reports on pilot actions carried out in pilot areas and focusing on lessons learned

and visions for the land use management in the catchments, this transnational manual for

practitioners in the field of forestry covers the identified transnational cluster specific

characteristics. The main aim is to provide a wide scope of learning possibilities in the field of

forestry for water protection and flood prevention within the Danube river basin. According to

the main problems and risks identified in the catchments on transnational level, it will be useful

within the practical work of foresters dealing with the problems in torrential watersheds. It will

also serve to transfer state of the art know-how to the relevant stakeholders.

2. Problems and vulnerability identified on transnational level

Based on the cluster specific pilot actions results in the relevant pilot areas, the following main

problems were identified (table 1). Some of the problems are common and currently exist in

most of the pilot areas. Other problems are potential and their appearance in the future is quite

possible due to the expected climate change impact on forest ecosystems.

All types of land use (forests, pastures, arable lands, grasslands, wetland areas, settlements,

traffic infrastructures) influence quantity and quality of surface runoff in every partner pilot

area. Climate change and land use changes (erosion, land degradation, soil compaction, forest

fires, etc.) decline water retention capacity and increase flood and drought risk. Some countries

recorded a decrease in water availability, which previously have not been observed. The

extreme events will become more frequent and in case of durable and intensive rain new floods

could be expected. The main problems are the flash floods and river risings which endanger

settlements in the Danube region.

Biodiversity loss is also a problem, together with loss of forest ecosystem stability and erosion

processes. On the steepest slopes of the catchments, surface runoff may occur, which is a

prerequisite for erosion processes.

5


All countries have long term experience in erosion control, but in some vulnerable areas the

problem still exists. In some cases the erosion activities could be dangerous for the nearby

settlements and for the population.

The role of forests for ensuring and improvement of drinking water supply is recognized by all

partners. In all drinking water protected areas, water protective forests are declared and are

under special management regime.

In all catchments, forest territories are vulnerable to bark beetle infestation.

Only in Bulgaria the forest fires are identified as additional risk.

The best solutions that have been identified during the implementation of the pilot activities

could be used for necessary adaptations of management concepts for securing a sustainable

protection of water resources or contributing to integral flood prevention.

Table 1: Vulnerability in pilot areas, Cluster 2 partner countries

Vegetation cover /

Land use

Vulnerability/ undesirable developments

Partner

AT BG SLO RO

Forest

Loss of biodiversity √ √ √ √

Loss of forest ecosystem stability √ √ √

Erosion processes √ √ √ √

Surface runoff √ √ √ √

Unstable forests √ √ √ √

Bark beetle infestations √ √ √

Forest stands prone to wind-throw

√ √

Snow pressure √ √ √

Soil degradation √ √ √

Using of asphalt gravel at forest roads

√ √

Forest fire √

Sleet √

6


3. Tailored forest management practices in torrential watersheds

All countries, in which forest territories are presented, propose interventions, incorporating

activities of integrated forest and water management. Transnational cooperation in this

direction is an opportunity for improvement of some strategic and planning documents in forest

and water sectors and possibility for implementation of integrated management into practice.

As a result of pilot actions the following forest management practices in torrential watersheds

were identified as most relevant and applicable on transnational level:

Reforestation and forest regeneration

Erosion control

Forest fire management

Combating bark beetle infestations

3.1. Forest regeneration and reforestation

Regeneration dynamics are of crucial importance for forest succession. The establishment of

vital and stable regeneration of all tree species within forest ecosystems is important for their

sustainability and for their adaptation under climate change conditions. The continuous cover

forest system (CCF), can only be achieved via vital and continuous regeneration dynamics.

Regeneration techniques as the group selection system, the single-tree selection system or the

small-gap cut system follow the principle of natural regeneration of desired tree species. The

regeneration processes need to be managed and directed to ensure the forest adaptation and

sustainability in the future. The natural transformation and succession processes have to be

observed and maintained according to the long-term forest management goals.

3.1.1. Best Management Practice “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria


to control the erosion and torrential activities in the country reached their utmost growth limit.

The dieback and bad condition of plantations leads to deforestation of certain areas and risk of

erosion and torrents.

7


Pictures: Transformation of coniferous plantations in watershed “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria

The pilot area in Bulgaria is situated in Nature Park and there are in force some management

regime according to the environmental legislation. The natural transformation is only observed

and when needed only sanitary feelings are implemented.

Climate change and drought in recent years have had a significant impact on the condition of

artificially created forests. Drying of coniferous plantations with an average age of 40-50 years,

created in areas with altitudes of up to 700-800 meters, has become a major problem in the

country. In order to ensure the role of forest in erosion and torrent control on steepest slopes,

the encouragement of natural regeneration of the native species in their natural areal is

proposed.

The applied silvicultural regeneration techniques have to be carried out on small-scale areas and

to support forest stand stability during the mostly natural regeneration phase. This is an

essential contrast to the clear-cut technique, which is still main silvicultural system in most of

the EU countries. The adequate techniques are e.g. group selection cuts, single tree cuts or small-

scale gap cuts. There has to be given the balance between light provision for the regeneration of

the forest trees and the stability of the remaining forest stand. In case of protected areas when

needed only sanitary fellings to be implemented.

3.1.2. Best Management Practice „Styrian Enns Valley“, Austria

The pilot area for tailored forst management in torrent chatchments is situated in the

municipality Irdning-Donnerbachtal and part of the Styrian Enns valley in Austria. Climate

change has an impact in the anuality of hazard events and forest conditons. The protective

8


function of forsts will be reduced. The maximum annual flood flows have increased in the last 30

years in 20 % of the catchment areas but are still within the natural variability. However, there

is more winter precipitation and less summer precipitation. The shift takes place towards early

spring floods and more winter floods (especially in northern Austria) and more summer low

water (especially in southern Austria). Heavy precipitation causes a high damage potential in

settlement areas.

Picture: Kleinsölk, 2010 (Mayerl, M.).

In Austria, increased game densities pose a major threat to the stability of forest ecosystems,

also in the Styrian Enns Valley. This becomes even more important under the conditions of

climate change, since the natural diversity of tree species in forest ecosystems is a basic

prerequisite for their stability and resilience. According to the Forest Inventory (ÖWI) game

damage has on average a high level. Major problems are the segretation caused by selective

browsing, the loss of stablishing species and the increasing regeneration deficit in protected

forests. According to the game impact monitoring, almost 2/3 of the Austrian districts have a

high level of game impact (severe game impact on >50% of the area), in ¼ of the districts the

level of game impact is very high (e.g. Liezen with 75% of the area). The trend is rising and in

1/3 of the district the results deteriorated significantly.

Reforestation

In torrent catchment areas in which forests have been damaged or destroyed (e.g. clear cutting,

windthrow, game browsing, bark beetles), especially on steep slopes above settlement areas

with risk of landslides or on the banks of torrents, reforestation projects (so-called “land

management projects”) are carried out.

9


The objective is to resecure the protective function against floods, avalanches, mudslides and

erosion as well as the ecosystem services. This is realised in combination with technical

measures.

In order to be able to implement land management projects, regarding the technical guidelines, a

habitat-adapted wildlife management must be implemented, so that the financing cover by

federal, state and local authorities is guaranteed in the public interest.

Torrent ascents

According to the Austrian Forest Act 1975, § 101, the municipality is obliged to carry out a

torrent inspection in the municipal area at least once a year. The streambed as well as the closer

shore areas are checked for changes or impairments (e.g. wood deposits, fallen trees). In view of

the increasing amount of precipitation and the enormous amount of runoff, this is an important

precaution for the protection and safety of our population and settlements.

In the municipality of Irdning-Donnersbachtal, situated in the pilot area, a team of experts from

the company "umwelterkundung.at" inspects the torrents. From May to July all torrents are

checked for irregularities. The grievances found are documented and immediately

communicated to the property owners. They are requested to remove all objects that could

obstruct the watercourse as soon as possible.

In the interests of hazard prevention, all forest and property owners are informed to remove

existing sediments before they are inspected and not to carry out any more sediments in future.

10


Pictures: Donnersbachwald, 2018 (Mayer, R.).

3.1.3. Best Management Practice “Putna Vrancea”, Romania

In the pilot area Putna-Vrancea, afforestation of degraded land began in 1937 and intensified

after 1950. Earlier actions to improve afforestation of degraded land are considered examples of

good practice for the future. The success of afforestation of degraded land depends to a large

extent on the techniques of setting up / consolidating the land for afforestation, species and

11


mixing schemes, subsequent care works, etc. in relation to the physic-geographic conditions and

environmental specificity of the land concerned.

The environmental conditions of the degraded lands require the execution of specific works for

consolidation and preparation of the lands for planting and the use of specific methods of

afforestation. The works of consolidation of eroded lands, ravine slopes and slopes adjacent to

the torrential watershed and landslides (slopes) that have been performed (Traci, Untaru, 1986,

Constandache, Nistor, 2008):

Terraces 50-60 cm in wide, suported by root-suckers and sea buckthorn branches (photo

3.1.3.1), hurdles of oak poles and willow twigs or walls, placed at 2-3 m from to beam, on

excessive eroded lands, slope of 30-40 degree inclination;

Vegetal corridors from root-suckers with sea buckthorn and alder seedlings planted on

narrow terraces (30-40 cm wide), on excessively eroded lands and gully sidewalls, at land

slope of 40-55 degrees

Afforestation techniques

The afforestation on degraded lands has been performed by planting seedlings obtained in

nurseries (pine species) or with ingrained suckers from natural regenerations (sallow thorn and

other broadleaved species). The seedlings or sucker plantation have been performed by

different methods, depending on the lands degradation (Traci and Untaru, 1986):

Afforestation in normal pits of 30 x 30 x 30 cm, with 5000-6700 seedlings/ha, at a scheme of

2,0/1,0 m to 3,0/0,5 m (between terraces, in combination with main species, on very

strongly eroded fields), or, at a scheme of 1,5/1,0 m (in pure cultures, on different categories

of fields);

In cordon plantation, 10,000.00-20,000.00 seedlings/ha, at a 1.5-3.0/0.33 m scheme (on

narrow terraces of 30-40 cm, in back slopes, on strongly eroded fields and gap

embankments, at field inclinations of 40-55 degrees);

Rift plantation, 6,700.00-10,000.00 seedlings/ha, 1.5-1.0/1.0 scheme, on ravines,

embankment or landslides etc.

On advanced degraded lands that have a strongly fragmented soil, on gaps and even on gravels,

the sea-buckthorn had a very good development, forming impenetrable backwoods in a short

period of time (3-4 years).

A great deal of efficiency has been the pine plantation mixed with white sea buckthorn or those

made by the substitution of sea buckthorn bushes.

12


Without taking into consideration the fact that it was used as afforestation material, the sea

buckthorn it was successfully used in the stabilization/consolidation of advanced degraded

lands. The sea buckthorn stems were used as “vegetal reinforcement” for the consolidation of

terraces realized on steep slopes and active erosion fields; for the consolidation/stabilization of

gap fields with transversal (thresholds) works realized from local materials (soil or rock) and

vegetative radier (from sea buckthorn branches); for the protection and consolidation of gap

shores or longitudinal torrents (Constandache et all, 2010). In all those situations, the sea

buckthorn stems and branches were integrated in the vegetation in a percentage of over 40-50%

(Traci, 1988) resulting in real “anti-erosion barriers”. Designed and experimented in the field in

the period 1977-1982 (patent act number 109910/1996; 109958/1996), these types of

consolidation works of slopes with extreme site conditions realized by merging the vegetation

with local materials (Photo 3.1.3.2), had as an effect the growth of the afforestation work’s

technical and economical efficiency. The installation of forest vegetation on vegetal armed

terraces has led to a decrease of expenses with approximately 60%, in comparison with the

plantation on terraces sustained by little fences, while the time was reduced with at least 2 years

(Traci and Untaru, 1986). Intensive research has demonstrated that pure H. rhamnoides

shrublands have important effects on mitigating soil erosion and improving soil conditions.

After a period of 10-15 years of installation, both artificial and natural ways, the sea buckthorn

managed to stop the erosion which allowed for the accumulation of a 5-10 cm litter that

improved the soil through decay.

The realized investigations have emphasized the fact that the black pine or Scots pine and sea

buckthorn mixtures lead, in similar environmental conditions, to pine growth increments with

20-30% higher than pure pine cultures (Constandache and Nistor, 2008). The explanation rests

in the soil’s nitrogen enrichment resulted from the actinomiceta symbiosis and also from the

soil’s humidity sustentation. During spring time this fact is caused by the high retention of snow

in sea buckthorn shrubbery, while during the vegetation season by the water retention from

precipitations as well as from a better infiltration leading to a decrease of leakages and erosion.

H. rhamnoides and P. nigra or P. sylvestris can have a synergistic effect on improving soil nitrogen

availability. It is assumed that these plants could absorb nitrogen nutrition which promotes

plant growth and increase plant productivity amount, and plant litter quality (Lin et al., 2012).

The decomposition of plant litter is an important source of soil organic input. Therefore, the

13


mixed plantations of H. rhamnoides and P. nigra or P. sylvestris may increase soil carbon

sequestration, and thus, affect soil carbon storage. Thus, interest in mixed H. rhamnoides

plantations has been increasing.

Another situation regarding the sea buckthorn’s efficiency was emphasized for the field’s

consolidation, namely: terraces sustained by rock benches and terraces sustained by rock

benches on sea buckthorn sucker and branches (placing sea buckthorn stems, branches and

sucker downstream which have entered in vegetation and ensured a better field efficiency

(Untaru et al., 1982) as they have a greater durability in time (they can be seen even after 35

years). The recent investigations (PN 09460313/2015 project) have also emphasized the high

development of forest cultures realized by substituting sea buckthorn, namely: realizing some

mixture stands (pine and broad-leaved mixtures, most of them installed through natural

regeneration in uncut sea buckthorn inter-corridors). They are more stable, have a high

structural and biological diversity, are of medium towards high productivity (Photo 3.1.3.4),

which prove that the sea buckthorn has improved the vegetation conditions in a relative short

time by accumulating organic substances in soil and through its aeration.

14


Picture: Consolidation of advanced degraded lands with sea buckthorn branches in Caciu-Bârseşti perimeter – Putna basin (Photo Untaru, 1980)

Picture: Forest plantation (pine on versant and alder on ravine), in Caciu-Bârseşti perimeter–Putna basin (Photo Constandache, 2015)

Picture: Black pine and Scots pine on terraces supported by rock and sea buckthorn–Caciu–Bârseşti perimeter (Photo Constandache, 2015)

Picture: Pine and broad-leaved mixture stands in sea buckthorn substitution, Scaune-Valea Sării perimeter (Photo Constandache C., 2015)

a

b

Pictures: General view over the improvement perimeter degraded lands Valea Sării in Putna basin, before (a) and after 60 years (b) from afforestation operations (photo Costin, 1954 and Constandache, 2012)

15


3.2. Erosion control

In forest conditions, surface runoff and soil erosion are generally low because of the surface

litter cover. Soil erosion in forests generally follows a disturbance such as road construction, a

logging operation, or fire. Ground cover by forest litter, duff, and organic material is the most

important component of the forest environment for protecting the mineral soil from erosion.

Ground cover amounts can be reduced by the logging operation (harvesting and site

preparation) and burning by either wildfire or prescribed fire. For example, skidder traffic on

skid trails can reduce ground cover from 100 to 10–65%. Burning can reduce ground cover

from 100 to 10–90% depending on the fire severity.

3.2.1. Best management practice: Erosion modelling in watershed

“Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria

Modelling of annual soil loss in the catchment area of Ochindolska River can serve as basis for

the development of risk governance practices and land use management. The methodology is

based on satellite remote sensing and GIS information. The satellite data consist of 17 images

from the Dove satellites and has been provided free of charge by Planet Labs as part of the

“Education and Research” program and the results from this study are meant for research

purposes only. The images have 3 meter spatial resolution and consist of 4 spectral bands

covering the visible and infrared spectrum. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) used for erosion

modelling and is provided by the Bulgarian Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forests and has a

spatial resolution of 8 meters. GIS data of forest territories is provided by EFA. The mapping of

erosion processes has been done through the implementation of the USLE which is

comprehensive mathematical model for erosion caused by precipitation. The model is

specifically designed for agricultural lands but during the past decades it has been successfully

applied in non-agricultural areas. The computations have been performed in GIS environment.

USLE stands for universal soil loss equation, which is based on six major factors combined with

the following formula:

A= R*LS*K*C*P, where A is the estimated soil loss in tons per hectare per year, R is the erosivity

factor based on precipitation data, LS accounts for slope length and steepness, K factor is related

16


to soil erodibility based on soil type, C factor describes the land use types and P factor relates to

conservation practices at place that reduce the rate of soil loss.

Figure: Soil loss map – watershed “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria

The final results illustrate the extent and severity of soil loss within the forest territories of the

catchment area “Ochindolska reka”. The mean annual soil loss is estimated to be 28 tons per

hectare with a total annual soil loss of 25 508 tons for the whole watershed. Highest rates are

located along the streams that transport rainfall run off. Moderate to high rates of soil loss are

present at the lower slopes, while lower soil loss quantities are located at higher grounds. This is

due to the fact that the LS factor has the greatest influence and sediment transport is highest

along water streams and on steeper slopes. The modelling of erosion within the watershed of

Ochindolska River reveals that the presence of vegetation cover significantly reduces the effects

of soil loss from precipitation. This would mean that in time of climate change, dense canopies

17


can play a significant role in reduction of erosion processes during intensive precipitation events

and prolonged droughts. The use of remote sensing data can identify hotspots and track

hazardous processes, which would require timely interventions to reduce land degradation and

respectively improve the quality of water resources and reduce environmental risks.

The above-mentioned practice is very quick, non-expensive and innovative approach to explore

the soil loss in torrential areas, to evaluate the vegetation cover and as a result to control the

erosion processes in the risky areas within the catchment.

Modelling of vegetation processes. Time Series of Vegetation

The assessment uses empirical methods to investigate annual differences in plant processes

through estimation of 10 day maximum value composites (MVC) of NDVI (Normalized Difference

Vegetation Index) values for each month. The assessment includes the period between February

and November 2017.

The NDVI index is well known to provide indirect estimation of chlorophyll content, which is an

indicator for plant health status. The NDVI was applied to the red and near-infrared (NIR) bands

of the atmospherically corrected images with the following formula: (NIR – Red/ NIR + Red). The

ratio describes the difference between the red part of the spectrum and the near-infrared part

through the difference between absorption, which is needed for photosynthesis and reflected

solar radiation in the infrared region. The difference between these bands will reflect on plants

activity based on the time of the year, the health status and vegetation density of the earth

surface. The resulting images for the nine months were used for the construction of monthly

time series. The time series were used to illustrate the differences between coniferous and

deciduous tree species and to compute visual representation of fluctuations over the entire

watershed.

NDVI Time Series

The NDVI method uses ranges between -1 and 1. Lower values in brown would indicate lack of

vegetation cover or disturbances and anomalies while higher values indicate vegetation

greenness. Respectively, these values fluctuate during the year based on active and passive

period of plant species.

18


Figure: NDVI time series – watershed “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria

An important observation is the start of the active vegetation period, which is characterized by

faster development of species situated at the lower part of the watershed. The peak of vegetation

processes during the year, which is according to the results is between the end of June and the

first part of July. These images illustrate the presence of scattered coniferous tree species as they

keep moderate to relatively high NDVI values throughout the year and they can be easily

separated from deciduous species.

19


The NDVI time series comparison consist of 10 samples of each species taken at different

elevation, slope exposition, however accounting for shadowing effects on topography based on

solar azimuth and sun zenith angle during the moment of image acquisition. Through this

illustration it can be observed that Conifers have smaller annual amplitude in NDVI values in

comparison to deciduous species. Needle-leaf tree species hold NDVI values between 0,2 and 0,3

during colder months, while the result shows that deciduous trees are expectedly inactive

during this period. Broadleaf species have higher optimal values during the summer peak, which

is the other main point for comparison between the two species. These results show relatively

accurate estimation of chlorophyll content but require ground truth data for validation

purposes. However, such method can reveal any anomalies and trends in NDVI values and

respectively indicate if there is specific problem, which can be addressed on the territory of the

watershed.

Detection of Negative Trends and Anomalies

Another use of the NDVI time series is to detect anomalies and negative trends in plant

phenology. This has been done through visual assessment of satellite images to identify drying

coniferous trees. The above illustration shows the difference between the values of healthy and

20


drying conifers. The cause of this lower values is most propably drying of trees due to bark

beetle infestation. The two samples show more or less similar results until the peak of the active

season when drying occurs. The resulting difference in November is over 0,2 on NDVI

measurement scale.

Differences of NDVI between Dense canopies and Sparse Vegetation

Vegetation density has an important influence on NDVI values. For this comparison two samples

have been taken from dense coppice stands and sparsely vegetated area above the village of

Eliseina. The difference is significant ranging from 0,2 to 0,4 indicating the lack of vegetation as

the possible causes are rough, rocky and eroded terrain.

Using remote sensing methods and satellite images for assessment of vegetation and erosion in

torrential watersheds is cheap and correct and could be quickly used in large territories under

21


risk of natural disaster. It could easily direct the practitioners and stakeholders attention if a

specific problem in the forest occur.

3.2.2. Best management practice, Romania

In Romania, the deforestations (clear-cuts) carried out at the beginning of the 20th century for

the extension of the pastures, led to a severe degradation of the land in the slope, such as the

Putna river basin (over 25,000.00 ha). On such land the erosion exceeded 50 cm / year / ha

(sometimes even 300 cm / year / ha).

The current classification system for forests (forests with special protection functions

representing more than 53.30 % of Romania's forests, of which ¾ are for the protection of lands,

soils and waters) was imposed following the acknowledgment of the protective role of the forest

not only of biodiversity conservation but, above all, of water regulation and soil erosion control,

with no clear-cuts allowed.

In the productive forests the clear-cuts are allowed only for certain species (Norway spruce,

poplar, willow, locust) on small surfaces up to 3 ha.

The lack of specific regulations for forest areas belonging to the small owners lead to cuts of

some small forest areas.

Among different types of soil degradation, soil erosion is being recognized as one of the major

natural hazard causing land degradation all over the world. The classical forms of water erosion

occur within farm fields and forests are sheet, rill and gully erosion. As it is well known, soil

erosion process, in general, as well as in the pilot area of Putna River catchment, is influenced by

a series of factors such as the geomorphological ones - slope length and slope steepness, by the

climate factor and soil characteristics, land cover management and also by the erosion control

measurements - conservation practice.

As regard to gullies, these are very often developed from intense erosion caused by flow over a

steep gully headcut, which moves upstream in a natural drainage way. Once established, gullies

remove portions of fields completely from production, decreasing in this way land quality and its

value. Also, by a continuing development, gully erosion has a great impact not only in-site, but

also off-site, in particular downstream, outside of its watershed. In the meantime, another threat

of gully erosion process on environment is related to watercourses pollution with sediments and

different pollutants, mainly chemicals coming from agricultural lands located on slopes.

22


1. As natural hazards, both soil erosion and landslides affect an important part of the Romanian

territory, especially agricultural lands, but also the forestry sector (Moţoc et al., 1975, Ioniţă,

2000, Mircea, 2011, Arghiuş & Arghiuş, 2011). Regarding gully erosion, the most significant

gullies in the country are the torrents, mainly developed in torrential watersheds covered by

forestry, as well as the ephemeral and permanent gullies, which are presented in several

locations, especially in the agricultural torrential watersheds, like in the pilot area of Putna

River catchment, (Moțoc et all., 1975, Ioniță, 2000, Rădoane et al., 1999).

As it is well known, the gully erosion development on the three main directions - in length, width

and depth, has a major impact on environment, either on short or long term, and not only on-site

but also off-site (Dârja et al., 2002, Ioniță, 2000, Mircea, 2011, Poesen et al., 1996, 2003, Rădoane

et all., 1999, Valentin et al., 2005). The continuously development of the gullies causes important

damages to the environment, as well as to the human settlements, watercourses and various

socio-economic units, such as reservoirs or hydropower plants, transportation ways etc. (Dârja

et all., 2002, Ioniță, 2000, Mircea, 2011, Moțoc & Mircea, 2005, Poesen et al., 1996, 1998,

Rădoane et al., 1999). According to some researchers, gully erosion only contributes by 31% to

the total soil erosion in Romania, generating about 36 million tons/year of alluvia. Annual losses

of agricultural lands have been estimated to about 2,300 hectares, (Moțoc et al, 1979, 1984,

Ioniță et al., 2006). Thus, gully erosion evolution and its control have become in time more and

more important, trying in this way to recover the discrepancies that have appeared compared

with sheet erosion researches.

In Romania soil loss by sheet erosion is beeing estimated by using a Romanian soil erosion

model, known as ROMSEM (ROManian Soil Erosion Model), (Moțoc & Mircea, 2002, 2005). The

deterministic model is specifically designed for agricultural lands and is actually based on the

well known Wischmeier’s model USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation), (Wischmeier & Smith,

1978, Renard et all., 1997, Bilașco et all, 2009, Arghiuș & Arghiuș, 2011, Ștefănescu et all., 2011),

being adapted by Moțoc in 1979 for the characteristic conditions from Romania.

As it is known, Wischmeier’s model USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation) is based on six major

deterministic factors combined with the following formula:

A= R*LS*K*C*P

23


where A is the estimated soil loss in tons per hectare per year, R is the erosivity factor based on

precipitation data, LS accounts for slope length and steepness, K factor is related to soil

erodibility based on soil type, C factor describes the land use types and P factor relates to

conservation practices at place that reduce the rate of soil loss.

The ROMSEM model structure is as follows:

E K L i S C Cs a

m n

s

where Es is the mean annual soil loss, in t/ha/year;

Ka is rainfall agressivity correction factor, having the values of 0.080.16 (regionalized in

the country), which represents the ratio between soil loss on the standard runoff plots,

having an area of 100 m2 (254 m), slope of 15% and maintained as bare soil - and Ip

index (this Ip index represents the product by the total amount of precipitation (H - in

mm) times the maximum I15 intensity (I15 - in mm/min) for a given rainfall;

Lm - the slope length factor with L in meters; exponent m = 0.3;

in - the slope steepness factor, with i in %; exponent n = 1.42;

S - the soil erodability factor, [0.61.2];

C - the crop management factor, [0.0011.0]

Cs - the practice factor, (01].

The deterministic ROMSEM model (ROManian Soil Erosion Model) that was specifically designed

for agricultural lands can be also used for the forest lands. What is very clear for the forest lands

is that the estimated soil loss are very low because of the lowest crop management factor,

C=0,005, but, unfortunately, gully erosion under gullies and torrents in the pilot area of Putna

River catchment is very strong developed.

Identification and management of torrential risk areas in Natura 2000 sites in Romania

The management of the watersheds from protected natural areas involves specials approaches

through the specific nature of the protected area. The torrential processes occurring within the

watersheds are natural phenomena of relief modeling, they damage not only intercepted socio-

economic objectives (roads, railways and so on/etc), but also of the landscape, sometimes even

threatening the protected species and habitats. The restoration of the hydrological balance must

24


be achieved using methods, technologies and materials with minimal impact on the

environment.

The inclusions of some territories in protected natural area categories are a recent date action.

For many of the areas that currently have this status, a differentiated management of torrential

watersheds has not been applied in Romania so far.

In 2007, following the elaboration of the report no. 111.333 / AA / 2007 of the River Basin, the

Management Directorate within the Ministry of Environment has issued the Order 1163/2007

approving measures for the improvement of technical solutions for the design and realization of

the hydrotechnical works in the protected natural areas.

It is the case of the protected natural areas that have been the subject to the present research

(situated in the center of Romania) but also of the natural areas in the Putna River Basin (Putna

Vrancea Natural Park, Măgura Odobeşti Natural Park, etc.) located in areas of special tourist

interest.

It is the case of the protected natural areas, which are the subject of the present research

(Postăvaru, Piatra Mare and Ciucaş located in the center of Romania), but also of the natural

areas in the Putna River Basin (Putna Vrancea Natural Park, Măgura Odobeşti Natural Park, etc.),

in a special tourist areas with a rich hydrographic network, with frequent torrential

manifestations, having in their immediate vicinity economic objectives of strategic importance

(the Predeal - Brasov railway, national roads 1, 1A and 2D), which require to protect them from

the development of models for tunneling of the riverbeds using ecological processes and

materials.

Identification of the susceptible watersheds to generate torrential floods

Identification of the watersheds susceptible to generate torrential floods represents an

important tool in watershed management on one hand and, in the management the risk of rapid

floods on the other hand.

The management idea of the torrential watershed is founded on: “the concept of efficient water

and soil control” and consist in “applying on the entire surface of the watersheds, both on the

slopes and the hydrographic network, of a set of organizational measures and biological,

biotechnical and hydrotechnical works with hydrologic and anti-erosion main role” (Munteanu,

1975; Clinciu and Gancz, 2015).

25


Launched about four decades ago, this idea of a complex approach of the management of

torrential watersheds is very topical today, and it is found herself in the "National Strategy for

Flood Risk Management" but under other form: It is necessary a holistic approach of the floods,

taking into account the entire watershed; the strategy in the flood area must promote a

coordinated development and a integrated management of the activities regarding water, land

and adjacent resources. The non-structural measures (the territory division, the floods forecast

and the floods warnings, the crisis management situations and post-flood measures) by

mitigating the effect of floods tend to be more efficient as the long term sustainable solutions for

the water problems and those adjacent to them, and they must be intensified specially to

diminishing the vulnerability of the human lives, of goods and property”.

Some of the quantified targets of these strategy refer to (Tudose et all, 2013): good maintenance

of hydro-technical constructions with the flood defense role, to achievement of the

regularization/recalibration of the streams (works and streams unsilting) correlated with the

anti-erosion works from the slopes in order to ensure an optimal transport capacity as well as

correlation and scheduling the stream management works with those of the slopes management

in all hydrographic watersheds and sub-watersheds.

In this context, intervention with works within the watershed should be done according to the

torrentiality degree (“the watershed predisposition to generate torrential floods”) which is

expressed in direct correlation with the hydrological reliability of the lands within the

watershed and his hydrological parameters.

In this research, we estimated the degree of torrentiality, according to the method founded by

Radu Gaspar in 1967 and subsequently improved (Tudose 2012; Clinciu and Gancz, 2013) based

on the torrentiality coefficient expressed by the equation:

(1)

The first of the terms (Q) signifies the flood flow rate which is formed in the studied watershed

after a 1% insurance rain and duration (T) equal to the effective duration (te).

The others two terms (Qmin, Qmax) signify the flood flows that will be form in two hypothetical

situations, quite different from the point of view of the superficial rainfall retention potential.

These situations can be induced by anthropic changes (uncontrolled or controlled) of the

vegetation within the watershed.

26


In the first hypothetical situation, it is admitted that the studied watershed reacts at the rainfall

by a "low" value of the flow rate (Qmin); this situation can be induced from the moment when,

following the forestry interventions provided by the management plan, the hydrological quality

of the stands is maximized and the agricultural land are afforested.

In the first hypothetical situation, it is admitted that the studied watershed reacts at the rainfall

by a "high" value of the flow rate (Qmax), these situation likely being induced from the moment

when imbalances occur in hydrological reliability of the lands from watershed as a result of

climate changes and the land use within the watershed.

Recognizing that the forest lands within the studied watersheds are following the evolution

specified in the hydrological mapping system proposed by Alexandru Apostol (Munteanu et all,

1991, 1993, Clinciu 2001), the situation is as follows.

The current situation of the land uses, from the hydrological point of view, at the studied

watershed levels in the three Natura 2000 sites is presented synthetically in the form of a

histogram. The histogram is formed by the summation of the watershed areas by hydrological

categories at the level of the three protected natural areas highlights the following aspects:

Lands with high hydrological efficiency (A) covered an area of approximately 2560 ha

(31%),

Lands with medium hydrological efficiency (B) covered an area of approximately 3895 ha

(47%),

Lands with reduced hydrological efficiency (C) occupy 505 ha (6%),

Low hydrological efficiency (D) covered about 1348 ha (16%).

Thus, the reduced and low hydrological lands accumulate together a significant area of 1853 ha

(22%).

27


Figure: The distribution of the Natura 2000 sites in terms of hydrological reliability.

Based on the hydrological fitting of the land used for the assumed scenarios, the

morphometric and hydrological parameters of the watersheds were determined the

mean leakage coefficients and the flows related to the three hypotheses (Q, Qmin şi Qmax)

and finally, the value of the degree of torrentiality for the studied hydrological

watersheds was determined.

For the comparative analysis of the results, we used a classification of the leakage

coefficient taking into account by the results of researches previously undertaken in

small watersheds, predominantly forested (Clinciu, 2001, , Păcurar, 2005, Tudose 2012):

classification which includes four classes and is presented as it follows:

Class 1: low leakage coefficient (0 <c ≤ 0.2);

Class 2: average drainage coefficient (0.2 <c ≤ 0.3);

Class 3: high drainage coefficient (0.3 <c ≤ 0.4);

Class 4: very high drainage coefficient (0.4 <c).

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Ro

sci

Ciu

cas

Ro

sci P

iatr

a M

are

RO

SCI

Po

stav

aru

The hydrological classes distribution %

D C B A

28


The variation of the leakage coefficient is presented in the form of a digital map, which

captures the distribution of this coefficient on the classes identified in the studied

watersheds.

For all three mentioned situations (the current situation and the two hypothetical

situations) the maximum flood flow rate at the 1% assurance was calculated using the

Rational Formula.

Figure: Distribution of the average leakage Figure: Distribution on classes of the torrential coefficient on the studied watersheds degree at the studied watersheds level (http://www.icasbv.ro/?page_id=1164) (http://www.icasbv.ro/?page_id=1164)

Based on the obtained data, the distribution of the watersheds by torrential classes was

represented in the form of a thematic map.

For practical reasons, a reclassification of the torrential coefficient was used (Gaspar,

1967; 1975; 1998; Clinciu and Gancz, 2013), the 0.1 range proposed by the author

increasing to 0.2; thus defining only 5 classes of redundancy as it follows: low

torrentiality (Ktor = 0.0 - 0.2); moderate torrentiality (Ktor = 0.2 - 0.4); strong torrentiality

(Ktor = 0.4 - 0.6); very strong torrentiality (Ktor = 0.6 - 0.8) and excessive torrentiality

(Ktor = 0.8 - 1.0). Within the areas included in the analysis, are not identified watersheds

with strong (3th class), very strong (4th class) and excessive torrentiality (5th class) this

fact being due, on the one hand, to the high percentage of afforestation (about 80%), and

http://www.icasbv.ro/?page_id=1164

http://www.icasbv.ro/?page_id=1164

29


the structure of forests from the studied area resulting from their sustainable

management on the other hand.

The data used in this research is part of the project "Environmental friendly solutions to

manage torrential riverbeds located in protected areas ROSCI0207 Postăvaru,

ROSCI0195 Piatra Mare and ROSCI0038 Ciucaş" financed from the state budget through

the Executive Unit for Financing Higher Education, Research and Innovation. Contract

No. 96/2014.

Avoiding clear cuts and harvesting on steep slopes

Avoiding clear-cuts and not allowing large-scale forest die-back (e.g. due to wind-throw,

bark beetle or forest fires) is very important for erosion control. The application of the

clear-cut technique may endanger not only the quality of the water, but may create

erosion processes. The avoidance of clear-cuts and harvesting on steep slopes prevents

the above mentioned negative effects. As alternative small-scale gap-cuts, single-tree-

felling, the group selection system or irregular shelter wood cut system should be

applied. Also the regular shelter wood cut system should be avoided, as it would involve

a clear cut phase as a result of its final cut. Without applying the clear-cut technique the

continuous cover forest management system can be established.

The limitation of the percentage of timber extraction with 10-25 % of the forest stand

volume during each silvicultural measure guarantees a low disturbance regime and

hence helps to sustain stability of the forest stands.

Forest roads and soil compaction

To avoid soil damage while logging and to minimize erosion and surface runoff, only

clearly defined roads and skid trails should be used on forest soils. Soil-conserving

techniques should be preferred, such as skyline cranes, manual wood processing, horses,

and others. To limit runoff to short stretches, cross drainages should be installed on the

skid trails and roads. Runoff is much higher in wheel tracks than on normal forest soil

30


because of soil compaction. Over longer distances, the runoff accumulates and increases

the erosion potential.

The amount of roads has a significant impact on water drainage and erosion.

Unnecessary roads should be removed and new roads should be the exception. Forest

roads must be with proper drainage. 4-5 ha of hydrological optimized forests are

necessary to compensate surface runoff increase and storage loss of 1 ha forest area

used for forest road construction (Markart et al., 2011).

Roads cause water to flow off to the sides and to accumulate there in narrow gutters.

Frequent cross drainages on the roads carry water from the road surface to the sides to

infiltrate everywhere along the road instead of being channeled to the receiving water.

3.2.3. Short comparison of the forest road network in Bulgaria,

Romania and Austria

In Bulgaria the forest road network is old and with low density. The financial resources

for the construction of forest roads are limited. The road network and its impact on soil

compaction and erosion processes is not an essential problem.

In Austria the forest road network is dense and still new constructions are executed.

Many forest roads were constructed under integration of public funding. Within DWPZ

(drinking water protection zones) only water suppliers have a critical view on forest

roads, while forestry in most of the cases still tries to extend the forest road network.

Forest roads also can be the source of erosion processes and form a potential threat for

water quality within DWPZ.

Romania is the country with the lowest rate of forest roads in Europe - 6 m/ha much less

than 25 m/ha – comparing to the European average, or 35-40 m/ha recorded as Central

European countries (Austria, Germany , Switzerland)

31


A difference between the forest roads (roads for vehicles) and logging roads must be

done from the beginning, the last are forestry gateways for tractors to source of wood.

Forest roads network in Romania, in addition to attributions of forest management, is

also representing an important mean of accessibility of isolated settlements in the

country. On these roads the residents have access to school, health care services, decent

life generally for rural areas - for small isolated villages. Therefore, forest roads are a

factor of normality for the society.

Forest roads, if properly designed and built, are very useful for forest management, and

an optimal road network leads to operating tractors forest roads - main elements in soil

destruction and especially its compacting.

In Romania, to highlight the forest resources and to support the addiacent sectors

(agriculture, local communities, mining, oil holdings, etc.), the various studies

undertaken by specialized bodies showed that, as a first emergency a network roads at

least 12 m/ha is required. Due to the lack of funding and fragmentation of forest

property ownership in the last 20 years, the density of forest roads has oly had a slight

increase (0.1 - 0.3 m / ha).

Insignificant progress was obtained using funds through the National Rural

Development Program, focusing on the carring equipment for the forest owners

associations and local communities. With all this differentiation, new roads have

insignificant results, the share of funds being allowed towards the rehabilitation and

upgrading works for the existing network, but this also made under the actual needs.

For the State Forest - 48% of all forests from entire national forest - mostly managed by

NFA Romsilva - construction of new roads and rehabilitation of the existing network is

achieved by own funds created by NFA-Romsilva or bank loans from European

Investment Bank (EIB) and European Bank for Reconstruction and Development

(EBRD). But even with these financial instruments the forest road network of Romania

have not experienced significant increases, the main failuring causes being:

32


Prioritizing the investments within the ministries and the impossibility of creating

coherent planning;

Laborious system (and ongoing transformation) of the procurement system for

construction works forest roads;

Lack of NGO support, qualified and progressive in terms of harmonious and

sustainable forest management and susstainable development of the rural society;

Small number of companies specialized in works of forest roads, with qualified and

capable personnell to operate with respect for the environment;

Migration of specialized labor to EU more attractive areas - in terms of payment

A small revival in the work of forest roads in Romania has been made by the conduct of

the Forestry Development Project - PDF- an advantageous loan of the World Bank -

International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD) in the period 2004-

2009. The Forestry Development Project (PDF) had, among other components, an

important component of forest roads. It was divided into:

Elaboration of a best practice guide - Best Practice Guideline for Forest Roads in

Romania - prepared by OBF Consulting, Purkersdorf/AUSTRIA in co-operation with

Faculty of Forestry Transilvania University of Brasov/ ROMANIA - 2005. Further

more, the faculty staff developed in 2006 a major work (296 pages) - Guidelines for

the design, construction and maintenance of forest roads - Transilvania University

Publishing House, Brasov, 2006 (Authors: R. Bereziuc V. Alexander V. Ciobanu, Gh.

Ignea I. Abrudan, R. Derczeni and Consultants: F. Trifoi, N. Oprişa, P. Vică., I. Dobre, A.

Paul, I. Cazan, B. Popa). These two works have enjoyed a real success, being

recommended to other projects and similar organizations;

The rehabilitation of 170 km of forest roads throughout the country. These works

were executed in record time, and were of good quality and cost greatly reduced (by

30%) compared to other similar works in the country.

In Romania, the forest roads are generally built near the hydrographic network,

supported by torrent correction works. Very often the roads are not well consolidated,

being affected by torrential floods or landslides.

33


Picture: Forest road sustained with torrent correction works in Coza watershed (affluent of Putna River)

Therefore, in Romania, not auto forest roads are the main destabilizing factor of the soil,

but exploitation roads, roads for forestry tractors giving access to the timber and

transport it by dragging. These tractors, many of them older than 10 years, are the main

means of destabilization of soil characteristics in the process of logging.

Further, we are presenting a study made by the Forest Reasearch and Development

Institute „Marin Dracea”, regarding the land degradation and the land in general, in our

pilot area.

Soil degradation by general logging activities

The logging, regardless of the method adopted and equipment used, is determinig the

onset and acceleration of erosion of forest soils.

In the current context, when trying a harmonization between the natural resource

exploitation - wood - and environment protection while ensuring a minimum impact on

34


the forest ecosystems, it is essential to know the soil changes by harvesting work -

collecting wood.

By logging works a prejudice is made on varying intensity both to the remain stands, the

undergrowth, to seedlings and soil.

Forest soil degradation occurs mainly due to machinery and equipment used, and the

land is support for displacement. Therefore, are talking about earth compaction,

partially messing, or mixing of A horizont, kneading, injury, denudation (Ciubotaru,

Nicolescu, 2011) and lands geometry changes. Soil loss on affected areas will be found

largely in increasing the amount of sediment and silt, depending on topography and

climatic characteristics.

Depending on the means used for collecting wood (in the assembled, removed and

closed operations), the pressure exerted on the ground may have different

intensities. Primarily, they are influencing the characteristics of equipments and the

frequency of use, the physico-geographical characteristics and the relief as well as the

season when the works are done.

Picture: Cross-sectional profile on the way out,

u.a. 70 A

Picture: Measurements with the broad, u.a. 75 A

35


Picture: Cross-sectional profile on the way out,

u.a. 70 A

Picture: Runoff channels on the removed paths

closed by, u.a. 75 A/76A

Picture: Erosion on the parent rock way out, u.a. 68 B

Picture: Deep erosion on the path taken u.a. 75 A

Degradation of operation roads

Research carried out so far, have focused on capturing the phenomenon, especially in

terms of quality, and also focusing on changes in the physico-mechanical and chemical

properties of soil. Thus, soil deformation was analyzed, caused by collection vehicles and

alteration of soil properties (Berli et all. 2000; Vossbring, Horn 2004). Soil compaction

due to wood collecting affect on the respiratory tree root (Gaertig, 2001; Schaeffer et al.,

36


2001) and the growth of vegetation (Gorbing, 1984; Wollny, 1998; Alakukku,

2000). Assessment of soil disturbance and forest plots shows that wood is harvested

using certain descriptive attributes of the phenomenon (McMahon, 1995; Page-

Dumroese et al., 2009; Munteanu, 2015) graduations indicating the severity of the

phenomenon.

Building tractor roads to collect wood, because they are temporary works achieved

without strengthening embankments and platforms, creates prerequisites to achieve

sources of silt and sediment (Anderson, 1954 Swanston, Dyrness, 1983 McCashion Rice,

1983).

Researches conducted in Romania on how wood exploitation affects the forest

ecosystem are numerous and, generally aimed aspects of damage the soil, the forestry

remained vegetation and and the seedlings. Classification schemes for soil injuries have

been elaborated (Badea, 1964 Damaceanu et al., 1991 Ciubotaru et al., 2011, etc.)

depending on the intensity and extension of injuries without having defined a unified

and widely accepted assessment (Ciubotaru et al. 2011 Munteanu, 2015).

Felling, trimming and collecting the timber, are carried out in the stands, and the activity

of handling and loading is carried out on the primary platforms. During the course of the

logging operations, damage are registered on soil (including the litter), the remaining

trees and seedlings (if any). The importance of such damage varies depending on the

technology used for logging operations, the volume of harvested timber, the timing and

climatic conditions for the specific time when wood harvesting operations carring out,

the soil characteristics, geomorphological conditions, the forest exploitation package,

treatment (regeneration method) applied, etc.

Thus, during the operations of felling trimming trees and on the phase of taken out the

wood (partialy) soil displacements are happening, with "extension" caracter, affecting

large areas, but with low intensity and the dislocations produced in the following stages

37


to remove (partially) and close-up, by having "intensive" character, affecting small areas

(collection paths), but with higher intensity (fig. 3.2.2.2).

In order to estimate the deployment of ground products to the stages of the felling,

trimming and removed (eroded depositories of the soil with shallow depth that occurs

on extended surfaces) were carried out researches (2017) within the Experimental Base

Sacele (subject P12 / 2017 INCDS 'Marin Dracea').

For the determination of changes in the ground surface, and estimating the volume of

displaced soil (erosion or deposition) a comparison of digital terrain models has been

conduced. To estimate the concentrated erosion products, produced along the collecting

paths, there were identified and measured existing routes for close-up, where

permanent observation points were installed. These points were materialized on the

field as level markers on trees. On the permanent observation points, cross sections

profiles were measured with broad on the collection routes (fig. 3.2.2.3).

After harvesting wood operations, measurements have been made on the observation

sites, and by comparing the two obtained cross-sections profiles, the ground moved

(eroded or submitted) volumes were estimated.

Results

The volume of dislodged soil, after the execution of forest roads and timber extraction

can reach up to 9 m3/meter road. The displacement volume is influenced by the shape

of the terrain, the soil humidity, the volume of timber transported (by dragging) on

route.

Some of the displaced earth is moved and stored on profiles or is driven and deposited

downstream. Completely isolated, the volume of deposits on a profile can reach up to 2.5

m³. Close-up routes are a permanent source of sediments on silts, on land with steep

slopes and fragile substrates, runoff occurring along the collection routes on every

rainfall, though there are no logging operations engaged in the area.

38


Cross sections profiles on the collection routes

The maximum volume of eroded soil on such profiles was 0.78 m3 per meter of road.

39


Part of the volume of eroded soil from unused collecting roads are found on deposits

found on the emerging profile, which can reach up to 0.45 m3/mL, and the average value

is 47% of eroded volume.

Trails located on land with low slopes, if not used, will be grassed naturally and the soil

erosion ceases. Often, these routes are collection points and water stagnation and the

herbaceous blanket that develops is of hydrophilic type, with Juncus sp.

In case of operating roads used to collect wood, the average eroded volume on each

profile is about. 4 times higher than if unused profiles roads. The maximum eroded

volume on a profile was 3.51 m3. The volume of deposits is about. 2 times higher than

the one registered on unusedlogging roads, but represent only 21% of eroded, which

indicates an increased effluent of dislodged material.

The eroded soil volume varies widely between the transverse profiles, installed on the

same way and is decively influenced by the local conditions. The higher eroded volumes

are registered in accumulation sections with water contributions, on slope

breaks. Collection on timber works carried out in dry periods, lead to the loss of a

smaller soil volume.

One viable solution to reduce the intake forestry tractors in the logging and

therefore damaging environmental parameters, is the massive introduction of logging

forest cablecars (funiculars) in the production process.

Conclusions of a study done by the Forestry Service of the NFA - Romsilva on the

importance of reinstating the logging funicular on the production process shows that: at

this stage, in our country, collecting the timber using the funicular has a low rate,

compared to geographic potential set-up for 25% - 30%. Curently, based on the held

information, which shows that throughout the country only 120 logging funiculars are

operating.

Advantages ("strengths") of using funiculars in logging

Lower dependency on weather, soil conditions, resulting in an increased working time

actually extended from 180 days/year at 230 days/year;

40


Good acces to the wood, especially when only few forest roads are existing, as well as

difficult orographic conditions, with beneficial implications on:

reducing operating costs;

environmentally friendly behavior;

the right approach on certificate forest management;

increasing labor productivity and operational process efficiency;

minimum impact remaining on the stand, with an increased impact on the natural

regeneration;

RNP-Romsilva is the largest trader in the country, thus best qualified to aproach the

introduction of logging funiculars (forest cablecars).

Disatvantages „Weaknesses“ of introducing the forest cablecars (funiculars) in harvesting

process

Currently, in our country there is not enough skilled labor for this sector of the production

process. But this obstacle can become an 'strenght' if, at the unit base, complex team is

building (design - organization - execution) on logging funicular service.

The relatively high acquisition costs for logging funiculars and of adjacent

equipment. (According to specialized publications, the cost of installation of a funicular

goes up to 270,000.00 Euros to the length of the logging funicular line from 1200 to 2000

m, with a carriage 2 - 4 t, and for an installation of 600-1200 m - EUR 250,000.00, the

carriage 2-4 t).

Threats arising from "weaknesses" of introducing the forest cablecars (funiculars)

A certain reticency on re-introduction at large scale of logging furniculars for timber

exploitation;

The lack of plants for advanced cable production in our country, can lead to system failures;

Organizing the flow (the gathered-out phase for lots with medium tree volume) the difficult

to design parameters of the system and the organization of fluent supply.

41


Opportunities on introduction of forest cablecars (funicular) in logging, within RNP

Romsilva

The introduction of funiculars in the logging process is considered to generate a series of opportunities, such as:

Building a leading manufacturer and environmental protector images for RNP-Romsilva;

Awarness of competent bodies (Environmental Fund within the Ministry of Environment) to

support of the acquisitions of logging funiculars by all organizations that perform logging.

Creating the opinion that our organization, RNP-Romsilva, is successfully integrating the

environmental engineering technology.

Therefore, we believe that by increasing the usage of alternative technologies in forest

logging process, other than forestry tractors, the demages on the soil and on the

environment in general, will be reduced by at least 50%.

3.3. Forest fire management

Forest fires are nowadays the main natural hazard affecting Southern Europe. Currently,

an average of 500.000 ha of forest are burnt in the EU annually, causing human

casualties, damaging property and reducing soil fertility trough loss of organic matter.

Additionally large fires hamper biodiversity conservation.

Climate change is expected to cause, especially in Southern Europe, more droughts,

higher temperatures and more windy periods which will raise the number and severity

of fires.

Traditional fire prevention measures - such as management of fuel material,

establishment and maintenance of firebreaks, mineralized strips, water supply points,

communication equipment, etc. – have been highly improved in recent years, which have

led to a quicker and more effective response to the majority of fires. Nonetheless, there is

always a number of fires for which these measures are not successful. These fires

become, then, big catastrophic wildfires - fires that exceed the so called “extinction

42


capacity”- and are able to burn high amounts of hectares because fire spread takes place

at high speed through the tree canopies.

It is clear that a correlation between active forest management and the reduction of fire

risks exists. For decades, the design of fire prevention measures has been built on the

belief that fire propagation is not predictable. The new paradigm in fire prevention is

that the thorough analysis of topography, weather and fuel availability, allows the

prediction of fire propagation and, thus, the possibility to anticipate potential fire

behavioral changes and, consequently, provide a proactive response to fire.

The most crucial element that is determinant for fire propagation and intensity is the

availability of biomass fuel. This element is the only one from the fire behavior triangle

that can be modified.

The most common forestry practices to reduce the vulnerability to fire of a forest stand

are:

Reducing surface-fuel, to limit fire intensity;

Thinning and elimination of scale-fuel to lower the probability of vertical fire

development;

Combined low and crown thinning, to avoid fire from spreading through tree

canopies.


Due to the climate changes and global warming in the last decades the risk of forest fires

in Bulgaria is equally high to that in the Mediterranean countries. For the last 15 years

we have registered around 500 forest fires annually, which damage around 10 000 ha

forest territories. Direct loses are estimated in average of 11 000 000 BGN (6 500 000

Euro) per year. Nowadays forest fires are recognized in Bulgaria as one of the main

dangers for the forests among the other hazards as erosion, floods and illegal activities

(National strategy for sustainable development 2006-2015).

43


The recent development of forest fire policy has been a major concern in the Executive

Forest Agency - EFA and other Bulgarian institutions. The change in the policy of

Ministry of Agriculture, Food and Forests and EFA through the last years in respect to

forest protection from fires – the undertaken normative and administrative measures, as

well as the favorable climate conditions helped for the significant diminishing of the

number of fires and damages caused to the forests. In February 2017 Bulgarian EFA

adopted the Program for the protection of forests against fires 2017-2023. The Program

is a direct result by the Operational Objective 3 "Increasing the efficiency of prevention

and combating forest fires and illegal activities in forests" from the Strategic Plan for

Development of the Forestry Sector in the Republic of Bulgaria (2014-2023). In the

Program are developed the most important measures and activities of the responsible

organizations and forest owners for forest protection against fires in the period 2017 -

2023.

Over the last decades, we have seen a trend of summers continuously getting hotter and

drier while the wildfire seasons have gotten longer. At the same time, our attitudes and

actions toward wildfires are still mainly focused on defense and suppression instead of

prevention. Special automatic systems for observation and alerting of forest fires can

help as to be more effective in prevention and protection of forest ecosystems. Such

system was build 3 years ago by Nature Park Vrachanski Balkan. Part of the pilot water

catchment is covered by the observing system, but it needs to be widened in the future.

Pictures: Lookout tower and alternative methods for combating forest fires.

44


During the last 10 years an average of 6 forest fires occurred and an average of 150 ha of

forests are burnt annually in the territory of State Forest Enterprise Mezdra. Since the

beginning of 2017 in the territory of SFE Mezdra we have reported 13 forest fires with

124.9 ha affected. 3 of these forest fires occurred in the watershed in the period April

12-16, 2017 and affected a total of 3.3 ha of forest land.

Foreseen fire prevention measures in the territory of SFE Mezdra are part of the

adopted forest management plan. Some of the measures, as fire breaks, mineralized

strips etc. have to be renewed every year. In 2018, SFE Mezdra foresees the felling and

cleaning of the forest areas affected by the fire in 2017. Over the next 3 years, the

process of natural forest regeneration will be monitored and, if necessary, assisted. In

the future, the construction of a mineralized strip near the railway and the road is

proposed wherever possible, as well as establishing at least one water source /water

spot for fire trucks/ in the Ochindolska River.

Common plan for firefighting between State Forest Enterprise “Mezdra” and Regional

service for fire safety and protection of the population is prepared annually.

3.4. Combating bark beetle infestations

Bark beetle outbreaks can significantly influence forest carbon storage and cycling,

forest health and ecosystem stability. Climate changes /higher summer and winter

temperatures, prolonged droughts and shorter winter, changing precipitation patterns

and frequent extreme events/ are driving beetle population outbreaks in susceptible

forests, and allowing these insects to persist in habitats previously constrained by cold

temperatures and to continue to proliferate and thrive in higher elevations. Climate

change affects bark beetles by altering their development and temperature-induced

mortality. Climate change may also affect trees’ defense mechanisms against bark beetle

attacks. All above mentioned conditions together with natural disturbances in the forest

45


may significantly affect the forest ecosystem vitality and compromise the supply of

ecosystem services.

As a result of the large scale infestations the following main consequences are

possible:

1. Spreading of the coniferous dieback especially in the elevation range

from 0 to 800 m a.s.l.;

2. Activation of the erosion processes in the affected areas;

3. Increase of forest fire risk, which can lead to increased risk for

settlements and civil population; There is a vice versa effect between

forest fires and bark beetle infestation;

4. Economical losses due to lower quality of the wood and decrease of the

wood increment.


Coniferous plantations, afforested 40-50 years ago out of their natural areal with the

main aim to control the erosion in the country reached their utmost growth limit. As a

result they are very susceptible to bark beetle or other forest pests. Climate change and

drought in recent years have had a significant impact on the condition of artificially

created forests. Drying of coniferous stands with an average age of 40-50 years, created

in areas with altitudes of up to 700-800 meters, has a pronounced pathological nature

and is due to the intensification of pest attacks. Recently on the territory of the country

about 30 000 ha coniferous plantations are affected. There is a need of urgent measures,

e.g. cutting of the affected forests and encouragement of natural regeneration of the

broadleaf species in their natural areal. On the territory of the watershed plantations from

P. nigra and P. sylvestris are attacked by bark beetle, which leads to deforestation of

certain areas and risk of erosion and torrents.

46


Pictures: Bark beetle infestation /July 2017/ and sanitary fellings /October, 2017; © EFA

Recommended forestry practices for combating bark beetle infestation:

In order to limit the bark beetle distribution in the forest stand the following

preventive and fighting measures are recognized:

use of trap trees and pheromone traps to monitor the bark beetle development;

use of trap trees to fight with bark beetle;

removing the fresh top parts of the stems and branches thicker than 4-5 cm;

implement forest thinnings regularly

implementation of sanitary fellings.

bark peeling of attacked fallen trees, especially into inaccessible areas;

avoidance of mechanical damages on standing trees after the fellings;

cleaning the clearance and maintenance of the stands after fellings;

speeding up the process of transformation of coniferous plantation into indigenous

broadleaved forests.

The preventive measures for combating with bark beetle are limited, expensive

and with doubtful result, because of the biological characteristics of the species.

The broadly used sanitary fellings should be implemented during winter months,

when pest are biologically not active and are in the already dried attacked stems.

47


The leading principle during the transformation fellings is the individual

approach according to stand condition. Creating small gaps (one to one and a half

lengths in a diameter) on the spots with natural regeneration for toleration of the

development of the indigenous species. Leaving of health and vital pine trees will

lead to improvement of the heterogeneity of the forest structure.

The most important issue during the combating and prevention processes is

stakeholder communication and involvement. People should trained to recognize

bark beetle infestations and to report to the responsible institutions.

3.4.2. Best Management Practice „Styrian Enns Valley”, Austria

The consequences of climate change are challenges for forestry and put more emphasis

than in the past on the active management of forests. Due to the long production and

rejuvenation periods, forests are particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate

change. Over the past decades there has been a steady rise in monthly and annual mean

temperatures. The weather conditions will change with the effect of change in

precipitation distributed over the seasons. The combination of hot and dry summers

with more frequent storm events would favour the conditions for bark beetle

development as the period for their development is extended. Up to three or four

generations can already develop per year. Prevention and control are therefore of prior

importance, especially after windthrow.

Pictures: Bark beetle (C. Plank, K. Krimberger, 2018).

48


A great focus of bark beetle management should be on adequate prevention measures.

In addition to the establishment of healthy mixed stands rich in species and structures,

forest hygiene in stands dominated by coniferous woods is of utmost importance. This

means that, especially in susceptible pure spruce stands, care must be taken that as little

material suitable for breeding as possible is left in the forest. The correct sequence in the

processing of damaged wood is the first step towards avoiding a possible subsequent

bark beetle calamity.

Preventive measures for bark beetle management in Austria are:

Consistent monitoring of endangered stocks, especially after calamities

Immediate processing of standing trees, even single trees

Regular monitoring of the environment for infestation. Rapid removal of trunk wood

after processing of damaged wood.

Depending on degree of infestation: removal of 1-2 rows of trees around the infested

hearth is highly recommended so that freshly infested trees are not overlooked.

Encouragement of natural enemies of bark beetles (e.g. ant beetles).

Rapid removal of trunk wood after harvesting.

Establishment of mixed stands rich in species and structures, especially in lowlands.

Pheromone traps are only recommended to a limited extent for control in forests, since

the correct handling can only be guaranteed by trained personnel and the care is very

complex. They are mainly used to document the flight of the beetles and to determine

the population density (bark beetle monitoring).

As the development of bark beetles depends not only on the weather and the available

breeding material, but also on the presence of natural enemies (e.g. bacteria, fungi,

nematodes, beetles, birds), the care for healthy, site-adapted forests is very important.

49


In case of infestation, the following control measures are recommended:

1) Catching trees

Catching trees attract the swarming bark beetles away from the infested population

towards more easily controllable trees that have already been deforested. Nevertheless,

the stands must be checked regularly. It should be noted that:

Felling of the catch trees at low and medium altitudes should take place about 4-6

weeks before the start of the flight, at the latest by the end of March.

In high altitudes it should take place already in autumn of the previous year.

Only healthy spruces from the upper and middle classes must be used.

The trunk diameter should be at least 20 cm.

Safety distance to the nearest spruce of at least ten metres.

Optimum catching tree ratio: 1 catching tree per 3 beetle trees of the previous year.

If one borehole occurs per dm² of bark surface, additional trees must be prepared.

After post-deforestations the crowns should be left on the cathing trees.

2) Removal of the barks

Felled trees which cannot be removed from the forest in time or which should remain in

the forest must be debarked. It has to be taken into account that already two to three

centimeters wide and approximately 50 cm long bark strips are sufficient, in order to

enable a complete development of bark beetles. Thus clomplete debarking is necessary,

also in mountainous areas.

3) Controlled crushing

It must be ensured, that not used trunk sections, branches and crown material is made

unsuitable for breeding. Following measures are recommended:

Cut of remaining material into very small pieces.

Cut of treetop material into half-metre pieces.

50


Also shredding and mulching is recommended. Due to the high nutrient content of the

leaves and needles, the material should remain in the forest. Stronger material (e.g.

trunk sections and strong branch material without needles) can be used to produce

wood chips.

In steep terrain, woodpiles should only be put in sunny areas (fine branches with

needles outside, stronger branches inside the woodpile), as the temperature inside can

rise up to 60°C.

4) Tipi trap

In the tipi trap the tops are assembled in the form of a tent, treated with contact

insecticide and made attractive by pheromone dispensers. The beetles orient themselves

on the upright silhouette and fly towards the trap. The tipi should be constructed as

early as possible in spring. A minimum distance of ten metres from the edges of the tree

populations must be kept. Poisoning and baiting is carried out immediately before the

start of the flight season. Pheromones and stem protection should be renewed after 6 to

8 weeks. Also nearby tree populations should be regularly controlled for infestation. A

piece of fleece can be placed under the trap for catch control.

The advantages favour the use of trap tipis especially in small forests:

Highest attractiveness for bark beetles trapping effect is significantly better than

with a trap tree or slot trap

Fast, deadly effect of the insecticide; colonisation and reproduction should therefore

not be possible

Only a few resources needed

Trap can catch over the complete flying season, compared to catching trees and it

can also be used in jaggy tree populations

If, however, tipi traps are not checked continuously or renewed every six weeks, this

type of control is not recommended.

51


a b c d

Pictures: a) Catching trees; b) debarked trunks; c) shredding; d) trap tipis (Source: Borkenkäfer – Vorbeugung

und Bekämpfung, Höbarth M., Wöhrle M., 2009).

Priorities for reprocessing of already damaged forests:

Coniferous wood before deciduous wood

Individual windthrows before of nest windthrows before surface windthrows

Small areas before large areas

Lowland areas before high areas

Sunny sides before shady sides

Infested wood before non-infested wood, the flight of the beetles must be prevented

Priority to protective forests

Based on the experiences, timely processing and rapid removal of the wood from the

forest are (cost-)effective measures to prevent bark beetle infestation.

For prevention as well as control measures, subsidies are available for the forest owners

in Austria.

Source: Höbarth M., Wöhrle M. 2009

52


4. Conclusion

Forestry practices in torrential watersheds do not offer a universal solution to the

protection of water resources or to disaster risk prevention. Forests are playing their

role together with other land uses as a component of a larger watershed protection

strategy. The role of forests is essential in torrential watersheds and long term

silvicultural practices and decisions usually are the main way to control the disaster risk.

The success of forest practices depends on a number of site -specific factors but their

main aim is always directed to improve the watershed functions and processes. Function

oriented land use management could be an appropriate tool to secure sustainable

watershed development. To guarantee the watershed functions there is often a need to

prioritize particular land use types. Despite the differences in the Danube region the

presented forestry practices are common and used on transnational level.

All forestry interventions carried out in watersheds and best solutions derived are a

basis for the necessary adaptations of management concepts for securing a sustainable

protection of water resources.

Despite the fact that in some countries in the Danube regions still don’t face some of the

problems in the region because of their site and climate characteristics, the expected

climate changes and land use development will induce them. In this manner the

exchange of experience on transnational level is of great importance for the successful

development of the region.

53


5. References

1. Alakukku, L.1999, Subsoil compaction due to wheel trafic. Agricultural and Food Science in Finland 1999 Vol.8 No.4/5.

2. Anderson, H. W., 1954: Suspended Sediment Discharge as Related to Streamflow, Topography, Soil and Land Use. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union.35.

3. Andreescu, V.,1967: Forest logging. Didactic and Pedagogical Publishing House, Bucharest.

4. Austrian Federal Act of 3 July 1975 regulating forestry (Forestry Act 1975), StF: BGBl. No. 440/1975

5. Badea, M. 1964: Influence of mechanized and non-mechanized means used to remove wood. Journal of forestry no.5/1964.

6. Balanescu et al.,1981: System of mechanized exploitation of beech, differentiately, by functional and ecological groups, to ensure the extension of the woods and increase of forest productivity. Manuscript, ICAS, Contract 77/1979.

7. Berli et al. 2000: Subsoil compaction of agricultural land by heavy construction machinery – soil mechanical aspects. Advances in Geoecology 2000 No.32.

8. Borz S.A., Ignea G., Popa B.,2014: Modeling and comparing timber winching performance in windthrow and uniform selective cuttings for two Romanian skidders. Journal of Forest Research

9. Ciubotaru,1992: Aspects regarding the environment impact of some forestry collection means. Bulletin of the 2nd National Conference on Environmental Protection through Biological and Biological Methods and Means, Brasov.

10. Ciubotaru, A., 2002: Unitary assessment and measurment of injury. In „Forest and future”, Transilvania University Publishing House, from Brasov.

11. Ciubotaru, A. și Nicolescu, N. 2011: Research on soil damage on through forest exploitation. Journal of forestry no. 6/nov.2011.

12. Clinciu, I., – Torrent correction, Transilvania University Publishing House. Braşov, 2001 13. Clinciu, I., Gancz C., 2013: Fundamentals and solutions for the design and monitoring of

river basin management, predominantely forestry basins. Research contract for National Forest Authority, No. 87/26-09-2012

14. Clinciu, I., Gancz C., 2015: Magnitude of damage events on hydrotehnical torrent control structures. Environmental Engineering and Management Journal. Vol. 14, No.1, pp. 57-71;

15. Damaceanu, C., Gava, M., 1991: Damage to trees, seeds and soil through the use of logging technology on tree with crowns, in trunks and masts. In Journal of forestry no. 3/1991

16. Dyrness, C. T., 1967: Mass Soil Movements in the H. J. Andrews Experimental Forest USDA Forest Serv. Res. Paper PNW-42. Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Exp. Sta., Portland, Oregon.

17. Elliot, W., Robichaud, P., 2001: Comparing Erosion Risks from Forest Operations to Wildfire. The International Mountain Logging and 11th Pacific Northwest Skyline Symposium.

18. Gaertig, T.,2001:Bodengashaushalt, Feinwurzeln und Vitalitat von Eichen. Freib. Bodenk Abh 40.

54


19. Gaspar, R., 1967: Contributions to determining the dergee of torrentiality of the river basin and the hydrological efficiency of torrent correction works. Journal of forestry, no.8, pp. 410 – 414.

20. Gaspar, R., 1975: Research on the hydrological efficency of torrent correction works. Transilvania University from Brasov, Pdh Thesis,

21. Gaspar, R., 1988: Method for assessing surface rainfall in small river basins, In: Forest 22. Management No. 3, pp. 150-157. Munteanu, S.A., 1975: Fundamental prerequisites for

the development of torrential river basins. Journal of forestry no 4

23. Gorbing, J. 1948: Die grundlagen der gare inn praktisehen aekerban. Landbuch, Hanover. 16. Horn, R., 2004: Time dependence of soil mechanical properties and pore functions for arable soils. Soil Sci Soc Am J 68.

24. Höbarth M., Wöhrle M. (2009): Borkenkäfer – Vorbeugung und Bekämpfung, LFI Österreich, Waldverband Österreich, 1014 Wien.

25. INCDS ‘Marin Drăcea’, 2017: Technical Assistance Report P12/2017, ”Assemsment on forest degradation resulting from loggings”

26. Lupusanschi, St., Ciobanu, P., Ungureanu, St., 1980:Solutions on soil protection issue, of seeds and trees protection in gardening cuttings. Journal of Forestry, no. 1/1980.

27. McCashion, J. D.; Rice, R. M. 1983: Erosion on logging roads in nordwestern California: How much is avoidable?. Jurnal of Forestry, vol 81 no.1.

28. McMahon S,. 1995: Accuracy of two ground survey methods for assessing site disturbance. International Journal of Forest Engineering.

29. Ministerium für ein Lebenswertes Österreich (Federal Ministry of Agriculture, Forstry, Environment and Water Management, 2015: Sustainable Forest Management in Austria, Austrian Forst report 2015, Vienna

30. Munteanu,H.G. 2015: Effects of wood exploitation on the soil in the forest area of the Sacele City Hall.. Phd Thessis, Transilvania University, Brasov.

31. Munteanu, S.A., Clinciu I., Lazar N., Untaru E., 1991: Torrential basins development through forestry and hydrotechnical works.Vol. I. Characteristics of torrential basins and landscaping works. Romanian Academy Publishing House ISBN 973-27-0244-3

32. Munteanu, S.A., Clinciu I., Lazar N., Untaru E., Gologan N., 1993: Torrential basins development through forestry and hydrotechnical works. Vol. II. Arrangement of the torrential hydrographic network and the effects of tidal river basin management. Romanian Academy Publishing House. ISBN 973-27-0351-2

33. Najafi A., Solgi A. (2010). Assessing site disturbance using two ground survey methods in a mountain forest. Croatian Journal of Forest Engineering.

34. Oprea, I., Sbera, I., 2004: Logging Technology, Tridona Publishing House, Oltenița. 35. Page-Dumroese D.S., Abbott,A.M., Rice T.M, 2009: Forest soil disturbance mornitoring

protocol: Volume I: Rapid assessment. General Technical Report - USDA Forest Service 2009 No.WO-82a.

36. Page-Dumroese D.S., Abbott,A.M., Rice T.M.,2009: Forest soil disturbance mornitoring protocol: Volume II: Supplementary methods, statistics, and data collection. General Technical Report - USDA Forest Service 2009 No.WO-82b.

37. Păcurar, V., 2005: A new method of hydrological mapping of forest land using geographic information systems. Journal of forestry, no. pp.28-30

55


38. Rice, R. M., 1999: Erosion on logging roads in Redwood Creek, Northwestern California, 39. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, vol 35, no.5. 40. Rotaru, C., 1983:Tassement du sol forestier et récolte mécanisé du bois . Courrier de

l'exploitant et du scieur, nr. 1,1983. 41. Schaffer, J., Hartmann, R., Wilpert, Kv., 2001: Effects of timber harvesting with tracked

harvesters on physical soil properties. In: Johansson J (ed) Proceedings from the third (final) meeting of a Concerted Action: excavators and Backhoe Loaders as Base Machines in Forest Operations; Pisa, Italy, 20 September 2000 to 22 September 2000. SLU, Uppsala, Research Note No. 11

42. Swanston D.N., Dyrness C.T.,1973:Managing steep land.1. Stability of steep land. Journal of Forestry Vol.71 No.5;

43. Tomasic, Z., 1996:Soilerosion on several longitudinal slopes of a trial skid trail over a fouryear period (1992-1996). Proceedings of the Seminar on Environmentally Sound Forest Road and Wood transport, Sinaia, Romania.

44. Tudose N.C., 2012: The foundation of torrents in the upper basin of the Carcinov River 45. Silvic Publishing House. p. 258. ISBN 978-606-8020-25-9. Scientific base for torrent

control in the upper Cârcinov catchment Argeş Watershed 46. Tudose, N. C., Clinciu, I., Davidescu, Ș. O. 2013. Rainfall research on forested lands in the

Upper Cârcinov catchment. Proceedings of the Biennial International Symposium, Forest and Sustainable Development, Brașov, Romania, 19-20th October 2013 pp.173-178

47. Vossbring, J., Horn, R., 2004: Modern forestry vehicles and their impact on soil physical properties, Journal of Forest Research, 123.

48. 32. Wang, L., 1997:Assesement of Animal Skidding and Ground Machine Skidding under Mountain Conditions. Journal of Forest Engineering, vol. 8, no. 2.

49. 33. Wollny, E., 1898: Untersuchungen uber den Einfluß der mechanischen Bearbeitung auf die Fruchtbarkeit des Bodens. Forschungen auf dem Gebiet der Agrikultur-Physik 20.

50. Wallbrink, P. J., Croke, J., 2002: A combined rainfall simulator and tracer approach to assess the role of Best Management Practices in minimising sediment redistribution and loss in forests after harvesting. Forest Ecology and Management 170.

51. William J. Elliot, Deborah Page-Dumroese, and Peter R. Robichaud, Raj Ratta, R. Lal, The Effects of Forest Management on Erosion and Soil Productivity*. CRC Press, 1998

52. ****http://www.mmediu.ro/app/webroot/uploads/files/2012-01-10_risc_inundatii_hg846din2010aprobaresnmri.pdf


Practical Guide to Spatial Planning

in Catchments and River Stretches

Cluster 2 and 3



2



Walter Seher

University of Natural Resources and Life

Sciences Vienna, Institute of Spatial

Planning, Environmental Planning and Land

Rearrangement

Kurt Schinkinger

University of Natural Resources and Life

Sciences Vienna, Institute of Spatial

Planning, Environmental Planning and Land

Rearrangement

3


Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 4

2. WHY PLANNING IN CATCHMENTS AND RIVER STRETCHES? ................................. 5

2.1. Managing upstream-downstream-relations ........................................................................................ 5

2.2. Coping with spatial misfits ................................................................................................................... 7

3. PLANNING OPTIONS FOR CATCHMENTS AND RIVER STRETCHES ....................... 9

3.1. Regional planning ................................................................................................................................ 9

3.1.1. Spatial planning at regional level ...................................................................................................... 9

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE: “BLAUZONE RHEINTAL” ................................................................ 11

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE: REGIONAL PLANNING IN SAXONY (GERMANY) ..................... 12

3.1.2. Regional planning in water management ....................................................................................... 14

3.2. Voluntary cooperation in catchments and river stretches ................................................................. 15

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE: AIST WATER ASSOCIATION .......................................................... 16

BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICE: WATER COOPERATIVES IN AUSTRIA ........................................ 18

4. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................ 19

5. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 21

4


1. Introduction

This transnational best practice manual is about spatial planning in catchments and river stretches.

Catchments and river stretches as planning areas were formally introduced by the EU Water

Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) and subsequently adopted by the EU Floods Directive

(2007/60/EC). The public claim for catchment-oriented planning in flood policy comes along with an

ongoing paradigm shift in coping with river floods from a hazard-oriented approach of flood control to

a more integrated approach of flood risk management. The traditional approach was characterised by

attempts to control rivers via engineering solutions to reduce the probability of flooding. By contrast,

the new flood policy paradigm aims at developing approaches that reduce the vulnerability to flooding

based on a portfolio of structural and non-structural measures (Löschner, 2018). This change in flood

policy is prominently outlined in the EU Floods Directive.

A fundament principle in the nascent policy paradigm is to “make space for water” (Warner et al. 2012).

This principle reflects the increasing importance of land and land use in flood risk management and it

is in line with the CAMARO-D objective to set frames “for a harmonized land use management system,

taking into account the demands of water resources protection and flood prevention”. Preserving and

restoring river floodplains is regarded as one central element of the flood risk management plans

which were introduced until the end of 2015. for all areas of potentially significant flood risk, as

demanded by the EU Floods Directive. For measures of natural water retention to meet their intended

aims they are, however, to be “carried out in a coordinated way throughout a catchment” (EU

Commission, 2011).

By spatial planning in catchments and river stretches we understand planning approaches to

coordinate land uses and future land use demands with catchments or subdivisions of catchments

forming the boundaries of the planning area. This comes along with an increased significance of water-

related planning issues and the respective position of water management stakeholders. Planning in

catchments or river stretches is an unusual approach for spatial planning where planning is usually

organised in administrative units. Furthermore, spatial planning is integrative, which means that

several planning issues are equally important and there are no prevailing stakeholder interests. These

are two significant reason why spatial planning in catchments and river stretches is often requested

but hardly implemented.

After presenting arguments for catchment-related planning this manual outlines two planning options

– regional planning as a regulatory planning instrument and voluntary cooperation at catchment level

– with the aim of implementing spatial planning approaches in a river catchment setting. With a

practical background we intend to:

point out the applications of these planning options in catchments and river stretches;

evaluate related advantages, disadvantages and interfaces in practical implementation;

identify the stakeholders that have to be addressed;

5


introduce best practice examples for both planning options and

evaluate their transferability to the planning systems of CAMARO-D project partners.

2. Why planning in catchments and river stretches?

2.1. Managing upstream-downstream-relations

River floods usually do not stop at administrative borders. As trans-boundary phenomena within river

basins even small flood events frequently cross municipal or provincial borders, whereas large flood

events may affect several countries, as in the case of the recent European flood events in the Balkan

region (2014) and Central Europe (2013). Although river floods are triggered by natural events (e.g.

heavy rainfall, snow melting), human activities have a significant impact on the downstream effects of

flooding.

Figure 1: Schematic representation of upstream-downstream relations. The representation of upstream-

downstream relations in a local setting (A) illustrates the (positive and negative) effect of upstream land use on

the downstream hydrograph. Placed in a catchment setting (B), the simple relationship between upstream and

downstream entities becomes ever more complex (Source: IRUB).

6


Accordingly, the respective location of administrative entities along a river creates different options as

well as one-sided dependencies. In technical literature these dependencies are characterised by the

term upstream-downstream-relations (Fig. 1). Those administrative entities (e.g. states, provinces,

municipalities) adjacent to fluvial systems are linked by the gravitational flow of water. Flood control

schemes aimed at protecting vulnerable areas, as well as the intensification of land uses (e.g. land

development, soil sealing or drainage of wetlands) accelerate flood runoff and increase the

downstream peak discharge. Flood control schemes and housing development in potential flood plains

are rational decisions from an upstream entity´s point of view because economic benefits can be

expected. Potential negative consequences like an increased risk of flooding are for the account of

downstream communities (so-called negative external effects). On the other hand, downstream

entities can benefit from upstream measures of flood prevention (e.g. flood polders) or a reduction of

land use intensity (e.g. restoration of wetlands, creation of natural retention areas) in the form of

attenuated and delayed peak flows.

Addressing these upstream-downstream relations calls for regional approaches in flood risk

management and a coordination at the scale of catchments or river stretches. This approach is

prominently advocated by the EU Floods Directive (2007/60/EC). The directive pushes conservation

and restoration of flood plains, it explicitly addresses the principle of solidarity between upstream and

downstream entities (Art. 7/2) and calls for a regional coordination of flood risk management plans,

e.g. at the level of river basin districts (Art. 7/1).

The implementation of the EU Floods Directive in the Austrian Water Act led to provisions on

catchment-oriented planning (Article 55 WRG) which are intended to align flood risk management

more closely with catchments and river stretches. This changes the spatial reference within which

flood risk management measures are taken or coordinated. In contrast to the earlier approach of flood

control, measures must not only be assessed locally, but their effects on downstream areas must also

be taken into account in order to avoid or compensate for adverse effects.

The regional dimension of river floods calls for corresponding approaches in spatial planning. The most

important function of spatial planning in flood risk management lies within prevention. Spatial

planning is operative on the one hand by displaying flood hazards in spatial planning instruments

(informative function) and on the other hand in reducing vulnerability by minimising hazard exposure.

Reduction of hazard exposure is carried out by distributing land uses and demands for future land uses

according to the suitability of locations. There are zoning restrictions for highly vulnerable land uses

(e.g. building land, transport infrastructure) in hazard areas and in areas with protective functions (e.g.

flood plains with a retentive function). To sum it up spatial planning aims at the coordination of hazards

and land use interests with binding impacts for individual real estate owners.

Contrary to the catchment and river basin orientation of water management, the focus of spatial

planning measures for flood risk prevention in many countries is still at the local planning level, in

most cases the municipal level. This applies both for planning laws and planning practice whereas flood

hazard information is widely available at a regional scale. In Austria, spatial planning laws currently

7


provide limited legal obligations concerning risk prevention in regional planning, in particular specific

zoning instruments. Against the background of an increasing concern about preserving and restoring

river floodplains as natural retention areas local land use planning is often not the appropriate

instrument to avoid land uses with a negative impact on flood water storage (Fig. 2).

Figure 2: Commercial and industrial facilities developed in a river floodplain by means of raising the terrain level

through artificial embankments. This procedure is legal in terms of local land use planning as long as the building

is above the flood level regulated for zoning bans in the respective spatial planning law. The flood water storage

capacity of the floodplain, however, is reduced. Specific zoning in a regional land use plan would be able to

prevent building activities like that (Source: IRUB).

The former Austrian Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change from 2012 accordingly recommended

taking action on the “promotion of inter-municipal cooperation for the protection of large-scale

´solidarity´ areas for flood retention and hazard prevention”. The strategy further called for the

introduction of compensation mechanisms and risk transfer models between municipalities or bodies

under public law (e.g. water cooperatives or water boards) (BMLFUW, 2012). However, experience

from Austria shows that the legal and institutional capacities for catchment-oriented planning

approaches that bridge administrative boundaries are generally weak and thus far not able to

effectively coordinate upstream-downstream relations.

2.2. Coping with spatial misfits

In flood risk management, an orientation towards biophysical system boundaries, such as river

stretches or catchments, is now an introduced planning principle. In spatial planning, however,

administrative units (e.g. municipalities, provinces, districts, planning regions) form the reference

framework. This framework in general is not congruent with river stretches or catchment areas (Fig. 3).

8


Figure 3: Overlapping of a river catchment (light grey colour with dashed boundary line) with the municipal areas

relevant for local land use planning (continuous boundary lines) (Source: IRUB).

Planning in catchments and river stretches causes an overlapping of different spatial types, the

catchment or river stretch on the one hand and the administratively defined planning area with the

existing territorial institutions and stakeholders on the other. Moss (2003) refers to this kind of

institutional gaps as “problem of fit”. Catchment-based approaches in water management have been

widely discussed as a means of responding to problems of spatial fit and the asymmetries of upstream-

downstream relations (Lee and Moss, 2014). Spatial fit describes “the degree to which a resource

regime matches the spatial scales of the resource or ecosystem it is designed to manage” (Ekstrom and

Young, 2009).

Flood risk management systems generally show two forms of spatial misfits. For one, policies and

measures are overwhelmingly implemented by governmental institutions and state actors within

different administrative units. These are often at odds with the biophysical boundary of river

catchments, including their tributaries and the areas they drain. Secondly, flood management is

characterised by the incongruity between local interests and regional externalities, since decisions (e.g.

concerning flood control or land development) entail changes in peak flow further downstream (see

2.1). These effects are often not sufficiently considered between administrative units (Green et al.,

2013). Spatial misfits usually result in negative external effects (e.g. upstream-downstream-conflicts)

and induce substantial coordination demands.

9


3. Planning options for catchments and river stretches

Solutions for spatial misfits as well as for upstream-downstream-conflicts can be provided by

measures aiming at cooperation at regional or supra-regional level, which enable formal and/or

informal coordination and compensation mechanisms. With regard to spatial planning and relevance

for practitioners, this manual proposes two appropriate governance approaches:

Regional planning as a regulatory, highly institutionalised governance approach, including

spatial planning and water-related planning at regional level and

Voluntary cooperation at the level of catchments and river stretches representing governance

approaches with a comparatively weak institutionalisation. Within voluntary cooperation the

focus of this manual is on inter-municipal cooperation.

Both governance approaches for catchments and river stretches rely on a professional evaluation of

flood hazards (e.g. flood hazard maps), flood risks (e.g. flood risk maps) and the respective mitigation

options (e.g. flood risk management plans, risk management concepts, flood control measures).

Additionally, they have to be based on information regarding the social, economic and settlement

dynamics in the planning areas.

3.1. Regional planning

Regional planning is characterised by a formalised approach in creating and organising (usually

normative) planning regions. Planning instruments implemented at regional level can be found both

in spatial planning and water management. Whereas spatial planning at regional level is an integrative

planning instrument considering various land uses with basically equal significance, planning

approaches in water management are sectoral in the way that they prioritise defined water-related

issues towards other competing land uses. The following sections present these two planning

approaches in the context of flood risk management.

3.1.1. Spatial planning at regional level

Catchments or river basins, which can be characterised as regions when regarding a national scale, are

considered as highly relevant (biophysical) regions for environmental planning in general and flood risk

management in particular. Regional land use plans are mainly top-down planning directives, they are

legally-binding and generally entail zoning bans or zoning restrictions, which following a hierarchy of

spatial planning have to be implemented in local land use plans. They represent a highly effective

instrument to secure large-scale areas for designated land uses (e.g. flood water storage, recreation,

farming, commercial development and gravel mining) (Fig. 4).

10


Figure 4: Section of Regional Land Use Plan Liezen (Province of Styria; Camaro-D pilot action area Enns Valley)

displaying among others “agricultural priority zones” (coloured yellow) and “regional green zones” (areas with

green stripes). In those zones the municipalities affected are not allowed to zone building land. Specific zones for

flood water runoff and flood storage are not provided. (Source: Provincial Government of Styria, 2018).

The regulating function of river floodplains as areas of flood water runoff and flood storage is in

immediate conflict with competing claims for land use, in particular housing, industrial and commercial

land uses as well as agricultural production (see Fig. 2). Thus, the main objective of regional planning

in flood risk management is to preserve the flood storage function of floodplains and prevent an

increase in vulnerability. On the basis of catchment-scale flood hazard information regional land use

plans are able to designate suitable areas to secure the necessary land resources for (i) flood retention

and flood runoff and (ii) future flood control measures, such as flood polders or dikes. They are highly

effective in preserving floodplains and thus in mitigating both the increase in hazard potential (loss of

flood retention space) and in damage potential (settlement growth in hazard areas).

Dependent on the size of the planning region regional land use plans are able to cover river stretches

or even whole river catchments. However, in most cases planning regions extend over a larger area

including several smaller catchments potentially leading to spatial misfits (see 2.1). Upstream-

downstream-relations can be regulated as far as land use problems are concerned. Compensation

measures between downstream and upstream riparians (e.g. downstream municipalities compensate

flood storage provided in upstream municipalities) are issues which are usually not part of a regional

land use planning process.

A disadvantage of regional land use planning in catchments or river stretches is the lacking

compatible of legally-binding land use regulations with the need for flexibility emanating from

changing flood risk, e.g. due to possible climate-induced changes in the flood hydrograph. Moreover,

as the designated areas inhibit land development options, regional land use plans often require a

11


lengthy coordination process across policy sectors and, in particular, with affected land owners and

municipal stakeholders.

Spatial planning at regional level is an effective instrument for preserving flood plains, however,

implementation strongly depends on the political will and the commitment of regional planning

stakeholders. Furthermore, planning culture and planning tradition in the respective country play a

decisive role. To account for different land use and flood management interests the stakeholder

network should include multiple state actors from different policy sectors (i.a. water management,

spatial planning, agriculture, forestry, nature conservation), decision makers at different levels (i.a.

provincial government, municipality), representatives of interest groups (i.a. landowners associations,

chamber of commerce), regional managements (responsible for coordination of different

development stakeholders at regional level) or regional planning advisory boards as well as related

experts (i.a. land use planners, water managers).

Best Management Practice: “Blauzone Rheintal” As a best management practice in spatial planning at regional level we present the case of the so-called

“Blauzone Rheintal” (“Blue Zones Rhine Valley”) in the Austrian province of Vorarlberg. The “Blauzone

Rheintal”, a regional land use plan for flood risk management, designating large-scale areas (zones

coloured in blue) for flood retention, flood runoff and potential future flood protection measures along

the river stretch on the Austrian side of the Rhine Valley (Fig. 5), was issued in 2013 by the Provincial

Government of Vorarlberg to secure flood hazard areas and mitigate future increases in flood risk. The

programme covers an area of 5.400 hectares in one of Austria´s most dynamic regions in terms of

population change, land development and economic growth.

The designation of the “Blauzone” is based on hazard mapping, flood modelling and regional water

management concepts (“Gewässerbetreuungskonzepte”). The programme obliges the

22 municipalities affected to implement the “blue zones” in local land use planning by zoning open

spaces and prohibiting highly vulnerable land uses (i.e. building land) there. The intention of the

stakeholders who enacted the programme – the spatial planning and the water management

department of the Provincial Government of Vorarlberg – goes beyond flood risk management and

includes a regulation of municipal development intentions from a regional point of view.

For further information:

http://www.vorarlberg.at/vorarlberg/bauen_wohnen/bauen/raumplanung/weitereinformationen/in

strumenteundverfahren/landesraumplaene/blauzone.htm

http://www.vorarlberg.at/vorarlberg/bauen_wohnen/bauen/raumplanung/weitereinformationen/instrumenteundverfahren/landesraumplaene/blauzone.htm

http://www.vorarlberg.at/vorarlberg/bauen_wohnen/bauen/raumplanung/weitereinformationen/instrumenteundverfahren/landesraumplaene/blauzone.htm

12


Figure 5: Spatial extent of the “Blauzone Rheintal” (Source: Löschner et al., forthcoming).

Best Management Practice: Regional Planning in Saxony (Germany) Another best management practice in regional planning is the German state of Saxony. Water

management in Saxony comprises a wide portfolio of possibilities for flood storage, retention areas

and for flood risk management in general. Legislation is able to regulate or support flood adapted ways

of using land, the preservation of endangered areas and riparian strips and the enhancement of the

regional capability of flood storage with laws or subsidy programmes.

The main goals are:

avoiding flood water runoff and strengthening water retention

avoiding an increase of potential damage in areas at risk.

Those goals were implemented in the state development plan as well as in regional plans and

subsequently in local land use plans.

Hazard maps were developed. Those maps are publicly accessible and serve as a basis for flood risk

management. By Saxon Water Law areas that are endangered by floods or areas that are important

for water retention should be kept free of buildings. Already existing settlements in hazard areas have

to be protected. A special form of zoning is the designation of so-called flood originating areas. In these

13


areas natural water retention and seepage has to be preserved and improved. A flood minimizing land

use management in flood originating areas is not obligatory but supported by subsidies.

Figure 6 shows a map of the flood risk management plan of Leipzig-Westsachsen. Leipzig-Westsachsen

is one of the four regional planning associations of Saxony. Areas with potential danger of floods are

coloured in blue. In those areas measures of flood risk management have priority. The pink encircled

zones are key areas for reducing existing hazard potentials. The green encircled zones are areas in need

of protection from floods. The yellow hatched zones are flood originating areas. This flood risk

management plan is a flood-related basis for regional land use planning in Saxony which has to be

implemented by the respective regional planning associations.

For further information:

https://buergerbeteiligung.sachsen.de/portal/rpv-westsachsen/beteiligung/archiv/1005487

Figure 6: Flood Risk Management Plan of Leipzig-Westsachsen (Source: Regionaler Planungsverband Leipzig-Westsachsen, 2017).

https://buergerbeteiligung.sachsen.de/portal/rpv-westsachsen/beteiligung/archiv/1005487

14


3.1.2. Regional planning in water management

Compared to spatial planning at regional level the concept of planning in catchments and river

stretches is a familiar approach in water-related planning. Both the EU Water Framework Directive

and the EU Floods Directive require the member states to implement related provisions in national

water legislation. Regional planning in water management can be implemented to prioritise water

management issues (and thus related land uses) in general and flood risk management measures in

particular at a catchment scale. In many countries water management is a governmental issue with a

high degree of institutionalisation and thus an issue with a considerable implementation impact. With

a flexible spatial layout (water management programmes are usually not attached to administration

units) and the option to prioritise land uses compatible with flood runoff and flood water storage

towards other competing land uses they are considered as a very appropriate approach to preserve

and restore river flood plains. The institutional interfaces to spatial planning and other instruments of

land use planning are subject to governmental coordination.

The legal and institutional background of water management institutions gives rise to expectations

that regional planning in water management is a top-down planning approach with a lower degree of

participation compared to spatial planning at regional level. Basically, however, the same stakeholder

network as in regional land use planning would be considered as appropriate.

By the example of Austria regional planning in water management has been carried out in the way of

so-called regional “Watercourse Management Concepts” (“Gewaesserbetreuungskonzepte”). This

proven instrument recently was broadened to “Watercourse Development and Risk Management

Concepts” (“Gewaesserentwicklungs- und Risikomanagementkonzepte”). Watercourse development

and risk management concepts are river basin-related plans that can be used to coordinate planning

and other activities in the river basin. They comprise an inventory of the existing situation, especially

flood hazard and flood risk (e.g. flood hazard maps, flood risk maps), on the basis of which flood risk

management objectives are determined, taking into account ecological requirements and options for

future watercourse development. Watercourse development and risk management concepts must be

spatially related to a catchment area or river basin, i.e. they must comprise at least one longer

watercourse section or an entire watercourse, where appropriate also several watercourses together.

A second water management instrument for planning in catchments and river stretches is provided by

Austrian water management legislation. The Austrian Water Act enables water-related planning by so-

called “Regional Water Management Programmes” (§ 55g Austrian Water Act). The scope of existing

regional water management programmes was enlarged by the issue of flood risk management

enabling provincial governments to zone and provide areas for flood risk management purposes, like

flood water retention or structural flood protection measures. Much like spatial planning at regional

level the regional water management programme is a zoning instrument aiming at prioritising flood

risk management issues within the consideration of different conflicting land use demands. Regional

water management programmes are based on hazard mapping or other (regional) instruments of

15


surface water runoff modelling. Their spatial scope is variable providing opportunities for planning on

a river basin or catchment level.

Currently, we are not able to provide the Regional Water Management Programme as an example of

best management practice because it has as yet not been implemented for flood risk management.

3.2. Voluntary cooperation in catchments and river stretches

Voluntary cooperation between river riparians represents another option to encourage flood-related

planning in catchments or river stretches. As this manual focuses on cooperation at regional level and

the main thematic issue is spatial planning, municipalities are considered to be the most relevant

stakeholders. Thus, inter-municipal cooperation (i.e. the cooperation of municipalities as the

responsible bodies for local land use planning) in flood-related planning is the subject of further

consideration.

Inter-municipal cooperation in flood risk management is characterised by an institutional

collaboration of stakeholders and decision-makers from two or more municipalities in a catchment or

river-basin aiming at a reduction of flood risks by implementing joint mitigation measures (Seher and

Beutl 2004). Cooperation is usually based on formal commitment of participating stakeholders, mainly

municipal representatives. Common tasks of inter-municipal cooperation in flood risk management

comprise i) developing flood retention basins, ii) keeping potential flood plains of regional importance

free from highly vulnerable land uses and iii) raising acceptance for all kinds of flood mitigation

measures to be realised at a regional level. Coordination of other structural flood protection measures

and fostering planning strategies for catchment areas are further intended cooperation issues.

Inter-municipal cooperation can be organised as informal platforms, as contract-based consortiums as

well as cooperation with a legal background in public law, like municipal boards or water boards. The

degree of institutionalisation mainly depends on the size of the cooperation area, the number and

legal form of potential cooperation partners as well as the issues and goals of cooperation. Agreements

between upstream and downstream municipalities are governance issues where normally ‘win-win-

situations’ are not expected by the stakeholders involved. These governance issues usually require

formal cooperation with a predefined set of binding rules for all members. This type of

institutionalisation ensures liability of agreements, possibilities to impose sanctions and the intensity

of the cooperation´s enforcement.

In Austria, according to the Federal Water Act, water associations under public law

(“Wasserverbaende”) can be established between administrative bodies (i.e. municipalities) and

stakeholders who are in charge of public issues (e.g. maintaining public traffic routes, such as the

Austrian Railways). In addition, water cooperatives (“Wassergenossenschaften”) may be established

among non-state actors, including private landowners, who have a stake in or are affected by flood

protection measures.

16


Cooperation between upstream and downstream municipalities is flexible in scope (their focus may

range from the joint construction and maintenance of flood control measures to the coordination of

emergency planning activities) and in scale (they may span administrative borders and be adjusted

according to the given field of action, e.g. to catchments or river stretches). Moreover, compensation

mechanisms to account for the respective benefits and adverse consequences associated with the

different activities and risk reduction measures may be tailored according to the different interests

and needs of the cooperation members.

On the other hand, inter-municipal cooperation usually focuses on issues related to water

management whereas the consideration of formal land use planning in water associations is

endangered to be inadequate.

Cooperation of municipalities in flood risk management is disaster-driven. It requires triggers in terms

of recent flooding events and a subsequent risk awareness of the stakeholders involved. Furthermore,

establishing cooperation significantly relies on initiative, commitment and persuasiveness of

individual persons who are capable of initiating, supporting and promoting the cooperation process.

Content, organization and financing of inter-municipal cooperation in flood risk management rely on

a professional evaluation of flood hazards and the respective mitigation options. Last but not least, an

accepted cost allocation scheme between the municipalities is regarded essential.

It is very difficult to enforce inter-municipal cooperation by mandatory regulations of superior

institutions. Cooperation processes depend on local framework conditions (e.g. recent flood damages)

as well as on context-related stakeholder constellations. If flood risk management at regional level is

to be organised preventively without any recent flood event highly institutionalised governance

schemes (such as regional planning) are required.

Best Management Practice: Aist Water Association The inter-municipal cooperation Aist comprises 27 municipalities in the catchment area of the rivers

Waldaist and Feldaist in the north-eastern part of Upper Austria. Both rivers join to form the river Aist,

shortly before flowing into the Danube. In total, the Aist catchment area covers 642 km² and 33

municipalities, thereof 21 municipalities have more than 30 % of their municipal area within the

catchment (Fig. 7).

The Aist catchment is a mainly rural area with agriculture (crop farming and grassland) and forestry as

the prevailing land uses. The municipalities in the catchment differ in terms of population

development, economic structure and municipal tax income. The upstream municipalities generally

show lower economic indicators than the downstream small towns, which are characterized by larger

industrial and commercial sectors and provide job opportunities for commuters from upstream parts

of the catchment.

17


Figure 7: Aist catchment with member municipalities of the Aist water association (Source: Seher and Löschner,

2018)

The Aist cooperation is organised as a water association according to the Austrian Water Act. Water

associations provide a regulatory framework for all kinds of water-related cooperation in terms of a

predefined set of standards. The cooperation was developed in response to a major flood event in

2002, which affected the whole catchment and produced severe flood damages (ca. EUR 500 million),

especially in the commercial and industrial areas in the downstream part of the catchment. The

principal aim of the Aist cooperation is to enable a coordinated approach in flood storage

encompassing the whole catchment. To preserve the areas necessary for flood water storage the Aist

water association is able to exert influence on local land use planning of the municipalities involved.

For further information: http://www.hws-aist.at/

http://www.hws-aist.at/

18


Best Management Practice: Water Cooperatives in Austria Another example of best management practice relating to voluntary cooperation in catchments and

river stretches is the organisational type of a water cooperative. In contrast to water associations water

cooperatives mainly comprise non-state actors, in most cases private landowners, who are affected by

flood protection measures. Like water associations, water cooperatives are based on the Austrian

Water Act. The tasks of water cooperatives include construction, monitoring and maintenance of flood

protection schemes (in most cases smaller schemes against torrential hazards) and fund raising from

interested parties (mainly landowners who benefit from flood protection). According to the Austrian

Water Act, water cooperatives are legal entities and represent the interests of their members.

Figure 8: Maintenance of a flood protection scheme against torrents (Source: Salzburger

Schutzwassergenossenschaften).

Usually affected landowners take the initiative for a water cooperative. Water cooperative members

financially contribute to the protection measures in the sense of burden-sharing. The major cost share

of a flood protection scheme, however, is covered by governmental authorities. Cost sharing within

the water cooperative depends on the advantage received (by the flood protection scheme) or on the

degree of potential damage averted.

19


Another important task of the water cooperative is the provision of land for the protective measures.

This is done either by transferring land ownership to the water cooperative (by purchase of land) or by

granting easements in favour of the water cooperative.

The water cooperative is a self-governing organisation, however with a formalised character. Decisions

must be taken democratically and problems should be solved internally, against the background of a

regulatory legal framework. Thus, the water cooperative stands between state administration and self-

organisation.

One of the decisive advantages of water cooperatives is that the members and affected persons are

closer connected to the flood protection scheme through financial contributions. Thus, the acceptance

and personal responsibility concerning maintenance increase significantly (Rudolf-Miklau et al., 2015).

For further information: www.dachverband-schutzwassergenossenschaften-salzburg.at

4. Recommendations

Sound flood hazard and flood risk information is the indispensable prerequisite for planning in

catchments and river stretches. Respective information should be available for spatial planning

stakeholders at a regional scale (catchments, river basins, river stretches).

The EU Floods Directive requests flood risk management to be implemented at catchment scale. The

flood risk management plan is the relevant instrument for implementation. The authors recommend

to enforce spatial planning in catchments and river stretches by including the approaches presented

in this manual – regional planning and voluntary cooperation – into flood risk management plans.

Establish the legal framework for preserving flood plains and flood storage areas with regional

importance in regional land use plans or regional water management programmes. Thus, regional

planning should be able to zone areas reserved for flood runoff and flood storage legally binding for

local land use planning. However, regional planning authorities should strive for communication with

and participation of local planning units (e.g. municipalities). Furthermore, regional planning

instruments should be flexible to allow for future adaption of land use regulations (e.g. as a

consequence of climate change impacts).

If regional planning does not offer options for flood-related zoning or is not applicable at all, voluntary

cooperation of stakeholders at catchment or river basin level may be an alternative. Experiences from

Austria indicate that in particular inter-municipal cooperation in flood risk management frequently

emerges from recent flood events. Flood management stakeholders at each administrative level are

well advised to use these “windows of opportunity” to initiate cooperation.

National and provincial authorities – both in spatial planning and water management – should strive

for providing incentives for voluntary cooperation in catchments and river stretches. Incentives can

http://www.dachverband-schutzwassergenossenschaften-salzburg.at/

20


on the one hand be financial, on the other hand assistance by (legally) formalized types of cooperation

– e.g. water associations and water cooperatives in Austria – can be very helpful for municipalities or

other stakeholders to take a decision for cooperation. Furthermore, it is advantageous to build upon

existing cooperation bodies. If other inter-municipal cooperation is already in place, these cooperation

bodies can also be a starting point for cooperation in catchments and river stretches.

Close interaction of water administration with voluntary cooperation bodies is important. A

regionalized water administration (e.g. “Gewaesserbezirke”, “Baubezirksleitungen” in Austria) is

helpful in this respect.

Develop and implement compensation measures, i.e. a financial transfer between municipalities

implementing flood risk management measures (e.g. flood storage in the upper parts of the

catchment) and municipalities benefiting from those measures. These transfers usually require a

formal framework and an existing cooperation structure.

Although voluntary cooperation bodies can be entitled to exert influence on land use planning, these

bodies are in a weak legal position when it comes to imposing sanctions for misconduct. Thus, the

authors recommend augmenting voluntary cooperation in catchments and river stretches by formal

approaches of regional land use planning.

21


5. References

Bundesministerium für Forst- und Landwirtschaft, Umwelt und Wasserwirtschaft BMLFUW (2012):

The Austrian Strategy for Adaptation to Climate Change. Part 1 (former version).

Ekstrom, J.A. and Young, O.R. (2009): Evaluating functional fit between a set of institutions and an

ecosystem. Ecology and Society, 14, 2. Online: http://ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss2/art16/

[accessed 4 September 2018].

EU Commission (2011): Towards Better Environmental Options for Flood risk management, Note by

Directorate-General Environment, DG ENV D.1 (2011) 236452.

Green C., Dieperink, C., Ek, C., Hegger, D., Pettersson, M., Priest, S. and Tapsell, S. (2013): Flood risk

management in Europe: the flood problem and interventions. STAR-FLOOD Report D1.1.1. Online:

http://www.starflood.eu/documents/2013/06/d1-1-1.pdf [accessed 4 September 2018].

Lee F. and Moss T. (2014): Spatial fit and water politics: managing asymmetries in the Dongjiang River

basin. International Journal of River Basin Management, 12, 329–339.

Löschner, L. (2018): The spatial turn in flood risk management. A case study of Austria´s changing

flood policies. Dissertation, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna.

Löschner, L., Seher, W., Nordbeck, R., Kopf, M. (forthcoming): Blauzone Rheintal: a regional planning

instrument for future-oriented flood management in a dynamic risk environment. In: Hartmann, T.,

Slavíková, L., McCarthy, S. (eds.): Nature-Based Flood Risk Management on Private Land. Springer.

Moss, T. (2003): Raumwissenschaftliche Perspektivenerweiterung zur Umsetzung der EU-

Wasserrahmenrichtlinie. In Moss, T. (ed): Das Flussgebiet als Handlungsraum. Institutionenwandel

durch die EU-Wasserrahmenrichtlinie aus raumwissenschaftlichen Perspektiven, 21-43. LIT Verlag,

Münster.

Provincial Government of Styria (2018): Regionales Entwicklungsprogramm Region Liezen. Online:

http://www.landesentwicklung.steiermark.at/cms/dokumente/12644878_141975702/3dc21083/RE

PRO_LI_2016_Anlage1.pdf [accessed 4. September 2018].

Regionaler Planungsverband Leipzig-Westsachsen (2017): Karte 12 Hochwasserschutz. Online:

https://buergerbeteiligung.sachsen.de/portal/rpv-

westsachsen/beteiligung/archiv/1005487/1009742 [accessed 4.September 2018].

Rudolf-Miklau, F.; Rainer-Wenger, K.; Anker, F. (2015): Solidarische Finanzierung und Erhaltung von

Schutzmaßnahmen – Wassergenossenschaften als „Risiko-Governance-Modell“ des Wildbach- und

Lawinenschutzes. RFG, Wien.

Salzburger Schutzwassergenossenschaften - Dachverband der Salzburger

Schutzwassergenossenschaften und –verbände (n.b.): Anger-u. Lafenbach 1. Online:

22


http://www.dachverband-schutzwassergenossenschaften-salzburg.at/pages/de/bilder-videos.php,

Stand: 19.09.2018

Seher, W. and Beutl, H. (2004) Möglichkeiten der Flächenvorsorge in Hochwasserabflussräumen -

Handlungsspielräume von Gemeinden und Gemeindekooperationen, am Beispiel von Gemeinden im

Oberlauf der Triesting/Niederösterreich. Studie im Rahmen von FloodRisk: Analyse der

Hochwasserereignisse vom August 2002, Wien.

Seher, W. and Löschner, L. (2018): Balancing upstream-downstream interests in flood risk

management: experiences from a catchment-based approach in Austria. In: Journal of Flood Risk

Management, 11, 56-65.

Warner, J.F., Buuren, A. van, Edelenbos, J. (2012): Making Space for the River. IWA Publishing.

Best Practice Manual (BPM)

Beaver management

Cluster 2 and 3

Final version on 28th March 2019


2


Corresponding author: Verena Mayer

HBLFA Raumberg-Gumpenstein, [email protected]

Contributors Institution

Verena MAYER Agricultural Research and Education Centre Raumberg-

Gumpenstein

Renate MAYER Agricultural Research and Education Centre Raumberg-

Gumpenstein

Claudia PLANK Agricultural Research and Education Centre Raumberg-

Gumpenstein

Christine RESCH

Stefan RESCH

Apodemus, Private Institute for Wildlife

Ecology, Zoology

Tomáš DOSTÁL Czech Technical University in Prague ČVUT

Department of Irrigation, Drainage and Landscape Engineering

Marius DANILA Environmental Protection Agency Covasna

Claudiu PAȘCA National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry (INCDS)

“Marin Drăcea” , Romania

Florian Bodescu University of Bucharest | Unibuc

Research Centre for Ecological Services

Marius POPA Scientific researcher and engineer – collaborator, Romania

Alexandru GRIDAN Scientific engineer and research assistant – collaborator, Romania

Daniel VIŞAN Engineer, Romania

https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Czech_Technical_University_in_Prague

https://www.researchgate.net/institution/Czech_Technical_University_in_Prague/department/Department_of_Irrigation_Drainage_and_Landscape_Engineering

https://www.researchgate.net/institution/University_of_Bucharest

https://www.researchgate.net/institution/University_of_Bucharest/department/Research_Centre_for_Ecological_Services

3


Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 5

2. GENERAL FACTS ABOUT THE EUROPEAN BEAVER (CASTOR FIBER) .................. 7

2.1. Building activities ...................................................................................................................................... 9

2.2. Beaver habitats.................................................................................................................................. 10

Threatening factors ........................................................................................................................................ 11

2.3. Conflict potentials ............................................................................................................................. 13

3. LEGAL SITUATION ............................................................................................................. 17

3.1. EU level .............................................................................................................................................. 17

3.2. Contributing EU member states ......................................................................................................... 18

4. SWOT ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................. 24

5. DISTRIBUTION AND BEAVER MANAGEMENT IN EU .............................................. 25

5.1. The Eurasian beaver in Austria .......................................................................................................... 27

5.2. The Eurasian beaver in Czech Republic .............................................................................................. 36

5.3. The Eurasian beaver in Germany ....................................................................................................... 38

5.4. The Eurasian beaver Hungary ............................................................................................................ 40

5.5. The Eurasian beaver in Romania ........................................................................................................ 41

5.6. Advice in conflicts and damage compensation .................................................................................. 47

6. RELEVANT STAKEHOLDERS AND COOPERATION PARTNERS ............................ 55

4


7. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION ........................................................................................ 56

8. FIGURES AND TABLES ...................................................................................................... 57

9. REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................ 59

5


1. Introduction

Background and aims of this best practice manual:

It is widely known that when beavers and humans come into contact, problems and conflicts can

and do occur. Most of these conflicts are related to flooding caused by beaver building activity,

destruction and damage from gnawing. Trees can fall over and pose a danger to people and

property near residential areas. Crop damage can also occur in agriculture.

The aims of this brochure are

providing information on damage compensation,

beaver management and beaver monitoring and

approaches to minimize conflicts by different interest groups.

Moreover, affected people (landowners etc.) will find information and effective solutions on what

can be done and where to find help.

Figure 1: The Eurasian beaver, 2018, Alexander Maringer, National Park Gesäuse (Styria, Austria)

6


The sharing of transnational best practice and a list of technical measures are listed.

The transnational manual for practitioners for beaver management is part of the Interreg Danube

project “CAMARO-D” and therefore funded by the European Union. The manual contains best

practices from Austria, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary and Romania, and with a short

overview relevant for all Danube countries. In specific CAMARO-D pilot areas the actual situation

is described.


7


2. General facts about the European beaver (Castor fiber)

The Eurasian beaver almost got extinct in Europe in the sixteenth and seventeenth century due to

the high demand for fat, fur and “castoreum”, a secretion from the beavers’ scent glands which

was thought to have medical properties. However, the beaver is now being re-introduced

throughout Europe.

The European beaver (Castor fiber) is the second largest rodent on earth as it can reach 75 – 100

cm body length and additional 35 cm tail length. Beavers continue to grow all their lives long.

Adult male beavers over 25 kg are common. In contrast to most other mammal species, female

beavers can be as large as or even larger than males of the same age.

Beavers live 10-17 years in in the open landscape and in a maximum of 35 years in keeping. The

beaver is nocturnal and semi-aquatic. They are good swimmers and can stay under water for as

long as 15 minutes. However, they are quite slow on land.

Figure 3: The Eurasian beaver, photograph by Alexander Schneider, Naturschutzbund, 2018

8


Their broad stiff scaled tails are usually used like rudders to steer under water and for balance

while sitting on land. They also use their tails to slap the water as a warning of danger. The

beavers’ front teeth never stop growing. Beavers prevent their teeth from getting too long by

gnawing on wood. Moreover, they use their teeth to cut trees and other plants that they use both

for building and for food. Beavers are herbivores and store sticks and logs in a pile as food for the

winter since they do not hibernate. The months from May to October are referred to as “green

vegetation period” which means that beavers consume mainly herbs in these months and often

graze on agricultural crops (maize, sugar beets, corn, young rape etc.). From autumn to spring

their preferable feed are woody plants. Nevertheless, they gnaw on woody plants throughout the

whole year but to a lesser extent during the summer months. The beaver prefers certain woody

plants to others – poplars and willows are the most important ones. Most of the trees that are cut

down by beavers (95%) do not exceed 20 cm diameter. Moreover, the beaver prefers younger

trees to older ones.

Beavers live in colonies, which consist of two adult beavers (male and female) and their offspring

in their first and second year of life. Each year beavers have mostly 3-4 juveniles. A beaver family

has its own territory, which is defended vehemently against fellow beavers. Therefore, it is not

possible that more than one beaver colony lives in the same territory and thus the number of

beavers will never increase to a disconcerting number.

In Austria, grown beavers do not have natural enemies, which is the reason why they can reach

an old age. However, the death rate of young beavers is considerable.

9


2.1. Building activities

Like no other animal, the beaver influences and shapes its habitat with enormous effects on the

water balance. The most known natural trait of beavers is the building of dams, lodges and

canals along rivers and streams. For those buildings they use branches and trunks (typically of

smaller diameters).

They use leftovers from gnawed branches(without bark), but they often build from freshly cut

down pieces which are not used for food as well. They use their favourite woody plants for

gnawing and less favourite ones for building activities. When building a dam, they first place

vertical poles where they put a crisscross of horizontally placed branches; gaps are filled with

weeds and mud. Beavers build dams with the purpose of protection against predators as well as

to provide easy access to food. The beaver works at night and is known for carrying mud and

stones with its forepaws and timber between their teeth. Since beavers can rebuild dams

overnight, it is quite difficult to destroy a dam without removing the beaver itself.

The small ponds, which are a subsequent outcome of well-maintained dams, help beavers to

isolate their lodges. Beavers cover their lodges late each autumn with fresh mud, which freezes

when frosts arrive and becomes as hard as stone and prevents predator from getting into the

lodge. The underwater entrance of the lodge makes it for intruders almost impossible to get into

the lodge.

Figure 4: Beaver dam, 2018, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov

10


Canals can be up to 100 metres long and are built to link one pond to another or to link the lodge

to a good source of food. The beaver builds the canal by pushing through soil and vegetation using

its forepaws. At the bottom of ponds channels can be found, which have the function of a network

between the lodge and other living areas, or food caches.

2.2. Beaver habitats

The spread of the beaver is currently being documented. As a species that can easily adapt to its

environment, not only natural waters can function as a habitat for the beaver, but also waters

surrounded by agricultural land and water running through villages can serve as such. Due to its

ability of building dams and canals and cutting trees with a trunk perimeter of 50 centimetres, the

beaver is considered as a key species of floodplain – ecosystems since it can shape its environment

actively. However, this is the reason for a number of conflicts of interests (see Chapter 2.4.: Conflict

Potentials).

Figure 5: Covasna County, 2018, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov

11


Threatening factors

1. Hunting (especially illegal)

2. Intensive land use, reduction of landscape connectivity

3. Water pollution (e.g. through fast-growing soft wood and aquatic vegetation which

accumulate metals)

4. Defensive reaction of humans (protecting their security and economic interests against

the influence of beavers on the landscape)

5. Traffic collisions; intensification of transport (shipping, road and rail)

Figure 6: Beaver territory in Stein an der Enns, Verena Mayer, 2018

12


6. Habitat destruction (deforestation, regulation and maintenance of river beds and banks

of already regulated streams and rivers, occupation of landscape for building,

intensification of transport - shipping, road and rail transport, the intensification of the

use of watercourses, construction of barriers on rivers, etc.)

7. Uncovered technical equipment in water and its proximity acting as traps

Positive effects on the environment

Locally increase of subterranean water

The dam building activity of the beaver leads to an increase of the subterranean water

since the water floods areas that would not be flooded and infiltrates the ground.

However, this is also considered as a major reason for conflicts between humans and

beavers.

Weaker current and better distribution of water

Cleaning of water

The water is much clearer after it has crossed a beaver dam since suspended matter are

held behind by the construction.

Increase of biodiversity

o Improvement of the habitats for fish

Due to weaker current, clearer water and more pebble stones on the ground, the

biodiversity of fish can be increased

o Creation of new habitats for amphibians, dragon flies and birds

The dam building activity of the beaver leads to an increase of the subterranean

water, which leads subsequently to newly flooded areas. Those areas provide new

habitats for amphibians, dragonflies and birds.

o Deadwood (as a result of gnawing activities) as a habitat for numerous fungi

and species of insects

Trees, which have their roots under water and die because of the beaver’s gnawing

activity, provide a new habitat for fungi and different species of insects.

13


2.3. Conflict potentials

In relation to specially protected species of animals, the terms “conflict” and “conflict species” are

quite clear. However, for this manual on beaver management, it is important to define the terms

adequately. “Conflict species” are species that have a negative, direct or indirect impact on human

activities which means certain consequences such as the loss of landscape function, property

damage with a vast financial damage or the cause of situations for future damage (e.g.: dam

building activity of the beaver).

The beavers’ habits of building dams and canals and the consequences of those, like for example

flooding or fallen trees can lead to conflicts with agriculture, forestry, water economy or land

owners. These conflicts occur mainly in those areas of the landscape, where the land is used by

humans to the very edge of waters that are also colonised by beavers. Approximately 90 % of

those conflicts occur within 10 metres between water and land and 95% within 20 metres

between water and land. The numbers of conflicts in relation to the distance to water are

represented in the bar chart below. This means that the beaver activity is limited to a small area

along waters.

Figure 7: Number of conflicts in relation to distance to water, 2018, x-axis = distance to water, y-axis = numbers of occurring conflicts, Verena Mayer

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

< 5m 6-10 m 11-15 m 16-20 m > 20 m

Number of conflicts in relation to distance to water

Distance to water

14


In addition to awareness raising measures, there is the idea to design an international beaver

management plan as part of this project. In order to find effective solutions that have only a small

impact on beaver populations, it is necessary to include and incorporate all stakeholders. Conflicts

that occur between humans and beavers can be categorised into three main topics: Feeding and

gnawing on crop, damages due to gnawing activities and damages and flooding due to building

activities.

Figure 8: A beaver during swimming in Stein an der Enns, photograph by apodemus, 2018

1. Feeding and gnawing on crops

As herbivores, beavers feed on a broad range of plants and wood that grow next to waters.

Moreover, they can adapt easily to new fodder plants like cultivated crops as corn, sugar beet,

rapeseed and grain. In some areas, they also feed on carrots, celery and kale. However, the

economic damage can be considered as insignificant, since on the one hand beavers only take

crops, which they actually eat and on the other hand, the number of individuals living in the same

area is limited due to the beaver’s territorial systems.

15


2. Destruction of wood

Wood is cut mainly during winter since beavers need bark and young branches to feed on. The

beaver prefers softwood such as willows and poplars, which do not have a monetary worth.

Sometimes beavers also gnaw on forestry relevant trees and fruit trees when they can be

found along waters. However, the economic damage is not seen as considerable. Problems are

mainly caused by cut down trees that threaten the safety of humans since they can fall on

roads, streets and walking paths.

Figure 9: Beaver tracks in Stein an der Enns, 2018, photograph by Verena Mayer

16


Moreover, trees that fall on fields or hay meadows can complicate or hinder the cultivation of

those. Another issue is that branches that fall into the water can have an impact on the

functionality of embankment dams. In smaller waters, logjams can be a result of fallen trees and

branches, which can lead subsequently to flooding. On top of that, the removal of fallen trees

causes rising labour costs that need to be paid.

3. Flooding and other damages due to digging and building activities

Beavers usually build their lodges and canals at the bank slope of waters. They dig canals into the

ground, which can get many metres long. At the end of those canals, there living areas can be

found. Those digging activities can cause immense damages. On the one hand, streets, roads, paths

and fields can get excavated which can lead to a collapse of the soil that covers those canals and

Figure 10: Beaver tracks in Stein an der Enns, 2018, photograph by Verena Mayer

17


tunnels, on the other hand manmade dams with a protective function can become leaky or even

be destroyed. The consequences are damages on vehicles and agricultural machines, flooded

fields with complicated cultivation conditions, water damages on buildings, damages on

purification plants or leaking fishing ponds. Additionally, damage to persons as a further

consequence cannot fully be excluded.

Beavers build dams in order to impound water and to use the resulting pond. If dams are built

near drainage channels, the water level will rise and adjoining fields will get flooded. The

consequences are complications in the cultivation process and harvesting process and a decrease

in profits. If dams are built near purification-plants of fishing ponds, the water supply and exhaust

pipe might get affected which would interfere with the functionality of the whole system.

3. Legal Situation

3.1. EU level

The European beaver (Castor fiber) is internationally protected under the Bern Convention. The

Bern Convention is a contract on the protection of European wildlife animals and plants and their

natural habitats. Article III lists species that have to be protected in general but can be hunted

under certain circumstances. Austria agreed to the convention in 1983.

Aim of the Fauna-Flora Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC of 21 May 1992) is the

conservation and restoration of biological diversity. Annex II lists animal and plant species of

community interest; their conservation requires the designation of special protection areas, so-

called Natura 2000 sites (referred to as "European protected areas" in the Styrian Nature

Conservation Act, see below). Annex IV lists animal and plant species of Community interest that

are to be strictly protected. Article 12 of the Directive prohibits the capture and killing of these

species. Any deliberate disturbance, in particular during breeding, rearing, hibernation and

migration periods, is prohibited, as is any damage to or destruction of breeding sites or resting

places. In addition, EU Member States shall prohibit the possession, transport, trade or exchange

and offer for sale or exchange of specimens taken from nature.

18


Aim of the Fauna-Flora- Habitats Directive (Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the conservation of

natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora) is to promote the maintenance of the biological

biodiversity. Under article II zoological and botanical species of general interest are listed. There

are certain protected areas for those species that are called „Natura 2000 sites“ as part of the EU

environmental protection efforts. Under article IV strictly protected species can be found which

must not be killed or hunted. Every distraction, especially during reproduction, winter or

migration, is strictly prohibited. Moreover, living areas and areas of reproduction must not be

destroyed. In addition, EU-states do not allow ownership, transport or trade of those protected

species.

Beaver occurrence mapping:

In order to analyse the Eurasian beaver’s population dynamics, a beaver occurrence mapping

takes place throughout Europe and is a binding obligation of EU member states. Therefore, regular

surveys of beaver distribution should be done every 5-7 years with closer monitoring of sensitive

areas and territories where changes are expected.

3.2. Contributing EU member states

In the following points, different laws for the protection of the beaver of all contributing EU

member states are listed. However, since the availability of the legal situation of the member

states was not equal, the amount of the provided information differs immensely.

Austria

Austria acceded to the Bern Convention in 1983 (Federal Law Gazette No. 372/1983). In Austria,

nature conservation is regulated at provincial level (9 different laws). For the province of Styria

the protection of the beaver is included into the Styrian Nature Conservation Law

(Steiermärkisches Naturschutzgesetz; Stmk. NschG 2017 i.d.F.). The beaver is listed in the species

protection regulation. According to the Styrian Hunting Law (Stmk. Jagdgesetz 1986 i.d.g.F.)in

§2, the beaver is considered “wild” and thus protected all year long. The beaver is listed in Annex

C (protected animals) of the Styrian Species Protection Ordinance (LGBl. Nr. 40/2007).

19


In protected areas that have been designated on the basis of the Styrian Nature Conservation Act,

some beavers enjoy special protection. A distinction must be made between several types of

protected areas:

Union law requires special protection areas to be designated for the species listed in Appendix II

of the Fauna-Flora Habitats Directive and thus also for beavers. Styria has designated 38 European

protected areas in accordance with this directive, but in none of them is the beaver mentioned as

a protected good.

European protected areas must also be established for the bird species listed in Annex I of the

Birds Directive (Council Directive 79/409/EEC of 2 April 1979). If the presence of the beaver

(through its ecosystem-forming activities) is of essential importance for the protected bird species

of the area, the Eurasian beaver is also protected in these areas.

The Styrian Nature Conservation Act also defines different types of protected areas that are

relevant under purely provincial law. On the one hand prescribed "landscape protection areas"

(Stmk. NSchG §8) and the ex lege protected "lakes and ponds formed during the Ice Age, including

their perimeter up to a 10 m wide strip of land measured " as well as all "naturally flowing waters

including their old waters (old and dead arms, rivers and lakes)" (Stmk. NSchG §8) are relatively

weakly protected, but on the other hand "nature reserves" (Stmk. NSchG §7), "natural

monuments" (Stmk. NSchG §11) and "protected landscape parts" (Stmk. NSchG §12) are subject

of a strict protection regime.

According to the Red List of Mammals in Austria (Spitzenberger 2005), beavers are considered

safe (LC = Least Concern). This means that the probability of extinction in the next 100 years is

less than 10 %. Both the population and the area development are classified as positive. According

to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, the species is also considered safe (Batbold et al.

2008).

20


Czech Republic

In the Czech Republic the Eurasian beaver (Castor fiber) is an autochthonous species, which is

protected by

The Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats)

European legislation (Directive 92/43/EEC), and

Act no. 114/1992 Coll. on nature and landscape protection (ANLP).

Germany

The beaver is also strictly protected in Germany (International Law, EU Law, Federal Law, Federal

State Laws).

FFH Directive, Annex II: Designation of Special Areas of Conservation (FFH areas with

beavers as conservation objective)

FFH Directive, Annex IV: Species to be strictly protected

Bundesnaturschutzgesetz §7 (2) No 13 (b), (aa) and §7 (2) No 14 (b) (reference to Annex

IV FFH Directive): Beavers are specially and strictly protected

Access bans

re-enact, catch, injure, kill

disturb during the times of reproduction, rearing, moulting, wintering and migration

Significant disruption means

the state of conservation of a local population deteriorates

take reproduction or resting places from nature,

damage or destroy them.

Bans on possession

take into possession or custody, have into possession or custody, or process or treat

sell, buy, offer for sale or purchase, stock for sale or transport, acquire for commercial

purposes, display or otherwise use marketing bans

21


Legal exceptions

These are exceptions to the prohibitions already provided for by law:

Proper land use for agriculture, forestry and fisheries, provided that the conservation

status of the local population is not impaired.

Permissible intervention and certain construction projects or actions in preparation for

statutory inspections.

Derogation from the marketing ban on beavers

which have been lawfully acquired prior to the protection (beavers found dead may be

taken along, but must be surrendered),

sick, injured, helpless beavers may be taken into possession and cared for (report to the

competent authority)

Exceptions in individual cases

to prevent significant damage to land, forests, fisheries, water or any other significant

economic activity

for the protection of native flora and fauna

for the purposes of research, teaching, education or reintroduction, or for the purpose of

rearing or artificially propagating animals for such purposes

in the interests of human health, public security, including national defence and the

protection of the civilian population,

or the significant beneficial effects on the environment

for other imperative reasons of overriding public interest, including those of a social or

economic nature.

22


Further prerequisites for exceptions (the responsibilities in the Federal States are different).

reasonable alternatives are not given

conservation status of the population does not deteriorate

further requirements according to Art. 16 para. 1 FFH Directive, compliance with Art. 16

para. 3 FFH Directive (documentation, reporting obligation)

observance of further laws (animal protection, weapons law, §4 Abs. 1 BArtSchV

(prohibition of access methods), ...)

Hungary

In Hungary, the Eurasian beaver occurs in many areas that are Natura 2000 sites. Therefore, the

European law can be applied in those areas. However, there was no further data provided on a

national basis.

Romania

In Romania, the legislative regulations in the field of conservation and environmental protection

are unitary at national level. Since 1989, Romania has taken important steps in harmonizing

national legislation with the European one.

Thus, in 1993 Romania joined the Berne Convention of 1979, which mentions Castor fiber in the

list of protected species of fauna.

In the following year, two other important international documents for the ratification of the

Convention on Biological Diversity, which was signed in Rio de Janeiro on 5th June 1992, were

ratified by Law No. 58 of 13 July 1994 and Law No. 69 of 15th July 1994. Romania acceded to the

Convention on International Trade of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, adopted in

Washington on 3 March 1973.

After the accession of Romania to the EU in 2007, the first protected areas were set up within the

NATURA 2000 ecological network.

23


Later, legislative efforts to harmonize national legislation with European legislation have

accelerated. Therefore, a series of laws and government ordinances with a biodiversity

application have been issued. Among those laws were: Law Nr. 49 of 7 April 2011 approving

Government Ordinance no. 57 of 20 June 2007 on the regime of natural protected areas,

conservation of natural habitats, wild flora and fauna, Law Nr. 203/14 of 5 March 2009 laying

down the procedure for derogation from the protection measures of wild flora and fauna species,

in cases where certain specimens need to be relocated or even eliminated in order to reduce the

level of conflict.

In the field of hunting, the most important step was made in 2006 when the Law of Hunting and

Hunting Ground Protection was updated by the law 407 of November 9. The beaver is mentioned

in the list of species of hunting interest in which hunting is prohibited.

This was complemented by Romanian Government Decision no. 1679 of December 10, 2008 on

the way of granting the damages provided by the Hunting and Game Protection Act no. 407/2006,

as well as the obligations of the managers of the hunting funds and the owners of agricultural,

forestry and domestic crops for the prevention of damages.

Among the European Legislative Documents that have been accepted, we recall:

Council of Europe Directive 92/43 EEC on the Conservation of Natural Habitats and Wild

Fauna and Flora adopted on May 21, 1992. The document mentions the species within the

ANNEX no. 3: Species of plants and animals the conservation of which requires the

designation of special areas of conservation and special protection areas for avifauna and

Annex no. 4: Species of community interest. Species of animals and plants requiring strict

protection.

Commission Regulation (EC) No 865/2006 of 4 May 2006 laying down detailed rules for

the implementation of Council Regulation (EC) 338/97 on the protection of wild fauna and

flora and control of trade.

However, there is a lack of harmonization between environmental and water legislation that

affects species management.

24


4. Swot Analysis

Intern analysis

Strengths Weaknesses

Ext

ern

al a

nal

ysis

Opportunities Working on a transnational level means

more corporations, more help and

more knowledge. This might help to

improve beaver management

enormously since the beaver is a

migrating species. Therefore, a

transnational management plan will be

a great way to increase the efficiency of

beaver management in Europe.

Stakeholders and groups

of interest as well as the

legal situation are

different in every country.

Measures are not always

helpful and sometimes

even counterproductive,

e.g.: destroying of beaver

dams

Threats Transnational communication is of great importance and flexible

individual solutions should be considered in certain cases since the

situation in every country might be slightly different.

Beaver coordinators are important for conflict management and for

the implementation of measures.

Figure 11: SWOT analysis on a transnational level, 2018

25


5. Distribution and Beaver Management in EU

Wildlife management and thereby beaver management are quite young disciplines. In contrast to

the classic protection of the environment, which takes only the well-being of animals and their

habitat into consideration, wildlife management also focuses on the needs and interests of the

local population. However, these different aspects and their expectations often collide. For

example: While the conservationist is happy about the beaver, the farmer is annoyed by flooded

plains and wants to get rid of the species or a house owner uses the press to put the blame for his

wet cellar (which has been wet for decades), now finally on the beaver. This is the point, where

beaver management is required to arrange a balance between human expectations and the

necessities of beavers.

Beaver management is also necessary in order to encourage prevention of extensive damages

caused by beaver activities. In Eastern and Northern Europe, beavers have repopulated large

parts of their former range, while in the West the gaps are still very large (Map LfU to Duncan

Halley, NINA, Trondheim, 2009). The Danube river basin is one of those areas with the highest

beaver population density. Currently the distribution and expansion in the Danube river basin

seems to be in the initial stage of extension in some areas (Hungary, Croatia, Serbia, Bulgaria,

Romania, Slovakia), whereas in other areas there are beaver populations that have already

stabilized in different stages (Germany, Austria, Slovakia partially).

26


Figure 12: The distribution of the Eurasian beaver in Austria, Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt, source from Duncan Halley, NINA, Trondheim

27


5.1. The Eurasian beaver in Austria

According to historical data on hunting, beavers already populated many Austrian rivers in 1700.

In 1775 the beaver was considered extinct in Styria. The last autochthonous beaver population in

Austria was extinct in 1869 (Anthering near Salzburg).

Reintroduction programmes

Starting points for resettlement in Austria were two intended naturalization actions and two

unintended settlements of beavers that escaped from enclosures. In the years from 1970 and 1990

around 32 Castor fibers and also 12-15 Castor canadensis were repopulated in the area of the

Danube basin, east from Vienna. Some reintroductions were not registered.

From 1972 until 1976, 15 beavers were reintroduced by the Bund Naturschutz Bayern in the

island area of the Inn artificial lake in Ering-Frauenstein near Prienach. They had already

penetrated the river mouth of the Salzach in the first year and were observed in the

Ettenau/Salzach. The Austrian Federal Forests abandoned two European beavers originating

from Sweden in the Ettenau in 1977. With a length of 225 km, the Salzach is the longest and richest

in water tributary of the Inn. It flows in the province of Salzburg (Austria) and in Bavaria

(Germany), is one of the major Alpine rivers and drains the Eastern Hohe Tauern to the North. It

belongs to the river system of the Danube (discharge via the Inn-Danube-Black Sea).

In the course of flood events, beavers escaped from enclosures in research institutes and animal

parks (between 1985-1986). Some beavers were run over by cars.

Immigration potential from neighbouring countries

The spread of Castor fiber from Croatia was expected, since settlement programmes of at least 90

beavers took place on the Drava and Save in the 1990s.

From 1996 to 1998 about 30 beavers were established in the Gemenc Nationalpark on the

Hungarian Drava but they had no tendency to spread upstream on the Danube.

28


The beaver was seen as a threat to agriculture and thus the extinction was also seen as a result of

field damage compensation.

Moreover, individuals were reintroduced in the Province of Styria, near the rivers Enns and

Salzach at almost the same time. As a result and due to immigration, the number of individuals

has increased to 5.000 in Austria.

It is claimed that the beaver colonies in the Southern parts of Styria along the Rivers Raab and

Mur descend from beavers from Hungary and/or Slovenia. The beaver colonies that live in the

pilot area along the Enns descend from beavers in Upper Austria.

It is assumed that the beaver is further spreading and that gaps will be filled soon in Austria.

Beaver management and monitoring in the pilot area Styrian -Enns Valley

The beaver’s spreading in recent years has shown that it can adapt to a variety of different

habitats. The Enns River is an important connection between already populated areas in Upper

Austria and Styria whereas an upstream migration is not uncommon. Since only young beavers

search for new territories, it is quite common that they choose territories outside the distribution

area.

Permanent beaver territories (fig. 13, red spots) in the Enns Valley are in Garsten, Altenmarkt,

Landl, Hieflau and St. Martin am Grimming. Moreover, beaver tracks (yellowish spots) can be

found in Ternberg, Großraming, Admont, Selzthal and Stein an der Enns. The upstream migration

is a result of the beaver’s ability to obtain information of areas through their scent, which tells

them if a territory is already populated or not.

Even though the beaver is able to adapt through a variety of habitats, certain criteria have to be

fulfilled: water depth, food availability and soil that allows building activities. Most parts of the

Enns River are characterised by the occurrence of big rocks, which makes it impossible for beavers

to build canals or lodges.

29


Moreover, the current velocity of the Enns is quite strong which increases the beaver’s energy

rate. Therefore, as permanent territories, the beaver prefers contributing streams and ditches,

like for example the water mouth of the Lohgraben leading into the Enns in St. Martin am

Grimming or water storage areas near hydroelectric power station, like for example in Hieflau.

Figure 13: The distribution of the Eurasian beaver in the Styrian Enns Valley by Apodemus, 2018

30


The Federal State Styria has a Beaver Management Plan, which focuses on the following three

aims:

1. Beaver monitoring: The development of a beaver monitoring network of the Styrian

Mountain and Nature Rescue Service (Steiermärkische Berg- und Naturwacht) in

order to improve the knowledge of the current distribution of the beaver in Styria.

Documentation of territorial expansion and inspection of already existing territories.

2. Beaver counselling: The establishment of a beaver advice centre where information

about the beaver can be obtained and beaver observations reported. Moreover,

conflicts and problems with the beaver and possible solutions should be discussed.

3. The development of a Styrian beaver management strategy: Based on the

experiences of all federal states of Austria applying different management-strategies,

a management strategy for Styria involving all stakeholders (conservation, water

management, forestry, fishery etc.) is in progress. Since conflicts in Styria have not

reached a worrying number yet, there is still a chance of finding optimal and

sustainable solutions.

One part of the “Beaver management strategy in Styria” is the establishment of a beaver

observation network to improve knowledge about the current distribution of beavers in Styria.

This is a LE 14-20 funded project (Rural development programme) and has a duration from

2017to 2019. The expert and coordination team is ÖKOTEAM, which is an Institute for Animal

Ecology and Land use planning. It is a co-operation between Styrian Mountain and Nature Rescue

Service and the Federal State Styria.

Moreover, it is planned to document the area expansion and to inspect already known areas.

At the current range of distribution and expansion of beavers in the Danube river basin, it seems

to be the best method to observe two different areas:

I. Areas where the beaver is in the initial stage of extension

II. Areas where beavers already stabilized in different stages

Monitoring is planned to be carried out mainly from the ground, eventually using camera sets or

telemetry. In general, the following strategies, mostly methods of occurrence and detection, are

used to monitor and map beaver activity. In order to collect useful data, standard conditions must

http://www.oekoteam.at/

http://www.oekoteam.at/

31


be met and data cannot be collected in different seasons. Moreover, the knowledge of biology and

ecology, as well as the experience of observers is crucial.

• Visual observation

• Video surveillance

• Direct observation (Observation of activity mainly on the water surface)

• Telemetry

• Cadaver records of incidental findings of dead individuals

• Questionnaire survey (Sending of special questionnaires at certain intervals to

organizations operating within the territory with the potential beaver occurrence; e.g.

stakeholders of hunting areas, conservation departments).

• Terrain mapping of areas – signs of presence (5 categories: Feeding activities – gnaw

marks, droppings, feeding stools, teeth imprints, stocks; territorial activities - scent

marks, motion activities – paths, tail or paws prints, slides; sheltering activities -

resting haunts, burrows, lodges, semi-lodges; construction activities – dams, weirs,

canals, water reservoirs, water ponds; droppings/faeces)

The beaver management of the Federal Province Styria has developed a beaver monitoring plan,

which has its main focuses on the Natura 2000 sites and on known “beaver districts”, which are

further sorted into different categories of risk potential and need for action.

• high: Hartberg-Fürstenfeld, Südoststeiermark und Leibnitz

• moderate: Weiz, Deutschlandsberg, Graz-Umgebung

• small: Liezen, Bruck-Mürzzuschlag, Murtal, Graz-Stadt

• none: Murau, Leoben, Voitsberg

32


Figure 15: Requirements for action, Zimmermann, 2018

Figure 16 Distribution of the beaver, Zimmermann, 2018

33


Beaver counselling: In addition to already existing consultative contacts, it is planned to

establish a number of beaver advice centres where information about the beaver can be

obtained and beaver observations can be reported. Moreover, conflicts and problems with the

beaver and possible solutions can be discussed there.

Public relations: As a major part of beaver management, it is important to inform and enlighten

the local society about the beaver, especially as a lot of knowledge has been lost over the last

decades.

Investigation and acquisition of funds: Since beaver management is expensive (staff, necessary

measures), financial sources are necessary. Therefore, it is important to investigate properly all

possible sources of financial funding.

Mediator role: Another important task is to mediate locally in conflicts between all the different

stakeholder groups. All in all, beaver management is supposed to bring the beaver into the hearts

and minds of the human population.

Conciliation and advisory bodies in the Styrian Enns Valley: In case of conflicts, observations

or findings, the beaver management centre of province government of Styria can be contacted.

The beaver manager, Mag. Brigitte Komposch, MSc, who is part of the Ökoteam Styria and

responsible for any kind of conciliation in Styria, will answer questions in relation to the beaver

and help with conflict situations that will be examined in order to find sustainable solutions.

Moreover, especially for the Styrian Enns Valley, the contact persons of the Mountain and Nature

Rescue Service, Dr Christine Resch and Dr, Stefan Resch, who are responsible for educating and

awareness raising activities, can be contacted. According to them, the reactions of people in

relation to the return of the beaver to the municipality Niederöblarn were quite diverse. However,

since it is only one individual of the species, which lives in the EU protection area, not many

conflicts have occurred so far. In spring and autumn excursions to the beaver territory are offered

to different target groups. The participants learn about beaver tracks, the beaver’s way of living

and its habitats. Moreover, this excursion provides people with the chance to obtain a lot of

information about the beaver and to ask critical questions.

Since all federal states of Austria have slightly different management plans and the pilot area lies

in the Styrian Enns Valley, the Austrian chapter of this manual focuses primarily on the Styrian

34


management plan. However, other interesting attempts can be found online (see following links).

On top of that, some federal states, e.g.: Carinthia, have established funds for damages caused by

wild life animals, like the beaver.

Beaver Management in Upper Austria:

Beaver Manager: DI Bernhard Schön

https://www.land-oberoesterreich.gv.at/129257.htm

Beaver Management in Burgenland:

https://www.burgenland.at/themen/natur/naturschutz/bibermanagement/

Figure 17: Local informative workshops and excursions on beaver management, photograph by Verena Mayer, 2018



35


Pilot actions to minimize conflicts: A permanent beaver territory is situated in St. Martin am

Grimming and Niederöblarn in the Natura 2000 site “Ennstal zwischen Liezen und

Niederstuttern”. In this area, the remaining marsh areas after the regulation of the Enns

(between 1863 and 1870) can be found. This is the reason why beavers can find suitable soil for

building activities. Moreover, the beavers can find enough food for the winter in the meadows.

Figure 18: The beaver territory in Stein an der Enns at the Salza in Styria by Apodemus, 2018

As already mentioned, most conflicts occur in a small strip along water and fields along the Enns

are used for pasture and are reaped on a regular basis. Years ago those fields were drained and

ditches were built in order to make the fields suitable for cultivation. Therefore, the beaver dam

building activity is seen as a threat to these fields. A solution could be to remove parts of the beaver

dam whereas entries must stay under water.

36


In addition, many cycling and hiking paths can be found along the Enns. In case that those paths

lead through a beaver territory, people might get harmed by falling trees or excavated paths. For

security reasons, trees that show beaver damage need to be removed as soon as possible and trees

can be protected by wire as already mentioned in another part of this manual.

Further important aspects are the busy roads along the Enns highways (B320 and B115) which

can be considered as a source of danger. It can be assumed that especially young beavers, which

are looking for a new territory, end up as roadkill when crossing those busy roads.

Moreover, the hydroelectric power stations from Gstatterboden to Upper Austria should be

seen as a threat since beaver dams might get flooded or even destroyed. It is planned to document

the area expansion and to inspect already known areas.

5.2. The Eurasian beaver in Czech Republic

The measures of the management plan for the beaver in particular aim to reduce the conflict rate

and contribute to the solving of problematic situations by protecting the beaver as well as a system

of compensations for damage and loss. Conflicts do not occur immediately after the first

settlement of the beaver in a certain area. Noticeable damage that causes conflicts corresponds to

a higher intensity of settlement. The beaver prefers a natural environment, away from technical

elements in the landscape and with a distance to humans. The reasons for conflicts can be found

in the increase of the beaver population. Therefore, the aim of the management plan is a controlled

development of the population to ensure that the costs to eliminate conflicts are acceptable, even

though it is clear that conflict situations cannot be avoided entirely.

From a biological point of view, the spreading and development of beaver populations is regulated

by nature. Moreover, regulation during the population growth may lead to an increase of the

fertility rate. Therefore, it is advised to introduce suitable management (regulatory catch) only

when the population is stabilized (after 30-50 years of population growth). It is also suggested

that milder solutions should be preferred to regulative measures. Moreover, before such

measures take place, an understanding of the function of the beaver on the landscape is necessary

– such as spontaneous renaturation of watercourses, restoring of wetlands etc.

37


In order to ensure an acceptable development of beaver populations, the Czech Republic is divided

up into three types of regions (A-, B-, C-zones – see picture). Each zone has a different emphasis

on this development, depending on the degree of risk of serious conflict situations and thus a

different level of interest in the protection and maintenance of the species.

Zones According to the Management Plan:

Defined zones meet the requirements on protection of the beaver considering the European

legislation, which does not allow any reduction in the degree of legal protection. Three different

spatial approaches allow land use and support social interests in the landscape, while avoiding

conflicts with beaver protection.

Figure 19: A Map of zones of differential protection of Eurasian beaver in the Czech Republic, source NCA CR

A-Zone: Highest level of beaver protection in Natura 2000 areas: It covers 1.2% of the Czech

Republic and includes these SCIs: Labské údolí, Porta Bohemica, Kateřinský a Nivní potok, Niva

Dyje, Soutok–Podluží, Strážnická Morava, Morava– Chropyňský luh and Litovelské Pomoraví. In

this zone, the beaver is a subject of protection and therefore all activities need to take the demands

38


and requirements of the beaver into consideration. The reason for the existence of this zone is to

ensure that those are fulfilled. Conflict situations that occur in this area should primarily be solved

by preventive measures. The number of individuals is estimated to more than 2000 individuals.

B-Zone: Species protection in this area is subordinated to the use and functions of the landscape.

The purpose of zone B is to reduce negative impacts of beavers. Measures are the reduction of

beaver dams and lodges and in justified cases local elimination of individuals or whole families.

The development of beaver populations is allowed in places where no significant conflicts occur.

Moreover, it should allow the flow and exchange of individuals between different parts of zone A.

C-Zone: The presence of the beaver in this zone in unwanted. The only appropriate measures in

this zone are the elimination of any settlement of the beaver because of high risk of serious land

use damage such as of vulnerable waterworks (e.g.: historic fishponds) and threats to security of

the population. ). The C-zone covers 13.3% of the territory of the Czech Republic and covers the

entire river basins which are supplied by the South Bohemian fishpond basin, namely Otava,

Blanice, Lužnice, Malše Rivers and the upper part of the Vltava River, which flow to the Orlík Dam.

Šumava National Park (with regard to the conservation objectives of the area) is excluded from

the C-zone and falls within the B-zone.

However, the activities of the beaver raise a number of conflicts with humans. In 2013 the Ministry

of the Environment of the Czech Republic adopted a management plan for the beaver. This

management plan represents a document that includes endangered and protected species, which

also belong to conflict species. Management plans are created for species that get into direct

conflict with the interests of man and have the purpose to contribute to sustainable populations,

while mitigating the negative effects of those species.

5.3. The Eurasian beaver in Germany

According to the Federal Nature Conservation Act, the beaver is specially and strictly protected. If

beavers cause serious damage, they may be caught by means of a special permit or regulation and,

under special circumstances, also killed. In FFH areas, the state is obliged to preserve the beaver

in a favourable state of conservation or, if necessary, to restore it.

39


In Bavaria, the beaver has been exterminated since 1867 and reintroduced in small numbers since

1966. The animals came from Russia, Poland, France and Scandinavia. It was a funded project first

by the Federal Ministry of Agriculture and later by the Federal Ministry of Environment from

Bavaria. 2010, over 12,000 beavers and approx. 3,000 districts were counted (Bayerisches

Landesamt für Umwelt, 2019). Migration took place to Austria and to the Federal State of Baden-

Würtemberg and to the Czech Republic. In Germany there are about 20,000 beavers (BlU, 2009).

Figure 20: The Distribution of the beaver in Bavaria, Bavarian authority for Environment, 2009

40


5.4. The Eurasian beaver Hungary

The reappearance of the beaver in Hungary was in the Szigetköz area of the country in 1985/1986.

It was presumed that these animals came from Austria where successful reintroductions had

already taken place. This is also the area, where the biggest beaver population of Hungary lives

nowadays.

The first release at Tisza-lake was a so-called soft release: Artificial lodges were used,- a few

hundred meters away of the natural lodge in the area. Moreover, food (apple, corn, etc) was

provided in the following days for the released animals (Dudás 2002).

However, according to Gerhard Schwab (Germany, Bavaria), the beavers released at Tisza-lake

were Canadians (Castor canadensis). Therefore, the last specimen from the Tisza-lake were

trapped again.

The beaver reintroduction program of WWF Hungary in 1994 had the aim to find suitable habitats

for beavers to be reintroduced to. Almost all chosen localities are protected by law, except 2-3

places. The following organisations and persons were informed: local councils, hunting and

angling clubs and landowners.

According to the Hungarian beaver reintroduction feasibility study, the goal of the program was

to reintroduce beavers to oxbow lakes close to the rivers that are suitable for this species. Márta

Bera, who became the manager of the project, said that the program aimed to reach a self-

supporting beaver population in Hungary. The feasibility study did not define the success of the

program and did not determine quantitative and measurable goals. In the course of the program,

the „ideal” population number was estimated according to the carrying capacity of the actual

protected area and the reproduction of the animals. According to Sarrazin & Barbault (1996),

Seddon et al. (2007) and Sutherland et al. (2010) reintroductions should be planned as ecological

experiments.

Over 90% of the beavers reintroduced in Hungary originated in Bavaria. The rest of them are very

likely to originate from Austria and Poland.

The beaver population in Hungary is growing.

41


Beavers can be found almost everywhere along the Danube. They reach their highest number in

Szigetköz. Even though there were no reintroductions in the first place, they have reached this

area through migration from Austria. According to Varju (2008), during the 2008, monitoring

about 104 territories were found and the calculated population is between 360 and 370, which

might be, however, an underestimation. After 2008 the monitoring stopped but it is believed that

the population has been growing further since because of the population in Szigetköz, of which

specimen are migrating.

5.5. The Eurasian beaver in Romania

Like in most countries of Europe, the Eurasian beaver was extinct in the first decades of the 19th

century in Romania. According to documents, the beaver was hunted in 1824. It is possible that

the species survived for a few years in some isolated areas, but disappeared soon after from the

fauna of Romania. The cause of extinction is excessive hunting, mainly for fur. Beaver fur was very

valuable due to the extraordinary qualities of thermal insulation and was mainly worn by

noblemen.

Between 1996 and 1997, preparatory actions for reintroduction were carried out, in particular

habitat assessment and questionnaires to determine the degree of acceptance of the species by

different interest groups.

It is worth noting that the greatest support for reintroduction came from hunters who wanted the

species to re-establish its place in the national fauna. The reintroduction was carried out with the

consent of the higher levels: the Romanian Academy, the Ministry of Waters and Forests, and the

National Sanitary-Veterinary Agency.

The process of reintroduction was carried out in successive stages, between 1998 and 2003. A

total number of 182 beavers was brought from Bavaria and released in the rivers Olt (91), Mureș

(56) and Ialomița .

In the first five years after reintroduction, the population grew slowly, followed by an explosion

characterised by population growth and the occupation of large river sectors of the historical

species range. Several population surveys were done, the most important ones in 2007-2008 and

2014-2017.

42


Figure 21: Beaver (Castor fiber) population dynamics after reintroduction

Figure 22: Beaver distribution in Romania, INCDS, 2010

91 56 35 0

1219

240

640

1565

330214

36

0

200

400

600

800

1000

1200

1400

1600

1800

Olt Mureș Ialomița Other rivers

Reintroduction

2009-2010

2014-2017

43


According to the most recent data achieved, the entire population was estimated at 2.145-2.250

beavers in 2017. Compared to the evolution of European beaver populations in other countries,

the Romanian population has developed more slowly. It is possible that a cause of this

phenomenon is the presence of many stray dogs beside the waters. They are the greatest natural

enemies. High mortality can be caused by the torrential nature of most watercourses. Spring

floods affect very young beavers; most families observed during the autumn period remain with

2, maximum 3 cubs.

In 2009, beaver specimen from Hungary and Ukraine were also reported in some rivers from NW

of Transylvania (Someș, Criș, Iza, Mara, Vișeu). Beaver families were noticed outside of the

repopulated watersheds, on the Uz, Buzău rivers.

For the Negru River, the average number of individuals estimated per family was 2.75, and on its

tributaries 2.38 beavers per family, because of the potential of the biotope.

High densities of beavers (over nine specimens per quadrant) were observed in the upper basin

of the Negru River, in the Reci - Breţcu sector, with a maximum recorded in Cătălina - Târgu

Secuiesc - Ojdula area. Another high density nucleus is observed in the Ilieni-Chichiş-Ozun area.

The conservation status of the population is favourable. The next step in the beaver management

of Romania will be to find the best solutions to mitigate the conflicts.

The Eurasian beaver in Covasna County

The beaver reintroduction started in 1998. First, eight beavers were reintroduced in Romania on

Olt River, at the border between Brasov and Covasna County, at Lunca Calnicului and Podu Oltului.

In the following year (1999) the project continued with another 19 beavers, of which seven

beavers were released in the Ilieni-Sfantu Gheorghe area.

In 2000, 13 beaver individuals were imported and set free in the Sfantu Gheorghe - Bixad area (Olt

River) and 3 in the Black River Basin, Lemnia zone.

In 2001, the population of the Black River was completed with another four individuals released

in the Târgu Secuiesc area.

44


Later part of the beaver migrated upstream and downstream in search of the best habitats. In the

first years of reintroduction, the population remained at a very low level, followed by an upward

trend, reaching a population of about 455 in Covasna County (37% of the population on the OLT

River) in 2010, of which 185 castors in the Negru river basin.

During the 2012-2013 assessment, around 300 beavers lived in the Negru River basin, and taking

into account an annual population growth of 5%, we can estimate that the population in 2018 is

about 420 beaver.

Figure 23: Beaver Distribution in Covasna County, INCDS, 2014

45


Figure 24: Distribution of the European beaver around the river Negru;The density of beaver occurence on 5x5km areas in different colors, INCDS, 2014

46


For the Negru River, the average number of individuals estimated per family was 2.75, and on its

tributaries 2.38 beavers per family, in concordance with the potential of the biotope. High

densities of beavers (over nine specimens per quadrant) were observed in the upper basin of the

Negru River, in the Reci - Breţcu sector, with a maximum recorded in Cătălina - Târgu Secuiesc -

Ojdula area. Another high density nucleus is observed in the Ilieni-Chichiş-Ozun area.

The conservation status of the population is favorable, next step in the management of the species

will be to find the best solutions to mitigate the conflicts. The management of the species is

regulated by the national and European legislation and it is made unitary at the level of the entire

territory of Romania.

At present, the Eurasian beaver is present in all biogeographical regions of Romania: Pontic,

Stepic, Panonic, and Continental and Alpine, except the Black Sea.

Species monitoring is based on the provisions of Article 17 of the Habitats Directive. The last

report was made in 2015, following the data gathered through the project:

"Monitoring the Conservation Status of Species and Habitats in Romania under Article 17 of the

Habitats Directive" Project financed by the Sectorial Operational Program "Environment"

There is a second report to be made in 2019,which is funded by the European Union. Apart from

that, there are no subsidies that support species management and monitoring.

The beaver-human conflicts are mediated by the Environmental Protection Agencies (EPAs),

which prepare damages files and send them to the Ministry of Environment for validation. The

damage assessment commissions are made up of members of the mayoralty, hunting fund

manager, EPA and the damaged owner. Until 2018 at national level, only a few cases were

compensated.

47


5.6. Advice in conflicts and damage compensation

One major topic is to help and assist affected people in cases of beaver conflicts to find solutions

and compromises. This can only work locally and in cooperation with all affected stakeholder

groups and specialists.

When first problems occur, specialists or certain institutions should be contacted in order to

receive preventive advice.

Moreover, in cases where severe conflicts occur, measures to compensate damage need to be

conducted. Possible measures are listed in this chapter of the manual.

Preventive advice

Moreover, it is better to prevent conflicts than to find solutions for them. Therefore,

communication is important. All potentially affected parties should be involved in preventive

measures (e.g. property owners, residents close to the water, politicians, authorities and different

federations).

Since re-mediation is often difficult, the only long-term solution is the prevention of problems. In

countries with a longer experience of co-existence with beavers, complex measures are used. The

consultancy of specialists who apply a wide range of technical, hydro-technical and biological

methods to control water levels in beaver reservoirs is also well-proven.

Moreover, awareness and public education is necessary to protect the beaver. The co-existence of

beaver and humans has to be learned again.

In order to ensure the beaver’s survival as well as to support the interests of agriculture and

forestry near waters, it is important to develop conflict-strategies.

Solutions and measures

As already mentioned, the majority of conflicts occur in a relatively narrow strip along the water

bodies settled by beavers (90% within 10m, 95% within 20m distance). This result is the basis for

solutions concerning conflicts with beavers.

48


There are individual local measures which include a variety of measures t that are supposed to

prevent and mitigate possible damages. Before measures can be started, legal requirements have

to be taken into consideration.

Measures, which prevent damage caused by gnawing

Protection of individual trees

o Fencing

The measure is intended to protect individual plants or groups of plants from being reachable for

beavers. The kind of technical implementation and the level of security can differ depending on

the object that needs the protection. The aim of fencing individual trees is to prevent beavers from

gnawing on those trees, their buttress roots and their low growing branches. The fence must be

created in a way that it does not hinder the growth of the tree and also that beavers cannot

overcome the fence in any way.

Figure 25: Fencing of trees, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov, 2018

49


The preferred food for beavers are woody plants , especially in distance of 20 meters from the

water areas. For this reason, trees in this area where gnawing activities should be prevented, need

to be protected by fences. Moreover, willows and poplars which represent the beaver’s preferred

food, need to be protected in a distance of up to 100 m.

Wire meshes that are at least one meter high, can protect valuable trees. Another possibility are

bite-protection measures. Shred grids and 2-3 layers of 4-edge-meshes have proven as useful.

However, thinner material such as chicken wire is often ripped and therefore not recommended

The protection with iron nets can be used for precious tree species where gnawing activities

should be prevented.

o Electric fences

Electric fences can be used to prevent the beavers from accessing riverside parcels. Moreover,

after removing or lowering a dam, an electric fence can stop beavers from rebuilding a new dam.

Additional horses and cattle can be kept away, preventing them from breaking into beaver

tunnels.

Electric fences can be used to prevent the beavers from accessing riverside parcels. Moreover,

after removing or lowering a dam, an electric fence can stop beavers from rebuilding a new dam.

Additional horses and cattle can be kept away, preventing them from breaking into beaver

tunnels. For beavers the electric fence can be composed of 4 electrified wires disposed as close as

possible to the ground. (maximum high~0,7m).

50


Figure 26: Application of electric fences, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov, 2018

Protection of woody plants against beaver bites

In urban areas, tree felling and the construction of dams, in particular, offer a certain potential for

conflict and danger. In areas where man has reduced the shore shrubs to a narrow strip, or in

park-like areas (Alte Donau, Donaukanal) and gardens, felling of trees by beavers is often

undesired. This can be remedied by mechanically protecting individual trees with stronger wire

mesh or by applying a protective coating to the tree trunks. This non-toxic coating containing

quartz sand can be obtained from tree nurseries. It is also possible to reduce the pressure on

individual trees by deflecting beavers (e.g. cutting material).

The City of Vienna investigates every tip from the population about beaver damage in order to

take any necessary measures. Trees gnawed on massively by the beaver, which represent a safety

risk, are felled immediately. If possible, the felled tree is left lying as a food resource for the beaver

in order to reduce further felling.

51


o Buffer strips

Part of the production area is provided for beavers; plants are planted that are attractive for the

beaver (willows and poplars). This should be done along watercourses in width of at least 20 m.

The presence of the buffer strip cannot completely prevent the occurrence of damage to

agricultural areas behind it because beavers use for food a wider range of woody plants (than

exclusively poplar and willow), but the strip can contribute to a significant reduction of gnawing.

This measure has to be considered a long-term activity since the foundation and support of these

strips is quite time consuming. This measure can be applied in a limited way and it will not be a

short-term activity. However, the rate of reduction of damage depends on composition, age

structure, density and width of the buffer strip. Moreover, the buffer stripe reduces the space for

farming. The opposite of buffer strips is to reduce the attractiveness of the area by removing

vegetation of woody plants in a strip along the banks. From a biological perspective, however, this

measure is not appropriate. Due to the significant loss of biodiversity of this measure, it is only

suitable for specific cases, e.g. around small hydropower plants (SHP), where the removal of

vegetation in the vicinity reduces the risk of clogging of SHPs mechanisms by carried woody

debris, which is in case of occurrence of beavers very frequent.

o Selection of crops

In order to reduce feeding damage or to reduce the financial significance, crops that are less

attractive for beavers or of lower economical value can be cultivated, especially in river shore

areas.

o Supplemental feeding and planting of woody food

In special cases, the beaver’s chopping activity can be reduced by supplemental food. Moreover,

in order to reduce damage on more valuable trees, shrubby willows can be planted near the water.

When a new forest is planted, a 10 m wide strip along the water should consist of unused

softwood.

52


o Leaving cut down trees

Since chopped trees provide a source of food for beavers, they should be left until spring if it is

possible because otherwise the loss of food has to be compensated by new trees. A solution for

safety reasons would be to fix the tree with steel cables in order to prevent it from being washed

away.

Protection of culverts and pipes

Culverts and pipes often get blocked by beavers; they can be protected with wire grating which

makes it more difficult for beavers to bloc.

Figure 27: Protection of pipes, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov, 2018

53


Flood Prevention

It cannot be generalized under which parameters and limits beaver dams are built. However, there

are certain patterns: Beaver dams occur, as mentioned in chapter 2.4. Conflict potentials, in small

and medium sized watercourses. Moreover, the depth plays an important role: If it is too low,

beavers try to increase its level. For beavers, the flow needs to be fluctuating or low. Therefore,

Figure 28: Damages because of beaver activities, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 2016

54


when the flow is too strong, they construct dams to achieve a reduction in the rate of water flow.

To sum up, beavers build dams to reduce the water flow, or to increase the water level.

A measure is a drainage of the beaver dam. This measure aims to reduce the water level of the

beaver basin. The principle is simple: The aim is to place a pipe with a protective cage to an inflow

part, so that the final level is acceptable for humans and beavers. International experience shows

that this measure is effective as long as the height of the water in the basin is not under 80 cm

after the drainage. However, when the depth decreases to under 50-60 cm, it is quite likely that

beavers will not accept this measure. Therefore, each particular situation needs to be assessed by

experts because the aim is not draining the whole beaver basin, but only a reduction of the water

level and subsequently a prevention for flooding.

For more detailed information, a beaver manager or other experts should be contacted.

Figure 29: Drainage of a beaver dam: into a dam inserted pipe with a knee in an inflow and with a protective cage (a); detailed inflow of the pipe and protective cage (b), Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 2016

Dislodgement of beavers

Since the only measures to keep beavers out of larger zones would be to remove all trees and

cover all river banks with stone, any trials do force beavers to leave a certain area failed. Under

consideration of EU and national law, beavers might be dislodged if other solutions are impossible

or too expensive. Legal requirements in the participating countries are normally based on

derogative option in the FFH directive. Beavers are caught by traps that are placed ashore on

beaver passages or by using a net. The further treatment is in most cases subject to the decision

of local authorities.

55


6. Relevant Stakeholders and cooperation partners

As already mentioned, in order to find effective solutions in relation to conflict management,

prevention and damage compensation, it is necessary to include and incorporate all stakeholders:

The European beavers crosses borders and is a species that migrates to uninhabited areas.

Therefore, it is of immense importance that the issue is not only dealt with on a national level but

also on a transnational level; thus it requires the cooperation of all relevant stakeholders and

cooperation partners.

Land owners

o Fishery

o Forestry

o Agriculture

Decision-makers and Administration

o European Union

o Federal State Authorities

o Districts and Provinces Authorities

o NGOs

o Cooperations under public law (legal according to regional, national and European

law; eg.: Styrian Mountain Nature and Rescue Service)

Camaro-D participating countries: Austria, Germany, Hungary, Czech Republic, Romania

European Union (Laws: Bern Convention, Flora and Fauna Council Directive 92/43/EEC,

FFH Directive)

Danube River Basin

56


7. Summary and Conclusion

In conclusion, it can be said that the attempts of beaver management in the participating EU

countries are quite different. Therefore, as already mentioned in point 4. SWOT Analysis, it is

important that transnational communication takes place.

A transnational beaver management plan is a way to find common solution, considering the EU

and national legal situations. In addition, the beaver is a species that is spreading throughout

Europe and crosses borders. Therefore, it is suggested to stick to certain guidelines in the case of

conflict occurrence:

Local beaver advisory body and beaver monitoring

Firstly, it is suggested that advisory bodies should be implemented on a district level.

Secondly, if a person notices beaver activities or even is affected by beaver activities or damages,

a local beaver advice center should be contacted. In some (federal) states, there are beaver

managers for this purpose. However, sometimes other advisory bodies need to be contacted.

Transnational advice

Moreover, it is suggested that conflict situations are evaluated on a transnational level - if

necessary. Therefore, a transnational advisory body, a group of people who exchange their

knowledge and experience would lead to more consistent management strategies.

Application of measures

The beaver is a legally protected species in the Danube River Basin and EU(FFH directive). Since

most conflicts occur in relation to agriculture or land use, landowners and other stakeholders

need to be incorporated into management concepts and measures. After the evaluation of a

conflict situation by an expert, measures that do not cause harm to the beaver should be preferred

to the elimination or removing of the beaver, which should only take place when no other solution

is possible.

57


8. Figures and Tables


................................................................................................................................................................................................... 5


................................................................................................................................................................................................... 6

Figure 3: The Eurasian beaver, photograph by Alexander Schneider, Naturschutzbund, 2018 ....... 7

Figure 4: Beaver dam, 2018, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov ............................................ 9

Figure 5: Covasna County, 2018, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov ................................. 10

Figure 6: Beaver territory in Stein an der Enns, Verena Mayer, 2018 ...................................................... 11

Figure 7: Number of conflicts in relation to distance to water, 2018, x-axis = distance to water, y-

axis = numbers of occurring conflicts, Verena Mayer ...................................................................................... 13

Figure 8: A beaver during swimming in Stein an der Enns, photograph by apodemus, 2018 ........ 14

Figure 9: Beaver tracks in Stein an der Enns, 2018, photograph by Verena Mayer ............................ 15

Figure 10: Beaver tracks in Stein an der Enns, 2018, photograph by Verena Mayer ......................... 16

Figure 11: SWOT analysis on a transnational level, 2018 .............................................................................. 24

Figure 12: The distribution of the Eurasian beaver in Austria, Bayerisches Landesamt für Umwelt,

source from Duncan Halley, NINA, Trondheim .................................................................................................. 26

Figure 13: The distribution of the Eurasian beaver in the Styrian Enns Valley by Apodemus, 2018

................................................................................................................................................................................................ 29

Figure 14: The density of beaver occurrence in Styria: red= high, orange =moderate, yellow =low,

white=no occurrence by Zimmermann ................................................................................................................. 31

Figure 15: Requirements for action, Zimmermann, 2018 .............................................................................. 32

Figure 16 Distribution of the beaver, Zimmermann, 2018 ............................................................................ 32

Figure 17: Local informative workshops and excursions on beaver management, photograph by

Verena Mayer, 2018 ....................................................................................................................................................... 34

Figure 18: The beaver territory in Stein an der Enns at the Salza in Styria by Apodemus, 2018 .. 35

Figure 19: A Map of zones of differential protection of Eurasian beaver in the Czech Republic,

source NCA CR .................................................................................................................................................................. 37

Figure 20: The Distribution of the beaver in Bavaria, Bavarian authority for Environment, 2009

................................................................................................................................................................................................ 39

Figure 21: Beaver (Castor fiber) population dynamics after reintroduction ......................................... 42

58


Figure 22: Beaver distribution in Romania, INCDS, 2010 .............................................................................. 42

Figure 23: Beaver Distribution in Covasna County, INCDS, 2014 ............................................................... 44

Figure 24: Distribution of the European beaver around the river Negru;The density of beaver

occurence on 5x5km areas in different colors, INCDS, 2014 ........................................................................ 45

Figure 25: Fencing of trees, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov, 2018 .............................. 48

Figure 26: Application of electric fences, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov, 2018 .... 50

Figure 27: Protection of pipes, photograph by Claudiu PAȘCA, INCDS Brașov, 2018 ........................ 52

Figure 28: Damages because of beaver activities, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 2016

................................................................................................................................................................................................ 53

Figure 29: Drainage of a beaver dam: into a dam inserted pipe with a knee in an inflow and with a

protective cage (a); detailed inflow of the pipe and protective cage (b), Czech University of Life

Sciences Prague, 2016 ................................................................................................................................................... 54

59


9. References

Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. &

Palomo, L. J. (2008): Castor fiber. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version

2013.2. www.iucnredlist.org. [Abgerufen am 26.01.2014].

Batbold, J., Batsaikhan, N., Shar, S., Amori, G., Hutterer, R., Kryštufek, B., Yigit, N., Mitsain, G. &

Palomo, L. J. (2008): Castor fiber. In: IUCN 2013. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version

2013.2. www.iucnredlist.org. [Abgerufen am 26.01.2014].

Bayerisches Amt für Umwelt (2009): Biber in Bayern, Ökologie und Management, Augsburg

Bozsér, Orsolya. 2001. Hóodok az óviláagban. WWF Hungary. Budapest. 24 S.

Bozsér, Orsolya. 2001. History and reintroduction of the beaver (Castor fiber) in Hungary, with

special regard to the floodplain of the Danube in Gemenc area. Pages 44-46 in: Czech, A. &

Bálint Bajomi (2011): Reintroduction of the Eurasian Beaver (Castor fiber) in Hungary, Danube

Parks network of protected areas, South East Europe Programme EU Commission, Budapest

Campbell-Palmer, R., Gow D., Campbell R., Dickinson H., Girling, S., Gurnell J., Halley D., Jones S.,

Lisle S., Parker H., Schwab G., Rosell F. (2016). The Eurasian Beaver Handbook: Ecology and

Management of Castor fiber, Pelagic Publishing, Exeter.

Ionescu G. (2006): Beaver reintroduction in Romania, PHD thesis.

Ionescu G., Ionescu O., Pașca Cl., Sîrbu G., Jurj R., Popa M., Vișan M., Popescu I.(2010): Castorul în

România. Monografie. Editura Silvică, București. 158 p.

Pașca C., Popa M., Ionescu G., Ionescu O., Vișan D., Gridan A.(2018). Distribution and dynamics of

beaver (Castor fiber) population in Romania, 8th International Beaver Symposium, Book of

abstracts. p 30.

Proiect NUCLEU 2017 - Analiza serviciilor oferite de ecosisteme cu Castor fiber - INCDS Marin

Drăcea, Secția Cinegetică Brașov

Raport final “Analiza stării de conservare a speciei Castor fiber la nivel național”. Universitatea

Transilvania din Brașov

https://www.iucnredlist.org/

https://www.iucnredlist.org/

60


Resch, S., Resch C. (2019) (in prep.): Der Biber im Steirischen Ennstal. Joannea Zoologie, Graz

Schwab, G., Lutschinger, G., 2001. The return of the beaver (Castor fiber) to the Danube watershed,

In The European Beaver in a new millennium. Proceedings of 2nd European Beaver Symposium,

27-30 Sept. 2000. eds A. Czech, G. Schwab, pp. 47-50. Carpathian Heritage Society, Kraków,

Bialowieza, Poland.

Schwab, G., Schmidbauer, M., 2001: The Bavarian beaver re-extroductions. Pages 51-53 In: Czech.

A. & Schwab, G. (eds): The European Beaver in a new millenium. Proceedings European Beaver

Symposium, of 2nd European Beaver Symposium, Bialowieza, Poland. Carpathian Heritage

Society, Kraków

Schwab, G. (eds): The European Beaver in a new millennium. Proceedings of 2nd European

Beaver Symposium, 27-30 Sept. 2001, Bialowieza, Poland. Carpathian Heritage Society, Kraków.

196 S.

Sieber J. & Bauer K. (2001). Europäischer und Kanadischer Biber. In: Spitzenberger, F. 2001. Die

Säugetierfauna Österreichs. BLFUW. Austria Medien Service, Graz. 366-374.

Valachovic, Dusan. Manual of Beaver Management within the Danube River Basin

Varju, J., 2008. Az eurázsiai hód monitorozása a Szigetközben. Kutatási jelentés., p. 7. WWF

Magyarország.

WWF Hungary, 2008. Hód visszatelepítések Magyarországon. Áttekintő táblázat., p. 1, Budapest.

WWF Ungarn (Hrsg.). 2007. Amit a hódról tudni érdemes. Budapest. 30 S. ISSN 1216-2825

Zahner V., Schmidbauer M., Schwab G. (2009). Der Biber – Die Rückkehr der Burgherren. 2.

Auflage. Buch & Kunstverlag Oberpfalz, Amberg.

61


Online Sources

Animaltrail.at “Beaver Dams and Canals“. Animaltrail.at [Online]

http://www.animaltrial.com/beaver/beaverdamandcanals.html [2018]

Ashburnhamconservationtrust.org (2001).“Solving Human-Beaver conflicts“.

http://www.ashburnhamconservationtrust.org

http://www.ashburnhamconservationtrust.org/pdf/beaverhandbook [2001]

Bergundnaturwacht.at (04.05.2018).“Biber-Monitoring“. Bergundnaturwacht.at [Online]

http://bergundnaturwacht.at/category/biber-monitoring/ [2018]

Bibermanagement.at. (17.06.2017).“Schadens- und Konfliktprävention“. Bibermanagement.at

[Online] http://www.bibermanagement.at/index.php/bibermanagement/konflikt-

schadenspraevention [2018]

Burgenland.at (29.03.2019).”Bibermanagement Burgenland”. Burgenland.at [online]

https://www.burgenland.at/themen/natur/naturschutz/bibermanagement/ [2015]

Die Biberburg. (2018). “Die Website rund um den Biber”. www.bibermanagement.de [online]

http://www.bibermanagement.de/[2014]

Interreg-Danube.eu (30.10.2017). “Danube Transnational Program“. http://www.interreg-

danube.eu/ [Online]. http://www.interreg-

danube.eu/uploads/media/approved_project_output/0001/12/8f8a08bc4c5052d3c490a405c8

396baf8037383d.pdf [2017]

Land Oberösterreich (29.03,2019). „Bibermanagement“. www.land-oberoesterreich.gv.at

[online]. https://www.land-oberoesterreich.gv.at/129257.htm[2019]

Landwirtschaftskammer Kärnten (29.03.2019).“Klare Regeln bei Wildschäden“. Ktn.lko.at

[online] https://ktn.lko.at/klare-regeln-bei-wildsch%C3%A4den+2500+2814073 [2018]

Naturparkakademie.at. (17.01.2018).“Der Biber im Ennstal“. Naturparkakademie.at. [Online]

https://www.naturparkakademie.at/programm.php?id=1324 [2018]

http://www.animaltrial.com/beaver/beaverdamandcanals.html

http://www.ashburnhamconservationtrust.org/

http://www.ashburnhamconservationtrust.org/pdf/beaverhandbook

http://bergundnaturwacht.at/category/biber-monitoring/

http://www.bibermanagement.at/index.php/bibermanagement/konflikt-schadenspraevention%20%5b2018

http://www.bibermanagement.at/index.php/bibermanagement/konflikt-schadenspraevention%20%5b2018


http://www.bibermanagement.de/

http://www.interreg-danube.eu/

http://www.interreg-danube.eu/

http://www.interreg-danube.eu/uploads/media/approved_project_output/0001/12/8f8a08bc4c5052d3c490a405c8396baf8037383d.pdf



http://www.land-oberoesterreich.gv.at/


https://ktn.lko.at/klare-regeln-bei-wildsch%C3%A4den+2500+2814073

https://www.naturparkakademie.at/programm.php?id=1324

62


Naturschutzabteilung Land Steiermark (30.11.2017).“Warum Biber ein grünes Band entlang

Flüssen brauchen“. Verwaltung.steiermark.at [Online].

https://www.verwaltung.steiermark.at/Biber [2018]

Ökoteam Land Steiermark. (2018). „Naturschutz in der Steiermark“.oekoteam.at [Online]

http://www.oekoteam.at/aktuelles-menu/236-biber-steiermark-situation.html [2018]

Tirol – Unser Land. (2018). “Biber in Tirol“. Tirol.gv.at [Online]

https://www.tirol.gv.at/umwelt/naturschutz/biberbetreuungsstelle/ [2018]

Valachovic, Dusan (2012): Manual of Beaver Management within the Danube River Basin, Parks

network of protected areas, South East Europe Programme EU Commission

https://www.verwaltung.steiermark.at/Biber

http://www.oekoteam.at/aktuelles-menu/236-biber-steiermark-situation.html

https://www.tirol.gv.at/umwelt/naturschutz/biberbetreuungsstelle/


Hydrotechnical measures mitigating

flood risks & establishing of flood

forecasting maps

Cluster 2 and 3



2


Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 3

2. BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES ......................................................................................... 3

2.1. Flood hazard mapping ........................................................................... 3

2.2. Flood risk mapping ................................................................................ 6

2.3. Flood hazard mapping for frequent floods ............................................ 9

2.4. Flood scenarios catalogue .................................................................... 11

2.5. Backwater effect at confluences ........................................................... 14

2.6. Hydrological & meteorological monitoring of environmental response 16

2.7. Protection of floodplains ...................................................................... 17

3


1. INTRODUCTION

Inappropriate past spatial planning and illegal constructions or (over)inhabited floodplains

from the past result in increased flood damage potential. The manual presents the process of

identifying threatened areas where floods along the watercourses pose a risk of causing

economical, physical, social or environmental threat. There are examples of scenarios that can

occur in exceptional events and should be taken into account when planning interventions. The

importance of hydrological and meteorological monitoring of the environmental response is

also highlighted. Finally, the measures for flood damage reduction and control are presented.

The individual best management practice are structured in such a way that the legislation in

the field are introduced first, then the problem and the measures, and at the end of each

section a group of participants and monitoring. The procedure is presented on the example of

the Iška River in Slovenia.

2. Best Management Practices


1) Legislation

In compliance with Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) and national acts in our case the Slovenian

Waters Act (Official gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 67/02, 2/04 – ZZdrI-A, 41/04 – ZVO-1,

57/08, 57/12, 100/13, 40/14 and 56/15) sets the framework for implementation of flood

hazard mapping for specific return periods.




Different legislative background and management structures in different countries results in

un-unified flood hazard management and flood hazard mapping, such as different map scales,

event return periods and represented elements (flooded area, flooded area water depth and/or

velocity, flooded area runoff direction).










4


To highlight the discrepancies we present examples of Flood Risk Reduction planning for

transboundary river Mura. The Mura river basin is governed by national regulations of four

different countries, which determine the flood hazard mapping (Table 1).

Table 1: Flood hazard maps – return periods for scenarios mapped for fluvial flooding (Mura River catchment countries). (EC 2016)

Scenario Austria Croatia Hungary Slovenia Low probability

Return Period (years)

300 1000 1000 500

Medium probability

100 100 100 100

High probability

30 25 30 10

This suggests that zoning of land use in two countries can be very different on both banks of

the same river. Therefore, cooperation within bilateral or multilateral water management

commissions (agreements) is all the more important.

As shown in Table 1, events with selected return periods of 10-, 100- and 500-years are

assessed in flood hazard maps in Slovenia. Floods with 1 % occurrence probability (100-year

return period) are used as benchmark for planning and design for flood protection measures.

Flood hazard is divided into three classes as shown in the table:

Table 2: Flood hazard classes

High flood hazard 100-year return period, water depth > 1.5 m or product of water depth and velocity > 1.5 m2/s

Medium flood hazard 100-year return period, water depth 0.5-1.5 m or product of water depth and velocity 0.5-1.5 m2/s

Low flood hazard 100-year return period, water depth < 0.5 m or product of water depth and velocity < 0.5 m2/s

Based on these classes prevention measures (e.g. construction ban in a particular area) and

curative construction measures (e.g. significant flood hazard/risk areas) are applied. Floods

with 500-year return period are used for design of areas or objects of higher importance (e.g.

critical infrastructure etc.) and for evaluation and assessment of extreme conditions.

5


Figure 1: Flood hazard map for Iška floodplain showing three different water depth classes for flood with 1 % occurrence probability.

Erosion hazard/risk mapping (i.e. erosion, sediment transport and deposition areas) are done

very seldom, because data (soil characteristics etc.) for such calculation are rarely available.

3) Measures


hazard maps and mapping system is in their own domain. Flood risk maps should be adopted

by all countries as an additional decision tool for spatial planning.

Harmonization of mapping is recommended for better transnational comparison and further

analyses, especially on boundary rivers, both in the case of riparian states and in the case of

upstream - downstream states. If such harmonization is not foreseen within European

legislation it is recommended at least within the Danube river basin, if we want to achieve, that

there will be no adverse effects (both, along and across the river).

Flood hazard maps with predetermined return periods (10-, 100- and 500- years) for floods as

well as hazard classes are already existing in Slovenia including Iška River, therefore this will

not be specifically addressed at our pilot action area but could be interesting for other

participating partners. However, the already existing flood hazard maps will be used for

comparison on flood hazard changes based on land-use changes on the Iška River watershed.

6






5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps or land-use changes impact on existed flood hazard area distribution




1) Legislation

In compliance with Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) and national acts each country sets

framework for implementation of flood risk mapping for specific return periods.

For Flood Risk Management the following scheme is applied (Figure 3).

Figure 2: Disaster risk scheme (United Nations, 2007).


Flood risk is evaluated based on flood hazard and vulnerability. When vulnerability is

identified flood risk can be assessed and mapped with flood risk maps for particular areas of

interest, such as floodplains.

7


Figure 3: Data shown in flood risk maps (Müller, U.: Implementation of the Flood Risk Management Directive in Selected European Countries. 2013. Int. J. Disaster Risck Sci.)

3) Measures

Risk level is dependent on hazard in vulnerability. Flood hazard mapping is already described

(2.1) therefore the focus here is on determining the vulnerability. Criteria for determining the

level of vulnerability is expressed as: the number of exposed inhabitants, type and number of

exposed economic and non-economic activities, locations of potential pollution sources,

locations of important objects and other important areas (nature preservation, water

resources protection, etc.). Particular structure or area is classified within four vulnerability

classes: high, medium, low and very low. Flood risk is then evaluated according to particular

flood hazard and vulnerability and is divided into four classes: high, medium, low and residual

risk.

8


Figure 4: Flood risk classification


risk maps and mapping system is in their own domain. Flood risk maps should be adopted by

all countries as an additional decision tool for spatial planning. The obligation of each EU

Member State is also to draw up a Flood Risk Reduction Plan, and various methodologies for

the Expected Flood Damage Assessment and the set of criteria for determining Significant

Flood Risk Areas are being developed. Harmonization of Flood Protection Measures

(structural, non-structural) is recommended for better transnational co-operation and further

analyzes, needed to prove that there would be no adverse effects, both in the case of riparian

states and in the case of upstream-downstream states.

Harmonization of risk mapping and risk management/reduction is recommended for better

transnational comparison and further analyses. If such harmonization is not directly foreseen

within European legislation, there are existing other international obligations as well and it is

recommended at least within the Danube river basin.





9


5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps or land-use changes impact on existed flood risk area distribution




1) Legislation

No specific legislation. Existing flood hazard maps taken into account, hazard mapping for

frequent floods is recommended by professionals in water management sector, which connects

various other sectors, such as agricultural, spatial planning or civil protection sector.


Events with return periods for frequent floods (2, 5 and 20 etc. years), i.e. different occurrence

probability than is determined by the rule for flood hazard mapping, are currently not

assessed. Identification of scope of such events with lower return periods would seem

reasonable and useful for torrents and small rivers due to faster response times of surface

runoff. Response time of Iška River catchment is in the scale of up to 4 hours, thus exhibiting

very torrential characteristics where flooding can happen at less-than-extreme precipitation

and discharge quantities with more common return periods. At these frequent flood events the

flood protection measures in combination disaster response and disaster relief activities are

usually not applied. Currently there is no standardized analysis and mapping for frequent

floods.

3) Measures

For representative flood hazard mapping a hydraulic model of area of interest must be

prepared. Input data can be acquired from water gauge stations or alternatively by

hydrological model. Key steps are:

1) Review of current national legislation on flood hazard mapping and disaster management

(planning, rescue and relief etc. activities).

10


2) Existing flood hazard maps (return periods, represented elements) promotion in other

sectors activities.

3) Input data acquisition (also from the previous flood damage registry, evaluation of the past

civil protection activities, public service duties within disaster events etc.).

4) 2-dimensional hydraulic model for return periods of frequent floods (2, 5 and 20 years), as

additional value or information source for other sectors planning, preparation etc. activities.

5) Output: flood hazard map with water depth classes, with flood hazard classes, as input

mapping for other sectors activities (Rescue and relief Plans, …) for more frequent flood events.

On a case study in Slovenia hydrological model of Iška catchment will be set up to identify

surface runoff quantities and temporal distribution for frequent floods for selected scenarios:

afforestation with mixed forest (natural development of afforestation in protected

forests),

afforestation with coniferous forest (increase of coniferous tree percentage) and

sleet/windfall/fire events, resulting in removal of vegetative (forest) cover.

Hydraulic model of Iška catchment will be set up to identify discharge when flooding occurs

with associated locations and scope of flooded areas for frequent floods. According to the

selected scenarios, corresponding input data for hydraulic model will be provided by

hydrological model.

Flood hazard mapping can be used as input data for protection and disaster response plans by

Administration for civil protection and disaster relief as well as by local authorities (for spatial

planning, public services etc.). Protection and disaster relief plans include protocols for

protection before hazard onset with intervention activities and rescue activities during or after

hazard event, evacuation paths, meeting locations, etc. Protection and rescue plans specify the

following activities: alarming (issuing warnings of anticipated hazard), human resource

management (organization and training of intervention teams, training for individual civil

protection), material resource management (equipment availability, resources for

humanitarian aid) etc.

11



Since this content is not covered with legislation, group of participants would consist of

interested parties (municipalities, water agencies, civil protection agencies, design bureaus,

private investors, etc.).

In the case study of the Iška River hydrological and hydraulic modelling will be performed in-

house at PP3 UL (Faculty of Civil and Geodetic Engineering). Results will be exchanged with

stakeholder Municipality of Ig where Iška River is located and with other interested

stakeholders and broader public. Other potential participants are Slovenian water agency and

Administration for civil protection and disaster relief.

5) Monitoring

Re-evaluation of maps or land-use changes impact on existed flood risk area distribution

should be performed, when needed, according to changes in spatial planning, particular spatial

development, significant dispersal land use changes or update of the particular Rescue and

contingency plans.

Mapping of frequent floods brings valuable contribution to every day’s live – namely, many

stakeholders are not very concerned of rare events (100- or 500-year return period events),

but very intrigued with more frequent flood damage appearances.


1) Legislation

Some of water management related best practices are not obligatory by legislation but are still

implemented by professionals, public services etc. Legislative frame for consultation is derived

from Floods Directive (2007/60/EC), such as Waters Act (Official gazette of the Republic of

Slovenia, 67/02, 2/04 – ZZdrI-A, 41/04 – ZVO-1, 57/08, 57/12, 100/13, 40/14 and 56/15) and

Flood Risk Management Plan for 2017-2021. Flood scenarios catalogues are not obligatory

documents. Floods Directive (2007/60/EC) and national legislation can be used as framework.


There are several most likely to appear scenarios, where several possible hazards are

combined – as a combination of primary hazard with collateral adverse effects (for instance,









12


flooding and induced pollution, structures failures …), or as combination of several hazards,

triggered by the same hazards source (for instance, because of heavy rain there appear

flooding, landslides…). So, the number of the scenarios could be large.

Let show as some event’s illustrations:

1) Set of different precipitation and discharge occurrence probabilities or return periods.

2) Bridge clogging, then diverted flows and accompanying adverse effects.

3) Failure of torrential dams – clogging of torrents.

4) Mudflows and landslides in combination with clogged torrent streams.

5) Dam overtopping and dam failure.

Figure 5: Bridge clogged by driftwood on Iška river.

Having torrential characteristics Iška River poses danger for bridge clogging at any of the

bridges along the river. Driftwood is caused by lack of sanitary activities in forest in upstream

areas (due to strict protection regimes of forest areas) and by storage of wood and other

materials in riparian areas too close to the river.

There is also a lot of sediment transport and deposits, which has to be removed from

inappropriate locations along the river by the concessionaire (for river maintaining public

service).

13


Anthropogenic bypass used in the past for sawmill is a potential secondary flood hazard source

if it would get clogged which would result in reduction of effective cross section and all water

would be diverted across the landscape into the river channel. Therefore, flooding can occur

that under normal circumstances (no bypass) would not be present.

Flooding of well field Brest is to be prevented to ensure clean drinking water at all times and to

avoid damage on the pumping facility.

3) Measures


makers and stakeholders from different professions, such as spatial planning, civil protection,

water management, etc. Intervention maps based on flood hazard maps lead to better civil

protection and rescue actions. Measures that were identified as most effective for flood risk

mitigation are:

1) Design and construction of structural measures for flood mitigation.

2) Regular maintenance of watercourses, hydraulic structures and riparian areas.

3) Allocation of finances for water management public services.

4) Flood forecasting (difficult for torrential rivers).

5) Implementation of individual (self-protective) flood mitigation measures.

6) Identification and preservation of floodplains and flood prone areas.

7) Intervention measures during floods.

Hydraulic study of Iška River will give results for addressing hot spots and with catalogues

scenarios a broad picture and problem tackling is ensured. Collaboration between different

professions, institutions, agencies and other stakeholders (land owners, NGOs, etc.) can be

strengthened.

14


Figure 6: Intervention map for flood hazard (Municipality of Mozirje)

Figure 7: Preparedness on flood (photo: Goran Rovan).



design bureaus, concessionaires, civil protection agencies, commissions of main tributaries for

the Danube river and stakeholders.

In the case study of Iška River participants are Municipality of Ig, Administration for civil

protection and disaster relief, concessionaire for Iška River – company Hidrotehnik d.o.o.,

Slovenian water agency.

5) Monitoring

As a concessionaire – company Hidrotehnik d.o.o. is being monitored by Slovenian Water

Agency.

2.5. Backwater effect at confluences

1) Legislation

Scenario evaluation of this type may or may not be legislatively defined but it is recommended

by professionals, mostly as a best practice examples.


15


Confluences can have backwater effect on one or more of the inflow rivers. Due to the complex

nature this problem is listed as an individual sub chapter. While each of incoming rivers

individually might not cause flooding at less-than-extreme discharges, the backwater effect

from confluence may result in flooding at such discharges.

Figure 8: Backwater effect at confluence of rivers Drava, Meža and Mislinja in the Danube river basin could reach also far away upstream areas, especially in case of lowland river stretches.

3) Measures

Scenarios of different discharges (different return periods) for each inflow could be

hydraulically evaluated. The impact of coincidence of confluence rivers is often evaluated as

scenarios, where rivers have different return period discharges (for instance, one 20- other

100-year return period and then opposite, first 100- and the other 20-year return period).

Then, an envelope of flooding for all scenarios is determined, giving the maximum flood prone

area.



design bureaus, civil protection agencies, commissions of main tributaries for the Danube river

and other stakeholders.

5) Monitoring

Flood prone areal envelope caused by backwater effect can be represented in the same way as

flooding by individual rivers where there are no confluence adverse effects, therefore it can be

presented with flood hazard maps for which the same applies as above.

16


2.6. Hydrological & meteorological monitoring of environmental

response

1) Legislation

Individual national legislation, if existing. In Slovenian environment agency implemented

project BOBER within Operational Program for environmental and transport infrastructure

development.



response and therefore quality forecasting in meteorology and hydrology. This affects our

preparedness to extreme weather conditions (e.g. droughts, excessive precipitation), resulting

phenomena (e.g. floods) and thus overall quality of environment and built environment.

3) Measures

Effective meteorological and hydrological monitoring system can improve quality of

environment by providing better field data for understanding of environmental processes.

Consequently, real-time monitoring can drastically improve hydrological and meteorological

forecasting which allows for issuing warnings for hazard onset in real time and thus evacuation

of endangered areas, contributing to flood risk mitigation. Depending on anticipated time for

hazard onset torrential floods can be either forecasted or not, with relying on existing safety

measures or not. Three types of critical points can be identified:

critical points for hazard onset (e.g. landslides),

monitoring points for monitoring level of hazard,

intervention and observation points (bridges – clogging, road closing, inhabitants

alarming etc.) for hazard relief.

Through project BOBER (Better Observation for Better Environmental Response) by Slovenian

Environment Agency improved monitoring system was set up. This system includes water

gauges, such as water gauge at Iška vas on test area. The system contributes to better

monitoring of water environment, better understanding and assessing of Slovenian water

environment and consequently better hydrological and meteorological forecasting

contributing to real-time warning issuing and thus evacuation of endangered areas.

17


Figure 9: Map of BOBER monitoring network

Figure 10: Precipitation radar image


Ministries for water management and other environmental issues, environmental and water

agencies, civil protection agencies, commissions of main tributaries for the Danube river.

In the case study of Iška River participants are Slovenian environmental agency,

Administration for civil protection and disaster relief, Slovenian water agency, concessionaires

(state and local).

5) Monitoring

Slovenian environmental agency is responsible for management and maintenance of BOBER

infrastructure. Slovenian water agency as an important end user monitor the quality and

applicability of forecast data.

2.7. Protection of floodplains

1) Legislation

Decree on conditions and limitations for constructions and activities on flood risk areas

(Official gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, 89/08). Decree on flood risk management plan (to

be implemented).


Inappropriate past spatial planning and illegal constructions or (over)inhabited floodplains

from the past result in increased flood damage potential. On the one hand, arable land of

highest quality coincides with flood prone areas, while on the other hand, plains are attractive

18


for private investors for housing development which is a negative development of settlements

from a floods perspective.

Figure 11: Illegal constructions areas (yellow) at the village Iška mala vas.

Figure 12: Effect of structural measure for flood hazard mitigation at Iška mala vas – reduction of flood area

3) Measures

Designation (and preservation) of floodplain areas for floods with land use limitations with

land use alternatives in dry periods are necessary for flood damage reduction and control.

Based on Floods Directive Slovenia prepared Flood Risk Management Plan. On the basis of a

specially designed methodology, flood risk areas were ranked. According to a number of

criteria, 61 Significant Flood Risk Areas (hot spots) were selected and a special Flood Risk

Reduction Program was prepared for them. No area on the Iška River watershed was ranked

among the top 61, but the Ljubljana municipality (or Water Supply Company) wants a more

detailed treatment of the flood risk hazard for the Brest water filed, as a critical infrastructure

premises. Therefore, for the pilot action area of Iška river the following challenges were

identified and assessed:

Well field Brest – protection of drinking water facility is in public interest,

Iška vas (settlement) – high flood risk,

Iška mala vas (settlement) – high flood risk.

19


If these areas were included in Flood Risk Mitigation Plan they would receive more financial

support for flood hazard mitigation from the government (and/or European funds) and other

floodplain areas could be dedicated for water during floods. Nonetheless, these areas are

recognized by municipality as areas with high flood risk and some preventive measures were

already taken. However, more areas with appropriate land use (e.g. grassland) should be

allocated to water retention in extreme events, to reduce downstream adverse effects.

Modelling hydrological and hydraulic response of the catchment will give flood prone areas

envelope for selected input data by chosen return periods. So, we could show effect of

constructed objects on flood propagation comparing to scenario of flood propagation with no

constructed objects – reduction of space available for floods retention namely increases flood

hazard downstream. Such results can be used by the Municipality of Ig and decision makers for

adequate spatial planning.


Ministry of the environment and spatial planning, spatial planners, Municipality of Ig,

Slovenian water agency.

5) Monitoring

New developed maps or land use changes impact on existed flood risk area distribution would

be performed, when needed, to inform as well alarm stakeholders about the adverse effects of

the changes in spatial planning, particular spatial development, significant dispersal land use

changes or update of the particular Rescue and contingency plans.

DT 222 Best Practice Manual (BPM)

Management of Invasive Plant Species

Cluster 1, 2 & 3

Final Version 14.02.2019


2


Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................................... 5

1.1. Background and basic information ........................................................ 5

1.2. Definition of invasive alien species ........................................................ 6

1.3. Invasive plant species in the CAMARO-D pilot areas .............................. 6

1.3.1. Pilot area Groundwater Field Steyr, Austria...................................................................................... 6

1.3.2. Styrian Enns Valley, Austria ............................................................................................................... 7

1.3.3. Ljubljana Moor: Well Field Brest ....................................................................................................... 7

1.3.4. Drinking water reservoir Kleine Kinzig & Ecosystem study Conventwald, Germany ........................ 8

1.3.5. Putna River basin, Romania............................................................................................................... 8

1.3.6. Black River –Hydrographic Basin, Romania ....................................................................................... 9

1.3.7. Reservoir Brno watershed, Svratka River basin, Czech Republic ...................................................... 9

2. LEGISLATION .............................................................................................................................. 9

2.1. International Conventions ..................................................................... 9

2.2. EU Legislation ....................................................................................... 10

2.3. Austria ................................................................................................. 11

2.3.1. Styria ............................................................................................................................................... 12

2.4. Germany .............................................................................................. 13

2.4.1. Federal state laws ........................................................................................................................... 14

3. RELEVANT SPECIES ............................................................................................................... 14

3.1. Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigantea ............................................... 14

3.1.1. Origin ............................................................................................................................................... 14

3


3.1.2. Spread and effects, hot spots .......................................................................................................... 14

3.1.3. Control measures ............................................................................................................................ 15

3.2. Impatiens glandulifera ......................................................................... 16

3.2.1. Origin ............................................................................................................................................... 16



3.3. Fallopia japonica, Fallopia sp. .............................................................. 18

3.3.1. Origin ............................................................................................................................................... 18



3.4. Heracleum mantegazzianum ................................................................ 21

3.4.1. Origin ............................................................................................................................................... 21

3.4.2. Spread and effects ........................................................................................................................... 21

3.4.3. Control Measures ............................................................................................................................ 21

4. GROUP OF PARTICIPANTS .................................................................................................. 22

5. TRAINING .................................................................................................................................. 22

6. MONITORING AND DOCUMENTATION OF MEASURES .............................................. 23

7. FUNDS, SUBSIDIES ................................................................................................................. 23

8. CONCLUSION ............................................................................................................................ 23

9. LITERATURE, LINKS .............................................................................................................. 28

4



Renate Mayer PP1, Agricultural Research and Education


Roland Köck LP external expert, BOKU, Vienna

Claudia Plank PP1, Agricultural Research and Education


Petrisor Vica PP6, NFA Romisilva

Julian Heywood, Philipp Poier PP1, Agricultural Research and Education


Karl Alexander Gebhardt Forstliche Versuchs- und Forschungsanstalt

Baden-Württemberg, Abt. Boden und

Umwelt

5


1. INTRODUCTION

1.1. Background and basic information

Neophytes are invasive plant species that arrived in Europe after 1492 (discovery of America)

with the direct or indirect assistance of humans. Some of the newly introduced or introduced

species spread unhindered, as they have no natural enemies locally. Individual occurrences but

also dominant populations of these plants can cause economic, ecological and health damage

and are then described as invasive. Invasive neophytes compete with native species for water,

nitrogen and air. They form monocultures and they form monocultures and displace native

species. Their intrusion into semi-natural habitats such as semi-arid and dry grasslands,

riparian zones and forest clearings is particularly dangerous. The existing plant species

composition is transformed. The temporal course of the invasions in Europe shows a uniform

picture for all groups of organisms: the number of alien species in Europe is increasing

strongly. The number of alien species, including vascular plants, has increased almost fivefold

in Europe in the last century.

EASIN is an initiative of the Joint Research Centre of the European Commission. It has been

established upon the recognition of the increasing serious threat posed by Alien Species in

Europe.

EASIN facilitates the exploration of existing Alien Species information from a variety of

distributed information sources through freely available tools and interoperable web services,

compliant with internationally recognized standards.

The EASIN web tools and services can be used freely and independently by any user, while

ownership of the data remains within its source, which is properly cited and linked.

EASIN enables easy access to data and information on “Alien Species” occurring in Europe,

aiming to assist policy makers and scientists in their efforts to tackle Alien Species invasions. In

specific, EASIN is appointed as the information system facilitating the implementation of the

EU Regulation on Invasive Alien Species, published in 2014 by the European Commission.

http://ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/invasivealien/

6


1.2. Definition of invasive alien species

“Invasive alien species" means the introduction or spread of alien species which endangers or

adversely affects biodiversity and related ecosystem services;

"Invasive alien species of Union-wide importance" means invasive alien species whose adverse

impacts have been assessed to be so significant that they require concerted action at Union

level in accordance with Article 4(3).

It is necessary to identify the pathways along which species spread and to draw up action plans

to prevent or reduce the introduction and spread of these species. Monitoring measures and

official controls to prevent the introduction of these species must be carried out. EU Member

States must eliminate invasive alien species of EU-wide importance or control the spread of

already widespread invasive species. Most commitments are subject to derogations granted by

the competent authorities of the Member States or the Commission (www.neobiota-austria.at).

1.3. Invasive plant species in the CAMARO-D pilot areas

1.3.1. Pilot area Groundwater Field Steyr, Austria

Recent and actual status Vulnerability / undesirable developments

Interventions (in general, as pilot action)

Increase of Solidago canadensis within forest areas, especially on clear-cut areas or within openings

massive distribution suppression of native species

No interventions in CAMARO-D are planned, as this species already occurs wide-spread

Robinia pseudoacacia is recently sparsly occurring in the pilot area: Danger of spreading

Destabilisation of the forest ecosystem through the invasive Robinia pseudoacacia, if this tree species should spread within the drinking water protection zone.

Robinia pseudoacacia is not planted in the pilot area. This is already a major progress, as some forest owners wanted to take this into consideration. Further natural spreading of this tree species should be supressed by any means.

7


1.3.2. Styrian Enns Valley, Austria

Recent and actual status, species

Vulnerability/ undesirable development

Intervention pilot area (in general, as pilot action)

Impatiens glandulifera in forests, wetland areas, ruderal sites, river banks

massive distribution, dominant populations land degradation, loss of natural succession and biodiversity, suppression of native plants, decrease of water availability, erosion, surface runoff

Direct interventions: Management / monitoring against invasive plant species( land users, NGOs, schools, municipalities Indirect interventions: Trainings course invasive plant species with certificate for different institutions, based on actual EU and regional guidelines, Information material( land users, municipalities)

Solidago canadensis, Solidago sp. Natura 2000 sites, forests, river banks

Direct intervention: Action Programme for removal actions by mountain and nature rescue service, schools, population, nature protection association Indirect interventions: Trainings course invasive plant species (with certificate)based on actual EU and regional guidelines Info material ( municipalities, population, land users

Fallopia japonica ruderal sites, river banks, meadow and forest edges, lake shores, near ands in settlements (hedges)

massive distribution, dominant populations, removal problematic, land degradation, loss of natural succession and biodiversity, suppression of native plants, decrease of water availability, erosion, surface runoff, infrastructure (rail, road).

Direct intervention: Key study at AREC: Characteristics, distribution pattern, investigation of above-ground and underground growth, influences / impairments on water bodies, test of control measures Indirect intervention: information about suppression methods trainings for protection

1.3.3. Ljubljana Moor: Well Field Brest



Solidago canadensis and

Solidago gigantea in

Ljubljana Marsh

intensive spreading (strong root penetration, high flowering power). the care of protected areas (late 1-time mowing / year, seed spreading over tractor tyres) favours the spreading. This also applies to linear

No interventions in CAMARO-.D Project Project LJUBA

(http://www.ljuba.si/en/about/); test

various methods of removing on selected plots.

http://www.ljuba.si/en/about/

8


1.3.4. Drinking water reservoir Kleine Kinzig & Ecosystem study

Conventwald, Germany



Impatiens glandulifera (spread in forests, wetland areas, ruderal sites, production of new potentially invasive plant species (e.g.)

Land degradation, loss of natural succession, suppression of native plants, decrease of water availability, erosion, loss of biodiversity, surface runoff

No interventions in CAMARO-.D Project Project

Heracleum mantegazzianum

Significantly decreases natural regeneration rates of native species (e.g. more so than impatiens glandulifera).

species are currently not present in the PA

Fallopia japonica species is currently not present in the PA

Solidago c. Solidago sp. species are currently not present in the PA

1.3.5. Putna River basin, Romania



Conduct for the Removal of Invasive Trees Amorpha fruticosa and Ailanthus altissima from the Natura 2000 site at the confluence of Putna River with Siret River

Amorpha fruticosa and Ailanthus altissima naturally installed pose a risk of spreading to Natura 2000 sites in the pilot area in the lower half to the confluence of the Putna River with the Siret River Invasion in forests and meadows with these species affects the natural regeneration of valuable forest species (loss of natural succession & biodiversity) and the invasion of natural habitats decreases their quality.

Direct interventions:

Management / monitoring

against invasive plant

species together with land

users, NGOs, schools,

research centre,

municipalities

Indirect interventions:

Trainings course invasive

plant species with certificate

for different institutions,

based on actual EU and

regional guidelines

Information material for

municipalities, population,

land users Robinia pseudoacacia was installed on

degraded lands and in hilly areas on pilot

area, but it is noticeable that it has a large

capacity to expand into undeveloped land

in the hilly area

Destabilisation of the forest ecosystem through the invasive Robinia pseudoacacia, if this tree species should spread within the drinking water protection zone.

Robinia pseudoacacia is

planted in the pilot area by

small owners. The natural

distribution of this species

should be suppressed by any

means.

9


1.3.6. Black River –Hydrographic Basin, Romania



Along the Black River, there are places where Amorpha fruticosa and Fallopia japonica plants were identified. In NATURA 2000 site ROSCI0111 (Mestecănișul de la Reci) & in natural reservation Mestecănișul de la Reci – Bălțile de la Ozun - Sântionlunca, there were identified plants of Amorpha fruticosa & Fallopia japonica.

land degradation, loss of natural succession, suppression of native plants, decrease of water availability, erosion, loss of biodiversity, surface runoff

No interventions in CAMARO-.D

1.3.7. Reservoir Brno watershed, Svratka River basin, Czech

Republic


Intervention pilot area

Impatiens glandulifera Spread in forests, wetland areas, ruderal sites, production of new

land degradation, loss of natural succession, suppression of native plants, erosion


Paulownia tomentosa potential new species


Fallopia japonica, No interventions in CAMARO-.D

Solidago sp. No interventions in CAMARO-.D

2. LEGISLATION

2.1. International Conventions

By signing the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Austria undertook prevention of alien

species introduction that endanger ecosystems, habitats or species and to control or eliminate

these species" (Article 8h - Federal Law Gazette No. 213/1995). At the subsequent Conferences

of the Parties to the Convention, the issue of invasive alien species was repeatedly addressed

and corresponding resolutions adopted. On the basis of other directives and conventions,

Austria also needs to take action regarding alien species, e.g. within the framework of the

10


International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC), the Habitats Directive and the Water

Framework Directive as well as the Berne, Bonn and Ramsar Conventions.

In December 2008, the European Commission published the Communication "Towards an EU

Strategy on Invasive Species" [COM(2008)789] and in May 2011, the European Commission

presented the Communication "Our life insurance, our natural capital: an EU Biodiversity

Strategy to 2020" [COM(2011)244]. In many areas, this EU biodiversity strategy refers to the

results of the 10th Conference of the Parties to the CBD in Nagoya and its measures (Aichi

targets). Aichi Target 9 addresses invasive alien species: "By 2020, invasive alien species and

their routes of introduction shall be identified and prioritized, priority species controlled or

eliminated and measures taken to monitor routes of introduction to prevent their introduction

and settlement".

To achieve this objective, two measures are proposed, building on existing regulatory

frameworks and filling existing gaps:

Strengthening EU plant and animal health rules. The Commission will complement its

plant and animal health rules with additional biodiversity aspects.

Presentation of a new legislative instrument on invasive alien species (EU Regulation

1143/2014).

2.2. EU Legislation

In order to prevent a further sharp increase in neo-biota in the EU, EU Regulation No.

1143/2014 of the European Parliament and Council of October 22nd 2014 "On the prevention

and management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species" entered into force on

January 1st 2015. A legal framework for the management of invasive animal and plant species,

binding all Member States, has been created. The Regulation focuses on a list of invasive alien

species of EU-wide importance for which future management measures (prevention, early

detection and response, control) will be laid down.

In order to guarantee harmonized and prioritized action at EU level, the Regulation focuses on a

list of IAS of EU concern. Currently, work is on-going between the European Commission (EC)

Directorate-General (DG) for the Environment and representatives from Member States on the

IAS Committee to develop and adapt the list.

11


The 1st list was published in an EU implementing regulation on July 14th 2016. The list is

regularly adjusted.

Danger: health, economy (12 bn €/ year in EU; 2009), biodiversity

2.3. Austria

The following legal aspects must be taken into account.

The reduction of invasive plant species is one of the goals of the Austrian Biodiversity

Strategy 2020+

The EU Biodiversity Strategy provides the basis for the "Biodiversity Strategy Austria 2020+"

and its objective 8 ("Negative impacts of invasive alien species are reduced"). Measures to deal

with invasive alien species are proposed, among other things:

Implementation of the EU Regulation 1143/2014;

Promotion of invasive species prevention by raising awareness on the problem among

involved sectors and population;

Adaptation of existing monitoring systems and examination of the possibilities of

citizen science activities;

Exchange of information and experience on the success and failure of control

measures;

Intensification of invasive ecological research, in particular on the ecological, economic

and health impacts of species.

Austrian Forest Act 1975 idF (§ 11 - Forest Devastation), Forest Reproductive Material Act

Austrian Water Act (§30- Objectives, protection and cleanliness of water bodies and § 50-

Maintenance of water bodies)

Seed Law

Genetic Engineering Law

With regard to the disposal of neophyte material, proper recycling is planned. The Air Pollution

Control Act (BGBI.I No. 137/2002) as amended provides for the incineration of biogenic

12


material only in appropriate plants. Proper treatment and recycling is carried out via

appropriate collection systems.

Federal states laws

In most federal states, nature conservation, hunting and fisheries laws contain information on

the handling of non-native species. Some Federal Länder have laws on accompanying

regulations for the implementation of Regulation (EU) No. 1143/2014 on the prevention and

management of the introduction and spread of invasive alien species.

The Austrian Action Plan on Invasive Plant Species published by the Federal Ministry of

Agriculture, Forestry, Environment and Water Management in 2004 is addressed to all

institutions and organisations and contains proposals for measures which they can implement

within their activities and responsibilities. The covered topics include education and

awareness raising, capacity building, research and monitoring, legal and organisational

implementation.

The Action Plan also includes an annex on invasive, potentially invasive and economically and

health problematic alien species in Austria. This Annex should be reviewed in the light of new

methodological and technical knowledge, but also in the light of the new EU Regulation.

2.3.1. Styria

Act of 20 June 2017 on protection against invasive species (Styrian Invasive Species Act StIAG);

LGBl. Nr. 62/2017

With the new law, Styria is implementing an EU directive to keep these plants and animals

under control. So far there has been no legal basis. The main goal is to educate the population.

People are asked to be very attentive, to inform about dangerous plant populations and, above

all, not to spread them, because that is ultimately a punishable offence. The law provides for

administrative penalties if someone exposes dangerous animals or plants. The penalty is up to

20,000 euros. In general, the law offers the authorities, but also hunters and the mountain and

nature rescue service the opportunity to react (population control, elimination). It is not yet

clear who can be called upon to take measures (land users). However, there are support

measures for the elimination of invasive neophytes.

https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Ergebnis.wxe?Abfrage=LgblAuth&Lgblnummer=62/2017&Bundesland=Steiermark&BundeslandDefault=Steiermark&FassungVom=&SkipToDocumentPage=True

13


Provincial law consolidates Styria: Complete legal provision for Styrian Nature Conservation

Act 2017 - StNSchG 2017, version of 25.10.2018: LGBl. Nr. 71/2017

The Environment Agency Austria is developing Action Plans for EU red List species.

Management plans are then developed for practical use and implemented on a catchment area

and species-specific basis. The Province of Styria is implementing a invasive plant Species

Action Program (Leader).

2.4. Germany

From 2003 – 2007, the “National Strategy for Biodiversity” (NBS) was defined in Germany in

response to the CBD. The deadlines for the implementation of measures found in the NBS are

the years 2020 for some, and 2050 for the rest of the measures. The “Nature Protection

Offensive 2020” was created in 2015 to supplement the NBS. It is a program with the most

urgent measures needed to reach the goals of the NBS.

Measures in regard to invasive species include:

Incorporation of the difficulties resulting from invasive plant species into management

plans,

Prevention of introducing the invasive species to flood plains,

Early detection of invasive species,

Information for gardeners using alien species,

Control and removal of invasive species.

The German Federal Nature Conservation Law (BNatschG) enables the involved institutions to

implement the necessary measures against invasive species that are suitable for each

individual case.

The Plant Protection Law prohibits the introduction of certain alien species that harm other

plants and their ecosystems.

https://www.ris.bka.gv.at/Ergebnis.wxe?Abfrage=LgblAuth&Lgblnummer=71/2017&Bundesland=Steiermark&BundeslandDefault=Steiermark&FassungVom=&SkipToDocumentPage=True

14


2.4.1. Federal state laws

The Nature Conservation Law states need to require approval of introducing an alien species

3. Relevant Species

The conservation of biodiversity, landscapes and air and soil quality is an important theme of

the EU Strategy for the Danube Region. From a nature conservation point of view, invasive

neophytes are particularly problematic in semi-natural biotopes such as floodplain forests,

river-accompanying high perennial meadows or pioneer sites. These habitats are home to

some of the most competitive neophytes in Austria and other Danube countries , such as the

Robinia, the God tree, the Balsam balsam, the Canadian goldenrod, the giant goldenrod and the

Japanese knotweed.

3.1. Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigantea

3.1.1. Origin

The Goldenrod was originally brought to Europe as a garden plant, whereby the Canadian

goldenrod originating from North America was already known as an ornamental plant in

England in the 17th century, the late goldenrod was only introduced in the 18th century. Even

today, the plant can still be found as an ornamental in flower shops. Among beekeepers, both

kinds enjoyed great popularity as bee pasture. Today the goldenrod is one of the most frequent

neophytes. Each plant can form up to 15,000 seeds, which are transported by the wind, and it

also forms large clones, which means that it reproduces vegetative. In addition, the Canadian

goldenrod has no natural enemies in Europe.

3.1.2. Spread and effects, hot spots

The Canadian goldenrod needs light and warmth. It is relatively undemanding in terms of

nutrient supply. It only avoids areas that have been flooded for a longer period of time. It can

be found on ruderal surfaces as well as in semi-natural vegetation, e.g. largely unspoilt

15


floodplain forests. Similarly also the late goldenrod, which prefers more humid locations. Once

one of the two species has established itself at a site, it very quickly displaces the natural

vegetation and changes the plant population. A mono vegetation forms. Solidago canadensis

and Solidago gigantea grows mainly along railway road embankments and meadows,

grasslands which are mowed only once or twice a year. Wetlands and protected areas are

particularly endangered due to distribution. The use of polluted agricultural machines, wind

and improper disposal are also ways of dissemination.

The two goldenrod species Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigantea are still a popular

ornamental plant and are often seen by beekeepers as traditional plants for bees. Therefore,

dissemination is often viewed positively and there is no interest in curbing dissemination.

Especially in rural areas and due to the close integration of natural areas with cultural areas

(agricultural areas in settlement areas, compost rents on grasslands near watercourses) there

is an enormous spread. This perennial up to two meters high species reproduces via seeds (up

to 15,000/plant) and root runners. It is spread by wind, earth, running waters (root parts) and

tools. The root runners form a dense network, which makes the fight extremely difficult.

Meanwhile, this species have penetrated the particularly valuable, species-rich iris meadows,

where it gradually competes with the Iris sibirica.

In Germany, the first appearance of Impatiens glandulifera in nature was found along the coast

of the North Sea in the 1880s and 1890s.

3.1.3. Control measures

In order to prevent the goldenrod from developing, it is important to sow abandoned areas

(fields, roadsides, stream banks, etc.).

It is very difficult to control an existing stand because of the high regenerative capacity of the

species. Chances of success are only given if the measures are carried out over several years.

When combating goldenrod, seed formation or seed dispersal must be prevented on the one

hand, and on the other the rhizomes of existing plants must be weakened to such an extent that

the population can be reduced. This can be achieved by mowing, whereby the cut must be as

short as possible. The initial mowing increases the new shoots. A single cut before flowering

can prevent the seed from being sown, but hardly weakens the plant, so it must be mown more

16


often. In principle, the cuttings can remain on the area, but removal of the cuttings promotes

development back to vegetation suitable for the location. In addition, care must be taken to

ensure that each individual goldenrod is actually destroyed on the area in question so that it

cannot spread again from this point. The taken measures should also keep soil damage as low

as possible (i.e. the measures should be carried out in dry weather), otherwise the goldenrod

would even facilitate repopulation in the open areas.

Other ways to combat this are cutting, milling or covering stands with UV-impermeable foil (at

least for 3 months), but all of these measures also damage the surrounding vegetation.

Pictures 1, 2 Solidago sp. © Mayer, R. 2018

3.2. Impatiens glandulifera

3.2.1. Origin

The plant was brought from the Himalayas to England in the 19th century as an ornamental

plant. The plant was originally imported to Europe because of its beauty and its suitability as a

bee pasture. The first proof of its appearance is dated back in 1889 at the Weidlingbach (Lower

Austria). It is now on the EU list or invasive plant species.


17


Impatiens glandulifera grows up to 2.5 metres high and bears its name because of the leaf

stems covered with glands. The upper part of the stem is branched and up to 5 centimetres

thick. The leaves are up to 25 centimetres long and 5 centimetres wide, have a lanceolate shape

and are sharp toothed. The pink flowers stand in racemes and carry a spur.

A capsule is formed as a fruit, which when ripe ruptures when they are touched. It blooms in

June until the first frosts in autumn. This annual, light-loving plant species shows considerable

growth potential and spreads enormously near wet meadows and bodies of water. Due to its

low root mass and its death in autumn, the risk of erosion along water bodies increases. Each

plant produces up to 2,500 seeds, which are distributed by a centrifugal mechanism. The seeds

remain germinable for up to seven years and are mainly spread via water (floating seeds) but

also via earth material, garden waste and tools. Due to the long germination capacity of the

seeds, long-term control measures are necessary. The spread of seeds by flooding and high

water in streams and rivers is very problematic, especially in protected areas where mowing is

allowed only in autumn or not at all.

The anthropogenic distribution of seeds is mainly caused by excavated soil and gravel material.

Since balsam often grows near water, watercourses play a decisive role in its natural

distribution. Seeds that have fallen into the river, however, are then unintentionally spread by

humans, e.g. by removing gravel for road stabilization. Through more and more frequent

interventions in nature, man paves the way for these plants, e.g. by clearing of riparian forests

and then often planting them with monocultures (poplar forest etc.). While the small-flowered

balsam usually only forms extensive, dominant stands where there are hardly any suitable

living conditions for other plants and thus hardly any danger for the native plant world, the

glandular balsam behaves differently.


Impatiens glandulifera has a strong invasive potential and must be contained in its spread. The

seeds of the annual plant must be destroyed. The time of control plays a greater role than the

type of measure itself. The correct time for control is at the beginning of the flowering period,

i.e. before fruit germination. With all measures carried out earlier, young plants can be

overlooked and new plants can grow back. The choice of the control method depends on the

18


available area. A free-cutting device can be used on the watercourses’ banks, where very deep

mowing must be ensured, as too high cut plants can form new shoots. In addition, all plants

must be covered, otherwise seeds will again reach the area. Even plants that have only been

bent over can regenerate. The crop must be removed carefully, preferably on tarpaulins. If

necessary, inflorescences are cut off beforehand and disposed of separately in garbage bags (if

capsules are already present). In protected areas and areas that are mown only once a year, the

plants should be torn out by hand early in spring. A well-trained eye is necessary for the

identification of seedlings and young plants. If this is not possible, work must begin from the

outside to the inside in order not to cause any major footfall damage.

Picture 3-4: Impatiens glandulifera © Mayer, R. 2018

3.3. Fallopia japonica, Fallopia sp.

3.3.1. Origin

The Japanese knotweed originates from East Asia and is native to China, Korea and Japan. It

was introduced as an ornamental and fodder plant to Europe and then also to the USA. It was

specifically cultivated for forestry purposes to serve as a covering plant for pheasants and as a

feeding plant for the red deer. It proved to be unsuitable for both purposes. Beekeepers also

contributed significantly to the spread of this plant, which provides a good bee pasture until

early autumn. Sacachalin knotweed was introduced to Europe in the 19th century and has since

19


spread invasively. A differentiation of the species is difficult. In the course of a project in

Austria, plant material is examined by means of "bar-coding".


Once exposed (as a screen hedge, ornamental plant) by tools or by disposal of earth material,

the Japanese knotgrass (Fallopia japonica) can be hardly tamed. The roots grow 3-4 meters

into the depth, the root runners can penetrate into buildings of all kinds and cause large

damages. The fast-growing, perennial shrubs (up to 2.50 metres high) are extremely invasive

and form mass populations, displacing the autochthonous, site-adapted, embankment-

stabilising vegetation. The danger of erosion along watercourses increases due to the death of

the above-ground plant parts in autumn.

In case of the knotweed perennials present in Austria, the distribution is mainly vegetative, e.g.

via shoot or rhizome fragments. In the event of a flood, the torn plant parts can form roots

again under suitable conditions. Also in the attempt to combat the knotweed, its spread is often

promoted. If, for example, cuttings (in which parts of the plant are present) are sent to a

landfill, the knotweed gains access to a new area for colonisation.


Since the rhizome of the knotweed can reach up to four metres into the depth, its control is

very difficult. For the farmer, the danger of the knotweed lies mainly in the fact that the plant is

so dominant that hardly anything else can grow on populated areas. Once the knotgrass has

established itself, it is time- and cost-intensive to remove it. It is therefore important to react as

early as possible to an infestation or to prevent it in general, e.g. by sowing fallow areas.

The knotgrass can also cause massive problems in road construction. It can cause damage to

sewers, road surfaces, protective and retaining walls as well as buildings by being able to grow

through even the narrowest cracks and damaged areas and then blast them through thickness

growth. Its runners can also grow into the ballast bed of street banquets or railway lines and

impair their function. Therefore, vegetation should also be prevented here or, if present,

combated.

20


A mowing is successful if it is carried out over years at short intervals, so that the plants have

no possibility of forming leaves for assimilation (metabolism and energy metabolism). In this

case the perennial knotweed weakens and dies. The digging out is only conditionally

promising, because if rhizome parts remain in the soil, the plant sprouts again from it. Care

must be taken not to carry plant material or soil with rhizome fragments during maintenance

and construction work.

Based on ongoing trials at AREC and collecting of information from studies and projects a short

overview of removal methods and efficiency.

Method Environmental impact Efficiency Time expenditure/ personal

Grubbing up Medium Low (depends on depth, efficient when the rooted soil is removed (root penetration possible up to 4 metres in loose, rather damp soil)

Very high

Grazing Low Medium (depends on duration)

Low

Moving Low Medium (depends on frequency and time)

Medium

Herbicid and moving High Low Medium

Herbicid very high Low-medium Medium

Covering with foils medium – high Very low Medium

Table 1: Different Management methods to remove Fallopia japonica, © Mayer, R. 2018

On flowing waters the knotgrass does not provide any bank protection, especially during

dormancy. The planting of willows or alders, for example, on affected river banks promises a

certain degree of success, but in order to remain competitive, these must be cut free again and

again in the first few years. Under these circumstances, it is possible that the knotgrass will be

pushed back. In order to prevent further colonisation of the knotweed, very competitive plants

21


such as reed-grass (Phalaris arundinacea), butterbur (Petasites hybridus) and black alder

(Alnus glutinosa) should be planted in areas not yet infested.

Pictures 5-7: Fallopia sp. Carinthia, © Mayer, R. 2018

3.4. Heracleum mantegazzianum

3.4.1. Origin

Heracleum mantegazzianumn can be spotted by its large white compound umbel and large

incised and deeply lobed leaves. Some plants may grow up to four metres high. This Caucasian

mountain plant was introduced as an ornamental plant at the end of the 19th century. Since

then it has spread and grows in gravel pits, brownfields, along roads, streams and forest edges.

3.4.2. Spread and effects

All parts of the plant contain the poison furanocoumarin. If exposed to sunlight, the touch can

lead to severe allergic skin reactions and the burn scars remain permanent. Through its large

leaves, the plant impedes natural regeneration processes of native species.

3.4.3. Control Measures

The controlling of this plant only works if it is well planned and consistent over a longer period

of time, at least five years. Long-sleeved protective clothing, gloves and a brimmed hat are

essential when dealing with this plant. One method is the excavation of the plant when it is still

22


young in the second half of April. The plant has a beet-like root with numerous lateral small

roots that do not have to be completely removed.

Another method requires perfect timing. The plant dies naturally after the seeds are set in the

second year. Therefore, cutting off the umbels at that time is helpful in the medium term. The

umbels have to be removed completely, because they will continue to ripen. Timing is

important here. If it is cut too early, it will flower again afterwards, if it is too late, the first

seeds will fall already during cutting.

4. GROUP of PARTICIPANTS

For the implementation of guidelines and protection of Natura 2000 sites, embankments,

contaminated areas, etc. different stakeholders must be integrated in the processes of

protection, removal, disposal and monitoring of invasive species. Following target groups and

practitioners are relevant within 3 cluster areas:

• Federal authorities (local regional, federal state level); municipalities, district offices

• Mountain and Nature Rescue Service as public corporation

• Austrian Torrent and Avalanche Control Service, Water cooperatives

• Volunteers, Nature Protection Association, Association Vogelwarte, NGOs,

Naturfreunde, Umweltstammtisch, population, gardeners

• Farmers and foresters, hunters

• Experts

5. TRAINING

Training courses are aimed at employees of building district management (water conservation),

road railway maintenance services (ÖBB, Asfinag), municipality employers, waste management

associations, chambers of agriculture & forestry, green space services, water supervision bodies,

experts, landscape planners, mountain and nature guards, technical offices for ecology and

waste management and practitioners. The trainings focus on practical learning. A special

stakeholder toolkit will be prepared and tested in spring 2019. The evaluated results of the

training will be implemented in the CAMARO-D Stakeholder toolkits.

23


The training will take place at AREC and is also a test area for implementation of the Styrian

regulation. The good cooperation between authorities, the Mountain and Nature Guard as a

public corporation, volunteers, experts, farmers and foresters, water cooperatives and

municipalities should be emphasized.

6. MONITORING AND DOCUMENTATION of MEASURES

A special Monitoring handbook done by different federal offices is in progress. Its main part is

the evaluation of different measures (from further projects e.g. LIFE, LEADER, ELER). An impact

analysis and the evaluation of disposal measures’ cost should be part for recommendation for

further funding programmes and initiatives. Reports from the annual Styrian Action Programme

of Invasive plant species (schools and population with Mountain Nature Rescue Service), incl.

media tools are presented in Annexes.

7. FUNDS, SUBSIDIES

• Rural Development Programme (Compliance with the fertiliser guidelines); Forest

Ecological Programme incl. LEADER, ELER

• AMA (Agrarmarkt Austria Marketing GesmbH (Ltd.), inspection of implementation ÖPUL

– Austrian Environmental Programme (ÖPUL)

• Regional and state funding

• Life+ projects

8. CONCLUSION

This manual is relevant for all three clusters, even though the main focus is on Cluster 2 and 3.

Protection of groundwater in relation to invasive species management is described in

combination with manual on targeted silviculture, which will be implemented later.

Only a few relevant plans could be selected for the manual where we were able to contribute our

experience through our management activities and own trials.

24


There is a need for a lot of awareness raising in all directions and consistent disposal measures.

Appropriate resources must be made available in order to be able to implement the

requirements in accordance with the guidelines. It has been shown that the sensitization has

arrived in the respective departments and authorities.

The control of neophytes is part of the water management concepts. For forest areas in the sense

of forest laws or for other legally protected areas (agricultural areas, water protection areas and

sanctuaries etc.), disposal measures are associated with special restrictions.

The aim is also a disposal requirement, prohibition of dissemination, special requirements are in

progress in Federal State Styria.

Relevant Species

Removal and monitoring activities of following species, relevant for water management in the

Styrian Enns Valley management, took place:

Impatiens glandulifera,

Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigentea and

Fallopia japonica).

Figure 8: Left side Fallopia japonica, right side Impatiens glanulifera (Comparison of length growth of

the aboveground plant mass), © Mayer, R. 2018

Figure 9: Removal of Impatiens glandulifera, students from AREC © Mayer, R., 2018

25


Summary Hot spots and problems by species

Spread by floods and sediment loads (e.g. 2013), ships, tractors, gardens, sediments

(cuttings, broke material)

Dissemination through the rehabilitation of flood protection dams

No neophyte-fair care of the infrastructure (contaminated bedload material is

deposited on neighbor areas and neophytes (especially seeds or rhizomes) are spread

(perfect raw soil settlers)

Dissemination through renaturation measures (open ground).


Dying of above-ground parts in autumn; dominant stands in wetlands, young forests,

clear cuts, river banks; loss of yield in forestry (annual); 2.500 seeds/plant.

Solidago canadensis, Solidago gigentea:

Mass occurrences in brownfields; soil replacement necessary (perennial); risk of

erosion increases in autumn; 19.000 seeds/year.

Fallopia japonica:

Dying of above-ground parts in autumn; extremely dense stands; roots up to 3-4

meters deep, shrubs up to 3 meters high (depletion of biomass); fast-growing;

penetrates buildings (major damage); displace embankment-stabilizing vegetation; risk

of erosion increases in autumn.

Tried and tested measures

• Regular mowing, manual removal in protected areas before flowering or shortly after

flowering along watercourses, in forests, protected areas (Natura 2000), grazing;

• No distribution of contaminated material (greatest distribution by roads / bank

redevelopment, fills);

• Material of knotgrass in a heating plant or waste incineration plant;

• Guidance for practitioners, community building yard staff and special training,

awareness activities (action weeks), activities of the mountain and nature rescue service,

nature conservation association, schools, private individuals;

26


• Proper disposal, prohibition of dissemination;

• Documentation of measures, monitoring (impact analysis, effort).

Management and Monitoring

• Biotope care measures in protected areas are promoted (= protection concept, work

instructions, internships, inspections, monitoring, annual report);

• Mayor's letters to all municipalities, information material, municipal newspapers,

regional media, mobilization of the population, cooperation with water cooperatives;

• ÖWAV regulations for neophyte management - treatment of invasive alien plant species

Pictures 10-12: before and after removal of Impatiens glandulifera, © Mayer, R. (2018)

Removal activities in Proteced Area Natura 2000 in Trautenfels

Working together with municipality staff, interns, volunteers, members of the Mountain and

Nature Rescue Service, Styrian league for nature protection, population, pupils

27


Pictures 13-18: Working sessions with students from AREC, municipality Stainach-Pürgg and Mountain

Nature Rescue Service 2018 © Mayer, R.

28


9. LITERATURE, LINKS

EU Commission (2015): Invasive Alien Species - Prioritising prevention efforts through horizon

scanning ENV.B.2/ETU/2014/0016, Final report, Brussels

Mayer, R., Plank, C., Bohner, A., Hochegger, K. (2017): Gebietsfremde Pflanzenarten breiten sich

im Steirischen Ennstal aus. In Da schau her Die Kulturzeitschrift aus Österreichs Mitte, 2/2017,

38. Jhg, Hrsg. Verein Schloss Trautenfels, Trautenfels, S. 8-11

Mayer, R., Plank, C. (2017): Blühende Erfolge. In. Info Europa, Informationen über den

Donauraum und Mitteleuropa, Ausgabe 03/2017 Umwelt schützen, Zukunft sichern. Hrsg:

Institut für den Donauraum und Mitteleuropa. Wien. S. 14-15

Mayer, R., Plank, C., Bohner, Buketits, J. (2014): Am Land. Transnationales Management von

Natura 2000 Gebieten, Interreg SEE, Hrsg: HBLFA Raumberg-Gumpenstein, Irdning, S. 23-24

Mayer, R., Plank, C., Bohner, A (2017): Soil Awareness Educational Projects in Austria

Bodenbewusstsein Bildungsprojekte in Österreich, Mittelungen der Bodenkundlichen

Gesellschaft, Heft 83, Bundesforschungs- und Ausbildungszentrum für Wald, Naturgefahren und

Landschaft. S. 61-76

Nehring, Stefan (2016): Die invasiven gebietsfremden Arten der ersten Unionsliste der EU

Verordnung Nr. 1143/2014, Bundesamt für Naturschutz, Bonn

ÖWAV (2016): Neophytenmanagement Prävention und Bekämpfung invasiver, gebietsfremder

Pflanzenarten Vorstellung des ÖWAV-Arbeitsbehelfs 49, Linz

ÖWAV (2016): Neophytenmanagement Behandlung invasiver gebietsfremder Pflanzensarten,

Arbeitsbehelf 49, Österreichischer Wasser- und Abfallwirtschaftsverband, Wien

http://esenias.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=481

http://www.europe-aliens.org/

DAISIE (Delivering Alien Invasive Species Inventories for Europe)

NOBANIS (European Network on Invasive Alien Species)

https://www.verwaltung.steiermark.at/cms/beitrag/10743676/74837516/

http://esenias.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=481



http://www.nobanis.org/

https://www.verwaltung.steiermark.at/cms/beitrag/10743676/74837516/

29


www.verwaltung.steiermark.at/

https://www.cbd.int/invasive/

http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/umweltsituation/naturschutz/naturrecht/

http://www.natur-lexikon.com/Texte/MZ/002/00161-Goldrute/MZ00161-Goldrute.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/solidagocanadensis.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/solidagogigantea.html

http://www.bachpaten-freiburg.de/oekologi/neophyt/goldfr.htm

http://www.neophyten.net/problemarten/goldruten.html

http://www.biodiv.at

http://www.natur-lexikon.com/Texte/MZ/002/00141-Springkraut/MZ00141-Springkraut.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/impatiensglandulifera.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/impatiensparviflora.html

http://www.bachpaten-freiburg.de/oekologi/neophyt/springfr.htm

http://www.neophyten.net/problemarten/druesiges_springkraut.html

http://www.uni-koblenz.de/~odsbcg/rheinwan/neoimpat.htm

http://www.biodiv.at/chm/situation/aliens/situation.htm

http://de.wikipedia.org

http://www.bachpaten-freiburg.de/oekologi/neophyt/knoetfr.htm

http://www.lwg.bayern.de/gartentipps/2005/14604/index.php

http://www.neophyten.net/problemarten/japanknoeterich.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/fallopiajaponica.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/fallopiasachalinensis.html



http://www.verwaltung.steiermark.at/

https://www.cbd.int/invasive/

http://www.umweltbundesamt.at/umweltsituation/naturschutz/naturrecht/

http://www.natur-lexikon.com/Texte/MZ/002/00161-Goldrute/MZ00161-Goldrute.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/solidagocanadensis.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/solidagogigantea.html

http://www.bachpaten-freiburg.de/oekologi/neophyt/goldfr.htm

http://www.neophyten.net/problemarten/goldruten.html

http://www.biodiv.at/

http://www.natur-lexikon.com/Texte/MZ/002/00141-Springkraut/MZ00141-Springkraut.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/impatiensglandulifera.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/impatiensparviflora.html

http://www.bachpaten-freiburg.de/oekologi/neophyt/springfr.htm

http://www.neophyten.net/problemarten/druesiges_springkraut.html

http://www.uni-koblenz.de/~odsbcg/rheinwan/neoimpat.htm


http://de.wikipedia.org/

http://www.bachpaten-freiburg.de/oekologi/neophyt/knoetfr.htm

http://www.lwg.bayern.de/gartentipps/2005/14604/index.php

http://www.neophyten.net/problemarten/japanknoeterich.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/fallopiajaponica.html

http://www.floraweb.de/neoflora/handbuch/fallopiasachalinensis.html



30


Best Practice Manual (BPM):

Awareness raising

Cluster 1,2,& 3

24.02.2019


2


Contents

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................... 4

2. THE GOALS OF STAKEHOLDERS ENGAGEMENT ......................................................... 4

3. RAISING AWARENESS OF RELEVANT STAKEHOLDERS ............................................ 4

3.1. Knowledge transfer ............................................................................................................................................. 4

3.2. Stakeholders workshops ................................................................................................................................ 10

3.3. Field trips ............................................................................................................................................................. 16

3.4. Trainings .............................................................................................................................................................. 21

3.5. Online consultations ........................................................................................................................................ 25

3.6. Mobile groups on the spot .............................................................................................................................. 26

3.7. Distribution of information – website, media, newsletters, etc. ...................................................... 29

3


Contributors, name and

surname

Institution

Albena Bobeva Executive Forest Agency, Bulgaria

Elena Rafailova Executive Forest Agency, Bulgaria

István Waltner Herman Ottó Institute Nonprofit Ltd. (HUN)

Anna Farkas Herman Ottó Institute Nonprofit Ltd. (HUN)

Claudia Plank Agricultural Research and Education Center

Raumberg-Gumpenstein

Karl Gebhardt Forest Research Institute Baden-

Württemberg

Elizabeth Gerhardt Austrian Federal Ministry of Sustainability

and Tourism

Ana Selak Croatian Geological Survey

Petrisor Vica Romsilva, Romania

Vladimir Konstantinov Executive Forest Agency, Bulgaria

Daniel Alexandru National Meteorological Administration,

Romania

Dr. Elena Mateescu National Meteorological Administration,

Romania

Andreea Popescu National Meteorological Administration,

Romania

Beata Balazsi Environmental Protection Agency of Covasna

Marius Danila Environmental Protection Agency of Covasna

Barbara Čenčur Curk University of Ljubljana

Urška Valenčič University of Ljubljana

4


1. Introduction

This manual is part of DT 222 “Transnational cluster-manual for practitioners” of Work package

T2 “Explorative Danube” of the project CAMARO-D. The main aim is to communicate with all

relevant target groups and stakeholders and to involve them in the development of the outputs

of the project. The manual is directed mainly to local authorities and practitioners in the

watershed area and especially at the pilot action sites. Their involvement in awareness raising

activities on the spot is of great importance to guarantee the cooperation with the public

authorities, research institutions and decision makers on watershed level.

2. The goals of stakeholders engagement

Raise awareness of the problems on watershed level

Provide stakeholders with relevant knowledge and skills

Outlining the methods and approaches used within the Clusters for communication and stakeholders involvement

Provide stakeholders with the tools to control and management of the risks

Promote and implement measures

Distribute “lessons learnt” among other relevant actors or general public

3. Raising awareness of relevant stakeholders

Raising awareness among relevant stakeholders is critical for the success of any initiative, as their participation and collaboration will be needed for the development and implementation of related policies and programmes. Stakeholder engagement is an integral part of good practice in modern policy-making, particularly in initiation stages of policy development. Through different ways one of the initial steps in the process of interaction with stakeholders is to provoke them into searching professional advice. During the project implementation, different tools were used to raise awareness in stakeholders and society and to involve them in the implementation of the direct and indirect interventions in the catchment pilot areas.

3.1. Knowledge transfer

3.1.1. Austria

Within the Pilot Area “Groundwater field Dietacher Holz” several consultations in smaller as well

as bigger groups with the involved water suppliers, municipal decision makers, forest owners

and farmers were conducted. With this method the affected stakeholders could be informed very

detailed and efficient (e.g. which tree species should be used where?).

Within the Gnasbach catchment area mainly soil and water conservation consultants of the

Styrian agricultural chamber and affected farmers were involved. The knowledge transfer was

conducted in a bidirectional and cooperative manner.

5


AREC implements manifold knowledge transfer methods:

Special trainings and workshops, action days, hands-on activities, excursions, study visits,

science days, traineeships for students as well as face-to-face transfer were realised within

CAMARO-D project. Additionally different media channels were used for the distribution of

know-how and awareness raising according to special topics (e.g. invasive plant species, beaver

management, surface runoff according to different land-use types).

The knowledge transfer method is selected upon the relevant target group. Our science days and

hands-on activities with schools as well as the public workshops about wetland and flood risk

management showed that for citizens and students a combination of theory and practice on the

spot is very effective. The direct contact (e.g. removal of invasive plant species) is very important

and creates a greater connection with the topic.

For practitioners trainings are useful, for instance to become acquainted to a new management

method. Decision-makers need to be directly involved in the relevant actions (e.g. involvement

of representatives from local municipalities to invasive plant species actions, hazard zone

mapping, workshops) to get expertise for implementation of guidelines and BPM (e.g. spatial

planning and flood risk prevention).

3.1.2. Bulgaria

Knowledge transfer workshop for the role of the forest green belt around the village of Eliseina

and the role of drinking water protective forests around the drinking water zones was organized

to increase the awareness of local services and local population. The importance of the green

belt above the village and the possible ways for its improvement and protection were the main

points of the discussion and field work. Knowledge transfer action to increase of the

preparedness of local society to avoid floods by maintaining the river bed clean from trees,

branches and wastes and on how to remove and dispose the septage from the sewage tanks after

the floods.was realized in watershed with the participation of local population and mayors of

three villages.

6


Figure 1. Green bel above the village

Figure 2. Above the village of Eliseina after intensive rain

Monitoring the hydro-meteorological parameters in a torrential basin

(Putna tributary – Caciu Barsesti)

The National Institute for Research and Development in Forestry (INCDS) “Marin Drăcea”

conducted a research of determination of the hydrological and anti-erosion efficiency of

forest protection crops on degraded lands. The results obtained are useful for the future

development of forestry and especially forestry hydrological research, currently deficient in

data on the variation of hydrological parameters in relation to the state of forest protection

crops, silvicultural works, stationary conditions, etc.

Figure 2. Research areas (1C, 2C) for the study of leakage and erosion in Caciu-Barsesti basin

- Pilna area pilot

7


3.1.3. Croatia

HGI-CGS as PP10 held specific meetings with relevant practitioners and stakeholders within

Pilot action Kupa River catchment area, primarily aimed at acquiring information about the

area’s status quo and issues it is coping with and measures for their mitigation/prevention (on

local and regional level), but also at best practices exchange. Practitioners happily

communicated their points of views therefore contributing to the identification of gaps in land

use management and water protection at local and/or regional level. Even though direct stakeholder dialogue in form of meetings will yield the most of the required data and

stakeholders’ feedback, it should be complemented with other engagement tools like phone

calls, emails, questionnaires etc.

3.1.4. Germany

The three pillars of the FVA (PP12) are monitoring, research and knowledge transfer, therefore,

the FVA has competences in knowledge transfer of research. There are different platforms to

convey monitoring and research results to forest users, e.g. there are events such as

presentations and seminars on a regular basis, the data from monitoring and research is

prepared for the internet (www.waldwissen.net), and there are print media such as the “FVA

Einblick” (internal newsletter) and magazines for members of land user associations. There is

general interest among land users for new knowledge on how to improve their environmental

impacts. However, experience shows that when other major problems arise, such as the current

forestry reform in the state of Baden-Wuerttemberg and bark beetle infestations (especially in

the dry year 2018), it is difficult to mobilize stakeholders to attend the events.

8


3.1.5. Hungary

Since there was no Hungarian field study within the project, the below experiences are drawn

from other projects carried out by HOI.

Within the Interreg project TRIS (Transition Regions Towards Industrial Symbiosis) IS

(Industrial Symbiosis) Local Labs were established to act as a kind of advisory board for the

project partners in each region. At least 10 members take part in this group of experts, who

come from different backgrounds: ministries, background institutes, umbrella organizations,

industry representatives and NGOs. Every six months an IS Local Lab Meeting is held at the

project partners to inform the Local Lab members about the project proceedings but also to ask

for their advice in professional matters.

One other possibility for successful knowledge transfer is that trained workers train project

partners who can transfer this knowledge to the target group in their region. HOI took part in a

project where the lead partner organized a train the trainers course with approx. 10 participants

who trained and involved later more than 300 people.

3.1.6. Romania

NMA-PP07 - Black River - Hydrographic basin from Covasna County

Drought communication is done through competent bodies and can prove the truth of the

information, these institutions send notifications to the other administrative institutions

(Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development) and even to the

Government when the damages are very high. Communication also takes place locally, regionally

or nationally, depending on the intensity of the drought and the affected area.

Before an event occurs, people can be warned through the media or the internet to take certain

measures and to be aware of the danger they will expose.

The National Meteorological Administration sends warnings on soil drought, the Government

and MADR- Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, have to inform the population so,

these forward the information through the local and county councils.

Depending on their expertise, the competent institutions in Romania elaborate the following

documents:

the development of good practice guides for agriculture, in particular for non-irrigated

agriculture;

developing and implementing local (community-level) action plans for the ASC

(Adaptation to Climate Change);

9


the development and implementation of land improvement plans which will increase the

probability of precipitation (including afforestation, water gloss, etc.);

use research to combat existing vulnerabilities and change the structure of crops / holdings in the sense of an agriculture less exposed to climate change;

encouraging crop / farm insurance;

improving the availability and applicability of modeling and adaptation options for the use of farmers (providing data and results on the response of the water resource to the

possible scenarios of climate change, the promotion of the use of GIS technology, etc.);

infrastructure and technology development necessary for active local control interventions of extreme weather phenomena for the protection of crops and local

communities.

In every agricultural year, County Agricultural Directorates and Community Council have

to provide to farmers the recommendation received from Ministry of Agriculture and

Rural Development included into a protocol named Recommended measures to mitigate

the effects of drought.

From the emergence of the phenomenon of drought in agriculture, the County Agricultural

Directorates announces local councils and farmers when agricultural crops are affected. Also,

According to the Agrometeorological Standard Bulletin issued by National Meteorological

Administration, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development informs the County

Agricultural Directorates about the appearance of drought and makes recommendations for

farmers at county level, each time the drought situation it is updated with new information

received from NMA.

County Agricultural Directorates and Community Council receive a set o measures from the

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, activities that should be applied to limit the

effects of drought.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development demand that the County Agricultural

Directorates investigate the surfaces affected by the drought phenomena.

Based on the Reports of all County Agricultural Directorates, the Ministry of Agriculture and

Rural Development makes a national evaluation of agricultural fields affected by drought and

informs the Government about the current situation of drought in agriculture at national level.

The Government along with the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development establishes the

opportunities of interventions with financial compensation.

The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development releases to the general and specialized

media the evaluation of drought at national level, along with the measures applied regarding this

situation.

10


The media has an important role in publishing articles in specialized magazines or broadcasting

interviews to inform the public about the current state.

3.1.7. Slovenia

Knowledge transfer was achieved with different/several means: an article about project results

was prepared and presented at the Slovenian Geological Congress, meetings with relevant

stakeholders were held where information about current situation, challenges and best

management practices were exchanged, workshop for the identification and feedback on best

practices regarding managing the water regime was organized, excursions with Slovenian Forest

Service and river supervisor was realised.

3.2. Stakeholder selection and engagement

3.2.1. Austria

Dependent on the relevant subject/topic/problem bilateral conversations or

meetings/consultations with the most affected/involved stakeholders are conducted. This

method provides the most effective and efficient way to get detailed information (e.g. about their

respective problems in their daily work) or to give recommendations tailored to the relevant

problems on-site. Concerning the protection of groundwater - as it is the main topic within the

Pilot area “Dietacher Holz” – the involvement of the relevant water works is the basic condition

for the success of the communication process as the water suppliers are the only institution

which guarantees for the interest of drinking water protection. Furthermore the fact that the

Lead Partner – the Austrian Federal Ministry of Sustainability and Tourism - has organized these

stakeholder events and Pilot Actions was a main trigger for all involved persons, as through this

their interest was given on a high level.

In the Gnasbach catchment area, potentially interested farmers were selected based on their

former participation in courses on soil and water conservation by reduced tillage practices at

AREC Raumberg-Gumpenstein. These farmers are used as pioneers and by means of objective

economic efficiency calculations an optimisation in terms of soil protection and yields can be

expected. Open and broad discussion processes as well as case studies will become important in

the future. Furthermore trainings to become an agricultural skilled worker

(“Landwirtschaftlicher Facharbeiter”), who is entitled to manage a farm and to get incentives,

are envisaged.

This is only partially desirable – on the one hand, the probability of actual implementation of the

proposed measures (intercropping and reduced tillage) is higher because the participants are

supposed to be genuinely interested – on the other hand, farmers that have not been interested

11


so far will miss out. The main hope here is that by communication between these two groups of

farmers, the proposed ideas will have a chance to gain momentum.

Stakeholders are selected at the beginning of the measure, on local, regional and/or national

level, according to the particular topic and to the area of the pilot action.

For involvement of stakeholders in pilot actions personal contacts and co-operations from

previous or current projects and activities are one of the most fruitful methods.

The engagement of stakeholders takes place via direct involvement in relevant actions (e.g.

involvement of the Mountain and Nature Rescue Service and of the Styrian League for Nature

Protection and Schools and population in the pilot action “Management of invasive plant

species”), invitation to events (trainings, workshops, study visits) as well as via the joint

development of new concepts and further projects. Direct stakeholder integration proves to be of great importance for the knowledge transfer and exchange of experiences.

AREC is a multiplayer in the region Styrian Enns valley and has a very close contact to decision

makers as well as practitioners, NGOs, schools and experts in different fields of research and

development, education, but also for further education, reviewers and lecturers at universities

and schools. Also strategies and working groups are established. Therefore we have a close

cooperation to all relevant stakeholders in the region in general. The representatives from AREC

are also local councillors and therefore in thematic fields like spatial planning directly involved

in implementation processes or can open doors for better connections and networks.

3.2.2. Bulgaria

Contact per e-mail or phone

Official invitation to the related services

Press-release on the EFA web page

Using of regional EFA experts to invite important stakeholders on regional level /they are familiar with those experts, as they are working on the spot with relevant

institutions on regional level/

12


3.2.3. Croatia

Adequate preliminary targeting of relevant stakeholders/practitioners will facilitate their timely

involvement and effective ongoing communication. Therefore all relevant target groups were

identified prior to the first significant project’s communication activity. A contact list of all

relevant persons (containing data on the institutions they are working at, mailing addresses etc.)

is regularly updated within the projects course. This contact list could be a sort of database for

all future related projects.

3.2.4. Germany

The direct contact to lower forestry authorities as well as continuing education events are good

ways to select and engage stakeholders.

3.2.5. Hungary

Since there was no Hungarian field study within the project, the below experiences are drawn

from other projects carried out by HOI.

Within TRIS the Stakeholder selection was carried out by assembling a list of possible experts

from the field of circular economy and industrial symbiosis. The list included representatives

from the responsible ministries, background, professional associations and NGOs. An invitation

letter was sent out to them, and those who agreed to join, a contract was sent for signature

asking for a continuous participation in the project. Despite this contract, after a certain amount

of time some participants were not so keen on attending the meetings or joining the debate on

the current issues. Also there were some institutional changes from time to time. In those cases

new contacts were asked to join the IS Local Lab. At the end of the day a very helpful team was

formed that gave useful thoughts and insights to the topics.

One of the most effective ways of involving stakeholders was in our projects to cooperate with

umbrella organizations. They can mobilize the members of the given association easily. In a LIFE

Project HOI cooperated with KÖVET Association, which is non-governmental organization for

sustainable management. HOI used the contacts of KÖVET for collecting potential voluntary

organizations. The action was supported with a ‘Selection methodology’ developed by one of the

associated beneficiaries in order to identify the most appropriate end-users with high

transferability potential.

3.2.6. Romania

Romanian stakeholders were selected as: local, regional and national authorities in the sectors of

agriculture, farmers, water, environment, emergency response, education and public

administration; academic institutions. We can say that the project results are useful to a better

understanding of the risks that appear in the study area and the best practice measures that are

13


applied or can be implemented at regional and local level helping the authorities to have a better

response in the future.

3.2.7. Slovenia

To form the group of most relevant stakeholders, selection was made on different levels (local,

regional, national), from different sectors (agriculture, environment, spatial planning…) and

according to the specifics and characteristics of pilot action area. In project context, the inclusion

of waterworks of the area is of vital importance. Finally, acquaintances gained during previous

work and projects are also one way of complementing and connecting an interdisciplinary

stakeholders group. Engagement of stakeholders will be achieved through a survey and research

conducted by sociologists.

3.3. Stakeholders workshops

3.3.1. Austria

In case of workshops with many participants the most effective method to get information from

the audience as much as possible is the so-called “Carousel discussion”: due to the different

topics the audience is divided into (about 3 – 4) groups. The relevant topic will be discussed in

these small groups and documented (e.g. on small papers). After a certain time these groups

rotate until each group could give their comments to each topic. With this method you get a

quite comprehensive overview about the most relevant problems/solutions etc. – of course

dependent from the composition of the audience. A more diverse audience can provide more

diverse points of view according to their respective fields of action.

The direct contact to other stakeholders (bringing the groups of interest together to discuss

problems and find solutions, networking) is very important and therefore often the most

important part of workshops. This can be realised through offering interactive working groups.

New knowledge and ideas arise more easily when people work together on relevant issues.

Interactive working groups initiate dialogues, promote interdisciplinary exchange of

experiences and knowledge, create new cooperation between stakeholders, and develop

concrete implementation measures.

An example for an effective interactive working group is the world café:

The participants are working on questions in small groups that change after 20 minutes. Only

the moderator remains at the table and ensures that the next group of participants does not do

the same work again but pushes the topic further. The results are noted and presented later to

all participants.

14


World cafés are very effective because usable results can be produced very quickly. Everyone is

actively involved and can contribute their know-how and experience. The results can be used

immediately or can be processed further (prioritization). The integration of all participants

increases the acceptance of the results.

For students the best involvement and integration in the thematic are hands on workshops or a

combination between theory and practice.

3.3.2. Bulgaria

Terrain work and work on the spot with demonstrations of different activities important for the

area and for the local population were the most effective part of the stakeholder workshops

3.3.3. Croatia

Round table discussions, rotating panel discussions, educative lectures with graphical simulation

models, demonstration models and experiments (see answer to question 5). Also dissemination

of educative brochure containing all relevant data on pilot action and identified issues and best

practices.

3.3.4. Germany

The most effective part were filed trips with experts, discussions not only with the experts, but

also with the land users on site. To have the discussions on site, where the problems can be seen

more easily, helps understand possible conflicts between land users, and to see the possible

solutions. Very effective is to present a solution that benefits both parties. This is, of course, is

not always the case.

3.3.5. Hungary

The implementation of the projects can be supported with different groups of stakeholders.

In other international projects, HOI established National Technical Committees with Hungarian

environmental experts and decision makers in order to involve the relevant stakeholders.

Participants were trained and had regular meetings to discuss the actual issues of the project

actions with HOI.

The projects of HOI are usually supported by an external Advisory Board as well. The members

of the board monitor the project implementation, take part in progress meetings and provide feedbacks on project implementation in order to make it more efficient. The advisory board can

consist of representatives of most relevant ministries, relevant local and regional authorities,

universities and main stakeholders delegated by the beneficiaries. They can discuss the

15


experiences gained in the project, overall strategies, dissemination of lessons learnt and key

results or financial issues in order to reach the project objectives.

3.3.6. Romania

At the Romanian national Workshop, organized on June 08 2017, at Covasna, NMA experts

presented to the stakeholders the PP7 main objectives in the CAMARO-D project and the related

projects to the topic:

- Mr. Daniel Alexandru from the Agrometeorological Department, gave a presentation regarding

the Pilot area of the Covasna district to assess the possible impact of climate change and the use

of land on the quality and quantity of water resources in the catchment Black;

- Mrs. Mihaela Caian, from the Numerical Modeling Forecast Department, presented the paper:

Climate change at a regional scale for Romania (pilot areas: Covasna and Vrancea) estimated in

assemblies multi-numerical models for climate scenarios SPC / IPCC;

- Ms. Georgiana Olaru, from the Agrometeorological Department, pointed out a related project

with good practices deliverables, Green Path towards Sustainable Development Project, part of

RO07 Programme - Adaptation to climate change, financed by funds provided by Iceland,

Liechtenstein and Norway via the Financial Mechanism of the European Economic Area (EEA),

EEA Grants 2009 - 2014. - During the Romanian national Workshop was discussed the issues

regarding D 3.1.2.

Also, at the Romanian Workshop organized on June 08 2017, at Covasna, PP06, PP07 and PP08

experts debated together with the invited stakeholders the content of the D 3.2.1 National

review reports of existing best management practices in Romania and the D 3.1.3 Analysis

report of existing policy instruments/strategies resp. governance and cross compliance

synergies on national/regional levels and their current practical implementation in Romania.

NMA participated at the Romanian National Event organized in 12 December 2017, at Sfântu

Gheorghe, by PP08-EPAC in the Black River Pilot Area "Dialogue with stakeholders on the

interdependencies of management practices of Natura 2000 sites and the water management in

river basin Black", and presented one paper related to Pilot Area Black River. PP07 has

disseminated information about current status of the project with focus on the Report DT 2.1.3

Foreseen Pilot Actions and their Characteristics, Definition of the Requirements for the Pilot

Actions for Cluster and D. T 1.2.3 Transnational best management practice (BMP) catalogue

– Arable Agriculture and Grassland Management documents.

Forest management measures in the water resources protection areas, Romania

Stakeholders got acquainted with the risk of erosion due to improper management and use of vulnerable territories. Presented and discussed are the possible negative results from erosion

16


processes for the neighboring settlements. Knowledge transfer to local stakeholders and owners

about the silvicultural activities in artificial pine plantations was conducted.

Figure 4. Stakeholder workshops in Romania

3.3.7. Slovenia

Carousel discussions enables exploring multiple perspectives of a topic in a dynamic session.

Discussion in smaller groups is very successful, because the participants are more willing and

motivated to cooperate creatively. At the end a summary is made and presented to all

participants. The second very effective activity is a field trip or excursion, where features and

issues of certain area can be introduced most clearly.

3.4. Field trips

3.4.1. Austria

By means of an information event in the Pilot area “Groundwater field Dietacher Holz” with the

affected stakeholders (especially forest owners) most of them could be convinced to act

according to the developed Forest Hydrotope Model and to apply its recommendations. Due to

severe damages within summer 2018 caused by bark beetles the forest owners and farmers

were willing to give up their long-established Norway spruce cultivation and to open

silvicultural practices towards the cultivation of deciduous tree species or Silver fir. By means of

direct information and discussion processes in the field of the Pilot area the involved

stakeholders could be directly addressed and open questions could be answered immediately.

Within the Gnasbach catchment examples of soil erosion in arable farming were presented and

occurred problems and effects discussed. The method for measuring soil erosion was

personated and explained directly on-site. The advantages and disadvantages of crop rotation

17


and alternative cultures incl. green strips as well as the mix of management and the programme

for supporting special crops were discussed.

Within our indirect pilot actions, we combined field trips for students and land users

(practitioners) with practical exercises dealing with the protection against natural hazards,

protection against erosion, removal of invasive plant species. Each participant is interested in

good solutions and needs an exchange of experience with other colleagues. The exchange of best

practice among each other and one's own experiences is not conflict-prone but solution-

oriented.

Examples:

1) Simulation game: Hazard Zone Maps for the protection against floods (two-day activity)

On the first day experts from the Austrian Federal Service for Torrent and Avalanche control

(WLV) visited the school and informed the students/ pupils about flood risk and protection

measures in the Styrian Enns Valley. For the second day a practical field trip to a nearby stream

was organised. The stream was dammed with sandbags. The pupils built a small village in the

middle of the streambed and had the task to set measures to protect their houses from floods.

Stone walls, dams, retention basis and wooden barriers were constructed to provide as much

protection as possible for the settlement area. Then a hazard zone plan was drawn up together

with the experts. The young experts drew their houses into a sketched map and assessed the

danger area with red (extreme danger of flooding), yellow (danger of damage) or green (safe

location). Afterwards the sandbags were removed and the flood occurred. Some houses were

damaged but many parts of the settlement were safe from flooding. The young experts had

protected their small village very well. The pupils used flags to mark their houses or the areas in

which they were originally built. The danger zone map created by the pupils was pretty much in

line with the actual danger zones from the experts. Pupils, teachers, parents, interested citizens

and the mayor participated in the outdoor experience workshop. The workshop was also a

training for the implementation of the new revised hazard zone map in the municipality. It is a

qualified expert opinion of the WLV. The local population can thus better understand why and

how the danger zones are designated. The experts from WLV achieve a higher acceptance and

understanding of danger zoning as well as protective measures where necessary and that areas

must also be made available for this purpose.

2) Natural hazards in torrent catchment areas and protective forest (one-day activity)

A field trip with experts was organised for students of the elementary school Irdning, in order to

learn about the threats of natural hazards (especially floods, debris flows, avalanches, bark

beetles and forest fires) and protective measures. Theoretical knowledge about the protection

forest was combined with practical inputs.

18


Together technical and biological protection measures were visited. The effect of the protective

forest against rock fall could be investigated with a small model. Also bark beetles and their

larvae were closely observed under microscopes. To protect the settlement area, the pupils

reforested an area with different site specific tree species such as spruce, larch and sycamore

maple.

3.4.2. Bulgaria

Watershed “Ochindolska reka”, Bulgaria

A number of field trips during the implementation of the pilot actions in the watershed

„Ochindolska reka“ in Bulgaria were realized together with stakeholder from different

institutions. Also local citizens were involved in this process in order to recognize their

important role in decision making process.

Figure 5. Field trips in watershed “Ochindolska reka” for raising awareness on the main

risks and problems

19


3.4.3. Croatia

Previous selection of most representative locations; previous and on-site dissemination of

excursion brochure; on-site discussion on identified issues and best practices.

3.4.4. Germany

During field trips, apart from having experts with sound scientific background, both sides of a

problem were presented at the same time, e.g. to have people that present the problems the

water supplier has, and to show (in the field) the forestry options to help solve those problems.

3.4.5. Hungary

Within the TRIS project every six months an interregional meeting was organized for the project

partners, therefore Hungarian, Spanish, Italian, British and Swedish sites were visited. Typically

these sites were in connection with the main topic, circular economy or industrial symbiosis, for

instance biogas plants, energy recovery plants or used clothing selecting facility with a social

sideline.

3.4.6. Romania

Research services in the Black River pilot area about "Identification of optimal management

solutions for human-beaver conflict situations (Castor fiber species) and their implementation in

a pilot area of the Negru River watershed, in connection with the maintenance of the human

population's defense infrastructure against floods”.

During the Field trip meeting on 27 august 2018 on Covasna (Lunga, Sausi area) between EPA

Covasna and experts from strategic Associated SGA Covasna, when were visited proposal areas

to select in which to achieve implementation of a measure of good practice in human –beaver

interaction in Black River basin, its tributaries, including areas designated in the preliminary

study of ICAS Brasov. The locations were: Papauti creek, Estelnic creek, Ojdula creek, Zabala

creek, Hilib creek, Lutoasa and Capolna creek.

The first location visit took place at the confluence of streams and Lutoasa Estelnic, which takes

place in the middle of the agricultural fields between the villages Estelnic, Lutoasa and Lunga.

Portion of land has been identified for the implementation of the proposed measure. Banks have

been observed conformation of the dimensions of the dams, interdigurilor width, depth of the

bottom. They were observed in the present situation of Beaver dams and dam arrangement in

the past, which were dismantled by landowners around the stream.

The next visited place were at the confluence Capolna with Black River, on the outskirts Săsăuşi

where stream flows arranged Capolna, the village Ojdula parallel to the road leading to the same

village. Portion of land has been identified for the implementation of the proposed measure.

Banks have been observed conformation of the dimensions of the dams, interdigurilor width,

depth of the bottom. There was observed the current location of Beaver dams.

20


Due to field conditions, the possibility of access to machines and sectional shape area between

the dams in the two areas studied, the team moved on land decides creek Capolna to make

implementation of a measure of good practices proposed in the preliminary report

aforementioned.

Vidra study visit, Romania

Vidra, study visit with the purpose of presenting the works for the correction of the torrents and

afforestation of the degraded lands and study visit with students from the Vidra School Group in

the pilot area on the following topics: torrents, pollution, resource management measures,

conducted in order to improve the knowledge of local students for the importance of protective

forest for drinking water and to increase the preparedness and knowledge of students to avoid

floods.

Figure 6. Vidra field visit in Romania

3.4.7. Slovenia

/

There were no field trips organized within CAMARO-D project.

21


3.5. Trainings

3.5.1. Austria

Our stakeholder training (Cluster training) in Steyr (13.11.2018) nearby the Pilot Area

“Dietacher Holz” was very successful: many local and regional stakeholders from different field

of actions (water supplier, forestry, agriculture) participated and were very interested in the

presentations and discussion processes, also during the field-trip to the Pilot Area. The

attendance of international partners was obviously very attractive and an added value for the

national stakeholders to see similar problems/challenges in land use from other countries and

possible solutions. The possibility to see and to discuss these issues directly in the respective

pilot area was very effective and interesting.

Due to our experience trainings, which combine theoretical and practical contents, are the most

effective for knowledge transfer. However, they should not take too long.

Our trainings usually last one and a half day (maximum two days). In the morning, experts give a

technical insight into the topic. In the afternoon, a group work takes place where the

participants exchange and discuss their experiences and together develop effective measures.

This is also very effective for the development of new cooperation. The following day concludes

with an excursion on the topic (e.g. presentation of best practice examples in the pilot region).

The procedure was successfully applied during the first national stakeholder workshop at AREC

Raumberg-Gumpenstein. Stakeholders from different fields of action (e.g. agriculture, forestry,

spatial planning, nature protection) participated and were very interested in the exchange of

know-how and best-practices. The additional involvement of decision makers (representatives

from communities, province governments) was very fruitful for networking. Stakeholders had

the possibility to communicate their needs to the decision makers and jointly try to

find/improve solutions (e.g. funds) for particular problems.

The stakeholder workshop incl. field trip in Gnas was only 2 hours but the land users could get a

very compact and understandable information on erosion control measures in the arable

farming area. Experts and practitioners discussed at eye level. A field trial demonstrated the

problem and showed interesting proposals for solutions with regard to management (technical)

and type of culture or intermediate sowing. Both the Chamber of Agriculture (Agricultural

Environmental Consultancy), the Federal Office for Water Management and the AREC

Raumberg-Gumpenstein were able to jointly identify very interesting solutions.

22


3.5.2. Bulgaria

Demonstration of forest fire alerting system and training

As example of best practices a demonstration to the stakeholders of the alerting forest fire

system was done in June 2018.

A simulation of forest fire was conducted during the meeting to show the detection of the forest

fire from the surveillance system and its capabilities. At the same time interaction and reaction

of different responsible services for fire suppression in the nature was demonstrated. A large

group of stakeholders participated in the training and discussed the possibilities of the alerting

system and the interaction between the institutions. /Fig…/

Such kind of trainings is of great importance for the stakeholders because of their direct

practical knowledge transfer and effect and their direct participation in all activities on the spot.

Figure 7. Stakeholder practical training and direct involvement on the spot in practical measures

23


3.5.3. Croatia

Young generations as future stakeholders were engaged through number of educative

workshops organized by the HGI-CGS (one was held directly within the pilot area). Main

objective of these workshops was to promote the CAMARO-D project, popularize science among

young generations and raise awareness on water resources protection, flood mitigation and

prevention of environmental risks. The best means of children involvement were interactive

demonstration models (e.g. karst model and maps) and experiments (related to water pollution).

First national workshop for the presentation of the CAMARO-D project (held within pilot action

area) proved how interactive discussion with the practitioners in form of a round table was the

most fruitful way of information gathering and experience exchange. Also, rotating discussion

panels represented a chance for a dialogue between different target groups. Furthermore, the

most impactful held lectures (i.e. that initiated further discussion) were ones containing

graphical simulation models for land use change and flood mitigation on catchment area level.

3.5.4. Germany

There were no extra training events for stakeholders of PP12 in CAMARO-D, only the field trips

and stakeholder workshops.

3.5.5. Hungary

In a LIFE project HOI organized 3 trainings for end-users for calculating organisations carbon

footprint. Two trainings were held for public- and one for private sector. The content and

schedule of the training were designed by a project partner, the educational plan for calculating

the carbon footprint of an organisation with the developed tool was available for all project

partners. The documents could be modified in each country and all partners had possibility to

translate and elaborate new training materials as well. The trainings were divided into four

major sessions. All the participants were very actively involved during the seminars. They

actively participated in discussions, questioning, and giving ideas about the input data for the

carbon footprint. They showed high interest and according to the evaluation quiz, the aims of the

training seminars were fulfilled.

The end-users found that the 2 days training course were very effective and concise. They

learned a lot, the trainings were well-structured and information was understandable. Two days

on one hand were too long time to be out of work, some of them couldn’t organize the personal

substitution just only for one day. On the other hand from trainers’ perspective two days were

very short time to teach everything deeply enough.

3.5.6. Romania

24


The importance of constant communication and interaction between all the stakeholders of this

project it is very important. Also, the necessity to disseminate knowledge in an adequate, concise

and clear way was highlighted. The necessity to truthfully fill out the project’s questionnaires, so

they can provide relevant information, critical.

Demonstration of efficiency of forests in the protection of water resources

- Focsani, April, 2018

As example of best practices a demonstration to the stakeholders for the role of forests in the

protection of water resources was conducted.

Figure 8. A presentation to show the role of forests (especially degraded land) in the protection

of water resources was made during the meeting with the students of a school group in Focsani on the occasion of the Earth Day

3.5.7. Slovenia

We find that workshops and meetings are very efficient, so stakeholder training events were all

organized in one or the other way mentioned.

25


3.6. Online consultations

3.6.1. Austria

Online consultations are not very effective: only a small group of stakeholders answers the

questionnaire (for example the questionnaire within WPT1 – D.1.3.2). Furthermore due to

security regulations (especially in governmental institutions) many people couldn´t answer.

Therefore the results are not really representative.

Within the pilot actions an online consultation for the pilot action “Re-cultivation of Iris sibirica

meadows” was applied by the students of AREC. The District Chamber of Agriculture supported

the survey. Data was collected in terms of cost-benefit, interest in management of green and blue

infrastructure and the preservation of the traditional cultural landscape as well as if there are

appropriate subsidies existing.

Depending on the topic and target group (not all target groups can be reached online), online

consultations can be very effective and offer many advantages. They are time- and cost-saving.

The participants complete the questionnaire directly online, therefore the transfer of data to the

computer, which is often associated with errors, is not necessary. The data of online

consultations is immediately available. A more honest response behaviour can be assumed, as

interviewer effects are eliminated. Due to voluntariness, flexibility and anonymity, online

consultations are often highly accepted by the participants.

Face-to-face interviews and telephone surveys can be important as additional instrument if the

target group of the respondents is not so large and if individual information is needed (e.g. from

mayors, Natura 2000 site managers).

3.6.2. Bulgaria

Contacts per e-mail. They are effective for the organization of events or for the quick response to

some problems.

3.6.3. Croatia

To this point in project, we didn’t use online consultations.

3.6.4. Germany

The FVA is appointed to advise land owners in the state of Baden-Württemberg. This is usually

done via e-mail or telephone. Consultations concerning liming are usually done over the

telephone. Liming activities are published and made available to forest owners on the geodata

26


website of the forest administration (ForstBW). These methods are the most effective in our

experience, because the land user is in direct contact with the advisor. They can ask individual

questions regarding their specific piece of land.

3.6.5. Hungary

So far, we don’t have significant experience with online consultations.

3.6.6. Romania


Main stakeholders: Decision-makers (Ministery of the Environment, The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), farmers Main channels:

- Radio ( Village Life) - TV – specialised TV shows (agriculture) - Specialized newspapers (Agricultural Profit - www.profitulagricol.ro, Farm Magazine -

www.revista-ferma.ro) - Internet www.meteoromania.ro - PP07 dedicated on the NMA official website, a page about the main objectives, target

groups, all the details regarding the CAMARO-D project:

http://www.meteoromania.ro/anm2/despre-noi/proiecte/proiecte-europene-

2/camaro-d/

- INOVAGRIA METEO, a mobile application, the latest IT solution dedicated to management and agrometeo weather events in Romania

3.6.7. Slovenia

/ Online consultations were not performed within CAMARO-D project.

3.7. Mobile groups on the spot

3.7.1. Austria

The use of on-the-spot experts turned out as very important and sufficient. In case of the Pilot

Area in Steyr the forest owners and foresters were very uncertain what they should do after

severe losses due to bark-beetle infestations (especially in 2018), which kind of tree species

http://www.profitulagricol.ro/

http://www.revista-ferma.ro/

http://www.meteoromania.ro/

http://www.meteoromania.ro/anm2/despre-noi/proiecte/proiecte-europene-2/camaro-d/

http://www.meteoromania.ro/anm2/despre-noi/proiecte/proiecte-europene-2/camaro-d/

27


should be planted? An information event directly in the Pilot Area with the involved

stakeholders by forest experts was very important and effective.

Also in the field of Gnasbach the use of on-the-spot expert groups was very effective as the

involved persons got an impression of the problems and possible solutions were discussed

together in a very open manner by means of knowledge exchange processes.

On-the-spot expert groups are very important for the assessment of site conditions (local

inspection), the clarification of potential problems and the joint development of necessary

measures, together with practitioners and decision makers. It is important to involve experts

from all relevant disciplines, in order to get an interdisciplinary view of the topic, to find broader

solutions and to achieve a good cooperation.

For the pilot action “Re-cultivation of fallowed land to Iris sibirica meadows for blue and green

infrastructure” a preliminary inspection of the site was carried out together with experts from

nature conservation, spatial planning, agriculture, water engineering, torrent and avalanche

control, zoology and botany. The planned measures were discussed and adapted, according to

different subjects of protection (e.g. dormouse, amphibians and special plant species) which

were identified by the experts.

3.7.2. Bulgaria

Direct seeding in torrential area above the village of Eliseina in watershed “Ochindolska reka”,

Bulgaria

A good practice is sending a mobile expert group on the spot to advise and resolve concrete

problems together with stakeholders.

Part of the steepest slopes of the watershed “Ochindolska reka”/pilot area/ are situated above

the village of Eliseina. The inclination is 30 o. The terrain is steep and rocky with rear

vegetation. The stand is poor and dry. The main risk is in case of heavy rain. Floods and

landslides cause problems to infrastructure and buildings. No standard planting was possible on

this terrain and it was not implemented there many years. Because the watershed is part of

Nature Park “Vrachanski Balkan” according to the environmental legislation only native tree

species are allowed for afforestation. In that case these are Betula pendula and Syringa vulgaris.

No seedlings were produced from these species, because they are not economically efficient and

there is no demand in the country.

28


Because standard planting of such terrains is expensive and difficult for implementation and

requires much efforts and much human power, the method of direct seeding was recommended

by the experts from Executive forest agency. It was realized on 4 experimental plots by the local

foresters from State forest enterprise “Mezdra”. The selected tree species for the area are Betula

pendula and Syringa vulgaris, which are autochthone vegetation and very adaptive in such

conditions. First results could be monitored after 3, 4 months and the relevant

recommendations could be derived according to the success of the practical measure.

Figure 9. Working together with local foresters on the spot. Stakeholders together with

the staff form EFA evaluated the advantages and disadvantages of the method and

discussed the possibilities for the implementation of this practice on large areas.

3.7.3. Croatia

See sections 3.1.3. and 3.5.3.

3.7.4. Germany

An on-the-spot expert group is extremely helpful, see sections 3.3.4. and 3.4.4.

3.7.5. Hungary

So far, we don’t have significant experience with on-the –spot expert groups.

3.7.6. Romania

MULTIDIMENSION S.R.L., a company contracted by EPAC PP08 to carry out a scientific study

about the Râul Negru/Black River catchment area, with the title ”Interdependencies between

land use (vegetation coverage) and adverse effects such as erosion, floods, soil compaction,

surface leakage, invasive plant species and water pollution in the Râul Negru/Black River

catchment area in the context of climate change”.

3.7.7. Slovenia

/

29


Such activities were not realized within CAMARO-D project.

3.8. Distribution of information – website, media, newsletters,

etc.

3.8.1. Austria

These methods are not so effective like the other ones mentioned above. It’s more a method for

experts and scientists.

For the Gnasbach catchment, the field day was announced in the quarterly “Water protection

bulletin” (Wasserschutzblatt) published by the Styrian soil and water protection consultancy

and in the “Agricultural workers´ chamber newspaper” (“Landarbeiterkammerzeitung”)

addressing all farmers. Additionally the involved stakeholders were invited personally (that is

the most efficient way!). The advantage of this field trip for farmers was that the attendance can

be credited by the Austrian Agro-Environmental Programme (ÖPUL).

We use different methods of indirect information transfer, depending on the target group

(targeted knowledge transfer):

Articles in national, regional and/or local newspapers and magazines as well as information

transfer via radio and TV can often reach a high percentage of the population. In this way, also

people who have not yet dealt with the subject (e.g. protection against floods, drinking water

protection) can be addressed.

Newsletters and websites usually reach people who are already specifically interested in the

topic (e.g. information of experts, practitioners about CAMARO-D project). Newsletters can have

a national and international focus.

Information transfer to experts takes place via publications in professional journals, meetings

and conferences. The linkage to research platforms (e.g. LTSER platform Eisenwurzen) as well as

the presentation at national and international events is also a method for information transfer at

scientific and practical level.

For decision makers we prefer the direct contact and involvement into the problem.

The indirect distribution of information is an effective complement, but does not replace the

direct information transfer, e.g. in the form of various events.

For example, one of our highlights were special field trips to the pilot area for local and regional

population (as social event) are. In a press conference with experts, official representatives from

chamber of agriculture, land users, Natura 2000 site managers and representatives from

30


municipalities, schools and NGOs discussed the benefit of sustainable ecological land use

management (a win-win situation for agriculture, flood and water protection and biodiversity).

Students and experts were brought together on the same table, a student from AREC was the

moderator. The “family day” was combined with an Iris sibirica breakfast in nature and research

workshops for all interested groups.

3.8.2. Bulgaria

Most effective are the meetings on the spot with local stakeholders and related decision makers

in order to exchange experience and know-how and to discuss the most important solutions of

the different problems. Exchange of ideas and local experience is important for the decision

making process and for policy development.

3.8.3. Croatia

To this point in project, HGI-CGS used following information distribution methods: newsletters;

announcement of stakeholder workshops on online portals and radio; invitation and

questionnaire dissemination by post, e-mail and Google documents; media releases on HGI-CGS

official website and Facebook page; presentation of project on scientific congresses.

3.8.4. Germany

Websites (www.waldwissen.net) may be the most effective way of distributing information.

They are a good platform to present scientific information in a way that is useful to forest

owners.

3.8.5. Hungary

Websites are significant for “first contact” distribution of information. They are essential to

provide an introduction and an overview of the given project. newsletters on the other hand are

equally important to keep interests at a high level. Therefore it is essential that projects provide

updates regularly, so stakeholders can see that there is indeed progress.

31


3.8.6. Romania


Romanian agrometeorological observation network of NMA provides weekly in-situ monitoring and information are collected, analyzed and compiled by the Agro-meteorological Service. The Agro-meteorological Department of NMA investigates the impact of climate variability and change on crops (including phenology and yield), and on the main components of soil water balance. Currently this service enables the monitoring of drought dynamics and assessing the spatial extent and intensity of drought phenomenon. The monitoring is done daily for agro-meteorological parameters and the changes in the soil moisture content at plant level, identifies periods and agricultural areas seriously affected by extreme events, elaborates weekly bulletins, and carries out long-term agro-meteorological forecasts upon soil moisture reserves. Modeling and GIS techniques are used to monitor the spatial extent of extreme weather phenomena, including drought, and to assess the most vulnerable areas. Main stakeholders: Decision-makers (Ministery of the Environment, The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development), farmers Main channels:

- Radio ( Village Life) - TV – specialised TV shows (agriculture) - Specialized newspapers (Agricultural Profit - www.profitulagricol.ro, Farm Magazine -

www.revista-ferma.ro) - Internet www.meteoromania.ro

NMA in collaboration with SIVECO Romania launched INOVAGRIA METEO, a mobile application, the latest IT solution dedicated to management and agrometeo weather events in Romania. Before an event occurs, people can be warned through the media or the internet to take certain measures and to be aware of the danger they will expose. Romanian agrometeorological observation network of NMA provides weekly in-situ monitoring and information are collected, analyzed and compiled by the Agro-meteorological Service. The Agro-meteorological Department of NMA investigates the impact of climate variability and change on crops (including phenology and yield), and on the main components of soil water balance. The National Meteorological Administration holds an early warning system in Romania. The system operating in Romania offers early warnings to the general public, through: 1. Agrometeorological Standard Bulletin: disseminated to the Presidency, the Government, the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Waters and Forests, as well as the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, for informational and decision-making purposes. 2. Agrometeorological specialty bulletin and forecasts: disseminated to farmers through mass media. Periodical broadcasts (for example, Village Life) are made through public radio and television with national and regional coverage, targeting the rural public.

http://www.profitulagricol.ro/

http://www.revista-ferma.ro/

http://www.meteoromania.ro/

32


3. Agrometeorological forecasts for more specialized publications and journals: disseminated weekly or monthly in electronic format (www.gazetafermierului.ro; www.profitulagricol.ro; www.revistaferma). The Agrometeorological Laboratory of NMA develops specialized products for drought such as: 1. Basic products:

weekly, monthly and seasonal agrometeorological diagnoses/forecasts agrometeorological dedicated reports

2. Specialized products (i.e. maps): parameters and maps of thermal vulnerability and risks at sub-regional level

(temperature, sunstroke, tropical nights, hot days, etc); parameters of water stress at regional and sub-regional level (rainfall, ETP,

atmospheric relative humidity, soil water shortage, precipitation deficit, etc); aridity indices (standardized at full network level);

The weekly Agrometeorological Bulletin includes the specific information (air temperature, rainfall, ETP, soil moisture, crop water requirement) needed for assessment of drought occurrence. This data collected from the National Observation Network is analyzed and compared with the critical thresholds in order to evaluate the threat and make recommendations to decision-makers and farmers. Also, the soil moisture maps, weekly agrometeorological informations and seasonal forecasts which are updated daily according with the flow operational activity are free on the NMA web-page (www.meteoromania.ro) for informational and decisional purpose in terms of technological measures that can be applied in drought conditions

3.8.7. Slovenia

Information were distributed through brochures with presentation of project objectives, media releases on Facebook page, presentation on geological congress, group meetings, workshop.

http://www.revistaferma/

Date post:	22-Apr-2023
Category:	Documents
Upload:	khangminh22
View:	0 times
Download:	0 times