F LORIDA - UCF Digital Collections

TIlE

F LORIDA HISTORICAL QUARTERLY

l'l' nUSI IED [IV T11!:: FLO RIOA 111$TORI(' .. \ L SOCIE ... "

• Serials

VOLUME i9 WI NTER 200 1 Nu~mER 3

The Florida Historical Quarterly ruhli,h",1 qu;,.'lt:rh hl< ,lw 1'1" .. ;,1:. Il iiM>1ic-~1 ~>"W!r

Edit, •• ",1 Ath",.,,, 1\o'J rd

f.t.,I )'UI Ulltl (l . t\1~C Il.",I! . l lni,,'r-;I, ,II .sr" nh Flo ,!'ill:. . SI, P' ·I,·t'~hl l rll:

J.IIl1t·' CII,k \; . Ullh .. "i" ul fl o";, !" l\,uhlt-cn\)C:l);<111.l ' lli>nl'>i,; "I Flori,i., "-'ll i Fn'!l"ric k,rHl , l nil-cr,i, \" ,j ,\I.,h;"11.1

,\ !;os",,· I). Jonel. F!"lid;, SI;.,cUn'n:",j" 1,"'" L,,"l.',>, \',tIllh, ,.hih 1 "il'I' ,'<;;11 It",,,,, ), ,,! A. ~ " .hl. l'ni-'n,il), (If ,\1.IU:III1,I, llinl11l1Kh,lIn

t .. In K. ~ I"rn""" . L",.".""" "I Sou,h FI"rid .• Dam,'1 L :,11 ,,11 '1'. l I ILin' l <il )' of Z\vrlJ, FI',ridu

nil" H,-m"" I fI.,/",.,,,1I f.!., ,,,,,'r,I\' ( ISS.' 1~IL-'·-l11 J) I' I)II hhsl".,! hy ,I ... fl<"nd.1 I ' ;,1<)1 ira 1 S. ""etl, .\k l1.1OIH'II'" 111 n )(JPt"!" .• ,; ... " "i III the 1)00paflllll,"1 u l I I ;" nl'\', UII,

,,,r';!1 "I ( ~' II,,<II FI"r'll.l, 0,'1.11111" , TIll' QII"'I'~'1) 's pfllll ~'d hI' the £.0 . 1';11 11 1< '" 1" ; lI1ill ).: C. )" Od,eoll Sprill l::~' FIo ... i!! ., :\:1 I :fU, I'eri ... di~.,l pO)I~!,{' p<lId , POS r\It\. .... T ER: $t'",1 ,lIlcl n',s d"'")':l" 1< , tlw Fl<"id,. II "torln,1 ~i,,"', 1:1:11) III).:hl ;1I1I1 '\ \'l',. ~I elh' )" rll~ . FL .'t!~i:I~,

~1Il>~, '1" i, '" ,,,-rf"~'l"U"' " Illl ' lIllwr"S hil' in tI,e Sock", ,\111111>11 nwrlll .... rslllp " 10; "lIdt'lll "' t'ml:"' r<liip !\\', th plool ')fSI,UII~ ) i .. 30: I:ullil\ "IO: lI1l,o,h,l''' 5:,U, h'

br .• n ' ;mtl ill~, jlllli"" II,.'", tJ, ' r,hip ;s ;'OJ: " ftlllnhllj" !I "'c ltll)<' ,,, I,ip" 2(~1 .md h').:lwf: ;111,1 a r"fJ)<,,';l Ir- mr-l1lha:o.hip" $:'(1) "wi h;~ht' '', r.f'l ll'csp,ontle 'w,' 1'1,1;,';11).: I', ",,, ,nl .. : r~ I,,1' .,nd <"h,,-.-ip""Il', ,t' well ,l' "nk" Ii" I ... t ~ "'I ';'" "I II ... Q"""/I"Il ... ~h,,,tld I,.· :,(1,1, "",'<1 '" D,', 1.. .. ,,',\ N. \\'Yln,.: , E:'I.:t'I"'lt' l)irl'( I''' , Florid ., [I"to,,~ .• 1 $/..;i ,· II , 13:!1I Il i"hl,,,,(1 '\"',. ~h· n"""lIC', Fl. !1 \:!~ 13~; (!i ~1) ft.l(l.t~!il . " 'II"i! ' <"'\'m"'@"l("l'nlill~ , ,1(>l > ,

I :'-'''''' ''1 '''lId, ' ," " • <>11, ,'rn" l~ ""Il ' , il 1111 i,),,,. I" ><) ~, I",' ,'C\'''''' , "",I "II t'tli , ori,,1 "" ."I\'~ ,hOl ,11I t ~, :uL(I" C"t',1 \0 [,li'm, 1-71#1</(1 //i' (unm/ <.1."'''/'''/):, Oq>.J"'"~ ''' "I t li""rl', L nil'l,,',;11 ofC..: "II~.1 Fl(ol'iil,. , Ol'l:",do, H . :I't~ l6-t :l~,I): ( ,1()71 l'I:1 :~i.f:! I; 1,. :'1: (.107) 1'I\:!.'t.3 1 1;14: "".,u!; <lIhi"1"'" ",;.il.,,<'I ,,·oI,,>, ~b""Sl-" i l'b ~h""f(f Ill' " ,llI1l1l1 l'd ill dUI)lif;tW, ,\J(li,io n:rI !lu;udi" cs 1')1 PI ,' p;"' il' ~ 11l~"us.: ,i" Ci :tnd ,,,11\' , ""IlI1"." 'um <,I~'''I II ... QUfII'(,.,/\ :o n ' .,,~,,!., hl,' "lIlin.: ;, t <! I"P;ll pq(.I"h,rr, lIr f,,·,h, - it· hi"tlrlttu;" .... rl ).h " nl>. TIll' FI,) riu.1 I l i" <..I1 i( .• 1 So. i<'ll ,,,1<1 1111' \"1",,,-, ,I II,e 1'/",."1,, 1,,",(, •• ,(<'>1 <1.11<,,'11'1/\ <l,s.r!:,im r""pv",aulit)' J..,r ~ 1 :"':J"..,m~ \, I,,',l lt'r . ,J Lan '" .... I'I,'i, '" "",eli' lw e'''H,i l"""" ,

RECEIVED UCF LIBRARY

20 • THE

FLORIDA Winte r 200 1

HIS TOR I CAL Q U A R T E R L Y Vol. 79, No.3

Reconsidering Race Relations in Early Twentieth-Century Florida

Editor's Preface 265

The Mayor's "Henchmen and Henchwomen, Both White and Colored": Edward H . Armstrong and the Politics of Race in Daytona Beach, 1900·1940 Leonard R. Lcmpel 267

Colorless Primaries: Tampa's White Municipal Party Pam Io rio 297

Whitening Miami: Race, Housing. and Government Policy in Twentieth-Century Dade County Raymond A. Moill 319

The Origins of TaUahassee's Racial Disturbance Plan: Segregation, Racial Tensions, and Violence During World War II Jon Evans

Forum

346

Glenda Al ice Rabby, David H.JacksonJr., and Clarence 'ntylor 365

Book Reviews

History Ne ..... s

397

436

(Awe.- llIuslmtion; Mary Md.cod Bethune inspired black gr.tSSroots reform whil e easing r.lcial anxieties wilh o pe n invitations ror whi tes to visit the Da}'lOna (Bethune) Cookman College and InstillltC. CourteS)' oj lite Pa/Jn'S oj j ackso" Davis (MSS 3072), S/H'Ciai Collectio"s, University QJVirginia Ubrar)', Charlottesville.

Copyrighl 200 1 by th e Florida. Hisloricai Socie ty, Melbo urne, Fla.

Book Reviews

David McCally, The Everglades: All Ellv;romm.'1l1al History by R. Bruce Stephenson

Brenl Richard We isman, Vllconquered People: Florida 's Semilwle mid Miccosukee II/dial/s by Th eda Perdue

Joh n T. Fosle r and Sarah Whitmer FOSle r, Beechers, Stowes, and Ymlkee Strallgers: The Trmlsj"onllatioll of Florida by George B. Ellenberg

Virgi nia Be rnha rd , Slaves mid Slaveholders in Benlluda, 1616-1782 by Colleen Vasconcellos

T ho mas N. Ingersoll , MmmlwlI and Mallon ill Early New Orleans: The Firft Slave Society ;11 the Deep South, 17 1 ~ 1819 by Sarah Russe ll

Calhe rine A. Brekus, Strangers alld Pilgrims: Female Preach;Ilg iliAmerica, 1740- 1845 by Lord Clover

Timolhy S. Huebner, The SouthernJlldicial Traditioll: State Judges and Sectiollal Distillctivelless, 1790-1890 by Lcwie Reece

j ohn R. McKivigan and Stanley Harro ld , eds., Antislavery Violence: Sectiollal, Racial, alld Cultural COllfljel ;11 Alilebellllm America by Patrick Breen

j anel Dui tsma n Corn el ius, Slave Missions and the Black Church ill the Antebellum South by Carolyn Williams

j an Furman , cd. , Slavery hi Ihe Clover Bottoms: Johll McCline 's Narrative of His Life During Slavery alld the Civil War by Wali Rashash Kha rif

Richard R. Duncan , Lee's Elldallgered Left: 171e Civil War ill Westenl Virginia, Sprillg of 1864 by Edward E. Baptist

Stcvcn E. WOOdWOI-lh , Civil War Geuerals in Defeat byJudkin Browni ng

Paul M. l..'lll , Uuoo/,1 0'1 Linoob, by Michat:l Burlingame

Kenneth D. Lehman, Bolivia a"d the United States: A Limited Parh.ership by James F. Sie kmeier

Brian Lewis Crispell, Testing the Limits: George Armistead Smathers and Cold War America by Raben]. McMahon

Warren Boesche nslein , Historic American Towns Along the Atlantic Coast b)' Cynthia R. Field

Rebecca K1a lch. A Genera/ioll Divided: The New Left, the New Right, m,d the I %Os b}'John Andrew

J oan Lis.: ... Brombe rg, NASA and the Space Industry by Gordon Palterson

Dwight. B. Billings, Gurney No nmlll , and Katherine Ledford, cds., Confronting Appalachian Stereotypes: Back Talk from au American Regiou by Norma Myers

Mary J o Breton , Womet. Pio"eers for the Euvironmetll by Margaret B.·own

Editor's Preface

RECEIVED UCFLlBRARY

o 2001

Th is issue o f the /<70';1/(1 Historiwl Quarterly is dedicated to the exploratio n and considera tion of po li tical and economic relations between black and ..... h ite Floridians in the fi rst half of the twentieth century. Articles by J o n E",lIls, Pam lorio, Leo nard R. Lempel, and Raymond A. Mo hl examine the allit udes and actions that shaped racial life in Tallahassee. Tampa , Dayto na Beach , and Miami , respectivd)'. Fo llowing the articles, David I-I .J acksonJr .. Glenda Alice Rabby. and Clarence Taylor elabor.u e on the themes of t he an ich::s. o n'cring ideas about how ea rly Iwenticth-cCIllUll' flo rida fits ;111 0 Amcr ic;m and soulhc fIl hislOfY. and the lessons we can L."l.ke from o ur "';lcial past.

Special thematic ;SSIICS o n controve rsial questio ns co ncerni ng race, class, or gender arc onen risky vClllu res for an editor. Many readers considcr such projccLS too liberal o r cven radiC:11 in their im plic'llions. O the rs. with anceury in th e Sunshin e State, \~ew authors' co ncl usio ns a.~ conde mnatio ns o f til e actions and attitudes of their gr::lIldparcn LS o r parents. Still others are just uncomfo rtable with the subjcct. Indced , among the many rcsponses to a rece nt survcy o f the Quarlt:r1is membership. the re was stated disapproval of thc Mcmphasis on mi nOlities like women , blacks, In dians,M th e move toward Mpo litical correctncss,M and th e "incl usio n ofr.lCe and sex ... as a po liticaiundcrClir re nl. M These ilrc aU understandable criticisms, arising from discomfort with an appa relll a ttack on th e status (1110 that articlcs on r::lce, class, and gcnder so onen seem to epitomize. ~-laJly readcrs bccome angcred o r u ncomfortable wit h historia ns who secm determincd to emphasize the MnegativeM aspects of our collectivc pasl.

But since th e 1 960.~, historians ha\'c increasingly attcnded to such thcmes because they illuminate the re;:lSQns for the shape and content o f our own con temporal')' societ)'. Whi le there is nothi ng

[265 1

266 FLORIDA H ISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

wrong wilh h istol), as an activit), of story-telling, the purpose of hist.ory has become more complex than mere entertainmem. History has become th e lens th ro ugh which we defin e o urselves-who o ur an ccstors we rc and the refore who we are, how we and our fa mil ies are rooted in a commu nity, and how o ur corrnnunities are part of a nation and the world.

Any publication that aspires lO refl ect the cutting edge of Flo rida, sollthern, and American histol),. then, must occasionally provide a platform for more controversial ideas and take a cri tica l perspcCtivc o n the rcgion 's past. True, o ur collective idcntity is found in the grand story of the creation and developmclU of a nalion dedicated to freedom, individualism, and hope. But the Icssons o f history are found as well in the unpl easant and uneasy stories o f those who were deprived those same aspirations. My desire is that al l readers will approach the articles objectively, seeking in lhc comributors' ideas and conclusions opportu nit ies to consider the shaping o f Florida , the South , and the United States. In sending forth this issue, I invit,e readers to share thoughLS o n its COlllcnts, on th e themes addresscd, and on lhe ways th at "Reconsideling Race Relations in Ea rly Twc miclh-Ce nlllry Florid a~ illustr.l!.es an cxpand ing vision for the study of our colleCli\'c histories and cultures.

Cr,lig Thompson Friend

The Mayor's "Henchmen and Henchwomen, Both White and Colored": Edward H. Armstrong and the Politics of Race in Daytona Beach, 1900-1940

by Leonard R. Lc mpel

Writing al>out his early twelllieth-cem ury childhood in Daytona, the renowned theologian Howard Thurman related a story aoout his o lder cousin and ido l. Thonuon Smith . A scmi-pro ba.'!t.. .. ball player in his youth , Smit h had established himse lf by the 1920s as a successful reSL"Hlrateur in Mkh ..... y, the most business-orie n tcd o f Daytona's th ree black neighoorhoods. He pu rchased supplies from Ed\\~ lrd Annstrong, a white grocer and aspiring pol itician who \\~.tllled to loose n the Ku Klux Klan's grip on t.he city; Smith suggested to him that the Klan could be defeated only if blacks were allowed to vote. After in itially rejecting the idea, the grocer and his l>oliticai allies finally agreed to gra nt the franchise to black prope n y owners and taxpayers, and the biracial alliance eventually managed to unscat the Klan. After thanking Smith , Armstrong offe red tile black businessma n an envelope stuffed with cash , wh ich Smith rejected. Instead , he demanded and received from the Annstrong faction it new school for black child ren and uniformed black policemen to patrol Africa n American neighoorhoods.'

Lc:o narcll .cmpd i~ ,,-<soCiat<: prorc.'\SOr orhi~t ory ill Da)1oml lJ.cach Co1ll1l"",ity (' ... 1· lege. 11 <: Ilmnkll f·r:mk J. Wella. Norman K. Will . J oe: M. Richarel.'IOIl. J akc C. Miller. lh<: lall" John J. Guthrie .I I: . ;mel csp ... 1:ially Ih\'i,1 K. Colburn for cOllnncnting nil c"rlicr dr" .. n.~. He "Iso th:tnli.,_ ,h<: 1,1\<: .I, )!W·ph t:. 'n 'ylol' for hel l' " lid ,·ncO," I"'gt .. nt<:nt . ~mllhc 1J.cl hun""C"'Okm~n Colleg<: K~"'<'~rch Foundation ror il$ '''PllOI1.

I. M • .,.i".· O.Jonn; ,md 1\0.."\;1\ M. McCanh)'. A/nrfm 1\.......,...,.,11.1 III I-IorW, (S.U'aSOtOI. ~1 .... I!)')!J). 15[,; 1 1 0000~.rd 11u"' " :1I1. IIi/I, IIm,l ,.,,,111,,"/ ( N~"W York. 197'9). 9 . 21·2'"1,

[267[

268 FLORID,' H ISTORICAL Q UARTt:RLY

~"')~)r t:dw;u'd ~1. Armstrong. ci rca 1930s. em,/try of /If"ri,,,, {rmt Arnulrollg '{i'Vf"hJ~> H,m/wi//" AI",

Pa rts of th e story arc most likely apocl)p hal. Dayto na's blacks probably were never disfra nchised completely, and black policcmen patrolled African American neighborhoods before ThOl1llon Smith 's in tctyention. l l le slOry docs accurately r<.'veal, however, the burgeoning poli tic."l.1 involvement of Dayto na's blacks during the 1920s and iTl-

POUTICS OF RACE IN DA\TONA BEACH, 1900-1940 269

dicalcs that they rcceived Ix:ncfits in exchange for the ir votcs. ~·tore

importantly, this tcmporal)' union between l .. hit(.'S and propcn icd AfriCdn AmericJ.lls to ousllhe Klan blossomed into a broad-based biracial political alliance by 1927. Ovcr lhe next dt.'Cldc, Annstrong St.'Cureci election and re-election ;l~ Daytona Beach's mayorwilh the a id of black voters, b'1. lIlung in reUlm pau'Ollage and community impro\'e illell cs.

Th is biracia l coalition pl'ol'ed exceptio nal , for in most soulh· ern citie5, black political partidp.'uion during the J im Crow e ra was minimal al best. Clarence A. B<tCOlc descri bes Allan"'l from 1 90~ to 1943 as the - Dark Agcs~ for AfTic'lII American voters , finding thaI blacks who participated in the city's special e lections during the 19205 and 19305 numbered on ly in Ih e hundreds. R."llph Bunche

reports that of Atlanta 's 54 , 155 \'otillg',lge African Americans, on ly 2, I 06 we re registe recl in 1940, and many did nOt Votl.:-<:o mparablc to black voting patterns ill Miami, Tampa ,J acksonville, Mobile, and Birmingham ..... here black politica l activity "emai ned marginal until after World War II .'

2. O :l. rel1ce A. 83COl<:, "Th<: Nq,cro in AII;nlla Po lioo: PIr) Ul1I 41 ( Ilt.'(;ember 1955) : 34l!43: R:ilph J. Buncile. 1M /'ol./u(I/ SJalus of 1M M'gro hI 1M ligr of 1-1)1(

(Chicago, 197~) , 4&>-86. 4 n--l:ll, 45 1-501. I n his delailed $lUdy or Norfolk. V;o&ini;" E:orl I ...e...i~ conclud.>d Ih:oI ,,'hile bl;u:ks (Olll l,rised aoom f>1It.~lh ird of thc dty's eligible '"Olc rs during [he 19'1Os alll i 19!it15. al 1I0 1;lI1e did more Ih:1II 7 pcrcelll register. Earl l..c,,; s, / .. TII,;r 0"'" {"I..ml.,: /llla , Clau, ",,,I {'an," in 'Ii,,",/;,,h· VII/II? N(Jrjollt, I'irginit' ( lkrkelcy, C!lif .. 19'J I ) , 8.">-86. Ik llh 1):l\'i.1 R. (; .. Iburn ami 1):l\"id Nolan no,cd Ihal po litic:,1 :,cl i,ojly :UllOng ,\frican Amcri r.-dM in SI, Augusline, ~loridll . ,,~ts ,wgligihlc 1)('I"'CCll 1902 lind Ihe ]!1f1Os; I):n'id R. Col· huo'n , !lariat CJra"" allli Co""'""'/J CrUu; SI. 1I"K"Jli",. Fwrid'l, 1877· /980 «;a;n<;$\'illo::, Fla .• 198.."». 20-2'1; 1),\I'ill Nolan, ~Lincoll1\i lle: HislO I}" ~ unpuhlisht.'{1 manuscripl . .'>-6, in ,lUlho r', 1XKS<.'Mio n. In Ch:l.uanoog;" tlw bbck '"Ole, a rCill IilClOr in ,he cily'S potitlc,1 scene durillg the laIC: ninelCCnth and "1M:n;ng yc:;I.~ of Ihe: I"'enlied, CC:IIIIlI}', w,u rcndered incunsequential b)' 19 11 : Nancy J. PUll', ·Unli1lt.'{1 Expo:cCllions: 11,e t:.ru:>Jion or Black I'oli tk:t l Power in Ch:l.IC'· noog-d, 1865-19 11 .- '/n,,,,,,_ f/u.lor1I:fll Qumln/] 54 (~"mnl(, r 1!l'JO); t 12· I l!R. tn T'dl1l l),1, blacks ",dianlty penisted in cxctci)ing their r ..... /l chise du,i ng Ihe 01M:1ling l can of Ihe 1"'emietit cemury. bu. bt:.ck \''OtiIiR droppt.'{1 .,ul)'l\:lIlI i"II)· in I!J 10 afte r a whi .. : primary ro r dl)' elt.-<: ,io ll s was iliSliluled. A~ 1,IIe as 1 9~!l, i\fJi.

C"d n '\l1Ic lir.-.. m comprised ICM Iha" 5 pe n:cnl 'Or Ihe cily'S rC)ol:i..;It' red '"Olel"1l, , lI 'Ol1)o1:h 2:" percclll ofT~nlp:' .. ~ .. ~ hl:tck. In Mi~",i ;\1u l D;.d" (',oIl1 I1Y, blacks 'Only ,' ccoumcd fo r 7 pcrCCJll or II", \ 'Ol'~ by 1920, e,'en [hung h Ihe)' comprised 25 1M:n:e lll o f Ihe popul:!lion. Sil1lila,' 10 l :UIl p;! , black 1'Oling in Miami remained m inuscule umi l 1939: Cary R. Mormino ;lIId G(:orge E. l'Ou.ella, TIII'I"'''''/{flln/ n OrM of l'WrClfJ; Ilafimu ""d Thnr IAli" Nnghboo '" TlI,"~, 18HJ. /9JiJ (Uroona. Ill ., 1987) , 5$.59: Manin DUlin , IJInrlI '\/1(.1'" in IhI' T .. >n"idll Gmtury (GaincsI'illc: , ~la" 1997). 193-95; Raymond A. MoltI , '-11,e ' .... ue l1l or Raee Kd;uions in Miami since Ihe 19'.lO:>i: ill TI" iljnra" II"""" ", Ifmlat:" of f7bridll, eds, 1);lIid R. Cut· bum and.l:me L. Landen (CainL'$\i llC' , ~la. , 1995), 346.

270 FLORIO,\ I-IISTORJC.AL Q Ui\RTl:RLY

In a few southern ci l.i(!S, h OII'c \ 'er, African Americans \'Dled in substantial nllmbers du ri ng the carly twentie th century, especially in no npartisa n municipal elections ,"here th e), did no t have to COIl

tend with wh it e primilries. ~ Sizabl e black CkC1OT~IlCS in ~kmphis,

Chananooga, San Antonio, Raleigh , Durham, and Richmond illfluenced elections 0 11 occasion between 1900 and 19'10,' In those sOllth ern (;ilics where blacks conslilllt,ed a poli lieal force befofe \Yodd War II , Ihey usually formed all a lliance with and-re form hosscs amI th eir machin es.' Dan C trtc r concludes Ihal t.h e disfllJ)lio n of traditional whil e soulh e..,1 leadershi p groups enabled slIch political machines to grasp power in !\krnphis and San Anton io.~

Tmdil.ionall)" h istorians have stiglnati 'zed tile black panicipa nLS in political maclli ncs as pawns in tllc hamls of u nscrupulous politicians. Roge r Bil es concludcs tllallargc numbers of blacks ill Menlphis during the early twentieth Ce nllll1' were ~ hcJ"ded~ to the pollstheir vOl es pun:;hased , manipulated , <lnd controll ed by the mao

J. All St.uthc rn SI,UC.\ iulo pu;d the rlin:ct·primar) ' spcl"m belween 189/, a"d 191 ro. This pnN'cd"rc fo r "onoillluiug pari)' L-andida lc." dr"cli"cl)' climinalN\ bl"c1<s as :. b'~lor in "'OSI panis:m c lections unt il " ft e r Wol"ld War II . Dmill![ Ilu:St, )"';I1"S hl:ork.\ ,,','n' b:mned f!"Om joining the st:lle l)e ll1ocr.,ric p~lt;es in the Soulh. thus excl nding Ihem from Ilanicip:uing in the Oc"'ocr:ll ir p ,i 1l1ariL'S, hcnce Ihe te rm 'white prim~ry.- \)emocr:l1ic 1';,rl)' dominltnCC i" lhe Soulh mca'l l Ih:t! Ihe willuC1" of Ihe Democl" t;c primary ""onld itwaliabl)' c" "!rgc rill' ""intlcr ill Ihe general elenion. So. [hoSt: blacks who $ucc<.-,;sfnlly m;m" \,,·e ,\·d , .... >1I nd Ihe m" l· titude of e\ector;.! obst .. cles .. nd \'()[ed in the gel1c,.,.1 clenion U$lI:1 lly {("md thctnsch"c< partici pating in;o p·erfuncI(1)" COllleS1. mad ,'ou:rs """re Illnre likcl)' to h:I",: " .• iglli lic<uH impau in silecial clcni.)ns and urher nunp;mis.;"I1l declions th.1l wcre commun in "rhan "re;\S; c:. \':lnn Woo/lw:.Lrd. O';gi'" qf ,It, N"'i .~m'''. 1877·191) (Ba ton ROllge. IAl. , 195 1) , 37':!·73; 1':",1 l.('wil1.'1011 . /f"a . (;I"JS. ",,,I 1'", Iy:" lIi.,IOI), of N",,,o StiUm/{" "'!II \\,hil~ Polilic.. 11/ Iht 5o"lh (Ne .... York. \%3). 140.

,1. Uuncht:. "J"h~ I'tililiwl .'ila/II.' oj Ih#' N"Kffl. 6').73; L ...... inson , /I"t'. C/"J', fllld l 'IIfI)'. 139. I 'i74R: (-:.o.:ol"):c n. T ind .. U, "f1." J-;III"'p"U'#' 1)/11" N",,, SOl/lh. /91J-l W5 (al(OI1 Ro uge, I ..... , 19{i7), 16(;; 1{;')"111nml /\I"SC'lO",11. SI. Pflmb"lJ: 1/",111" HOI;,!" f)f'lIIlI

1.'188·1950 (C"im·s\·ille. t1:t .. I9IJ{i ). 206. :t67: ,\I"1'n l\:,n-. /!/nrk T")(fl /l~: II. lIi.l/o')" of N?,,,"(}t!J i,i 'f exfl'. 1528·19il (/\II~ lin. 1 ~J73). 133-3'1: 1--:11',) , DmLrl , -KnoXl'ilie Nq.:ro VOlin~ .. nd the Rnoso:u'h RL"\"0l\11 io n , I 9:t8-19!m.- J-:t111 T"'ltuw.' IIi.,/m;r<l1 'WI'I)" :' 1'"b/im/'QlI.I '13 ( 1971): 88-90. !).'i: DOll H. Do)'le , N(I.,ln'itl#';1I Ih, Snr.lh. 188o.I9)0( KnO>(I; l\e. Tell 11 .. 1985). l G5-77.

f •. 111:11 Ie"" IWO "Hliheru cities, howe\'e r. mnst hl;u:k "oters :,I igned wilh lrouli· tinn,,1 I' rO):f<.""Ssi,·.:s. III"d<s in 5:" "I1",;[h he lped eleel :t rel"nll m:.yor in 1923. :11 '(\ ;11 I\:.\timo ... · a u :form (nali ~i<) n wh i.-h included rK>Or hl:tcks and prnt-: .. es.~i'"'· ,,'hilL'S .~u(CCs.~ fi, Il )· ft·,isle.! d fons 10 disti,mchisc hbch: Tind,,11. T}" Emnl,""w, oJlh, N",,, Salllil. 1 !;u:J:tck 'Icmplt- I\i .. hr. !>t"kncs 1,'1/" I)m",,;/lg: Il"a ","'lIfP.JI1~ ill /h" 1'o""l-." f.MI!" Sollih ( l'h il;oddl'l,i ;t. I 97:t ), 46.

f>. Dill' Gulcr, "Sollthe ru 1'0li lir:01 SI)· le'- ill "/1" II/? oj ~"flt(lliU/': /Ilia IIP/""()Iu ;11 1/", ::WIllIII, 1.';9/)..11).15 . .. d . Ro lle"\ H;m'S (j :.dson. Miss .. 1971J). ("1.

POLlT]~ Of RACE IN DAyrONA BEACII , 1900-1940 27 1

chine of Edward H. Crump. J ohn A. Booth and David R. Johnson charge that s',n Anton io's leading black politico of the em, g:unbier and bootlegger Charl es Be llinger. contrulled black vutes by purchasing pOllt,-LX receipts and bribing black church leaders. Similarly, J ames Bulton infers that a local po!ilical machine m:U1ipulOlled Oa)'tona's large black electurate of the carl)' 1900s b )'

pL lrchasing their \'Utes with mo ney and whiskey. ' However, some historians. including Don H. Do),le. William O.

Mille r, and Dan c:.,n cr. claim Ihal urban JX)lilical bosses substantiall ), bencf'ited their cities' Afri ca n Ame rican cOllllllunities. In re!Urn fo r VOleS, Naslnrillc's Hilal), Howse slIppo flcd the establishm ent o f a black IUberculosis hospila\, a black !ibmr)'. the Te nnessee Agricultu ml and Indust!'i;!1 Normal Sc hool for Negroes, and Hadley Il ark, the firs l urban public park fo r blacks in th e United Slates. Edward CruTIlp provided his black supporlers ill Memphis wilh new housing, schools, libraries, hospital .... "II·ds. parks, watcr lines, se\\'ers, and lightcd streets. San Anlonio blacks voted fO I' Bellinger bCI\\'cen 19 18 and 1935 in rClUfn fo r pavcd Slrects. higher teacher salaries, :lIld improved se rvices and facilities in the African American community."

Like Memphis and S;1Il Antonio, DaylOJla Beach W:IS olle of those fc,,' southern cities where a \'i<lblc biracial JX)litical coali tion flo ll rished prior \.0 World War II. l.\1ack DaYlo nans derived 111(111)'

be nefi ts from their alliance with ~'Ia)'or Armstrong's m:!chinc, bLII ill ih e lo ng flm , this aliialLce did lillie to furth er Ihe cause ofblac:k civil rights. Daytona Beach 's whil e-dominated po litic .. 1 machine had no illtelltion of allcring Ihe subo rdinat.e ro le assigned to African Amcricans. Funhennorc. as a consequence o f Ihe ir SUppOI'! o f

7. Roger Bil.,!. ~Robert R. Ch urch of Mem phis: Ulack ReJiublir;on Leader in the Age of Oell'ocr.1 tic Asc:cnd"'IC)'. 1928-] 910,- T""ltl'»". JI ;)lDrirnl Q.W""IJ "2 (wiTHer 1983): 372-82: idem . "The Ur~n South in Ihc Creal OepTeS!i lon: jour,u./ 0/ South"... I/;s/ory 56 (Febnmr), ] 9'10): 96: J oh n A. 1\.<>Ol h and O;" 'id R. J ohn5On . · I>o"~f ann I 'rogrc$~ in S;11l I\ nlunio I'o]jli c~ . ] 83&- 1970,- in Th, I'ofilk& "f SIll! An/Ollio, cds. Oa\'i,1 It J"h,"on, J o lln A. Il.c)oth, :,,1I t RirlH"'d J . 11:" .,.i< (Lincoln . N,·h .. 1983), It,; J:""e, w. Il\mon . IJfnt h " .,,1 SI,..;(// C/w" gr: ImfJlut of 1M (.';,,;/ Wgh /j '\/<II'r"'''1I III SOil/hen! Oi",,,,,m ilir.l (PrincelUn . NJ .. 198!1).82-83.

8. Anila Sh:.rer Goodslci ll , - /\ RMe ,\ m,lIIec': ArriC'.l tl American WOllle" i" lhe Ten"c.~·~ Eleclio ns of 19 19 and ]920,- jo,mta/ "1,0;011111"11 I IiMo.., 6~ (~ I l' r

I9'J8) : 233: Doric. NlJlh.,.II, til II., Nn.J $outh. I 65-ii ; idem. N",h"III, Si"" til, 1920. (Knoxville. Tcn n .. 1985). &1-65; WiIIi:ulI D. Millcr. A"; Cr .. ",p 01 ,\1,,,,· pltiJ (I}:IIo" Rouge. La .. 196>1). 10 -1 . 206; Car", r. -SoUlh"rn 1'0Iill(';.1 SI)'lc: 5M-63.

272 FLORIDA HISTORICAL QUARTElI.IX

machine cand idates, most blacks alienated themselves from anlimach inc reformers. Th us, the biracial political alliance forged by Armstro ng produced a mixed legacy fo r Dayto na Bcach 's African American comm unity.

Mathias Day, an Ohio entrepreneu r, fo un ded the DaYlona settlement in \ 870. and African Ame ricans played an integral pari in developin g this frontier Florida comm unity from its inccption. Two African Americans. Jo hn To ll ivcr and Thaddeus Gooden. were alllong Daytona's twenty-six elect.ors who votcd lO incorporate th e town in 1876. Tolliver played an importa nt role in the town's carly development., receiving several contracts from th e lOwn counci l 1.0

build roads, including a large seeLion of Ridgewood Ave nue whic h latcr bccame the Di xie Highway (U.s. Rotttc I ). Thaddeus Gooden, \\'ho worked al the Palmeno 1·louse, Daytona's first hotd , was activc in thc 10c;11 Re publican pan y and was one of IWO blacks elected as delegates to thc party's cOllnty cOlwenljo n in 1884.9

In 1889, however, it becaille increasingly diflici lit for black Dartonans to \'ot e when Florida enacted an an nual one-d ollar poll tax and a multiple·ball ot·box law. These measures dramatica lly reduced the size of Flo rida's (:lec1.orate, taking aim al the state's poor and illi tera te voters. Africa n Ame ricans. disproportio nately poor and un educated , suffered the most fro m these changes. The poll \aX required paymelll of th e pre\~ous two years ' asseSSlnen t at least thirty days before the eleClion. The multipl e-ballot-box law, which ma ndated separate ballots and ballot boxes fo r each oOice COIltested. disfranchised illi lerate voters who had di Oiculty detcn n ining the correct boxes in which to deposi t their ballots. Theil , in 1895, the Australian ballot replaced the multiple-ballot-box. mak· ing stra ight ticket voti ng even more diOicult by listing candidates unde r the oOiccs th ey sought wi th out identifying th ei r party affiliation. llIil enlle citizens. who fO llnd it easier 10 \,ote for a lisl o r can-

9. Lc on;Ird Lcmpcl. -"fric~n i\n": ri(~Jl Senlc"1t; nL~ in !he Da)'lomi lk<lch Arca. 18(16-1910: 1I",,,,,,Il"rl),.,,,,/i"/{l oJlh, Hondo CimJnffllt of /li.I/miml!. I OUIW 1993); 112. 117. 119; lamhe Ixmd Hchd . - J)"r!Ou~ Ikach. n, . .ui{b ·s Itar.ial History,-19f1l.;' l)'l>cwriltcn m~"uSCl'ip! . 2. I'. II.. Yongc Libr.u)· of .1nrid:, His{{)I)', Uni\'c r· s il)' of Florid ... G:lin<-'S\i llc; L D. H ustol1 10 M~,i" U I1SIO I1 . 0 ;1)'\011". 1 Augmt 18111 . in A/I II" Nm,., 10 I-( 1Jr' r, I!J, (,.Q",.wm,: "I'M {A im of 1_ D. l/U5/011 Prom ''''~ Ci"il m,.. O"JS TIU(mgh Hil l fr/Qclll i(m IQ till! Flnrida f rrmlit:r i" 1874. eel . Mal-i:! M. C liflull (1)"),1"":1 ]k .. dl , FI<t .. 1993).211.

I)OLlTICS OF RACE IN DAYTONA B~::'\CH , 19O(}.1940 273

didates unde r a party s)trnbol. were disfranchised as much by the AusuOl lian ballot as by lhe muhiple-ballot-box. 'o

Despite the rcsu·icti\,e legislation , a small bUll.enacious cote rie o fblad, DaYlOnans contin ued to participate in tJl e tONn 's politics. At least twe nty African Ame ricans had registcrcd to vOle in Oayt.on<l d uring the 1870s and 18805, and alleast seventeell remain ed registered dUli ng the early I 890s. In IB90,J oseph C. Coombs, a freedman and headNaite r al. the Palmello House, lost an election to lhe city COlllmission by a single votc. In 1898, Joseph Brook Han kerson, a respecu.:d African American barber, was elected to the ci t}' commission. II Th is political assc rtiveness reflected th e resok e of scn !m l black Daytonans 1.0 exe rcise the hard-won righ ts of citizenship and to resist any attempts to diminish th ose righL~. It also signified ,I relatively high <legl·ct! of mcial to lerance among lhe town 's white ci ti ze nry wh ich probably endurcd because most o f Oaytoll <l'S early scnle rs came fro m former aooliliollist strongholds o f tJle North , including Ohio, Ncw York , Michigan , and Massachusetts. Republicans remained in co ntro l o f Vol usia County \\'c ll inlO the 1880s. \\lhile abolitio niSlJohn ~'fillon Hawks, who had established a colony o f 5(. ... ·c ml hundred frecdmen ill nearby ))o n OIOlnge after the Civil \-Var. re marked in 18871.hal ~ Ihe spirit orlhe while citize ns o f ~:'IS I ~lorida toward colo red pt.'Qple in ge lle ra ), is so much mo re

10. Only 22of5,~ .. ·hile mal., len )'1:"111 o r o lde r (mlld no! read alld ... ·Iile in 1915 in V.)llIsia CoIIUl)·. whcrc 11:I)'Iona is 1()(~lcd . as co rnp .. .-ro 10 1.1 06 of 3.801 black mal Cli len o r o lder. In I ROO. "00111 45110Cfcenl of~1orida ·s adult black 1>01>UI'lliull"''aS illiler,lIe. '11;S dropped 10 3~ percelll hy ]900: f"Utlt'III CnB,u 0/1'" Slul' of fl/)fidn (l'..Il1a h;mc,."",. FI"., l!l l f) , 65; Olarles D. F:,nis. '"The Ke-Ellfl'lll)· chikmen, o f Nl.'g rO<.'S ill Florida: jJwrna/ of NT" HiJlory 34 Ouly 1951) ; 260-61; J. MOI g:1II KouMCr. 1.", ShII/JIIlJ: of SOIlI",", l 'uiillr.J: SIIJlmgr ItLllrit:lw" ,,"d I'" ";'I"b/Wlmntl of I~ 0,."'/'011] SOlllll, fSS{).191O (/IIew 11:\\'': 11 , Conn., 1974). 50: J ames Owen Knauss, '"The ero ... ·lh of ~1orida ·s Election La .. ,.~ flmi/III lIu/otlrll/ QI/tJr,",,:; Otll)' 19'.!6); 14; II. I). I'rKe. "/.", ,vrgro u"d &110111,.,.,. I'alilia: A CIIupt/':Y at flori/I" IIIj/ory (Nco.' York, 1957). 1$. 15, 17; Frederick I). Ogden, TIl, " OU·/PK ill III, !j(m/II (Ull i\'(:rsi ly, ,\l a., 1958), 11 5- 16. 137.

II . ~;l l wo .. d C. N:m(c and t'lelen C. N:lIlce . ed~ .. The l,ftsl ec.41 of No';,II.: A His/uf"). "001961. 'l \'ol~. ( Ilclray tkach, ~la .. l!N.i2), I: ~z.l2-'13; Dar lo na Cil lo Counci l MinUl e~. 2·IJ ul), IS'JO. in -MiIllIlN of Meeling5 ofDa)'IOII ;' Cily Cmmcil,J uly 2G. 1876 lhrough June 19. 1893: haud ... rill'·" \'OIUII1(", :soB, l)a)'lon:, UcitCh lu . ."corcls Ilcp;,runclIl, CilY Hall Annex. Daytona Bc;u:h; l )(rylOflu /JM£h ,.:,.,.,, 1111; N",~ 8 August 1967: Oiftoll. AU 1\ " 11111 ~ 10 I-Mr ... IIu' LAN~""'. II ; ~RCgis lI;lI.ion USI of 1)"),lOlIa[ ,1 Volllsi" Co.I.] FI".: 1877-189j. Da)10na Sc-dCh Reconis ikl);lII. mCIll . A re'liew of regislroll io" I~u !'C'ITal~ lha l lilere ... CIT appI'OXi" mlci ), HI() r''''gislered ,'0'<'1"$ in Da}10na during the e .. rly 189t:b.

274 FLORIDA I·!ISTOIUCAL. QUARTERLY

just and fair, th oll for snch citizcns to emigrntc fro m 50mh Carolina to this region is like escaping from slavcl)' to a land offrecdom .~I ~

During the opening decade of the twent ieth CCnUII) ', an in· creasingly rigid colo r lin e replaced Daytona's rchllivdy congenial 1"';:lcial cli mate of earlie r years. In the late nineteclllh CC tltul)'. scvernl of DaylOna's more prom inent African Americans owned IIOIIICS and shops alongside whites in the center of town, But o nce Jim Crow took ho ld after 1900, vi rtually the entire black population beca me concentraled in three acljacent neighborhoods west o f the Florida East Coast Railroad-Mid way. \'\'arcross. and Newtown. Black resident Amh ony Stcvens recalled that in 1902, hc "didn't notice any significant signs of segregation," bUlupon his retum to Dayto na in 1906 StcvcllS ~ noticcd vc ry sign ificant signs of se pal',I' tion of the black and while commnnily. Everywherc were signs. ·colo rcd-while ... · In 1907. whites in Daytona lynched a black man and paraded his corpse through an Afric'lIl Amcrican neighbor. hood as a warning fo r blacks "not to gel O UI of their placc.~"

DaYl.Ona·s harde ning color line W;:L'> co nsistent with the deterioration of race rd a t.ions lhat occurred throughout the South at the turn of the CCIIIlII)'. The progressive impulses un leashed during lhis pc riod ",e re reserved for whiles only. Like I1IOSI whites. southern Progressives assumed the biolobrical inferiorit), of blacks and viewed racial segrcgation as a requisite for social stability. Popular li t,cralUrc and the conscnsu~ of lhe acad emic and scielHific com· li lunitics bolstered stich views. Moreover. the disfr.lllchisc ment of

It , In 1880. ()f ~ IH: 13", ..... h i~(."S 21 )· ... "I'S of all': or nld.;r. se\'c1U)'-t:ig lu (58 pncelll ) ..... ere bom in nonhe rn Slaws. 1flO'llly in Ohio mid Ito" Nor~h"a". Of ,hI; relll"in. ing tifi )'-SC\'''1l ..... hi'''s. lW"IIl)~l hr"e w<'!'e foreign horn. llIostly in Grelll Iki~ ain. and Ihi l1)Lf,)ur Wt'U: horn in lIlt' Somh, mnstl)' in ~lnrida amI G(:orgia: M;lU u, SCripl Census R ... IIII11 S, Temh Census of Ih" Unil L..:1 Sl'UcS. 1880. Volus;" (",oUllt r, Flo,;d" . I'0I'"];uion Schcdulcs. Nation,tl Archives Minordul S.: ries T·\), roll lOt, fr.unL"!I 'I06-09; Mou'!. Lane. "Census Rt'c"lb 1880 [)aYiOn; •• - l)"yIQ"" /w",h S.",· dlly "'~!I!J':fo"nl(Jl. 7 O Ctohe r 1!19l); idem, "GOP Bud"d H bIOl)' 10 Emergc in Votusia ." LJ"Jlo,,,, /wull SIlIlIla] N"'''$:/(mnwt. 13 NO\'cmbt:r 1!.I8R; J "hn Millon ]·bwks. Til, I-~~\I COOSI rfNoridll: II Onml!li1!'" "'",YIII"", ( lop "'. Mas.~ .. 1887). 72.

J!I. I·/ebd. "Oa)'lOl1a Ix-ach . ~lorida's R:.rial History: I ; Th"llu:lIl. 1\';111 IIMd 111111 H mrl. 10; A.uholl)' ~brk Slt:VCl1s. i"len~ew b)'Jo""ph E. ·n.),lor. 28 August 1\176, I)a)'~ '''''' Be;,c h . pri,-.u"l), 0\\11ed ; Leon Li!"~lCk. Tmubl';11 ,If;",/: 111m. Sm,,"",'", in ,'', " K' oj Jim Crow (Nt'w YOI'k. 1998). l :t Howard Thurm:.u recalk..:1 Ihal for Oa)·tnna·s blacks during Ih" ~'ar1)' I,,~: ,u it : ~ h (:.:n ulI) ·. the whilc cummunil ), "~IS "no ]11:.e(' I(.r l o i~t' I; " g_ Our freedum of lIl')\'em" lll was carefully ci"CUIl!' _'K ribed .- I-it: ,<uc(: il1l: d )' G"q;urize d I<ICe relatiuns in Oa)'10lla dll.i ng lh /;.,,<: years: ' white <llld hbd worlds werc scpar~led h)' a ,,~\11 of '1l1 i<;1 h<Y.;lililY lind <)\'"rl <us· picion"; T hurm;m. II 'i11l }f,ad (lml IIm "I, Ill .

POUTICS OF Rt\CE IN IhnONA BF.t\CII , 1900- 1940 275

Second A'·enUe;1I Pine Stn:e t. in the heart of n "ytona Ikaeh 's bl;~e k busille"" di i>rri el. phorogl";1phl~ by Gordon Parh fur rhe Office of War Inform;or ;on in J anuary 19-13. O"'r/~J oJI"(.l.ibmry QJvmgrm, Il iI,hi"gio-", 1).(.".

Afri can Arnericans was genera lly seen by so uthc rn ers as faci litating im porta nt Progressivc goals such as ~good govc rn rnc lll.,"' pro hi bi. tio n , and women 's suffrage."

Th e r,lpid growth of Oa}'tona 's N "rican American comm uni ty undo ubtedly increased racial tensions. In 1885, 152 of OaylOlla's

1'1. Gt:Qrgc '\1. Frellrickson. Th~ lJ(1i(~ I"',,~ ill III, 11"11,1' '\/imi: Tilt {);lXII' Oil l \froAmmwII Ommrl" Ii"d {k.li"y. 1817·1914 (Ncw Y01"I:. 197 1), 61 . 324-2:'; Ixw!')' w. Gr:mrh~ rn . Soll l"n7/ f~ii"iwl: Til' l /uollri/i(lliQII of I'rogl1'lJ ,,,,d Tmdilimr (Knoxville. Tenn .. 1983). x,·ii·x i.:; HO"~II·d $t:human . CIr :.rlo lre Stech. ;m rl I...;. wrcncc Bobo. Uluifl{ Tr~lUu in All/rom: T,.""u ""d ' '''l'rI''''lflIimu (Camblidge, Mass .. 198.'".).8-9; William A. Link. Til, P"mriox oJSQlllivm 1 ~%,,-n;'i,,;wl. 18S(). 19JO{Ch"llCl l·lill. N.C., 1992) . 7(P: •.

276 FLO RIDA HISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

648 rt:Sidellls were black. Twellty years later, the city hoasted 2,199 r'csidell ts, Wilh African AmeJicans numbering 1,151. Lllacks filled many of the LOurist indus1.ry and r.l ilro<ld j obs created by Henry flagler's Florida Ea.'u Coast Railroad , which arJi\'ed in 1888. TIIIl:lCllline camps and I lImbc l;~trds which dotted the "rca also employed blacks. De\".ls tating freezes in 1886 and 1894-1895 destroyed the region 's burgeoning citnls industl)' and may have forced lllallY African AmeJican farm workers to seck employment in Daytona. ') Fears of the increasing black population coupled with concerns about

co mpetition for jobs may ha\'e preci pitated efforL~ to stre ngthen t;l.

cial ban;ers in Daytona during the e,lrl)' rwenticth cenlUl; '. Nonethdt.'SS, Daytona's rncial cl imate remained milder than

th at of most othe r southern communities, largely due to the moderating influence of the many no nhern visi fO rs who wintered in Daytona. Howard Thllnnan testified to the influence of the town 's famous I.Urn-of-lhe-ce nHllj ' ~snowbirds" : "The Rockefeller!>, the C:un bles, the Wh ites, and many oth er old rich f,lIn ilies,~ he recolIccted , ~ell1plo)'ed local people, black and white, as sel'\~UlLS and househo ld retai ne rs, while thcirclmuffeurs and pe rsonal maids usual l)' tr.lvclcd \\;th them, relurning north at the end of wililer. ~ T hese nOl1hern families, he added , Hmade contact between the IOlces les.'i abmsil'c than it might hal'e been Olhcrwise,H ,~ Several of th(! wives of wealthy nonhern \-;s iLOrs joined the I'a lmeuo Club, a female chk , cultural, <mel ph ilanthropic organ i".a tion fo unded in 1894. The club demonstrated its good will toward African Americans in 1899 by est..'lblishing kimlcrbr:lnens in Waycross and Midw,l)' for the children o fb\ack workers and , in t.he fall o f 1904, welco med 11 new school 10

Midw<l}'-Ihe Da)'tona Educalional and Indusu;al Tmining School for Negro Cirls, fo unded b), Mary McLeod Bethune,"

15. Manuscript Cenm . Re tullIs. ~1 01i(b 51.;11<: C('n~"§ o f t ~. \'o lusia CoullIy. ~1a., l'\ alio nal I\ ... !h ;u~ Microfilm Publ ic-.llion M &15. lUll 13, fr.ll1lc' tl 3-27; Third Cro.n u o/Ih, Sill" o/N",;dll (T:o II;.h;.sscc , F1 ; •.. 190 .'» . :, I ; l!outro n , IJIluh IIIJd 0'50,"",1 Chll ll/?, tI~ .

16. Thurman. \I"il/' llrad IUIiI Ht:flrt , 9 . t 7. Oa)'IOIl :' City (' .... )llll11 i ... , ion Minut~'.!I . 10 AIJril 1905. micmlilm, 0,,)'1011;\ tk ach

City Hall ; 1m, /fJ" " Mun' ;" gj o"nI(JI, ::! Fc bm:or)" l!lt9, 15 J'''''''' rr J!lIfi. For a discussioll of . he impact of Ikillune and her $<' hool on Oa)"loll:I, $t. .... Audrey Thom a.<; !olcCllIskt,y, "Ringing Up " School: M~I)' McLeo d Bethunc 's t lllp;lCt UII Oa)·lOna.- Htmd(J IIlJtoricnl Qtmr,,,1y 73 (Octuber 1994): 2O().1 7. Fu r a d;~ussion (If Belh"11<:'$ <:ITo n s 10 ( o mba! r:,ci~m in Hori,t;" sec: iI.I a:<i ...... O . .I 0n~.,., "· \\~ th· o ut Comp romiw or Fo:ar ': F1o.; d;I '~ Arnell! Amcric:m Fe m:llo: Acth·ist.s .* Horidll Hi5lunm/ QWlrln ly 77 (.prin!: 199'J) : 47iJ-8:t

POLITICS OF RACE IN DAYTONA BEACI-I , 1900- 1940 277

Bethune's school quid:.1y e ndeared itsclf to mode rate clements in th e \"h il.e community by e mphasiz.ing domestic and industrial traini ng and M.Negro lIplift. ~ After receiving a leuer fro lll Ik1.h ulle in the sp ri ng o f 1905, the city commission unanimo usly passed a resolu tio n endorsing her indus t.rial school. She soothed white anxieties by inviting campus visitors to come and see ~Th c Boo ke r T. Washington Idea o f Educatio n Dcmonstra tcd~ and 1.0 hear the ~Old Plantation Melodies and Jubilee Songs. H

., Bethune's e ndeavors 10 improve community life exte nded beyond the classroom. In 1905, shc convinced the city cOlincii LO apprO\'c the in sta llation of storm sewers in Mid\\~ily and the employment o f two black policemen , one to patrol Midway and the other \OVa)'cross. He r efforts inspired grassroots re form i ll 1908 when Midway's black residents petitioned the cou ncil to lay cement sidewalks throngh th eir neighborhoods. !~

As Daytona's colo r line solidifi ed , black ,'o ling see ms 1.0 have dwindled . J oseph Coombs ran for alderman for the last time in 1901 and received only twelve votes (a n African American would not n Ul for ci ty ofllce again until after World Wa r II ) . Ye l, he remained a rebrlstered vote r unti l 1908, when his HOlme appeared o n a rosIer of those 10 be stricken from Ihe registratio n list. I-loping to d r"w mo re b lac k.~ to the polls, in 19 10, mayor, ll candidate Hen ry T Ti tlls advenised that if e lected he would adminisler ~j us tice 10 a ll ill Municipal Court, regardless of standing, class or co lor~ and suggested lhal ~ lhe city should build a side-walk fro m Midway to Waycross. for the benefi t of tbe colored school chiidren. H

Apparently, TilliS wen t beyond lTle re ve rbal pro mises in auempting LO atlract black voters. Years later he tacitly admitted lilal he had paid the poll taxes of so me black registr<lllts."I'I

Daytona 's African Ame ricans demonstra ted renewed polil ical vitalit), begi nnin g in 19 16, when the city approved by o ne VOle a

18. lJlly/MII '\/017lillg JQlmlll~ 7 November 1916; fk1J/011l1 lJuily NnQ.l, 16 Febn.;l ry 1906.

19.(;;t)' C".Qllllll iSl; io n M in lllc:5. 10 Aprit , tJ M:.),. !:I August. I" August. 28 August, 11 Septemocr 1905. 12 Fehlll;u")' 1906.27 J anuary 1908; IJIrJ/I1IW /)aily N""5. 1 ~ FeU. mary. 27 Febrll"I"}' I906; ~ecord ofOrdinancc:s, 26July 1876-januar), 191 2.254-:'5. Da)'wn:! Beach Records Dcparunent .

20. Day/''''" G,IUII ... N....u, 16 Fcbru:.ry 1901 ; Cit}' Commission MimuC5. 13 j;IIIU:,,")' 1908; DaJumll Oll il)" N/'I.u, 28 j an"","), 1910. WI.ile nmning for mayor in 1927. T itus denied th;o, he h:od p:oid the poll taxes of black ,·oters in the ",,.rtml ("Illp;tign. cI:.iming tha I ~he had nO! purchascd a sin!!:le negro \"Ote: in six rears": l )n)"/{J"(J lJ,lI( II N"'<'l:/Qu"llIl. 2<1 No\"c lIl l>cr ]927.

FLORI!)1\ I I ISTORIC .• AL Q UARTERI.Y

Ill'W dmrlcr adopti ng a co mmission fo rm o f gove rnme nt. SIL ~pi .

ciolls tha t th l' change wOllld dihllC their po litical 1c\"cf<lge as it had do nc i n Olhe r SOlLlll CrIl cities. and be lievi ng th e cI"i ms of an Ii -charIeI' advocates that the lIew gOVCflllll c llI would disfra nchisc tlle l11 . mOSI o f Ihc hu ndred-plus African Amcrican vOle rs o pposed Lhe change ." Despitc lhc ne '" chan e r, Lhe)' co ntinued to play an illlporlalli , a lbe it modest role in D:1)'to l1:\'s politica l a!Tairs, I ~y 19 19. a revitalized black deCLo ra lc helped e lt 'v,lIe E. L, Ikmd to the ci t)'

COTl1I11h.S;OII. Bo nd , owner of o ne of the largest rcta il lwnlx:r comp~lIIies in Flo rida. solicited Ihe "Oles of his African American elllployees to secu re viclOry,n

Daytona 's 11";.l(li li o ll of racia l mod Cl";'lIioll could IIOt com ple lely illsulate it frOllll he posi-Wo rid War I violence Ihal swepl the SoLlth an d insp ired thc resurgence of th e Ku Klux Klall .ft In 1920 and 192 1. Ihe Klan bllrllcd IWO black thea ters and a Caill olic dlurclt in Dayu ,na , an d were blam ed fo r the lIIurder and beatings of se'"cl";.l l

rc.~iden lS. The nigh t Ix:fOl'c lhe 1920 ekctions, when Klansmen d iscovered thaI Ikl hune was e n co ll l";.lgi n g he r stude rll.s lO '"OW, thcy marchcd o n lhe school. Refusing 1.0 be in limidat cd , BCll n rrr e inSII'II( lt'd Ihe slUdcn L~ lO start sit lging: ~Wc sang lhem [lhe Klan 1

~I . fprJ/mlll ,llumillKfimnwL 5 J :ll m ary t!llo. In N ... x\"illc ;Uld N'I., h,·ille , TCI IIW~SCC.

and Norfolk. Vi ' gin;:I , cilk'S .... hcl"., thcrt, ... ~, ~ $ubsl •• m ial bl;, .. k 1'0Iir;(""",11 inUu· e ncc during th., b le nine rccmh century, Ihc ,·tj",in:uion v I Ihe "'-,1rd S)';U' nI in f:.m .. nl" .. cit)' commissinn dUN!1I in cit )'" ... ·i.k ek"<'".inns ,mul" 11 thc influcnce nf Ihe hl .. ck \"Ole; I'n lls, ·Unfulli ll ,·,1 t::xpccl:ll ions: 1 1 ~·~fI: nun H. O")k. ,vn" M , .. , N~", Cw·,",. NroJ Sfmlh : /ll limlll. ,v".,h",/lI'. Clll/tfl'!.lrm. Mobil,.. f8(j().19fO (Chapel H ill. N.C .. IgtJO). 27:\: I ........ "s. I" 111m <rom 1,,/"',\1 .... 2 1 ·~2. No um c;:d count of rcgi,u-n·,1 h1a.-L '·011'111: is .. ,~,i1 .. b1.., lOll" HH 6. bUI till' Impo"" Mm ... ",/{ Jo"llwl m:lL"" , c fe "': " c., In pn~ and anti-ch"rler cily cummis.<ion a mdid .,lcS of Ih"l )·ca .. add n :·"inj:( ,-,,·c r o nc lumrl ,.cd ·mwn~.,,·d :", (1 inll·llig.·", ""1",.,,.1 H>I· ''1);- in '\ ti,I"" I)·: OflJlO1W "'''''liIlJtjOlUlWI, 2:'Ja""" ry I!) 16.

22. I)"J''''''' ,I /""""g jUltrJwL 15 J .ulll ar)", 5 Fchm,u"), 1!l1 9: T. It l U,,"IIst'nd . "Thc e"',:,1 t\gricutluml t\.l\-an(cm o; llI .- in t;,,, tiw l\o)lld Ild .I.:I. ,·d ., (;,lIn,,,uJl llulut, oj 1''''"fIll COIIIII)" 1-70riM, 18' "-19''' ( l}d~lld , H .... 19,,5), :12: 11..t,1.-I . "1) ;' )'1,111" 1\oI::,,.:h , ~l",i";, '~ R:.ci,,1 tJ islory.~ <I .

2:-1. ~'ori(1a ... ~IS '~' I )t'r; "Il }' pmnc 10 r:lci;,J .. jo lt-ncc ,luring Ihc c:ldy Iw.,"lil.!lh ... " n-1111)'- t\nhur It'jlCf conclud.·d Ih:II t\frir:," t\n'c,·ic:ous ... ·.·,·c mort'" al risk oli"lICing 1)·,1(11<"<1 in ~' "rid.I Ih:1II in :m)" other sl.ue her"·ccll 1900 ;;",1 19W: I\ n hu,. F. R:'p.·r, T/t, T'II/{"IIJ of l.y",It"'K (Ch"pd IliII . 1933), 28. Il:llid Chahnc~ .Ioclt· nWIlI<-'ti Ihe Cl1ICII"i,o; I\.I.Ul ,;o],>"rc whiLh r;or k ... -d ~lnrid" during IIII' 19'1Os: 1).11111 (:h .. I"I<:.'$. -T h., Ku Klu x Klan ;n rhc Sil,,~hiIlC S~,IIC: Thc 1920". '- 1-7",.,1" 1/1>10>1«1/ Qlllulrrly ,,:1 U:m uarr t!l(j l): 2()j).. I". For a eQntc l11 lJ<J,: .r), :..;eou", of 1\.1;0 11 ,iolcncc ill HOI·ill" during 11,,· 1920 cit..; lion . S<:e W:.her E Whitt ·. - Elecl;u" 1).1)· in Flo rida : Til,. l :ri.w ~I (I .II1U:lI")" l!.1'tO): It)6.!).

POI.ITICS OF RACE IN D,\\TONA BF.ACli , 1900- 1940 279

right ofT the campus, and the next day we all vOted too! "'1' At the pc ak or its influence in early 1921 . the Kla n o rlce again sought to rrigh lc n blacks rrom th e po lls. On March 3, just rom days before ci ty commission elections. thousilnds witnessed 106 Klansmen pa· I"ading in rull regalia thro ugh dowll town DaYlOna. In spite o r Ih is demo nstration. th e ci t), 's Arric'lIl Am erican e!t:cto l"'te \\~tS n ot

cowed , and fo ur days later 11 5 blacks joined 71 3 whitL'S in the \,Ot· in g bC)()lhs. 'D

After 1922. Klan aClivi ty receded as eco no mic prosperi ty and loe<ll develo pme nt bcl,<"all to take ccnte r stage, thereby reducing O\'en r· .. cial tensio n.- By mid-dccadc, thc cityw,L'I riding the crest of the great Flo rida real estate and tou rist boom. Alo ng wilh land vallies, the ci ty's population grew d ramatic:llIy, increasing from 6,270 in 1920 to 10,121 by 1924. Daytona 's African Amedcan populatio n kept pace , rising to '1,975 by 1924.f'1 Howc\'er, the land ooom collapsed in 1926, and while th e real estate markct and to urism partially rcooundcd in 1927 and 1928, the 1926 cal:L'IlrOphe presaged thc start of the Great Depression in 1929."60

Dr:.lluatic chan ges in Dayto na's po litical landscape also occurred duri ng the 1920s a nd 1930s. In early Octobe r 1925. a SpL ... cial electio ll \\~,jS held to choose the 10 111' com missio ners lind thc mayor or a co nso lidated munici pal entity. O n J anuary I. 1926. the ~ triple citics- of D'I),lona (Iocatcd 0 11 the main land), Daytona Bcach , and Scabrccze (bot h loeated 011 th e peninsula or -beach

!N . /Jny/,ma ,\Ir't"'l;"gjo,mwl. 2 o.:.obe. 192 1; Rl .. ; ham 11011. ,\1"'1 MrI.l'f)fl lkllw rt~ (Gm'd cn Cil)·. N.Y. . 19(}'I) . 119-2!1;J l.'MC W,IIIer OC<."S J I:. "1kIhul1 l.-...cc..,km:Ul ('A,Ik gt·'- in t khd. Ou/nlHil.J lIu /or] t( \ '01""ia eo""". fl.J.6O.

2:. . IHr]/(ma ,\Ion.;~ Joumal, '1 M:m :h . H Mardi t9'!'! . [n J une 19'!'!. the 'i:l;,n ~uc

c<...,d c,1 in clectin lc: ~n-ra l uf ilS halld·pidetl c::mdid alC'l in Volu,;a Cou nt)". including Ih r tu lI:I : Ch"lmcrs. "Thc KII Klllx Klan in the Snnshine S .. ",:: 2 10.

26. 111<:: K1.m ·s IK,li liea l ,;c:toriC!l in \'oln~i" Cou tlly in 192'll' r"n :d to lx' .d llJrl liw d . The mayo r of DeLand_ the \'oh~~i;o C.ou",)" .'\("u . refuSI.:d to ta ke: ord crs from Khtll le:ult: l1I. \\11<:n Ihc K"on ~"gh . to impuse d iscipl ine, many of il.' mmc rrnmincnt sll l'por.c lll. indud ing Ihc mayor. wilh,l rcw tlidr sUPIXl I": Chalnu: ..... "The KII Klux Kl all in the SlI n~hinc Stal (',~ 21()'11.

27. 1)(ry/l)lla MQf'''''gjcunwl, J4 Sep tc mhe r 1924 . 28. Mich;od C . &.hel1l::. Ilof>a. 1>rMM$, n"d l>rolfl'-" A 11;$11"') Df I'oIWUl c.,u"l-J. fJor..

III" (J)a)IOn,1 tkac h . ~1" .. 19i6), 1:l .... 25; Willi,u tl W. Rogers. · Fo l"lunc "nd MilOfurt llne: '1'1 .. : 1'''''l(loxirnl T"'C111ics: in 1'1" ,\'1'111 lfi.I/",] oj Nomill. (·d. Mic h'leI Canno n (C;, i "c~\"iIIc. Fla .. 1996). 29~91J. For Hu .-id ,,·s re :ol t."St;.I1 (.' marke . in Ihe 19205. x-': Willi:un Fr.tl.er and Jo hnJ. GUlhrie J r .. "1"'" Hun"" I..In.d IkIom; Spn-ullflmo •. M all.,.. Illid /1l,. lklllh (Wo;' IJoU1\. Conn .. I9'J5) .

280 FLORIDA H 1!<."TORlCAL Q UARTERLY

side~) conso lidated to fOl"ln DaYlDlIa Beach . At th e tiUle of con solid:llion , '16.5 pcrce nt of Dayto na 's po pulation I\",IS Africa n Ame rican. After the addilio n of all-h'hitc Scabreeze and Daytona Ucach , blacks comprised 33.3 pe rce nt of Ihe ncw Daytona Beach.1t The 1926 electio n \,'as the city's li rs t as a unifi ed municipality but the last in which only lIIod er:lle numbers of blacks participated . Th e following )'e<l r E(h\~lrd H. Armstro ng eSL"lblished a biracial coaliI io n of I·ot.ers.

Horn in SI. LOllis wh ere his father, Be n Ar mstro ng, founded and edited the baseball wee kly, TIll' S/JOrling N~ws, twenty-ycar-old Edward moved to Dayto na in 1900 and worked as a salesman for the RalSl.o n Purina Company f1 0llr mi ll. !-Ie la ter o pened his own grocel1' busi ness, and by 1927. the Armstrong Grocer Compan y had several branches ill east ceru r-; II Florida.~ Armstru ng became inte rest.cd in polil ics as well ami found opportunity in addressillg the lIcc{l~ of black citizens. In all bllt t WO yca rs hc twct:n 192i and 1937, Annstrong and his cit)' comm issio n a ll ies controlled Daytona lleach 's gOI'e rlllllellt . During those years, race became an increasingly pm lll inent issue in municipal eleclions as blacks, encouraged by the Il1 a)'or. assc rlcd themse lves a t th e po lls and achieved their greatest po lil ic;ll influence of the prc-Ci\'il Righ ts era.

In Dece mbe r 1927, newly consolidated Daytona Beach held its Hrst municipal election . or 4,805 regislcrcd vote rs. 753 or 15.7 percent \\'c re black, abo ut half of Oa}'l.On a Beach 's voting-age black

~. O(IY/UlIII Jkllrh ) ("' ''1111. ti O<:robcr t !J~5 : fkl)lImn l !mrlr SU"'/II} Nnl~)ormllll, 5 tk'(;emhcr t937. II> 19~:>, lhc combirrcd 1)Oj)" lariorr of D;ly ron~. Ih ymna Ikarh. and &ab,.",,1.c "'~IS 13.9 12 (9.266 ","c rc ... hi\l: a nd 4.628 ... ·crc hla .. ") . Fo r Oap" "a unl>·. rhne WCIC 'l .rJO:l blacb and 5.297 ... ·hircs; Fifth c..."5'" IIf 1M 51111, of FlQrida (l :'ll;lhassc.-.:. tla .• 1!l25). 52. Afte r cOI1" ... I;d;/I ;OIl . Oa)'loII<l Ikar h .. "as d ill,kd inlo f .. u .. 1.onf'S. 7 . .on~ One and T ........ toc-.tI.cd on lin: pCll insu t:. (I",aell s;d e-I. indmtc(1 rhe old ro .... ns of Da)'lUn:, I"'aeh and Sc:lhrce1.e .... :<ip.:clil·d )'. Onl)' :. halldful of b1:tcks lil'cd in thcSt! m nes. O ld Oa)·lon<l. 1000dt(:d on the 1I\:lin l:mcl. bcea lllc ZonC5 T hrec .. ud Four ..... ilh Zone Tlm'c covering Ihe nVI, hcrn hal f of o ld 1);(YU>!l<l and Zone Fo u r the !iOut ht: fn half. IX--s]>itt: rhei r Si); lI ili r.;II u African Am e ri<:ml l"' l"d.uion. Zones Tim ... : :111(\ Four .... ere gen)'",a m t"red so Ihat 1)(>111 had ... ·h ire ml!.ioriti<.--s. Undef Ihe eouSt/lid,lI ion plan. lIlunid l);,l cI.,clit>n§ roo" I'l:Ico: C'I'CI)' '''U )"e"dB ro d <.'(;1 four (ommissioncB. one from " .. <:h 10n". A com· Ill issioller-:u ·brge ...... ~ ctt:Cled 11)' alllhc (ju,tlifk'd m ien M the ciry and so·n·<. .. t .... mayor; IJa)"lqnO &villi J Olin",/' 7 O("(oh('r 19',!r>.

30. IJtry'lIma Iwrh Nf'lI,,;/ullnlll/' 7 D<."C"", b<;r 1'.}'17, 2 J UIII;n ) ' HJ3~.

I)ol.rncs OF RACE IN D,\nONi\ BEACH, 1900- 1940 281

poPll l;ilion .~' Armstrong. recching Mpnlctically the unanimous sUI>po rt of the negro voter.;,K won the fo ur-way ma)'oral " Ice. The o nly real comrovcrsy in lhe 1927 mayoral election was Armstrong's solicitatio n o f black support. Armstro ng oppo nent. De nnis C"lig. vehememly deno unced his recruiullelll o f blacks and o pe nl)' advocated that thcy be banned from cit)' elections. Howe"cr. Cr' lig's mcisl appeals )iclded him few vote5-0nly 3 19 of 3,8 19 ballOIs cast. compared to Armstrong's 1,768. O\'e l<lll , Armstro ng' outpo lled his th ree o ppone nts in all four \'o ung districlS.:O:

A well orbl"lHli1.cd cam paign and ArTlistrong's repul.illio n as a succcssful businessman hel ped him win the election . Bnt Ih e collapse of the real eSIate boolll and consolidation o f Ihe uiple cities also aCCOlinted fo r his \ictory since dIC)' unde rmined the 1)Q\\'c r o f DaYlOllll 's trad itio nal ruling clile. Consisting o f whitc prof(.'SSio nals and entrepreneurs who had resided in DaYLOna for more Ihall a gellcmlio n, the el ite werc fiSCAl conscrvau\'es who f;wored li mited govenllllent and, b)' somhem standards, were rAci:11 moderates who tolemted \'o ting by the ~bcller~ class of blacks-the college educlltcd, professionals, and properly owncrs. Beginning in 1926, cconomic hard times erod ed the electo rate's confidence in lhis group's Slc \\'

ardship. In addition , an influx of new residents \\i 1h no tradition of a llegiance to Ihe ruling group undenllined its base of supporl. Consolidatio n of lhe ui ple cil ies ex.ace rbated lh e traditional elite 's problcms by sudden Iy adding tho usands of new rcsidents.lI

II is likely tllat consol.idation also con tribu ted to the upsurge of black voting in Daytona Beach . I}oli lieal scie ntist." Do nald Mauhews and J :lln es I' rolltro arb'ltc thal whe n Afri ca n Americans comprised ovc r 40 pe rcent o fa region 's po pulalion , Ihe number of whites tolerating black sulTrage d roppe d rapidly." Had Daytona Beach f(."

maincd half black, Armstrong may have had considerably mo re di ffi culty fo rgin g a biracial coali tion of \'oters. I-Iow(."\'er. since

3J.lhid ., 27 NO"crnlwr 1927. I\brb o;ompri'ICll 31.3 pcn::enl or lilt' ri l j.·~' COllI'

hined mling age l>opuial l011 in 1!.I25, 30. 1 percent in 1930. an ti 31.9 " .. ·,'cell l in 1935: Fiftlt Qo,WI.f of lit; Slnl,. oj floridn (T;,U .. has ..... "t:. ~'a., 192:',), 52: -Rep ... r l hr S!;tl C5 Sho"';"g the CornpOliilion :md f:h;lI-.or tcri)lio of Ihe l'op"!.lIio,,." l 'oim1a. lior" \'ol. III, I>arll: rlJi_11t o..JUJ oJ lit, U'tfiYd Slain (Washington. 0.(;., 1932). 42 1 {herein:lr.er cilL'(1 as 1930 U.s. CcmusJ.

32. f)fl] ,m,n lkt,rlt ,v,·"tSojOltmfll. 23 No'it,mbcr. 7 DL't:emocr 19'.n. 33. Ibid .. 7 December 1927. 3'1. 1)0 n:,11I R. Mauh,'wl' a nd J amL"i W. Proth ro, N~ fiNd 1M /Iln" SoNI"",, l'oIilk~

(New York, 1%6), 118. 132.

282 Fl.ORIDA HISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

black. .. com prised o nly o ne-third of the new city's po pu latio n and all commissioner districts possessed white majOlilies, no seriolls challenge to white rule ex isted , Eve ll so, Armstro ng's unabashed solicitation of black votes served as a mllying 0 1' fo r his opponc nL .. and t'esuh ed in heightened racial tension during lh e next se\'eral municipal elections,

Daytona Beach 's traditional eli te staged a comeback in th e 1929 election , In the weeks leading lip to Armstrong's re-e lection bid , the Nl':llJsj oll l1wl. it staunch supporter of Oa)'to na's lr.lditio nal ruling group, strongly denounced the maror as a corrupt machine po li tician who , along \\;tl1 his Mhencillnen ,~ had ~ rOllllded IIP~ ig-1I0r:]I1t blacks, registered them, paid lheir po ll taxes, and in· structed them how [,0 \'ote, POl'lr<l)'ing itself itS a ~ frien d of th e Ncgro~ and particularly supponi\'e of Mall' Mcleod Bethunc 's college . the Progressi\'e-ori cnted newspaper favored g l~ ."tillg lh e fr' lIl chis(: [ ,0 educated , i1llt:lligc 1lI bl acks, Armstro ng's rccruitm ent of the ~ igllor.m l Negro masses," according to the Nl'ws:!ol/nwl, di mmed prospects ror impro\'ing the city's political and moral cli· mate,"

fir 1929, black Daytonans had indeed regislered in large nlllll' bers-()I'er two thouS<lI1d-and comprised o ne-third o f th e ci ty's reg· istered ,"oters, In the 1929 e1eclio n, they cast almOSI olH."-rounh or all ballots and ovcrwhel millgly supponed Anllslrong, though the Nfw-j OlmUl! claimed that blacks we re Mcorralled , furni shed their poll lax certificates and sellt ill t.o vote by (it)' hall cmployees ali(I o ther Armstrong workel's,M HOwever, the mayor's oppo nel1l, Hilly Bagge tt , received most or thc white \,ote and defeated Armstrong 2,780 to 2,390. Armstro ng had ridden in to o ffi ce in 1927 on the I.eels of econo mic bad times, and he was swept OUt of offi ce in 19W also because of economic adversi ty, The stock market crash ill Dc· to ber precipitated the railure o f the city's m.yor banks. and just thrc(: wecks before th e election . Daytona Beach defaulted on its bonds fo r the first time ill history, A lew days laler, Anllstrong re· sponded by firing scores o f d t), \\'orkers, His lo),al African American Sllppo rtcrs could not ol'erCOllle thc tidal wave of wI Ii Ie opposition. a nd Baj.{gcu pre,~liled ,jO;

3:' , l >u,fUlIfI Ilfflrll N~:1'",n"'I, 1" Scpll' mhcr, :Iii Scph~lIllJcr, \N Nuu .:",hc l" t!):I'J . :«i. Ibid., <\ Dec~·11Ihl'r, 7 I)/"Ct' mhl'r I !.I~): Fred B(loth, - t:::,fly [}:I\") in 1):,\'mn:1

Ik" .. d,.- u"publi~hL'(l ma"u-.c:ripl, 5-(" i " ~Ulhor'~ posso.'s,", ;"".

POLITICS OF R.t\Ct: IN DA' TONA BE1\CII, 1900- 1940 283

Altho ugh Daytona Beach 's falte ring econOllly largely ex plains Armstro ng's ddeat, th e nmror 's campaign tactics did litde LO endear him to ma ny vo ters . He r:'lrcly spoke in public and avoided responding to his critics. On those few occasions when he did make public pronouncemen ts, his comments proved less than reas..'Iuring. J llSt pl"ior to the 1929 e lection the mayO!' answered his detraclors by exclaiming: "What if I d id have Illy signs on city trucks? What if I did beat my wife and maintain a harem at the city hall ? What if I did appeal to neg-mes? These th ings arc o f no impo rt:mcc. We must consider issues that arc \'ilal to Daytona Beach .Also , the mayo r's proclivity fo r rewarding only political supporte rs became a liability. For example. whe n th e city sponsored a bealLlifjcatio n contest that awarded palm trees to reside nts who significan tl)' illlpmvcd [llcir properties, Armstro ng all egedly ordered that pa lm~ on ly be delivered to wi nners who pl edged 10 vale fo r hi m.31

Sti ll. B.."lggelt could nOI capita lize on his polit ic"l good fortune. Nflllj:JOtmwl re po n er Fred Ilooth recoullted thai the new mayor hired an inept cit), manager "nd Ha du mb patrolman for 1>oIice chicI' [\\'ho] \\~IS so cl umsy in public relat ions that he lei Armstl"Ong f.'lStCIl the blame on [ Baggelt ] for Ihe Armstro ng budge t deficit, which 1~\ggclI had to finallce I\~dl a 250,000 bond iss lle.~"" Th ese blunders paved the way fo r Alllistrong's comeback in 193 1. and , as in 1927, African Ame rican vOI.ers prol~ ded crucial suppo rt for h is Ik lory.

Th e dispute over the size and alleged manipu latio n of the black \'o te in Ihe 1929 election became mo re acute in 193 1. In carl)' NO\'~l11bcr, Ih e Nf'lw-jollnl(l/ nowd wi th alarTTl th a t illitera te blacks ,,'c re registering in large llIL1nbe rs and claimed that Annsll"Ong's -henchmen and hcnchwOlllcn . both while and colored - had herded blacks -by Ihe carload ... 10 n.:gisu-alion places 10 sign dldr names or plU their cross marks on the books.- In a rare front page edi t.orial. th e Nf'llls-jollnlfli wal'ned aga inst - this wlloles,ale regiSlra· lion o f negroes of all classcs~ and urged -every intell igcnl voter- to oPl>Ose the fXl litical mach in e."'" Ily the tillle the books closed on Nove mbe r I I, 10.'15'1 Da},LOnOl ns had registe red to vOle in the city e1ectiolls. includi ng 3, 169 AfriClItl Am ericans. An astollndin g 95.6

37. I"JiIJ/lma l "'lrh Nn"I:JU!mlll~ 3 t:k cc1llher 191\1: i\lhen Sclll'lIcuocrg 10 E. II. Ann-Ilrung. 23 Onub"r 1!)1'J. pri\~u.: I )' o' .... e ... . ~upr ur t" ller in :Il nhur's 1}()S.~t~)iul1 .

3iI. I!.tKllh . -F-" rly I),,,., in O:I)1lJll :l I!.t·;u:h : 6. 39. I)dJUina Ilmrl. Xn"':frJllmul." NO\'cmbc,; tot NO\"l .. mber 193 1.

284 FLOKIOi\ HISl'O RICAL Q UARTERLY

percenl of the cily's adult population signed up to \,Ole: 94.3 percent of blacks and 96. 1 percent of whiles. Since regisU<llion in three precinc l.'l (two all-whi le and one approximately half black) exceeded Ihe aduh po pulatio n, questions of illegali ty naturally arose. An in\'esligmion by the Good Gon~ rlllne nt League "disdosed the names o f se\'eral hund red white and negro registran ts whose legal right to vote is qllestionable . ~ ~J

Despite th e COlurove rsy over \·ote r rCbris tration , no m;yol' incide llls marred electio n day-Deccmber I . 193 1. The African American vote rcprcscllI.ed about 24 percent of the election 's fi nal la lly and helped elcct Ed\\,<ml Armstrong mayor of Daytona Beach fo r th e seco nd time. \\li th 43 pe rcent of Daytona Beach 's while vote and 82 percen t of the black VOle, he managed to ddc,lt his o ppo<nent , Don Morris, 3, 112 TO 2,61 3. The black VOI,e also swept Arm· strong suppon ers Cassie Winga te and William Perr), OntO I,he city conllni.~si on , which gave th e Armstrong ticket cont rol of the COIll· 1I1ission by a t.hree-to-two margin. II

That ArmSTrong drew the support ofalarge millOrity o f whit es, in spite of his appe'll to blacks, brives credence to the New$ j ouI"1lO{s suggeslion thaI he benefit ed from the "an ti-\'o te~-that is, lhe Matlti·adlnillisLnuion , anti-police, . . anti-high salaries, allti-social exclusiveness. anti-high taxes, <lmi-questionable expenses, and above all a nt i-hard times. MI2 With t.he cconom}' collapsing in th e fa ll of 193 1, plenty of Mami-vQtes" existed for ArmSl.rong. DisCOTltc lH among whi tes was greatesl amo ng th e poor ali(I \\'orking class, who lived in Democratic ncighborhoods located o n the so ulh pe llillsuia and mainland . They comprised Annstro ng's lllost lo),lIl con Lingelll , heavily suppo rting him in 193 1 and in subsequellt elec tions. Ann· slrong's opponents fared best in Daytona B(:ach 's wealthy. predo m· inantly Republican , north peninsula diSI,ricl. The two ",hite precincts whe re Armstrong had the least support in the 193 1 election were the o nly two cit)' preci ncts won by Herbert Hoove r in th e 1932 presidential election . In COlllJ.ist, IWO of the three white pr(. .... cincts that highly famred Armstro ng in 193 1 gave Roosevelt his largest m,yolities in 1932."

"0. Ibid .. 12 N""cmber. 1,\ No\·"mbcr Hl:i L. "l. lbid .. t Ik -ccmber. '] 1}.'cembe .. 19:1J. 42. lbirl .. 7 o...-ce lll bcr 1927. ' 1 :~. lhid .. 2 Ik'('cml~r 193 1. 12 November 1\132.

POLITICS OF RACE IN DAYTONA BEACH. 1900-1940 285

The economic difficulties faced by many whitc DaYLOnans during the early 1930s paled in comparison to what confronted the African American community. Like African Amcricans elsewhcre. black Daytonans already stood at the bo ttom of the economi c ladde r before the onset of the Depressio n." In 1930, most of Daytona Beach 's black male workforce performed manual labor, and more than th ree-quarters of black women workers fo und employment as domestics o r inlow-cnd personal se r"icejobs . '~ As the Depression \\'orsened in 193 1 and 1932, blacks in D<I)'lona Beach a.~ well as in other soulhem cities faced massive unemployment. By the fall of 1932,600 o fDa yt.ona Be ach 's 992 un employed we re black. Funhermore, blacks o n relief in Daytona Beach rect!i\'ed less aid than whit,cs-another trend common to SOLI them ci ties. ~

The racial tensions tJl.U perm eated southe rn cities during the darkest days of the Depressio n were manifested in DaYlOna Beach as Mayor Armstrong sought rt.--election in th e fall o f 1933. Problems l.>Cbra n on the eve of the primary whe n whites kidnaped two black campaign workers and beat o ne o f the lll . A thi rd worker, Bethune 's son , Albert, was appa remly targeted but no t actually assaulted . Whi le the lllot.Ive fo l' lhc kidnaping remained unclear,

4,1. ecorge Tindall obscrn:d Ihou between 19 LO and t930. most gro"'ing are~s of the southern economy were rCS1:rn.'<.1 for Iot·hilcs. wi th only Ihe most Illenial jobs going 10 bb cks. During Iho:le )'e:.rs. many of the jobs u;lditionally filled by blacks were p:.ssing to Iot'hi lt.'s; TindaLL. TM 1~"l(tgmrr 0J''',. Nro. , So,,'h. 161.(;2.

45. No occup:Uion,d cenSU5 dal;. w~r.· {0",,1i for Oa)'[ona !lead. for lY30. so Voh.)i:. County dat;. were consulted. Oa)'looa Beach's black population of :),426 in L9:W n:pre!i<!nted '13.3 percent of Ihe COU11ly's 12.537 " "riColIl American n,:sidents. 1'1,,:5<: d:u,:, suggeSt gn:at "eonomic disparit.y I)<,''''<:e '' bl:tcks and whi l ~"5 in .he (oullly. indudiu!I; O"y[on" Bea( h; 1\)30 U.S. Census. 04 .

46. Harv..rd SitkofL A tV,.", f)rol [Qr' 111Mb: 'I'M i;'mn'gl'>llt oJ Civil Highb os (I Nflliot"'! IMII,,-TIu! 1Jit,U)io" IkrlUv. (New York. 19i8) 3:"37. A n:I>01'l issu~,<1 by the Rcd r:russ in September 1932 rc\'e" teli Ihat in O")'\on" Bc"ch fOI'l)'one whilc fa milies r«cived $1 i6 we1:kl )' o r $4.29 per household. while ninety-lhrce black fami · lil..'S rO:Cc1"cd $288. or $3. 10 pe r ho"""hotd.; ()(I)'lo>w Ikflrh ,v",usjr!llmul. I NO"embe r 1932. Oa)'lona "~IS not un ique "lIlong .'IOuthern citics in provid ing srnaller rel ief checks for blacks lh:m for ,,-hiles during the O<!pr<!ssion. In Atl:mllt, blacks reeei"<!d lllolHhly rel ief pa)111ents of$19.29 in ~by of 19:i5. "'hile whi le5 received $32.fJ6; :Uld in Houston. hbcks rccei"ed S t:l.6i co"'pared 10 $ 16.86 for whiles. In j;u:k.'IOnl'iII <!, black f .. milks rttei\'ing relief oUlnurnbel'l.."{] whilcs three to Olle. )'<! t blacb onl)' rceciR"{] 4;) ~rcent of the fu nds dislribut,:d; TIndall. Tiv. Emngt'"" '" III, ",,,,,, ,'\outh. 54i ; Randy J. SI)arb, ·· Heavenly H()u~

ton' or ' Hell ish HOII.' ton'? l\hlck Unemployment and Relief Effort .... 1929-1936.&mlh,.,." Silutia 25 (Iot'inter 1986): 355. ror additional di';';IIssiou t,f rcl i<!r benelIu in SCli..OC I .'IOulhern cilie!<. SCf" "iles. ·U rban So".h in Ihe Grcal Depression: &'><!6.

FLORII),\ I IISTQItU :'AL Q lll\RTEItLY

some o bservt:rs specuhued that the clilprilS ma)' h;l\'e intended to discollmgc blacks from voting. ~'Ia)'or Annslrollg, fearing additional violence, requested that th e National Cuard be :lcthmcd. Governor Dave Shohz, a Daytona native, agreed olll)' to plan:: the Guard 0 11 ale n . A nervOIlS cairn pre\~ [i kd d uring the primary election , e\'cn though alx)ut \0 pe rcent of African Amerkans who attempted to vote we re refused bccause of imprope r registra tion or fai lure to p<1)' U1C poll lax . Long lines fonned at black polling Stations as election officials carefully checked prospective \'0 IerS,'1

Africa n America ns c nCOlltllercd C\'cn grcate r difficult ies when attempting to vote during the general election 011 Decembe r 5. At somc black polling Slatiolls as mall)' as four hundred stood in line waili ng to cast ballots, and Msorne negroes who were at the end of th e line at9 a. lIl . fina lly gOt in 1.0 \'o te at 6 o 'clock at nigh l.. Many went away without voting."'" Election hoards, "wa rned of illegal voting in the prim'II)', concei\'ed o f a list of 26 questio ns to ask each negro who appeared as a \'oter.M A black meat inspector fo r the cit)' later reca lled how Mthe o ffi cial killed time fo r us by asking a lot of nonsensical questions, so much so thaI the polls were closed be fore even half of liS had \'oted .w

" Alarlllt!d that hundreds o f Ihe mayo r's black supporters wcre being prc\'en ted from voting, Ihe Armstrong adlllilliSIr.t tion reacted, Sheriff S. E. Stone, an Armstrong all,., served arrest warrants 0 11 an election board member and two poll watchers, and alo ng with th e mayor convi nced Gove rn or Sho ltz to

mobilize the National Guard. Under th e gaze o f Na tional Gua rd troops with fi xed baronets, lhe polls remaint!d o pen until 9:30 p. IIl ., enabling about 550 blacks to vote after the o riginal 6:00 p.m, closing tillle .~ Annstrong and running males R:.llph Richards and Hal'!), Wilco x won commanding victories, bringing to an end Daytona Beach's H milil;t'1' electionM of 1 933. ~1

The mayor's support o f blacks during tile 1933 election endeared him to many in the Afric'lIl American conullunil)'. A black supporte r later remin isced: '"To show you how regu lar he \\~IS, the night thai the mili lia was called out 10 keep us free from harm to

>17 IJtry""'''' Iwr lt Nn.''J:/mm",1. :1'1 N"""lllher 19.'\3. '18. luitl .• 61k-ccm!.H.·! 19!'\.'\. '19. Former meal insp"'Clor of 03)·lon:. Ik,och. iuten·i ..... · " 'i,h Witl", lmina Jack.<OI1 .

in "unche. 1M I'o/'/.ml Ii/n/," rfllt,. ,\'''1:'f'. >l1!2. 50. f)"r/una Iw rlt N"'~joll"'l(fl. Co 1)"'C"",h"r 1~33; ;l1ter~·~ .. · ... ;,h rnr,tI i"'p''Clo r. ,. !./Jay/un" Iwrh ,\rou;journlll. 7 o"rern l)C .~ 10 1:>t~CIl1bt:r 19!'\3: Cil~' CUn1rni).)'<l11

Minut ...... t2 1k-.:emb ... ,. 19:\3.

POLITICS OF RACE IN O,\nON,\ Bt::ACIi. 1900-1940 287

vote, Armstrong had three white policemen burning Ii res in guardillg my house_~ In other W:I)'S, Armslro ng furlh er ingratiated hilllself 1.0 the black working class. Y"onne Scarlett-Golden. currellll}' one o f Dayto na Beach 's two black commissioners, crcdits Annstrong with building the playground and swimming pool that she fo ndly recalls c luoying as a child during the I 930s. and shc at, u'ibUles his I>opu iaril}' among blacks 10 his sincere personal COII

ce rn , such as paring funeral expenses for indigents,1\! Armstrong provided his African American slIpponers with in

ml uable political expericllce and organizational lraining. Joe Har, ris. a small busi nessman known as the mayor 's ~ right hand man .~

bccnne Ille most. inf lucntial of sevcral black poli ticos who directed Armstrong's campaign in the black community." Blu many of Ih e most cnerge tic and innovative Annstrong campaigners were women, including Minnie Lillielon , Mary Wells Jon es. the Cuthbid sisters. and the Brewe r siste rs. These ward hee lers and their legions \\'orked lhe black neighbo rhoods passing ou lliter.llurc, organizing fi sh fri es, blaring campaign slogans from automobile loudspea kers. and arranging rides lO the pol1s,M

Armstrong's po pularilY among black.~ in large part stemmed from patronage, much of it parceled OUl by Harris. Y..-onne Scadeu, Golden 's father, as a conseq ue nce of his fri endship \\'lth Harris and suppOrt of the mayor, became Al'lllsll'ong's chauffeur. Most j obs disllibutcd to Armstrong's African American politic'l! helpers were menial, In ll nOI all . After c;unpaigning lor Armslro ng, [ Id l'ed Will-

52. Interview "'ilh me;ll inspeclOl~ \\'(>IIne SCl!rleu..(:.oldt' Il , int.,n.~· ";110 author. 8 July 1997. Da)1OIl:' ile'.lo:h. t1a.; Cir)' GoUlmi~io" MillU":S, 2'! Non:mher 19'!8. I!lJuue 1919.

53. George Engr.un. i11le l'\;ew "'irh ;II"hor. 7 JUlie 1988. D<i)'lolla Ucach. FI .. . ; l>a,. Imr" Ikrv" Ciry 1)im:ICIry (,"d (; .. jJ~. 19)}.)4 (l',lIll lla, n ..... 19~). 239. Joe liarris and his I'>~ f" Dun!:rill later 1'1;1)'<.'<'1 a rol" ill .. he illtcgr.tlioll of modern pm/~ ~ional basch .. tI b)' sharing Iheir home with Jao:kie :Intl K:.chd li.obilll\OIl in Ihe spring of 1946. Rc."Jidcnti:d ~rego.llion in D<i)'lOna pmhibiled the Ilobin5l.n~ from st:l)ing ne;lf rhe whiu." "'embers of rhe le;UlI . Robinj,OlI 's spring U'ilining stint in O;l)'ton a lkao:h wilh the Montre .. 1 Ro)'.lI$ of the Intcm<itiun:.1 Lc:.gue " '.IS an impOI'tant ! lCP in Ihe iUlcgmtion of profcDiolllrt basel.xIII . Br,mch Rickey. O"'ller of th .. Dodgen. o:hOk I);tytolla Ucach for his ' gn:at experirnem' bc:c .. ,1Se of its repulation or r.ldal moder.ltioll . As a cunsequeno:e . the fi~ r.aciatl)' imcgnu l'f.i lIloden. I)rof(;~~jonl'l basc:1);,1I go.l"!C' I'>'a! pta)'cd then: 011 ~13rch 17. 1!l46; ke JUld l )'gicl, 1.hlld!aIO GI'fflI &e/J"li"""r. jark;" 1I,;hj"'~m "",I Ilil Up? (New Vork. I!I~!') .

54. George Engr.lm int~'o'ic:w; SC:olflel1~ktcn intenicw. ROl{e r~ P. F;&ir. inteo·k ...... " 'ilh amhor, t June 1!I88, I)a)lona Beach. na.; Jimm), Ilul::c:r. intc l'\;t:\\· " 'ith au thor: 2Juue 1988. Oaytun:1 Bc::u:h. Fla.

288 FLOIU IJ/\ HISTORICAL QUARTf..RLY

Jot: 11;II"I; s, eire:t 1!).!">Os. i1;mis " ... ~ Olle of [);n'lona Ik:tch '~ [c:tding bl;.d , bll.~incs.'\.

111t:1I and community Icad"B rrum tht: 1!)\Ws thmugh til(" 1950s, :tnd ~b}'t)r Annstwng's -right hand lI1.m" in the Alrie-.m Ame'rican communi!}'_ Qlllrll'l)' of IR1JlOlW IJmfir Cml/m""'1J CoII~, I)ay'o"a IJnlfir, Hn.

POLITICS OF Rt\CE IN DAyroNA BEACH, 190()..1940 289

iams ""as appoirncd rood inspector fo r the ci ty, altho ugh in kee ping with racial e tiqucltc he was aIlO\\'ed 1.0 inspect on ly African American restaurants, Ano the r black Armstrong supporter, a mea t. inspector ror th e city, observed with some exaggeration that during the Armstrong yearli ~allja nitors were Negro; all conSU·llClion work ""as do ne by Negroes; there was one Negro man in the wat.e r deparunenl; there were Negro 5;.mit,uy illspectors."16

Th e rising tide of black political acuvism and the racial tensions genenned b)' the 1933 electio n ,,·ere d early on the minds of ci t)' officials as the 1935 election approached. In OCtObel~ blam in g the turmo il of the 1933 election on ~white and colored electors voting at the same polling places," the city commission unanimollsly passed an Memergencf o rdinance establishing two lIew black·only precincts. The commissio n dai med that segregated precincts were ~ ror the good govenlment of the city, public sarety and welfare, the p rotection of pro perty and preservatio n or peace and good order.M',I; Cit}' comm issioners lIlay have sincerel), be lieved thaI Jim Crow precincts " 'ould reduce t.he risk of violence, but it is more likely t.hat politics motivated their decisio n. Armstrong backers probably reasoned that the creation or polling places in bl;"k neigh· borhoods would cn lla nce vot.er turnout among Arrican Arne ric;lIIs, who were th e mayor's most faithrul supporte rs. Scgreg;ued polls also allowed Armstrong to claim that he strongl), suppo rted the city·s color line even as he solicited Arrica n American votes. Convinced that black vot.er fnllld nm fampam , Armstrollg·s o ppo nents may have concluded th at conce mnJting blacks into j ust two precincts would simplify Ihe monitoring or electio n in·cguhui ties.

Whatevcr mo t.ivalio ns prom pted the creation o f th e ncw black pn:cincl~, the election of 1935, though it lacked the sensationalism o r the 1933 campaign , conl.ained an 1IllpreCl:dellled Icvel of racial animosity. Through the 1935 primal1', the cam paign fo llowed a pa ltel'll that had typified e"e ry mun icipal election sin ce 1927. As usual , the News-joufllo1 campaigned ag;.linst Anllstrong's re-elect io n bid , urging readers to support the "dean government '· candidatt~ ,

55. Sc .. rlcu·Goldcn i1l1cn~ew; EMred Wi ll i,m,s. inlenic"· "ilh :""hor. 2 J ul)' t99<I, I)"Ylona Ikach. Fla.: inle!'\; .. .., ..,i lh meal iuspeClor.

56. · O rdinance No. (>62 Esl<lblishing ... VOIing I'n:<:incts Number 26 and Number 27. of Ihe Cil )' nf Daytona Beach: in City Commission Minutc~, 17 October 1935.

190 FI.QRll)l\ HISTORICAL Q UARTERI .\,

W. Maxwell Hankins. Frustrated by their poor showing in the primal) ', the Hankins C<11l1paign em barked upo n a virulently f;lcist crm.;td t.: to unite the cit{s \."hite lI1 :yorit)' be hind their ca ndidate. The day afler the primar), th ey promised to -carry the light thro ugh to th e IIni5h wi th the main appeal a{hlrc..'ssed to Ihose white \'ote rs who are in opposition 10 negro elected domination and exploitation in this cit y." Hankins's campaign malla).:"er, alier ejccling St!\'er.ll black worke rs from c:\lnpalgll headquarters, told Nnvs j ollnlfll repo rters that - \\'t." 11 gi\'c Armstrong his beloved negro vote. and we' ll win or lose o n the while \'ote. J Ihin k Ih e \\'hile \'O ll! will r'ally to our suppo rt. " Maintaining its suppo rt for Hankins, the Newsjollnw/ w;ulled of -negro domination" unless ~ the while \'o tcrs of Da),l.ona Beach \\~I ke up,-" Han kins's r.lcist cam paign failed miserably. The mayor \,'on l! resounding victo l)" receiving 6:t2 percell!. of the 7,607 votcs cast. A whoppi ng 91, 1 perccnt o f tJ lC nea rly two tho usand black vOle rs supponed Armstrong, and he receivcd a surprisingly high 53.6 perce nt of the city's white \"Ote. Armsu'ong's ca ndidat es for lhe ci ty cOlUlIlis. .. ion-Ralph Richards and George Robi nson-won handily as well ,'"

Annslrong's landslidc victory in 1935 did not insul:ne him from contro\·cf'SY. A S200.000 budgc t deficil for thai year uiggcl'ed an investigmioll b)' a special stalC 's attorney. The mayor see lllingly violat ed a 1933 city charter amendment that provided for the remO\~ll by the govern or of o llici;lls rcsponsible 10 1' exceeding the budget. Anticip:lling slich consequences. Annso'o ng and com missioners R.W. C II'Swell alld George T. Robinson resigned o n December 10, 1936, but IIOt bclore the), hand-pi ckcd th eir successors. Armstro ng and Robinson were replaced immediately by their wh'cs, while Clrswell 's St!at \\~lS fill ed b)' the city's bookkeeper. Lyle C, Ibmsey. Reasoning that their resigna tions ..... o uld th\\~lrt t.h e governor's intentions, Armstrong and his allies planncd to safely return t,o o ffi ce afte r the governor-clect. Fred Cone, took offi ce on Janual)' 5,~

All did not go as the Armstrong machine imagined . On December 30, Governor Shohz ordered Mayor Irene Armstrong, th ree cit)' commissione rs, the city clerk, and the cit)' manage r re-

!;7 , 1)(1,./(mll fkl.rh NI'I"J:i()U f""1, 2 1, 24. and 2.'l No .... ' mbcr. 2 Decembe r 1935, 51! , [hid .. 23 Non:mOc'r," Ik unil:)(:f 1935, 59. 1)"},()",, /Jnuh f:, .... "'g '\ 'I'I{4. I J;m"ary 19 37; f)a.y'()"" IJnuh MQmj"g j Mmwl. IQ

l)eel'mller. ] I Dc-cr:mocr 1936,

POLIT ICS OF Rt\Ct: IN D,WroNA BEACII . 1900-1940 29 1

moved from olTice, ho lding them respunsible for the budge1 defici1 and for cxercising puor j udgmcllI ill administcring ci ty amlirs. In particular, the gO\'cmorjnslified Ilis ren loval of Ire lIe Annstrong because -she had comillncd the policies of her husband.- He 01'de l'ed IWO hUll{h'ed ;lI ion:l1 Guardsmen to Daytona lkach 10 e nforce the officia ls' removal and the installa tion of their replacemen ts: I-laiTY Wilcox as mayor and AlbartuS C. Hankins. He nry Po ll itz. and I-larry Drake as the new conllnissione l"s. 6IJ

Although Wilcox. a fo rmer city commissione r, had suppo rted Edv,lard Armstrong in the past. he look ad\~IIHagc of th e po litical upheaval . On Jan uary I. 1937. he demanded cl ltry into ci l)' hall . Irene Annstrong, insisting that she was still ma)"or. refuscd to unlock the door. M('anwhii e, o n orders from her husband , ilpprox im;lIc1y o ne hun dred police men ali(I olher heavily armed city elnployees e ntered the building to deft' nd Mayor Amlslrong. \Vith foul" detachme nts of guardsmen closing in o n the arm ed Annstrong partisans holed up in ci ty hall. and with a crowd o f more Ihan IwO lhouS<1.nd milling around o utside lhe building, violence seemed imminelll . Fortunately, connict was a\'e n ed when Circuil Court Judge Herbert B. Frederick issued a tcm por.-try reslrai ning order preventing Wilcox and the o ther newly appointed olTicers from emering city hall. On Janual1' 4, Ihe Florida Suprcme COLIrt refuscd to remove the iluu nclion , the guardsmen retreated . and the cro ..... ds wen t home. Sooll afterward, the Florida Supreme Coun ruled a!,rainst Governor Shohz's order to rCIllO\'e Daytona l.\each's elected oflicials. cla iming t.h at the law under wh ich the go\'emor ac ted contained a defective title. This ruling and the inaugllr.-ttion ofGo\'ernor Coll e paved the way fo r E(h-\~\rd Armstrong's rcinstate-111<:111 as mayor o n March 4 . The Armstrongs and their supporters had won what th e New5-Jollnwl called 'The Baule of Daytona Bcach.-8

'

Emerging from the crisis poli tically stronger than ever, Armstrong won a fifth term in December 1937 by an aSlounding five-toone margin. The campaign lacked the divisiveness e ncountered in 1he past.. The mayor's haplcs.'1 oppo nent , Millard Conkl in , received

(.0. DaJ/ona IJror" I-;''fflm~ Nrllt!i. t j;Ulu"ry 1~37; fJt,]/orUi &t«h Mimi;"/; journal. 2 january t937.

61 . lkrJlO1Ia IlhKlI Mom"'lt Jo"rnili. 2 j an,,;,,), 1937; (){,yu"'a 11mi'll 1-:''"''''1 "',..,<1. .. jauuary 1937; /Jtrylo1lllIJrtvh Sultd"1 ,\ 'ro':l0"n,aI.1 janua,)' 1938; Cil)' ('.ornmis~i,,,, Mi"UIC'. " M"I'..-h t937; 1..(.· •. mar<l LCllIpd, - i\b)'Of!i t:.d"-Md ;on<l .. ~·"c Ann· SI .... l1lg a nd 11Il" I\;tlll c n f Ib ylOn;, Re;.e h ,· Ilalijmt II"tIIl,11 8 (June 2QuU); ( .. 9.

292 FLORIDA !-IISTORICAI. Q UARTERLY

o nly \,2 10 o f I,he 7,395 ,'otes casl. Armstrong received an ove rwhcl mi llg 97 pe rcell t or the black ,'Ole as wel l as 77.S perce nt or tile whi le vote. Th ree o f Armslro ng's C;lIld ic!alCS for ci t)' commission SC;IIS \\'0 1\ handily. 10 0. I n Zone Fo ur, R..'1lph Richards defeated his

oppo11 en t by mo re than live to Oll t:: ; and in Zone T hree , Rod erick Ross received more than Ih ree times as many votes as his adversary. Both com missio ners received 1II0l"C than 93 perce llt of tht:: black \,Otc.u

Edward Armstrong savored his ,'iclOry only hridly. O n the Illo ming of J anuary 2, 1938, j Llsl o ll e d ay befo re his sched uled inaugu ra tion fo r a fi fth IC..,11 , he died fro m liver railurc. An cstim:Hcd SC\'CI' lh ouS<lIld Daytomllls a ttended the mayor's funera l lh rcc days hiler. In the hoUl's p receding the fune ral service. h is body lay in state wh ile hu ndreds.of mourne rs "whilc and cn l.ored alike- slol\'ly lI1 ed past tu pay fi nal respects.~'

Armstro ng left be hind a powcrfu l leg-J.C)'. Under his leade rship Daytona Be ach successfully compe ted fo r New Deal mo nies and ea rly fought its W:ly Qllt of the Dcpressioll . A boardwalk. publ ic docks, and an airp.ort " 'ere huilt with Wo rks Prugress Ad ministratiun funds, whi le Ih e Jlu\)lic Wo rks Admin istra tion provided 300,000 for a ci ty waterworks. In ad di tion , recreational facilities

;Ind a bus system ex panded du ring the Armstr.ong }'ears. At the time .of his death . the mayor was seeki ng 700,000 from th e federal government lo r a new e lll erlili n lllelll hal 1.~ By 1935. most wh ite Da),tunans credi ted Armstro ng \\'ith rest.ori ng prosperity and improl'ing serviccs; in rcUlI'll thcy were willing to ignu re .or at least pard.on Ilis corrupt pr'actices and solicitatio n .of black \'.oICS.

Whereas Armstr.ong 's SUppOrl am.ong whites increased .over time . Arrican Americalls ovcn ... hclmingly 1'00ed for hi m in eve ry electio n. It l an e ra when lhe political I'.oices .of !<:O \lLhcl'Il blacks we re silenced , Armstl'Ong reached .0111 across th e I'aeial divide :U1d sought lh eir participati.on. As a c.onSC<lllCllcc o f lilcir inl'.oll't:lllen t. Da)'tOlla Beach 's blacks acquired 1I degrce of emp.o ... ,cnnelll and self respeCt rarely experie nccd by African Amelican c.ommuni ties in lh e SoUlh befo re Wo rld War 11. Black Dayto llalls belicvcd that

62. I)ll)'lmw IJmrh S"",I"J Nl'Ullimlnml. 5 Ot,£.,mhcr 1937; 1),1)"0'''' Hmr/t f.-1'f·""'g N"w~ .. 7 t:H..'Cemoc .. 1937.

63. l)frylo.1O lkach EW:Ilmg ,,",,,OJ, 7 [k·<:(·mbcr 1937; Ikl]'f)"" Ilnl(lI M ....... ing j IJ'mwl." .Ianuar)' t938; t)f,]"",,, I"""h E,_ing ''''''OJ, 5 .1:lIIllary J'J3H; 1)f,YQrw IJm(~ Morn· InK}",,,,,,,I. 6 .Ial11[al')' 19!18.

& t. I.h'J'mlll l lrorh .';,""1<,,, N""'l:i(J.mllll. :!J arrt .:u), I ~).'UI.

POUTIC'i OF RACE IN DA,' roNA BEACH, 1900- 1940 293

th eir vo ices coullled , the ir imerests were protected , and their concerns matlered. As o ne black residem stated , "When Ma)'or Armstrong W;L~ coming up. he asked what we 1\~.Hlled ... and Il'<lS [.old: po licemen , freedo m on the be ach lO a re;lSonable eXI.CIlI , and so o n. \Ve got th cm. ~ Th e arrest of Albert Bethu ne furth er demo nsU1H.cd the influence of AfIllstro ng's black supporters. Mal, McLeod Bethun e sought help from the mayor's leadi ng political operative, Joe Harris, in securing he r son 's release from jail . Yl'onne Scarleu-Golde n recalled th al "ve ry few blacks feared whi tes in Daytona Be'lch. Th ere used to be a saying among people: 'We do n 't wa nt to d eal with t.hose bl acks in Daytona. They have tOO

much power. "'M

\VriLing to the mayor ~on behalf o rlh e Colored ci tizens of Daytona Bcach M in laIC 1929, Bethune heaped ciTusil'c praise o n Armstro ng. She congralllia led the mayo r on his ~ progress il'e,

courageous administl1ltion ~ and ex pressed "gratitude fo r a ll tha t [he l had donc.~ telling him that "the childre n oftomorrow wi ll rise up and call you blessed .M Alluding to the patronage awarded to his black suppo rters. Bethune praised the mayor 's "fin e spirit. in the d istribu tion ofl he ci ly'S work among a ll o f th e c il.izens. ~fj6

New Deal programs com plememed Armstrong's eno rts to assist Daytona Beach 's black ci tizens. Many black Daytonans fo und employme nt in PWA an d WPA proj ects and took advamage of the educational and e mployment opponun ities offered by th e WPA's subsidiary, the National Youth Administra tio n. Da}'LOna Ikach's blacks fared panicularly lI"eli in these agencies. Evt! ry PWA contract contain ed a no ndiscriminatory clause, and a j ob qllo t.'l sysl.em was implemented to enforce ir." Mill, McLeod Bethun e head ed the Negro Affa irs Divi.~ ion of the NYA , with Bethune-Cookman Coll ege se rving as a cond ui t for NYA train ing and funds. In 1910, Africa n America ns accounted for 62.4 perct! llt of the 436 Dayt.oualls work~

65. George Engra m inle"ic .. ~ inlcl ... ·ic .... with mc;u inspector, Scarlt:u-Goldc n inter"ie .....

66. ;\Iary ;\IcLeod I\c lhune 10 E. H. Annstmng. 3] I)e<:cmher ]9'29. priv;lIcly owned . copy of letter in author's poss •. :ss ion.

67. Silkoif, A Nl'w [Nfl! Jor /1lMks. 68-73;J ohll B. Kir,,>·. WIIC/c Ammcillu ill lite R.IJOVI~II 1;..,.,.; UbnoliHII IUIII Hnu ( K>, ul<ville. Tenn .. ]980), 22; Paul ;\Iorello. "Racial Proportionalisrn and the Oligins of Employmeru Discrimination PoliC)', 193:1-1%0: Jounw/ oJ f>oI.iry Halo .. } 8 ( 1996): 421).28: 1·!3,,·an l Sitkol1: "The Impacl of th .. N.-.... 0<';.1 n il Black Sotllh.:rncrs,~ in Cobb and Namor,llo. <!I"ts., '/~ Nf:W IJfflI (md Ihe S4ulh. t26; N~"cy J. W.,i$S. Far~lL'nllO Ih,. Parly oJ f.jllcolll ; IJllIck PoIil ir..s iu lit, AS'! oJHJII ( l' rincICtun . NJ., ]983), 236.

29·1 FLORI])!\ HISTORICAL Q UARn:R1S

ing for the \\IPA. NY!\. and other fedc l":al programs. No o lher Florida city with a simi!:'r populatio n had as h i~h a pen:clI lage."' African Americans in Oa)'lOl1 a Ueach el~joyed :t local ),{ove rt1 1l1c nl lhal bOlh ;ttu-.lCl.ed substamial New O('al mon ies and hired bl:lCks to work o n lew Dea l projcclS.

Fu rth ermol·c. black OaytonOt ns during the 1930s apparelllly fared l:>etlcr in obt ai n ing whilc collar emplo)'IlICllI th an blacks in lIlost othe r mid-sized Florida cities. Black.<> in Ihese cit ies on average held on l)' 7.4 perce nt of the professiona l or skilled jobs in 1940. as compa red to Daytona Beach where II pcrcCIlf of bl;lcks were so e mployed . In onl), IWO nf the mun icipalities. Ke)' West ( 12. 1 perce nl ) and Tallahassee ( 12.6 perce nt ), were blacks more likel), to h;I\'c pro fessional o r skilled jobs.- Of course, employmeTlI prospects fo r blacks remained dismal in comparison 10 whiles. Alithor· it ies releg,llcd African Ameticans to a separate and less lucrative labor market. In contr;ast t.o the 11 percent of Daytona's black workers who WC I'C either skilled or professionals in 1940.4 1.2 per· ce nt of the dty's white workers held the sa me occupational status. Lo\\' wages fo r black males meant that black wome n had to work so their fami lies could make e nds meet. Abom 53 percell! o f black women in Da)ttona Beach worked outside the homc in 19,10, COUl

pared to 25 perce nt of white women. Of those Africa n American wome n employed , full y two-thirds se rved as dOlllcstics. 7t>

YCI . the economic and poli tical gai ns of bl;ack Daytonans, how· e\'c r limited. c:tTTle with a price. Armstrong's African America n supporters. eager fo r the mayor 's patronage, alienated themselves f.-o m the reformers who wan ted to eliminate f!':lud , corrupt ion, and I>oliticai favoritism in thc city's governmenl. From the perspeclive o f these Progressh'es, tile Armstrong machine \\~dS s)"lOn)'1II0us with cormption . T hey accused Annstrong of buying \·otes, squan· dering a nd misappro priating monc),. "' c rro riz! ingl businessme n," and using "the spoils sysle m 10 the Iimit. "11 Blacks' ol'erwhelming

68. S'XIN1l1h Cnu,u oflh, u.s.; 1')10, "opu/llli(m. 101. If. -t:ll~u~".:~t rislin or ~11<' t'opu· 1;I1 ;on. I'<11'1 II : n<l1i d,,· lo"-J" (Washin ll ~ on. D.C .• t'o).l3), I~j. 13 1: Si l i.:ufr. t\ ,v"", 1),11/ f or Il/II('I ... RO.

f~J. l hi" .. I1'-J . 131 . 70. 'Il,e ptighl of bl:l( i.: WOnl"n ;11 I)aywn" o..·" .. h W;b rq)<';u .. d d S<,,,,Ilt'n'! ill nOl~

;{Io1; M.~ ~bxille n . J om:s. - No 1.. .. lIgo:" D .. nied: nl, .. :k Wom .. n in ~l"ril!;, . t9'10--1950: ill Culbll 1'11 and IA'\l1dn'l . .. ds .. " 71, II/fin ", ,t","';a", 1/"'-;/111-,'" of Homill. t41 ·N .

71. IJ.w'lh. " E:, l'iy l)a)11 in D"}'1U11.I H .. ".:h : 4; Rnilt'n lI"n~cr. illl ...... ·;.. ..... · wilh ;1111h<1l'. t5J1I1\· I9<J7. n.I)"IOII:' Be~cli . ~'a.

POLITICS OF RAeI-: IN DAYfON,\ UI-:'AOI , 1900-1940 295

SUpp01"l of the Armstrong mach ine an I>, reinfo rced refo rmers' views that the black masses were inherelltly corrupt and easily duped by unscrupulo us politic ians. O ll ie L.a ncaster, a reform leader who briefly se rved as mayor o f Daytona Beach in 1950, expressed the views of man>, whe n he publicly opposed the city-wide election of commissione rs "as long as Negro votes could be oought.""

The biracial allian ce that Armstro ng forged did not perish wi th his death, and machine poli tics con ti nued to domin ate Daytona through the 1940s, J oe Harris, the Cuth bid siste rs, and others co ntinued deliveri ng black vOles 1.0 machine candidates in exchange for patronage and o the r fa vors. But by the e nd o f the decade, a )'ounger, more progressivc grail]> of black Daytonans felt constrained by the limited oppo rtunities afforded them under machine m le. In the wake of World War II , the machinc's insiste nce on rigid segregation and thc exclusion of blacks from public o ffi ce and other positions of leadership no lo nger seemed acce ptable 10 Ihese young ill surgen L~, When o ne o f th em, George Engram, dared to rlln for city commissioner in 1948, he incurred the wr.lth of the machine and was sound ly defeatcd ,13

Howc\'er, whe n reform commissioners finall y defcated DaytOlla Beach 's political mach ine in 1950, blacks had little calise 1.0 rejoice. These "reformers~ did nothin g to relie\'e Ihe city's oppressive racial segregation . Instead, they modified the voter registration procedure, causing a drop of more than 24 percent in black registralion for the municipal electio ns of 1952. Furthe rmo re, the rcformers did not red ress the gerrymandered cil)' commission zo nes (no sin gle zone co ntain ed a black m.yoril),)' making it virtua lly impossibl e for an African American to be elected to office. Under these circumstances most blacks rejected reform candidates, and, when th e machine reg-.I in ed control of the city commission III

1954, 70 perce nt of black reh';stered \'OLt;: rs helped them do it.lI

72 . /JaJl ,m" /lroch J;;v"";"K Nf'lJl$, t2 No"eml>o;: r 1950, 73. Forry >"e3l'$ later, Engram was SIi!! Ilpset about Il ,e clecliun wh ich he I.>clie\'ed

1);1)'I.Ona 's corrllp' po litical machine had slo len rrom h im: Leonard Lcmpt:l , "George W, t:ngr;un: I);lywna neach's Blac!:. l'olil icall'ioll"",r: /fil/ifax lIt:rald 16 (Dt:ccm\)er 1998): 12 . Engl~LUl ran "g'.lill ull successfull y for ci ty corn nLissin ll('r in 1960. J im'Ll)" ·l llser, Da)'IOII;L Beac h 's first hlac !:. co m missio Ller, ""IS ciected in 1965.

N./JaJ/on" &nch Mom ;"KJoIJI·"al, 20 May, 2 1 May. 7 NO"ember 1952, I Ilc<::~'mbcr 195-1.

296 FLORIDA HISTORICAL QUARTERLY

During Ih t: Armst ro ng rears, black Da)'lon:llls achieved a measure of political and economic c mpowellnelll fou nd in few sout hern communities, and held hopes o f more benefits to cOllle in the fUllIre , One long-term black communit), leader and veter.m of Da),tOlla 's civil rights struggle suggested as much: ~When the black revo lution ill the South starled during the laic I 950s, blacks in Daytona Ikach thought the), were ahe;!d of the g<1Il1e. (and belie"ed] that o ur light would nOI be as difficuh. "7) Bill the machine had no desire to share power cqually \\'ith blacks 1101' was it commilted to an )' fonn o f mcial equality. As a consequence, black Day tonails' long affi liatiOIl with machine fXl lilici:lIIs provided li tt le mOlllelllll1ll toward cOlllinllcd g<lins during the Civil Rights er.l. As in most o ther southe rn commlill ities, the stn'ggle fo r black civil rights during th e 1950s and 1960s mel stubborn resistance in Daytona Beach. NOI until aftcr the passOIge o f Ihe 1964 Civil Rights Act could Afri can Americans stay in the f.'lIlled resort ho tels li ning the "World's Most Famotls Beach~ and ste p unmo lested Onto its hardpacked sa nds.

75. F .. ir ill1CI· ... i .. ·w.

Colorless Primaries: Tampa's White Municipal Party

by Pam Iorio

The oppression o f sOlilh ern blacks in the late nine teenth and carly twen tie th century came to be known as the age of Jim Crow. Freedoms wnLng fro m lhe batllefields of the Civil War, and expanded during Reconstruction, were stripped away wi th o ppressive measures designed to assert wh ile supremacy. TIle right of suiT rage wa.-; quashed ,,·jlh a vengeance. Black men and some black wome n who had voted during RcconSlnlctio n, and had even held public office, were divested of this right byaCls that ranged from stark intimidation and violence to implementation of excl usive primaries, liler,ICY tests, and po ll taxes. 1

In Flo rida, as througho ut th e South , the Democrmic Party ruled supreme. In 1902, th e state Democratic Party announced tha t its membership was limited to whites o nly: thus, bl ack ,·otc rs were rclcl:,'<ltcd 1.0 the Republican Party, whose impaCl o n Florida politics was inconsequential." African Amc ric;lIls, hO\\'c\'c r, cou ld still wield influence in no n-pa nisan mun ic ipal electio ns th roughout the stat e. In the city of Tampa, on the west coast of Flo rida, civic

I'am Iorio is S" pc ..... isor of E1eC::l ions in Hillsoorough Counl Y. ~la.

I. For background on Ihc J im Crow Svulh and Ihe Reconstruclion period . see C. Vann Woodw,ud. n" Simllg' 0,"" of Jim Cro", (New , (.rk. 1966). For urban bl;,c:: k life bt,tween 11165 10 1890, k><! Ho,,':ml N. R:tbino";U. !u.,u Ifdl,'i",/) il' Ih, Urban Scmlh, 186'·1890 (New York. (978). t'lorida polil ics during R(:comlnlctiou is Ihe focus in Canter Bmwn J r .. OMiUl) nillM lI"rt: Hun/b) s J..oyiliul /(m",· JlrlU"lim' Cmltnwr(ll<uo ll Rouge. La .. (997).

2. Stt. ... ·en F. I .... "'son. IUllcll &11114: l 'IJIing /(ighlJ i ll ,h, Sollih. 1944-1 %9 (New York. 1976) , 24-25; H. D. I'ric::c. Tilt '''TI' (wd Sou'''''"' Politic.. (New York. 1957). 18.

[297]

298 FLORIDA I-iISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

leaders in the carl )' 1900s sought to t!xcl uclc blacks fr0111 voting in the no n-p:utisan cit}' elec tions b)' crc;lIiug a po litical part )' and primary sys te m designed fo r whitt!s on ly. In 1908, th e White Mun icipal Part), \\~IS creawd, and it d omin ated cit)' po li tics for nearly hal l' it celltlll)'. Tllis is the story ofTantpa's Wh ite ~'l lInicipa l Part)' and the legacy or discriminatioll in one south ern cit)'.

t\t th e turn of the twen tie th centlll1', Tampa was a grO\\>i ng elty uf sixtcen thousand \\>ill l ano thcr [\\'c nty tho usa nd residcnts in thc un incorporated part uf Hillsborough County, which included a po rtion of what is prcsent-d ay I~i ne llas Coun t)'. With a brisk pOri trade. r.:lilroad lin es, and a booming dbrar industry that provided j obs for a \'ibr.1111 L..,in co mmunit),. Tampa was poised 10 become a cen ter o f COllllllerce fo r the st.'He. Yel the sparkli ng beau ty of l 111upa Bay and Ihe spiraling gr,mdeur o f railroad magnatc 1·1. B. Plant's Ta mpa Bay Hotel was j uxtaposed against vast ex panses of dreal1' sand fl ats and unpainted rrame strl.lctul'es that passed as lhe bus incss district. Infras tructure \\~"s slow in cOllling LO Tampa, due to arl1i·tax semiment o f politically aClivc properly owners who. in the 18iOs, prc\~di lcd in the temporary aboli tion of the municipal go\'ernme nt r;uher than r isk paying municipal taxes.S

II I 1908, one of the mcn :11 th e center of this Mbubbling melti ng pot of Anglo boosterislll and L'u in hope~ W:'IS Do nald Brenham McKay. gr:andw n of onc ofTam pa 's firs t pio neers. ' McKay's gr..lIldfather was Captain James McKay \\'h o ca me to Tampa in 1846, making his ho me in a log house in thc ce nter of an unplau ed town . C~'lplain McKa), est."l.blished himself as ., succcssful Clllrcprcncur, starling Tampa's firs t sawm ill , opc ning a general store, o pe rating a shipping com,)'IIl ),. and dabbling in the caule business. 1·le was also a pivotal fo rce in Tampa 's po li tical life. becomi ng mayor in 1859. Two of G.'lptain McK..'ly's sons carried o u the polilical tradition by sc"-dng in public o ffi ce. J ames McKay J r. sen 'ed as Mayor from 1902 10 1904. and .J oh n A. McKay. the father of O. B. McKay, sen'cd in the Confederate Army and la ter bec;une a Hillsborough County Commissioner.

3. K:trt 1-1 . Grismcr. A Hil'''')' oflltt! City of lam,.,. tlNI/IM l am/Ill Htry I~" of Ho"dn (S1. l'clcr.;blU"g. ~la .. 19:.0). 2t2-21" ; Curtis W. Welch, 'l ampl/\; f1Jv;11'Ii O/firil" l; A /'I'/lOllllWi' OU"OI'oWgy uj Mll lliI;i/JI,1 f~'lOm /11/11 '/ilmpa:' f".Jull'li Offirinb fro ... 1801910 1886 (Tamp ••. n;.. .. 1997) , t4-15.

.. . Semter Onick :Llld 1-1:'11)' 1 .. Cnllnpa(' l.:er, "flu- 'n,,,,/,a lilb" ,,,; A el"ll'"')" njHom/a jmmwli.!l1I ("I:lI11P;l . ~1:1 .• I ~Ji:I). 3!l.

TAMI'A"S W I-rrn: M UNrcr r'AL PARTI' 299

D. B. McK;I)' dominated T;ullpa pol itics for tile li rst half uf the twent ieth (e11t ll ry. ,\ key o rg-.mi1.er in the fo rma tion of the White Municipal l';lrt y in 1908, he ;.1$0 became the I1I"1O t mayor ek c ted IInder the new primary S)'S tCIIl ill 19 10. ('.QW1~' ()J III, Horida SII.I, ,1 rrlliutS, '/;.llullus:;N.

300 FLORIDA HISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

D. B. 1'kKay \\~J.S pan of pia necr Florida , and his 1900 malTiagc If) Auro ra Gutierrez. daughter o f a cigar ind usu'), leader, Cavino GUlicm.:z, broadened his civic .mel socia l ties to include part o rthe L.ltill cOIIIIIIUnil)" Born in 1868, McKay was a young boy during l 1u ll pa 's Rcconstl'llClio n period, b ill his family's invol\"t:mCIIl in the c\'cr-changing politics of this new town IUust ha\'!! shaped his worldvicw. I-I e "'<L'I ind ust rious, hard-working, and imbued with leadership qualiTies that would serve him well throughout his life. r-.kKay I,'e ll! to work at age fourteen al the '/(lmp(l Tri/J1IIU, laking on the lowest of jobs. Eventua lly he would own th e "lamp" Dail)' Times.)

Reconstruc tion had l>et: 1l a pain fu l lime fo r the pio neer while ramilies of Tampa whose 1 0)~I1ty to lhe DemocnHic Pan y placed the m S<lu'II'ely on the OlliS \\'ith Re publican office holders o f lhe time, During Reconstruction , two blacks sen 'ed O il the Tampa City Cou llc i\. The firsl I\';\.S C ha rles Cyrus elecled in 1869 , a nd the sec· ond was 1-lcnl1' Brumick elec ted in 1876, the last year o r ReconstrllClion ill Florida. Five blacks he ld onice as CoUllt)' Commissioners in Hillsboro ug h Cou nty from 1868 \0 1 873.~

Tampa hisLOrian Karl Grismer opincd in 1950 Ihat Tampa . in the post-Ci\;1 Wa r era \\';"tS kafTIictcd ~ wi!.h M .... "mdering. r.unpaging Negroes," whose very behavio r and presence so offcnded the white po plila tion thaI a city government was ronned in 1866 lo aid in law enrorce men l effo rts. Because Ihe wlli le popu lation outllumbered tile black by it margin o r fin: 10 o ne , GI';smer recotlls that the wh ile residents did no t have to MsuO'e rM too milch d uring the days of !\milar), RcconSln u:tio n thal !;\.Sled from 1867 to 1876. MTwo com pa· nics o r Negro soldiers were sta(joned for a sho rt lime il\ Fo rt Brooke,~ C l'ismcr wri lCS. Mbut whcn they became overbearing and

.'). Lt:I,ultl H:, .. ·~'S. -n,p!. ~lcKay: 1;,mpa ·,.lb,,,,, 19 Nvwlllbu 1983. Md':l r r.r~l

~ l .. rl cd "I Ihe '/JIII'I'" Tribrmt . ... h ich lalcr Cl)llwl idated .. i lh the 1illH/J',Jmmlll/to fun n II ... Tmttpn Omly TiIflO. a '1(I I;II<:r Ihe "ampa n""", E:rn<."Sl L Rubins"". " u lOry of "' llWorougll eo."'fJ Hunrln Nrr,mlilJO/' /""/ Bio".mpllual (s:.im AUb'lISlint: , na., I9'!8).l29-3310

~;. ( ~"'Ir: r II ro.,·1\ .I .... 1-"/uri,I"i; IJ/wir I'ublir O!firiall. 1867-1924 (TuM::\lt>os;t. AI ... , 1998), 162. ~1",;"" "~l~ Ihe Ihird SUUlhcrn Stou t: tojoin Iht: CcmfC(h:rAq. Aller Iht: end IIf Ihe (;i\'il War. th .. ~tll t' ..... AS ceonomiC"oItI)· dt.-\-,mated, \Oo';lh an empty tr<:'oI~U I")' and a bill d" .. to the fc:d,'r~ 1 gO\~rnmt:nt for (1\',,1' $i7.000. Under tht: fcderal Mil;t;"." R,'r(UlSln'c lioli ACI, p: .. ,,-"C, I in 1867, Florida 's R,'ron~' n 'clilln

"~15 u,'CIlie'l' '' hy fe(k r.llll"OopS Ih"l included black soldiefl\. ~liti[;.u")· Rce<Jnstn,elinn o:mkd in ISit;, and a year 1.l\er. lklllocr.lIs g-oIin~"(1 e<Jnnol of the milO: goYemmelll ; O;"id R. r .... lburn .. nd ] .... nce ddl;l\~n..sll1i lh , Coar..-n,ovnl ill 1M S"'!Jlw" Slall: Ho",u, Si"" Slol,I"",,1 (c..i",;:~,ill<:, Fb. .. 199')), 7-12.

T AMPA'S WI-liTE M UNIC1I'AL PARW 30 1

while citizens complaincd, they were quickly \\1lhdrawn and replaced by white lroops.~'

Evcn after Reco nsu·uction . c ity election resul ts could be un predictable. In 1887. the year that Tampa's mode rn city chaneI' was e llact cd , a black was elected to the Ci ty Council. Backed by the KnighlS of L<lbor, black carpenter alld merchant Joseph A. Walke r became the fi rs t black Oil Tampa 's cOllnc il since Reconstructior l.· T he Kn ighlS of L<\bor developed into a potent political force fo r blacks in 1886 and 1887, helpi ng 1.0 elect African Americans to city co un cils througholl t the st'He and to the state legislature. But their sllccess at the polls crealCd oppositio n among whites, both Repul>lican and Democratic. Wh ite Republicans formed excl llsionary -Uly While- clubs across the slate, includin g one in Tampa in 1888. Democ ralS, who controlled state politics, ado pted legisl,u.ivc measures to suppress the blad. \·Ol.e, In 1889, the Florida legislature ellacted a poll tax.9

The isslle o f race is esse ntial 10 IInderstanding the poli tical world of D. B. McKay in 1908. Tampa was a sou thern city; in 1905, Jim Crow came to town with segregated streetcars.'n In 1905, the voting age popu lation o f blacks for the city of '\1lmpa W,IS 3, 122, compared 10 a white voting age population of I I, 76 1. 11 \-"hit.e leaders such as McK;:.y, saw the black vote as unpredictable, corruptiblc, and unstable. In 1902, the Florida Democralic Party dilllimucd t.he blac k votc from mOSI c\ections by limiting ilS mcmbership to wh it.es.' ~ Whil e blacks could slil1 VO l C in the gene ral election . FloI'· ida was cssem ial1y a one-party stale, and victOl1' in Ihe Oemocnll.ic Pany was tantamount to electio n.

Historian Leon Litwic k desClibcs in vivid and Slark terms th e Jim Crow South between 1890 and 1915. I-Ie wro tc of Ih e em of

7. Grismer, A lIiJlo'} oJII" City f'/ '/i,ml"', 1!.-\-55. FOri Brooke \\1lS lmllex"d ;1110 rhe cily of l 1nnpa in 190". bur during Re<:o"~In"; lio". il " , IS a sonal1lO""n a<ljaccl11 to the Ci ty ofT:llllP:,.

8. ('.arue r BrO"'11J r., - I' .. dude 10 Ih., Po t! Tax: B1:tcl:. Repubti c-;'Ils and Ihe Knight, of 1.; lbor in 188<h ~'orida.- in 1-10"·11,,:' Hm/fl/,''' f'/ I)i.omily F.»a)'~ ill 1I,)(IDr oJSa1/f' I" l l'Iur/01; cd . Mark I. Gree n berg. \\~ lI iam Warren Rogers. "nd Ca m.,r Ik own Jr. (Ti,lIaha.'iSC". ~la .. 1997).78.

9. Brown . 81<1r/t/'l,blic 0Jfici"I". 60--63. 10. Tony Pizzo. "Cleanings of Blac k Life in T;ul1l'a 15 13-1!.l93.- S,,,,/,,nd Tri/m",., HI

Novemt>cr 1993. II . Third em",s OJ I"" Sla" f'/ Hrnida T(J/t~" ifl /I" )',ar f90j (Tallah;t~scc. Fla .. 19(6) .

67. 12_ Prict:, lI'f'gW aml /'ali/if,!. 18. &:e al ,;o W. T. Cuh . Hi51ol"J oJ /M lk.norralir 1'",.,), ill

HOOda (Tallahassee. Fl~ _. 1936).

302 FLORI!)!\ H ISTORICAL Q UARTER L\'

white ~upremacy whe n wh ites sought to elevate th ei r own s t;l\lI~ h}' diminishing the status of blacks. MAs an infcriur,M Litwick observes. Mthe Negro \\~IS expect.ed to ket'p LO his prescribed place in soulhern society.M The idpa orblac~ voting putlhelll 011 an cfpml foot ing with wllites, an intolerable ide;, to white southt'rn sodety. Thill'. access to the po ll ing place bCGlllle th e h"uleground fo r the ha\1ibl.'St blows to black freedom. Whi te po li ticians lIuderstood til:1I if )'flU MSIIlIt the door of poli tical cquality ... YOII dOS(' the door o f social c{llia lit y.M Th e methods used 10 disc l1fr.lllchise blacks were \~ Iried across the SOll th ; they ilH.:Illded lit eracy tests, po ll taxes, whi tconly primaries and outrighl "iolence. Regardless of the met hod . the o ut.come was dear: MtO in\'est permancntly the 1>O\\'e rs of go\'erlllne ll t in the hands of the people \\'ho ouglu 1,0 have the m-thc \\'hi te people.M I'

-nunpa 's power structure ref lected the whi te sout hern pal~l

d igm o f civic leadersh ip. Ma rehlli \'e handful o f economically powerful white peopleM who mai ntained conlrol Mby excl uding from the po litical process a ll except o th e rli sim ilar to themseh·es. ~H The cxc1usio n of blacks from the DClIlocr."ic Pan), allowcd whi te DemoCI,ltS Co field ( andida tes and conduct e lections wi thOut conccrtl of the black \,ote, ~hmicipa l elec tions, however, \\'c rc another mane r, 101" Ilwy WCrt~ conduned o n a non-partisan basis, ami blacks could still participate. Till; solution 10 Ihis problem \\~IS premised o n ~ re

fo rm ,M ch e idea Iha t tlw black was a ~controlled \,ot c" that taimcd th c dty's e lections. This a rgulIlt;llt was 1101 unique 10 Tampa because Ih roughout the South somc whites j ustified \'oting restriclio ns as a way to purify the \'oting sys tem. B y taking the MNegroM

0 111

o r po li tics. the re \\'e re fewe r eligible m le rs and one less Mspecial interes(' g l'Oup that could be induced to \'Oling lor one side o r anothe r." In 1912, j. J. Lunsford , a po litically active Tampa ('; Ii 7.l' n, i"t.:ca llcd th t' eOo rl'i 10 establish a Ivhitl.'-Only primal)' ill Florida , including the cit}' o r Tampa, by cOIUlIrin ).; up the image o f a co ntrolled black lu te. -When electioll cam e arollnd I saw my ca ndida te roll np a miuority . .. of the wh ite elemCIll, but I S;I\\' Ihe gamblers and Ihe ('orpOl<lIiOIlS who were trying to cn llt rollhe tOlvn fo r th e ir

13. U 'HII E !.ill,·j .. l . 'l'roubk ' " M IIIII: fJb!dl SOIl/",",n~ 111 I'" "I. ... of J im Crow ( N~ .... · Yurk. t !J'J~) , 11 8-214.

1<I.J"lm E.,wnun. S/Nr,/t '\"u", "1.""'''' /I" I)"r .,.", ron/n fl /lUll lJ,jfllr /~, GII'II l1'gh/, MIir,..",,,,,,,, 1/" Sou{/, ( Ch~p'" t-lill . N .( ~ . 1!1']·I). :! 17.

I" . Li~",~.( I;. . 1'o1)ub/, i ll ,1" ",/, 2'.!.7.

TAMPA'S WI-lITE MUNICIPI\L PARTY 303

own ends, roll up th ei r big majo rity arnong the purchasable negro vote and all our \\'ork \\'CIII for na\lghl. ~ In fact, LUllsford recalled th:1l in 1908, -whil e men could no t ge l into city hall 10 vOle 0 11 dectio n day because o f the ho rdes of negroes who were being rUII in there b}' that clclllel\l o f the wh iles which was willing 10 debauch Ihe negro.~"

Fearing fu ture elections controlled b}' thc -purchasable neb"'O vo te," a group of IIwn led by O. B. McKa}' met and organized th e White Municipal Part}' on August 13, 1908. The goal of the Pan)' as reported in the ncwspaper W'dS to -prt. ... 'ent the future oper;uion of the cgro vote as a b.'dance of power in 1lI11nicipai elcctions. TIle organization then adj o ul"ned until the approach of the next municipal campaib'll when it proposed to bring about a whi te primal)' for the selection of munici pal ofli cel'S,~il From that beginning, a primar), S),SI,CIIl for Tampa city elections was dcsign cd with the Whi le ro."unidpal Party as lhe o llly p<lrticip."lling party, Uy December 1909, Chairman McKay pn..-s ided m'cr a -well allcnd(!d " mccting of the Party, McK.."lY had put 10 ,'CSt allegations that the party had been crcated si mpl}' to further the candidacies o f certain individuals. He and Party Secretary A. C. I·hlrllcc produced :l resolution Ihat made the group's inTent very clear: MSCClliin unity and cQ-Qpel~t ion of tile while voters or the City Or 'I11111pa by rlleans of a prima ry electio n whcn ..... hy the influencc of the colored \'o te shall be e ntirely eliminated ."I.

T he newly formed White Mun ici pal Party had no difficult}, inserting itself into lh t'! formal apparatus of cit)' go\·c l"llmcllt. Though the primal),S)'Slem was new to Tampa city polilics. records fro m dry coullcil meetings o ftha! em do not indica te a singlc instance of debate amo ng its members abo ut this lIew concept. Ralher, the firs t mention of the existence of the pan}' occurred o n March 8. 19\0 when the City Counci l approved an o rdinance -requiring the Cit}' Clerk to open the registrAt io n books in his office in the Cil), of

16. 'Il'mllfl/Ji,ily "II ...... , ~ Ap,i l 1912. 17. "' i""IJa Mun,,,,/;: 'In/"'"1', 1 J anu1Iry 19O'J. 1\1101111:1' key pl,'yer in Ihe ti,rrn;ui(J1l or

Ihe p;,n), w;u I-Ian ), (II. I'.) ~>., . ,",'ho d ;,irn<:d Ihal Ih l' idl';' ror 111<, p,tn)' emerged from 11 dinner meeting " I Gard"'$ 1'L'Slaur.IIl! . a w.:l l·kllnwu Sp;Ulish I'.uery Joc-.o.h:d in \ 001' Cil)~ 'fa",fN' Doily TiJ/lll!:S. 27 March 191 \t. See ;.I ..... j," Ilt'S W. ("'()\; 'lglon alltl OdWlie L._'t! Wan:ring. 'I'M ," ItJIm ofTrlf"pto; A lin" AO/"'illiJlml ..... 1';i1qry (ramp". ~'a .. 1986). 5 1. Olher e;,rir o"pni1.en of Ih<, l);trl}, IIldm\ed I'. G. Wall. A C. ~brlle(.' . and W. H. M. Boehning: C,ty CMmciJ " rl,/um 11004. '~'l'!7. Arch i\'O and Keconl St-n-icc, Tamp ... ~'a .

1 S. 'f/I"'P" M""" ,"g' 7nbl ... '. 3 J)cc(.' llIbcr I!)()<J.

304 fLORIOA HISroRICA L Q UARTEIUX

Tampa li fu;en days prior to any white Illunicipal primal")' e lection held in sa id cit)' fo r th e pUll>OSC of registering \'otc)'s.-~ From this point forwa rd, the busincss o f the Tampa city cOLlllc il and the Whit e ~'I ul licipa l Pany became a Ile, Tile Ilarty \,'o uld routinely subm;110 lilt' cOllndl tIle list nfpeople qualified to rUIl roroffice in lhe pri mal)' ekction ; the city coullcil \\'ould a llow the pa rty to utilize the city's rt'gisu~lIion hooks, ]>olIing places, and an)' othe r equipment needed to co nd uCi th e election_

The election of 191 0 was the li rsl lest of the new party apparntLlS. Th en' were th ree men running lor mayor in Ihe prim;u)'-W. H. Frecke r, j. N. I-Io hnes, and D. B. McKay. VOIC!), regislI-ation was brisk lo r this fi rs t election , wilh fi ve lliousand \·,'hite "Otel'S regisI.ered. RegislnUl LS nOI o nly had 10 regislcr to \,ole with city clerk W. A. Jo hnson but also had to fill 0111 a pledge card intiicilling a desire to j o ill Ih c Whilc ~'I unidpal Pany.w The '/illtlIHl Mon/illg Tribu llc cdito ria lizcd thaI the ncw primal")' system reprcse nt ed a rcrreshing change: -For the fi rs t time in the histol)' ofT:unpa, candidates fo r office ha\'c nOl roulld it lIeccsS:lI)' 10 go dowlI into the dives of Ih~ 'Sc rub' 1,0 hobnob with the reslivc colored brothe r o n his own ground. to ' fi ght the devil with firc' hy resorting 1,0 mone)', lIsed ill Ih e 1I10S1 shameful way, as a means of sec llli llg th e hulk o r the negro '·0It'.~ T his election would be -an ho nest. li·ee :md rull expression of Ihe whi le elector-He of Ihe city and . as slIch . it wi ll COllie nearer !'(.'prcscllt.ing th t: actual desires u rlhe peoph:: orTampa than :lll)' Illu nicipal election evcr hcld h c re.~11

With sixty-eight ca ndidates running for various offices ill cil)' go,·el'lllll c lll , and with a li\'e1)' three man race ror mayor. the election gener-atcd boisterous rallies up unti l tlt t:' Apri l :> electio n day_ The execut ive commi uec of the While Munici pal Pan >' was clearl)' in contl'u l o r electiu n pl'oced ures and o rganizatio n. spelli ng OUI VOleI' I'cgistr,llion req uirements to lhe puhlic and wa rning that fraudule nt voti ng would be dealt with swiftl y by law e nrorcemelll ollicials. Secret:\!), Harllee o r Ihe While Municipal Part)' warned IIml the group had ~a line'" o n twenty-rour men from ,,,'cst Tampa who regi ~ te red to \'o te, but would be alTcsted irll/ ey tried to vOle ill

19. (jty r..,"'''rlJ M ",uu> ,,,,.,. ( t'J tU). Ou\inanco' • .'> 11 . :15(,. I\rd.i ... ~ ;",11 Rccord.\ Seni .... :, T.l1l1pa. Fla,

20. "fi,m/HI Mf!m;",; '(nb""" 'I April . 5 1\1,,;1 1!110, 2 1. Ibid ., !i ,\pdt 1910. -&I'ul)" "~l~ a ICI'm 1I'ioC,d for a" 'i rc,. uf T;'l1Ip" wht!n: tilt'

11I;' joril r .-.1 the bl .. d; !>"lml;lIinn lin:-f l.

Ti\MI'i\'S W I'IITE M UNICII'i\L Pi\RTY 305

, .. ,

•

Thc d rca ry li l'ing conditions ofthc ·Scrub.";m arc;, ofla lllpa where the Ill ;tiority 01 the black I)()pulal ion lived, wen: L'\"idertl in this 1927 phologmph . '1"11, /((l11f"r l(,porl, ''''"' /XI /Jay 1I;"lor)" 0 ",1'1; "III/nIH', Nn.

the primary electio n. When the results wcn: coun ted laic on electio n night. McKay and Frccker found themselves in a run-olT to be conducted on April 26, 1910,:1"1

Vlith lhe race whitlled down 1.0 IwO men , the elec tion beca me bille r with the "lill1I/Ja Momillg " i"iblllle calling it "one of the hardest fought municipal campaigns ever known in Tampa." On Electioll Oa)" O. B. ~-IcKa)' edged past Frecker by a margin of 136 votes out o f 3,592 C;L'iI.'"

The eleClion W'.-IS not only a political victory fo r McKay, but also for the Wh ite r-.·hmicipal Pany and the primal)' system. Th e first e lection unde r th is new system \\~\s deemed a success by the neil's" papers and the officials of the pany. The 'lillII/)(/ Momillg Tribune, while ple;L~d with the exclusion of African Ame ricans from the electio n, still frcued abo ut the problem of the "ignorant and pur" chasable while vote, M T hough lhe gene ral election fo r the city was s<:hedu1cd for junc, and blacks could vOle in that election. it was generally accepted thai the likelih ood of someone rurllling and

tt. lhid .. 5 Aplil. 7 April 1910. 23. Ibid .. 25 April. 27 Ap,i l 1910.

306 FLQRIOA HISTOIUCAI. Q UARTERLY

\\'i nning as an independent was remo te. rany Sccn:' iu1' 1-1;II'I1 £;(: called t he election "I' "unquali fi ed S IlCCCSS~ and predicted 11 1011 .11 1)" one who au emplcd 10 run as an indcpc ndelll "would mCCI wil h Ihe dis.1.ppro balion of the 1ll;~Oril)' of the citize ns. M Harlle(: was optim istic of th e fu ture oflhe new primary SYSWIll . "As lon g as the prcsc m S}'SICIll of cil)' gove rnment con tin ues," Harllcc remarked . ~th e

\\'h itc prim'H) ' will be a permanent thing' in Thlllp:!." In Ih is festive spirit of \-ic IOI) '. th e Execllli\'c Commi ttee of tile Whil e Municipal Pan y hosled a pusl-elcclion din ne r in Ybor Cit)' to III rn o\'er the rei ns o f the pany 10 th e newl), elected committee. Part)' Chairman PCIT)' C . Wall p rovided a -SlIllIplliom b;mquc t- and a pal on the back to th e in itia l ol'ganizcrs of th e pari), wholll had ~slaned some:.'" th ing, which will be a permanent fac tor in Tampa's history as an age nc), \\'o rking for public good and i>cltellnel1l in the city's go\" ernmenta l aITai rs . ~lt

O. Il MCK.ilY·S influe nce on Tampa Cit)' po litics spa nn ed milch of the first half of the twentieth ce nHlI, ', He served as mayor until 1920. In 1928, he again became maror. sen 'ing IIl11il 193 1. FOllr )'ears later, he again ran fo r offi ce. losing his filial bid for mayor agai nst Robert E. Lee Chan ce), in awildl), fra udu lent election th:1I rcqui rrd the presence of the National Cuard to restore o rder. Whe n McK.,,), died in 1960, he was remembe red lo r his numero us accomplishlllrll LS and ho nors. I n nOlle o f the tribu tes o r obituaries for M cKa)' is th e re a mentio n of lhe White Municipal Pan)'.~

[t was nOt IIlItil 19:\ 1 Ihat th e part )' was codified in state 1;1\\'. Spearheaded by State Senator Pat Whitaker fro m Tampa. the Flnr· ida legislature passed a Special Act that c reated an elected Electio n BOi\ I·d fo r Tampa thaI wou ld be responsible for the conduct and Q\'ersight of a ll c ily elections. It also formally established the priIlla l, ' s),stem I.hat the cit)' had heen opcrati ug under since 1910. Perhaps InOSI significantl )" it defi ned poli tical part ies for Tampa. I n order fo r a politicall};,,·t)' to be recognized in Tampa , the pany had t.o ha\'e a c;mdidate lor 1II:lrOr that had received at least 25 percent of the vOle in lhe previo us elec tion . Si nce the White Mun icipal

:N. lhi(l.. 27 Apl·il. ~ AI" il. 3QAI,ril t91O. Th ... 1i,'sl de<:lI:d l'''ftr <'olllllliIlCc mem· bo·N \>·(' r(' J . S.Jt>llo. A. C. lIarllcr . l:: . II . n:ll;el; I. It Milkr. W. T. Kenllellv,J ulm (';rirlaldi ,.J . E Smht)!;, 1-1"0), I\url;,' . W. II. ~l. lJ,udming . J. W. I)o.h", G. E. ~bbry,

S. C. McC.onndt.j. M. Mdk>ll:l td , and It F. W;Ut' fll.

\1:). Ji""I'" '/h bu 'II", 8 ScPlelll bo.· r t 9[,(); "Rcso)lw'"'' 1111 Ih" 1)" :111, ot l)o"ald Bren· halll ~kK;' I' 1 8(~ I !lf.o.~ n.t! .. R,'cunts " I Ih" lI ittsh"I"OIISio CUII"'r m~I<,,;r:,1 (;' "mni".i<ltl. T:""I';' t\:,), I ti~I"rr C .. nlcf. Tampa, Fla.

30i

Ila l'l.y \\~ I S the o n I}' o p,!r;Hing pan}' thaI had fielded candiciat<:s fo r Illayor since 191 D. I his dcfin itio l, established it as I he on ly pol itic::!1 pan)'. The Act we nt e"en further. naming lhe Wh ite ~ I \lnici p:tl

Il:m}' and ilS relat ionship to the elec tion board . The pan )' had a dmy 1.0 nominate cand idates for a ll ci ty elec tive offices, rcmil the quali fying fees in lo the general fuml o f the d t}'. and ce n ify the names of the c<lmliri:lles who would appear o n Ihe ballo!.:!» Wh at had bee n an electi on syslelll born of custom and acq uiesce nce on the part o f c il)' of Tampa o ffi c ials. W:lS now cod ified inln stale law th us ensuring ilS continued \'iability,

With blacks shut 0 111 o f the Democ ratic primaries and the CilY primaries, it seemed unlikely thai any while po litician would be concerned abOli1 the prcsence ofbl:lck VOle rS:1I the pol1s. BUI in a 1934 radio addrcss, $cnato r Pal Whitake r took ai m at 111(' Hillsboro ugh COtHll)' sllpcrvisor of registra tion , J ohn Dekle. ch" rging Ihat ~Ncgroes arc being registered as democmts so th ey may VOle in the approaching June primary," Dekle's response renecL~ the dreary SIlII.C o f eleCloral an'airs for blacks when he said , MU nder Ihc law, such Negroes canll O! vote in 3 while Delllocr.ltic pri lll:t'1' e"e n Ihough thc), regislcr as Democrats. As a mane r of facl. however, th ere are VC I)' few Negroes regislel'c ti in Hillsbo ro ugh COIIIlI ),. YOll ma),. howeve r. rest ;L~~ured th3lLO dal e a Negro rcgisll'::Llion of possibly 100 Ollt o f 33.000 is no greal cauSt: for alarm,":n In 1934 . this Cxcillsional), primary s)'Stem, o n both the SI.3I.e and local lc \'eI . ap!>eared ironclad. T he n ext deGl{lc howe\'er. would bring changc,

For the National Association for the Adv;tncemc nl of Colo red People (NAACP). thc road 10 the abolition o f Ih e whilc primar)' was long. Dllri ng the 1930s, th e stal e of Texas pl'Ovided Ihe legal balllcgro und 1'01' COllrt cascs thai challen ged th e exci llsi\'e primaries. ViCIOI), '\~LS hard to COme b)'. The NAACP argued that since lhc primaries were lantamOUllt 10 election, the), were in faci qWLSigm'c l'llmcmal funct io ns and th us, could n OI be excl usionary, The courts s.'lW ot herwi.~c, Disappointed by defca t in the 1934 CiLSe of

26. SII'rIllI ,\ r /.J Il dll/lln/fry 1/" fJgilf(jllw~ 0/ Honda ( 1 9~ 1). Vol. II, 1'1. II . t 774-1786, Senator 1'-.11 \\l\ it;.ker "~IS considered ;. "1)(,li lic .1 bcm- ofT"lIlp" Irollllhe hu e 19'!0s 10 the .,;.1'1) 19,1& . 'l1,c cen terpiece of the t931 kg;'l:nion \oo~.s thl' c re<ltion of an elt."Ction ho:ml to cond uc i '1'.11111>;' declions. and the 1110\ ... " -.as grue r, .!.I I)' co nsidere,! w he ;U\ :mcmpl 11)' \\', il •• kcr 10 control clt."Clion~ Ihro lll:"h a cormpl 1>0;,,'11; l..e tan,1 tta,,-es. inl.:n;.: ... ";I h aUillOr, 2 NO ... ~ lnher 1m , T""'pa.

~'a. 27. 'If,mlHI "'!m,,"g ·/iil",,,,. 28 Apri l 1 9~4 .

308 FLORIDA H,STORIC .. \L Q UARTI:RLY

N;,,:oll 11. Colllior and the 19:\5 opinion in Orrnlf')' 11. 'IOwlI.lrlul, lh e NAACP rl.--groupcd and shored up th eir financial and legal resources 1'01' yct ano ther cha llenge. In 1940, Thurgood Marshall, a young attorne}' from Baltimo re . became special cmUlscl to the NAACP. Th rust illlo a n:u ;ona1 rnle o f rcal influence. Marshall devised a lega] age nda fo r lhe NAACP. AI th e lOp of his lisl \\~ .... s the eliminatiun o f the whi te primal) '.""

Smith 11. AflWI'jglll hecam e the test case that Marshall \';'IS confident \\'Qtlld reach the Supreme Court and th at ult ima tely reversed Ihe court's thinking in the (;/mHfJ decision . Lonni e Smith was iI

Ho uston dentist who had been denied Ihe liglll to VOle iTllhc Democr.llic prim;1I1' by election judge S. E. Allwright. Marshalrs leg-.d str<lleb')' was carefully conside red and painslilkingly researched. It was wil h SOIlH: a nnoyance , then . Ihal the overworked ~'l arsh a ll re· sponded to correspo ndence he recd\'ed from E. Norman Lacey of Tampa. asking Ihal he look into th e legalil ), of the Whil e Municipal Party.

In Jul)' of 194 1. Ih ree mem bers of Ihe Tampa chapte r o f the NAACP. E. Nnnnan Lacey, Dan H. Mallo),. and Mathew CregoI')' altempted to register 10 vOle as members of the White Municipal Pan )'. The), were rebulTed . Aided by a while Tampa allorne),. E. L. BI)~III . th e Ih ree pelilioned the CirCllil Collrt for ad mission to the party. maimaining that. -No Party elltl restrict ;U\}'onc li'mn rebristerillg and voti ng becolUsc of race, if he is Olherwise qualified."" At· torney Bry.1II wro le to Marshall presenting the facts of the case. BI)'a1l argued thai the conduct o f the primary e le(:fioll w:as clea rly a mll nicipal fllllctio n. I-I e noted Ihalthe cil)' Boa rd of Elections requ ired candidat es to pay a qualifying fee. which \\~IS thell dq)osilcd into Ih e geller-II fund £If Ihe ci l},. riot inlo th e cone rs £If thc Whit.e Municipal Pany. Sin ce the cil}' then paid fo r the cost o f Ihe d ec· lion . the election bccame a municipal functio n, nul a part)' fun c· I.ion. Though defealed in Circuit Court o n this issue, BI)~1Il was confide rlt thai Mthc Supreme Court wi ll agree \\~th IIS.M)t One or the plaintiffs. NUl'man Lace),. a lso wrote to lhe NAACP asking ror ad-

28. I..o\ .... soll . /j/(vl< //(1//1)1., 38. !.>9. -r"",/N' v ... " "'i~ 18J"I), 19·11. 30. E. L Br)'lIl 10 ThurgOOd ,\Ia ~hall. 26 J"lr 21l 19-11 . in 1'"/",, of Ill, .\'AACI~ I'arl

8: Di<nlHl"1tl1lO'I /It II" Cri"li'lIIl jllJII(" .\)../"". 1910-19H. cd. J<lhn II. Ik"'t.,)·. Jr. ami Aug",1 ~kicr (lk:lhcsda. ,\Iii .. 1'J8iI). mirmlilm. reel 7. dnc. 141i.

TAMPA'S WI-liTE r-,'IUN ICII'AL PAin" 309

vice on the case. The MNcgroes he re arc tirt:d , ~ wrOle ulcey, Maud have demanded that we do something about ie"'1

Tampa 's black commun it)' .... 'aS dmllbring. Fr.mkli n Rooseve lt ·s New Deal had brought greater educational oppo rtun ities and be tler hOllsing for blacks. The o pe nin g of the Clara Frye Municipal Negro Hospital in 1940 greatly improved the (Ilia lit)' of hcalth ca re ava ilable to Afl; can Americans." World \Var II a lso bro ught change. Black soldiers sta t.ioned at l\ .... cDili Air Force base in Tampa occasionally dashed with Tampa police, and in 1944 , onc dash became a full -scille I"ioL T he black newspaper at tlte time, the '/'Olll/JlI /Jullelill, l\'O!ulered when MOl mi norit), gro up wou ld be protecled instcad of being subjected 10 te rrorism." At the war's end , Afri can Americans emerged Mwi th a tc mpered rt:soh'c never aga in to acce pl discriminatio n \I'itholll prolcst ."'" Norma n L'lcey, who tried 10 regisler in the White Munici pall'an y was ajan itor, as \'';IS ano tiler actil"e black, 1-1 . H. 1-llI{isorl . L<ICC)"S lack ofa formal educatio n and economic sla tus did nOl del,cr him from aggressil"cly pu rsuing his right 10 vOle.'"

TI\Ilrgood Marshall addressed Lacer's co nce rns .. bollt the inI,c rcst of Ihc natio nal NAACP in a lenglh y leu er in Dccclllbt~ r 1941 . Poillling 0 111 that ~A greal part of this baule for our rights depends upon SIl' H.egy and li ming o f cascs,~ Marshall urged L..'lce)' 1.0 conside r the po ssible impact 10 t.he NAACP's big picture legal slratq,')' ir each of the 410 branches expe nded resources o n indil'idual legal GIS(~ S. He "urgcldlllll o f ou r br.u1chcs to await the outco me of the new Texas primary C:ISC, which we be li eve will be lhe o pe ning wedge 10 bl'cak up the whil e primary throughoul th e sOll th , includingT;Impa , J<lorida."u Tampa·s Wh ile Mun icipal Part)". then . \I'ould not become a natio nal lest case, and blacks in Tampa and dSt..'whe re across the SOll th could on ly wait.

' I. t:. Nnnl1:111 I~~ 10 Mr. \111iu~ . 18 Jul)' 19·11 . in Urndler :mr! Meier. <-"tIs .. Papn) offh, """ ACI! I'a rl 8. rt~ 1 7. doc, 1"1 .

3:.1. Tlw Don Thu11ll)SO l1 Voc.uiull;.1 & 10001 o l"'.:nell in the e;ir ly 1\.I-111s and provided ";or and n il{hl d:.~ fo r bl:od:. 111en. The Nurth Bouk .... 1ml I lousing I'rojec t "11~ comple l,,/I in 19'10: \l.U"'~· I1a Ferrdl Br~dy. ThillK' U" >t",,IJo'If'lI: 1111 AlJ,u l1I 'if Ilfri· WI1 /\"""';'1111) ill Tnm",a (r.Ul11);' . • 1;0 .. I9'J7), 100-1.

33. (;;11} 1\I" " l1 ino . "CI Joe Mt-eu J i", Crow; R:lcial \ rlOknce a nd Ikform ;11 World War II Huri(I:a.M Hondo I1I5/(Jnm/ ~(lr1nty 75 (Ju ly I9'J'I): 234 1.

' '' . I-brult! antI Doris Reddick. i l1lt'I'yi .. w "; Ih :aUd lOl; 30 NOI-e mi.lcr I\.I'J'J. Tampa , ~1 :1"

35. TII1I1);uod M:trshalllo ~:. Norman UlCC)·. t8 DC( l:mbe r I~Ht . in Ilmdlt.T amI ~"'ie r. I;d~ .• I'''/In) oflhl! NA.ACI~ I'url 8. , ,,d i . doc. 20 I.

3 10 FLORID,\ I I ISTOIUC\L Qt'AKn:RI.\ '

The focus o n the MTcxas C:l~C~ proceeded . and in the fa ll of 194', 1\ 1;1I,:\h"lI. acco mpanied by his fonnt'r Howard Un iversity law professor nill Hastic. a rg llc<ilh(' case before lhe UnilccI Slates Suprt:mc Coun .... Victory for the NA/\ CI' and for blacks th roughuut llil' SOlllh callie 0 11 Apri l :\, 1944 . The Sllpreme COllr!. in an eight· \<HJI1l: cli 'l:ision found ,h al the pri ll !:'''), was indeed a CjIl:ls;-gm'crIlme nial function. - ,he rccognil iu 'l of the place of th e primary ill the d ec:IUr<ll scheme makes dear thaI stale delegation 10 a part)' u f pO\\'cr to lix the qualifkatio ns of prim all' elections is ddcg:.lliOiI of a stall' rUll elio ll ,ha l ma), make the party's actiot l lhe action of lilt' stillc .~ ·l P:u'ly primarks nc\'cr were pri\~l\c affairs. bUl in th e J im Crow 5011111 . thC}' passed for Ih al lo r nearly ha lf a centu r),.

Thurgood Marshall had numerous judicial "icto l;es during his carel'r, th e 1I10S1 famous bei ng the 195'1 /3wlIJII 11. /Juan! olEI/llealioll decision tha t beg:1Il the dismantling o f segrcg:lli on in publi c schools. Bllt ncar lilt: end of his life, as he rcilect ed o n his tifc 's work, ~'I a rshall called the SlI1ilh decisio n "the greatest onc" of his COlreel'.'" The impan of the decision o n the Civi l RighLS mo\'eme nt \\'OIsscismogra ph ic. It \\~ IS, in the words of OIle black activisi. a "rom· plele rC\'ollllion in our Ih inking on the right of suffragc . "~ The d ecision heralded "the relll rn of the sotllhcrn Negro 10 po lit ics." and thus the po li ticallandscilp" , was fOl'c\'cr altercd. 1iI For whites. exdu· siolla l) ' primaries were a pe rfec t foil to black participation . Whiles maintained I.hal Ihc)' wert! 1101 den)'ing blacb the right to vOle sinCl' th e), co uld participate in gene"ll e tectjo ll .~, e\'en though 1110SI' gell eral clct;lio lls wen' mean illgless. An appear,II1Ce of indu· sio n could exisl \\Ih<; II , in facio there was no inclusion :11 all. Vio· lellce. or c\'cn int imidation nced nOi have been th(' club that prcI'c llled hlacks frOIll partici pation ; it \\~IS thc ~)'lt(,111 thai pre· vcnw d lheir inclusion . the Spif{' IlI . 01 course. dcsignt!d a nd ll11plc· menl cd h)' whitcs. Ami who could blacks look to in order to change Ihis systcm? III Tampa, tlw}' conld nOl appC<11 10 ci l)' 1{0\·l'I'I1 I11CI1l . bcc:tuS<.' cit)' gOl'cnllI1CI1! \\~ IS the Whil e Municipal Part),. T he),

:'1f>.J""'l Will i;Ull '. 'nllog(J(,,1 ,11",,11,,1/; l\ m~,jrlH' /{nOQ/'I('''''''''J (New Vllrk, I !1.J.'I). 11 t. 37 . .'imi(/, l', MI"~lf.!hl. ( I !)I!I ). 32 1 U.s, f,·I\/. 3l'I . \\~ lIi ;u lls. H'II'(:OQl1 Mar-h,tli. 1 L'.!. 39. 1'.1Idd.l Slllli\"dtl. IJIl)1 r>{ II,,/If'.' II/If, IIIld INm/K'T{/? '" Ih, .\,,.,,, 1Jr/,I/~m (I :lloLlJCI

lI ill. N.G .. L9'J6). WI. 40. j{"h"r1 11""'drtl Ar k"l'lIlOlIl , -Th,' Tri'Llnph or ~ 1 ,,(kr.ui"LI iLl ~"lfI.I.1 Tholl):111

.1I,d I ·"ti l )r~.' A Stud, .. r .h.· R..('t, I""", fr ... n t!l:;oI· t96(l- (I'h.n . n; .... AIlI~' I ' iC'dn

Un;"· .... ;". 19('.7), 2:;.

TMII'A 'S WmTE M UNICII'AL PAR"IY 311

co uld nOl look to I,be slale legislawrc. beca use il was the Democra tic Ilany, Thcy could not look [0 Washinglo n beca use or Ih e hold lhal soul hern Democrats had 0 11 the natio nal D(' l11ocr.llic l)al1),," T heir on ly hope rested \\'illl Ihe co urts, and then' it was a slow and arduous pnxess since Ihe \'iew or the lo\\'c r courlS orten mirrored tha i o r local commun ilies. In the end , a Supre me Court, dominated by Fmnkl in Roosc\'eh's appoi ntees, saw the issue in Ihe light or rai rness and reaso n . Poli tics in the South would ncver be thc same,

T hc Supremc Court may have spoken , but local elec tion officials could be Imrd of heating. III Hil lsborough Count)', Supen 'isor of Registration John Dekle was in no hunl' 10 registc r blacks as Democrats, One 1110 mh arter the coun decisio n, somc blacks attempted to registe r in lhe Democrm ic primary bUI we re denied th at opportunity, "Negroes will not, be allowed to vote as dellloCraL'i ," said Dekle , insisting that Ihc Texas decisio n did IlOt affec t Florida,'! One )·car latcr, De kle was sti ll un moved by COlirt decisions, eve n though a Florida circuil cOll l'ljlldge in Pensacola ruled ravorabl), Ula t 1\\'0 Florida blacks had I he liglu 1,0 rcgistcr .md \'Ole as Democrats, Dekle I\';IS sticking 10 thc St:.IlUS quo, Whcn blacks camc into th e co urt housc to register he lk\id, "' \OVe didn't ask Ihe m abOlltlhcir afli li atiOll, \Vcjust regislc I'cd them as rcpublicans.M,) At Ihe 'fillnl)(l Tn/milt, editor Ed Lambright bclicl'ed that despite thc Smith decision , Ihe primaries would not change, Mit is dOllblful.~ he wro l,e, Mir any Negro ill Hillsborough COUIll}' ;lIld very rC\\' in thc stat.e will so qualify. so Ihe primarii's wi ll comilllLC to be, in raci though not in thCOll" while primaries,~"

When c il)' clectio ns were held in 1945, blacks still could not regisw l" wit.h Ihc White Municipal Part)" Thal year saw ano t.he r significant S(l1ICIIII;11 changc 10 ci ly )(ove rnlllcnt lhal would afTce l AfI'iea n Am erica n I'm ing power for many rears 10 COllie , A change to

Ihe Tampa Cit)' Chan er inJul), 1945 wo uld have th e Board of Rei'» resc lll,lli\'es (Cil)' Council) eleclcd 011 a city-wide basis, not b),

1I,<lr(\s, For the edit ors of the 'film/HI Mornjllg Triblln t', t.his I\; \S a ]>os-

,II , Whiu- CU ' l'\l'n.~ui\"f: w uchern Demncr.IIS C011lruUcd tl1l' I><.ny', ciI'it rights agend:. in Co"l!:r('~~, I lo l<l;n8 ... ,. 1o:adt·nhip p .. ~i cions in CongrcSll. Ih i~ faclion of Ihe Dcmocl~uk I'arl\' poOsed a po l1li("" .. 1 d ill-lIIllla for pn '5idrlllS fr(J II' Roo'!<c: ... : 1t to Jolm.;on .

,12. 'fi,,,,pa Daily T;ItV:l. '.t Mar 1!;IoI4 , .. ~. I hid . , 14Jllile 1!H!i '14 . Orrick ,IUd Cmml><.d:e r. TI,., "flllllpa Trib,,,,, , :!lI:l.

3 12 FLO ItIDA HISTO It[( ;'\L Q UARTEItU'

iti\'e pi~ce o f refo rm lo r il would kemdiGlle pe rn iciolls wa rd po lilics. M

" The Tribune fo uglH hard for Ihe change, perc~i\'ing it 10 be necessary 10 en d Ih e corrupt ward politics of city govermlH.:! III. The change was also designed 10 diminish lhe influe nce of the La tin \'ote. nut the change would also adve rse ly an'ecl another bloc of "m el's. who sti ll had link chance of exe rcising Iheir fnlllchise in a ci t)' prima l)'. O nce Afric.an Americans could \'o le in Cil)' primary elections, the}' wO' II(I no\\' be filced wi lh an ai-large s),slelTl (,fvOling thai could neh,.lIe thl'lr stre ngth as a voting bloc. An)' possibil ity thai black vOle rs mi~h l :tCluall)' elcci a black to the Cit)' Council \I~IS

11ntllinkable, Tho ugh Ih e aClual n umhe r o fhlacks registering 10 \'ote for the

194!) charier declion was small. the "/hbllll£wrOte ~a t timi'S there were 1\I't) o r thrce limes as man)' Negro~s as while persons in line to

regisler al lhe declion bo ard offices." \<! This re po ning ilia)' ha\'e been inte nded 10 alarm whiles to \'Ole for this chart er changc. alld if so, il worked . The rclc re ndum passed h)' a \'Ote of 11 ,588 to 5,9i I . n T he rans, howt:vcr, he lie Ihe nOlion Ihat blacks \\'cre n;gistcring in any grcal !lumbe rs in 194!i. In that )'I;,[r, R41 blacks registered (reprcscl11ing threc p(~ rcent of Ihe tota l numbe r or rcgistered \,Olcrs). The S", ilh decision no twithslilnding, ArriGIIl Amcricans cou ld /10 1 register with the White I'arty and could o nly \'ote in the general election . T here \\'e re lIO con\ cst ccl.-aces on th e ballo t intlu: gc ncr:al eieclion .... Thus. as blacks inchcd closer to participation ill city primary dectiolls, Ihis chan ge in gO\'ernancc dimin ished the possible influe nce Arrica n Americans ~ould wield a t Ih ~ polls. In r;\CI, il was nOI lInti l thirl)'-c ighl years la ter in 19S:1, whc n an African Ame rican . Pcrry Harl'e), J r., 1I'0n a st:a l Ot l Tatllpa's Ci t}' Cou ncil. "

TIll' st,Ul' legislature also lried to circ l1m\'cn tlhc Smith d('cisiol1 whell , during Ihe 194!i ~es.~ ion . Stal e Scnalors .lohn Mathews al1{l

45. "11''''11(> Mon""R' Tnb",u'. 24 AIIJl'''' 19·15. 'I r.. '1i''''1"1 1h/",,,,·. 17 Jill )' 194:'. IUa(\'li could \'1)\" ill ,hb ('['oUter .,[t:cli«l, ,illf~' it

,,~ •. \ ' lIli a pr i",'1 ') ' ct.-ctiun. <17. Election I'c.mh~. :1 1 J ut.· HHFI. lI i1!s l)l ,roll!:h CUUnI)' Supe";",,r ul ~:kct ;'''I\

OfI1c<,. "1:,1111''' ' FI;., "g. R.:xi~lr ... iu lI Stat ist In. s.,pt,·I1Il>c r 19·15, I l il1~buro\lgh eoulll" SIIP.,I'\"SQ" or

F..lt~l ions Offic<,. 111<' \o(inJl"~<' JXlpul:cuioll vI' blad .. ~ ill lIilbh"' ''u!:h U'II n1y ill [()--I f, "'l.' 2"1,9')2; AII'~ II M",·,h. 'flof H"m/" //",,,/booit. 19./iJ./ 9jO (I:,II .• h:l.Sso:c. Fl. ... 19,19).22'1,

'19. EI<.~lion R<,~"hs. 0\1 : .. '(1 . lWi3, J Jillsh .. ruugh C .. "nly SU[I<' I\i'lOr .. r I:'..lcctiun, om ... "

T M II'I\ 's W I liT E M UNICIPAL I'ARW 313

C. Warren Sa uchez int roduced a Wh ite Primary Bill designcd 10 lIIake primaries privatc, party functions. But legislators we rc wat)' of turning thc primary systcm over to pri \~lte hands wit h the possibi lil}' of fr;tlld do minating elections. T hus, the bill never made it out o f the senate (Omm ill ec,'" A poll conduct ed by th e Associated Press fo ulid little suppOrt among Florida i<1I,'makers fo r a while prima l)' in Florida, The /'1onl/fl S,,,/i,,et BIIIll'Iill, Tampa 's African American newspa pcr, applauded this progress, declaring that MLilC sun shines bright er down hel"L'-the re is more enlightellll ,e lll in the hin terland. M~ ,

Flo rida's secreta l)' of stat e, R. A, Cm}'. issued a direCli\'c in late 1945 that. in light of recclII court decisions, blacks sho uld bc al· lowed to register in an}' party and vote in prima!)' electio ns.» The Smilh decision had heen bolstered by lhe FIOtida Slale Supreme Couri in Jul y 1945. In f)(wi:J v. S/tl/P. ex. HI'I. Cromwell. a black man named Cromwcll from Pensacola had been preven ted from regisleling as a Democr.lt. ThcjusLices affinned Cromwell's righllo register in the Democratic Party, leading the FIOIida Auol"lley Gencra l to remark thai, Mlf ou r Florida politics get so low tha llhc Negro can control il. he ought. t.O contro l it."" The 1946 statewide e1ecLions the n would be the fi rsl opportunity sin ce the !UI'Il o f the CCIlIUI)'

for blacks 10 casl their \'o le in the DelllocraLic primal)" For blacks in Tampa, their time came in 1947 . the nexi elections. They had \'~I i ted thirty-seve n )'ears to vole in a Tampa electio n pri mary.

ForlY thousand b lac k.~ lived in Tampa in 1947. Livin g condilions amo ng many blacks, as described by the black-owned ncwspape r the Hun(/II &nli,,,1 iJlI/lrlin, \,'cre de plor;.tblc. Editor Blythe Andrews Sr. laid the blamc squarely o n the exislcnce of thc \ Vhite Mu nicipal Pan}'. which had rcmo\'ed an)' poli l.lcal clout from the black community. MThal thillg l thc Whit c Municipal 11a rt y] is whal keeps O UI' streets un paved. keeps us living" in uns:lniHtry conditions. prevcllts us fro m gelling ad(:-quate playgrounds lind park f:lci lilies. It is plain Ihal the man who helps to ciCCI somcbody is going 10 be taken carc ot: and thc oth er fellow will simply get the crumbs."" In

50. Qlly Mormino, "Hislo'1' 'II Methods or E .... 'Cljon .lIld OiSl'nfr .. nchi sj ll~ lk\in~:

Ullpuhtishl.:d m;oIlUliCripl , '4~ I . ill "lIIhor', 1)I __ ",.ion. 5 1. flmll/" S,II/i"rlll,,/lrlm. 17 Mar I!H7. ~2. Tllm/>Il f)u;? Ti,,,,,,,. 10./:11111:1 '1' I!Ht>. ~j, MUrIni" ". "'Ib lllly of l)i~nr,~", chisi ll.L:.- ~94U.

M . Huriilll SnI/",rl/l"J/rli", 2<1 May I!H7.

3 14 FLORIO .. \ 1-IIS-roRIC.A I. Q UARTERLY

C. UI )"tht: Andre ... s Sr .. sh,," 'n here in 1936 a'l an ofliccr ... i,h 'he black-Q ... n~"tl Cellu~1 Life Insur,l11ct: Comp;III)·. ",.~ 'hI' publ i~ hc r of 'h" f700dll Sno,onrl 11"'",;,,. I\ ndrt·,,~ decried Arrie; ... Ann-dr-Ill li' ing ("flndit ions ~nd ;. IXlli,k-,d ~Y'tClIl that - h 'cps ollr st"CCIS ,,,,p •• n-d. keeps liS li'"in).: in 11l1<;tnimry l:(JIlditions.- Gm ... ,,') oj ,I,. ·/I,uo/",· fl i/!J,w,v,,!!h CoI"'i)' Ubm" .'i)","""

lhe mayoral and city council races of 1947. Africa n Anlclicans \,'ere finally going to help elect somebody.

The fi rst eleclion in 1947, howe"er. was to be an annexation elect io n, slated fo r Augusl, ;1 month before Ihe ScplCmbe r c ill' primary. T he annexation would d r.un al.ica lly incrC;lse Ihe size uf the cit)'of T:l mpa ami required the appro\~ ,1 ofbo lh c it}' and suburban vo te rs in orde r 10 pass.~ The COUIlI)' and Ihe cil)' mailllai lled lie para le vote r rolls, and in o rder for COUllt), resideills to \ 'Ole ill Ihis a nnexat io n electio n thcy had to rcgiste r lI'illt the 0 11 I}' part}' in the cit}' ofTa 111 p:l: thc Wh ite Municipal Part ),.

Yes, blacks could now register ami VOlC in c it)' electio n primaries, but the), h;,d to do so under the allspices of the part}' lhat had den ied thc m participation fo r so lo ng. Under stale law, o n I)' politi-

55. T h" ;ulIl<')(;" i(ln I"Ot" f .. ilL"tl. 'n,ultgh il (:;.rrkd lour 10 Olle in , h" cil)·. it f.tikd in the submbs I» ' a lhr~'<""-Iu-or ... margin; 'ff"rt/N' /)mly Ti1lll'3. 6 /\1I!,~IISt 19-17.

cal partics Ihal polled a t least 2:'1 peret::1H of lhe vote cast fo r mar!)r inl he last regular electio n CQuid part icipate in a c it), primary. Si nce the White Mun icipa l Pan)' was the sole part}' in ex istence fo r the 1943 clenioll,;t \\~IS I h ~! o ll ly par" ), ofchu;ce for 1947. T he '1;lI/r/m Dni{)' Tim6, apparentl), concemed thai COllllt)' reside nts II'ould be unwilling to switch fl'Om a DemOCl~ lI i c affi liat ion to the White Municipal Part)' in o rder 10 l'Ote ill the annexation elec tion, editorialized abm ll th is temporary swit ch in part }' regisU'll1 io n as jlLSt a "for11l,,1 procedure." l\ cknowlcdgi ng that the White Part}' was crea ted M to pn::\'etll Negr()(!S frOIll panicipaling in the princi pal cit)' elect ions, the prim:llies.M it IIrged th e legislat ure 10 amend Slate law to a llow cit}'\'Olers to panici pale as Democrats and Republicans in the fUt.llre . .IfI

Thi rty-six blacks took thc lirsl. historic step of joining the White />" lu n icipal Part }' on .lune 24 and 25, 1947. A black urganization ca lled the 20'" CcntUl1' Club placed posters around Ihe c ilY that stated: "Wan ted!! :!O.OOO Negl'Oes to become registe red 1'00ers ill the city o fllunpa. M

>1 When the registl~ ltio n books closed for the September 2 c1cctio ll . the black commu nit ), had fallen quite short of its goal. O nly 3.865 blacks had registe red to I'ote; another 6 19 blacks registcred , but no t as members o f th e W11ite Mll llicipaJ Part)', thus t.her cOllld on I}' I'ott: in Ille genera l e lcc tiOlI. Wit h a total city registrat.io n sta nding at 32.691, these nearly 5.000 bl ack regismUlts represc ll ted 15 pe rcellt of lhe registe red voters il' Tampa.~

T he ma),oral race in 1947 pi lled incumlx:nt Mayor Curtis 1-IIson aga inst cha llengers Don V. C iun ta ami George '[ -nlylo r. Hixon handily beat his two oppone nts ga l'11eTillg 13,398 I'otes, with " :'l}'lo l' rccc i l'in ~ 7. 125 and Giu nta o il ly 1.830."" It \\~\S estimated that 3.000 black vot.e rs cast ballots ill this electio n . rt!prcsc ll ling a 7R percc nl tl.ll'll Otit of thosc black.~ registered ",ilh l.lte 1I'lIit e party .... The African American press e:.: pressed pleasure over the Hixon victOIl' sa}'Ing t.hat he II":;IS Mthe fa\'o ri tc of legro \'O l el1i.~ The JJullPti1! called th e conduct o f t.he black \'Olers MCUllIlIlendable. M -n ,e goals of the bhlck cOmmtmil}' were limiled to c il'ic irnprol'emell ts. com-

56. tuid .. :NJull" l~ Ii . [.7. 'n,,~pa M""''''g ·'hb,,,,~. 27 June I!H7. 5M. R<'1(im,:u;un SI:II;";I" . 't St.-pl(!nlher 19,17. ll illsbufOugh C.oLLnl) Sup.·n·j....,r nf

f. .... e ljull. Office. 59. t]ct: lion R .... s"I'-~. 't Seplember 19,17. tl illslxnQush CoUnl) Sllpen';\Or or f.lct:

lio,,~ Offio,. GO. ";''''1)(' ';H,ily ·nlH". :\ Scplt:rnbcr 19-17.

3 16 FLORID/' HlsrORll:'\L Q UARTERL\'

mcnted the IJ,,/ll!li ll, but in the fut ure their goals MwiJl increase ove r time as Lhe rea rs move 0 11 . ·egr<H!s lIluSt lei the polilicians know thai we ex pect and must receh'c the s<uue consider.ltio n as ,III )'

other ,·oter."" Il ead lines after tile Se pt enlber 16, 1947, I"Iltl-off election ufl 11e

White MU ll icipal l·arty C;lSI;U1 unl;lvO l'able lighl on the conduct of black vOlers when wChaune urw Williams, a black man, alld Ik ulah ~·tae Recct , a black WOllla ll , \\'cre ;1I"rested and charged II'il h t.'\c(.Iion fraud. Uotil cnnfessed to the fact th at Williams pe rsuaded Reed to VO le in th e lIame of another 1'0Icr .<4 Elec tio n fraud I\';IS so ingr.lined in Tampa deClions that the illegnlilY of one '"OtC would not hal"e made hcadlim.:s in :111 earlier day. Now that blacks I\'ere voting. il was fro nt-page news.

The '!h"'/Jfl V"i/y Ti",,.s expressed the sentime nt that afte r the 1947 cit)' elec tio n, Ihe Whit e Mun icipal Part)' could ·· Ik junked ." It urged th t.: Legislatu re 10 ellact a prilll;u) ' system alo ng democr.u ic and republican lines .~· With roUl" rears belore the nex t dl}' elecLion . there II':.IS ample lime for rel'isio ll to the 19!1 1 aCI. but no action W;IS taken . \Vhell Ihe 1951 eJec tions occurred . th ere W,IS still just o ne polit.ical party in the cit)' o f Tampa-thc Wh ite Mun icipal Pan )'.

Maror I-lixoll 1\o':.IS agai n lip ror re-election as Ihe party hoslcd rour spirited ",\l ies across the dly for dcbates. Se\'cnt)"-onc pe rcent orTlunpa 's \'oters we nl to the polls o n September 4 to gi"e Maror HiXon <I n cas)' l"iCIOI), o\'e r his two o pponc nlS. The black I,;O t11l1l1llI it)' registered Iwice as man)' \'oters ill the White Ilart)' (7.022) as

compared to the 19-17 election .'"' For th is eleclioll , the two lIl~or

newspape rs did not foclls o n Lhe black \,ote, since il was no 10 11~cr

'he 1I01'elt)' tha t il II':.IS in 1947. Whcn did Tampa finall ), ge l rid of the White Mun icipal Pa rty?

A part)' in name o nl)" by the laiC 1940$. it re mained offensil'e to

blacks who registered under ilS b<lIIne r in orde r to \'Ole. Since the part)' \\':.IS rerc rcllced in the 19:-J 1 Sla le act, it took anot her spedal aCI oflhl' lcgislamrc to b t'ing aboll t chanv;e. In 1 9:;~, a billll~IS pro-

61. 1'/"'11/(1 Sni/mrl 8"111'1,,,. (i Seplt'lIIocr 1!).t7. 62 . 'IiI",P" 1)"'9 'r;""" Iii September HI·li. 63. lbill .. WA\I~usl I!Hi. f~t . Regi~ lI1U i"n St:uisl iQ and EleCliun "'~lI I I S .. , & pu:m""" I!/ii l , H ilbl.M, ,,,,,"'gh

e",,,"t )' Sur"' I"\';sor tIt" Elt-ctiulls Otlic<:. J\ lulal '.If ·1:!.f~tO p""pl,' WN<: rt"f.,..;$l t· ... ·d ruO" lh" 1!l51 ,·k..-l io ll : ht;,.'1<;; h' prCSCll lt"{1 Iii p • ."l"c<:1lI 01 all nl lilt" 1 ·~1:islC"r~"{1 \·"h' Il>.

TAMI'A'S WIlITE M UN ICII'AL PARli' 31 7

posed and passed by lhe Hills1~)fough legislat ivc dclcgati oll thai serycd IWO m'Uor pu rposes. Fi rst , it co nsolidated the city and the COlinty \'Ote r rcgisll"ltion rolls into olle so thallhc COUlII )' registralion books would be used for fut u re city e lec tions. Second. it elirnin,ued the ci l}' primary system o f elections, establishing instead a first election and a run-oIT. All refe rences to the \Vhilc Municipal Pan y were repealed .''''

The year Ih al Tampa 's Whit.c Mun ici pal ParlY came !O ,Ill end. Tampa was slill a segregated 10\\'11 . T he nation had yet to wi tness the i\'!ontgolller)' Bus Boycott or thc landm ark coun decision in Bnmm v. Ihe BO(lrd o/Education. Martin Luther King was still worki ng 0 11 his Ph.D. dissertalioll . There was no Voting Righ ts Act. Whcn the White Mu nicipal Part)' fe l\. D. B. McKay was the county historian. writing a column for the Tilllllm Trilnmeca lled MPi once r Flo rida."

But blacks in Tampa could \,ote. T hough Tampa had its histo'1' of lynchings and violence dircc l,ed lowanb hlack.~, th e white power st.ructure of this southern city chose a structural. legalistic barrie r 1.0 th e franchisc fo r Afri can America ns. Touted as Mreform" but born from racial inlolenlnce, a small , powl!rflll gro up of white men formed a part)' and a primary system th at comrolled Tampa elections for the firSI half of lhe twe tllie lh cen I Illy Their comple te contro l of gove rnm ent ensured Ihl! cominucd viabil ity o f a system they design ed . It is notable lhal the existence of the Whi le ~hmicipa l

Part y nevl!r provoked violence or uu rcst among the black com munit y, nor d id its eveillual repcal provoke tllc same among the wllite co mmunity.

Though Tampa·s co lorful hislory contai ns a wealth o f matelial for histOl;;ms 10 chron icle and documen t.. the Sio ry o f th e \Vhite r-.'Iun icipal Pany is not one easil)' rou nd in wrinen accoun ts. E\"clI the c ity's wcll-indexed archives lack any refc re nce to the pany. When city leaders made Tampa 's colorful elec tions "colo rlcssM th e c ity losl part of its richness. Tampa 's cultura l ;m el t-'Icial dive rsit), made it stand apart. from other Florida cities. Th e legac), of the ,"Vhite Municipal Part)' is one of discriminatio n and oflos! o pportu-

6:). SP(,(;IIJ M I.! Ad"fJlrd by th, Nmida I~JJat" Tt. ( \%3). Vol . II . 1'1. II . Chap. ~1:)62 .

3054 .. :'106·1: "/amptJ Daily Tim'.!. 1:\ ~ I ar 1953; "f illll/lt/ Tri/mll'.'! N"'~'mber t9,,:i. 1\ !r.1in. as wilh Ih" o riginal 193 [ aCI. Ih" II101in t!tllphas is " ..... ~ nut 011 .he While Municipa1 l'an)'. In 1!J;Il . ,h" "J:tin , hru.~t ()fllll! hill ,,~tS th" crealioll of,lIl declioll I)<~trd; in 195:l. Ihe d t!)'irt, fo r OtiC 11nllicd \"Oler r .. gisu-~tion s),s tem 1)1'<>"id"d the im l)<: .ll~ for <hHnKe.

318 FLORID,\ H ISTORICAL QUARTt:RLY

nil}'. A young and growing cit}' that was reaching out to people from olher pims of the world could nOt find room at th e polling booth for its black fellow citi zens. For all or its uniqueness. l~llnpa

was. racially spea king. just o ne more southern city seeking to relegate blacks to second-class cit izenship.

Whitening Miami: Race, Housing, and Government Policy in Twentieth-Century Dade County

b)' Raymond A. Mohl

Throughout the twentieth century, gove rnm ent agencies played a powe rful role in cn :atin g and sustaining rac ially sepa rate a nd segregated housing in Dade County, Florida. T his palt.e rn of hOLising scgrcg;llion ini tially was imposed ca rly thro ugh ollicial policies of "racial zoning," During the New Deal era of lhe 1930s, federal hOllsing policies WCfe implcmclllcd at the local Ic\"c! to rnainmin " leia]ly segregated ho using and neighborhoods. Such policies incl uded the appraisal system established by the fcdcml [-lome Owncrs Loan Corpo rat io n, which helped [.0 create Ihe dis. criminalOl)' lending system known as "redlining . ~ In addition, UIl

del' the New Deal's federa lly spo nsored public housing program, locill hOllsing au tho rities establishcd scgreg<llcd public housi ng proj cclS. In the post-World Wa r II ycars, old ilgcndas for racial segregation continued to be ca rried o Ulunder still newer government programs. includin g the minority hOllsing progr'a ms of the Housin g and Home Financc Age ncy, the urban redevclopmclll and urban re nt:\\~ 11 programs of the fedcral hOlLsin g ,u.:t..~ o f 1949 and 1954. and th c vasl in tc rslate highway program. Local d ecision-making and implemenL'uion o f all thcse progmms perpetuatcd lhe racial scgreb',uio n of Dade Counly neighborhood s and public ho using proj ects,

Th(~ consequences of stich gO\'ernme nl decision-making can be seen in the racial landscapes of Dade Count}' at the e nd of Ihe

Ra)"lrloml A. Mohl is I'ruf.:ssor and (i)'l ir (If the dCI'"rUllcll1 of hi ~tory:<I the Ulli'"CI' .<j l), of Ala\};ulIa at llirmillgh:un .

[3 19J

320 FLORIDA I-IISTQIU('A L. Q UARTERLY

twe lltie th CClltll r)'. Pa tterns ofholL~i ng scgrcgatio n- I>Olh in publ ic hOlLsin g p rojects an d in neigh borhoods gcne ra lly-stem from the implementatio n of Ihese nlCially rn Oli\~l\cd govern ment policies over many decades. Docu mentary evidence dr,lwn fro m government records an d archi \"cs rcn:als a plll-poscful officia l elTo n to impose nlCial bounda ries and to segregate African Americans resideTltially. Th is cn"on began 'lu ile carll' in Dade County's history. In the early decad es of the twentieth centu ry, the Cil)' or~" iam i imposed a Meolo r linc,H limi ting hlacks reside ntia lly 1.0 a confined section o f the city. When blacks tried to move across the racial line into \\'hite areas--as they d id in 191 1, 19 15, and 1920-white violence erupt ed in an efTort . <IS the Miami whi te press noted a t tbe tim e. -to force the negroes back across the 'color li ne:- '

By the 1 9~Os. O"de Cm ltlt)' g:0\'e n l1l1e nl. had ;l'iMl1lled respo nsibility for planning: and zon ing th rougho ut the COU1H}'. keeping existi ng policies of "racial zoning~ in efTect. Ovcr ma lly decades. a seri es of racially 1II0ti' "oIWd public policy decisions on racial zoni ng. retilin ill g, public housing. urban renewa!. p rimte hOllsing de"e!op' mcnts fo r African Ame ricans. and int e rs tate expressway bu ilding efTec lttally imposed residential segregation o n thc physical landstape of O"de COtllll)'. In the carly 19:.JOs. mOst of Dade County's black pop ulation ofabou l thi rt}' tho usand \\~ IS crowded in to a fiftyblock area-known at the limc as "Colored Town" and loday C:llled -OvcrtO\\'n"-just northwest of the Miam i busincss distri ct. Racial lon ing kepI blacks co n fi m:d residc nlially to O"e n owll and a few ot her small bUI segregated a reas of Dade Count}'. However. the loca l wh ile civic e lite w;uHed to expand the bOllnt!al;CS of i\'liami 's rela tively small ce ntral busin ess district. Ovcrtown b y in thc pat h o f sllch expa nsion ,md thus became expendable in the thi nking 01'10-cal poli tical a nd business leaders. A \' Irie l}, of plans and policies

I. C,," ~itler:lblc discussion oj lhe M ia",i "<:(.11)1' Iin~'" GUI be Immel in tho: ci ty'S Ilew'palx·rs. s.,c. fo r cx.ample. Ihe Mmm , lI.-mM. 21 Ma,'. 1.2.3 J uly 1910; Mmmi '\/' ''/JfJ(J/u. 30.1"11<'. I. 2. 8.1"ly HIW. For '~ld3 1 ,io lcncf' ill c"rl)' M i,,,"i Mc'llImi,,)!: rrom hlacks c"""i " g Ih,· "cl)l<>,. lill'-' ." se .... 1';,,11 Ct·or!:,·. -'CoI"red To,,'"'' Miami's lIlad, Comm\lnil}'. IH\J6--19:lf1.- Horidfl ffi .. /orim/ Q,mrlt'r/y ::'0 (April 1978) : ~32A7. "'p . ... ·11 -'12; lmd ielelll . " 1'.)l ici ll ): .\ l i;lIlIi \ BI :1Ck O >llIl1'lIlIil ),. 1 K9()· 193Q,- /'10,;,/" lIiMQlirul Qllmlt:rly 57 (April l!li9J: ~~4-5(). ,·sp. 43R-<IO. 443. Miami's carly :,,;Iilll '$ " 'cn: nOI lIuilll1C. ;os mOSI S(,ulh"rn eilie, imprlSC.I rarial 7.l) l1 i".:. t.<!)~illnin~ Wi lh Baiti",,,re in I!JIII: .",-,,, ChriS\opl", r Sikn. - r h" \bcial Ori);i ll ~ 01 ZUllill ); ill Al1I<'I'iGlI1 C il;(·S ." in iI,ba ll 1'/""";111['''''' 1/" 11[ri((l1l A m"';· ((1/1 CmmRlm;ty: / " II" S/",d(n<'." ed . .1 1111" ~bllnin); Thom,l!; and ~t;,nha Rivdo,.r {Thou>;md O;,k!.. ('.i1 l iL . 1!I'J7).13-42.

WUITENING MIA"II 32 1

were either impl emented o r atte mpted in o rde r \0 movc Ovc n own blacks o ut o f lhe Warl

New Deal ho using po licics provided an unprecedented oppo rtunity to achieve local racial goals. Mia mi 's civic leaders, led by fo rme r coull ty judge Jo hn C. Gramling, lOok adva ntage of the emergi ng New Deal ideolob'Y and successfull y acquired federa l funding for an exclusively African Ame rica n public hOllsing project. Eve nfuall)'. in 1937, Liberty Squa re was completed, but it was located o n Northwest 62nd Street , about live miles no nh of downlown Miami. Dade CoUllly's c ivic e li te conceived o f th is hOlISing project as the nuclells ofa new bl ack community that might siphon ofT the popula tio n of O\'enowli and permit dowlU owlI busi ness ex pansion . Records of th e Public Housing Adm inistration , especially the many leltcrs from.l oh n Gramling lO fede ra l official s, clearly suggest that promoters of the new housing projeci hoped to -remove Lhe entire colo red popu lation~ to the Libert)' City are'l. Beyond the eco no mic motivalions, circumstances behind this fi rs t public housing project in Dade County rcveal a racial agenda at work among local officials, \\'110 1I0t on I)' sought to mainlai n segregation but hoped 10 put grealCr ph ysit:al distance be .. [ween white and black areas of metropo litan Miami.'

Fro m the begin ning, fedcrdl policy ellcouraged Ihc segregatio n o f pllblit: hOlLsing projects th rough i\.'i "neighborhood composition guidcli n e.~ According to " 1939 public;ltion of the U.S. I-lousing Auth ority emiLied Sile S/'1f,('li()/!. the re(\e l,11 govc fllIl le lll clearly preferred r. lcial segregation in publ ic huusing: "The ailll of the flocal housing] authority shou ld be the prcserv.ltion mlher Ihan the disru ptio n o f cmll lllu nil ), social Sll'Ucmres whi ch best fil the desires of th e groups conct!rn ed ." \Vh ite ho using pnuec ts were 10 be located in while neighborhoods a nd black pr~jecl.s in black neighborhoods. III the South especially, fc del, 11 hOllsi ng officials we re no t wi ll ing to challenge local cus[om and law o n mall.e rs of

2. R;'YlllOm\ A. Moh1. -Trouble ill 1':O f<ld 'sc: R;oce ,,,,d Hn u.<ing in Miami durin !!: lhe Ne,," Deal Em,- H vlogJ.t: TIl' jOU"w! ofllll Nt.r;",wl A rrl",,,,-, 19 (Sprillg 1987): 7-21. St'c also idcm , -The 1':mel11 or R:n:e Rcblio llS ill Miami sinn' lhe l~l:!Os: ill nl' .'lfrin", Amni(IU' Ifrril"iI'" of Horidll. eo. I),wid It. Colburn :.ml J:o ne L. t~ndcrs (Q.lint:s,·itle. ~' :I ., 199M, 32&65.

3. John C. Gr;un1ing 10 Ell!!:t: lle I-I. Kl:.be r. HI Febru:.!)' t9:H, box 299. Records "f l ite Pllbl ie Housing ActminiSIf<l\inn, Reo)nJ GrollI' 196 , N~lin":ot Arehi,'cs. \\'~s hingloll . D.C. DOl.c IIS "f mher Gf<"nling 1t:llcl'S II' fl.'f le l' ll housing oilie;:.ls Oil Ihe Uhe rl}' (; iIY housing projC<:1 C'An be found in ibid .. boxc~ 2'-J7-30 I.

~22 F'LO IUI)A HISTORICAl. Q UARTERLY

A~rial " i~", or .ht· \.it,.·,·.)· S<:l u"r~ huusing p"' ~ '·ft . cOflll'ic'l<'d in 1!)37. This pn~cct ,,~.s fonc"h't:d a< . h~ nucleus "fa n~'" alld Il i ~ 1;1t1l black cummunity "'HSidc the el l)' limi t,. \l'hite pl'''l)Crl ), m,',w rs pruliled rmlll the Ilc\'c!opmcllI "r Min ollllding land. (AJ",.t~J oft", 1II.II/jriflll ,t uocilllio" uf .~)III"m, H",id". Millmi.

race rcialiOlls. Thlls, scgrcg;lIcd public housillg in Dade COUIlI)' as ca rded OUI b)' the local go\'cn llllclll had the oOicial sa nct ion of fcderal hOllsing age ncics. '

In O Clobe r 1936, ;t .... COllSlI'uClioll 011 Ihe nc\\' Libert)' Sq uare ho using projec t \\~ IS lUlden'~I )' , the \);ltir.: COUtlt)' CU l11l11issiun ap .. provcd a twc nty"rear de\'elopmcnl stratcb"}' that included a MNegro rcscttlemcnt plan .~ The idea \\'as toO coopcralc with Ihc cit}' or l\'1i .. ami ~ in removing Ithe] entire Ce ntr·,,1 Negr.o to\\'1I LO"crt.own] 1.0 th ree Negr.o Park locatio ns. and cstablish mCll1 thcre .or th rec model ncgr.o t.o\\,IlS.M In th e spring.of 193;, the Dade Count)' Plan ..

4, U.S. I-Iousillj.( ,\whol'il )', Silt S,'('(lim,; A /JIJ('U~ ;O" tJj Ih, "-""'/",,,,,,'"/ ""'c/Qn ImJOlvtd II! St/HI"'g .'1.1 ... , f<;w USlhl .. /l ijwl l"mjHIJ (\\'aJ.hin j.(lOll . 1).(:. 1!l39). 7 .. 11 : Arno kl R. 1-I" ..;£h , ··Containment ' 011 the 110m., front: R:oc .. :llH.I r.:d.,,,d 1I01~ inl; I'olic), fwm tit .. Ne .... O .. allO tlte enid \\'a,; · Joun/a/ ofl 'rlx", 1I/Jo1Uf) 26 (Janu .. :' 1')' 20(0): I~: Ot:StnOnd Kin..,:. Sti",rat, (Hi d Unnrtu.l; 81arl! A..,.vlI'...-lInd I~ US ,. .... Inal Goo .... .,,"""" (Oxford. Eng., 199,, ). t90-9 l : Modibo Coulit/;dy. ROOm,' O. GTt."C Ii . and lJ:lIid M.J ll ll1 t:S • . ..."..-gj./w .. /PI "Mn'IlJIy Suruuf'UlI I..ou~f,mmv 1/011&. "'g III Iii; Ullliro 51111 ... (\ \'cstpotl. Conn .. 1998) . fi;l.. lflO.

WlllTf.NIN0 MIM.II ~23

ning Council ncshed 0111 Ihe de lails. O ne uf the pl;t1l ncd Negro communities was 10 be located on distanl agricuhu rall and on th e Ta miami Tr'ai l ;II the weSlern fringes of Dade County; the OI ller hlack communities would be wesl of Perri ne 10 Ihe soulh and west of Opa-Iocka 1.0 the north. Each o f these areas \\'as at least fift ee n

tlIilt:s from Ove rtown. But dislanee was !lot a p roblem , the Pla nnin g Board explain ed , sillce ka n excl usive negro bus lin e service direc ti ), from th ese negro areas to the heart of 1\' l iami ~ woul d be established, pe rmi tting black workers LO gel to domeslic an d SC I-"

vice jobs dowlllown. PromOters contemplated th at those residing in existing hl ack ilreas such as OI'ertuwll , Cocon ut Grove , and Soulh Miami would "prefer, by reasun o f the a(h~ln tages and altractiveness of these three large model areas, to se ll Ollt o r move OUl

1'1'0111 the presclII liule and large shU ll sections, and th at thest.! prese nt negro slum sections (an give place gradually to t.he logical white development indical(~d by their geograp hical ami o llw r pot.en\.ialil.i(!s." The Dade Col111tY Commission un an imously adopted the Plann ing Board report, and it was en thusiastically e ndorsed b), the Miami 1·1r.1'(l1d, ~

About the sa me tim e, in MiIy 1937, the cbai rman of lhe Dade County Plan ning I\oard , realtor George E. Me rrick. emphasi/.ed the impo rlance of lh e "negro reseu.lemc nt plan ." In a speech Ix:fo rc the Miami Board of Realtors, Merrick proposed "a complete slum clearance em:c tivel), removi ng evel)' negro fami ly fro m Ihe prese nt cit)' limits.'· T his black removal. Merrick asse rted , \\",IS "a most essential funda 1llelltal ~ for the achi eveme nt of ambitio us goals Ihe plan nin g board laid o ut for Miami and Dade County.6

Th e idea of black re 1ll0\~11 to make room for whilc ncighbo rhoods and downtown development pe rsisted fo r decades . In April 1945, the Dade CoulHy Commission was still d iscussing the ere-at.ion or "lh e fi nest model negro comm unit), ill the Un ited States," as well as the improvement and plan ned expansion o f exc1 usivc1), black resident ial ar(:;as in Liberty Cit)" CoCOTlUI Grove, and Browns-

." •. Dade Count)' Ptanning I\"ard Minllt~. 27 I\ UJ.,'ltSI 1~36. George E. Merrick l':'pns. Uox 2. Hislv.ical l\.\s"daljo" of Sout hern Flurid'l. ,\Ii~Uli : Dade Count )· " I"uning Cnuneil, "Negro Rcs<;lI lc lL1 cllt PI:", : I!J:37, N'11.iotl;\1 Urban L.e.·ague 1'~ 1'H: r". pal'! I. se ri"5 VI. box 56. Lilmll")' o r CongrC$S, \\~.shin~l()n . D.C.

1>. Gcn!):e E. ,\ je rrie"' . 1'11"''';''1: Ih,. ell'll/n' M""ni for 'f r)Hlltrro", ( ~ I i:ull i. 19:-17 ). t 1.

324 FLO RIDA HISTO RICAL Q UARTERI ."

ville. ' Slum d ear.! llce pial IS ill 1946 called fo r the lo rced rCII,ov:!1 of Miami blacks from downtown 10 a distant new housing de\'elup ... me m west of Liberty City. A Dade County Plann ing Board Sll rue), oj Nf'f:,r'Jv t\ rms ( 1952) nOl.crl lhal "wil h adequat e space and honsing be ... ing pro\~ ded ill o the r negro areas. this slum lO\'erto\"1I 1 will SOOll

be eli minalcd .- As bte <I." 1961 , the Miami Hemld rc p0l1ed 0 11 new plans TO elimina te O"ertown to facili ta te downt own business ex ... pans ion .~

Alth ough these plans for black resettlement were ne\'e r imple ... mCllI cd . th ey arc hisl.ot;cally important for at Icast tWO reaso ns. Fi rs t, they revcal the rac ial th inking of white civic leaders o n hollSing issucs. and the lengths \.0 which they we rc will ing to go to achieve their goals. Second , they provide insight into th e pu rposes or subseqnent poli cies and plans th at Dade County ultimately implemelHed. Indeed , t.he underl yin g goals of th ese early plans were eventually achicved by the while leadership in Dade County th rough o ther policies. In particular, starling in the 1950s, Dadc County--often wi th the coo peratio n and supporT o r feden!1 ollicials-beg;m to implement policies rel:,t;1rd ing public housing, urban red cvc!opmcIH. and inte rstate cxpressway constr uction thai deslroyed inn er--city housing and ultima tely fo rced Africa n Ameri· cans fro m Ovc rtowil into new mcialt}' segregated areas of Dade ('.01 lil t}'.

Local and fed er' ll o ffi cials worked together 10 segregaw whi l.es and bl acks through redlining. A new federal agency e~tab li shed in 19:\3. the HOllie Owners Loan Corpor;'lIion was designed to gnmt

7. D.llk ('~llllll r (":0111 111 ,,;., ,,, ... Minu l''.~, ~I Apri l 1!1·15, minoti lm . fl o rid " R""",. Mi,uni·Oa(k 1' lI hl ie Li tll' H) ·. Mi iulI ;: M imni I/m ,trl. [, April I !).\ :,. Th.· N:lli') II;11 Ur han Lc:.):uc sun'eyed lhe I)"dl; CA HII H}, " lark O:;ll nll n.mil}, ill 1 9" ~, II n: po rtcd the rol1owin): u n h l ~ck ho usin).:: -TI.e n:,id.·llt ial :lI'C"" ocrupicd by , his grou p arc ~ lriclIr ddim:d bolh i " Ih,' coum)' :md in llw d l)·. I n bOlh p lan .'!! 'fUlling n : Io:' nl:lI io ns rCSll; ~ t N<:gm rcsid C ll l~ . ... The Cil)' or Miami ;llld D:ule C.ouilly ha"e I>olh bct'n conn'r ued ",i lll ('r:.l\i(:lI in1-: slu l1I c,)"d ili<J n~ in areas "here Ih c.'iC P"'(IP\C li.·c . bit! t ile plans whkh hi.n · bl'.·" 10n"" I:llc<l 10 p rovide hOllsing fur Ncg t'O<:s aim ;11 1llo"ing lh" l11 f" r from Ih e ir o:;i, y :oreas ;" u l fa r rrom lhe cent,:r o f 111<" r il)'": Nalio n,,1 U"ba n Lc:.g nc. A Rro;"", "f foJo""'nir ",,,/ {;"II." ."l l'mM",,,, '" 1)1U1~ (Allllf]. HlJririll 11$ "I'll")' 1M " " It) umdi/lOn$ i I, 1M N"K''' 1>"I",III[il)1l (N.·\-o· Yo rk. 19 .. 3 ) . ')!"J· lOO.

8. Jo hll ,\ . \) ia; . · Wh itc c'w up Sees Un fail I'hll1 10 Rid Miami o f N'·g"ocs.- l>ill ••. bmgll ('.(Juri", 20 .luly 19'16; Witson MclA-e. " Forgot[ .·" I' led ges MlI/'k Nt-gro I'Lousing I'mu!cm§ I'!ere: M i",,,i H f'm lrl. I Nn\'c",bcr 1946: Datil' Co unly I'lan· ning ilo;.rd . S"'l11j uf 1\'''''''1! A ,l(lJ. 1 Y4 'J. 19J I (Miami. (952) , 3~I ; J u :m j lil Glee n.·. "He'd Shift NC): I'o Disl rin I~uild a ;o.:"w 'J)owII \nwn:- Mi"'lI; Ifpmld, 211 :\I ,,), 196 1.

\VH Il'I:t\'IN<': MIAMI 3••

. . , lo ng-Ie I'm , 10w-interCSI mo rtgages to ho mco ..... ners who con ld not secure regul;ll' mortgages o r who we re in dan ge r of losing their hOIl1Cs Ih rough ddlllli or fo rcclosu re. The HOLe dC\'elupcd an elaborate appraisal and rating systcm by wh ich to e\~IIII:tlc ncighbo rhoods in 1I10S1 ci tics a lld urban areas. alld thus de l ermine th e risks ill\'oh'cd in gra nting HOLe mo rthrage funds, HOLe appraisal COlllll1iuees-usuall)' composed o f local banke rs and "ca l cSI.atc mc n- :il IPieyed urban neighborhoods in hu ndreds uf Anlcric"ll l cilies, assignin g eac h Il cighborhood to one o f fOUl" categories from th e most desir;Jb1e (A aI'cas) through th e least desira bl e (D areas), These appr.tis."l l dccisio lls ,,'ere ploued 0 11 ~ rcsidcllli al security maps,- on " .. hich the four categOlies were color-cod ed -green for the A areas, blue fo r the B, yellow fo r the e, and rcd for the D, These maps, the HOLe not,ed , "graphically reflee! th e tre nd of d(. .... Si l~lb i li t )' in neighborhoods from :l reside ntial viewpoi nt .- Since these appmisal categories we re widely ado pted by the pri\"<!le ban king and mo rt gag'c industry, the HOLe aClually initiated the practice of ~rel.llining: by which ban ks and o lhe r lending institu t.io ns refused 10 gralll mortgages and oth er loans in o lder. poorer, and minority ncigh borhoods .~

In Dade CoUllt)', local HOLe " ppmisel"S made rcsicknt ial surveys in 1936 and 1938. The residen tial sec llrit)' maps til l;)' pn;pa red alld the accompanying d ocllmenmry m:u.erial rdicci th e widespread racial biases common at the tim e. Those are:l.~ of Dade CoUllt)' ill which African Americans resided , as well as lIearby wh ite areas. received the lowest HOLe r.:Hings, Dil l)' a fe ... ' wealth y areas o f 1\·liami. Miami Ik ach . and Coral Cables received top A o r B mtiugs. The 1938 HO Le map of Dade Count)' re\'eals a smatteri ng o f green and blue and a \~ls t expanse of yel low and red covering the ('mire metropolitan area . \"'lhat is most strikillg about this HOLe llIap is the faci Ihat cxtensive areas o f unde\·eJoped land in the no rthwest quadra nl of lh e county were gh'CII a D r.tti llg. nlcre can be on ly one ex planatio n fo r the decision to assig n the lowest D 1~l t

ing 10 ,III area thaI as ),et had no particu lar characte r: the faci that Dade Co un t)' \\~IS building the Libert), Sq uare pu blic housing projec t. fi)r African Americans in tha t. area and iu tended tV'rican

~, 111c details or thi~ r~"(lIining outcome are more fully outlined in Mohl , "Truubl(' 111 I'ar.ld is..:: ' -2 1. s.. .... alSl' Kenneth l:J.teb.on. "R:,n·. Etlmicily. and Real Emlte i\ppr .. i~l ; The I-Iollle O"'·ners Loan Corpur:ltiun .tnt! Ih,' F~'(k l': , 1 l10using Atllllinistr.uiun.- i"",1",/ if /j,I;J"" H iM,,'J Ii (i\uK"SI 19M): " 1'J.:12.

326 FLORIDA H ISTORICAl. Q UARn:RI.Y

Alile ri cOI llS II ) movc 10 lhal pari ()flhc COltnl)'. '~ Thus, br 1938, for all pr.tclical pUrp OSI!S, Dade COl li n), had been rerlli ned along r;:.cial lines by the local real esl<ttc OI l1d banking" community Wi lh the aid of tl lC fede r'al govemllle nl 's appr:lisal system.

OIlC canno t untlereslim,tlc Ihe impaci o f these r.lda lly moti\. lIcd redlining decisions on the ph)'sical and cconomic dC\'elopmCIII of black neighbo rhoods ill Dade Cou nty. The Miami appraisers of th e HOLe we re pla in ly aware o f the hesi tancy of ban ks and 1110n ~lge Icnders to ill \'CSt in C ,tIl d 0 neighborhoods. r-,'Iortgagc moncy fo r hOllie purchase or bui ld ing ge nera lly \,'as described as -:unple- in A and evcn in some B arc:tS. Bill in the C are:tS mortgage fund!; were -lilHiled ~; and for 0 neighborhOCKls. it

single word dcsCt;bed the ami labilily of 1ll0n b'Olge mo ncy fro m local itlStillllions-none."

Thc 1·IOLe appra iscrs we n ' so concerned abollt r~u:c that th ey g.wc low ratings eve n to those white neighborhoods whcre, over time, blacks I,'e re expected 10 move. in while, working-<: I as.~ Shado,,'lawn . for inslance, mongagc money was -limi tcd,H even though the neighborhOCKI was -closc to good transporta tion and schools and shoppi ng CCIHCI'S- and despit c the fact that sections were .. Ix. .... ing improved with ho uses too goocllo r the area.- In the judgmcl11 of l-l OLC appraisers, the "tl't! ll d of dcsir<lbil il l of Shadow lawn ove r the next tCIl 10 fift ee n rc;tt's 1\".lS -down:' Uan ks ;\m\ other lending institutions rcmain ed reluctant to invest in Shadowlal\'n and other C neighborhoods, even though their I)()puial iolls at the lime we rc ent irely \\'hilc. Accord ing to the HO Le. these are:ls were in the process of -tnll1sil ion~-real estatc cod e suggesling thai Ihey we re a<Uacentt o black Ileighborhood~ and Ihal they might soon be less white th:1II black .' ~

The impact nflhe HOLC in Dade Cou nty '''<is 10 consign black residential areas, as wel l as a(!jacelll while areas wh ich miglll heco me black ncighborhOCKls, to a fllture ofph}'s ical decl)' and intcnsified !<Idal segrega tion . Several sociological studies bell,'ecn 1956

10, -s.:Cllril )· ' \10::' M.,p. Miami. Flori!I:I," :\lul "A .. ;,ll's i .• nf R;·;,h) AI''';' .\fl' p of ~ Ii;""i . F1",i d ,,: h .... 1t 1936. Record. <If , h,' t Inille O"'"ers Luall Co'porJ lion. R''COI'd t:r Uli p 19::'. N.llin ,,:>1 A,<'III\-"'. \\·;~,hin~'OIl . D.C. (lwrc"flcr rI,.·,t ;os t IOLC Rt.<£ou ls): -St<£ .... ill' AI''':' ,\tal) ' Mi ... u;' t1"rida." 19:1S .. IIIt.! "ScnlTi!} An:., 1~,ip, i<,tI,: ~lt-II"I .... lil:ln Mi ,uui. F101'irl.! : 2'1 &111(·lI1h .. ,,. 1938. HOLl: Rt.'Curds.

II. "Sccm11' Arc:! 1).-"1'I1pli"".; ,\t.-u"I)l Ilu:m ~ I ;;"tti: 19.'1-1-1. 110 1.( : [{,·e.ml" I t . Ibid.

WI-IITENING M IAM I 327

and 1975 dcmo nstr,lIed that of more than one hund red large Amct;can cities, ~'liam i/ Dade ('.ount)' had thc h ighest degree o f rcsidential scgn:gation by 1,Ice in 1940, 1950, and 1960. Th is was not an incidental outcome.'-'

The real damage bCbra n when th e HO LC appr.lisal system very quickl), came to be used by private financial inst.iuilions and c\'cn· ma lly the Fedcral HOlLsin g Admi n iSlmtio n ,md the Veterans Administmtio n in e\~tlua ting mortgage and loan appl ica nts. Few blac.ks in Miam i or elsewhere were able to obtain FHA mo rtgage assistance." The FHA's U,ulerwritillg Mall ual. fi rs t published in 1938 and reissued ill 1947, opposed neighborhood "trw.lsion by incompatible racial and social grou ps~ and advoca t.ed resident ial segrcg-dtion as a means of maintaining comm un ity stability. The FHA, as housing scho lar Charles Abr.ulIs notcd in his book Forbir/llm Neighbors, sought to ~se t itself up as the prOlcctor o f the all-while ncigh-

13. l),)n"ld O . ('.()w~..jll . '"Trends in R,'sidcmi~ 1 Sq;n~ga ti nl1 o f NO Il ·Whi tes in Ameri· (;an Cities, I!HO-I!).';O," tI ",ni,,,,, S()('iolugira{ H~"i~", 2 1 ( Febm~ll' l <)f.6) , 4:H7: Ka rl E. Tauber alltl AIIII;\ r. 'r,Il/ber. Nrgtvt'5 ill O/i,~; /Wid",,;,,/ .YgI"f1t1l1im, ""d ,\'nghbitrlw'/lf (J,lII,!{l' (Chicago. 1%5), 40-<11: l\nnc uwHe Sort;nii()I1, e l al.. "Inckx Cll uf Ib d:11 R.-sidcntial &W"Iptio ll fur 10') Ci ti~" in the United St:nes. 1940-1<)70 .- '$or,oIiJ1,<imt !'"(/(IM 8 ( 197.:;) : 12f.-l2.

14. El if~.bt·th L. Vini c!:., -l',kw H<l!"in~ fur Nq::rOC$ in I)a(ie Count)'. ~lorid:, .- in .'i1",/~ iii II""J' ''X ""d MI1I,,"ly Grouf!;. ed. Nath,UI (~Ial.l" · and Davis M(;Emire (BeTkde)': Univ" l"Sil), ofCalirnrni .. !' r<.'"5S. 1%0). 13!",-i3. ".p. 141): Ed"~onl 1'. Gr.,· ham . "A UlidufCon<tiliollS Surrounding Ihe Housing I)mhkm in Mi,nni ,\ .• It Rd:ues lu th.: ;.lc:gm ,- Statement at ]1e;" illl:;$ or F",kl~\1 Committee on Huusing. Mi"mi, ':17 On"ocr 1947. InX!!iCripl . National Urb,," Lea~'lle !':'pers. l'art I. Sc,;o:s 3. hux ;.7. Lihr.!l")' of Congress. A bl"ck pn::lcher and head of Miami'~ Nel{ro Sc\"\;(;C Coundl (predc(;(.'"s"u r c.f Ihe 10<:'011 hrand, of the Naliun .. 1 Urb"" Leaguc). Gt"ham ~t:. u'd chat "Unti l lhe p r~-SC 1ll year. it is Ix: lin.'d t" :<1 Mimni had m: .. 1o: some[hing cloSt: to a re(;ord in the gr~llIing of EIi .A. Ix:llcfi~ tn Negr~s. Up to 19·17 nnly one 10:'" for hOlllc bu ilding ""d been Kt~mted-; ibid .. 4. This po int "'ii.' (;onfil1l1l'd by Frank S. !-Iomc, administrator of dIe R<lrial Relations .w,,·ict: of tl", fedcr.!1 Housing :md I-lome Finan(;e Agency; M'I! Fr~nk S. Home to Albert M. Colc. 3 April 1953. II.crords of thc ~l ollsillg and I-lome Finance Agenc),. Reco rd Group 205. box i50. N:lIionaJ Archiws. Hom e wrot <'~

"When I firsl went 10 Miami S(:\'en l ye~ 1'5 ago in collabor~t ion "'ilh the FI·IA progr.un . the,·c had been onl~' " '" r:.mily among the entire Negro fX'pul;uio ll (40.000) wlln had b.:en "ble tu r<.-cc1\"C FIlA mo ngag ... inStll' lnn'.w According [0 onc schola rly stmly of nationwide hOlk~il1g p,1tIerns, -'>II I)' :? lX!rce llt of all FHA· insured loans were :'"~"'d cd 10 bl a(k.~ from thc mid·1940s th rough 1960-: ~ Ch:.rles M. J~nl b. "1':' lu,,1 Housing Opportunit)': in /m/Ju:mn,/OI;oli flfCi"il Uighh " <>Iil) ... d . Chari.,. S. nulloc:k III and Chark'"S M. 1~'l1h (Monlercr, Calif .. 1<)84 ). 1'18-83. quot;uion on If>!/,

328 FLORIDA HL'ITORICAL QUARTERLY

barhooe!" and ~ became the vanguard of wh ile supremacy lind racial purity-in the North as well as the Somh ,""

~'I orco\'er, through its Planning Board (latcr the Planni ng and Zoning Board ). Dade Cou nt)' used the HOLe appra iSal] and ma llping system in guiding decisions for futu re black residcm ial expansion. A.~ the board bCg<l1l a ~conlrolled ~ expa nsion of black residential growt h in the laIC 1930s and 1940s. th at growth was CO Il

ccntrated in the areas already rcdlincd as tess desirable by the HOLe appmisc rs.

J oi rH carl )' cnorts of lhe federal gOl'crnment and Dade Cou nty \0 rcd li nc melropolitan !l.Iiami contin ue to have a profound <-fTcCl o n Dade COUIll)' ill the end of Ihe lwcnliclh century. A 1987 Dade Count)' rnap showin g projected black residcnlial areas in 1990 matchcs almost cxaClly lhe 1938 HOLC map showing rcd lined areas of lhe COli Ill}'. These 111'0 maps. hal f a cc nllllY apart , oITer clear e\~den ce of th e COI1JleClion betwcen designs to impose racial segreb<alion in Dade Cou llly and the racial conditions in the 1990s. Thc gheHoiz<ltion ofbl ac k..~ in nonhwcst Dade Cuunt}' b y lhe 1 990~ was virtually predctermi ned b y the decision 10 redl il1t~ [hat part of the co unty in the I 930s. Thus. the HOLe appraisal system and itS local implementatio n in Dade County left a ICb'3cy of intensified racial segregation thai has persisted to the prcsclll lime . '~

1.'1. Fed t·r;.l l'lolising Ad nlin ; s t1~uiou . Uml,.,wrilillg M ,w",,/ (Washingum . I) .C .. 1938); Rid,:u-d C. Stearns. - R:o c;a l Co nu,"t o f FI·I" U"de rwritin" I' rnc tkes. 1934· 1962.- M~' ", or;",d,n" fo r J en kins Files. 13 SeptcUlht·r I 98!lo, Adk" r Case File No. I I :'~ IOOLC: Ch:trl e.~ Ab.~t ll"; , Pm/mld..,j "'r.C'1iK.m: II SltldJ oJ I".j lld", '" IItH"' ;"i: (N.·w York: 1 brper. (955). :l:l~-jn. 0 " thc sq;reg:Hio n po lk it.-s o r lh., nl ,\ . . ~ee ;ll ~o Rolw l"! E. Forman, m acl/. (;I"/lM, Whir; ( ;/,;(/01, (W'{ Slllm~ ( t: ugicwood ClilTs. NJ .. 19(1). 69-72: J ...... K Fe ;o ~in ,,,,d CI;,irect' Uooher Ff:"g in . /)w-nmitwlioll ,t ml'rlrlm Sly/.: !flJlil uli"",,/ /{lU;sm ",,,/ .'\n:;.'''' ( E,,~ l c.

wood Cliffs. NJ .. 19(8). 11):'-1:;: Kenrle th T, J acks"lI. Cmbgr'(lJ.I Fro"I",,: T/" S" lmrb"";:aI.o,, ~J II.~ fJllI·I.,I .""rw~ (New York. Hl~::i), ~ I ::1- 15. 0 11 the comp licit )' o f ,Iw re,.1 esta te i,"lus l'y. ~"l' RuSt· 11,·lpe r, Urlc;,,/ I'Q!ici'J " "d I'w rltr'> uJ 1/",/ E."llir Ihakm ( M i IlIl C;lI)(tl i~. !\l(i() : lta}'mo ml ,\ . M Olh1. -Thl' St,rnllfi C he llo ,,,,d .he · tnfi1l1~ll io n TheOly' ill Urb,IIl Rl";.1 ~:" ! a!e, 19,10- 1900: iu Tholll:ls and Ritu lo ,·r, eds .. Url""j 1'/MIt!;'IK. all,l llt, Itjfirltll It ... "irall Comm,,' IIilY. 58·N .

lti. "S .. n " i !), ,\ rt::I ~lap. Miami. Fio .i d ;,. 1 9~~fI : HOLe Rt'r" rd~: :'Iet ro· l)ad .. r .oun!}' !,Ianni"g lkp,lI"tmem , " Of/ltllli lim l 'forl;otl.!: I(flrr ",,,I IIil/wllllr 0,,1[1 11 , Imd, emm l)" N" nda. 19S(}·20(/(j (Miami. 1987). m:,p or bbck r.;siriell ti ,,1 palte rn< r .... r 19'.10.

WHITENING ~"IAM I 329

Racial zon ing had been oLu lawed by the U.S . Supreme Cou rt in the case of Buchanan v. Warley (19 17). As late as the 1940s and 1950.<;. however, offi ciall y sanctioned racial zoning pe rsisted in Dade County. Li ke so mall y southe rn cities and co un ti es, Miami establ ished planning com missions and hired professional p lanners to develop comp rehe nsive urban p lans lhal in various ways incorporated rigid raci al separation of residential areas. The practice beca me especia lly co ntroversial in the late 1940s. "

By Ihat decade, the hemmed-in black neighborhoods of Dade County were bursting at the scams. Black populat io n increases O\'erwheJmed available hOLlsi ng. One local realtor, Wesley E. Garrison , saw opportunilY and began buying up houses and e mpty lots in the all-white Brownsville neighborhood. not far from O,·erlown. Garrison was a "b lockbuster,~ in real estate parlance. He began se Iling houses in Brownsville to black buyers will ing 1.0 noss the socalled "red line~ in violation of Dade Coullty zoning o rdinan ces. The Ku Klux Klan responded wilh demo nstration s and cross burnings, but black buyers remained undelerred . ' ~

Garrison's real esta.te practices challenged racial zoning, eliciting stiff o pposition from local government agencies. In 1946, twO black me n who bought Garrison houses were harassed by the Dade COutu y Zoning Board , the Dade County Health Departmclll , and lhe Dade County Shcrifrs Office. EYentually, they werejailed fo r \'1-ohll ing se\'eral local zoning regulations. Garrison went to cOlin to defend his black clients and to chall enge the " ,cial zoning ordinan ce. A florida circuit judge determined that Dade County did not have power 1.0 enfo rce racial zoning, upholding the righl of African Americans to purchase homes anywhere in the COU Ill),.

County commissioners appealed to the Florida Supreme Court .

17. n"t:hatl(lII 11. 1\~lrl.,. 245 U.S. 60 ( 1917) ; Roger L. Rice. -Residen tial Segrq,r,ltion br L<\ .... 191().1!)J i: j<JlIma/ IJ/ Soulhl!nl lIilllJl"j !H (Mar 1%Il): 179-9<): Si l"er. -The Ibfi al Origins of Zoning in Amcric;m CitiL"S: in Thomas and Jl.itn torf. elk . fhba .. I'I"" "i"g f,,,,llh, Airi"", "m"imll eomm"II;I}. 23-42.

tS. For badground on the ... ider signifi.:;aru;c of Garrison '~ rea t e~t atc a.:;ti"ities. see R<tymond ,\ . Moltl . -""'king the Second CheUo in MClropo li mJl Miami, 19-10-19(.0: jQlmwl IJf Url)(1Ij !fislo,) 21 (March 1995): 395-427.

330 FLORJOA I-ilSroIUr.>\L Q UARTERI.\'

which c\'cllIually declared the Dade COtllllY racial zoning ordilIance UtlCOTl s tilLi lional .l~

Despite the ruling , Dade CoUIll)' cOlllinucd 1,0 pursue ."dally motivated ho using policies. Slum c1c;tl'ancc in Miami's in ner d ly area rClllaincd a primary goal; the provision of new black residential space in outlying areas \\1"<\5 also an urgent m:ttter.211 Consequent ly. iI newly rcorbrani1.cd Dade Coumy Regional Planning Board began mapping Ollt futu re black housing in undc\'elopcd northwest Dade Coun ty. the area rcd lincd by tllC HOLe ten years eadier. The board also considered ideas for privately financed black ho using thro ugh lhe Federal Honsing Ad ministration and later the R.acial Relations Service of the HOllsing and Home Finance Agcncy, whose assistance was needed to pro\~de mortg<lge insurance, Despite the unconstitutio nality of racial zoning, the board moved fon\'3rd , as Dade County Attorney Fred W. Cason explained 10 th e Miami Herald in Dccember 1946. \\'ith Man 'understanding' thaI the designated trdcLS are for negroes. Mt l

Th roughout the early 1940s, mcially based zoning decisions pe ppe red the minutes o f the Dade County Com missio n. On Sq>tembe r 16, 1941, COl111nissio ners approvcd a Zoning Board rccommendat ion Ihat a tl~ I Ct of land in Goulds, a ll agricuhul~ 11

community south o f r.,·liam i, Mix: segregated and sct asi de for colo red occulJ<lIlcy,M a decisio n supposedly in Mthe beSI interest of the communit}'. "-n On March 9, 1943, th e cOlllmission approved a resohllion th at "scgrcgau:d and SCI aside for negro occupancyM a tract uf land Ilea l' Homestead in sou thcm Dade Coull ty. The zon ing directo r \\~L~ Malilho ri1.ed to issue pcnni L'I to negrocs for building ,lI1d lise 0 11 said propen)·,M The COl1lmission also reponed that Msincc

19. The demi ls of the h,U'llssme nl of the 1 .... 0 African " mericlm ho me buyers ,mil the suhs.:qllent !eg-.. l ( ha llenge 10 .... eI:.1 l.oning ( an Ix: fullo-.'ed ;n lIe",sl~.pn

reporlage in Ihe Polish .. ?:" Ont,;,,; n.is n ....... ·spapcr Io-," ... ; dcJy r('ad nationally II)' MIiC'.Ul " me rir,m $. II published a florid;, edi lion and t>ased :a ( OITcspomkm. J o hn A, l)i;l£. in Miami ... ·ho reported wed. ly o n florida Ilt:\O"S of internl IU bl;ld. re~d.' rs. The l 'illshu.r." C",,,",,, "':1'0"'''1\<' is sig'l ificanl (or histolir .. l !'elie;,rr he '"5 011 I);ut" (',ou III )' b .. '(allsc the Miami b lack ne,.,spaper. '1'''' Min",; 'fi_. has nOl sur\i,~~d plior 10 1941:1 amliJocc3usc bb( k i!;!lut.'S wo;re no\ I'x ll' nsh't'ly ( OI..,re([ in Ihl' " 'hile press before ' he Ci" il Ril(hl~ ,1I<wemenl of Ihe 193!k. St-e 1'i1l,III,ug" Co,,, ..... ; I I Augus l, 17 NO\.." nher. l l'lt'(cmher 1945. 16 Febl1.:i1r)'. 23 Fehn.:ilry. 2 Mardl.!Kl Maf(h. 20 "pril. II Ma\' 19-16. '11e fl •• rida Supreme (',oun oUlla"',,d melall_oninll ill Stale oj l-'wrnlnll Wright, 25 So. 2nd 86 (1946).

'lO. I);,de County Commi~~iun Minul..-s,:\ "pril 194:, . 21 . '\/i",,,, I/,.mlll, oj Ik<:emht'r 194(i, 22. Dade C:nllliy CommiSlO ion Minllld, 16 SqJwmbe r 1941 .

VlHIT ENI NC MIA~II 33 1

this pro peny a<ljoins other properl)' owned and occu pied b), negroes, such lise would not be detrimental to th e area in qllestion ."~'

A month l ate l~ wh ite residents complained that realtor \\'esle), Garrison was pro posing it ~negro reside ntial seulement" in their Brownsville neighborhood. The Dadc COll nt)' Commission resol,·cd to ~ makc ever)' possible eno rl to mainL'lin the present CoUTll)' zoning regulations govern ing the area il1\'olved." On Dt:cember 29, 1943, th e cOlllmission designated two areas of 01'01-locka known as Bundle Park and Magno lia Ga rde ns to be ~se t

aside for negro occupancy." On Febntary 22, 1944, the cOlllmission approved a resolution establishing a boundary line "dividing \Vhile and Colored reside nts. in the town of Goulds. F1orida.~ Three months later, the commission \'oted to change the zoni ng of an agricu hura l area of Opa-locka . declaring it "open LO Negro oewpancy.~ However, the Commission also stipulated th at a planted "buffer strip at least sixt), feet in widt.h" be established along the eastern border of th e property, walling off th e new black residenlial area fro m nearby white commercial and resideillial property. Sui,. sequen tly. Opa-locka experienced a rapidly risi ng bl ack population in the years after World War IU '

AJI of I hCSe decisions culminated in an August 1945 7.On ing resolution that made manifest the commission's segregat.io nist designs:

Whereas, this Board has heretofore approved zone maps o f th e unin corporated areas o f Dade County. with lines or o ther markings to indicate the w iles for White and Colored occupancy: and Whereas. it is the opi nion of [his Board Ihal people of I.he Whit.e nICe should not be permitted to encroach upon the areas ..... hich have been designated for Negro occupancy. nor should Negro Occupancy be extended into areas here t.ofo re designated fo r White occupancy; and Whereas the Federal Government , has se t definite rules and regulations. drawi ng definite lines of separation between th e races. as is evidenced by go\'ernme nt requireme nts in the manageme nt of va rio LI S hOllsing pr~jec ts, throughout the South, permining only White people 10 live in Whi te housing projects. and a nI)' Negroes

t~. lbio .. 9 March 19·1~. , t ·!. Ihid .. 27 /\pd t. ~) D"ct:Il1lx:r I!H3. 22 rt:bl' lary, 23 May 1':"'4.

332 FLORI!)/\ HISTORICAL Q UARTERU'

10 live in build ings erected for the Colored race. Now therefore be it rcsoh'cd. b)' lhe Iw ard of Commissioners of Dade County. F10lida, thai boundaries heretofore :11>proved by this Bo ard, or as the same shall be hcreafl c r amended o r altered , shall constitute Ih e dividing line between the While ami Colored people in Dade County. Florida.

Ref cITing I,{) the policies of the federal housing age ncies. IIw commis.~ ion j ustified l';:lciallicgrcgation ill Dade CoUlll)'."

Ironically. the commission also used the illegalil), o f I<lCia1 1.Oning as:1Il excuse to de n)' some individuals or groups the racial zoning ch ;m~es they sought. For instance. onJul), 14 , 1938, the Dade CoUTlt)' Commission rcjcclcd seve ral petitio ns to zolle scpamlc properties for black residence, noting in ils mi nutes that the ZOIling Board and the County Commission Mhad no legal right to designate any property or zone any prOIx:ny fo r negro purposcs.-"" As lale as 1951, five yea rs ancr the Horida Supreme Colin had ruled against racial w ning, the Dade County Planni ng Board and the Dade Col lnt)' Commission were sti ll o perating onlhe princi ple that Mex pansioll o f existi ng negro areas and the further designllt ion of new areas for !legro occupancy sho uld be on ly o n ,I 'controlled ' basis.wf1

Th e Dade (",QUill)' Commission 's delermi natio n to maintain radal segregation , e\'e n if Ihro ugh de facto Wil ing policies, was possihlt: o nly because federa l guidelines permi tted and even encOlll""aged racial segregation. For instance. the U,S. '·Io using AIIthodt), distribuled a Mlleighborhood composition guidelineM

sanCl ion ing seb'l"ebration in the late 1930s. A remarkable 1944 federal IHlIISi lig dOCllIllCIIl, MSpccial Note on Site Selectio n," recom· mended black proj ects ill black neighborhoods and while projects

~;,. Ibid., 1-' Aug.m 19'1: •. This rc::" ... lulion al !K) u :fC'rred 10 1.oning mOlps prt:cp;ut:cl\ by D~dc' Count}' 10 ddil1t:cale whi ll! ami 1,1:«:11. areas. All vr 1111" Il1"e,;o u51), cilC:<I l);lde ('MUIII}' CtJlI1l11i,~inll reS<)llI uOIIS were folln""c:d by imlmclinns \() lh,· "'VUtll}' loning d ireclor lu m"ke nece,;.s;,,")' OIlLcrmions In "f licia l wllillg mapli of tlu: C .. Utllv. Such rn~ I)!\. (\O/.l:I1S of Ihem, ,liJI ,·xiS!. wil h tJmd~1 1;16011 "" n ·dlint:S"" cleady de1l1arkcd. The.,. arc I.Kau:d in Ihe lil"s oflh" 0 ;.(\ ... (".ollnl), Building and 7..c.ll111g I)c]>arlll1cl,l . ~liarni·Dat1t:c CoUIII}' C m<eI"l"lIClll <.:.:.llc l: ~l ia1l1i .

~fi. 0;,11,' Counl )' Conunis.lull Minule.os. I'!July 19:s8. 27. Warren M. Ibn"t:c r, " " "I'"r(ll,'(I' oj I~ .• , 194)·19') (Nt· .. , \'ork, 1%3), 13,

'IUOIiuK Dad" C;'-,unl}, I'l:mllillg 1~~' 1"\I , {I'm"'''/ U1",rl, IW9-/9'1 ( Mi;lIn i, 1952), i-/i .

Wtlln:NING MIAMI 333

in white neighborhoods. If a project were to h,l\'e mixed occupancy, -the cnort was al\\'ays to locate the project in o r adjacent to a tradilio nal Negro neighborhood . ... The result was, ill en<:ct, to mailllain the racial gro ups in the S;lll1 e specifi c or ge ne ral areas in which they were living, and in man)' instances to illlellsify the separatio n of these groups. M!lI

Thus, federal hOllsing policy enabled southern ho using autho rities to maintain "local cust,om- on mattc rs of race. Not until the ch~ l rights movement b-aincd mome ntum did pressures change official federal policy. In Nm'elllb(',' 1962. r resident J o hn F. Kennedy issued an execuuve order banning racial discrimination in public housing. St ill , Kennedy's o rde r o nly banned segregmion in future public housing projects, no t in ex isting ones. Title VI o f th e Civil Righ ts Act o f 1964 ban ned racial disuimination in site and tenallt selectio ll . but impleme ntatio n seemed slow in Dade County as it did elsewhere. As late as 1967, accord ing 1.0 inte rnal U.S. HUD memoranda , local ho using authodties we re still usi ng a varie ty o f justifications to maintain r.l(i;ll segregation ill public ho using site and tenant selection . The next rear. Haley Sofge, Director o f the Dade County Departme nt o r Housing and Urban Deve lopment, admitted that "the older Negro {public housingJ dcvelopmcIl LS ... remain segregated ." I-IUD offici:tIJohn J Knapp acknowledged the problem in a 1985 sta le ment 10 the U.S. I-lo use Subcomlllittee o n I-Iollsing and Comlllun ity De\'elopmen l: -Uy the mid-1960s. il had become e"ide nt limt milch of the public ho using <I\,<.ilable 10 minorities was be iJJg cunstrucled in areas o f minolil), concentratio n."!'J

BOlh feder.11 and lucal ex perience wilh redlining and racial zo nin g assured thaI ho usi ng bui lt in Ihesc neighbo rhoods would

! . .>S. S',' SNtIWN. 7-1 1: ·Spoecial Note on Site Sd«lion: 2() Mar 1944. t ..... ,\ dkef Ct. .... File 0680·19LG

29. Waher B. Lewis 10 RnlXfl C. \\'c;m~r. "S; I(' Seteclion and lC'llam t\SSi):"'ILCIII Poticies Relaling 10 'lilil' VI of Ihe Ci\'il Rill ius ACI uf 1!1fl'1.- I Non'lII/xr ]966. Adker Case File ()70]~JLC: Rol>crl t\. Somer. "R" marks for I',met O;scu~ion : Te n'lIll Selection ,mel ,\.~signrnenl ]'roo:;edurcs," 10 Octo lJoe I' 1%7. t\dker 0 .... ~ Fit.: 05677 1 HUDt : "Subrnission- ol'John J . Kn:,pp Kdon:' U.s. I louse SUbcOIll ' millet: o n Housing :md CommunilY [)t.'"dop nlell l , 2t NO\'elll bc' r 1985. 2(). Adker Ca.w Fi le 0&.'.l197LC; B. T. McG", ... 10 Roben C. WC'I\er. 9 Septcmber 1967, Adker e:". .. : file O!.&I82HUOI : Hale) Sorge. "I'"blie Hou.ing in Miami." "'IorM" pt""";"1- N"d 1ln.lriopmntl 19 (M:.rch 1968). 14. ql1ol.uion o n <I . r or an effeetil'1: o\,en;c,., of feder-oil housin!; policy. M:O: l..;'mb. ".:(1";01 I l rmo;j n!; Oppor. Hlni ly,- 148-ij3.

334 FLORIDA HISTORI CA L Q UART ERLY

take 011 the racial c h ar~\Cle r o f the neighborhoods. Libe rty Square, completed ill 193 7, was cmircly black. TI l<; Edison CO\lrt.~ pn!iecl. u pcned ill 19:1Y and only eight blocks cast of Liberty Sql,l<lre 011 NW 6211d Street, was compktely white ..... Morc public housing would not be b,dh for fifteen rears. primarily because of powerful o pposirion fro m the pri\~lt c real estate industl1" which tapped i1llo McC'l.rthyism to portray public housing as "sociali s ti c.~" In 19:)4, the

"'Iiami I-Iollsi ng Autho rity complcted a new public housing project for blacks, thc James L Scali Homes proj ec t located in a racially zolled area called Para Villa I-I eight~, sc\'cral blocks north and west of Libc rty Squarc,~

Cornrnined to meial segregation , the "Hami Housing Author· ity cont rolled Dadc County's public housing until 1968. Yet, MHA had 10 get approval fo r public housing sites from the Dade COHlllY Pl anning I~oard and the Dade County Comm ission. Thus. Dade Count)' had ult imate control ovcr public hOLising site selectio n and uscd th is auth ority to m,lilHain segregated housi ng panerns. approving new public hOLising projeclS-Cvc n those where whites in i· dally lived-only if loc<l led in cxisting black areas o r in the path of bla ck residential expansion. The while Edison COllrtS project. for ir15tallce, was situated on the fringes of an expanding ghello red· li ned under th e HO LC appraisal sysle m. T he Victol1' Homes proj ect, in itially buill in 194 1 as war housing fo r white milila r1' officers aud la ler Hlrned over the MHA, was sited o n the margi ns of Libe rty Cil )' in an :rrca already redl ined by the HOLe. Two o ther white projec ts-Little River Terrace ( 1958) and Larchmo nt Gar-

:\1.), IJII/,.,. "'fUMing: /('11(1.'1 pf Ihl I/D"';"g "'ulh"";,] Df Ih, Cil)' of Afiomi, 1940 (Miami, 1 ~14U ), utlpagi,,;ucd: fDnt~ml "'ill, l letl, .. IIMHillg: S".",,,I 1\,,,",,11 U"/N'I of I/', Hmo· "'I(" ,,'illnil] uflh, Ci l)' ofMlllmi, "10m/fl. 19-11 (Mi;""i, 1').11 ). ullp;~gilla1cd: Ivll" l/oII,i"K 0 mi,s 011: Thim """,,,,1 /{1"'" pf tiM H Olw'''l! Aulhm'I)' of Ihl (.II), Df ,\I"um, Hw;dll, /'142 (Miami. H).I2), l"' I"'gill;i1ed : "1Iis/uIT ,,( Dad" COU1l!l' Dep;m", ,,nr of I tousing :11111 Urh.m Develop",en'," n.d " IYI~sc,il)I , I, Adk", f~~S(' File Il:WKl4.

3 1, For a ,tisclI.'Siu" of tlch:ll t:s m'.:r housing H'forrn in Miarni ill rhe rOIllt:"1 or the Jl"litic~ of the MCC'Hlhy Er~, .s<:c 1t:1)'1Il1)ud A, Mu h!. "1t:1Cc ami Space in thc :\1tKlcrn Cic)~ I llh~n;c;Ht:-9:, and Ihe Bbck C011lI1lunic}' in Mi:<mi: ill l l.I",,, I'flli'] ill ·/i, ,,,,,,iell!·C.n>I.II'] ,1111"'1,.". cd . Arnold 11.. Hirsch ;oud Rapnoml A. Muhl (Ne .... Bruns,,~c k . NJ. , 1!1!13), 1W-2L

;12, I'ow/h ""'''1Il1 Si~·· l fflr 0'fnlnllmprur ¥'",rnl 1f1"'" fiw "''''''',, HDridll, 19}9.196f1 (Miami, l!l.'>!l ), II i; 1\k tm·!)ade ('~Hlnry 1'lannillK Ikp;trtmelll. IIm/J;"/( I'I",r. Mill"'; ,\I.'lml"";I,,,, '\''''1 (M i;ulli , 19i8). (11).11 ; "T he H,,".~i llg ,\ u,ho,;1\' of .Iw Cit), o f /.I i:ulli. ~'uri":\: n.ri .. tn><:s('rip., map nf public hOUSing Ino .. i,,"s. Adkef C1,;" File I0781~,

WI-IITENING MIAMI 335

St."i:Ond ghello al);lrtmcnt bombing in 195 1. Whcn ol<'ners of thc Kn ight Manor AI);utments bq;;In m()\ing bbcu into thO' ..... hile housing complex not tar from lib. el'l)' Cil)'. the ,",U Kl ux Kbn ro pond<.'tl wilh rir namitc attacks on th ree sc'par~ ' e

ocC"~sio11S . eo" rl""J of lltl' Hond" S''''I' ""It;',,,-,. TallnhaJ$N.

de ns ( 1959)-sprolilcd in transitiona l lenitory. Ihal is, urban space that had been redlined by HO Le appraisers two decad es carlier.'" By 1993, black occupancy in thc fi ve pl"l .... I960 housing projects ranged fro m 9'1 perce tl! 10 100 pe rcelll,'"

The Dade COlitHy Commission made nllmerons decisions in the 1950:; regarding public housing silC selcnion , which also had important conscquences for thc nidal make-up of public housing. In February 195 1. for instance, in a diSClission on a proposed public housing silc in all-whi le Hialeah . the Dade Comu y Commission decided inslead Ihal thcre was sufficient land avai lable in Brownsvi lle, Liberty Ci,y, and the -Cent",l Negro Area- [Ovcrlown ], and

33. "I-listol)· of D:.de C.oUnI)' Depann":nt of 1 · l ou~ing and Urbim I)e,·c!opmenl," I, 2; Ailecn LoII_. "The Uirth of ·Little I lull ." florida Plan,,;,,! and {X.IrlO/J"'I'''' 19 (January 1968) : 1,3. G.

3'1. D •• de Count)" 1·IUIl. "('.on'-emional F:unily i..oc-.I\ ions: 24 r.:bru:u.,. 1993, tahlcs. Adkcr Ca.'iC File 0'11 907.

336 rLO~Il)A HtSTOIUCAL Q UARTOU .Y

that au)' new black public housing projects should be located in those areas. On se"eral occasio ns in 1952, 1953, and 1955, the Dade COIllII)' Commission appro\'cd zoni ng changes to pe rmit conSlIl lClion of black public housing projects in the Li bc rt), Ci t)' area o r o n the while fringes of that rapidly expa ndi ng black gheuo. These projcct~ became the J ames E. ScOIt HOllies (black) , Lil.llc River TCIT';lce (while) , and L,)rchmont Gardens (white)."

Additional changes were made in Dade Coun ty public housing policy ill th e 1 960s. Th(:sc included special projects for th e elde rly (some for whites and Olh ers for black.,,), Sillall sCillI.c rcd-sit.c projects. and "tumkcy~ projects in which private dC\'c lopers built housi ng and then turn ed it ovcr lO Dade County I·IUD."" However. a H UD map from the 1970s showing the location o fpllbli c housing projects reveals lhat most of these newer hOllsing projecL~ were 10-(;u ecl in areas th;\I cu rre ntly correspond \\'ith completel), segrega ted black residentia l arcas.!7

Whilt: Dade Coun ty mOl intai ned r..cial segregation by controlling the location o f publ ic ho using proj ects. it also used i L~ planning and zoning powers ill shaping lhe private housing market fo r African Americans. Advocaling slum cleara nce and the ei illl irlalio n of" hlight ed ·· ho using, the COIllII )' comm ission simuha neousl}' conlined !lCW privatel), huilt hlack ho using to areas a ll·ead)' racia lly Wiled for blacks. A 1952 Dade Cou nt)' Planning I~oard repo rt , enti tled SII IlIt)· of Nf'gm " rms. made clear the COlli mission 's int eresl in keeping racially segn:gated hOllsing. cven as Ihe black population of the county grew dr;III1<1ti(;l lI), in the postwar era. Th e SlInlt.')' po inted Ollllh<ll a great deal of land-some 2, 191 acres in al1- n :maincd ul1deveioped in districl.~ already designated or racially zo ned fo r blacks. leaving Mthret."- fifths of th e colored laml unoccupied and ,mli tabte 10 them fo r bl.lildillg .~ Conscqucnt ly. the SIII1I1,)' concluded . Mno ncw ex pansio n of ex isting arcas no r lIew areas for colored occu pa ncy sho uld he made available untill hc ex isting vacan l land is li lilized ."· Well inlO the 1 950s. stilndard gove rnme nt

:J:'. Odd ... CHumy Co mmission ~ t i nu l(·~. H M"y 1952. t3 Ocrober. 8 Dece m her t953. 22 M:ud, 1!15.'i.

:Iii. S<l lgc. "t'lIhlk HOllsi>llo: in Miami: 2 .... . :17. D~dt· Co ulily t IUD. Map of "Loc:,uiun uf I' uhli" I-tousing I'n ~,:ch: n.d. (c .

t97Ils) . A.tlt"r CWo Fih- 04IiS-I7.

WHiTENIl\'G MiAMI 33i

ho using policy ill Dadt! County was to keep blacks he mllled in 001-cially designated and a lready segn:gat,ed arcas o f th e cOullly ....

Conscquemly, bOEh 1.0 provide new hOllsing and to mainlai n racial segreg'dtio n. Dotde County planners and cOlln ty commissione lt; carried Ollt the ir intentions to fill in Munoccupied colored land .

M When the Plann ing Boa rd repon ed o n black housing on

April 3. 1945. they recommended I,hal ex isting black distric LS in J\'liami, Coconut G rove. Browllsville. and Libeny City "be replanned 10 the limit of tlle ir prese nt a rea c,lpacilY thus providing additio nal hOLlsing space for 26,000 [black) per.;ons.~" The ir suggestion was fu lly implemented. In 1962. when the Grea te r Miami Urban League sun·e}'ed the condition of blacks in Dade Coun ty. investigatorJames W. Mo rrison repon ed that Ma stri ct panel'll o r imense resident ia l segreb13tion of Negroes has been established ; th e ex pansio n of I'cside llOal area.~ avai lable to Ihe Negro gl'o ull has occurred onl}' in places comiguotls to previollsl}' existing resi· dences.MlO

Much of this de\'elopment took the fonn of la rge. privately built ap.anme nt house projecLS. These IWo- a nd th ree-story apanmelliS, SQIll('timcs called ~COIlCTCtC mOlls te l"s~ by local ho usi ng refo rmers, re placed the I,orn-rlown MsholglmM hOliScs that had lined ma n}' OVCr!.OWIl streets. o r they went up o n undeveloped land in Browns\~llc . Libe rty CiIY. and O pa-Iocka. In the politic.llly reactionary laIc 19405 and ea rly I 950s, whell public o ffi cials WC I'C re luctant 10 build neh' publ ic ho using. the apanmellis bui h by land speculators and rle"elopers accommodated a la rge po rtion of Dade Coun ty's rising black po pulation . Still . Lhe Dadc CoUllt)' Commission cxe n ed iI10 u(; lIc(; o\'er the mci,,1 regreg'lLion of private ho using, impressing o n developers in 195 1 "that in these areas [ Brownsville . Libe rlY CiLY, and O"crtown] Ihere a rc ;mtilable vacant prope rties which arc d oser in to Lh e CcllLl"a l Miami District. :md tha t th ese should first be develo pe d befo re more dislalll and

~8. l)ad<: CoUnI)' I' lanning Ho~rd. SII"", cif Nrgru Ami.., 1941).19:)/ (Miami. 1(52). 76. Dad" C.oU IU )'·S hl:ock popul:u iolljtr,,", from >19 .518 in 19'1010 (H.9·17 in t95() :md to 137.:..")oJ in 1960; !Itt Ra)1l1ond /\ . Mohl. -The xulcmcI11 of Ul;ocks in Somh Florid .. : in Sowll Horida: TN lI imb of Cita"gr'. t.'tl. lllOmas D. !los",dl (Miami. 19')1) . II"H 7. For an ·offici;,!" profile of the black. poplll.u ion in 1980, !>t.'C M etr ()-D"dc County l'tanning I)CI>;ullllcl1l . Profit, cif 1M lIIar' 1'11',,11111011 (Miami. 1984) . L'$II. 0)·1-100 on bl:lck To:idt'mi;d p.allcnu.

~O). l)adt' Counl)' Commission MinmCll, 3 '\]lI'il 1!H5. <1o. J ain<=, W. Morris-m . Tilt N'Y,'O ill Gmll,.,. Mia",i (Miami. 1%2). 6.

338 FLORIDA HIST ORICAL QUAlrfERLY

outlying areas Larcl stan ed :'11 In the postwar Cr.I, Dade County planne rs and co mmissioners purs lIed a consistent policy o f main!;tin ing housing segregation . even as blacks relocated from Ove rtOWI1 to newe r ~sccond ghclto- areas."

And th e ir designs wen:: rein forced by federal hOllsin g policies. In 1947 , several separate hOllsing agencies (Federal I-lousing Adrnin istf,ltio n, Public Housing Admin islJ' ltion. Urban RClH:\\'al Admin istration. and Fede ral I-Iolll e Loan Bank Board ) were consolidat.ed into ,I new agenc)" the I-Iollsing and I-lo me Finance Agcl1cy,tl Incorporated wit hin HHFA was the Racial Rela tions Service, origi nal ly created in 1938 'L't a bl-J. llch or lbe u.s. Hmlsing AuIho ril)' to provide advice o n racia l issues to federa l and local housing authorities. " In the 1940s and early 1950s, the Racial Relations Se rvice \\~IS headed by Fmnk S. Home. an early membe r of Pn'side lH Franklin D. Roosevelt"s "Black Ca bine t- and uncle of singer-actress Lena '·Io rne . Horne cOTnmined to inlCgnHed ho using. bllt poslI\';lr poli tica l reali ti es made those goals problematic. Consequently, Horn e and his race rela tions adviso rs ge nerally took a less aggressive position , pushing f(} r badly needed new black housing even if it \\"<15 segregated. Still , Hortle kept adHlCating internally fo r the li beraliza tio n and ultimate d esegregation o f federal Ilousil lg policy. As a result. by the Inid-1950s, I-Io rn e WOll lc! be fi red and the Racial Rel atio ns Service panially dismal ltled.'~

In opposition to Horne slood Albert M. Cole, President Eisenhower 's appoinlee as head of HHFA in 19:13. Fo r lhe rest of Ihe tiL.'-

'11. Dade 011"'1)" C(lllllllission Minules. 6 Fe bruary. 2ti April 1 ~61; Dade C~>unl)' I'la"ning Bo:ml. S,,,.....,. of N"IJ'V ,I ,m,. 1949-1 9.1' 1. i:1-ifi.

'12.0" Ihl! p.ISIW'U· rlispnsal of hbck pvp"l:ui"" from OnTlnwn. Sl·(! "Negro 1'lolI!\ill~ Area Apl" u cntly Tideled fur Nunh,,'c.'il Dad,: ,\i"e;'.~ Mi"",i lI"mid. 2'J Maj' Hl-li: Reinhold 1'. Wo lff aud Da,it! 1\. Gi llogly. "'''gm "''''QillK ill II" Milll~j "'ro: FJj"'J oj Illf l'OlI"~/ r /J";/di,,t; Iloom (Cur,,1 GatJk ... n •.. 1951): I la"\1ld ~t. Rnl;t·. "Mc~mpnlir;u ' Miami's Ch;"'King Neg,.., 1")I',oI:lliol1. 1!1:.(} .. 19GO." fjollomjr (;"'/f m/,hy 'tO 0,,1)' I!~M) : 221 -38: Moh!. ":'bking Ihe Sec"nd GIll"lIo in Melropoli .:.n Miami . I!W .... ' 960." ~!)5 ... 42i.

· I ~ . Richart! O. D:,,·it·s. lImlljllt; Rrj"'"IJI/)Wi'lgl/lf 'Ihnllmr ,.\dmi"i!.lmlll'" (Culumhia. Mo .. 19(6). 6~.fi'1: Hirsch. "'G)lIla inmem' on tlw Home Frnlll : 15l-4i1.

44. N,uh;m SII-:lU§. "' ~:'~tabli shl1lem :md RespotlsitJililit:" of Iht: Ofticc of R"cial Rei,,· (ions: I I March 19:\9. ~1t:",(lI~mflun, . U.S. I lousing ,'ulhn,.ily. A(lker G'"I.'\C File 11591HI.C.

'1("0 . Ab,;ulIs. f iJ,bi,ldr" Nrighoon. ~iMO: RntJcn FR"( io:rid: I~"rk. "fI1' f;i . .,."hUl' ''''' tlt/",j"i;lmlioli alld /JIf1rk (;;"i/ Iligl,/) (Kn')Hil k . 1984) . II :1-1 6: Gail L.lll nel Burkk~·. 'n, lIanl'l: 1\1, tI"'nirm, I'"fllllj/y (New York. 1\181'). I C\8-39: Ch;u"it-s AbnulI§. "Ho using. !kg ... :galion. :1I,d Ihe Ho rne C,~.· TM Hrpo"/n 13 (f> O CloiK:r 1955): 30-33 ..

W, " TEN' NG ~!IIAMI ~39

c<lde. CoOle pursued a pro-se~regaljonis l polic)' in hOllsing. seeking 10 uSt: residentia l conlainl l1e nl of blacks 10 maintain school segreg:.lLion, which had bc...-cn o lulawed by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1954. '"

Pro-scgrebrationisI federal hOlISillg polic ies and Ihe wea kness of HI-I FA's Racial Relatio ns Service cotHrihuLed 10 th e pe rpe l1lalion of Dade Coullty's residential segregat ion . J-Iorne .md regional J-IJ-IFA mcc relations ollicers worked whh Dade Cou nty offici .. ls and private developers 1.0 es pand the ho using market for M rica n Americans. bUI on a segrega ted 1J.'1s is on l)'. Fo r inst;lIlce . in December 1949. Ho rne wrote 1.0 Ju lius A. Thomas of th e Nationa l Urban League that " I have been ve ry interested ill furth eri ng efforts to ge l p livalel)' financed ho using o pe n to Negroes developed in Miami and other a reas of the State of flOlida.M17

Most on en . J-IJ-IFA mce relations o fficials had difficuhy pc rsuading Dade Coullty commissione rs 10 open up new sites for black hOllsi ng. In o lle case. in Ihe late I 940s, they sllccessfull y assisted in the development of Richmond Heights, a middle-class, single-Jamil)' black hOllsing development located about flfl een miles soUlh of downtown ~Iiami. '" Liber.lls in the Racial Relatio ns ScI"\~CC found it necesS<lI)' Lo comply with th e segregationist prin ciples of higher ICl'el fede ral hOllsing ollicials like Cole if they were to expa nd IlOUSing oppo l'liinilies for Mric' l11 Americans.

B)' the late 19505, the Federal intersla te highwa)' program pro,-ided .. new opportunity for Dade ColllllY officials t.o I'corg·.mi1.e 1<1-

cial space. Early plans goi ng back to lhe 1930s to climillalc O"en own

'16. i-l inKh, 'Containnl<: 111 o n Ihe I-lo me Front: 171).78. "7. Fr.mk S. IIQrne 10 Julius A. l1lOm,lS, 27 December 19--18. Records or Ih,' 1·lou!\

ing 'lI ,d !-I.uno:: Fiu"nce Ag.·ncy (hen: .. rwr cited :t'i 1-1I1FA Recnnls). R('CQrd Gru,,1' \!(17, box 750. N:,lional Archi \'c~. See 31so FI~U\k S. 1I0l11e \0 Alan Ro\h and "Ihel't I I. Ikdin. 27 J:lIllla ry 1948. HII FA Rerun ts. box 18 : Fromk S. Ilorne 10 M.1t Ma~ .... , '. 6 Febnt,uy 19--18. I-II-it-A Recol'ds, box 18: Fr.mk S. Horne 10 S. O. Gunier. II rebn,ary 19-18. ~mFA Recmds. box 18: S. I). Cllnicr 10 M.:,)'-1110111\ Fuley, 12 March 19,18 . 1-lIlt"A Reconh. bo.: 18: Fr.mk S. Horne 10 FredC I~

ick Van Pallen. 16 March 1948. UHF,\ R''Cllnb. box 18: A. 1_ Thompson 10 He rbert G. Re,lm'lII . "A 1-k'G11l flr Ihe Miami. ~lorida Mil101'i ty Group ~I ousing 1'.,)hle1l1: 12 J uly 1\)48. l'I1-IF,\ Records. ho.: 7.",0: ErnL>i1 I. I\:m, 10 F''ank S. 1-lo rne . !W Oclober 19,18. III-IF" Record~. box 750; Enu!.\t I. 1\:111, 10 \\~lrrclI L.xk,,'OOtI. 2'J October I!NS. IIHFA Records. box 750; H uber. M. Jackson 10 A. H.. lI ,m~n. Miami Field Trip RcJlOI'! . 15 August 1951, IUn''' Records. box 750; Fr.lIl l S. Home 10 Alben M. Colo: .:\ Allril IY:,3, HHFA Rl"Conls, b<>:\: 750.

48.A. L Thompson 10 I-Ie l'ben G. Rt.."<Iman. Field Trip Rep"rl: Miami and Key We!lt. ~lorid ... I NOI'Clllbe,' HH!.I. I'IHFA I(cconls. box i50: WoULmd Cillogl). ,v'goo NQI~';IIg III II" MilH~i Arm, 22: Vil'rick. "New l'lolisi ng for N.'j{I'O<·s in I)"d .. (.oUIII),. ~l"rid:o: I~.

340 FLORIDA H ISl'()RIC.,\1. Q UARTERL\,

:lll(lmo\'c all tllC blacks o Ulside thc ~'li:l1lli city limits remained unfulfi lled b)' the mid-1950s. Libcrt), Cit)' had i1ldeed become Ihe nucleus ofa Ilew black communilY, as Mia mi ami Dade Coul1I.Y leade rs ,uH icipaled in Ihe 1930s, but Overto\\'n remained . undcrgoi ng tra nsforIllation in thc 1950s with the lise o f the MCOllcrele moIlSU;rs.- \\'hen launched in 19:)6. Ihe inl(' rsta lc high\\~I)' progl~ ulI promised to revive Miami 's languishing ce ntral busincss district ami pe rmit future expallsion and rcdc\·c lopmcm . Dade Colllll)' leaders antici pated fu rther rClllm';lj of blacks from Overtown as inner-city express\\~\}'S

I'ippe d throllgh thc COllllllllllilY inlO dOWll(O\,'11 Miami.'" Throughout urban America, inte rsta te high\\~ \}'S were built

lhnlllgh u rban cellte!'s, dcstroying lI'ide sw,lIh s of construcl.t:d la ndscape and uprooting ent ire cOln munitic::s, Local o fficia ls <llI ickly n :cog-lI il.ed ho\\' to usc higlm<l)' COllSll"UClion to c1i millille "blightedn(' ighbo rhoods and to redc\'elo p or Mrecon\'en" 1~ ,lllahle illl teH:il), land. In most big cilies, liI,--, fo rced I"cloc,uion o f blac ks and ol he rlow, illCQlne urixmitl...'S intensi fied the spa lial reorhr.mil.<llion or rt.'Si<icnlial IIc igh lx>rhood!l lhat had l>cell unde rway sincc the e nd of \\'01'1<.1 War II. Tlt is process produced newer "sccond" ghettos in ronneri ), white St."CtiOiIS o r in unbuih rringe arc.iS of ,ne lroIXllil:tn rcl,rlons .....

T he conS\l1lCtion of lme l"S tatc 95 in Dade COllllty pro,i dc's a IXI\\,erful exam ple of racially mOlil'ated decision·making wilh lung·tenll consequences. As early as 1956, the Florida StillC RO;ld Depart' llt:nl , ill

cOl'UunCiion \\'iill the Dade County Commission ami locil b\lsin es.~

leaders, routcd interslal.c 95 d irt.."CII )' through (h'l' ll0Wn ami into dO\\1ltown Miami. Alternative plans using all abandOI1l:d 1-101";d:l East Coast Railroad conidol' wc~ I'(' r(j(~cwrl ill anlid palion thaI. as h ighwa y planne rs 1101ed , Ille OVCrlOWIl routc would provide -all1ple rnom fo r Ihe Ii.ltu rccxpansion oflhcccnU<l.l busi llcssdismCI in a wcslerl)rdirec· tiU!I,~ C.ont l1l is.~ioncrs and planners mpped inlO the long c IIllpa igll dating- back to th(' 19~ of movi ng: all blacks 0111 t)fOl'cnown.~'

.. ~. Mold . -R..c(" ,ultl Sp;.ct: in Ih" Modem C11I,~ 1I)().58. 5O. lIt" m, - 1'latHlt'd [k51ntClifll1: Th" Inlel",; I .. le5 :mcl c;.,ntml Cil)' lIou,in): ,- in

Amn.{"" /I'm ,il/IE f'oli'1; f rom 0" '/;""mml 10 Ih, /(01"" ''''J'/,r 1/1"11". ' ·I\. J"hn E Uaum:m CI :.II. (O:.,lkg ... SI;uioll. I'e llll .. ::mOO): G:If" T. Si'h\\'II"I1 .. -Urb;ul FICO:"01\" ,.m.1 1h" Imcl1It<lI" S)"I~'III: Sou/hn'" r.nJ'iomm I .. ,,,, Iln '''''' 4!1 (:\ I:Jn:h 19i6 ): "~51 3, ,"'p. ·lii-K:' .

!i I. Mi,II"i PIMlnin): ,mti "lOll;"): I\o;.u\' 1"11, :\I"",,, /..illll: II"""" 11",,; Ivporl on Tro/a· ,,, ... 1'1"" fiw T"'jjin'~'J' (Mi;uni. 1955); Wilbul' Sm;I" ;lIId A~~i,u es. " iIIa,.,,IIIgh,,"'y 1'1"" fur /l1'/"4,,11;/{111 (JIIII, Q,,,,,/)" No,jtill 1't'1lfffrtljof SIIII, Uom/I""","I""'" "",/I)ru/, r-l) II11/Y eomm • .uim. (New I lan: lI , Conn .. 19:.li), 33-<14: Ihde COIIIIl\' C"", ,,, iosi<l11 ,\I illlllO, 18 Ot·ce tllh.:r IWo(;.

34 1

• .. ~ ~ . "

.. •

$T' I ... • ..

5~ -'.

"en.11 ,ie\<' of Ih .. 1111<'1$1<11" 95 dO .... ·l1Io • ..u Mi:llu i imerchangl' . Comll'lIclion pro. ,i<kd a new opporlUnilY to destroy Ch-crlo .... n and fore.' bl.,ck!i 10 more dislam ne ig hbortlOt)(b . Colnp ll' lell in \h .. mi.t-1V6O:l. Ihe inter(h:m!ol'~ look lip nn-m y ~u"t' .. blod(s and d CSlrop:d the housi ng ofabolU len IhOIl S:UI.1 pe{Jplc. eo"'/tlJ oJ I/U- Horida iN/)(IrI",nll uf '/ i1l " J/lOrlutioll, 'filllt,lwjJNC.

Conseqllcn tl)', whe n the downtown leg of the expressway .... 'as

completed in the mid-1960s, it ripped thro ugh the center DrOverlown. wiping OI lt black reside.idal ,lI ld busillCSS areas, tile COlli lIIe r-

FLORlllA 1-IISTORle ,"1. Q UARn:RI,\,

-: =~ -- - -,

-_ ... --

Di:\.l l ihu.ion or Ar,'k;1Il ,\meliGl II neighbOlhoods in D:ldc COI.111CY, 1951, nbck CUI11-"' '''' ;Iic:.o WC I'" spr.';.d IhmughOUI IlICIn>I)()lil;'n Mi;llui. hm Ihe ollllill~'" or ",,"Cond !o:heno .I"'''''''pmem ... n hc ;;.,en in nonhwCM I)"c\. " :m ... hOR,,1 II)" II ... growiu!: h i" ... .. ... o ,umllll;I;C' "I Url""lIs,i lle, UlIc l'ty Cil y, ~n (\ Op;,-L",cb , fiQm 1I~""1lJ1d I~ 11 '011/ mId

1)'",,, / K, (;;J/(I(!.I)', N"g"" H""~;"g;1I Ihc ~I;"IU; "n'" (C"'I1I/(;"/,I,., HII,. I'JJI),

cial and cllhul<ll heart of black Miami. One massh'c e.;presswa)' il1tc rchange alo ne (1-95 and 1-395) look lip twc llfy squarc blocks of d ensel), settlcd land and destroyed thc hOllsing of about tcn thou-

WHITEN ING MIA ... U

WHERE BLACKS un -1090

M% OAMOAE

50% TO 14%

25% TO 4$%

343

Oh!rihuti~Ul of Afri(:111 American ndghhol'huods in Dade Coum y. 1990. Filly )'ca l'll of gO"cl1l1nclI\ housing policic~ ami ,..-cu"d gheUO de,'CIopmclU resultcd in !hc 1U':t.''Y n :sidl.' m i:.1 ((o11(Cll\l"'3.lioll o f h b e"" in nonhwcM I),,{]o: CoUnI )'. r.l) llI'lay oJ ,II/'Illt Omi, UJtJllly 1'f"'''';lIg Ixtx"'lrIt'IIl. M""", ,

sand people. Reflecting o n Miami 's interstate experience a t a 197 1 tr.U1spon ation planning scmil lar, black po lit ical leade r Alhalie Range a ngrily staled :

344 FLORI I},\ I-IISTO RICAL Q UARn :RLY

T he Greater Miami area is a classic exampl e of the tra nspOn <ll1011 planners' disregard of the inn e r-d lY populace. After co nducting nOl o ne single public hearing in lh e Cellu,,1 District of the Ci l}' of r-,'Iiami, 5000 hml.~i ng uni ts were deslI"D)'cd llelwccn 1960 and ]969 in the all-black downtown arca of Miami to make room for the Nonh-South Exp ressway ..... T he result is thai new .du1l1s II'c re imlliediately crea ted by dClllOlilio ll of 5000 un its of low-cost housing in o lle arca, forc ing J 2,000 people inl0 a crowded hOllsing marke t with \~rt ua ll )' no new low- or modcra lt:-illcomc housin g \~Ican c i cs. Poor fami lies, blocked by racia l d iscri min:llion from movin g to new arca.~ were forced in to ex isting ghc ll os creati ng a h igh e r density and incredib le o \'ercrowdi ng of la rge fa milies inlO one-hedroom apartJ1H;nIS.

In fi"ILs tral io n , Range regrcl t.cd Iha l Dade Coullt )' Iranspor t;tlion cxpen.~ p la nn ed still 1IL0 re ex preSS\\~ LrS "and as lLsual they were in low-income n cigh borhoods.~ Th e construct ion o f InterSlalc 95 and o th e r expressways lhrough dOWntowl1 r.,·liami vinl mll}' destroycd O\'e n owLL as a viable comllLlmi lY. On I)' eighl tho usand of lon y thousand blacks who made tha t neighborhood ho me bclo re inte rSlal e conslruct io n now t"1!lLL ai n in the lI ew urban wllsle land .'"

Since the la IC 1950s, slum cleaL, mce and urban rCll el\,<,1 havc fac iliw tcd funh er cxpa nsion of r.,'l iam i's CCIl II':LI business district into the fo rme rl ), l"i hL':LIlI OVcrtOWlI commun ity. City, county. and fede ral o llice huilrli ll bl"S ali(I parking 10lS h;l\"c gobbled up conside rabk space. l\'lo re rccc ll l projcct~ for upscalc a pa l"l Ill CIL\S ami shop~ pi ng ( Cll le rS a nd a sports arena resuhed in th t: furth e r destruction of OvcrtOWIL. Il)' Ihe en d of Ihe C L~I of exp ressway bui ld ilLg and Uf

O,IIL rcdevc lopmcll t. lillk- remain ed of Ol"crhm'1"\ 10 recall its days <IS a thri vin g CC li lcr o f black communi ty l ifc. ~'

:.1. "Wh:u Abuu. '''l' N<!);rn •. 'S Upmoh:d br Expressl",,)': Mum" 1/",.,,1<1, " ,\larch I!).''>i: Palll C. \\":1\ 1. "R..toc;' linn "flJC"""n~ I)isplaced h}' H iJ.:hll"d)" C"nSlm Clion.Adrninisll~ll i \ 'l' Repon. U:.,k Culll1h' M:ou:'g" "'s Offict:. 1:1 Ft:hrll:" 'Y 1959:J "",ni l:O Grt:t:m ". " 1 I ulLsin~ Sim:l\i()11 Tighl for Low-II1 ... .J,lI l· l :n)lIp: in M;/lrl,i "''"!.'Wt'I: ,\ St",II' '" iJ.tni! ! ~l i:"I1 i. 1 9.~). ~~: M. Alh"li .. Rallg" . · C i,il'·" I'anici l"' tion in Ihe "'k lmp,)lil:", T'~"" I)(}rt:u i uli l'I"'" ning I'n><:I:.~s: in M/'Im/IfIlI/IIII Ttmu/KJ,.tll-1;011 I 'lmilling "vmi,,"fl': ,\limn,. I-1midl/ (W:osh in;:wr1 . D.C .. 1!.l71). 3!-H1. (jm.>",Ii .. " "n 39.

53 . .\Iohl. "R.:,cc ~,,,I Space ill Lhe l< lodcno Cit)': 1 :1~J-4I ; ~liIan Dillh} .' 1 :II.. HIIIl/ 1t'1//n·/: "l"h, Jl;, lvrirallm/,<ul; "(Tffm.,/,,, ,·/lJli'm I 'wiffl., Qlllh, 0.""·1"",,, Com", ,,,, ,/)· ( Mi:lln i.I!.I'JiI ).

W I IiT ENING M IAM I 345

Fo r the !lIOS! pan , blacks uprooted rrom th e Ovcrtown expresswa)' rOllle ended up in Libe rty Cit)' and more dist.'llll communities such as Opa-Iock., and 0 11'0 1 City in north,,'e81 Dade Coun ty,)' l\)'

1990, accord ing to Dade Count)' populatio n maps, the e ntire nonh,,'!!sl quadrant or the COUrlt)' had become primarily black. The plans oflhose who c;u-ried o ut mcial zoning in the 1930s and 1940s had come 10 rruilion,»

Au thor 's NOle: This article is a revised version o f an ex pe rt witness repoft submitted in the case o r AIIII-MOIlr Adker 1'1 (II" Plaillliffi, II,

T he Un;ll'(i Stales Dtp<lrtmml of t!OIlS;'lg mul Urban IklH!lo/lll1nll and Metro-Oml,. Golmly. Case No, 87.Q874-CIV-PAINE, The ""kI'J'GISC Ix"ga n in 1987 when sc\'el<ll black rcsiden lS of Dade CoUlll)' public hOllsing filed a civil righL'I da_'Is actio n lawsu it in U.S, Disll'icl Court . charging th:1I discrim inal.ol1' policies had restricted blacks 10 bligh ted housi ng projeclS while no n-blacks were directed to mo,'C desir,lblc Scaio ll-8 ho using, These PI')lClices, it \\~IS alleged , perpct\I.u,ed racial segregation and lhe racial isolation o f blacks in Dade Coullt )'. After more than a decade o f legal wl~lIlgling, Dade CoUIlI)' and federal hOllsing ofli cials sellied ""ilh the plain ti fTs in June 1998. Accordi ng to th e mult i·million do llar seul l;! ment. Sectio n-B housi ng would be ope ned up 10 black.'l, and Dade Count)' \\'o uld make special effo rts \0 dcsegregate p redominantly bl:lck public housing proj eclS, The purpose o r th is expert witness report was 10 document in sollie detail thc lo ng-tenll housing policies of Dadc Count)' ;111 <1 federa l agencies that fi rst crealed and Ihen pcq x:tuOIl ed 111cial segregatio n in public hOllsing an d in residcmial patterns genera II )'.

;; '1. Mohl. ~Makillg Ih .. Second Gh .. tto in ~ "'I rt)p<ll it:m Miami ." 39:;"127; Tercsa V;tI1 I» 'kc, · ~ I i;"ni ·s Second Ghl'II"- (MA Ihes; .... tl",i<l;I Allaill ic Unin.' Isit)', 1991 ).

55. Mct r.,.l)adc (;ououy I'lanning D" pamne.,. , " l1/mllllum l'mYf l lfmJ: Iw, 11"11 /I i$paNic- Ungill, l>adt Co.w fJ. f bridn, 1980--2OOQ (Mi;.mi , 1987), mllp fur black roi· demial lla\terns in 1990: "T he l.'lOI 'lIion of Ulack Miami." Min ... , /J"nM. 28 NO\'t:mhc r 19S3, see rnap or "1);1<10:'5 Hlack Comlllulli lics: !.II\ ; -nreanu :Illrl o.."SP;I;r. lJIack M;: .. "i Tr.msfonm:d ." Min",i I/n'"M, ;, &pIC"' t:.C" 1!)9:l. sec ""'1' "f ~ lII :tck 1-1i).:r.u ioll-l900 til J9'JO."2 IA: Mctr.,. I);,II .. (;ounl)' I'1;,uII;n).: Depart· "'em , Mo/)ility ,'oll""S ill D"d, (;o'OlIJ. 1964·1969 (Miami, 1970).

The Origins of Tallahassee's Racial Disturbance Plan: Segregation, Racial Tensions, and Violence During World War II

by Jon Evans

A new Negro will re tllrn from th e war-a biuet' Negro if he is diS<lppoilllCd again . He wi ll have bee n laught to kill , to suITer, 10 die for something he believes ill , and he will live by theSt' m les t.o gain his pe rsonal rights, !

On the e"ening of [aste r Sunday 1945. a quie t darkness fell .on Tallilhasscc, home to Florida 's stal l! govt.: rnmc lIl , the Florida State College fo r Women , and Dale ~""bl)' Airflt:ld. Arter a day of holiday festivities and cd ebratio ll , ;\c1.ivilics in Lhe small IOWII began to wind down. Yel, around 10 p. m .• the stillness \\~IS broke n by Ihe sounds .of angry \'oices and shattering glass in the ci ty's predominantly black Frenchtown neighborhood ,! The calm .of lh;1I Sunday e"ening W::15 marred by a dislUrb:mcc in volving black troops from Dale Mabry Field and Carrabe lle"s Camp Cordon Johll~ to ll . The melee began. accordin g to Tallahassee Ch ief or Po lice \V.L. PI-.II,c r. aner -abolll 200 to 250 colorcd t!"Oops ... we ill inlO Olis McNeil's place ... <1 11(1 w id McNei l , .. they were goin g ove rseas ",nel ... were goi ng 10 lake Frenchtown ap<ll"1 and paim il rcd .- The riOI I' lged th roughout Fre nchtown ror m"cr twO hours.'

I . i.u r ilk D. Milno: r. : l il11 c: .... w in Iho: A"III\",- ,v"", Ili1",b/u-. 1:1 Mar(l, I\H4 . ~!l9. 2. (T.d laha ........ ·c·) Om/r 1x...Q('ml. t Ap,;t , :l ,\pril 19-1:'. 3. Ibid .. 2 /\1'1;119.15.

[346 [

T Al.lAUASSt:E'S RACIAL DIS ruRMl\'CE PI, .. \N 34 7

After dcslro)'ing McNei l's estahl ishmc ll l, Ihe riotel's Illo\'ed soulh alo ng r-,'lacomh Slreet where the)' gathered rock.~, hottles, "discarded ball bead llg and pi nio n gears fro m aUlo mobi les, and miscellaneous pieces of odds llnd ends that could be used as missiles.

M As Ihe cily's Df/if)' /JeI1lQr'Tat described, Ihe mob proceeded 10

hurl Ma rock th rough Ihe window of Pete and Nim's poolroom . .. and then they milled alo ng a 11(\ knocked th e .... 111dOwOIlI of Bob Ridla rdson ·s l"eSla\ II';'ll l. They l1 eX I tore lhe pl ate glass window Olll of the Capilal lheatre licket booth . . . . T he)' also knocked t.he ... wi ndow OUI of lhe Rain bow beer parlo r and the ... window OUI o f Max

Smart's barber ShOp.M 1\\"0 bras pu mps and an o il tank were o\'erIlI l"Ilcd al a gas stat iOIl 0 11 Ihe corner of r-.'Iacomb and Virbri nia strects, Ball bearinb'S and pinion gea rs \\'e re then used to shalle r the window o f Linco ln ·s jewdl), store. The soldiers nexi converged on ~ the colo red USO 0 11 Tennessee street wherc the)' lore the scree n doors off the fro nt and rcal" o f the building.M,

Ci t)' autho rities laler reported that as the rioters ra mpaged fo r two and a half hOlil'S, both local and military police responded 10 thc dislUrbance. Siale highway patrol uni ts in Quincy, ~'lonticc1 10. Chiple)" and L,ke City were alerted in c<tsc the \~o lence spre'ld. Accordi ng to city poli ce no one was inj ured ~and no ne were arrested b)' cit)' po lice men ;lltho l.lgh lhe f.,'Ws did pickup a few cliSlllrbers. T he re was considc",ble pro perly l oss."~

W"!"lime racial \~olcnce was not a new pheno mena i ll tile nalion, nor \\,;IS this o utbreak the firsl in Ta llahassee. Indeed . during the waning days of the Second World War, the State of Flo rida, in cnt~ unCiion with icde",l forces, de"eloped a secret plan to <lue11 sitch disorders, The Co(miillllled, Composite Phm of All CilJil /AlII £11-fUfulllell1 Agenciesfol' lIu' SIlIJ/Jl'essiOIl of llaci<11 Dist lllV(mres illlhe Cil)' of '/ illlaIUlssff, Norida delailed methods to restore o rder th rough chi! law enforce ment and lllilital1' forces. And the plan incol"ponlled th e far-siglllccI racial policies of Florida 's chief esecuth'e, Spessard L. Holland . Whil e the speci fic G \USC of thc EaSier riot in Tall ahassce was nevcr dctermined and tilc causes of other C011l,CIl1PO"' I1Co us nidal OI l1 breaks varied , all were rdat.ed indirectly to the gl"Owing frustration lind anger of African Amcricans. In the mnio n as a whole, and Ihe U.S. milital), ill pal'liclilar, blacks were discrim· inated agains l at C\'CI)' level. That sold iers sworn 10 prOICCI and d<."

,1. Ibid. r,. Ibid .. .j April I!H5.

~48 FLOR[[)A HISTORICAL QUARn:RLY

fend the nalion wi lh Ih e il' lin!s \\'e re subjec ted 10 Ihis treatment ull dermined the natio n 's linest \>::llues.~

In the 1940s, Afri ca n Ame rica ns were denied equal citizenship in \'inually c\'c ry scgmclll of the ir li\"es. Blacks faceel obstacles tu full part ici p'llion in poli lical. economic, cdu("ation al. and legal spl le rcs. [\'Ian)' sou lhe rn Slales mail lmin cd inst itutio nalized disfra nchisement th rough the po ll ta )( and lite racy r('quiremcnts. Somh· ern sl.ates contin ued tu relegate black children to inferiur educationa l facilili(!s unde r the erroneous doclrin e nfc;cpamte but cClual. The single most perniciolls aspect of the r~ ld;, 1 casl(' system. anrlthc mosl embl ematic of the te nuous natLIf(' of black American chilenship. 1\~IS the spccler o f the Iynell Illob as the guardiall o f the sO lLllwrn SlatLIS quo. When the national economy began 10 c)(paml. as a result of \\~lrIime mobiIiL:ttio n. blacks again \\'C1'e cxcitified. T IIC hlatil llt incfl1 lgruit y betweeJ I Anle rican opposition to Axis mcism in Europe. Afdca, and Asia ami the mainlcn;Ulce of a mcial casu' S)'SlCln a l home cncrgized a <:i"i l ligllls c:un paign that dema nded o pportun ities for full Afric.m Amcrical l participa tion ill the national defensc.;

T he struggle to conquer fascism abroad and the forces o f J~I C

ism and higot r), a t home '\~LS kIlO\\'n as the ~ Dol1ble V" cam paign. Th e Natiol la l Associatio n for ti lt, Ad\~I IlCemcl lt of Colored People. the black press. and A. Phi li p Rando lph . president of Ihe Urotherhood of Sleeping Car Ilortel'S. led Ihe MDo ublc V" mOVClllent. lImong whose ach ievelllenl~ wcrc Ihe 19'10 passage oi"an amcnded Conscript io ll Act 10 remove proh ibitions to black enlist men I in Ihe

miii la l1" a nd th e H.I41 Cl'eation of the Fair Employmen t PI~lrtices Commission to implemell t a ba n o n "discriminatio n in defense in· dustrit,'S and in fe dera l agencies. ~·

Alt hough Ihe~ Illeasur(~s appeared to partly meel black de· mal lds. nei l he r Jne:lsure \\~ IS as effcctive ,L'i inili:ll l), envisioned. The Conscription ACI proved more a symbolic than tangible vinory. Ullder d w act. appl k:lllls were required 10 be "'acceptable 10 thc land or n;t\'ai forces" ror induction into the S(.'rvice. the reby a llow· ing considC I~lble l cc\\~l)' ror I"t:jcction of black \'olll ll leers. Simi larly,

ii . /{'111111 oj Th, N"IIO,mi ,Id",.wry c(OO"",,,I,,m "" r.".'{ /)1J(}f"tin. (New , 'ur\; , 19f>fl), to·1.

7. 1'.llIici" S"lIi,~",. /)"1' "f /lot" (eh"p'" I-I ill. N.C .. 1<)9(.), 135. 106-7,l'I2. HI. 137. 8. S,,1Ii'';I1I . IhrJ. of /l1J/K. ] Y)-7: Waltcr WIiil('. " 1\ \ OUI (''',,,n il) T ...... · Tht' N"t'gm

DC'Il;!"d. 11u~ Ri~lll 10 Fighl for h ," S(I/IInl"1 {-;,Vlllllj{ ",.\1. ]'1 Deccmher 1 ~J.lO, 27. fiHi6.

T ALLAHASSEE'S RA.CIAL OISTURUANCE I)LAN 349

the FEPC was hobbled by ilS ~inadequale budget, ' .. slllall staff, and the meager enfo rcement penalties provided. "9

Ironically, the Ameri can military rejected Illany African American volumeers at a lime when the War Oepanll1ellt could nol. meet its man power goals. In July of 1940, the Army struggled 10 raise 280.000 men, well shon of the 375,000 man fo rce requested by Congress. In a discussion of the nation 's most pressi ng defense needs, military experts listed the lack of equipment 'L'i second only 1.0 th e shortage of trained manpower. When they were e nlisted , African America ns discovered themselves restricted to "Negro regimen lS.~ In September 1940, white en listment in t.he 2"· Anny Corps Area (encompassi ng New York. New Jersey, and Delaware) was far below the anticipated level, while African American enlistm ent opportunities were limited to the number o f vacancies in black regimenlS. In at least two instances, African America n volun teers who possessed badly needed skills-in these cases a pharmacist and a pilot -were turned away because th e segregated milit'lI)' stnlcture could not accommodate them. The pilot, \-\falter L. Robinson , later joined the Royal Air Force afwr volu nteering in Ca nada. lo

The few blacks serving in the "Negro regilllenlS~ were oftcn li ltic more than "selYdll lS in khaki~ ullder the leadership of white ol~ flcers. Prior to the implementation of conscription, black units of the regular Army comprised the 9th and I Otll Caval'1' and the 24 th and 25th Infantl)' regiments. Men in these uni t,> were 1101 trained as combat troops, but were utilized as hU'uck drivers, cooks, c.a. relaken; of horses and in other meniallasks. A few lwereJ also serving in the band and as clerks and as care lake rs of the equi pmenl." There were only five black oflicers in th e Regular Army, three of whom were chaplai ns. "

Opportun ities for blacks in th e Navy were limited even more severely. Whi lc the Army segregated African Americans into separate uni ts, the Navy had no all-black troops. Therciore , in the supposed "best interests of the Navy and the countl)'- and ;'the best interests of the men themselves," the Navy restricted black enlistl11el1l to the ~messll1a n branch" which consisted o rm enial positions

9. Doris Kearns Goodwin. No O,.di"a ry Timi: (New York, 1994) , 253; While, -' iI 's Our CoIIl1II)' Too. ·- 27.

10. "Defense G:.ps: Board 's job of Plugging Them just c;..·lIing InlO High Gear.N""m<lffll. 15 j uly 1940. 14-1 ... ; While, -'It 's Our COUIltIT Too,'- (i2.

II . While, - ]1 '5 Our CoUIII!")' Too.- 62-63.

:\50 FLORIDA H ISTORICAL Q UARTERL\'

In Ihe 19-t0s. Afrirnn All1l'riC'oIn wldil'r5 III Dale Mabry Fidd worked. Imrshiped. 11l1d. lIS sho"'11 in Ihis pholugraph . :lIe il11'CgrCf(.'lcd f:oci llli':5. Co''''/<'ry o/H/Jf1a(l Sta/, II,r/lU"l, 'f{,{lill,m)N".

snch as mess 00)' and sicward . No African Amcl;can served . in any capad ty, in the Marine Corps. l!

Blacks in the mili tary Uccamc a closely scrutinized and widely reponed stoll' in the black press. The leadership of tile ~ Double V" G\lnpaign called fo r America 10 defend democracy by establishing equality o f opportllni ty al home. As Wi lliam H. Hastic, Dean of the Howard Uni\'er~ i ly Law School and ch~lian aide to Secre tary o f\V"r Henry L. Stimson, said , M\\'e wi ll bt= American soldiers. We " 'iII be American dilchdiggers. We wi ll be American aviators. We ,,'ill be American labore rs. \Ve will be anyth ing that any Ame rican should be in Ihis whole program o f national defemc. Hu t we won 'l be black il tlxiliarit.:s .....

Consequen tl}'. the \\'ar Dcpartlllelll became more attent ive to public perception of ils trc;lllllCIlI o f African Amcricans alld se t up illle l"l ial 111t.:cila!,isIlIS 10 in\'c§ligat e I he compla i! " S of bl ack service !n en and 10 t.: lI1phasize Ihe ro le o f Afri Cll lI Ame rica ns in the war efrOI"l . Ho\\"e\'e r. as Ihe scope ami visibility o f African Am erica n in-

t2. lbid .. &,1. 111. 1hi<l .

T AIL ·\ HASS££·S R.\ClAL DISfURIHNC£ Il l AN 35 1

vok emem increased. the whit,(..'-Crccled barriers to g rea te r civil rights became morc fo rmidable."

Of Ihe more than 920.000 African Ame ricans in World War II , 80 percent wert; tf<l.i ned in the Sou th . Mi lita ry sen~ ce b rought most of the m 10 the region where. as in c ivi lian life , blacks ~we re segregated im o the least desi,!,ble sections of the camps, areas that were co ngested and lacking in adeq uate ,·ecrealio nal facilities." One such base was in Cardbclle . Isola ted among the scrub pines and san d dunes oflhe Gulf Coas! sou thwest of Tallahassee, C"1I1lP CordonjohnsLOIl was a training cen ter for the liSt: o f amph ibious landing techniques and equipment. Numerous complain ts reg-drd ing conOicts betwee n black and wh ite so ldiers, as we J1 as th e ofte n deplorable conditions under which African Am ed cans served . drew th e a tten tion of the NAACP. the press. and th e military. '·'

An NAACP internal memora nd u m dated j anuary 6, 1944, d escribed the problem and in quired whet her Mano th er protest sho uld be made in reference to this particular cam p." Among th e conditions were the absence of

selvice clubs fo r Negro troops at this po rt although there [was! one fo r white troops. Negro soldiers [were] constantly . . . berated ... by white so uthe rners at this camp many o f whom [we nt] so fin as to calilhe Negroes ' Black Bastards' and (tried) to pic k fig hts wi th them . . . . The Nc.. ... groes (we re ) q uarte red in barracks having dirt floors and the t.o ilets [\,'e re J ,'c ry unsan itary in that there [was 1 no system of sewage disposa l o ther than by the men themselves.

Fllnhenllore, C-unp Gordonjohns{on·s African American sold iers we re on thei r third train ing assignment and belie\'ed they were being shuffled from base to base to prevent meaningful partici pation in Ihe war effort . MT hc se ntimen t of the gro up [was1 that rather than tolerate any longer ti le type of treatme nt they [had ) been subj ected to they would ra l.he r ·go ove r the hill · o r prefera bly be overseas , ~ a memo concluded. 's

14. Sullh-dll . /Jays if Hupt. 13&7. I:' . tbid., 1.'l6; G;uy R. Monniuo. ' World War II : in 7'11, Nt"" lIiJlQl)' of Nuridu .. ed.

Michae! C ''''1IOII (Gaines,·ille. ~l<l .. (996). 32:'. 16. -Regarding Cond i t i"n.~ <It C~'mp Gordon J ohnson [sir]. Flurida: in I>ofim oj /Io,

NAACJ~ 1'011 9. SniT.) 11: f)iv Tim;"fI /iOIl ill /h~ U.S. Arw d 1'011:1"$. 1918· 19". cd . Rich,'rd M. Datfiutllc (lkthcsd a. Md ., 19#9) , rnicrufihn . red 10. doc:. 10.

FLORIDA HISTORIC \!. Q U,\RTERLY

The Ph iladelphia IlI'CQrd speci fi cally no ted Camp Gordon J ohnston in a series o f an k les deLailing indigll ities suffered hy black soldicrs slatiollcd in the Somh. Beyond the lack of reCH.'a tional facili tics and th e difficulties of Jim Crow segrebralioll on ci· vilian bus lines. the Uuord noted how ~[ iJn o n I)' one ca mp-Gonio n J ohnson [sir], Fla.-was th ere evidence o f down righi , de· li bcr-uc discriminatio n. T here Negro soldiers [were] forced to PC I''' fo rm men;al tasks (slIch as latrine dillY) fo r the elll ire post, IhllS bei ng made, in eneCI. scn >;'lIl ts to the white so l cli ers.~ l;

In the fa ll of 19'14 a compan y of black soldiers slatio nt!d at C::unp Gordo nJohnston we nt o n strike o\'er Ihdr assignmell t I.ola· u'ine dut ),. An African American sold ier wrote WalteT· White . exec .. U1i\'e sec retary of Ihe NAACP, desClibill g a quie ti ), conducted Irial and subsequent conviction of lhe strikers. Regimental and com .. pan)' comllla nde rs hoped Ihat lh e sccrecy sU1'I"o lLllding the episode would l)I"c\'cnl bri nging - tOO much in fa m),- to the post. The author signed, wOne who \,·ould sen ,c.-1•

Dale Mabry Airfield also IV,untnled investigation. A. ~-laceo

Smit h , secretary o f the Texas NAACP, complained to Roy Wilkins, assistant secre lary of Ih e NAACP, abollt the

1Il000e than 3000 Negro sold iel"$ a l this FIOIida installatio n who [we re] be ing disc riminaTed againsl 10 the maximum degree. T hen : !\'~ lsl no Negro chaplain a~s iglled to th is cOll ling-cn! 10 whom Ihese me n may express their dista!He for this trcalJlle ll t in con fidc nce. O f thc 3000, 200 [were! woundcd ;md sick soldie rs need ing hospit:ll care. Till." ! had ] been declared ... disclualified fo r mili ta l) ' !;Cn ·ict!s uverseas. II sec lll fed ] lhal Ihest: InCl1 fW("l"c] bei ng delibcr .. aiel)' il1limidated so lhal Ih e), ma)' ask fo r dischargt!s fro m the arm)' \'oid of perm anent dis,'1bil iIY be nefi ts that [were l provided in such C IS(.'S. O Hicers in charge rcfllse(d] 10 adlIIit the$(' men to a general hospiml for prope r medica l care.1

'

C:1I11Jl conditio ns were compounded by th e o ppressive J im Crow s)"stell1 of segregatio n in Tallahassec :1IIc1 mher southe rn

17. (I'hil:,,!<-1!,hia) /imml. IX ~ I ay 19·14. tS. "C;ulll) Gw~lon .I0IUl'I"I1 , FI<o •• w iu l'IIfN:!' Itrll" "'M el : roll I ~. d"e. 6!!~ . HI. "Culldilium :.1 O:.le M:.hl)'. T:.1 I1:1h:lSke." in 1'''/1t'T) Qf lhl' ,vAiICJ: roll I~. d OC"". :J:!.

TALlAI-It\SSF.t:'S RAC!J\L DISTU RI~\NCf.: PLAN 353

lowns. One o f the most hlata lll acLS of somhern segreg-,n ion repo rted ly occurred on a train in Texas. A grollp of black soldiers a te in the "Colo red o nly" section of a din ing car while Ge rman prisoners ofw<lr diTWd in the whi te sectio n. O ne o f the African American sold iers later wrOl.e ~There th ey (th e Germans) sat. eating. talking, laughing, and smoking. T hey were enemies of our coun try, people swam to destroy a ll the so-ca lled democratic govenllllcnts of thc world. And there we I\'en:. l\h:n sworn to fight, to give o ur livcs For this cou ntry, bm WE we rc 1I0 t good enough to sit ill lhe IUl1 chroanL" Widely reported in the black prcss and reinforcing black pe rceptions of the pervasive ness of I.,.hite rac ism, the e pisode exci ted com mentary from thml ighoul African America n society, including lhe following poem. enti tled "Oefea1." by Witter Bynner.'"

On train in Texas German prisoners eat With whilC Ame rican sold iers, sca t by seal. \Vh ile black Ame ricall soldiers sit apa rt, T he I\'h ite men eatin g mCill. the black men hear .. Now, with that other \\~Ir a cenlllry done , Not the live NOrlh bUlthe dead South has won, NOl yet a riven naT ion comes awake. Wh om arc we fighti ng this tillie, for God's sake? Mark well th e loken of the separate seat. It is again o urselves who lll I\'e defeat.f '

Despite the evidence of segregatio n Iha t pen neated sou li lern 1II1litar), bases, t.rad itionalist white SOtltlTerners conside red blacks and other critics as outside agilalors. The Tallahassee Dail)' Dem()emt, in an anicle enti tled ~The SOluh Has No Race Problem," claimed that "So 1:-11' as sodal eq uality is concerned the South has nel'er considered this a problem. [t is a sim ple question thai is answered before il is e\'en asked so far as th e Southerner is con· cerned." Furthe rmo re. while "[p ]eople in . . . other seCTions of the country ... fraternize with the Negroes on <In equal sociallcl'cI, ag· itators ... propose social equali t), fro m evil or selfish moth'es . . , bUT the people o f the Sol lth are not influenced and .. . are tlO\ im-

20. Milm:r, "J ill' e rn,,· in Iho; AWl)': ~11 ; Rich;lrd M. Dalliulllo; . 0.:<1 .• 1'{'/lI'Il 0/ 11., NllAC/~ 11111'1 9, wio A; f)urri''' ;l!fJl;O'' ;" Ih, u.s. II rm~1 ,.o.(~. 1918· I'JJJ ( lk1h~b. ~[d .. 198<J). m;(Tofilm. reet 14, doc. 40!1.

21 . Willer B)'nlle r. "Ocr"a1 : N,'w U,,/mb/;r. 8 ~Ia )' t9-H. 627.

354 FLORIDA J-II ~"TORJCAL QUARTERLV

prcsj;ed. The answcr of the Somh is ... 'Ne\'cr:~ The edil.oriaiisl went o n to ominously assen that ~Thc pt.'Ople o f the South du 110 1

fear the Negro. . The pco ple of the South arc thoro ughly aequaimed with th e situatioll and know how to handle it. It is Ihe agitato rs Ollls ide th e South to who lll it the refore appears a problem. llH!sc people would do well 10 lei the Sout h a lolle ,,~

Local reaction to the ed itorial was mi xed . O ne reader, who signcd his lctter -A North erner. (Now living in Tanahassee,),~

called it -the rlllest answe r J have ever read for the rdce problem in thc nonh .~ Uut , anm he r rcader suggested that thc cditoriaiisl wfor_ ge l about yOlL bei ng beller than the negro, Ivhel1 evcry body knows d iffcrcnt, and yo ur Maker kno .... -s diffe ren t. You on ly fool yoursel f, no t civilized pcople.- This lcuer was signed "Soldier. Camp Cordon J ohns lon .~:D

In another edi torial enti tled " Le i Fact Dispel RUllIor,w the /Jail)' IklllQf""mi aimed at calming white fears that ~ \\~dr depanment policies fo rbidding discriminatio n bet\\'cen whi te and negro personnel " o n army pOSLS we re applicable 10 prj"ale busincs..'>Cs. Anxieties over "th e war depanmenl ... aue rnpt [i ngJ to cll/b ree <I lly ... po licy upon ... stores, tr;lIlspo rl:llion , th eatres, or recrcatioll<ll faci li ties whe re the policy would connict wit.h local ci\'ilian CUSIOIl1 or local law~ were unnecessary: the editorial assured alMlIled whilc cit izens tha t Ihc milit:uis proh ibitio n 0 11 di~ rilll i nal io ll pos(~d no Ihrc,lI to

the mai ntc nance of while institUlio ns. In the o pinion of man)' sollihem whites, and presumably Inany reside ll l$ of Tallah;L .. ~ec. segregation was not a pro blem to be solved. it was Ih e :\Ilswer 1.11 Ihe qucstion o f African Americans' place in sociel}'. The defe llse ami perpclUation of th e racial caste system W;IS esscnlial lO mOSI sollthem \vhites' perception o f a workable socie t y.~·

The conlliCI of beliefs and ideals between African Amelicans, particula rly those frOIll ollL~idc th e Soul h , an d southern whi les heightened racial tensio ns. Afri can Ameticans contin ucd to encounter rejection. segregation , and humiliation , and the resul ting frusm llion and anger manifested itself in man)' ways. "War ti me ra-

2'! . Thnnmlll Scming, "The Suuth H :,,~ No R.;.et: 1'1""hll'IIl," r n.ItJhassce) IJllil)' 1Jm.IJf"ml, 7 Augu"1 I!H4.

2:~. J)//iN ikW/()/T/II, !) ,\u!:m;1 t!H't. 24. lhid .. 7 Aug\l~l . !\ &plemlx'] I!H4.

T ALlJ\ I IASSEE'S R,\CI,\L D ISTURlit\ i\'CE PI Ai\' 355

Wh iles and bbcks worked ;Ilongsidc o ne ;"'OI l1 e r in ",,:(:h;m ical lrain;ng. COI" #.' )' oJ I·lorid" S(,,(, ,I ,rhi'''-l. "l illl" "ruJn.

cial disorders" e ruptcd ill many Am erica n cOJlllli uni lics-Mobile , De troit , Harlem , Lo s Angeles, Beaumont , Texas, and Tallahassee.'"

Beginning ill lhe fa ll o f 1942, Tallahassee expe rie nced recurri ng I<Ki:ll con flic ts of escalating severit y_J usl before 9:45 p. m. o n the even ing of Sc ptclllber 5, 1942 , a fight began bClwccn black sol-

~ECEIVED UI.;I' LIBRARY

o 6 2001

356 FLORI DA H ISTORICAL QUAR'I'F.RLY

diers frolll Dal e :'h hl"y Airfi eld a lld black ci\,ili;II's in Frencillowll , A group of Africal' American soldie rs reponed ly broke awa)' from Ihal fight to attack T. R, Baule, a white man ~ in Frc nchlown 10 c .. 11 for his laumh1'-~ Aftcr assa ult ing Uallle, the soldie rs fough l amOllg themselves in Lelha Alle n 's Fn:nclll uwn area cafc. located o n Ma· comb S,recl. By this time bolh mil il:lI)' ;nul civilian police had respo nded , btll o ll e of the d isonlcri)'. Pri\"atc \Vilbl1l" Iial-ris, a ttacked Tallah'L"scc policcl. lan Theo Couch , allempling tu wrest his ser\'ice I"('\'ol\'el" from him , During the struggle for the gun , OlTIcer Couch drew a sccond gUll fro m his pocket and ShOl Harris IlI'ke in Ih e aI>, donwn, AI the Dale Mabry hospital , HalTis laler ~died of pc rita n it is due 10 gunshot wounds,M:lI

A coro ne r's inqllesl presided o\"er by Leon CountyJudgc Ben A, Mcginn iss "heard mo re than a score of wilnesses~ and despite ~d if·

fering accounts of th e aClual shooting, ,gi\'(~ n b), Couch ami his fe llow o mcers and nCbrro miliL'lI) ' policcmen and negro soldie rs,~ a jUI) ' of six ",hite busiuessmcn Mretnrned a vcrdict that Harris died 'as the resnlt of gunsho l wOll uds !ired by Oflicer , , , Couch in the discharge of his dUI)' .u,d wasjusli!iable homicide as he aCled in sell: defense, ,,, The conflicting testimo ny conccrned thc posi tions of Couch and Harris al the momc nt the lalle r \\~.tS fatally wounded . Couch claimed both he and !-Ian'is stl"uggled 0 1' Ihe ground and Ihal Hanis had freed C,Quch 's service rCI'ol\'cr from il~ holster when Couch fired, "St;\"e",1 negro miliwl)' policemen ,M however, claimed ~th a t I'larris was sho l while, , ,on th e ground bU I differed in their sta tcments as to whethe r Couch was rising ... fro m his knees or standing, . ' whcn hc shot.~ Another black military po liceman, Jamcs Sam pion J r .. testified Ihal "Harris 1\~dS knocked Ullconscious 10 the ground ' by someone in civi lian clothes' and then Couch eire\\' h is service revolver fro m Ihe right side and shot three times,"»

The acti o" s or cil'ilian and military authorities im mediatel ), af· tel' tile altercation demonstrated tlleir detenninatiOlI 10 preve nt further escalation of [he disturbance, An ,!I1ucd secu ril)' detai l from Dale Mabry fi eld arril'cd and o rde red all African America n soldiers to re t.urn to Ih e ba.s<:, At Ih al po int civilian o Oiccrs, including sheriWs depmies a nd highway p: .... olrne n dispersed remaining crowd 10 prevent fLll'LhCl' trouble,'I>I

26, fhlll)' IklMn,,', 6Scpl~'lIIbc r, 7 s..',,,O!mt"·I. 1,[ ScI'H: I1l~ " (';H2. 27. l loicl., 1-1 September t!HI! , 1H. tbid .. ii So:plclll lw r 1 94~ ,

T ALlA HASSEE'S RACIAL D1STURIJ,\NCE PIAN 357

On the afte rnoon of November 6, 1942, a "free--fOl"all ligh t~

bro ke out be twee n black soldi e rs and white civilian em ployees at a Dale MablY field warehouse o\'e r the lise o f a "whiles o nlyW soft drink machine. The fracas repo rted l>, began after the white civilian worke rs objected 10 a black so ldier's au em pI 1.0 gel a drink from Ihe vending machin e. E,'entually, some twenty-five to th iny African Anlt:rican soldie rs a nd an unspecified numbe r ofwhi tc civilians hL ... callle involved, resulting in eigh t civilian il"Uuries.I'"J

Te nsions be tween African American soldiers and whiles in Ta llahassee increased th roughout. the war as ci\'il disturb;U lces malTed th e pe <lce of tile small sOllthern [own. In the early ho urs of August 10, 1944 , Tallahassee police worked with milimry police to quell a riot of IWO hundred Afri can Americans protestin g the arrest of live black soldiers said t.O be in tox icated and armed with .. tlOrs and pistols. Armed wi th riot guns and tear gas. the combin ed civilian and military force suppressed the rne lee.~

Th e AUhJ'lISI 10'" disturbance prompted a le tter from Sergeant Louis f\J exander to the NAACP. Alexander expressed frustratio n with the conditions he cncOLintered while SI<lIioncd at Camp Gnrdo n J ohnston. From "Somewhere in DlII.ch New Gllinea" he wrote, "Bein g o ne o f the many soldiers thaI, W,L~ fo rced to take train ing at Camp Gordo n J ohnsto n, Fla. before being sent overseas fOll nd man)' things and cond itions that we re a bl ow 10 soldie r mo rale . I am Slire thaI real Ame rican 's [ sic] do nOI sanction th e overa ll trea tme nt o f Negroe soldie rs in those areas." Alexande r also nOled Ihac ~Tallahassee. bein g the on ly town located ncar enough tha t it soldie r can go and el"U0Y the facilities of the U.S. O., sho llid be willing in tile spiritorcivilian cooperatio n to assure soldie rs treaunelllthat becomes a ll AmericaJl .K~l

Instead , on September I, 1944 , in an apparelll response to the need for greate r law enforcement and stric te r segreg<ttion. th e c ity organ ized a Ta llahassee police auxiliary. "Five times large r than the regular po lice department ~ the au xiliary was ~ tO supplement the regular policemen ill their line o f dut.y~ and ~ in case of emergencies. ~ T he Chambe r of Comme rce fo nned a military affairs com-

29. tbid. 30. Ibid .. lO "\Ul!llSl 1944. 31. Lou i~ AIt:"'llIde r [0 the NAAC['. 7 Sep[em\.Jc r 1944. in I'apm 0/111, NAACJ~ IH'"

9, ..... l'.s I~ roll 12. doc:. 6.'10.

358 FLoRI DA HISTORICAL QIli\Rn :RI.\'

.nitt cc, which f,Lnh er s.Lggestl;c! -Tighter supervisio n of d riJLki ng places ;lnd OI her night spots.- '"

By th e next l1Iomh , greater supervisio n of black soldie rs' reereation and '11'0 in ciden ts resulted i.l the lemporary discont inuance of-convoys o f negro soldiers to Tal laha_~sce~ and lim ib on the -sale ho urs fo r be(' I' on \\'cek days and over the weeke nds.~ The fi rs. occurn:d 0 11 October I when two to three hundred black ser...,ice men lried to libcr.l\c ano the r black soldie r fro m police custody. The arrl:sting offin!1"ll we re laking the sold ier to their car whe TL Ihe soldiers. armed l"itlL pocket knives, confronlcd them. Mi litary and ci"i li:LIl police n :sponded to the arresting office rs' re{!',est fo r assis-la llce. a mi tear gas \\~IS ('11 lp1l 1)cd to disperse the II.ob .... ' Mili tary police respo nded to a second distu rbance that S<lIl1C day al 8 p. lI1 . It \\~IS a fight invoh'i ug sever.11 hun dred black troops and was sulx \ued by military po lice. Followin g the second incident. a ll husin css establishmen ts were shut down for the nigh t.~

Civic officials reacted quickly to prC\'CIll fu rthcl' i ncide nL~ of African Am erican violence in Frenchtown. Complain IS by TlLllahassee CilY ~·l;lIIagcr Malco lm N. Yance), and Ihe cit}' po t in' depa nme nt inspired Urig-ddk r Genel'lll W, 1-1 , Holcombe, commandc:J' o f Camp Cordon Jo hnslo ll. to suspcnd base trallSponatio ll o f' bl ack soldie rs 10 Tallahassee. Yancey .... ,,\ S primari ly concen.ed wi th the soldiers' -u ller disregard for b l\' and order- and their -absolute rcfusalln obc)' Oi'ders o f the mili 1:1I1' po l icc and 0 111' local police.-'"

Ya ncc), assigned respo nsibi lil}' lo r the reccllI civil unrest to the ht:havior of black soldiers 0 11 I c;L\'(~: ~Th csc disl.urbances have reached t,he point where it is unsafe lo r our wh ite popul:u ion to pass the area in which th ese negroes are unloaded .... The most recelli occurrence of a drunken mob of negroes occu rred last Sund<l)'.- Funhermnre, Yancey argued , - If the militalJ cann ot cOl1trol .hese men, I do nOI Ihink it righl and prope r to expect a community o f o ur size 10 furn ish ample police fo r al leasl 1.000 d ru nken lleAro t roops.~"

In the \\"Ike Of liLc Octobe r I riols, mi li lltry and ch';lian aut horities IIlCIIO di!U:lIss lh e safety ur lh e civilian po pulalioll a nd Ih e sol-

3~ . I),IIIJ 1),0"'0"''''1. 1 ScplcllIb.,r 1~H4 . 3:1. Ibid .. 2 (kluhcr, 4 O('lolhc r, I t CXhJhcr HI I·!. ~H . tbid ,, :! Qclill"" I!)I'I. 35. Ibid" 4 Oclol",r 19H. )1.-.. Ihl.t.

T ,\Li..AI-IASSEE·S RACIAL DISTURIlA,'<L'E PLAN 3f,9

diers. Ya nct:y corHinucd LO voice his concern O\'cr the presence o f the African American soldi ers in Ta llahassee: '" I feel like these negro troops have hui ll up so much resen tment betwecn themselves and others that it will be practically impossibl e for th em to get 10-geth er without crealing some dis lll rbance.~ I-Ie was Hot alo nc in harshly criticizing th t:. conduct of the African American soldiers. O nicials of the local American Legion post called upon the ci t)'

commissio n to restric t seve rely mili tary personnel 0 11 visits in Tallahassee. The leit er suggested closing Mjllkes and eating p laces ... at, reasonable ho urs as Ollr expe rience proves that m uch of the trouble can be curbed by sloppi ng th e sale of beer.M Furthermore, the Legionnaires warned lhat "we lUcan business in ref,rard to impuden t and un ruly negro soldi ers. We do not ex peci LO tolerate another such incident as OcCtllTed Ilere Su nday. OCl. I . M,.

Concern over growing unrest among African Americans was not limi ted to Tallahasset:'s cit)' f,uhc rs. Incide nts in the tOWI1 all d ot ller Florida cOI1l11l1l1li ties had the attelllioll of SL'lte and fedcl' ll onicials, includi ng Govcrnor Ho lland. Thei r responsc includcd a series of secret. plans fo r the restOt' llion of o rder "betwecn me lllbcrs or the Caucasian and Negro r:ICCS." These wc rc designa lcd as Racia l Disturb;U1 CC Plans. 311

Unde rcurre ms o f r,ldal llll rest scemcd scrioliS enough to \\~ I r

rant th e crcalio n of Racia l OiSllIrbancc Pla ns for fh"c Flo rida cities: .I ackso1l\~ lI e. Miami. SI. l)cl.crsburg. Thllahassee. and Tampa. Estalr

37. Ibid .. 5 O<::loocr. II O ClOber I!IH. 38. t\llempL~ 10 ;m;,ly/e rhe Raci:,1 t)i~lurh3 nCt' I'lan are Slpni..,d by cQn~id';I':Ihlt"

Ch:lllc lllle$. The St; ri<-~ uf fl\ 'e Radal DisIUrb~n(e Plans Were d..,dassilied Oll./:onna ry 22, 1 ~3. :ond placed wilhin Ihe 51:lI e Defenso.: Council collection :\1 lht" ~lorida SI:,t.., ,\rch;\'es in T:,lIah:tl>Sec. EXlt'lIsh'c rcsc:.rch :u the archi\'e~, in Ihe SI:ue Defensc Coundl (UIIl:(l ion and St:1'Crnl re!:ued C(,IIt.'C lium. h:ti 10 Ihis I)()im failerl lo lilld :my addition:II ,'I'idence 10 :,id ;n Ihe illlel'prelation of lheS(:" dUClUIle ll l.'l, One of the most l)()h~ nli"Uy promising sources of iutOl"lnation rcl:uiug to the i"rcaliou and illlplement.ation of Ihe R,,(\ic.al Di~ r urb:tn<,e I'tans are Ihe Minutes of Sl1lle D.'fense Council Meelings. l' record of Ihe sem imonthl)' meel ings of the SUlle Defense Council 10 cunsider stale defense ,md mil it.ary II1'epan:dness issut:s. This record w nl"ins a conspicuous gap beb';nning afte r the February 17. 19 <14 . meeting. 111e a' ·.Ii lahle r<--cord begins aga in ",ilh tht' 51111" Od"enso.: Council's linal fonuat mCClj11g 01] Fcbmary 28. t 9'1(,. ,Wuming lhlll lhe 51"le Defense (".uunci l conl inued to meel bel",een t'eh1l1,u-y 17. 19 014 and f ehruary 28. EN S. ,111(\ Ihere is no e\;dence to sugges t othe ...... ·ise. 1his ,,"Oul <l im' ieal" lhe record "':1.$ excised . possibly due 10 the lIeed 10 suppress il1ronnaliOIl rela ted to Ihe Radical t)jstur'1.1l1ce !'lan: Racial D;slurb;mce I'lan. l)j'Irict No.5. Fourth So:l"\'ice Command. 5t:,le Defense Counci l. ser. 419, bus 57. RG 19 1. ~lotida SI:lIe '\1'(hi","s. r,,11:.h;1SSO'e.

360 fLORIDA H ISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

Ik.' n:iI' ;Of1:.t ;octn;t;, .. rnr ,,-hile ..... Idie" a . I)"lt- M;.hry Fi .. ld indlldl:d c<...:11 (linne ..... ",al'fhing b;,mls. amlminstrd ~IH,"~. r.ourlriJ ojl%n"(1 .'1/"" Aft'hi."'J. T"II,,~tmfII'.

1ished AUgliSI 2. 1944, the Tallahassee plan consisted of \wo componClll$-Ficid Orders de tailin g lhe tactical mission and goals, and the Composite Plan cOlllain ing backgro und infon n:l1 iOIl and dcIllil ing the dcJeg:uion of aUlhori l)'."

According 10 the Tallahassee plan , - the re is a minor undcrcurfe ll! of te llsion, aCllia lcd chie fl y by so-c" lIcd wh ile ami co lored leade rs. Sl lpplcmc ll tcd by local civic ofbra ni7 .. ations and influe nced b)' mhe .. factions, o utside the Cil),. Other faclo l'S wh ich arc playing the ir roles a rc increased c arnil lg power caused by war ac tivities.- 111

Pill' tic ll l;w. I he proble ms arose:: from Ihe -t\ IlOllllcn l'i of colored sold ie rs fo r lhe ir fami lies. wh ich results in idlc ness a nd disol'dc rly conduCl and a rcsen unCIlI on thc part o f the whit c populat ion IowaI'd Negroes rcfusi ng 10 pe rform necessary work.- Seemingly al fault as wcll \ I';IS -agitation o n a naT io na l stOlle fo r The lI(h-anCCl11c nt of Ih e righ lS o flhc colo l'cd race has been gl't 'atly influc nced by rccc nt de\'eiopmf'llIs.- Since Tallahassee's popula tion 0 1" 22,000 r){'ople was

~9. l bi.1.

T ALLAHASSEE'S RACIAL DISTURnANCE PI.A>l 30 I

56 percent African American, authorities LOo k the tlHcat of (;xtc n· si\'e in ternlCiai violcnce ve ry sc riously. 1II

Accord ing to the Tallahassee Racial Disturbance Plan, any actio n would be fcdcni lly approved: "thc Gove rnor of Florida ... n ;questcd the assistance of the I'residc lH of the United Statcs in quelling tJ1(! riots and restoring la\,' and ordcr. The president acquiesccd , and the Army has bee n assigned this mission." Indecd . impl emclHation of the plan became th e responsibility of the army co mmander stat ioned at police hcadquan e rs in Tallall <iSseC who would control "civil and mili tall' forces now o n duty in the aOcctcd area.~iI

The staled purpose o f thc plan was "the protectio n of life and pro pcrty and the ... restoration of law and o rder." Upon the outbreak of II general civil disturbance "wi th attendant riots an d bloodshcd ," mili tall' ollicials would declare mari tal law, and the mil itall' commander would assumc command o f city police. cOllnty shcrilT's deputies. fire department personncl, and the Florida Siale Guard , a volunteer state mi li tia organized in carl )' 1941 to replace Florida N;llionai Guard units nalion alized by the fcde l~ 11 govel'llme ll1. '1 Th e stree ts and mai n thoro ughfares o f the ci ly would be clca red ilnd secured for esselllial tmvel. Bars. clubs. and other public places would close, and Mlh e congrega tion of more than three persons at any p lace prohibited. ~ Addi tionally, the llIilitary \,'ou ld ce nsor ~ all radio annOl1llcement.. ... ncws releases, and statements as to in ciden ts. or an}' other fa ct.s.~"

To achicvc the specified tactic'll o bjectives, the plan called for blacks to be confi ned to designated refuge areas. and wh itcs \,'ere prohibited fro m e nlCri ng those areas. Until order was resto red , only civil o r military po lice could cross th e lines sep;II"ating 1~lcial areas. The plan also provided for reserve un its from Fon Ban~U1 -

cas, Calnp GordonJ ohnston . and Camp Bl andin g 10 rein fo rce the in itial complement of tmops. "

As it p roduct of the admin istration o f GO\'e rnor Spessa rd L. I-Io lland . the Racial Dismrb;ulce Plall renected the admillis ll~ l

lion 's interests in racial matters. Fore most, the governor inte nded

40. thid. 'It . lbid. 4:!. l\1inU1es of the Slaw l)cfense Council. Stale Defen<e Counci l . . -;cr. :,06. box 1.

Re 191, Flurid:, Sww l\n:hi,·t"S. T;,llahassc:e . 43. Radal OislUrb;mn: I'[;,n. 44. Ibid.

362 FLOKIOA HISTOKICA.L Q UARTERLY

to prt!\'crH loss of life . damage 10 property. and further d t:terioratio n o f race relations. Under the plan. lht! physical scpar.Hio n of the mct's, wh ile appearing to reck of scgreg<uion and disregard for Afri can American civil rights, was acuraH), a precaution designed to pro tec i black propcrt}' and li\'es. Since lhe Ci\i l War. lhe mOSI pcrvasive pattern of r.lcial connict was the pillaging of black neighborhoods and busi ness distri cts by riotOIiS \\'hitcs. Notorious instances o fwltilt:'-on-hlaf" k violence included the Ne ..... York City draft rioLS o f 1863. the Springfield riot of 1908, and the East SI. Louis r iots of 19 17. The Tallah assee Racial Disturbance Plan's exclusion of \\'hites frolll black arca_~ of the city. thcn , shou ld be interpreted in pan as a measure to p1'Otec t. t.he black communit)'. "

Several illst:lllces from the career ofCovernor Spess.lrd L. Holland suggest thai progr.uns or policies del'e1oped undcr his administration stro\'e for racia l jLlsLi cc. Holland . while genel, llIy cons idered a conscn'<lti l'e. wa~ a moder;ue on racial matters. His commiune nt to justice. rcg-.rrdless o f l' lce. \\-.as a hallmark o f his po· litical life, \Vhile servin g in th e stale senate, for exam ple, he personally inten'e lled to stop a lynching outside the Lakeland jail. Holland , \\'ho was dli \'in~ by the jail that mOl'lling, fo un d his way hlocl:t 'd h r a 1II0b in tent 011 lynching two black llH! 1I ho used ill the jail 0 11 lIIurdt!r charges, He made his way into the crowel Mgr.lbbcd Ihe shoulders o fa man . .. ballging o lltht: jail door with a piece of concrete~ and persuaded the lIIob lO le t the 1llt!!I filee uia1. The anK'1' \\'hitcs agreed o n the comlition tha t Holland would aCI as proseClltUI', Ikllh men were convicted. 06

}\I ruughly the sallie lime :IS tlw racial un rest in -nillahassce. Ho lland managt.'d the kGadsden County Rape G"lSC. k employing Florida State Guard uni t.'> ami sta lc highway pall·ol oflicers to prateet three Afri can Americans accused ofr;lpi ng a thirt ), ),ear-old soldie r 's wife , shooting he r in the head (" .. i cc . and leaving he r for dead in the woods beside a Gadsdcn Col/THy road in latc Jul), 1944. Th e vic tim rt!co\'cred and idemilicd her assa ilants. Ho lland earn ed IIIl1ch praise for his decision 10 guard the Leon Cou nty jail where the a lleged assa.i lan L~ \\'ere hOllscd and to prOloide security for the accllsed while in tr.lllsil to Gadsden Counly for trial. Sl .. ne of Florida supreme COlirt Justice Arms tead Brown applauded Holland "for the sple nd id courage and high sense o f onicial dut.y which YOII

<1 5. Kq.UrI "r II ... Na lional A(h·isory c.. .. mmiSl;iun on Ci,·il OisonJ"r. 98, 99, 100, 101 . ,to. ( l'olk Cn"n\v) IX,n(J(7"nl, H Nnw:mlwr 1971.

T ALL·UIASSEF.'S RACIAL D IST URBANCE Pl.J\N 363

have d isplayt'd during th e past wec k. Also for rou r good gc nc mlship. ~ W. A. 1\'lo rris Jr .• presidclll of the Ta llahassee Ch'ic League , commended Holland o n his '·wise ;m d prompt action that prevent.ed all act. of mob violence receHlly in Gadsde n Counl)':' ~ It is indeed heartcning to Ihe Negro citize ns of th e Sta te o f Flo rida ," !\'Io rris continued. '· to know thar the Govcrno r is alen to such cve nLS and willing to lake action to preve ru i t. ~·l

In rc trospect, Holland 's aClions " ppear especially enligiut'n cd when co rn p:wed 10 Ih ose of Iris successor. Governo r Millard Ca ldwel l. Du ring O lldwdl 's adm in istra lio n ,.Icssc Ja111 cs Payne, an African American in dicted o n cha rgcs o f allcmptcd rape, \\'as ··take n fmlll all nnguardcdjail ami shot to death by a mob." The Go'"c rno r reportedly eXCl lsed himself fron l rcspo rlsihil ity b)' claimin g Ihal he did no t cor lsi del' this aCI a lynchin g and Ihat il had saved th e viclim the embarrassme nt o f cros..<rt:xamination ill open court .'"

While th e -ntllahassec Racial Disturbance Plan was new.:r implemented . th e plan and the ch~ l un rest that pro mpt ed it were manifesta tio ns of the e"olving racial clima te of the el'l. Tilt: aCliollS .. nd reactio ns ill Tallahassee resulted from de\'cl opme nu. th at, ae· cord ing to Gunnar Myrdal, Ihe Swedish social scie ntist who studied Amel;can r.lee rela tions, "changed the who le configuraLio n of the Negro problem." T he New Deal spurred a I .. dieal transform ation ill Ihe conditioll of blacks in Ame rica. Develo pme nts o n the ecuno rnic, poli tic.a l, and judicial fron LS bolh reflected and were cataI),sls to greater awareness o f and will ir lgness 10 address the plight of African Am ericans. Blacks capitalized on Ihis oppo rtun ity to fi ght for the bount), of American life they had bee n de nied . Comi ng close 0 11 the heels of th e New Deal, Wo rld War II a llowed black ;1(.

tivisls 10 d ecry the hypocrisy of fight ing for de mocracy abroad whil e denyiu g it a t ho rne. Th e crisis of war provided a chan ce lo r Africa n Americilus to further le\'crage thei r demands fo r incl usio n in socie ty, ...

'17. 0,,;/, /p>nflrml. 3 1 Jul y. 24 Augusr. '27 AIIJ{lIS1 t 9·1<\ : G:ul<tkll Coullly Rap.: C,.,\<·. 5pe,'<Sard L Hult;md. Oox 'II. ~c r. '106. RG 102. nol'id .. 5r:,,,' ,\r(/I;'·C). Tall:thassec.

4.'1 . "Two (;QWl1lOI'S." Ti,,~. 7 Jan".,,">, 1946. 16. '19. GUI111;" -"1)'rd~l , A" Alllnun" f);/I!mmn: '1111' NfWD / 'I MWIII mill MOlin'll {Plltnrmry '2

\'Or~., '2d o:d . (Nc .... York. 1962), I: N : John B. Ki,·by. lJIurk AmNfrtllls 11/ /II~

/1(""" .. 11 I,m: {.lbn-fll,.", (lI/(J liflu (Knol<,; lk . H)80 ), )(. 21R, '21!). 11'2. 235: Rich;,ul M. Oatfiumo: . "TI1<: ·FOI-goll .·., Years' o f Iho: Negro Rcmlll iioll : in "'h~ Nrgro III 1Jf'/IYfS,'WII ,/tid \\'1/": /1~Itl(jp f{J lirw/lliio/l /9;:;· /9-1:;. c d . lkm :.rd Slnush,·r (Ch;c;ogQ, 19(9).303. 3(J.I .

36<1 FLORI!),\ HISTORICAl. Q UARTERLY

Blacks were not alon e in awareness of t.h e changi ng relationship be{\,'cCli the races, Wh ites ofalJ ideological inclinations recog' nized the increased politici:r.ation of the racc q\le~t ion and th e inc"itable im pacl o n ~oc ietr Consc rViltive wh itcs, especially in the South , viewcd de\'c!o pmems with al;lI'In and ange r, As African American service men moved southw~lrd in increasi ng numbers, th e e no rmo us gulf between the expectat io ns of blacks alld lhe illtr.msigcncc of southe rn whites resulted in increased racial hostility, Liberals viewed the challgcs wi1.h cautio us opti mism, hu t o lie n 1'01, lo\,'cd a path be t\,'eell mi litall ts see king LO overturn the status qllo and tl"ldilionalisL~ dete rmined 10 pl'(!scn 'c ii , Many sollihe rn liberals and moderates 1"QI'ked fo r greater black equality while maillI;lining sympathy with the precepts o f southc l'I1 life ....

The Wo rld War 11 c ra was a tr.Ulsition period in American race relations, It II'<IS a pe riod of actiOTl , reaction, and forgi ng lIew modes of racial interaclion, in which blacks bF,l\'e no tice that they had un met expectatio ns and aspirat ions. In Tallahassee, black soldiers chall enged thc sOllthe rn " lcial caSle system in Illany wars, including confrontation . The actions of whiles in positio lls of leade rship, particularly Spessard Hoiland , re,"ealed a rccognilio n on whi leS' behalf thai the status quo \\~IS crulll bling and a nell' rc1aliollship wit h Afl'icOlIi America ns had to be forged .

5(). O;,ItiUlLW, -The ForgOCh'" Y ...... Ill of til" N .. ,W·o RCluluuon," 306-00; Kid» , 111m-II . \ ",..,"<lIU iJlliv 1t000000"fl />:m. 5 ·1. 51.

Forum

by Glenda Alice Rabby, David H.J acksonJr., and Clarence Taylo r

T he th ree contributors 10 this symposium have been engaged lJl the sllldy o f Iwentict.h-cenwry race rela tions and civi l right s th rougho ut their respective careers. When asked to comme nt on Ihe articles in Ihis special issue and reft ect upon their releV<lIl cc to Florida and American hisLOry, they eagerly acce pted the challenge. Th ro ugh their com mon clcmcnl~ a.~ well as the ir individuali ty, lhe co mmCllla ries of Glenda Alice Rabby. David H. J ackson J r., and Clarence Taylor engage in Lhe o ngoing cOllve rsation about the role of I~lce ill shaping Flo rida and the Un ited Stat.es.

As EdILCiu ion Policy DircClOr for the Florida Postsecondary EdL1Guian Plann ing Commission , Glenda Alice Raub), is involved in long-term plann in g and staw-Ievel pol icy ana lysis fo r higher education. In her positio ll . Rabby CIlCOU lllers the linge ring re percllssio m of twcnr ieth-cclltury " Ice relations; among he r projecLS have been a review of min ority panici pation in le!"tal ed ucat ion programs and an evaluation of slate funding for h istorically black colleges and Ilnive rsi ties. Additionall)'. as an ill(lcpendent scl lolar wil b a HistOl), Ph .D. fro m Florida Slate Un ivers ity. Rabby researc hes and wriles on the topi c. In 1999. she published Th (' Pain and tllf' Pmmis('." The Struggle for Civil Rights ill Tallahassee, No";,lll.

David H.J ,ICksonJr. is Associa te Professor of History a t Florida A&M University. his alma ma ter. He earned a Ph .D. in l-l isIOI)' fro m the University ofMelllphis in 1997. His areas of in terest incilide the black South . the Age of Booker T \Vashingw n and Ihe Tuskegee Machine, blacks in Mississippi, black business hisIOI),. and racial vio lence in America. Jacksoll currently has a book unde r con tract 0 11

ChMles Banks. o nc of thc most influen tial black leaders in Ihe his-

[365]

36tl FI.OR]]),\ HISTORI CAL Q UARTERI .Y

1011' of Mississippi . and he i ... c()-(!dil.Hr of t,he Hoo/lt'I'T m u lli/lgtoll bU),rio/H:(/i(l. Professor Jackson also excels in the classroom: he n ...... (,(, Iltly rccc:ivt'clthc 1999-2000 "Teacher uf the Yea r- award at Flcu".. ida A&/\'I Uni\'I 'I'Sit)'.

Clarence Taylo r is Professor of I li<;tOl1' and aCling directo r of the Africa n-New \\'orld Siudies i' rogl"llll at Florida Intem;lliUl\O,1 Un ivers ity. I Ie l'e('e ived his Ph.!). from the f:iIY Uni\'ersi ly of New York and is the authur o f TI"./JIflr k Ch mr /,,'.!j oj lJrooklY,1 and Ku()('king (II 0111' Own UUOI': M illon G{/lmll;SOIi (lIIfI,IIt> Slrllgglt> 10 (II'q.,'l"{lIl! New

)ark Cil)' Srlwols. He is also c<H:dit()r of Cillif Uil!hls Siw/' 1787: " fll'fllit' l' 011 IiiI' Wurk S/nlgglt-. He \\~ IS a FlIlbrighl scholar In Chem nill. Gcnnan)' from IY97 to [998. Taylo r is \\'orking 0 11" book on black religio lls lcadel'Ship strlt!S and approaches from the 1920s 10 the preSC nt. Starting in J anU<ll) ' 200 I. Ta)'IOI' wi ll hc the Wl' issma n Visiting I~rofessul' of Il istOl1' at Ibrllch College, CUNY.

Essayists such as these make a mllla bk contribution to ou r ana lpiis and unders tanding of our past. All three had Ihe libe rty 10

critique [he ankles and engage thc conversat io n as lhe)' chose. Nawmlly. some disagrccmcllt aro~e among the contributors as to th e themes and signifkan('c of tile articles. Differences also e lllcrged betwcell lhe COUllnCnt..ito rs' views of twc lltiefll<CI1[U'1' 1~ICC: relatio ns and those o rtbe articles' :Iulhol'S. It \\~lS \\·ilh [his inI( 'n t ofa [i\'ely historical discussion Ih;1I Ihis forum is oOt· red.

III 19'1\) , political sciclll ist V. O. KI!yJr. obscrwd Ihat hecause of it~ unique (1cI11ogl~lph ics. geogr:tph y. and pol it ics, Florida \\~IS ~d if

fcn' l tI ~ frOIll tltc rcst of Lhe former l.(lIlfederacy. According to Key. Florida W,lS so unlike o[hl'r south ern slates thaI . ill mllll)' \\~ I )'S, it was -scarcely part of th e Sout h.- The State 's poli lics \I'e rc by no mea ns free of "Negro-bail in g," he nOl ed , bILL the domin:ll t1 auiIlIdc on Ihe race questio n \\~ IS "col11j>.u";,ui\·c\r T1Iilcl. ~ '

Yct , despi te Florida '~ unique hi~ to l)' and -pcculi:u'- social and polilical stn lct ure, early twent ietll-(·cIlIIIIY polit i c.~ were designed to l11ain tain wilile supremac)' a nd black cxclusion and had the

FON-u.\!

sallic consequenccs in th e Su nshin e 51,He as they did throughout the South . Altho ugh spared some of the wors t racial demagoguel), Ihat plagued other areas of the Deep South . Florida's system of ;'ICC I"c lillio l1s, forged in the :llHcbt: llull1 era. shaped iL~ political. social , and economic in stitutions we ll into the twclllie lh CCIlIIIl)'-

Where\"cr they lived in Ihe opening decade of the IYOOs. black solltherners must have doubt ed th at they ,,'e re livin g in tht! "Progressive Era. - It is one of those pan.ldoxes of Southern hisl.Or),. as C. Vann Woodward succi nCtly observed in 19.5 I . that -political dt.' ... 1II0cracy for the whit e llIan and r:lCial discri minatioll for the black were olie n products of l.he same d )'lIami es .... • Throughout the South . black disfranchiselllctll. discrim ination . a lld segregation coexisted with progressive refo rms: Florida was no exception .

This special issue of the QUfIf/n'6' gives testimony to seve ral essctu.ia l truths about Flo rida's r·:tec relmio ns in Ihis era . Wha t these essa),s consisten tly doculilent is how deeply racis1ll was embedded in th e loundation of social and political life; how eOlll lllined whites were to preservi ng racial separatio n and black powerlessness; how mat1.ers of race anccted e\'cl)' aspect of life, permeated evel)' insti\lI lion, and in flue nced eve ry official decision: and finall y. how oblivious whites were 10 Ih l,! moSl outrageous acts of raciill stereoIypi ng. discrimin atio n, and i l~jus l i cc, In sho n , t.hese papers about voting, ho using, and public policy rein force our awareness that racial oppression in Flo rida, as th roughout th e Deep South , was a pe n '<lsin!. everyday, in almost eve ry 1 .... ly plicllorllenon.

Disfnlllchiscme llt of Africa n America n \'oten; in the laiC ninctee mh centllry had a profoundly negllti\'e clfect on r'ace relations in Fl orida. The CX\(~ IH to which state ami local o nida Is in Florida conspired to limit and COll trol black su ffrage and how Africa n Amerie'lIls struggled 10 retain o r brain poli tical puwer is detai led in Pam loriu's "Colo rless Primari es: Tmnpa's Whit.e Munici pal Part( and in Leonard R. Lcmper s "The Mayor 's ' Henchmen and Henc hlI'ome ll , Both Whit e a nd Colored': Edward H. Armstrong and t. he Pul ities of Race in Dayto na !leach , 1900-1940." Allh ough neilh er ci ty \\';.IS part of the old black bell of North Florida. both Tam pa and Daytona Beach mailllain ed rigid segregation. ex perienced consider:'lblc r:'lcial te nsio n that o<:c'L~ ionally exploded illto violellce . supported insti tutions that discriminated again st blacks, and

2. r:. V,1I111 Woodw:.rd . 011/,''''$ Qj /I" N"", &",Ih. ISii· 19/J ( n alun 1{l>,,\I~. Lo, .. 1951), 211.

368 FLQRIOA I-IISroIUC'AL Q UARTERLY

Clllbr..lced a well c llI renched rncist ideo\ob"}', Oespi lC th ese similarities, c:tch cil}' lOok a d iffe re nt approach to con trolling black suffi~ l A'e in the carly twentieth century, Thcse dillc rcnccs appea r to have had lo ng Ie I'm cneclS o n !<Ice relations in the t\\'o cit ies,

Io rio's article. IikeJclfre), Alder-'s stud), of raci;l \ \;olcncc in hue nineteenth-ccl1 lU1) ' Tampa, reveals thai this New South ci t)' suffered fro m some Old Somh racial altitudes and solutions,' lo rio's analysis of Tampa's Whi le ~hll1icipal Pan)' documents not 0 111)' the dctennination o f local leaders tn delly black sulfrnge (wi lh the colllplici t), of th e Flo rida legislature) hut bri ngs inlO questio n the lnng held assllmplion thai whi te resistance to hlack vot ing I\~ LS mOSt

imensc in arcas where African Ame ricans compri.~ed O\'e r 40 percent o f the populat io n.' Tampa's blacl.~ co mprised less Ihan !\O pe rcent u flh e ci IY'S voti ng :1gc po plliation in 190,~, three ),C;II"5 before Ih e crcalion of the \Vhit e ro,'lunicipal Part}',s

Altho ugh ut her areas of lhe South were 110 doubt more reprcssi\'e Ihan Tampa (man), used "iolcnee and inlimidalion 10 keep hlacks fro m the polls), il is difficult t.o think of a cit)' ill Flo rida \\'here a mu re systemat ic, onlcial ellurt wa s employed 10 clirnin<llC blacks fro m the po li tical s)'Slcm.J ust as Florida camed a repi lialioll as " Mll1oderale~ st.:tte du ring the Ch'il Rights Era, c\'cn while il S}'S

tClllalically enfo rced scgn~'giltiun and discl;minal1ulI . Tampa 1\~.tS

able 10 effec tin :l}' dise llfl~l1Ichise Afri c;1IL American I'oters thro ugh Mlegal- mea ns without resoning to the "iolellc(: o ne associates wi th Deep South ci ties,

Tlw encels of Talllpa '~ successful disc nfr.lllchiscmCJlt ca rnp; l i~1 1 had n :pt:rc LlssiOIlS }'ea r~ ancr Ihe demise of the \\lh ite MLlnicipa\ 1):trI}'- For illSI:1IlCe, in his sc minal I,'o rk 0 11 Florida polit ics, histOl'i,m Hugh D. I"rice nOlcd Ihal in 19:"', Ihe year o flhe IJroliltl v, 1100111 oj EtIIlC(lli{J1I decision , less than 20 percelll of adult Afri can Alllc.-icans ill Tampa were rcgislcn:d 10 \,ote, h I COIU,nlSI, u thcr Florida met ropu li tan cilies had WiU1Cssed a large incrcase in black rc~isll<ltiO Il and m ling since lhe alxllilio n of bOl h the poll tax

3, J cffrc)' S, All ier, "111;,.: 1.: Viuk"cc ill ,h,' New Soulh, l'a llcnL~ of C •• nn; .. , in 1 ~'ll'"

Nim'lr<:nlh-C.c nluI'Y TaU1pa,~ in 1M Ajf1('''' AlltnVtI" IIml,'K" of f 'lq",/a, ct!. I)a,',d R. Cu lhurn ,lIldJanc L 1.'lIuk", (Gllines,ilk, n a .. l?J~), ~!'Oi-:l:S~ ,

4, l)on"ld R, M;ml",ws alltl J.lI l1l'$ W. 1'l'Olho, ,\'~' "lid Ih, "'rol Soli/II ... ," I'oill'o (N",,,,YOl'I.:, 1%6), 11 7· 11 R.

r" Mi' t,. blark!! mmpli~_'(1 .. nly 2 1 !-,t.'rn'ul of Ihc eligible (nl:,I ..,) '·ulillK putl tl1.ui"n in Ililbbol'nu!;h County in IYO!i . Ilftt:t'n yt·;u-s berore womcn Wen' Knmlt't! surIr:l;f(" ,

FORUM 369

( 1937) and the white primal)' ( 1944). In J acksollville. fo r example. where wh ite politic ians had ac tively sought black suppo rt, lhe pc rCI!J1Iage o f adult blacks registe red to vote was three tim es higher than that of Tampa.~ Acco rd ing t.o Pri ce. blacks had a -d ecisive" ro le in Jacksonville's munici pal puli t.i cs.'

T he ra mifi c,nions of Tal11pa·s dise nfnltlchisemeIU cam paign reverbera ted thro ugho ut t.he cotnl1HlIlit}' and may have had to nI-{ lasting efTcc L~ o n the city's nIC(! relat ions. Historian Gat)' R. Monnino concl uded that pre-World \-\lM II Tampa Ivas considered "j-lorida 's most 1"";'lcia lly tro ubled cit y, not ewo rth y fo r both the Il umbe r and intensit y of disl urbances.- ·· [n 1942," Mormi ll O co ntin ued . -as a result of repeated episod('s of vio lence and civil r ights violations. the America n Civil Liberties Union bl~U1ded Tampa one of cle"e n cente rs o f repression in the Uniccd States. Africa n American soldiers stationed in Tampa d uring Wurld Wa r [I referred 10 the city as the Hell Ho le o f the CulfCoasl. ~·

By the early I 960s, despi te its racia lly troublt:d past. Tampa was bill ing itself as the cit}' with the -best I,:\ce rdatiOl1S- in the South and promoting its business climate as ·'\he city o n the move.'· 1\ had th e state's fi rs t binlCial committee in 1959, amI its downtown stores and lunch co unters were dcsegreg<Hed ill 1960. Over the lI ext few years. as historian Steven F. Lawson has pointed o ut. the bil~ \cial

committ ee im plcmented the "Tampa Tech niquc'· lO gr.ldua tly e nd segrega ti on and provide a modicum of equa l opportun ity. Bill despite il.~ re put a tio n fo r '·t<lCi"I IIlOdcnltio ll " du rin g the Civil Rights moveme nt , Tampa was j olt ed by a se riOliS racc riot in 1967 and agai n in 1968 after th e assassin ation of Martin Luth er Ki ng J r. By the la te I !J60s, eco nomic ami pol itical parit y remai ned an illusivc goal lor Tampa 's Africa n Ame rica n residents, most of who m li ved il l segrebr;ued neighborhoods and a tt ended scgregatt:d schools.~

ti. H",::h D"ugh .. Price. TI" "''b'"' 111111 SOUl",", /'O/ili(.J.: ,I Ulflf!lW of l-7bril/" I/'JIO')' C'''''''' Y"rl<. 1<).',;) 45-.'"" •.

7. This dl.k:s nOI mcan . or courst." . th ,u Jacl;s.)rtI·itle l ok l~ued r.ldaJ d'SS<.·m (II thaI the ci ly ,,"as 1t:ss scgregawd or repn .'ssi,·c than o the .. " throu1o:hollt ~lu,i d" . ·11,e cit )· expe .. ie llced ,""0 st' rious race JiOI.'l ill ,he (" ,.·1 ), I!)fll/s. anll l~,ciat I' rnSr'!!iS has bt..-.: n m'xed.

R. G:u·y R. MOI111;no. "G. I.J ut.' MectsJim Cmw: R:lci:11 Vinlencc Ami Rdonn" 1-7(",

ilia f{i:;I(mml Quarfwl), ;:'I ( I ~H) : 31·32. \). Sle'~·n E l..al>'so u. "From Si!"!n to Illce Rim : in Sollllw'll III1~i/ll'.J.) m"" ",,,/ I~

g"I;'m. cd. £l i~;I hel h J;lC("'"~)' and D:lI'id R. ( ...... I\)u l1l (B;lIOn Rogue. l..a., 1982). 257·211 I: .1(",./", "{"rib"",. 24 Scll tclUUcr 199·1.

~70

Wh ile carly Iwcmiclh-cc:ntury Da}'lOna lleach was no Tampa . u .' lIlpc r s art icle o n fad .. 1 polilics in I his Sun Coast cit)' underscores bUIll the cornpl cxit)' and pec uliari ties o f race rela tio ns Ihroughmll Flo rida. OaYIOlia Beach 's post-Civi l War scttlCIllCIlI a nd c;lrly histor), distinguished it from that of the cOtlullullilics of ncarby non h· caSI and middle Flo tida where antebellum sli1\'c-bascd economics a ile! Deep SOIll l\ race rc lariOils cast a pe rn iciolls shadow (HI poslbcl. ]UIIl politics. 1~)' lh e tum o f the CCTllLIf)'. ho\\"cn : r. Daytona Ikach 's ~ lIlilri M race rcl:llions. due in large pan to the Hmoderating influCIlCt.'~ of il.~ Yankee li)lmdcrs and hrsl free black residents, had giw ll \\'<, )' to th e J il11 Crow idco lob'Y of th e Progrc:;.sivc e l~ l .

Despite scgrcgatiOll , (lisc rimi'I:!tion . and the resurge nCt' of lhe KII Klux Klan . blacks in Da),uma Beach com ill ucci to maintain a M rnodes t ~ role in the affairs oflhe city aftc r World War 1. According to Lempd, th e cunsolid;ui oll of Daytona Il e;lch and its surroundin!; ;1I'Cas in the I 920s dil llled the strcngt h of the black VOte. \\'hich helped to mit igate whil e o pposi tion 1,0 black suffrage. This, of course, is a wcll·accepted historiCll ax iom bllt docs not ncccsS<lIiiy lit cvery locale in t,he Somh. u: mpel conte nds that Ih e alliance fu rged bc l\\'cen black voters ami the politiGl1 machine of i\'lissouribom Edward Ann slrong not o n I)' madc blacks a forcc in Daytona Bt';lCh 's mu nicipal poli tic~ from 1 9~i to 193; hill hd ped to wrest con trol of thl: cit)' fro m the Klan dominat ed political strllCllIrc CCl ll lpriscd o f Mdi le~ wl1 il,C5. This btt e r assertio n .. e lnains problem;tl ie. howe'"er. since thc autho r no tes the K1an's dcmise (;uuibUll:d to a resurgence of the SII'o ng economy) some "ears bt:forl: AnnstrOII ~;:'s cicCI ion to oniee,

Unlike hislOrian J amt:s W. Bulton 's nClf.lI.ivc anal),sis ur ma~

c hiue based po lit ics ill Da)'lo na Beach and its deleterious efTt'c.: ts on blacks. Lcmpd poi lUS to th e he ne fits that blacks J,f-lined fro m a n 011-Il ,, " c£' with h(ISS Amstro llg 's polilical enaeh ine.'o 1\ I;cck vorcrs hdped to deCI Armstrong as ma)'or o n fOUl" dinCfl:1lI o<;ca . .; iOIl5, a li(I repo n ed I)" Africa n Ame ricans received favors in the form of neighhorhood imprO\'elllt"llIs, schools. jobs. and ~i n "ai llable political t:x periell ct:.~

\Vhilt' political f"\'(I rs arc hardly political equity. onc is hardprt:ssed no t to compare the position of blacks in carl)' twt:lltiethCt:IlIUl) ' Dar ton;! Beach 10 Ihose in d lies likt: Tampa where Aflican

IO.J .1IIU_'" W. UUu,,". lJIl1ru 11IIt! s()(;,,/ (J"",#.~; /"'JNI<" oflh .. r; .. ,./lIighh M III .... m"'1 III """th" ... t:U""fW IJil"~ (I'rill (o;lOI1, NJ.. l !)iI~).

FORUM 37 1

Ame ricans were effenively shut out of the political system. Annstrong's patronage, which led LO tangible be nefit .. for the black comnlllll ity. was particu larly importan t \I'hen it Cinne to parcel ing o ut New Deal funds and u'Jining oppo nunities. Black DaYLOnans had one of the highest "whi!.C collar e lliploynle n t~ rates in the stat,," in the 1930s.

ik!s idt!s o ffering an interesting contrast to racial politics in Tampa, Lcmpe l's article COllu';ldicts Ihe image of black \'ote rs in !he cady twentieth ce ntury as ~igllorant pa\I'ns~ ill the ha nds of \III

sC1'l lpuio ilS \\'I li te politicians, Pe rh aps the most reveal ing discover}' abo ut Da)'to na Beach 's carl}' history is that despite th e injection o f racist rhetoric illlo mun icipal political campaigns or the latc 1920s and I 93Os, white \'ote rs fa iled 10 cmbr'ace the " l1cgrophobia,~ ant imachine poli tical rhetol'ie of Anusu'o ng's oppo nen ts. Ind eed , L.empe! poi n ts to the collapse of Dayto na Beach 's economy, not to a surge of ami·black sentiment , to exp lai n Armstrong's defeat in 1929, Il}' 193 1, Allllstrong. again with ncar unanimous black SUI)pon , II~ IS ablc to reg;:lin city hall despitc th e local newspape r 's cast iw"io n of machine po litics and of the ~wholesale regisln llion of negroes of all classes.~ Armstrong ca pitali zed un his strength amOllg hl""k vote rs and the poor ami working class whil.es who lI'ould become Frnnklin Roose\'ch Democrats,

Lcmpcl lIotes, bUlnc\'er fu lly explores, the impo rtance of the while \'ote ill Armstro ng's victories, particularly in his landslide filial elen ion in 1937, In the end . it was econo mic issues lilat touk p recedence o\'er racia l isslles, Not ollly did Armstrong belle fil from the political turtnoil caused by the Depression , bUI 111:: also successfu lly competed for New Deal mon ics that helped to mit igate the suITelit lg of both ",hite :md black votel'S, In SUllt , il \I~,IS the ce ntt, llit)' of econo mic issues, combined with Annst rong's political adroi tness. tll;l! allowed this northern transplan t to ove rcome the racist idcolol;.')' that permeated NI:w South towns like Da),l.OlIa Ikach,

Dcspil,c the unique biracial alli;mce utat distinguished DaYlo lla Bc<tch 's poli tics intltc pre-World War II era , Lempcl concludes thaI blacks remained second-class ci tjzetlS, disproporti onatel ), poor, and \"ith no real political power, This is trite. But as Ed\I'ard Bu tton nOled in his study o f social change in f lorida, r.lce relatio ns in Da),lona Ik ach were nOt !leady as rigid and scgrcg;:nioll 's grip not nca rl ), as fi nn as the), were in mllny pans of Flo rida , The cil}' buses lI'c re imegt, ucd in I 95!i, and Ih e publ ic beaches followed over lhe next few }'ears. The local newspaper and school superintendcnt

372 FLORI!)A HISTO RICAL Q UARTERLY

supponcd [be Browli 11. Board of Edllcation desegregat io n decision . and Voll1si" Coull ty's school desegregatio n plan w:as one or the firs t il1 the stale 10 be approved . Whi le blacks fared badly when running lo r polil ieal office, a black candidate was elecled 10 the c ity conlmissi01l in a ci tywide election in 1965, 1> In contras t. it was 1983 beron~ Ihe firSI African Ame ricau sillce ReconstruClion \\~IS eleCled to Til illpa's cit)' coundl ,lt

Was .here a connection between blacks' participat ion in Day-10lla lleach 's municipal po litics in tbe earl}' twenti e th ce ntury and the c ity's more modera te rad'l! climate in the post-World War II and Civil Righ ts eras? \'\'as th is a phe nomenon ex perienced by o t.h er sOluhc rn cities established aftcr thc Civil War by nonhern cntrepreneurs ami free blacks? Did racial moderatio n in Daylo na lleach partially obsc ure the racism thaI undergirded black and whitt: relations in those cities, as William Chare fou nd in Gree nsboro, Nonh Carolina?lO These and related questions d eseryc careful a l1 cmioll from historians.

The segregatio n of African Ame ricans \\';.lS ce ntr.JI to the South 's racial doctrine, and Florida systematically adopted and lIIailllaillt~d a systcm of racial scparation for th e lirst half o f the Iwcnt ic th ccnllll1'. Segregation affected cveryt hing-neighborhoods, Sdlools, jobs. po lit.ics-and , as Raymond Mohl documents in "Whitcning Miami : Race, Ho using and Government Policy in T\\'cl1tic lh-Cc ntIl11' Dadc County, Florida ," its en'eclS still reycrbera te in o ne of Flo rida 's most e thnically dh'crsc cities. Mold docume nts the di s<lstro us consequences of segregation for the African Amc rica n comm unity in 1\'liami. re\'calin g how local public and priV;I1C o llidals systematica lly adopted policies to achiel'(~ thei r Iwin goals of racial sepa l"<ltio n and economic expansion---cx pansio n pred icated 011 the destruction of a thriving black community and th e ~ resettlcl11 e nt" o f African American reside nts. Most impo rtantly, l\'lo hl exposes the link betwee n such earl ier policies and current mcial po litics in South Florida.

The autho r 's analysis of the o rigins of racial stra tificatio n in Dade County reveals th e extelll 10 \\'hich pre- and post-World \Val" II f'edt: ra l hOllsing programs and guidt:lincs ~ pennittt:d. el'en e n-

tl. lhid .. 83-!)7. 12. '/l.mpn 1hlmll,. 24 Sc»t"rn t~r I9'J4. l :t William H. Chaf", (;;,,;Iil] twd Cillil Nig"": (;("",.0010. Nmlh Cmv/;'"" 111UIII~ IPlld.

Slmgglfjorl:rm/ow ( r\'"wYnrk. I!.IIW) .

FORUM 373

cOllraged~ racial segregat.io n LO no urish. New Deal progr.:1Il1S such as the Ho me Own ers Loan Corpo r,!lio n and the Federal Housing Administra tion dcveloped guidelines that, according to histo rian Kenneth J ackson. Mcmbraced the discriminatory aailUdes o f the markctplaceM anti Mexho n ed scgrel,rrt tion and ensh rined it as publ ic po licy.Mt.

Moll! makcs clear thal in the early decades o f the twentieth ce ntu ry. white \>igilam cs kunoffi ciall( enfo rced racial zoning in Dade CoUll ty 1.0 main tai n scpar.l tion betwecn the races. I~)' the 1930s. however. local white boosters discovered that MColo red TCm'n,M where blacks had been confined by a se ries of racially mOliv,lIed publ ic policy decisions. lay in the way o f their busi ness expansio n plans. Thus began a series of re markable efforts to Mresetlle~

blacks in housi ng p rojects o utside the hlcl~ti \'e downtown area. Lociil segregatio n cllo rts wcre rcinforced by fedcral po licies such as the HOLC's practice of app raising o r Mredlinin gM neighborhoods alo ng r.:lcial lines. Not only were minorities fo rced in lo the less desirable a reas of lown, but thei r ne igh borhoods received th e lowest appraisal ralings from the HOLe. When b<lIlks and mo rtgage companies refused to im'esl in th e lowest ml ed neighbol·hoods. the C).'.

cle o f deGly ami Milllc nsified racial segregation" W'dS accder·alcd . Despi tc ils local fOCllS, 1\'lohl's article se rvcs as a rcmindcr that

racism in early Iwcnticth-century Amc rica \\~.tS nOl j ust a Msouth ern problemM bUI a natio nal prcoccllp.u io n that unde rmincd federdl enorts. particularly d mi ng Ihe Depressio n. to impro\'c livi ng stan· dards and pro mOtC cconomic gro\\'lh . As was true during the Civi l Righl.s cra. thc din'ere m arlllS o f thc federal govcrnmcnt have not al ways o pc r;lted in sync, particularly whcn it comes to is.'Iucs o r racc . Fo r instance , Mo hlilOLCS th at in 19 17. the U.S. Supremc Court out· l~m'cd racial zoning-a policy supportcd by thc FH A which , as one COlltcmpor..lry histOlian observed, ~activcly cncouraged racial covenants and collabora tcd in planning whitc suburbs tilat enci rcled Negro gheuosM_. but as late as the 19405 and 1950s. Dade Count)' oniciall)' co ntinued to sa nctio n iL t)

14. ,\,,; Cilioted in I'hiltip A. Klinker- ",i th R¥t5 M. Smith. TIl" UrIJIMdy Mllrrl!: TM WI><' Iwd IRdj"" of Illlrm/I-:qun/il] i" AIM't'k" (Chic-oIgo. 1999). 127.

I:>. Rid".rd Sterner, 'I'M Ntg'ot's Shmr. (n.ll .. 1955). 511·16. as quoted in George 8 ro.m TIndall . 1'1" 1::"""1?'tr of ,II, "'"" Sort/II. 191 ]. 19'" (Ikllon Rogue. La" 19(7),5'16.

374 FLORIDA I-IISroRIC.,.\L Ql ARTI::RD'

Th e link 1X;lwecn residential and school segrega tion is unly briefl)' Ille lllioncd, bUI il is or par,lI11o llnl importance. Segregated m!ighbo rhoo<ls were o ne of lhe most effective barriers againsl desegregat ed sdHJul ~ in the Soulh. Concumilallll)" jusl as relic'I, 11 policies t!ll abled local oOicials 10 111;lil llai n ~ Iocal custom ~ ill matters of ho using, the federa l district CUlirlS al1owt'd whit e onldals to conside r "local Custolll" in de le rm ining l.he speed of school ill tCgl<l' liun-with th e same fuol-drag..:ing, begrudging results.

Tht, const.l"Ilction of 1 1lIe r~mllC 95 in Dade County deal! a final dea thblow to LIlt· black inner cit )' of 1\'l ialni, destroying Ihe heart of th e histuric COIlIIlHlIlit)' of O\,('I"IOWII ;Uld producing Ilt .. .... ·c r ~sccol1{l ~ ghettos in out lying areas. 1\ loh l's study serves tu remind us Ihal thc urba n spl<lwL Khcnoilatiun, and deca), of Ihc n.ll ion ·s inncr ci tit's \\<lS C;HlSt~d not by the indilTcrencc or immol, llity o f its res idellL~ but by the I<lcia ll)' moti\~Hed. greed driven decision making of its comm lillit )' leaders. In the end , tile leg:lc), of Mialni's 1<\

cial zoning o f the 1 9 :~Os and 1 ~1<I Os w .. :- the 1, lc ial cunll iCi and violenc(' of the ci t)' ill the post-World War II el<l. l.

Wo rld War II \\';IS a pi\'OIal turning point in l':tee relations ill Flo rida and throughout the SOllth . The color lin e re mained in force in the South afte r 1945. bil l thc \\~ Il' changed forever Ihe \\';1)'

that black Americans \'icwcd their world and their place ill il. The MDo uble \ r Cillllpaign- Ihc fi ghl against IUtalilllrianislII abroad and nlCi .~ 1ll 'II ho mc- became the wartime sloga n o f African Amer· icans and had both symbolic and I;mgiblc couse{juences th ro ughOlll the naLion . At tht' heginn ing of the \\<11', black soldiers CIlCOI llltt 'I'cd Ihe samc r:"lcist aui1Udc lhal tll(~ ir fa thers h .. d faced in Wo rld War I. Bill as .1 011 Em llS IIOtCS ill ~The Origins o f Tall ahassec's Racia l Disturbance Plan: Kacism, Segregatio n. ;\lIt! Violence During World \\';11' II ," black se r\'icellle ll fough t against the ir sccOlld-c las~ citizenship o n the home front as well ; I !! O\'t: rseas. III Florida. II-ai ning gmulld and hmne for Ibo usands of soldiers. Deep South I<ICC rcla lions collided with Ihe aspi nllion'illf African America ns fro lll acros.~ lhe COUllt}'.

Must blacks scrved ill the arlll)' where, as hislOrian Geo rge It T in da ll obsern;d . '"e,"er), Camp had its li tt le ' Harlem, its sepanlle faci lilies, its periodic ' '''cial incidellls'~ ' 7 E\';llls's artide focuses 0 11

1Ii. R.wm""d A. Moh1.111l! I':mel'll 01 R.,I'{' R,·I.uitJlI~ ill ~ I I ;lIl1i ~in('e ttl<" 19:10-,- III ConIUm ;",d Llml"rs . • ~h., Ainr",. , I,.nit"" 11rf'ilagr o/ 1-7I>",,'a. 3~'f ... :sa •.

17. Tindall. E"'f'r), ... nu "flh f' /, 'n" Still/h. 71:1.

FORUM 375

the violeru:e that erupted ill Florida 's ca pital when African Am erican soldiers rebe lled agai nst th e segreg<llcd living and workin g conditions at C"mp Gordon j ohnsto n in nea rb), C"lrrabe l1e and at Tallahassee's Dale ro.-labry Field. Other hisl.Orians havc noted Tallahassee's w·tlI" time 1-,lCial disturbances, b ut E'",lIls provides some add itional insighL'i imo the responses of local and state oflicials to the incidents. '1

Like their counterparts in Ta mpa and other sou the rn ci ties with large mili tal1' insta llatio ns, while leade rs in Tallahassee were not interested in investibra ti ng the root callses be hin d the racial ri Ots that erupted be twee n frustrated black soldiers and local law enfO rccmc nt. Igno ring complaints from African Arnc rican soldie rs, the black press, and lhe NAACP about the degraded living conditions " nd f, .cial practices at c.'lmp j oh nslOlI and Dale l\'labry Field , white leaders in Tallahassee responded to the frustrations o f black soldiers wi th force and pllnitj\'e reprisals.

Tallahassee was nOI the on l)' wartime city in Flo rida to ex pelience l';.lcial turmoi l. For inst.'lnce, J-\fric;m American soldiers i ll

Tampa's MacDill Air Field e ngaged in more than Olle violent Rr,,· cial standoW' during the ,,'ar )'ears, '~ After local effo rt.s fai led in se\'er<t l cities to maimain order amo ng black troops, the Slate Defe nse Coull cil and Army Se rvice Fo rces prepared six tOp sec re t Racial Disturbance Plans to deal with potential race riOL" in Tallahassee, Tampa, Orlando, SI. Petersburg, Miami , and j acksonvill e,

Curio usl)" Eva ns su rmises that the plans renectcd "the farsight ed nlcial po licies of Flo rida 's chief executivc Spessard L. Holland ," alth ough it is not dear what Holland 's ro le was in the development of the plan or why the author conte nds tilal they were farsighted . The COllclusioll raises importa nt questions about what historians d efinc as racist and progressive. For example, as for Tallahassee's plan , Evans no tes lhat blacks \\'c re Rto be confi ned 1.0 designatcd refuge areas," It is nOI d ear whe ther that means that Africa n Americans were to be relocated to areas outside of their own ne ighborhoods, or Ihat areas such as Frenchtown were 10 be cordoned off as safe t), zones. The fonn er could hardly be inter-

18. C''') ' Mormino, "World War 11 : in The "',," HiJl/Jr] of /Wridfl. cd. M ich~el C,,,,· non (Caineslille. HOI .. 1996).33&337; idclll. "Col . Joe Mcc(~ J im Crow.- 25-~1O; D,, \·id J. o...ks. -· I · l dt · I~)~Thc.Sca: · Florida's Camp Gordon John~lOn ill \\'orl(1 W;u' 11 : NoridQ His/orical Quartn-ty 73 ( 199)1) : 1·22.

t9. MOnllilio. "C. LJoc ~ [ cctsJ im e m .... : 3~37.

376 FLORIDA H I~'1'OIUC"L Q U,\Rn:RL\'

pre l,cd as cnligin c ilcd racial po lk)': th e plan il.Sclf should probably be viewed morc as a \\~lrtillle measure [0 restore order an d prOl.Cct

prope rl ), than as a precursor to an ad ministration - free from racial i ' ~lIs licc . - Addi tionally. d espite Evans's contention tliat the plans were cC ll1rai 1,0 the state 's respo nse to r~ldaillprisings, he docs not ex plain wll)' th e 'niliahasscc Plan (developed in August 1944 ) was no t implcmcllIcd during th e April 1945 l'iOllh;l1 ope ns his article.

In building his case tha t Co\'cmor Holland was -" tllodc nll,c o n racial issllcs- and that prognu ns or policies under his administration ,,'ould be -free from I, leial injuslicc ,- Evans po ilus to Holland 's COlII"<lgcolis intcn'cn lil}ll 10 prC\'CIll a lyTlching in the 1930s and, when as governor, he ordered thc Florida State Guard to protect a black prisoner frOIH a lynch mob in ncarby Gadsden COllnl )'. Whilc th c::sc \fCre indced ildmirable actions, thc), in 110 way cstilblish Holl;I nd's administration as -free from r:acial injustice,- As D.wid Colburn has 1I00ed, \I'hile Ho lland tuok steps to prcvcllt IYllchinb"S, he (a nd other govefIJ UI"S) -supported r.lciai .Ht.iwdes and pe nnilted the existence of a climate o f o pin ion that a llowed stich ac ts to Lake place. -~ Lest il be forgotten, Uni ted S" III'S Scn<l lOr Sp('ssard Hotland campaigned agolinst 'he 1964 Chil RighlS Act and , along with Florida 's junio r U.s. $cIl<lIOi' George Smat hers , cast his ,·ote against Ihe historic kg"i.~lalion.

These fuur articles. separa' e1y and in full . illulIlin:IlC important chapters in Florida 's race rcl;uions' hist.oI1'. Wh ile local histol1' oft.cn suOc rs from what Adam Fairclough describes as -lIarrQll'lIcss of visiun," i t C;IIl , as lhese ess<\)'s d o, pcrw nalize a lld delllystify large e\'Cllts while providing a fresh perspcClh'c O IL and analp;is of. important historical ph enomc na.11 In lIie end, the), provide nOI only a window to our pasl but scrvc as a prcview of the turbulent de:. ... cades thalia), j ust ahead-timt.'s that wc::re 10 pennanellll ), change F1Ol'ida alld the resl of the South ,

Clenda Alice Rabb),

20. 1):1\';<1 R, Colburn "nd Ri .. h"l'd K. &-hcr. Horidll :' Gullt"T"lIll/OIlIIl P"III;n III ' hI' 1;'11'11-'~'h 0." "'1 rl:l"ah 'l~~·C. Ha., I~I$!O) , 223.

21 . Ad.lln t";!.irdough. U'Ut " " d lx-.-r,U): T /i, (;""/ fll1[hb S'n,g}..oII' III 1..o'lI)fflml. 191).. 1972 ( '\Ihcn~ , Ga., 199;. ), xi)l. ,

FORU~I 377

When most people think of Florida they th in k ofiL~ rich e thnic d iversity: seldom do they vicw it as a state that, in tcrms of race , shares many of the characteristics of Other Deep South stales. Pro-1ll0 lers of the Sunshin e State continually paint it as difl"erent from the rest of the Somh. Consequently, historians have no t traditio nally givc n it the same kind of sCl"lIliny as o the r southern statcs. Florida has a very large mixture of ethnic gro ups, but whe n it comes to black and white race rela tions, white Floridians basically carried the samc ani lmles alld assumptions of supe riorit)' as whites in Georgia. ~", iss i ssippi , Alabama, and other pa rts of the South. In facl. like most states in the I"we ntielll-Ce I1lUI)' Deep Sou th , Florida had its share of lynchings and mob viole nce, black codes, residential segregation. discr imination , civil righl~ violations, and even the total destruction of one of iLS progressive all-black towns.1

Despi te pe rceptions to the contfa11'. o r possibly because of them, race relations in Florida were worse than in other SQlIlhern states. Florida b;L~ica ll y milTored the rest of the Deep Somh or exceeded it in cruel treatm ent of ilS black citizens throughout the first half o f the twcn tieth cenLlIl)'. This essay exam ines r.lce relations in Flolida in the early twentieth centu ry by j uxtaposing m~ol" patteJ"lls of whi te mistrea unent of blacks found tlll"ougho ut the South against similar examples in Florida: Oklahoma had its Greenwood , Flo rida had iL~ Rosewood; Alabama had iLS Scoltslx)l"o. Florida had its Grow ...... land ; Georgia had il~ Sam Hose, Florida had iLS Claude Neal; Mississippi had iLS Medbrar Evers. F10lida had its l-Ian1' T. Moore; North C u"Olina had black college student activism in Greensboro, Florida had black college student activism in Tallahassee ..

Indeed , the articles in this issue demonstl ";.\lc ho\\' race relatiolls in Florida were eq ual to and often harsher than similar sc{..'narios in other sOllthern states. J oli Evans. fo r cxample, has wrincn on l";'lCislll , segreb'<llion , and violence in Tallahassee during World \Va r II and how African Ame ricans stationed at Tallahassee's Dale r-.·!abry Field and Carabclle's C"lmp Gordo n Jo hnston sune red hamssme nt and indignities beyond those ex perienced by black soldiers placed in ot he r training camps th rougho ut th e coumry .. But Eva lls also showed that blacks weJ"e nOI passivc in their fight for j ustice th rougho ut the war; they were invoked in n umerous violent clashes in the ca pital ci ty as they fougln for equality.

I. Mich;.d Gannon. cd .. ""11" Nrom fliWlt} of Honda (G .. incs,·illc .. Fb ., t9')6). t:sp<..~ dally 373--1>17.

378 FLORlJ),' \-iISTOIUCAL Q UARTERL\'

Raymond Mohl has cogcmly shown that the re \\'a.~ a (Qllee ned cllor\ made by Dade Coumy go\"cnll11C IlI officials (as well as the fc dc:m l gO\,C I'I1 11lC llt) to scgreg::Ilc I-\rrican Americans rcsidcm ia Uy in Miami . This \\~ IS done pl·jmaril), th rough lhe urban rcdc\,cl0l>me lll and rcnewal progr' lIlIs of the Ccdc lill housi ng acts o f 1949 and 1954. the imcrlll'lI.c highway prog""u, ;md Ihe mi noril)' housing prugr.ll ns of th e I-Iollsing and Il ome Fin;m cc Agency. Even when Flo rida 's Su preme Conn declared Dade Coullt)"S racia l ZOIl

ing ordinance unconstitutional. white Dade CoUllt)' officia ls were dctcnnincd to co ntin ue mcial sc&rrcgalion. Pe rhaps Inost dislu rbillfo( is how th ese po l ides. begnn ove r sixt ), rears ago, continue to plague ~'l iill1li blacks today. As ~'Iohl states. MThe gheu oiz:ltio n of blacks in northwest Dade County by the 1990s II~IS virtually predt. .. termined by lhe decision to redline that area of the county in the 19:\Os. Thus, the IIOLC apprais.'11 systelll and its local implementation ill Dade County left a legacy of intensified r,lcial segl"ega tion that has pers isted to the present lime .-

1.A~o llard Lcmpel discusses how II'hites and properl}~wl ling

bl;u:ks ill DaYIOII:l Beach were able t.o form a biracia l po litical a lliance to weaken the Ku Klux Klan·s po li tical control of the city. Although the Klan used l-ar;OI ls met hods of int;michltion and violence to d issuade Afl;can Amcric:.lIls fro m voting in Daytona Beach . the black' \I'hitc pol it ical al liallcc under ~l:Iyor Ed\I~\I"{1 Annstrong bioS'somed by 1927 aud clrecti\"cl)' weakened their gri p. While black \'at

en; were as tute enough to recc;,·c soille benefits for their ,"otes, the whitL'·dominatcd pol iticoll machine ill Oa),tona nevcr imcmil' d to substant ively chang'c Aftican Amcticans' sccond-ch~s status. Uhima LeI)" the po li tical a ll iam:e betwcc n blacks and whi tl..'S in Daytona &;lch did vc ry lillie to advance the struggle for ci,·illighl5.

Likewise, Pam Iorio exa mines Tampa's Wh ite ro,·lun ici pall'arty and its lebt;'\cy of discrimination ag .. ills, African Americans fro m 1908 to thc la tt: I 950s. She discussc:s how whites in 1111npa USI' c\ the White MUllicipal Pan y to keep blacks o ut of the political process. Blacks could Ilot [111"11 to lhe citygo,'crn mcnt (wh ich comprised the White Mllllic ipaJ Pany). the state legi~laHlre (which compriscd the Democ ratic I'arty) . or the fede ra l go,'cmmcllI for assistance becolllse these institutions ,,·e re in fact CUllirolled by the ve ry forces ago.inst which African }\mcricans struggled. Even after the Supreme Co urt ruled on this issue, whi\Cs in Tamp;t resisted the rulin g al1(\ cO lltinued to discr imi nat e agai nst black citizens. Io rio baskall)' captures the cs"'ellcc of the sit uation lo r the city's AfriC'1I1

FORUM 3i9

Ame ricans: whell it came to r.lCe, Tampa was ~j \lS I one mo re sOlIII1-enl city scckillg 1,0 relcg;lte blacks to status ofsecOlld-class citi1.e lls."

Th e an icles convincingly sho\\' lhal black Florid ians suffered becausc of their I·ace j us t like OIher black people living in the Sou th . Udn g in !-lorida did 1I0t preclude them fro m th is sunc ring. Blil in man y rqprds, Ihe episodes covered in this issue werc mild compared to more r'acia lly violcnt lllorncn L~ cxpclicnccd by black Floridians. Ultima t.ely, when we look at Florida we must properly place the state alolll:,rside the traditions, va lucs, and mores lha( gove m ed thc Somh and victi mized African Ame ricans in large measure. Through examilliug Flo rida 's racial hiSio ry and comp,uillg it 10 thosc of other sOUlhern states, wc lIlay begin to view racc rclations in the Sunshine State as one of thc South's best-kept sec rcts.

Uillil 192 1, blacks inlhe Creenwood seCtiOiI ofT1Ils<l , Oklaho ma, prospered economically and oUler\\'isc. Whites in Tulsa rescu t(.·d blacks· indepe ndcnce and \~ew(."(1 progr<:ssi\·c African Amcricans as se tting a tcni ble exam ple fa r Olher blacks. When a white woman accused Oick Rowland, a black man , oft.I"ying to assaull her on an cle \~ I

tor, Rowland was atTested and talk spread that angl1' whiles were going to lynch him. Blacks weill to the j ail to protect Rawland. II·ords were exchanged, alld a shot rang out , ThaI began what some scholars consider [,0 be '·[he single bloodic.~1 episode of r' leial violence in Americ;m history,- a liol Ihat left hundreds, if nOl Ihollsa mls, of blacks \~Cli m ized-robbcd. ])t!atcn, killed. and exiled. The National Cuard ~1f1'i\'cd and incarcer:'Ilcd ule Aflican A.Jllc li can rt."'Sidents of Creenwood at a nearb), baseball stadium while whites ravaged their houses, looted their possessions, and sct fi re to their ha rues. t

While it mOl)' not be altoge ther surprising fo r such an incide nl 10 have occurred , one may be struck by the fact that a similar scena rio t.ook place soon afterwards in Florida.J ust two years lalCr, Ihe 10Wli of Roscwaod experie nced an identical nile as Creenwood fo r almost ide ntical reasons-whit.e fea rs and resentmcnt o f black progress. In 1920, Rosewood Ilolllished as a small black lown with about 350 rcsidell LS. Most. a f the fhmilies in th e town own ed homes and prope rty. For example, James and Emma Carrier, me mbers of the lTl O!i [ pro mine nl ramily in Rosewood , had a well-furni shed twOSlOry ho rne, whic h eve n had an organ . Signs of black progress

2. Oarlene CI;lrk 1·l illc, WiltiHIIl C. I·line .• u.d Sl:mlt:y !-I .u'ru td , The " frimll ·A, '/In;r/U, Oll)'wy. 2lllls. (UPllCr Saddte Ril'cr. NJ .. 20(0). 2: 38 t-82; & 011 Etl.~I,'t)nh. INfi//r ill () f>('(JltIlJl'lI Ltllui: Tilf Tuw. UI'U mol 0/ 192 1 (Balo n Ro uge. 1..:1 .• tYS2).

380 FLQKJl)A HISTORICAl. QUA RTf:RLY

served as a COIlSlanl irrimm \0 whil es in surrou nding (onnlluni lies and lhrcawllcd their w"y of life.'

On J an uary L 1923, a white mob began looking fo r Jessie 1-11I1\Ie r. all Africa n American male I\'ho had a llegedl), a ttacked Faml )' Taylor. a whi u' female fro m nearby Sumner. Tar in I' sct into motion a SCI; CS o f even ts that ul ti matciy led to the complete dcstruction of Rosewood . At least ciglu peo ple were killed o\'er the next fell' days and a number o f others I,'cre irUured . Arter most of the black residents fl ed , an unrcpclllanl mob return ed 10 the town and set il on fire in an effort to totally crase this ostentatious exa mple ofblac!: progress and indc pcnclc ncc.'

}\ nacks like those on Gree nwood and Rosewood remain dmmalic beca uSe." they were rnre. More common ly. the tragic pl ighl of African Ame ricans manifested il.St!lf I h rough scores of lynch mobs that a Hacked individllals. Many times AfriGHl Ame rica ns we re killed for being assertive. for gelling ou t of their H place.~ orjusl as a message to the larger COlll llltllli ly 10 Sla), in its ~ placc,H Usu.llly, state and federal authorities did absolutely nothing to deler these crimes o r bring pcrpeu, lIors LO justice, On tilt! PI'C o f th c t\\'elUiclh century in Cowcta COHn ty. Georgia. black labo rer Sam Hose became embroi led in ,111 arguIllent with his employer, Al fred Cr:.IIIfo rd. after Hose ,L"ked for a pay advance and pe rmission to leave Il'ork to visit his ill mOlhe ... Whe n CI'anford refused 10 acco mlllodat e Hosc's request. an arglllllelll e nSiled wh ich resumed lhe fol lowing day. Eventually. Cr:.mfoni pull ed a gu n 0 11 Hose as he chopped wood ancl. faccd wi lli the th rea t ofbcingshol. 1·lose th rew his axe a t Cnmford . striking him in the head and instantly killing him , Afraid . Hose sought re fuge ill his m other's cabi ll , ~

:\, Maxin~' Jones, L.:II'I)' ltiWB. ct.:.!" - /\ l)Qcuml'llIccl Il i,t,,'1' of !h .. I"d d" ,,! "'h ieh Q('C'lm-~'d a t Itlb<:"'uotl. n OI'KI<t inJ:mu<lry 1923: submin .. d 10 th .. ~l",.ida Un:mt "r Itcg .. nrs. 22 Ix·c. IH93; I);wi,( It. ('.olhunl. - ItOM""uod and l\m"rica in litO' 1:;:,,1)' Twrlll ic!h Crill"',)': I'Torid" " 'JII}rl((l1 Q"".tn-ly 76 ( 19'J7) : 19'.1; ~ I;.xi" .. Jonn, -Th" 1tQSl'1"()(M\ Mass.'\cr" and Ih .. WOIn"" Who Su,,' i\'~'(1 h.~ Hond" 111.,· IQ.iml Q.u/I,nty 76 ( I9'J7) : 19~ 197 : Mit-ha .. 1 l) 'OI'SO, L,Nr i"dW""'III IM, (N .. " , York, 19!16),

" . l) 'Orso, 1.,/" i "dgr"""I IJa,. 5. u 'Oti F, Li''', lck, Tro./IM 11/ M",d: 8Int_ SOIiINoII'll in III, ,14" rifi"lf CIW' (New

Yo.-k . 1!)!)It), 281).21:11 ; W, Fiuhugh Un.ndagt·, I.Jllrll ur8 III I'" N"", Solllll: C_"" IlIId t "'1'1111'1, I SSfJ. 19JU ( Ll l'b;" I:' , Ill .. 19'J!\), 82·801: Kennelh W, Goinb'S :omt Ceral(t L Smil h. -'U nhidden ' l h1 Il_'iC,'ipLS: M.:mphis ,md Ali'it .. n-Anu:l'ican Ag"IIC)'. 186:/· 1 \)~.'(): jtmn.,,/'1l'./N," If'Jlor)' :! I ( 1\)lJ:1); 372·39,1,

FORU~ I 381

By lhe lime ncwspapers fini shed embe llishing lhe slory, Hose supposedl)' had jumped Cranfo rd and killed him as he ale dinn er. The n, acco rding 10 the papers, this ~b lack beast ra pis( dragged Cranford 's wifc into the room alo ngside Ihe corpse and raped her repeatedly, giving he r S}1)hilis. Stories like this fed the sadistic min ds of \~gi1antes who felt that social o rder depended upon prolcClion of white \\'omen al all costs. While in realil)' Hose never touched Cransford 's wife, newspaper repo rters knew whal it look 10 inflame the while public and bring oui. Ihe worst in th em. In fil ct , for many. th is ordeal became more of an issue of pr'o lccting while womanhood than il did ofavcngi ng CrAnfo rd 's death .'

After Hosc's capture, news o f his I}'nching W;:IS publicized to such a degree Ihal al least two thousand me n, women, and chil· drc n watched o r participated in the alTair. Stripped o f his clothing and cha ined to a tree. Hose .... ~Itc hed as lhe bloodthirsty gro up stacked kerosene soaked wood at his feel .. "Befo re Silillratin g Hose with oil and applying the lorch .~ o ne historian has wriucn. ~ Ihe}'

CUI 00' his cars, finge rs, and genil,lls and skinn ed his face. ~ Some in Ihe cro\\'d plunged knh'es into lhe \'iCli m's fl esh; olhers later walched as Ihe fl esh from Hose's bod y burned off his bones. Evcn before his bod)' had cooled , -his hea r·t and liver were removed and cut into se"cra l pieces and his bones I .. ere crushed into small pani· cl cs~ and sold for 10 to 25 cenlS.'

One of the most (\(.-spicable tragedies to occllr in Georgia, the Hose lynching 1)"led in comparison to sim ilar lynchings that look place in Florida. In fact. in 1920. ~lorida led the nation with eleve n lynch ings.8 Belwee n 1882 and 1930, African Americans were more likely 10 face the threa t in Florida Ih an any o th er southel'Tl stale; for e\'ery 100.000 black people, 79.8 were lynched. Mississippi followed Flo rida with a relatil'ely d islant figure of 52.8 per 100.000.'

In 1934, some thin y·fi\'e years afl er Sam Hosc's murder in Ccol'gia,Jackson Coullty ~loridia llS C'df':ried out a Iyllching lhal had mo re than two times the number thal participated in l'losc's lynch. ing. and il turned Ollt to be just as brutal. On October 19, 1934, searchcrs found llin c t ccn·year~ld Lola Ca nn idy's rllutilated body

6. Li ' .. • .. .:k. TroubU in Min.L 280-281 ; Bnmdlge. I.] "driltg in 11" "'no, .~III. 824H. 7. Lil .. ",\ck. 'l'roulM.n Mind, 28G.28J. 8. Jones. "Rose-.'OOd: 19:1. 9. SIC .. ·.Ir' E. Tohl;I)', ;md E. ~ I . Beck. Fnlllln/ of I:;"""",.,: " " ""nlJsil of .'wml/r"'l1

I.]nr/ri"p, 1882·19JO (Ur\);ura. lIl .. 19'):;), ;-17·38.

382 F\.ORIIJt\ I-IISTORI(:'\L QL!ARTERLY

not far fro m her home. Claude Neal. a young black l1Iall , \'~IS arrested and charged \\1 1h her ilIul'der al tho ugh nu hard evidence ex isted aga inst him. Latc r, a mob fo rmed , ex tricated Neal from jail , and took him to a holding 10C;\lion. The), advenisctl his fo rthcoming I),nching in the ne\\'sp:lpc rs ami made sure u,\\'ele rs fro m Olltside and inside the Sla W had CIHlIIgh time to arTive. Pcople from as llIall )' as del'e n states allendcd the e"ent. !O

The 11Iob awaiting Neal grew so large thaI Ihe men del:lining him decided it would be safer for them 10 Gill)' 0111 the lynching, 11,e)' ti(.'tl a rope 10 Near s neck and hung him from a tree. The)' cut olT his penis and testicles and made him eal them: thl.1' sliced his Sio mach and sides \111h knives and burned him with red·hot irons a ll over his bodr As soon as he wOllld a lmost choke to death from hanging, he " 'ould be lei down and Ihe l.nnurc wou ld start ;\11 C)\·er again. Ancr Neal died, the mob tied his COlVse to a vehide and d '~ 'gged it to the Can nid)' housc where lIlOl lsal,ds had !:f<llhe l'cd . Sc,'eml people drovc knivcs into the corpse wh ile George O umidy, Lola 's rather, fired three bullets into Nears ro rehead with 1I .45. O lher people kicked Ihe corpse, while still others drO\'c their C<lr.; txlck ali(I forth ol'er it . l\'lob melllbcr~ el'en took Nears fingers and I.Ol'S as soul'enirs :md finall), hung his cOIl>S(: on a tree in the front of the I\brianna court huuse. Still not 10la lly sat isfied. mob members 1.111'111..'(\ o n Ihe black cOl11munit)' where Neal lil'ed. burning c\-el")' shack lhey could find .'! Evcnts of this nalurc ,,'ere constalH rem inders t.O hlac.ks lIlat th ey lI'erc a lways in a IJI'ecarious Si Hiluion as long as they were in close proximi ty to whites in the South , e\"en in Florida.

As thc 1·lose and Neal episod es relate. the sexual dynamics be.'twcen black men and while wC)men of len became ceillrallo race reb lions. In 1949. Alabama's ~ScotlSboro TI;ar g"din(.'(lllat.ional focus for ;tdrlressing this issue, 0" SIX."CiotL" charges, nine rOllng black boys were chargt.'tl II;th raping two white ,,'olllen on a freight train. T hl.')' were jailed in Scottsboro. bri\'en a semblance of" lIial. ami scnlencc..-O to deat h '11th the lone exception of the youngesl defendant, a t.hil~

tcen,),ear.ald who instead receil'ed a life sentence. LI",)'e rs for the Cormnunist Part),'s Int ernational L'll:x>r Derense inten'e lled o n behalf

10. "A Repon of Inl"t.'!! tiJo,o:l tu:m 1<1;, (k rO I tht, N .• lion:.1 AS,'IOC1a .i(tIl fo r .he Ad,"A" ( .... 111<:'" " rCot.m'd Po:opk.· :l(j Oclnber 1 9~\oI . Flori<l .• 51;.te Archi\,-"". T!.\II" h :IS~"';

I ,,,n.,~ R. MrCoO\·t:nJ . -" ""/""'1 of " I .J",hmg; .'"1., 1o.·lllmg of (1(Iud, Nffll (U;llnn Rnus'·' 1_ •.. 198'1). i7.

II . Md~o\"t'rn . A,mllfJttly 01" I Jur i",,/{. i~-;.

FORU~I

of lhe young men and appealed tJle \"CrdiCI to the U.S. Supreme Court, which concluded that tJIC men did nOI ha\'e "d<.:qu:ltc legal counsel. A ne,,' II;al was ordered, bm it ended ,,;Ih similar comictiOlls and death scnt.ences or life in plison for the defendants. B)' May 1950, after ano Lilc r appeal and allcr one of the white \\'omen admitted that the charges wcrc a hoax, SUite prosccliLOrs dropped their cases against the young men, and the lasl of them was released from Pl'iSOII.11

While the Scottsboro C .... se l'CCeh'ed na tional aHcmion, so did a "CI)' similar case in Groveland, )<1orida; thc 1-1011da c.tSC. ho\\·(.,\·e r, had a more dismal cnding. FOllr black mCII-&nulll)' Shephcrd, Walter I!'vin, Enu;:s t Thom;LS. and sixtccn-year-old Charles C reenlc(.'--\\·cl'c charged with kidnapping and mping S(.'\'t!nteen-rear<tld Nonna Padgett and ,lSS<llIhing her husband in mid:lul)' 19'19. 11lOmas, undcrslanding the apparcnt danger of this chargc, ran awa), and eluded p0-

lice for o\'er a week before being shot and killed by sherins about two hundred miles from Grol'c1a nd. TIle othel' thrcc men \I'e re a rrestcd. beaten, tortuR'!I, and lIIade to confess. It n:maiIK-d doubtful if anyonc e~,er rnped Norma Padgett. and the defendants later told NAACI) counsel that their confessions had been fOI·ced . 10l1na's 11\ lsb .... nd had bcatcn her 0 11 a pre\~om occ;LSion and had been wanll.-d nCI'cr to do it again by her in-laws. TIHL~. slispicions remain that the Padgetts may have concoctcd this StOI)' o nl}' to Ilide ,ulother ~ating. ')

Whate..-er the reason, whe n the case weill to trial , lhe a ll-\\'hite jury took only ninety mi nut es to return gui lt)' verdicts. Simila r to the Scottsboro C lse, Ir ... in and Shephe rd we re scnt,cnccd to death , while Green lee received leniency. Th e defenda nts appe;llcd their c..'lSC to the Flo rida Supreme Cou rt which rcfused 10 o \'e rtUnl it. However. the U.S. Supremc Court later unanimo llsl), o\'ertllllled th e convictio ns of both . 1\)' Novembe r of 195 1. prosecutors decided to retry thc case, and Sheriff Willis McCall weill to Raiford State Prison to trnnsfer the men to Tavares for another pn ...... tria l hcaring. Mcc..'lll later claimed tha t on the \\';:1)' o lle of the men had to urinate. and th,u a frOIH right ti re began to go flat ,lIId net."ded to be changed. Upon stoppin g. McCall a lleged, the men tried to attack hi m so he shot and killed bOlh. I'

12.Johl1 I-lope fr.uliJin and Alfn.-d M(l'!$. I-'rfNfII 31m'"] /0 ""'"U,,,.; A fli.olIJiry of A/riw " A..mcllm. 71h ed. (Ne»' )Ork. 19'.)01). 388; I'line ct.al" 1lfri!'1I,,-A.....n(II" OdJ~ 431.

13. S Ie-'O! n F. 1~"'J<In. l);l.\;d R. CoOlhum. and O:l.rI) 1 t';ullsoll. "GI"O\'t'land: flOlida ', Linlo: ScoILSIXlro," in 'I'M AJriam Anu.rit"IIII IInifllb'" oj Huridll. (:d . D,,,id R. Colburn aml .l:m c L Landcn (Gain~'·illc . tla .. I9IJ.':') , 2'JEl-32().

1'1. Ibid.

FLORlnA HISTQIUCA L Q UARTERLY

McGill did 1I0t realize, however, that Itv in did not die from thc gunshots and only pretended to be dead . Irvin later reponed that th e shelilr and his deputy intentionally tried to kill bo th men without provo(;lIio l1 . Although news of this kind of r·i1cial il~ lIs l.ice refl ected un favorably upo n the nation during the Cold War, o n I)' a change in governors in Florida !l<lVcd Irvin from cxecUlion. Leroy Collins, the new govel11o r, changed in 'ln 's scntence to life inlplisonment sta ting 1.11 <11. nOl enough conclusive cvidencc cxisted 10 pm hi m to death. Of course , this chag-lincd white Lakc CoUl lt}' rcside l lls. ' ~

In many I'~ I}'S th is case mirro red the ScOlI.~horo lrial. In both illSlanccs. black mcn were charged wilh assaul ting white womcn 0 11

vc r)' fri volo us evidencc. South ern I"hile mcn d carly wcre preocclIpicd with the d esire to protect ami preserve whitc womanhood . And bo th cases raised serious questions aoou t th e r'acial inequities of thc AIll c r;can j lldk ial sysl.em.'6

But if race relations were particularly harsh in lh e early twcll tie lh-ccnlllfY Flo rida, thcy also created an environ11le nt in which indiI'iduals could become prominenl civil righ l.~ acuI'ists-and targets or d o lence. Many individuals stand Ollt fro m the Civil Rights era. l\'lartin Lmher KingJr. and Malcolm X remain the most wcll-kllOll'll leaders , but there werc many o lhers, and most staws had one individual they could idenufy as their most o ll tspo ken propo nCIH lo r black rigills. lr l Mississippi. Mcdgar [ vcrs filled this role for rears. As fi e ld secre tary for \.he NAACp·s Mississippi chapler. Evers led a llumber of dTuns fro m Jackson to hal'e lhe UniversilY o f Mississippi inl egratcd and increase black l'OIi:r registration. Man)" wh ite south erners resented his tenacity. however, and some e"en th reatened to take his life. These threats became a rcali ty O I1.1I1I1 C 12. 1963 when wh ite Sllpremacist Brrol1 De 1...'1 Beckwi th gunncd down Evcrs as he exiled his car 10 go illlo his hOllsc. His wife and children witnessed this hon ibtc lnu rdcr. 11 CWS o f which rcvcrbe rated Lil rollghulit tile COlllltr)'.l1

1',. lhid . I ii Ibid .. :' I!I. 1 7. I~tulll' lX·n ll':u . Iyjp,., Ih, ,IIuyfhn.'>n: II 11;)/(1'"1 I)f Wnd J\mmm (1'",,,' York, 198<1),

-10 1-'10·1; l-l i 'l(· <:1 ;11 .. " fnrrm ·Alllmt:<II1 OdyWJ. 5 18: C ha r les M. l':Iy"e, ,., ." (".oJ II" UK',I oj ~"mvl()/,,: H I' (hg(Ul it;"K Tmt!;I;oll of (I" M~liJ;}i/"'; "'....,1"", Struggll' (lkrh~ k )·. C..l if.. (995); M:up m ,<: Vu ll e rs. Ghml .• 1'.>/ M;~'i~ ';PJ!i; Till' M ,/d,.,· of "'PllglI! f;vm;. II" Trillll 'if J~l'mll I), 1..11 I~"('kll';'''. "'iiI II" n " " "';"K "f Ilip "',.,,, !)aulll (New York. H)'X'); .Iuhn Di!lIll' ''. l..ocal l'roJilt: "11" SlllIggf' for Ci" il lrighlJ HI Millillil!I" (Urb;m:.> 1I1 .. HI'J.'J ).

FORUM 385

While Evcrs's murder ga ined mllio nal ,\Ue ntion , o the r outspoke ll civil lights activists had also been murdered. Sollie twelve )"ears earlier, Florida's most pro min ent civil rights activist lost his life whe ll eX.LI"emists bombed his ho me. Ve ry early, Harry T Moore o f Mims became a wel l-respected leade r in South Florida 's black comlIlun ity, particularly in Brc'~dfd County. as a teacher and principal. As an aCli\>iSt, he challenged the discriminato ry wages paid to black teachers and focused on voting righ ts and the violence co mmitted :tbrai nst blacks in the Sunshine Stale, Moore he lped establ ish the firs t slat e .... >ide confe rence of the NAACP and became presiden t o f its Florida branch. He la ter sen 'cd as the executive director for FIOIida's NAACP, a paid full-time positio n, In 1945, he formed th e Progn .. 'SSivc Vote rs Le ague in Florida wh ich significantly increased the nllmbe r o f regislCred black vote rs in the state."

These deeds we re not wi th out consequences; Moorc an d his wife, Harriett , both suffe red severely. They both were fired frOIll teac hing positio ns in Mims, for example. Perhaps mo re than an)'· th ing else, ~'Ioore's advocacy fo r the black defendants in the Groveland ra pe case COS! him his life, When the three )'o un g men we re arrested and the f01Ll1.h was shot. Mool'c becamc "n ou tspo ken advocate fo r them, helping to raisc llIo ne)' for de fense atlornc)'S, campa igning th ro ugho ul th e stale O il their behalf, writ.ing leuers to public officials, and e\'e n e ncouraging the NAACP to p rovide fi· mlilcial ,md lebra l assistance for the defendant'S. Some whites resc llled his efTor'lS so much tha t th<.")' bombed his ho rne on Chrisunas Ilight of 1951, kill ing Mool'c and his \\>ife in a powerful eKplosion thaI nearly demo lished th e fra rne-structurcd ho me. II is belie"ed tha t Ora nge Coun ty membe rs of the Ku Klux Klan wcre rcsponsible for his dea th . although no one was eve r charged fo r th e murder. O ne h istorian has written lhal Moorc became - th e fir"!>1 civilrighlS leade r as ........ ssinated in the United States.-'v

t!:l.J"nes c. Cbrk. "Cilil Ri~h .s l..cade,· I I:m y Tholll"s Moore anti Ihe Ku Klux Kbn in ~lurida." Hmil/II Ili!/onCf!/ Q,w"/ni] 73 ( 1!1.H): 16( .. 173; Gilbcn L I'un.:r ~. nd teed,",1 W. N9·lantl. /lii/ory oflht Horidll SIIlI, TtflChm. ," JOt";"/,..,,, ("'"shins'011 . i),c., 1977). cli . six; Lkn Gre<:n. I~IIJW Ill. Ti_: Till" U,,/oM Slory offla.." 'I : Moon', ,"'omra', l'in/ all,l l-IJgllb ,u""fJr (N<. ... · \'orl:. . 19'..19) : Robt-rl W, Saunders Sr., /Jridgi"J: 1M Gnp; Q",'i""'''K Thr I-JondiJ NAACP 14M] of /fa.." T. "'DOn! (Tampa. ~'a .. !..)(H)O).

t9. Clark. ~Cil; t Kighl$ I ... ·:.<le'· H;orry n,o",,,~ Moore," 166. 174. 176. 179-183. Sa,,1100 Slt't..«on Kennedy. Tit, Klml (I"mmJcnl (UOt:a R:llon . • 1:1,. 19'Jl) .

~86 FLORI[)A H[~'TORICAL Q UARTt:RLY

Clearly. like other sotllh c;1'Il Siales, Flo rida had aTl African Ame l"ic:1n activist mo\'c mcn l lhal angered comcrv:lli\'c whiles and threate ned the statUS quo. In fac io Flo rida became :l leader in sa· lie nt sLUdenl aClivism dUling th e Civil Rights 11I0\'c lII(' nl . " filc t often o\'c rlookcd by hislOrians. ~"OSI po int to North Caro lina A& T College at C"ccnsooro as the origin of organized slUdclIl invokeme nt. O n February I. 1960, fo ur college studen ts from ;\&1' sal down at a scgrch'dlcd lu nch count er in a Woolwonh 's li tore and 1"Cn:: refused scn~cc. They rClllfI1 cd to the sto re d ;l}' after da)" and as o ther sludc lilS heard about II IC C reensbo ro de l11o nstfaliOlls. Ihey decided to smgc · sit-ins· o f thei r 0\\'11 . Six months lalcr, blacks in Greensboro \\'c rc being se rvcd at the same lunch counters as whit es. '"

Abo ut fo urs years before the sit-ins in Greensbo ro , howe\·e r. Florida A&~'I Unive rs it r stude nts organi zed the ir OWII successfu l bo}'cou . Ou May 2;, 1956. two FAI\'IU students, Wihelm inaJakes of West Palm Beach and Carrie l'auel'Son of La keland . boarded a 1'<11-lah:lssce cit)' b lls a nd sat next to a \\'hite woma n. f o r breaching the code of l<1cial et iquen c. the ), were a rrested a nd charged with inci ling a riol. Th at night a c ross \\~IS bUnled in frOl Il of the coeds' rooming housc. The next da),. FAMU stude nts he ld a mass mccting and agreed 10 refra in fro m riding th e c il)' buses. L': l! e r joined by ol her Tal lallassl'e communit ), leade rs and stlldenlS. Ihe stucicnl5 co n tin lled the ir I)(),co ll for eigh tcen months and sC\'crcly impacted thl' c il)' s blls I'C\'e lllles. In faCt. becausc African Arneric.lIls made lip about 95 perce llt of a ll blls r ide rs. the blls lille closed down sc\'e l~ 11 thlles. The prcssures in itia ted by FAM U students even tuall y forced Ihe bus line 10 ;Ido pt a lIlorc proJ{l'essivc scali ng polic)' for a ll o f i t~ ctlst.o rne rsY

In some ways, the n , Flo rida has been at th e forefro ru o r raci,,1 change in America. I~\l t that aggression also inspi red more vio lent reactions. l'"lob vio lcnce , Klan bombings, lyn chi nb"S. j lld ic ial iltillY tice , discrimina tion . segregation. and any hosl of va riables were an c\'c ryday pa rt of the black experie nce in early twc ntiellH:entu ry

:W . Willi.lln U . e h ,, !"c , r:",i/i/u.J, lUI/I Cir'ill('J.ihb: CrutUOUW. Nm'lh emu/ina, " mi ll", Wtulf SI' Ilr.g/e jQf" Frmlo .. (1'\e,,· Ynrl . I ~ I J. 71-101: Benj amin Qu.u·lcs. TIw Ntgro UI 1M " 'nlu"K rf ,I",,"f" (Nc .... \ u rk . 1987). 2:;2-253: U.l r"\~lId Sitkoff. Til, Slruggk for BltuH~rtlllu,: 19"'-1980 (Ne'" York. 198 1). i2·96.

:! I . Ch:orks U. Smith , l'<t .. T'" C.,,;I /tiKilb ",,,, ,," ....... 1 '" FlQrTtb. ,,,,d rH lit, U"i"'/ Slnll.S (Tall;.h a.~'iCO:, ~,;, .• t989). 62-s.">. 2.'H-250; (;I"nd:, Ali re Ibul,)'. "/1" / '"", MId Ih, l 'rom,Y: Tiv Sln,w jurCi"iI /liJ.ih/j ill 1;d/(/hll.,~. Florid" (A/ hens, C"., 19'.I"J ).

FORUM 387

Flo rida. Combi ned with the examples presented by Lcmpe!, Mohl, lorio, and EI~ lI l S, lh e episodes o f mcial viole nce thaI I have explo red de monstl<ltC that Africa n Anlericans in Florida stl'llggled against the same fo rces as blacks in Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi , ami the rest oflhe Soulh, No longer can the SU llshine St;lIc hide its COllllllon identit), with these SL'H.CS beh ind the cunain of ethn ic diI'ersit}', for Florida has proven througholll IlIOSt of the twe ntiet h ceutlll) ' that blacks would no t be treatcd equal to whitcs. Uh ilIla tely, becausc of the discrepancy bI,'!lwecn image and realit)" COllditions for African Ame rican Floridia ns II'ere worse than in 11Iost oth er southern SllHCS.

David l-I . j ack.solljr.

T he essays in this volume provide cia", il nd analysis lind ex pand o ur knowledge of Flo rida in the twe ntie th ce lllu ry. particularly on the issue of race. roo-lOYal' the mes thaI COll ll ect these works are politics. I~tce relations, lI!ld the impact of racist polic}' o n Florida's AfriC;1Il American cOllullunit}'. jusl as impo rtan t, these essays suggest a new model for studying race in the South , Instead of basing their work on just I-:'IC<: speci fic factors. th e authors suggest race along with whit e migration pallerns, clas. ... and oth er !llcLOrs that shaped black life in Flo rida.

Leonard R. Lcmpel's MThe r-,'Iayor's ' He nchmen and "lcnchwomen, Both Wh ite and Colored ': Ed\\~lrcl H, Annstrong and lhe Polit ics of Race in DaYlOna Beadl, 1900- 1940- is a fascil lali ng work on how a racially bipolar society in a southe rn city defied the no rm of a jil11 Crow paradigm, Relying on city commission minutcs, newspapers, and secol1dary li te l, l(ure, Lempel turlls to the life of Edward }\ l'Illstl'ong in order to address nlcc relations in the realm o fpo lilics and black agcllCY in early twCntielh<clltll'1' Dayt.ona Bc"cll .

Unlike other depicLions ofSOllthel1l ci t1t..-s where racist tcnu r was \,idcspre;:ld and constan t, Lcmpcl il1fonns us that Daytona Beach has a history of m{)(IC!'ale lO1ce relations. J n fael. the author conlends lhe

:J88 FLORIDA HISTORIC \l. Q UARTERI .V

cit)' moved from a pl:lce where the color line W::IS upheld to one where an anli· K}an coalition wa ... de"eloped betwee n blacks and whites under the leadership of Armstrong. a while grocer \\'hosc objective .... us to break d lt: power of the Klan . He \\~I.S successful becausc lIe relied 01 1 the black franchise . We [cam that, as ea rly as 1919, a white moder,lIe sought pol itjcai office, in pan, by vying for African American poli tical suppo n . I\Ul lhal support came at a plice. According to the :ImhOf. the "burgconing political in\'ol\'clllcm of Daytona blnd.s £luling the 1920s ... indicatcs th;Ulhey received be nefi ts in exchange fo r the ir votes.

H

Black voters adopted powe rbroker IYl)C politics whe re they demanded services to help the emi re black cOlllmu nity. l\·lore important, the coalition belwee n blacks with prope rty and whiles de"eloped into a "broad-lxlSCd biracial pol ilical a l1i ance,~

T he alllhor places Ih e pre-\Vorld War I [ DaYlOna Beach polilical alliance in a large r hislOrical cOlllext by noting thai wh ile Ihe c il)' was nOI the norm , il was not uniq ue. In o the r southern citi es slich as r.,·lcmph is, Chan anooga, s.."lll An tonio, R.ale igh, Durham, an d Richmond, blacks vOled in large numbers and usually formed alliances wi th ~ allli -reforll1 bosses and machines." Hence, this anide stro ngly suggesls thai a deeper invesligalion is needed o n soulhe rn politics and f'ace d urin g Ihe carly pari of the Iwentieth cemur),. Lcmpcl challenges the mallipulation th esis of Will iam Dunning and Claude BO\,'crs that simply portra),cd blacks as pa\\'lls ofwhi lcs with nefarious illle ll l.ions. a ll argument that \\"<lS llsed as justificatio n for ad\'OGHeS of\\'hi lC supremacy to "reform- Ihe poli tical S)'stem by excl uding blacks. He also opposes Ih e thesis of the monolilh ic wh ite elite that led the fight for disfran chisement. Instead, Ihe autho r presen ts data demonstraling a com plex relationship belween blacks and whiles ill Daytona Beach .'

Ilut wh~tI makes L.t::mpcl 's eSS<ly so enbtabrlng is nOt onl>, his foclls on black agency but soulhem moderate white agency on behalf of the bbd:: franchise. TItUS, the author prcsenl~ a much 1I10rc complic \l.ed mcial represcmal.io n in the polilical realm ofthc,lim Crow Solllh. He provides dala dClllonsu~lling Iha t there existed a divided white dite. -Ill is split was due lO th e faci t.hat many mofienlle whites wcre from the North and were nOl heavily invesled in the South's bralld of white su-

I. Willi :m, I)unning, IlnIJ".Io·Wli"". I'U/iliml & ELIJ"IJ""C, lIi6' ·ISn (Nt!w V,"I.: . Hl35) : Claude [kJl>o·crs. "/1" '/i"lIgir Hm: Till' 1t.>.I</IIII;ml Aft ... Unmb, (t.,mbridg". M :~"" 19:!'J) :J :' cl.: Ulnonl. ClII" , /{"" . e th~ Citl;1 Night. MOl"',nl'lli (l\[oomingIQn. Ind .. 1987), '1(..60.

FORUM 389

prClllacy. 11K]' wcre anracted to New South ideology and nOt bruml fonus of .lim Crow. Hence, seasonal demograph ic changes that led to the influx of northerners during the winler helped le'ld toO moder-ite race relations and po litical opportunities for blacks.

This is nOt 10 say thaI. wh ite supremacy was non-cxiste11l in Daytona Beach. Indeed, we leam that even though moderate whiles grall1cd concessions to win the black VOle , blacks never had enough political cloul to change the J im Crow structure. What is apparenl in this work is th at social, economic, and de mographic conditions all played a role alongside race in determining who participated in the poli tical arellil, and thai th e one-dimcnsional mode! to explain race relations needs to be challe ngcd .

Despite the su·ucUlr.,1 reasons fo r the black franchise, after reading Lcmper s anicle one is drawn to the conclusion that Armstrong was a unique character. Not on I}' did he not manipulate race, he invited blacks to vote for him in candidacy fo r mayor. A m .. yor reason he was able to do this and still auract white vot.e rs was because of his lise of class politics. His emph asis on <:lass interest over racial concerns seemed to be at the hea rt of the pol itical a ll iance he created. Le mpel"s discovcl)' that many whites in Daytona Beach Ivcre willing to forgo a threat to th eir raciall}' stra1.ified world in pursuit of economic interests is remarkable. Despite hafsh I\'hite opposition , the author con tends that 1I10st whites brave Armstro ng credi t fo r 0 '1),1.0n3 Be ach's economic success.

To a certain degree, the), wefe abl e 10 sec through what W.E. I~.

On Bois called the "psychological I~"dge" or what David Roed iger reren; to as the "wages ofwhitell ess." Du Bois main tained th at despi l.C th e ract that whi les received low w::lges and lhat thcy should havc formed an alliance with black workers, Ivhi tes settled fo r compensation in the 10l'm o f '"deference and titles of courles}' beca use t.hey were white .... Their vote selected public ofTicials, and while this had Slllall cncct upon the economic situation. it had great elrcct upon their personal treatment and the de fe re nce shown them.- Although Lempe! docs not suggest Ihat whit es sacrificed lheir while privikge, .. n emphasis on class concerns was ;111 imponalll fac to r in Annstrong's abi lity to challenge proponents of black disfr.:mch ist. .... melll. The author's depiction o f this southern city as comrary to the norm is engaging but needs furth er developme nt.'

2. w.E.n . Ou nois. I1Illd IlN:OIIS/nUliQII i ll AmnUfI, 1t/6{J..I/Jlilj (New Y,wk, t9'J5). i()().iO I: D:II"1(1 Kncdiger. TI" m 'g>:I a! II'hilmm (New York. 1999) .

390 FLO RI O,\ HtSTQIUlJ\L Q UARTERLY

Wh ile t.he work is significant because it (ontri hmcs to our lIll c\crslallding of Flo rida hislOI1' and politics in the J im Crow Solll h . the a l"liclc migh t have been stronger if Lcmpcl had paid morc :11-te nt.ion 1.0 the issues ofgc nder and class. T ht: author only mClI liOlIS

Ihe I~ilhnetto Club. a \\'o men 's civic OI'WllliZ<l l io n , bUI cloes 11 0 t ciaO. o rale. T hanks lO Glenda Gilmore. Darle ne Clark Hint:. Rosal)'11 Tcrbo rg-Ilc nn , and other scholars. \I' e know that black wome n were ;!ail'c, moving into leadership in their comm unit ies. ' It would hardly be plausible tha I. they we ... : not active in DaYlona Beach . Alsn, a lt hough black agcllcy is an importan t foclls of the anicle. bl<leks are prese nted as;1II aggregate. No strong black personalities or figu res e merge in th e text.

Abscnt from most litcr.llurc 0 11 rio ..... is all examination of Afri· can Am eric:IIlS serving ill the Un ited Stales anned forces. J on E\~Uls's ~Th e Origins o f 'l1l1lahassec's Racial Oisturbance Plan : Rac· ism. Scgrcgmion , and Violence during World War 11" not only ad· vances ou r knowledge o f blacks in uni fonu who werc located in Florida bUl also adds to the litenuul'c on black rebellion and l"l.'Sis

mnce. Instead ofa cOlllri bulion h isIOI) ' approach where the mili· tary ach ic\'c mcllts o f black men <Irc ce lebl'a t,cd , Ihe ;\ llthor exp:tl lds the rcalm of th e strugg le for equality by Ilim ing to black I11CII ill un iform be fore the Second Wol'ld Wrll'. Collective violcnt ac ts car· lied OUI by hlacks in the Unit ed Stales mi lit:u), se .... ice arc nOt pOI" ml)'ed as chaotic and spOlllancoliS o Ulburst in Ihis work but as del ibe rate acts o f resistance 1.0 racial o ppression.

E V;U1S'S pe riod of exall1inatioll predates lhe Oouhl(: V cam· paign- black soldic rs figh ting aga inst Nazism and Fascism ill Ell' rapc and for civil righLS at ho me. He notes tha t. ,Iller Wo rld War I, black troops also fough t fo r dClllocr.u;Y.1I home as well as ove rseas. Clearly o nc aitenl<lti\'c at their disposal .... ~J.s violclIl defi ance, Eva ns prese nts a SI.OI)' of a cOnli nuOlis strugglc for human dignity lhal took place within t.he anlled services. His description o f the SlO1), of how black troops were relc!,>"3lcd to scgrcg,tlcd camps, limited to mcn iallaoor, hu miliated by nldal epithets, and denied the right to

:l. Darlc nc CI;u'l.: H ill1', IJII/r. m /lnl"l'l ;,t 11 71;,,: Unci,,1 Ctmjlll'l "",I (;IJOf""(Jlum '" Ih, Ntm"'l l"rofrMNm , 18!I(J..19j() (8k,.,"nin~\On . I"d .. 1989); Stcph;mic J. Shaw. "\l1ml" 1\;'''II1n ~II(J &- "",I Do": IU"r. I "r%$um(.{ II"...", w." .... .Il)urillg I~r

l im CIVIl! ,.; ... (Chica!,'O. 1996) ; Glenda Elilabeth GilmQre . (;,.,."". II"" Ji", C,\:t ... : " " ....... ",,,11M /'0/;1,,,. fIj' 117"" S"pr"'(J() ilt N(lflh C",oIlfltl (Chapel I'li li. N.C ., 1!.I96) ; Rosalyn TCl'h .. r~·I)cnll. IIjr;rm' Amnlf"fUJ II;'"",,, fJI 1M S/"IlKK'" [til' II" 1(0(,. J8j{)'1920 ( mo() l1l i n~tnn , Inti ., 19'J.':I) .

FOR UM 39 1

ride on trains and eat in th e din in g room wh il e Ge rman p risoners werc afTordcli those rights was more th an just cases of racial discrimination. They were proof of the existcn ce of white privilege and the refusa l to sec blacks as citizens of the Sla te,

Besides as a means of social control. the use of fede ral and state militia und er the Racial Disturbance Plan \\'<IS a way of crushing what was seen as black rebellion . No aHempt was made to address the conditio ns o f it racist mi litary culture that was the root of black anger. African Am ericans' complaints were not see n as legitimate. E\'en while in uniform, blacks were trea ted as out~ide th e boun da ry of humani ty. As tbe cuh ura l c ritic Paul Gilroy noted. they were Miesse I' breeds withou t the law." '

Although the fucus of the work is while reaction to black resistance , more could have bee n said abou t black activism, ro.'loreover. while there is ample dala fo r the essa)', at times Evans's interpretation of tilat data ra ises lIIorc qucstio lls than arc answered. For example, he writes "The Tallahassee RDP 's exclusion of whites from black a reas of the ci t)" the n, should be in terprcted in pa rt as a measure to prolCct tbe blac k com munil)'." However, based on how the military displayed its disdain for blacks. it is hard to conceive th,lI the ), had the black COlli III un ity's interest a t heart. It is more likel)' th at the mili tary was a ttempting to isolate the black conununity because, as Joel Kovel argued, by the post-Reconstruc tion period, blacks were viewed as a d;mgerolls species that needed 1.0 be separ;lIed fro m Ihe rest of sodet}'.~

Similarly, Evans is correc t to argue that the New Deal Mspurred a rada l \ransformation o f lhe condition of blacks in Ameri ca." As h istorian Patricia Sl.IlIi \'<m has shown , alliances of blacks ,lI1d whileS that fo rmed duri ng the New Deal advanced thai tr;:msform:lliO Il ,~

I-I owe\'er, black agency has dee per rooL'i tha n the New Deal, as Leona rd Lcmpcl suggest.s in his own al'ticle when he notes that black Daywna insisted upon th e franchise in lhe nine teenth century.l

4. ' ';",1 Gil,.ny. · n.~u /Ii,,'/ NQ III,yA i ll /I" Ull ioll lacA·: T/" Cul/ln al f'a/i/ir.l of /l"r,. mIll N,,/io1l (Chi c,,~o. 19117) , n -I II.

5. Jod Ko '·cI. II 'h if~ /{flrillll: II l'ly """i.,/tJlJ (Ncw York. 1!J1l<\) . ro. " iuricia Sullh;UI , Oays oj 1I01'r; Hare (I"'{ 1Jt>'''ocIII(Y ill t"e N~", IJml Em (Ch:.pct

Hi ll . N.C., l!JUli). i . J onalh,m Birnballm and Clarc ncc T,, )·lor. - II Didn ', Sla l'l in 1!J5<1 .-;11 G;,t;/ RiglJl~

Si" u 1787: II U""I .... Ofl tlu' IJ /wk S1 t'IIGGIr. cII . .!Oll iUh,1Il Birn bo .. ,,", " nd CI:u'c Ilcc Taylo ,. (Ne,,· "ol'k. 20(0). 1.3.

392 FI .O KlnA HISTORICAL Q UAKTERLY

[II 111:1 11)' ways Pam lorio's "Co lorless Pli maries: Ta mpa's \Vhite Munici pal Party- is the most intriguillg of the IOll r pieces because it is the o nly articlc that looks a l labo r a nd race in a Florida cit)'. Despi lc ea rly au emplS to exclude blacks from "Otill ~, Io rio notes tha t due 10 Ihe suppo rt of th e Knights o f Labor, J ose ph A W" lke r became th(' fil"» t Africa n Ame rican to sit 0 11 Tampa's Council. Tlte Kl1 igh ts of L:l oor a lso played an important role ill the e lectiun of o tlH! r hlacks to municipal office in Tal1llla. It is this success that led buth Republicans and Democr,lI.~ lO adopt racist taclics 10 destroy th t.' :llIi;lI1 cc . As the a ll1hol' slIggcsts. th e \" hite e lit e 's visio n of civic It.'ad e rs ilip was to limi l b lack po litical power th rou);,h Republicancrc;ltcfllil)' whi tc po li tical cl ubs :Ind :1 Delllocml--csiahlished \Vhitc Mu nicipal I>any whose goal '\,lS to d isfra nchise black voters. As 10-lio poi n ts Ollt . Tampa. as elsewhere, was a o1U~-pan}' town controlled by Ihe Democral.~. ;md it \\~ IS this part)' tha t en acted sevcral 1l1CI,ho f[:i to eli min ate b lac ks fro m Ihe po li tical "rc ml. Li k(~ the ~rcdcemel'S~ in othcr sou thern places, dc mocracy becamc equaled with thc excl usion of the bb ck VOIl'. Yel, while the :1111111)1' describes the ac tivi ties and stlccess of th e White Mun icipal Pa rt y in 1910 , no th ing is said abOllt lite Rcpublica n Pan}'. Altho ugh . the Delllocr'IlS dominated "!1l1npa 's poli tics. thc social and poli tica l presslI l"f's CX(' rlcd by Rcpuhlican lil)' whit e c1 uhs should nfl t be ig no rcd. T hc h istory of the Republica n Pa rt)' duti ng the Jilll Crow elOl dC$Crves more stud),,·

Like Lcmpcl ll lll i Eva ns, Io rio ;m ends 1.0 hlack agency. She descrihes how lij(' NAACP challenged the all-whit t: prim:1I1'. and the author i ~ COITeCI to cred it Smith 1/. Allwright as o ne of thc most significant Sup l'cme Court cases of the twentie th Cl·lIUt '1'. II d id lead to in crcased ll ulIlIX'r o f black "(lte rs. li llt as Io rio points 0111, a lthough it did <1\\'<1, )' wi1.h all·white pl·ima rics. rcsis,ance re mained . Eve n in lll e I!eNOs. as the nUlIlher of hlacks increased , and espt .. ciall ), in 1943 when the ft' \\'<I,S a cnl lsolidatiOI1 of cil)' a nd COlll lt)' rcgis ll~ t1 io ll , the a t-large system sti ll denied blacks political P(M(: I:

Tlw reforc, the au th or is COITect to identify the ai-la rge systC11l :IS an oth er means of \\'hites contro l."

R. c..:kl1d .. Gilrnore Cour.hukcl l h:1.I Iht· Kcp"bl i(".tJ1 I'·.trl ) III ~"nh Carotill" - Fun,', ibh' t:jcuctl i\ llir:m ,\mnic:m, frum i1.\ r.mks": ~N' Gnuln ,,,,,I},,,, Crolll 1 1 ~)"20.

!) . M,"'n i n~ .\ l:t rubk. 1111" . I/,j,mn. (1",1 UrlJ<'i/i,m: "/7" &(,(;1111 /(Ntllu/mrluIIJ '" /!IMA ,Imn"" tJ :.cJ;'''''n, Mis", I f~)1) , 118,

FOR UM 393

It becomes clear as one reads this article that th e fight over citizenship and its meaning was a m.yor cOlllest in Tampa. A discussion o rl citizenship. especially as blacks and whites respectively defi ned it, would have made this a stron ger essay. While th e autho r info l111S the reade r abo ut blaCKS' allem pts to destroy th e white hold o n politi cs by registe ring lor the Demoer-atic Pa rty. black activists remain amorvhous. With lhe exception of TI1lirgood Marshall . E. Norman Lacy. Dan H . I\blloy, and Mallhew Grego!)', Tampa 's black communit), aClivists and black grass-roots o rbran iza t.ions remain invisibl e in this work. Vel)' liLLie information is provided about the tlrirt)'-six blacks who join ed the White l\'iunicipall)arty o r the organ izatio n of the -20th Cen tury Club."

Th e impact of the New Deal is also overlOOKed , particu larly hO\" the New Deal coalition of laborers, blacks, progressive whi te so uthe m ers. and leade rs o f th e National Democrdlic Party fram ed the baul e for racial equality and black political empowerment.. It is lI nforlUn ate because the relationship betwee n blacks and labor was a sign ificant theme th roughulII the United St.,tes. Despite th ese weaknesses, Iorio uncovers a history that has been hidden from th e public's eye, As she nOles, with its diverse population , Tampa had t.he pOtential of hecomi ng an exce ptional city, but due to racism, it became jllst another Jim Crow City in Flo rida .'o

While the oth er three essays exami ne race and to a lesst:r extend class irr the political arena , Raymo nd Moh l's "Whitening Miami; Race, l'lo using, and Govc rnm ent Policy in tIl(: Twentie thCCIllUry Dade COlln ty Florida" takes a dilTerem course. Mol1l has made a major contribution to o ur unde rstanding of race rela tio ns in r-,'Iiami wi th his Tl urn<:rous works on lhe city, including his vt:1)' insightful ~On th e Edge: Blacks and Hispan ics in Metropolit,\Il Miami Si nce 1959" that appeared in th is JOHnral a decade ago." Besides nOt focus ing o n race and th e po li tical arena, "Whitening Miami- also di ne rs fro m the o ther pieces in this edition beca use black age ncy is completely absent from the essay. Instead, lhe au

thor explains the nl<~or reasons for the ho rr ible housing COII{Ji-

10.J ohn t:gcnon. SI_" Nr",' Ag"iml Ih~ 1)('1: Tht C",,,,:mrio,, Iwfrm: III~ Civil l('gll/5 Mm .. ",,,,1 i" Ih, .'I.!tI11I (NeW Yorl.: . t9')4), 157-M. 1]j(H:j7. 337: Timothy.J. Minr hiu. Ifhal IJtJ Ill: "'ml (I U"io" Furr; Tile nl'U,\ ;" III" Simill. 1'J., j. 19jj (Ch"pd Hill , N.C.. 1997); Rolx:rl H. Zeiger, '11", C/O. 19Jj· /9,j (Char~cI H ill. N.C .. 19'J5). 2:t7~1t.

II. I{"r mond Moh!. ' 0" the Edge; m:.c.ks :ond Hi~pan ir.s in MClropolit:m Miami Since 1959," HII";(ln IIiS/Qrir,, / QIlIltUrly 6'J (Julr 19'..10): 37·56.

FLORIDA HISTORIf'AL Q UARTERLY

lioliS III Miami. Uke Gi lbe rt Osofsky's Harinll, ·,11, Makillg of {/ Clift/a, Arnold Hirsch ·s M akillg til, SuO/ill Ghl'lto, and new works such as Dougl'L'i S. Ma!;ey and Nancy A. DenlOn·s Amrdrtlll Alm,-,· lirid: &grfgalion (lml /Ill! Making of Ihi! Vndere/ass, Molll 's essay point.~ il f in g{~ r :u who is respo nsihle for the ghc ttoi1.a tio l1 of bl ack neighborhoods. l t Accordi ng to th e autho r, Dade County. a long \\'itll the SUppOI"l of the fcdel~tl government . implemen ted hOllsing policies to assure I·acial scb'Tegatioll . 1\'lohl relies on numerOlls archi,",,1 materia ls. illeludi ng Il1il1l1l(;S from the Dade Col lnty Commission. the National Urban League repo r!.'i, and the records o f the Horne Owners Loan Coq:)(mlliun. Comhi ning poli tical activism with S<'holarship, Mold gathered this wealul of information while he served as an expel"! witll ess ill a class action housing discrimi nation suit againsl Dade Cou nl Y's housing authority. With o\'erwhel mi ng ('vide nce, the author argues th at the 1·lome Owners Loan Corpo",tio n's I't':dl ining and olhcr eO'orts on lhe part of Dade Count)' o nicia ls de nied blacks th c oppor'tl.l nit)' toO dramatically change their condit ions and rcleg:lIed thelll to scgref:,rarcd hOllsi ng. Cha llenging the popu lar notion o f IIIiam i's cKceptionalisrn . the author argues that the SoUlh Dade municipality wasjust another J im Crow cit)'.

Mohl's work is impo l1:lIl t in understandi ng lhe impact of racc. public policy. and urban i/.:.nion in Miami. He allcm plS ncit.her to

overly I"Omanlicize black life in poverty sui cken areas nor to preach sclf:help and blame the vic tim for h is or hel' dem ise in Ihis day of ba nishing govc I"IlInenrlll assistance. Fo r M.ohl , [lie pl'Obl em is not just simple r..lcial tCHOr' ini tiatcd by the Klan . Similar to nort hern urban ccnte rs. lhe horre ndous cond itions in black Miami were c rea ted by those wit h power. E\'en wh ile areas on the \'crg:e o f Inlllsi· tio n rece ived low r.Hings fro m HO LC Occause of thc fear of black encroachmen t. ~Thc ghell.o iza lion of blacks in northwest Dade County by the 19405 w .. s vil'lually pn:detemlined b)' the decision 10

redl ine that area ort he county by the 193Os.- Moh l explains: "TIlliS. t.he HO LC appl~li s,a l systcm ami its loca l implementation in Dade COllnl )' len. a 1eg:1Cy of illlclIsilicd .... Idal segregat.ion lhal has pcrsisted 1.0 the present. -

11. (:m",n ().;uf~I;". Ilmv...; .''11, M ld''''1: uf II (;1"110 (N.: .. · \'011;. \9'Jti); Amnld I li r· M" h . '\/fum'K /I" MQNd (:ltnl,,: IInu (Iud IIQUJ"'K 'N (".J.lf'o/ur, 19-I()' 196I} (CJl i~!:o. 19')8); Douglass S. :\I,I!ot.,)·lltld N~ l1q· A. De mon . ............. 011 "f",,-/lInd; ~O/IO" otld ,n, MoJc"'K q{1'" ( Intlnr/m, (C:lInhlillge. M;l~~ .. t9l)·I).

FORUM 395

Mohl poil lts out th at e"e n aftcr the Flo rida SuprellH:' Cou n d eclared thaI lhe I),uk CoUIII}' racial zon ing o rdinance \\~IS unconstitutional. the COUnly cominued to ma;nlain a racial housi ng policy. Well in to th e 1960s, p ublic ho usi ng in Dade remained scgreb'aled , ~Both federal and local ex perience wi th redlining and r"eiill zoning assured that housing buil! in the neighborhood \\'ould take on the racial character o f th e neighbo rhood,- This public policy can be equated with th e South Africa ll /\panheid regime. Mohl's focus is not limited to public agencies; he alS(l lakes aim at p rivatc developers. Because of th e infl uence o f th e Dade County Commission , private developers built housing for blacks in the segrega ted areas of Browllsvi11e . Libert}' Cit)'. and Ove nown. Mo hl's arglllllen t lhat COllllly officials, the federa l government , and private developers attempted 10 rdeg-dte blach to ·officially designated and already segregated areas· posi tions him with a growi ng Ilumber of sc ho lars who not o nly challenge a consen~llhe critique that blames lhe Great Society for black urban deca), but disputes scho lars who reo ject the decl ining significance o fl"acc and ad\'ocatc the dt. ... ;ndustri· alization thesis, IJ

The construction ofa new cxprcss"~ly ill the black com muni ty of Ovcrtown , theil , became crucial to fini shing a ncighbo rhood OIl· ready in d ecline. When the down leg of the cxpress"~ly \\~IS com· ple ted in th e lI1i d-19605, it ripped thro ugh the ce nter ofO\'erto\\'n, \\,jping Olll the black residen ti;:ll and business areas at the commer· cial ;lIld cuhural heart of black ~'l i;lIni .

While the focus is o n the impact of public policy on race a nd ho using, ~'Ioh l might have paid some attention to bl ack activism and the challenge to gheuoizatioll . There is no mentio n of th e Rev. J o hn Culmer, who hecame a Ill~or advocat e 10 improve hOllsing in black Miami in lhe 1930s and 1940s. O the r black activistS in the 1960s and 1970s also \\'ere fi e rce fighte rs against segrega lio n, Some foc lls o n black activism .... ·ould ha\'c helped I11m'c a\"'d}' from the depictiOIl of blach as simply victi ms 1.0 a Ix>rtrait of l)Cople in an 011-

going cOlllest to improve their lives. It would hll\'C also addressed cO I 1.~er\'a li"e critics who nUlt and I, I\'I! abo ut lhc lack of black civic age ncy and self·in itiati\'e ." This critiquc. however, should 1101 take

J3.11101ll-lS Sugruc. '/',., OngllJJ of 1M UrbtJ" emil: 1/(1'" (lwl ' '''''1,wlll, '" ' 'mh''tIr '''''roif (1' lil1t·ClOn. NJ. . 1996) . 14. TI,c mos. e)Ole .. ,in' "'0'], ," ria.c· 011 I)t ;,,:· ], lICl i';S IlI ill Miami is Man;1I Dunn's

IlIlI( • .Hh,m; ;" /1" 'f il'f'III;,tI, em/'''J (G~ines\i lle. ~1.1 .. 19(7) .

396 FLORIDA H ISTORICt\ L Q UARTUL\'

away f!"Om the staggering documentation and well-argued thesis of the du plici ty o f a whi le powe r structure be nt on assigning blacks 10 the poorest hOllsing in Miami .

All of these essays demonstra te that Florida II~LS ;md remains a d ive rse slatc, and no o ne narr;'ltivc can cx plain ils histol) '. Thesc essays also no te lhal o ne needs to pay atten tion to I, ICC and class (alo ng wilh ge nde r) when II'rit ing on th e history o f Florida . Thc growing number o f studies o n the 1~lrious locillities in the Sunshinc St:lle do nOI represe nt a balkaniza tion oHlorida's hisIOI)' but po int us in it direction to gain greate r comprehension oflhe 1I10St dil·crsc st:lle in the union.

Clare nce Ta)'lor

Book Reviews

TIle Everglades: A" /!.iwiromne7lta l History. By J),l\'id ro,IcCa lly. (Gainesvi lle: University Press of florida, 1999. xxi i, 2 15 pp. Lisl of mbles and figures. foreword . pre face. notes, bibliography. index. S39.95 cloth.)

David McCall)"s n e Ellergfat/es: All Enlliromnl'tllal I-lislory is an importan t add it.io n to Flo rida 's hiSlorical li lc ralufC. McC'll ly excels iu his analysis of the volmion of the Evcrglades, and the people who ahered this highly unique system 10 Stlil their needs. This work. pai red with Tile River oj Crass. oITers an excelle nt imroduclioll to ecology and history of the Evcrglades. In fac l, I'Cildcl'S will fi nd il impcr.ni\·c 10 consuh Marjorie StOIU::man Do uglas's classic work because McG'l lly's well-wrilte n pmse is muddled by his thesis.

The aUlhor contcnds that the river oj gmss "metapho r is unfortUllate and hinders restoration o f the cOlllplex wetlands s)'stcm it so imperfcctly describesM ( 179) . Unfo rtunately. the amho r fails to ofle r an ahcrnauvc metaphor that would serve the s)'Stem 's reSlOI-alio n . McCall)' docs preselll the Adrio ndack State J~ark as an example Florida could elll ulate to cre;u e a sllstain able Eve rg lades. Yet he never examines th e strategies lhe New York park has pursued to Mmaintai ll [ed l a sustainable wi lde rn ess s),sle m- ( 176). Current ly. New Yo rk is implcmc ming a clustered traditio nal town d C\'e\opmem stmt,egy in Adiro ndack StalC Park not o llly to maintain the wilderness. but to prOtect lew York Ci ty's wa te r supply. The South Florida WOller Management DiSlricl has proposed a si milar slralef:,.,),. a poilu Ihe author should ha\'c idc ntified 10 aid the cause of sustainabi!it),.

Although lhe auth or ignored thc impact of rece nt human habitalion. he excel led in a nalrl.ing the \iving patterns o f the Everglades fi r.i l human inhabitan ts. McCall)' ex plains th:n the earliest native peoples slt'uggled to survive. but ;L'I the south F10 li d a plant

13971

1\98 FLORIDA HISTORICAL QUARTI:'..RLY

and soil system became more d ive rse and rich a ~cllhll ra l ex plosion" ensiled around 3000 Be. ~Thc new c n VirOI1l11CIJlaJ nic hes. both the imcrior wetlands and highly productive coastal waters. provided Florida 's Indians with living s il CS thaI were far more p roductive than anything previously <.\,,<,i la blc in sOlL th Flo rida, and these morc productive environ mental conditions provided the ba~

sis fur the emergence of ... Ihe glades tradition H (:18). This section of the book, coupled with the creation of lIl od e m agricult.llrai sf*" [ems, is the strengtll of the book. T he trial ar Id error CnorL~ of modern Americans to d rain the Everglades is ex pen ly ch ron icled, rC\'caling the importance of gm'crnmc nlal ex pertise in creating the Everglades agri cuhuml and flood com rol districts. The autho r provides hope that we may have expertisc to rcstore th e historic Everglades, but ~it will ultimately be a political decisio n·· ( 179).

Unfortunately, the amhor neve r mentions the creation of Evc rglades National Park. This politic:ll decision is a tic h Story becausc it lIIarks thc firsttimc that thc Un ited States cstablished a park lhat was nOt of th e Inonumental SI;lIurc of the grca t western parks or CVCl1 the Smoky Mountains. i\'lorcover, in thc author·s skilled hands, an examination of the Evcrglades N,llional Park would undoubtedly yield idcas to push his own agenda : ·'The creation of a state park that indudes both the Everglades Agriculture Area and lhe land be twecn the ag-ricu luu-;ll district and the Evcrglades National Park ~ ( 179).

David !\'lcCal1y has wliucn an impo rL1.nt Ixx>k, but t.here arc some telling gaps in his story. I am hoping hc writes more on the subject. especially if he addresses the history of tJ1 C E\'c rglades Natio nal Park. \Vhi le the river ojgrass mctaphor lila), ~ represcnllhe historic E\'erglades in the minds o f most Alnencans- ( 176), lTlost Amcrica ns idclllify the Everglades as a national park. Until this issue is senttillizccl the environmental hislOry of the Everglades wil l be incomplete.

Rollills College R. BRUCE STEt'HENSON

UIII.:cmquered People: Horida 's Seminole alld MicUJsllkee b,dialls. By Bn:: nt Richard \ \'eisma n. (Gain esville: Univcrs it r Prcss of Florida. 1999. x. 170 pp. Foreword by.l enlld T. Mila nich. ack nowledglIl ents, in troduction, furthe r reading, lil1lclinc. S39.95 d oth. )

Ll rcnt Richard Weisman wrot c lhis slim vol ume lor the gene l";'] p ublic rather tha ll th e scho larly audience uni\'c rsi ty presses nor-

BOOK RF\'II:W'I 399

mall)' targe!. I appblld him fur his desirt: II) make sclI lIlarl>' iofur-111:l1 ioll more a(Cf·s."ihk :l1ld the U ll i\'e rs it ~' Press of Fl urida fo r contin uing to expa nd his scope. Rt'pletl' with pholog t~\phs and c(lIlci uding with ;I J.;uidc to Scmi!!o]" , it e<; in Florida. this IJook ~ h()lI ld ha\'{' Illa(k a m:tior con lribution 10 knowlcdge about Florida's Na th'c peo ples r.1t' the " t :H e'~ cit i/en .. and ,'isi tors,

Weisman is at his bc~1 wlH' 1I he dl'sctibcs arch:t('ologiral eXGI\':tlions. and amateur ;tr{'haeo l oJ.{i s,-~, :IS \\'(' 11 as man >, professiunals, \\'illl'ltio), h is digressiolls. Wlt t: 11 he wrilt ,s abollt the eXI':lv,lIi u11 ;n Ihe 19':)Os ofa hurial in Papll's 1' 1~ lirt: , fo r l'xample. he carefull ), no tes the position of the corpsl'-flf'xc'(1. on his sick . and r.'lclllg cast-and lists the itt'lllS burit:d wilh him. wh ich were mostl), European lI"d~ f.:ouds including hrass hudles. ;111 iron tile a mi tomahawk. a mit-rol·. kn;\'cs, coils ()f c!lo pel' wi re, and a gun lock. Then h ~' skillfully relates Ihis excavatioll 10 the historical sources of the Indian Irade: "10 oblail1 tlt eSI: il e llls. th is lIIan would ha\'(' had 10

tll rn in a minimum of thirty-folll" pounds o f dee rskins. , , I which I could readi ly havl: COIllC frOIll !L'ss Ihall 011(' season in Ihe woods~ (22). The reader moves from skcle lOli ami goods to Ih(' prO("ess by \\'hic h a human bt'ing obtai ned his livelihood . anrl he / shc shifts fronl the objecliticatio ll of Nalivc life to all apprecialill1l o f wh al it was like to li \"!' as an India n in the c igluce tllh-cc tllll l1' South .

Ir cunnecting archaeology and . uh lu·t: is 1\'I, at Weisman dues I)('sl. writin g hist0'1' is whal he docs wors\. li e often docs nOI pro ... \'ide enough <il· tail 10 avoid confu~ iOIl . For cxample, he illllllcdi ... :1I e1y follows a discussion of Spanish a ll(~mpts 10 get U l\\'cr Creeks to IIl tl\'C inlO Florida with a pal~ lgraph on a council wi th Ihe South C'lroli na gove rno r. til passi ng, he cornllH' 11 1.~ thai "Florida was now Illlder Bri tish rllk " ( 14). Coloni al historians wi ll kllll\\' that fullowillg I.lt e ${" 'ell Years' War (French ami Indian W:n') , Brit ain ac ... quin:d Florida and Spain got Louisiana whi le Iht, dd'eat~·d Fr.\Ilces IfI~ IIIl Ol' t ofils posses."ions in Ihe western hemispheH·. bUI ~il1C(' Ill)' college sltlde ll ts Ca ll1101 keq > l(:nilOrial I r: 1I 1~fers straight ill I h i~ pc.. ... riod . I suspect thai "111M ge ltel-,II rt,·.uk·l"S \\'il l raltcr 011 Ihi!' point. And )'1:1 tl H' !' hilt from Ollt! colo nial ('m pire 10 another i';1II e lHlr'noll ~l )' impo rt ant C'\'Clll ror the Lower Cn'{'ks/St:minnk~. II tOr.C's Il1 t' l11 to deal Wi lh Ihe rar more I~\paci ' ) ll ~ Ik ilislt . Til l:)' all('lId Ihis ('(11111. 11 1I0t ou l uf c!toict:, as \\ 'eisl1lan implies. btlt o Ul of m;cessil\'.

Although the hook has a fun <ial11cl1tally ("hrullu lu~k;l l org;:lIli ... 1a lioll, til(' ,-d;ui\c " 'cig:ltt p1<l("ed on \, .riolls p('l'i()(l ~ ill St.·mino ie and ~ l icco$lIke( ' hi,wry 11lakc~ no ~e Il St· . T he Sel11l1lo1l' \\'ar .. ( I ~ I ~-

'100 FLORJI)/\ I lis rOIUCAL. Q UARTERLY

1858) gel over twent), pages whilc the clltire rwenlie lh CC lltl lr), gets fift ee n, This imbalance is particularly nnrortunatc since in the liwlIle r pe riod or Seminole history. elhnon:lllric and downright "'aeist \\·riting prc\~.Ii1s . We isman . who is no rmall y quit e sensitive. lapses illw the language of th is li lerature when , for eS:lIuplc. he rere I's 10 ':Jessup 's rdative success in ridding Florida of the Se mi-1U,ll~s" (51}). In his abbn:viated account of th e twentie th ce lllll'l'. he devot es o nly one pamgraph to Ihe subjecl most non-specialislS lind IIIOSI r:L'tCin :llillg and rclemnt- Indian ga ming-while Seminole rclatilllls wi lh archaeologists get a whole section .

In cunclusion. therefore. this book simply wi ll no t se rve the general publ ic very wdl. The absence of an illdes ami the poor qUillit)' or pho tOgr:.lphic reproduction only add to the im pression thai il 1\~IS huniedly asscmbled and shodd ily produced . Anrone SL'"

dOllsly interest.ed in th e histol), or Florida 's native people sho uld read the fine scho larly work of Harry Kersey. Amy BIIshnell.John Mahon . I'a uicia 'vVicklllan , J erald tI'i ilan ich , Pats), West. and Weis· lIIan hilllsciL

UII;vn-si/)' oj Nortli Cam/i"" THEIl,\ PERI>l1t:

&'fXh~. StOtLIf'S, and Yatlkee Strangers: The Trallsfo",mtioll of Florida. By J ohn T. FOSler ami Sarah Whillner Foster. (Gainesville : Uni vc rsit)' Prcss of Florida . 1999. xix, 158 pp. Forc\m rd. preface. IlOtCS. bibliography. index. S2'1.9!J hardcover. $ 12.95 paper.)

RCCl'IIlSlrUCIion aimed at remaking til{- South in the illlage or I hc Nonh . 1k« llt'n. StQlutJ. ami );llIh" Sll'flllgm es plores I hi~ topic in a rocused and limited Iva)'. bill it taps il1lo some or lhe broader issues rela ted to Florida :lS the stllle c une to lerms with Ih e mod ern world in thc ialc-nin ctcenlh cell tUl) '. John T and Sar:lh Whitmer Fo~[e !' exa min e a tigh tly-knit gro up ofYankct."S who \'icwc,'d Florida as a gnilid expcrimc lll in earthly re(klllplioll as tllc lIen'OIIS t:' lle rb')' o r New Engbnd reform ism flowed in lo the \~ICUIIIII of POSI-\,'ar Flo rida . To lhese reforl11ers. Flurida I\~ ' S a politica l and mural fmn· [ic;!'. roug h all(\ backl\·ard . tilal Hecded a guiding h<llld . Whi le politicoll Reconstruction directed by lhe natiunal g:un:nHlH'[1I \\~IS

Ce rtai,,!v part uf this t:hapter o r 1 he statc's h iSlor),. the in dividuals in .h is hook sought to cUll l'incc e nuugh YallkL'es h I 11I01'C lO Florida so thai b\' I\'orking in cOllcen I\'ith "'odda Unionists. political control

L'\OOK REVn:\\'s -101

cou ld he \ITCSled li'OJn "u<tdi tiona l southerners" and a "vcry dilli.'rent Florida" could be crealed. While. this tack fai led in Ih e ~ hon~

1'1 111 , th e authors <1ssen it II~ I S nevcrtheless an ea rly au em pi 10 crcalc a l1l olil.'rn Flot-ida, Th us. it \1"aS not Henry Flagler whn p1:tnlf'd Ihe lirst seeds of loday"s Florida. bll1 the: i111 c rlo pers the aulho rs call ·Yankce ..; trangers·· who prepa red Flagle r ·s fields for h:ln'psl. \Vhal thes.· ptCopfc lacked. unlike FlaKier. \I'as Ihe ahilil )' to pour enOl'-1110US amoun ts of capital into lilt' slate. Th l' protagonisL~ in this book :1llemptcd /lrSltO remake Ihe men tal a tld polilicalla ndsGlpe of Fl orida. and fail ed . Flagler rellude Flori(b ·s eCOI1n111 }' and Ih e stalt·'s Illilld fol lOwed mammon inlO the In"dern II·or ld . Tllis is nOI to sa}' tlia t Harrie t Ik('cher Slowe did 1101 underSland Ihe imporlance of eco no mic growlh to her visioll . hUI the vicissi lUdes of \I't:alher played havoc wilh oranges in 111'1' locale.

Thc.~ Fosters have pen ned a bonk bulKi ng wil h thi ck description o f th ei r chief playe rs and of Pf,sltwllulTl Fl orida. They d raw dee ply from th eir sources to Iran· the impacI ofa select and tiglHly .. knit group ofYa nket"s OIl Florida·s lat e-ninc tee nth cen tury experience. and lh ey of len le t Iheir subjects spea k fo r lh emsclves. Th e kC)' fi gures incl ude Harrie t Beecher Slo\\'e, her brother e harll's Beec he r, John Swaim, Chl oe i\lcrrick , and o th er,;. All of th ese individuals cOllle to life in the hook , hut o nly these chmftc tcrs, For th e most p;lr1. sn ul hcrtl en; arc treated as abslITIclions-gond if Ihe), ae .. cepte;d the mode rn vision . but bad if the}' did 110t. Th i, is undersl<lmlable givell the purpose o f the book . as well as th e view o f Ih t.: main playt'rs of the d r;l1na, bUI 10 dismiss those 110t. in agree ment with the nt,:w visio n as '·tmdil ional southe rn ers'· is 10 presenl a lilllited version of ll lC debates that tonk place. Evt' ll the la nd and e l1 ,"iro l1111 Clll o f Fl orida it.~eH·, wht.: n viewed Ihrough lhe lens of tIll: Beecher 's and 5tol,'e's d escriptio ns, is a surreal world , exotic a nd fo reign bnl preKl1ant wi th possibilities. It of len see ms, in decd, that Iht' Beechers and Stowes \\'c n:: surprised 111;11 [hc people th ey me[ ill 1i1 l.' ir Fl orida tr.wels spok(' English.

Perhaps the most il11 porl:lm part o f the stury 14lr th c FO~lcrs is the pa nicul ar \·ision that t,he Beecher!; and 510\\'e,; had lor F1uri(1;1. The Yan kce su,,;ulgel")i sincerely desired to crea t.t,: a more q:.,ra lita rian socie t)' ill the sla tt '. Education , politic;.l panicipalio n, ali(I econo mic opport uni ty for Alrica n Alllc.' fi ca ns pl'lyed a cem fa l role in Ihis ,·ision . And wh ile t.her I,'ere act ively in\'oh'ed in promoti ng tlw ~t.: Cl lds, there ,,·cfe, 10 sa)' the least , ; \11 )' numlwr of hi SlOrical fo r.('s '!Cli ng: to Ii mil thelli . Tel li ngl)'. a t [Itt: {· nel of the !'Iory [h e

402 FLOIUOA 1-I ISTO R1CAL Q UARTl:RLY

Stowcs ami Bccchers len Florida fu r lIlure no rth ern climes. much as 100lay's Msno\\'birdsM come and go, ei ther obli \'ious II) the impact Ihey ha\'(: on deep-rooted COllllnUllil ies, o ld churcht:s, and IOllgstanding. Incal [rad il,io ns, o r like the people in this "tud)" intent on shaping t he area to th eir own liking. So, this study is lIut JUS! a talc of Florida 's carl}' flirtation " 'ith mode rnizatio n . but a look a t th e forces and ideas th at crcatcd the South that exists IOd ay, The Bcec hc rs and SIO\\'CS lila)' have lust the bailie in the lal(. ... ninetecnlh celli ury, Imt th ey e"ide mly h a\'t~ won the war.

Ull ilJl'rsil)' oj 1,I'est Horifl(l GEORGE B. ELLENUERG

Slaws a"d Slaveholden ill Bernlllda, 161&1782. B)' Virginia Bcmhard. (Columbia: University of Missouli Press, I99£J. xvii i. 316 pp. List of tables and maps. preface, acknowledb'lllCrIlS, appendices. ;1

note on Bermuda sourccs, wo rks cited. index. $37.50 doth .)

Ou t offascin ation wilh Bcnlluda , Virginia Be mhard bega n resea rch ing this colony's hislO'1' some time ago. Her research e lTorts, and incrcased fascin atio n , led to lite p rod uction of this study on tile people and hislOI1' o f a Slllall English colo ny 600 miles on' th e coast of Virginia, Inlhis book, Bernhard details and examines BerIllllda's unique hislo ry fi rs t as a fledgling colo n), and finall)' as a complic:llcd slave socie ty in an eflurl to ascert,lin this island 's history o f race-relatio ns in comparison to mhc r slave societies during this er.l.

Slmlf.f (lnd SlmH'},oIlil''-s ill IkrmUlill takcs the rCOIde r o n a chronological journe), thro ugh the dC\'clopmem of this small island colo ny into ils final product as a t)llical sla\'(, socic ty du ring the eighlcenth century. Huwcl'e r, as Bernh ard :ll'b'lles, the re \\-d S nOlh, ing t),pical abolLt Be rmuda 's slave socie ty, From its carll' devctopment. the colo ll)' did nOt share the sa me ideas of slan:r)' as iLi neig hbo rs in ma inland Nort h America o r the Cari bbean. Bl ac b and whiles lived IOgelhe r in a colon), thai e ncompasscd {\\'emr-one S<luare miles, a fact thai dccply alTected the sta le of race-rdatiOIl S in lkrmuda. Sh,,'cs a lld whites livt 'd together. workt'd tngether, and shared th e samc ho pes and dreams. The), worshiped in thc sa me churches, shared an cduc:u ional knowledge. and helped each o ther 01lt in t.ime o f l1t:ed.

I.aws el 101ct c d [U p llr l is h o r COlllrol blacks in Ihc CI J1111111l 1l i ty in a "aric t)' o f areas were repeat.edly igno red o r bypassed . -nlese s1a \'e~

nOOK Rf:VIFWS 403

were gi\'cn a certa in degree oi"i nde pclHlel1 Cl' and w('re abl e to IIlm'C aboll t freclr on the isla nd and form rdationships wilh their fclluw slaves, something: that was 1"101 e l!joyecl hy their hruthcr~ ami sistcrs in tlw remaining areas of till" New World . Fu rt hermore, Ben llllda '~

slaves d id 1101 re\"olt as they did ill die 1I[;lilllall(l colo nies or in lhe Caribbea n . alld those rernlts that d id oen tr were q ttit e tamc. Wh ites in Bermuda did not share Ihc COIIIIIIOlI opinion that slaves were 1;11.)" ignor'a11l , and in ferior. Their o nly f; llI lt was Ihat thc}' wert" 11 01 free . II I EKt , Bern h;trd argtles, S!a\'CS wcn ' seldunl called sl:tves at :tIl .

So. according to Bern hard. what dcwlopt'd 600 miles ofT lhe coast ofVirgini:t was;t racia lly 101(·r.lI1t colon), lhat gave ilS slaves Ma

largc measure of autonomy ami a sellSc o f idC11Iit( (275 ). One cannut help but admit thai all of this i ~ hard to bel ic"c, especially whe n ;\1\':lrc of the stal e of alfairs ill Ille slave socielies of Ina illiand Nurth America, Lalin America . a lld the Caribbean . Howe\'er, ne rnhard's sottt"l"es do not lie. She su pports these conclusions with ('v;d ence from wi lls, Cou rl records, Assc mbly acts, Bennuda 's colonial records, ami much mon'. l1y lo o kin g a t he r sources and re~e <l rch

elTons . it is obvious til;ll she has definit e l)' done It er homc,,'o rk and Sp t' ll\ a g reat de .. 1 o f time in Uermuda 's arch i\'('s.

HO\\"('l'er. lhe book docs ha\'c a few problems. First, t hea' is no Ilitf/.durt;otl to Ibis smdy. Ah ho ugh Bern hard discu~scs her ideas and gua ls somcwhat in the preb (e, lhat is scan!. She docs explain her 1I10\.ivat ions hehind her illl e rest and resea rch in Ik rmuda and its histury, as \\'c )l as Ih e qucsliollS she ho ped to answc r wit h this book. This is quile imeresting, but her di sCllssio n em!:; the re. What is desperat ely needcd here is an Introdt tetioll that places Bermuda in context with t.his e r,,'s histury. and what has been previottsly no ne. Bern hard does mention what lew books ha\'e been wri tt en 0 11 Bermuda, but does not explain thcm ill de ta il. Funhennnn: . she makes li u le dTon to defi ne hoI\' she secs Bermuda ill cOlllparison 10 how olhe r historians h ;1\"(' secn it in the pas\. As a resu lt . th e reader is left " 'o ndering whet her sill' sces il as part ufNo n h ,\Iller,.

ica ur t.he Carihbe'lI1. More qucsl iom surruullci lite i S~ lIe uf wherc ulilcr Ili sto ri :1 1 1~ , Aln("ricani~ ts ;tnd Ca rihheanists, ~e (" lhe (01011 >' as II"cli . The ~ame is lrue lor her freq uellt lise of the Ie I'm, "English Colonies." Is sit e refe rri ng 10 those in mainland North AllH!riC;l, o r the Caribbea n, or both? AI lillles Ihis is clea r. bill on eil il is not. ' j'llis type of di~cuss i oll " 'Ollld 11:11'(' Ild lwtl Iler bllok a great. del l.

AkHlg Ihe samc lim!s. Bern hard frequently compares the colo llY's hi .. t.u ry 10 lhat of culolli:tl Virgillia alill Inainb.11t1 North

'104 FLORID,\ H ISTORICAl . Q U,\Il.TEIl.LY

Ame rica , This is not bad, bUI the S<llIle needs to be dunc fo r Ihe Engli!ih rnlo nies in Ihe Caribbean . Alt hough she docs do some co mparison in lh is area , it is nOl as in depth as lht, com parison \\'illlihe AlIlel'iC:1II colo ni es. What results is a s llld), that see ms to SC(' Bermuda as an American culon),. This is VCI)' d isco l1l'cni ng. as lIlallY C'iribbc aniSI$ II'ould tClid to disagree. One C,lIl llo t help but feel by the last pa~e thai L\c rnl1ard was simply 01 11 of her clemelll in wrilinl{ this book . 1-1( ' 1' knowled ge of American history is quite rich and imprcssil'c, bllt her knowledgc o f the Cari bl>C.'i1i is o nly beginning.

With th,, ' !laid , SialH'J IIIltl SlmH'llOlden ill Ikl'lnlllin is stili an jmpu rlant addilio ll 10 the hislo riograph y. Bel'llhard ha_~ produced all

im pressively n.'searched and well-written book th ai gil'cs the reade r valuable insiglll in lO Bermuda's hislor)" She gives delail alld life to this colony's hlSIOI)' as well as its inhabitants, which is something thai has been 11('ed('d fo r qui Ie somc !. ime.

Hot"irin l llln'1wliOlla l Uni1N1'sil)' COU.U:N V ASCO:-'-<':}:U .OS

Ma"''''oll amI M(lIIOII ill Earl)' New Orleans: 77u: First Slalle Society ill 'he Dt.-ep So"''' , l7J fJ. 1819. By Th omas N. luge l'soll . (Knoxvillc: Ullivcnoil), ofTenncs.'~('e Press, 1999, xxv, 490 pp. Acknowkdg· me n IS. inll"O{illClio n . nOles, bibliography, inrlex . $60.00 clot h.

25.00 p:1pl' I'.)

Popular wrilen; :1nd historians have steeped carl)' New O rleans, pl' rhaps more Ihan an)' ol hc l' eil)' in Amcrica, in a eo lorfulm),lhol-0b'Y. They have dt'scribed il as place ruled by MMano n:' the hOIblooded IC1l1ptress, "where women of both (olol's g;wc themselves Itp to illicit S'"X with men . ",hene\'e!" the laner were nOI indulging in olla ' r vices o r c rilllcs M

(x\·ii ). According 10 Thomas Ingersoll. this illlal:j(' is nOI o n I)' fanciful. il is also wrong. He OII')':"IICS Ihat W ~'bun _

lllo n.M or the pu rsuil of 1I1;lIerial we.-. hh . defined Ihe d ty's socia l structure 1'1'0111 its fo unding, and lilal o rde r and respeclabi! it)', nOI clt'cadt;llcc, anarch}" and vice, were essenlia! 10 its de\"(!lopmcru . G llling New Orleans the ti rsl slaw societ), of Ihe Deep SOIul1. Ingersoll furthe r asse rts Ih a t Ihe r.lcial hicr:II'chy tha t governed all pl:lIlI<l tiol1 societies dCIL'rmined relations i>t.! I\I'een Lhe cil)'s de lliWIIS mo rt· than Ihe cul1ures orils French . Spallish , ilnd fmall)'. Anglo-Al11criC:ln nl lcrs.

111 fram iug his arguruen I. I ngc rsoll not onl }' lakes issuc with I he old Creole hi~lurial1s like Charles GaY;lrre. but also wilh Fr.lI1 k Tan-

Ircnbaum 's cla.~s i c I:o mparali\'e :rrral)'sis (If Latin AllIcri c;ur and Erlglish sla\'c col oni es . He also chalk llges II(: I\"(T sd101ar~hip Ihal h:ts reviscd and es pandcd t;arlicr ven;ions of Louisia na 's colonial h istoq', Rcn;lllly, Cwelldo l)'11 ~'I illlo l-I al1. D:uliel Usmcr.J r .. and Kimhe rly Han gar, a lllong ol he rs, havc delved into Frcllc h and Spanish colo nial rc(:ords 1,0 show how sparse SCUk llH: lil. we;lk colonial leadc rsllip. arI d a volatile n<lIIII. ll l·III'ironrn e nt provided Ind iall S. slal'es. and free; bb cks with IcVC1<1gC a!§rin st Llle dumi Ira tion o f white Ellropem culunisls, In contras t. Inge rsoll "sserts that sl,wes :l.lld free hlacks lle\'l'r se riously cl lalle nged lh (' auth ority uf the while populatiun _

To l11ak(' hi~ case . lu ),{crsoll d ivides his slo ry into tlm:e pa n s: the French Regime. lhe Spa nish Regim e. il nd Ihe Re publiGIIl Periorl. Durin g French rule, whitt' colo nists searched li.)I' :1 11IC1<I1i\'l.: ~ t ;rp1t: , impon ed Africa n slaves. ;i n(\ struggled 10 c re ll e a plantation eC01rum)'. The), \,'e re thwart ed ini l;all r by ponr IOIXl. rco crops and Ihe Fn:nc h Crown 's unwillin gness to susta in the slave trade. In conll<rs t 10 olh e r "CCOlllllS which de fined clw early French pet'iuu as a tinl(' uf sta rvation and conllin among reside1lts. Ingersoll cl::l ims whi le se ltle rs ac hicved mod e t<IIC succc.ss in the ir ag- ricII1-tural elTon .'! . and considerable soc ial mohilit)', Despile dilTe rl'11t classes a nd nrigil lS. whi!.Cs we re 1I11ified by ahlllldant ]amI. C0111m01\ sla\'t'holding st;rllls. and a sha red Sla ke in comroll ill g the black POPlllali011 . Conversel)" b!;u,:ks rell1:1in o.:: d di vided h)' Iheir (lin e rt:' !11 Africa n n:uionalili es a nd the e m<:rgcncl' of a free black sub-c lass. Vio lenct~ STi ll erupted occasionally, btll it did 1I0 t 1hn:;I1 CIl th e e~

selllial :llllhu rit )' Ihal whi le men exe rcised ove r all OThers, liy tht· 111id-ci~ht o.:: (, Jlt lr C('IIII II')', arollnd the time Spa in acqui red th e colon y. Succcs.~ frl1 cllI1 ;1"<llio n of indigo had creat ed a sl11all hu t pO\\'crful plallter class. TIrI IS. ca rl )' New O rl eans \\~IS l1either 1110re nor \(;ss chaotic tha n any 0 1 her de n ' lopi ng slave society.

III his d iscussiun of Ihe Span ish period. Inge rsoll di recll}' ;1(1-dresses Ta ll1l(' nbaulTl 's assenion that Spa llislr I;n,'s rcco~l1i J;e rl :rnd protect ed Ih e hu man ri ghts o f slaves morc than d id Ih(' laws of All ' g lo-AlIlc rica , Th t: Spanish governors installed lIew sla\'(' codes. il ld uding that o f freedom pllrc hase . :t llo wi ng s l :r\'e.~ lu buy tl1(' ir wa )' 0111 of sf>l'vitllde. Some schola rs o f co lonial Lo uisiaml 11"l'e aqp lcil Ihat thest' laws provided Louisiana sla ves with g reater privilc~l's

ilnd morl' aUlonom}', and Iha tlhc)'crc;rtcd a large frct' h lack pOplll;r tion whir h I hre;lI e lll'd t he power of whitt' slaveholde rs. I ngt'rsol1 re fllU:s Ih is. daiming th;u relations belween SIaVl'S and uwne rs

Fi.(Ht ll)r\ HI:,;TORK:·\ L QI I,\ ln ERI,\ '

changed liule. and lhe inc!"ease ill fn 'e hlacks occurred slowl)' with· out much impacl.

T he third and fi nal sect io n '1IIdre.s.~es th t.' del'elopmell l uf the ci t)' otfler Iht' Louisiana Pu rchase in 1803, T hc region \I~"S changing:. :lIlcl Ihe ~ Ill a ll 10\1'11 sur ro um!t.:d h)' plan ta tions was soon re' placed by a teeming urban and commercial cen ler. At this tinle. Ille !l umber :lIld dil'crsil), of illunigr.ults. Ihe re-openi ng of the sl:lI'c trade. as w(·11 as lax policing e rod ed SHlhi lil)' and caused an increase in crime in the d iY, Again invoki ng thc image of-tlhnon ,~ Ingcr· soil st resscs I hat th e rise in de linq m:ncy d id nOl tra llslatc intu wide· ~pread concubin age of black womc n b), whitc mcn. whic h \\':15 d iscollr';lgcd in clilc social circlcs. Funhe nnorc. differences between whiles of French . Caribbean, ami Anglo-America n o rigi n did not undermine their solidarit), while the dinc rcnccs among AfriCilllS of clifTerent nalionali ties kept blacks d ivided . Whi le plant ers, freed from colo nial ma ndates, 1\"fOle ilil o Sla te law the subjugation of blacks th e), had practiced con tin uousl)' since Ihe beginning of Ihe French regime.

Ik c:ruse Inge rsoll focuses solei), o n New O rleans ra ther tha .. the (, lII ire lower Mis..; issippi Vall e),. he docs nOI c illircl), refulc his peers wll u i n <:OIvorah~d Ihe un ruly s1<wc socie li es o f Natchez. and Poi ni COllpec.o iTHO their sluc1ies. Noneth eless. using many o f Ihe same colonial records, census figures. and official correspondence. (as \\·cll as Superior Council and Cabildo min utes ami notaria l a!'· <: l1 i\·cs), In gersoll disag-rees with InOSI of I he o lhcr Il istoriallS of Ih e regiou . His asscnion that New Orleans did nol rep resent a kinder. gcntil"r. sb vl' societ), than its cOllnlerparts in Anglo-America is \I'e ll suppo n cd . His claim Ihat white p l:ulI ers of colo nial New Orle;lIls creatcd and mai nt:lilwd a profiw ble and rigidl), o rdered pla nt:ll ion sociel), Ih m ughoUl the colonial Cr.1 may overslate Ihe casco ho\\'(·\'t·r. t\hho ugh a handful o f New O d e:lIls pl amc rs made their forw iles earlie r. the colon), of Louisiana ge ne raled no prolilS lo r its owners unti llargc.·-scale SUS'I!" Cl llti\~ lI io l l was inlrod llccd in the laiC cighl ec lHh cent ury. While lhe free black population grew slowly. it nOllctlwkss became a milch large r gro up than in an)' Oth er pan of North America and cxercised considcrable in(\uencc o n the sodCI), an d econum)' of early New O rleans. And if lHi~ccgcna tion was ra rc. it \\~IS commo n enough to be recorded rcgularl)' by \'isiwfs and natives alike, Allhul lgh he displ l u~s G\\·cndo l)tll Midlo I-Ia ll who assert ed Ih:H a cohesive Afro-Crcole clll llmu ll il ), lhl'c,lIcncd Louisiana·s nil·ia l o rde r. Inge rsoll concedes that whi te pla llu.: rs slruggled

BOOK RD' IE\\,S 407

curninuou~ l y c.o maintain cOlltrol over slaves. frec blacks. and th(' maroons who occupied l11e liminal sp:lrt" he lW(,ell !Ill' two groups.

Ingerlioll's scholarship rovers Ih e !engl hy amI complicat ed hi s· tory or a mlll:h storied place. one in whi ch ('\"en1.S ow·t"lappcd in COl11 p li:x ways. As a rcsult. tht: organil:ttiul1 or " ll:: hoo k is occasionally cunfusin g as it alt erna tes ch ron olog ical with a nalytical chapcers a nc! reqllires the readcl' lo jlllllP back and forth across tIle tilllelil le . No neth eless . the author has do ne a rcm;lrkablc j ob depic ting tlH' po1it ics of a in te rnational pal lOl~ tll1:t 1 hat connected Paris. i\-lad rid, Po rt-au-Prince. ami New O rleans. ;\lld th e n narrowing lhe lix us to rC\'eal t he- (·m~ rts of thOse' polit il's o n in hahitan ts o f a slnal l fron tier t.OWIl . Furthermore, he makes his strongest po int most cOI1\'il1cil1~ l y: Ihat culture and laws had li llie dTecl OIl Ih e bruta l relation s bct\\'een whit e masters and th eir black slaves in New Orleans, a relat ionsh ip defined by the I'a rne avarice thai drove New World plantaLiuIl cCOl lorrlics cvcrywllcn:.

f)ur/lfl/f/ , NC SAlMI I RlfSSELL

S/mllgt'J""S ami Pilgrims: Female Prenchillg ill America, 1740-1845. By Ca therillc A. Brekus. (Chapel Hi ll: Universi ty of North C lmlina Press, 1998. x. 467 pp. IntroduCli01l , append ix, notes, b ib1iogl~ l

p hy, acknowl edgmellLS. in dex. S119.95 clodl . 5 17.95 paper. )

Cal il er inc Bre kus's engagi Ilg and o rigi 11<11 Simllgm; flml Pil1,,"im.~

nncove rs the powerful story of female e\~ lI1 gd i cal preach ing: betwee n rhe Crea , t\\\'akcning of the mid-cightecn th ccntul1' and the Milkrile tJl o\"emcl1I of lhe 1840s. With sensiti vi t), to the religious he li efs of th('l'(' womcn a nd cap;lcinus aUcnlion to thc histurical COtHc xt of their cxperiellct's. Brekus weaves a Slo ry lhat campli Ct1('S our llnde rstand ing of both religion and gender amI \\'illllec(!ss;u-ily in ll uetlCc a wide an~l )' o f early Amcrican . women's, alld rel igio lls histori;lI1s.

T he " '01111" 11 \\'ho inform the ea rlr stages of her work left few per.~o ll al ;!("CntJ1Jts. but il rekns shows grea t ingenuity ill employi ng c ig-htcenLlI-celll ury chu rc h records and clergymcn 's writings In n:I'ea l these womt: Il ·.~ contributions 10 th e "N('w nirth" aud th eir id(:nlit'ica tio ll wit h Ncll' Light c riliques oftlt e social SWillS quo. The IIl llc h larger grou p of fe ma le preache rs invoh'cd in all t('hcl llllll r('vival ism wrOIl" Ell' morl" o fle ll a nd wi th g-rcat ~ r cOl1 viction a bOllt

408 FLO RIDA HIST ORK:"'\ L Q UARTERLY

their call to preach . Brc kus lets these lo ng-igno red c\~lIlgc l ica l

,'o ices again proclaim their religious power. Diffc 'ring in their de no minations and in the illlcms;ty o f th eir

rcfut;Ilion of the Pauline charge to ~ lc t ),OUI" wOlllen kc:cp sile nce in the chu rchcs.~ th e 1\'0 l11 e n of thcs(' First ,lilt! Seco nd Grea t AwakclIil1 b'S shared 1l1Llch cJse ill co rn mOil . Genuiuc, e"e n on-rwhcl mi ng, rel igiolls comi Clion . rmhcr than feminist itico lub,)' o r d esire for pe rsonal ~ 1011" Il\on. .. d them 10 action. Brckus argues pe rsuasi\'ely that a deep faith i ll God and the desire 10 fll ifill ;1Il ordained mission dl'Ovc most of ,h i'se wome n 10 wi tness, cxhorl , and I1na lly preach . While actively {k fc nding their right to publicly pro fess their fa ith despite their gender, these wome n honored other boundalics bc twee" the sexes, Few e\'e r cons idcn :d delive ring the S:lCra IllCII l'i , and o nly o ne o f the hundred plus female preachers Brektls stlldied so ught o rdination , Finally, their rel igious .. .1d ic;II· ism did not translate into secular fem in ism, Female preacht' rs em· br':lccd social conscrva tism when it came to \\'OIl1CII 'S civil rights: a llnost I.naniIl10 Ilsl), thc), amrl11f'd wOlll e ll 's po li tic .. 1 and familial subo rdin:lIion 10 mCI! .

These similarit ies 1101Wi lh slamiing, Brc kus reminds us that wome ll 's roles in c\r,lII gcl ical chu rches varied widely according 10 class, region , and race, Facto rs as diverse as sh iftl,,!; \'jews of the na· U1re o f sah~t t iO Il , th e :lv;'lilability of male p reachers, denomina· tio nal desin !s to proj ect " cotltil er-(;uhura l image , and social constructions of gender infl ue nccd if aud when a women co uld publicly c\~lIlge lizc. Moreovcr, Brc kus shows that no clear progressi{)n look pl:lce betwee n silence ami seizing the pILI pi!. Indeed , !)c· Iwee" Ihe rt.:\';\,al.s of thc mid-eiglu cernh cen tury lind tht' religio us fCr\'u l' of t,hc c .. rly n inelceln h eentll l)' came the gn ';l t age of Rl'\'Uhll ion- II'h ieh iro n ically provcd quite repressivc fol' fcma le preilch· e rs, And , in lil t' 1830s ami 1840s, when dissen ting c\,;:,ngcl ical groups like th e Mc thodisLS. Frct'will Baptists, Ch ri"li:m Conn ectio n. and Africa n Methodisl.~ sought gre:lter I'l;spcclabil it)' and a mainS1rca m identi ty. th e), rejected lhe participatiol' of t,he \'ery \" o men 1,'llllse preach ing had helped Ihose deno minations ga in <l l· tClllio n and mcmbl"'s in the carl)' pari o f th e CCI,I..,) '. Thc mid· ninetee llth cel11 ury saw a increasillg II l1mocr o f denominatio nal resolutio ns agai nst female preaching. lecturi ng. ami e\'en praying aloud , Accordi ng to Brckus, bb ck and while ch urc h learlers "traded their tmdi tio n of fema le c \';:l1lgd ism for greater pow('r ami res pectabi lit( (2i l ) , O nl)' the r-.'Iille ri les, whose beliefs cClU crcri

BO(lK R EVI FWS -109

on ;lll illlll1irH::nl a poca l)1)sc, COlltill1 rt:d 10 em brace remale prcachirlg ill the 1 840.~. Thdr fa ilh , and rile las! wave o f remale prt:ac hc rs o rl his cl~ r . dis;rppcared OI lie r Ihe world f;liled lu come 10 a n end in OnOIWf IR4-I.

T here is 11101'1.:'10 Ihis fine boo k Ihan space will a llow m e 10 d isc uss. Bn :kus joim 1.1l(' growing cad re uf scho la rs qu estioning Lh t" sbarp linl;s bct\\'ee ll public a mi privalt· liIe in early America. Sil t' dt.:m ollslraLCs Iht· compli ca ted , shini ng na ture ofwollu; n 's sphe f(in ti lt' nilwlcc l1 ll1 CCllilllY Ami she adds 10 ongoi ng sc ho la rly discussions a hOll1 lhc r. ld icaliSln o r lht.: AlIl e rica n Re volu tio ll and lilt"

COllllm.: rcialisttl uf tlte al11 e bclh l111 eCOIIOI1l )". i'ammOl Ill!. how{'vc r. is l\re kus' d CIl.: n ninalion 10 recovc r th e SIOI) ' of Ihese e \~lIlgc li c: r l

, ,'orllCIl preat:lH.: rs arrcl explain wh )' it re mained IInwld ro r so 101l g .

Pa n o r lhl' an swe r 10 th is second issue li t.·s illtl1c Elcl lhat sill'ncing \\"llmt.: 11 p reachers t.'1Hailed "Tili ng Ih t.: m o ut of church records :m d dc nu mi na til)na l h iscnrics. BU l mort.' importall tl),. a rg liCS Bn:klls, no O IH: wa lllt·t! 10 cl a ir1l these womc n as their IJ W I1 : c va ngel ica ls fi luml the tli loa I~ tdica l and feminists n j t:c!(:d 1he rn as tOO cc)nsen~lti \'c .

Th t.: CO!nil"q llc liCC was th e co llapse Ura l! enduring I'."m a le min is!r)' I h t' n amI a Ii ngt.: ti ng ignora nce aboul t Ill" history of \\"0111(: 11 prcache rs n OI,·. ll rekus's lu cid , COIll pell i ng wurk goes a lon g: wa~' in salvi ng

the lat le r proble m. The fo nnel" awaits ;rn Olhl"r da}.

L O RR] CLUVER

77/(: SOl/fhe,." Jlf(licial Traditio/!: StateJlldges alld Secliomti DistilldiveIICU , 1790-1890. By T imolhy S. I h lebn er. (A thClls: Unil'c rsil )" or Ct.:n rg ia Press, 19!J9 . xiii . 263 pp. l' re!;rc(". irl1 rod uUiOTl . not es. h iblingrap lr y, index. $4.::'.00 hardcove r.)

111 a tho llght fu l disClI.~s io ll , T imot hy 111It.:bn t: r p ro\"ides imporlant i Tl~ igh l int o Ihe wa y in which sOll thern j lldges c\ l'ali w;l h law

;lI1 d public ]Jo li c), in Ih l.: n ine teellt h CC IIW I")'. Huelmt.: r's approach is 10 st udy jll ri ~ ls who ser\'('d o n ch e h igh CO ll rtS of six soulhNn stall·s. Wit h g rc:rl skill. he wea\'cs toge the r l ilt' li fe Slor;c.~ a m i judicial ex pe l'ielKes o f Spc nce r Roa ne . Juhn Ca tron , .I osl.:p h He nry Ltlll,pkin . .Io hn Hemphill , Tho mas Ruffin , ;ll1 d Geo rge W. Sto lH- . His all;tlysis dc ta ils Ih c sim ila riticN amI rli ll,' re nccs in how t11l')" rhoal l. wilh thc compl cx isstl es o r the ir day. Hlic hlH.' r add resses till' ilupo na lll Ih c tllcs of nali o l1alism , Ih e law of slave r)" econo m ic tiC'\"t."l0pl1lellt. and c ha nge over lim!!.

410 fLO RIDA HISTOIU('.t\L Q UARTERLY

The key compollclH o f Hucbner 's approach to (:I.'\C 1;1\\' is examin in g in d e tailtJH: cases which callie be fore the Supre me COlLl"LS o f Virgin i:l . Texas, Georgia. Alabama. Tennessec, and Nonh Carolina. In describing the multitude of c;~s Iha t C1'o$Cd Ihe path of these bodies. I-Iuebner shows considerable skill in making sense o f din:rgcllI cases. YCI , such an appro,leh Stiffen; fro m certain limi tatio ns. It (1 1';1\\'5 upon th e appellate decision-making pl"Occs.~, which can va ry rnarkcdly from the w;' )' in which justice is di spensed by I(m'er COllrl.~ . 1\ also, o f course. rc llcc ls cases Ih;u were exotic and din'Crl' ll1 e no ug h Ihat the), merited the anclilioll o f judges slui ng 0 11 a supre me COtlrt .

Nonet heless. Huebne r's e mphasis o n judges as individuals demonstm tcs the .... "')' in which thei r influence could "Oco not o n I)' cases. but the approach o f l;m,),crs,j udges. and others involved in the lawmaking process in southern states. Fo r example . Huebne r dOCUTllCIIL" Spc ncl'r Roane's d ominance of the Virginia j udicia ry and J oseph 1-lelll1' LUlIlpkin 's promine nt role at the Uni\'crsity of Georgia Law Sc hool and as an advocate of econo mic a nd moral refonn . The \'l'r),cclltral rolcs thai thcse judges playcd had:tn impact far beyond thl' ir activitics on the bench. Especially rC\'ealing \\,;lS

the \'"d)' in which Hucbne r demonstrated the political networks o f which lhe j uriSts were a part . In the world of southern jurisprudcnce . Ihe linc be lwee n po litical activism and judicial rc ticl'llce was 110 1 a fine distinction . but rather the Icgal and polit ical worlds were int imately connected. Roa nc's political imu lveme nt was cenIral not 0 111)' in his entrance 10 I he bCI,ch . bUI also rc f1 cctecl lhc \\';1)' in .... ·hic h he remained an impo nan t force in the public life of Vir~inia. While sulne like Thomas Ruffin found thl'msc!ves disgusted by po li ti cal aCI iOIl. supreme COllrt j ustices operated nOt u nly in a j udicial realm . but were also acti"e politi cal participants.

One diOl cuhy from stich an approach could be th:1I I-hu.!bn er associaln l 100 Imlcll wi lh the li\'cs of his subjt-cts. O ne obvious cxample of this fai ling is Ihe \\';Iy in which Huebner add l·es.~s Reconstruction . Recolls truction 1'~l.S o bvionsly a pi\'ol;ll expt:' ri('I,ce in lhe lebra1 :\ I,d po litical histo lY of the Soulh ; yet. Huebne r gil'cs il sho n sl1lin . Nowhere dul'S Huebn er discuss in any detai l tlt l' impac t o f Reconstruclion . With the example o f his sole postbdlllm j udge. George W. StOl1c. he limits discllssion of Rl'collstrllction to one page. Considering that Stonl' \\~ IS imimatel)' connccted to the Redeemer lactics of dolence. such all o mission seems st riking. Similarly. o ne GlIIllot hdp \\'omkl"ing why jurists who sat 0 11 the COllrt

BooK REVtt:WS 411

d urinJ.\ RecolIStruc ti on and arterward~ arc cxcludcd fro m Il uebIwr's study. Huehnc r could h a\'t~ induclcd such notables as J onathan Wright , who served Oil th e Sout h Carolina Supreme Court , or Ch icI' Justice Edwin Kandall of the Florida 5up,'e ll1c Cuurt ,,'Ito !>c rvcd during KecoTlsU'uCliuII all d in lo the I 880s,

No ne of these concerns ought to de trac t from th t: \~Ilile ;lIId rea l impact of l-I ucl)Tlcr',~ ,,'o rk, He bu ilds o n a numbcr of imprcssive recent works, His approach has rea l \~ llllc and will be a ll impo rt;1I 1I source for rears \0 comc. One hopt's thai in t.ime his stllcly will be a\~ tilablc ill a paperb:lck cdition , the cus. of which will make ilS use mo re po pular ill gr..lduaLC scm ill:ll's and courses o n ~OI Hhern his.ory, Fo r those inte rested in understanding sotllhern j urisprude ll ce or co mpre hending . he social stn u:turc of the sout It e rn pol itiCOll S)'StCIII . [-Iuehner's slud), merits se riolls attenl ion.

Bowfill/.{ Grpt!lI Siull' UlIiTlt'rJily LE\\'II'. Kn:u :

AlltislalH!rY Vio/mer: Secliollal, Racial, ami CIIII'lral COllflict i" Alliebel, 1,1m America, Ed ited byJ ohn R. McKh'igOln and Stan lc\, I lal'I'old. (Klloliville: Univel's ity nfTeTl ntssee Ilress. 1999, ix , 322pp. AckIHlw1cdglllt 'I IIS, illlroc:hlnion , sC [t 'c[l'd Ilibliograp hy of sccond:I I)' suurct'S, ('IlIIl1'ibulOrs, index. $30.00 c1nth .)

111 a collec tion of essays on l11u islavc.-..' violellce, ,II(' t:diturs pl'e~e nt a mosai, of cs~:t}'s Iha t describe man ) diffl're nt ,mrs d' :lt uppullc n L" of sl"" (: t)' used fo rce. Fo llnwillg !-I ITht: ... " ptI H.-ker, thl..· l..'o l1eclioll succeeds admirnbly in establishin g iLS cellll~ 11 theme. that o pposit iu n tu slan: l'y was often wedded to \'io1c:nce. Tlt t: editOrs \\~ tnt readers It) St~C [hese acLS as impol'tan [ precursors to the Civil \-Val', The o lher main poims thaI the cdiLOl's hope to establish arc harder [0 d r.lw fro m the COlll.'(l io ll , The editors suggest that M:Ul1 is!;I\'el)' vioknce served as a means of uni ting s[;\\,e l)"s black a nd white cnemiesM (2). While this might be true. OIll' wonde rs ah01l1 the depth o f lhc all iance when the edi tors separate the book in to 1\\'0 sections. one un b[;lck libera to rs and Ihe othcr u n white abolitio nists. The claim that sen: I~11 cssays "cxplo re th e ro le of antehe llulIl concepts o f gcnderM (2) also seems cxaggctOlt.ed . Only Kristen Tegmeier's intriguing essay 011 wo men and violence in ~111-

sas en:n notes the relationshi p o f women 1.1..1 violence. Manhood is a theme in other cSSt'l)"s, but Tegmcier's essay alune hinges upo n cOll cepts of ge llder.

412 FLORIDA HISTORIC"-L Q UA RTERLY

Uuro rtunately, the editors pay more altention IU the vio1ctu acti l'itics or aboli tionists in the North thal1 to the actions of the slaves the mselves, Of the ten essays, ronr address hOII' slaves used violence as <I weapo n 10 batt le those who c l1s!a,'ed th (~ IlI , Nail l' examince! th e mosl damagi ng rorms of slave I'iolence: individ ual acts or IIml'

del' a nd arso n. Ncvc nhclcs.s. these four cssa>~ arc wel l worth reading, Do uglas Egerto n 's exa minat ion of the Haitian Revolminn 's iuOuence IIpon resist:mct: itl Virginia preselUs his t,ake on the wa.y rel'uhll iomu,}, sentim enl alrecled the slal'es. U ulike j ames Sidhur)'. who elsewhere ilrgnes that the Haitian rc\'o lutio l1 provided Mil new idiom that Black Virg inians increasingly IIsed II'hen discussi ng ,11 -telllpb 10 wi n rreedom .H Egen on makes more t,cmpen:d read in gs of t he so urces I Sidhur)', Plollghslwr,.s illfo Swonis: RlI(I~, HebrlfitJTI, alld Idl'llfil)' in Gnbl'irl:t Virginia, I i ]().. 181 0 (New York, 1997). :~9 1. Egerlon rC llli mls h is n :arlcrs how illlportalltl he Haitian Revolu tion was in Virginia both because orirn migra Il L~, free and slave. ami because o r its impo rtance as a symbol .

Jlli lil lS Rodriguez looks at the Illuler-apprcci,lIcd Cc nnan Coast Slave Insurrection in Loll isial la. In IS I I, Charles Deslundes. a mula!lo slave drivcr fro m I·h liti . bt:gan <IU insurrection tb;1I eve ntually included hu ndreds o f slal'Cs. The biggest sla\'e uprising ",i thin the Un ih'd Slates. il Illa}' h,l\"e been the rebelli on wilh the hest odds of success. Even so , lhe odds ,,'cre slill e nonnolLsly lo ng, a. nd the rebelli on was qui ckly quasiit'd. Sta tlley Harro ld 's piece abollt the IIlllliny upon the Creole examines:\II e\'ent thai has bee n ()\'cl"shado\\'ed by the Aillist.ulllliitiny. Unlike ti le Al niswd tlItLtin)'. the tlu ltin)' upo n the Cr('ole in 184 1 was a direct attack 0 11 an important and le,t:::al sla\'e I mdc, lhe shippin g of SLL l'pI LI!,; II LILlian ch;ltI.e l to thl' labor-hun gry deep SOHth. H'lrrold focllses 011 the war Ihat th is mUli!)}' I\'<IS pe rceived in aboli tion ist ci rcles. Finally, j ames Cook wril es a thought-pro\'Oking piece thm loo ks at an ironic transitio n in Fredric k Douglass's life. Th e young Do uglass was invoh'ed in fi gh ts rreq uentl}', bm espoused a policy ur padfism. As he got nlde r his rhetoric heated bu t his pe rsonal taste ro r the pugilisl's art " ,<.ned .

T he essays on violent o pposition to sla\"cl)' by thost: in thc North are lI1on~ unc\'e n. Carol Wilson 's essay o n the northe rn free black COlllll1lllli[ies marks a coutinuation o f lhe lille essays about resistance to slavcry in th e South , Other essays. ror ('xam ple James Stewart's illformati \'e essay o n j oshua Ciddings, see m Olll of place til this coll ectio n. Ciddi ngs, a staunch antisl;!l'c l) ' Congressmall

BOOK R[vlt:wS -1 13

from Ohio . assiduously avoided \'iolcnce ils lw agi !atcd on behalfof abolition . In a sophisli catt.:d es~ay. J ohn Stauffer lried 10 connect !lo rth enl '1I1Iisl<l\'el)' violence to an i{i<-nlific:Ltion of lhe actors wit h a mythic conce ption of the It lc\ iaus. Th is reader remains Impel'· suaded . Th e book closes wiLh a fine shon essay bY.lolm McKivigii n who eX1<:nds the story ofJuhn Brown beyo nd his hangin g by look~

il lg at ho\l' his associates responded HJ his d isastrous alt cmpt to tilI11 Ctll a Shl\'l' rebellio n. These essays prO\ 'ide a good backdrop for a reader interested in sla\'el), and Ihe origins of th e t.ivil War. While not ex hausuw', Ihey iltuminme a persistellttraditio n of:l1I tislaverv dolence in America.

OudwlII. N.C.

Slave Mis.fiolls alld the Blach Church ill Ihe All iebel/IIIII SOlilh . ByJall c t nll i1.~ I11 ;m Cornelius. (Co lumbia : Unive rsi ty o f South Caroliua Press, 1999. x. 305 pp. List ofi llmHfarions. ackn owledgm ents. inrroduCt io n, notes. bihliogmphy. index. S~H.9!l d o th .)

The main purpose o f S{fwe M issio lls fi nd I1w /JIM!! Chllrrh in Ihe

A I11ebi4l1l1ll SOlllh by J ane t Cornel ius is to illuminatc the ro le played b)' \~Iriull s Christian missions in lhe (kvc!opnlellt o f the soullu.:rn black church in thl: nineteenth celllury Cumclius discusses th e spedfit· contributions of Baptist. Methodist. and to a It:s.~er exte nt Episcopa li an. Presbyterian and Cath olic missiona ries. He r goa l is to explain the mann er in which Africans and their desce ndants in AJ11 r: rica fused their lIIe1110ries of Africall perspectives alld \>1':1("

lices and the profo und spirilllal longings gene mted hy bondage with views and rituals introduced by EUl"I)pean Christians LO create a unique Africa n America n re ligious instilUtio n.

Cornel illS ;Ichic\,cs this CC lltr.11 objective. Moreovc r. SImII' M i.\.siolls illustrates that African Americans tl' lIlsforl11 ed the whit e church. The Africanizatio n of Ch ristianity. fo r cxample rhe fla mboyant preadling styles and cl11otional responses of the congregations particularly :urlong rh e l1aptists . ala rmed manr-

Cornelius also provides valuable insighl into the peculiar na-1111'(' of soll1hern nice rclaliom. One ce n tJ~ll point 11l;lde by this .'lwd)' is how what becam e known in lhe I\\'c nt iclh ct: n tury as Ihe "sour.hem way of li fe." that is, sc pal<\t ion ofthc r~H:CS fro m hirth to dt'ath . bel,ran ill th t.: chu rches. Before /\fric:tll Anleric l11 .'l had churches of the ir own. they werc allowed tu worshi p in whit (,

414 FLO RlnA HI~;TORtC.-\ L. QUARTERLY

chll rches whel'e, bascd o n earlier European models 1() rlisliTlb'llish pt>o ple according 10 their stations i ll life and to s<'J)al~ II C the 10wl)' f1'0111lhe hig h·bo m . blacks wcrt: rclcjf<Hcd to the spaces that rcpresc utcd in feriority and subordimllio n.

The discussion of II'hile sout hern ministers rel'caled 0 11 the one hand the pmfoll nd 1110.-;,1 dilemllias the), experie nced "'he n forced to remain sile n1 l\itncsses 10 the destruction of sla\'e mar· riages al1(\ sc pm':lt io n o f b lack fami lies. Withholdin g full access to the l1ible. a writtc lI tex t. because of fcars of literac), among slaves \\~\.'i ;lIIo thl' l" source of anf.,"ttish rot' Ch ristian miniSIl:rs. This bec:mw particul:trl)' din1cuh "fte r i\'a l r Unle r's rel'u l! whe n tile laws lind l';leial d im;!II ' gl' l,t' I';.,lly haldc.-' Ilcti .

The cxamiua1 iou o f white solll hern Illissiouarit·s shed addilio nallighl on the ex ten t to which SOUlhe rners \\'e re captives o f the paternalism Ihal informe d Ihe imt·I';.IClion be tween wh iles and black in Ihe plan tation solll h . Tht' complele inabilily 10 perceivc b lack people:' as ca pa hle of cotUroJli ng [he ir OWI1 Jives \\'i,hOl Il wh ile sllpc l"\'ision uhilll ,ud), led many southern llIis. .. ionaril's to regard slaver), as a positive good lImt fa cilit:llc d the sa h"ouion of Africl.IIlS and Africa . In o th e r words. bCGmsc of slave r}'. Africans and .heir descenda nts were finally exposcd to Ch ristianit )" NUl only did the cl1sl:I\"C(1 bend1 t, bu t Ihc)' could he freed and HIke the gospel 10 A frica to ill umina te the dark cominenL It was this belief that led ma ll )' to 511ppon (olo .,il.:lli01 I. This notion o f Ihl' bCI1C\'OIt: I1I, C\'CI' morall)' compelling: reason for sIaVl")' hardencd by the lime of lhe Civil War in tu a co nviction that the ConfcdtT:IC:Y " ';IS a redeeme r ')<llion .

Curnel ius illustrates dive rg in g perspenivl's of Africa n AmericaliS. FrCNlolII was a t Ihe heart of the Africa n American od ysscy. Fo r blacks wh u sllpponcd colonizat io n, rnignll io n C(lIlst ituled ,III o ppo rtunity for libcl'lY and a IlI Qt,omy. as well as th e means to

spread Christianity, Black people werc delcrmincd to be free and indq)t:ndt.' ll1 of wl,i te contro l. The c hll rehes Afl'ic;tn America ns formed wil h the assist.mee of p:tlc rnalislic whiles were rooted in the co nccpl ami qllcst for freedo m and became insl rllnU.'IIlS of alltonomy fur African Ame rica" s .. ncr slavery elided . [krare alltl alic!" the C ivil War, m,UI}, blacks su ug:h l separalt~ chu rches that Lhe}' COlitrolled .

Ulti mately .'llmlf M i,uimM CClllStit lllcS a \~I lll;tbll' addition 10 the st, Ld)' uf SOlttll{"I"1I religious h istOl)" African AmClicoll t studies. a nd m ee rel:ttillils in tltc anlebcllmn Sollth . Most or ti l(' information is

BOOK REVIEWS 4 15

based o n stud ies ofGenrgia and South C'lrQlina. On ly flecting references arc made w Florida. The valli e o f th is stud}', however. i ll regard 10 Florida history, is th at it lays impu rtant theoretical gruund U1l which fUlllrc scholars G ill reconstruct the history of rclibrion and the AfriGUl American cxperil'nn :.

U"hm-si,)' oj Nor,1I 1'10rida CAROLYN \V IJ..LIA.\ IS

Slav(7)' ;11 the ClovCT Bottoms: JollII McCliue's Narralive of His Life Duriug Slavt?r)' aud the Civil War. Ed ited hy.l an Furman . (Kn oxville: Un iversity ofTe1llH.:.~see Press. 1 9~)8. LiM of ill liSt rations, fo rewo rd. acknl)wlt!dgm clILS , ed itnr·s in troduction. introduction , append ices , notes, selected bibliograp hy, index. 530.00 doth .)

J ohn McClinc (circa 185 1· 1948) was bam it slave on Ihc Hog· gall plantatio n in O(lvidson Count}', Tennessee. He stayed there unti l Dect: mbe r 1862 when , althe age o f cleven . Ilc ran away wi th lhe iVlichig<lll Thirteenth Infan try He remained with the regi me n! as a teamster and onlcer·s se n , lIIt until .Jllne 1865. After Ihe Civil War ('nded , r-.kCli nc migrated north to Michigan and l11in ois. the n to Missouri . Health problems resulted ill his leaving Sl. Lou is to reside in Colorado Sprin gs ill 1892. There. he was employed b)' Her· bert .! . Hagcn nall . \"be n Hagerman became ten·ilodal governor of New Mexico ( 1906-07), McCtinc l!loved to Sal,ta Fe wlle rc he 1IIal'aged the go\,e rnor·s rt.:side lH:c . The 1\,·0 men developcd a close rt!la tiollsh ip which resul ted in McCline working fo r Hagerman ulllil th e la tter 's death in 1935.

It. is lx: lieved th aI McClin c wrote his narra tive d uring the 1920s. I-I e tl,etl entrusted tile origilla] 11 anciwrit tcn copy of his narrath·e to Hagerm an who was to edit the docu men t and lise his illIlt tc ,lCt: to procure a publisher. Hagerman made editorial changes, p repared an introd uclion, and apparently polished up the narrati \'e for publication . He d ied a year aftcr ed iting was complet ed , howeve r, wh ich may accoun t for why the narrative was not p ublished d urin g either man·s life time. Unfo rt unately, the o rigi nal Imnd,,'rinen copy o f th e II,uT'ath'e wa .. ~ 10Sl, and Hagennan 's ed ited copy. which remained ,"ith fo.'IcCt ine's widow after h is death , is all that exists.

S{I/ IIr.I)' ill Ihl! Clove,. /JollulIIs b riefl y exam incs slave life on th e Hoggatt planta tio ll located in Middle Ten nessee. McCiine, using

-I IIi f LORII)A HISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

pla in and straig ln fol"ward la nguage, mulines the dai ly life of sb ves on the Hogga tt plantatio n , wh ieh employed olle hundred slaves. He discusses how young slaves \\'crc prepared fo r a lifel ime t1f sen:itude, how slaves respo nded 10 kind O\'crscc rs (a nd the anxiety of othe rs when mean ind ividuals replaced them ), how

maste rs o n large plantatio ns fOllnd it essentia l to teach hasic ad d itio n and subtnlction to slaw s ch;u ged with keepi ll}( accoll nt of h erds an d fl ocks, how young slave boys were pu n ished , and why SOl11 t~ slan :s used th eir fec t to make a statement. against enslave· me nt.

McClinc's narr-:tt ive places pri mar), emphasis. Ilowcl'cr, o n his Civil \\'ar expe rience with the Michig;m T ltirtcen th Int:ITl lry fro m December 1862 ulltil .l une of 1865. The lx:Iok prmidcs an accoll nt o f the movellle nt o f t.he regime nt th rough TCl lncsSCt:, Alabama , Georgia, the C:lrolin:ls, a nd Vi rgin ia before its Iriulllphalll march in to Washin gtOn, D.C. Whi le somc of thc former slaves in th e Lln it we re provid ed weapo ns, hlacks were generally cmplo),,:d 10 handle the ho rse and mu te Icams, 10 d rivc supply \\'agons. bllry the dCild . and in m)'liad domcstic capaci ties.

S/(Illn)' ill 1I1r. ClmlO' 801/0111$ is a n excelle llt addition to the pdmary materials 011 An tebe llum a nel Ci\'il War Ten ncssee. Its stren gths arc that it is ol'g;mized into neat info rm ation un itS and is eas}' to react. A pro bl em with most slavc narra tives is disccl'l1ing whe re the real stor), ends and a!'listie license begi ns. This narrat ive docs nOi suITer i ll this manner: the aCCOllnt pro\'id ed is belicva ble. In addit io ll , the autho r provides colorful descriptitlns of slaven ' scenes and Ci\'il War ban le sitcs.

Weaknesses ill SfmJr.l)' i" III I' Clm.'1'J' Bel/OlliS arc that ~kCtinc's

nllrrali\'e lacks <l lllobiogra phical illfunnation , little is writte n of tile period after Ihe Civil War, wh ich the wri ter add resses only ill passillg, an d, !lu: na l'r.ui \·c abrupliy stops in 1892. These wellknesses are comp{'ns;ued fnr by edi tor J an Funn:m, who has provided a \'alu:Ible se rvice to the I'('acle r hy incl udin g informa tion about Ihe au· lho r ill ,Ilt, MEdi to r's !nlnxluction (xI'-xxl>ii). U kewise, itl i l l irodilc il l ~ the narnll ive (2·9), I-Iagennall provides In llch ll€>cded info rmat io n o n ~kCtinc 's late r life in New r.,'lexico. Stilt , a concern o f th e reade r, kn owi ng th at thc original hamlwriw.;' ll copy of the narra ti\'e was 10s1. is how milch did Hagerman 's ed iting change Me· Cline's OIi gi nal account?

W All R.\SI IASH KI IARIF

Boo" REVIF\\,S 4 17

Lee's Em/al/gen .. '(l Left: The e il/il War ill WestenJ Virgillia, Sprillg of /864. By Richard R. Dun can . (Baton RUllg'C: Lo uisial l;! St at e Un i .. versi ty. 1998. xvi. 346 pp. Prcrace. abbreviatiOlI.~. hibliogT':lpll )', index. 29.95 cloth .)

Richard DUllcan, 1\'110 fur man y ycars has tallght the history o r the U.S. Cil'il \Var and or the "Middle Period " to stude nts at Georgetowil Uni ve rsity, has publ ished a mi lit,uy histOlY that cO lll ai ns much of in te rest nut o nly ror the Civil Wa r hi storian but for thost, who are more d ral\'n to social and cultural dCl'e lopmenL~, DII I1-Gln's Ife's Emltlllgl'lni uft provides alJlllc nalTatil'c or gene raJs' pe rsonalities, com plicated lIlaneU\'ers, and climactic clash on the hatt.leficld tradit io nally used to sing America's Iliad, I-Ie: alsu detai ls a cam paign tha t has been perhaps unde rs tudied : th e Unio n 's attempt to ca pt ure the Shenandoah Valley in Ihe fil 'S t half or 1864, As Grall! mOI'cd sOl llhward in C<lstc rn Virginia, he rdlKtall tl y accepted poli t kal appointee Fraili' Sigel as the COllima nder o r opera, tions ;n Ih e weste rn part or the state. Sigel's mission I\~IS si mplt',,;11 lc:ast in its large r task: 10 cut tile supply li lies run ning thruugh th e Shcnandoah to Lec 's cmb<lltled hilt still dangerous l\nn)' of Nurth-1 . .' 1"11 Virginia. Oue clcmeiH or t.ll(' Un ion forces capt urer[ all carh' sllccess at th e hault.' o r Cloyd 's Muunt ain, allOl\'ing them t,O st.'ize lh e important uppe r valley junction o r Dubl in and CII I the Virgi n ia and 'lcl1 nl"ssl"c Railroad .

Sig-e l"s s;nlll ltant.'Ous move up IJle Shc nandoa h. h(l\\·c I'c r. ('mkd in disa~ tt'l" when John Breckinridgc's r(Jrcc~ roliled him al Ncw 1\·larke t. David 1-lulHe r replaced Sigel, and the Union IlLl"Il ed once again to thcir att.empt to scil.(: t he crucial j unctions of StauntU11 :I ud L),nchburg. I-hilli e r ca pwre rl a victorr;1t Piedmo nt , ncar Slaul1 lOn. but th t' lime ly arriml ofJ uhal Early's corps n 'sulted i ll it U IliOiI delJ:lck i ll rnllltilf LYllc hhll rg ilse lf. TIIt~ precipi ta te n ;: 1 rt.'a t or "lullIer's Army o r West Virgi nia b'ICk up the \"allt:y whence it GIlli e c nckd this thn'a t to Lee's e ndangered kfl an d hroughl an end to mitior fi ghting in the She nanduah iL~df.

DUli can provides a clea r. co ncise narmlil'e of Iht.' Gnnpaign , o ne <l 1", IWn 1'1'0111 a wiele swalh of sources. His use of t,ht! Southern Claims COlil lil issio ll recurds. which det;I;1 individua l sOll tll c rn c rs' POSI\\';lr re'll1eslS to be repa id ror property se ized by northern sold iers, is pan iclilarly rclt'I~ 1I1I to one of Ih e hook's lIl,yor sln:: n gllt~.

Usi ng sti ch so urces, Duncan docs a wonderrul job o f eonveying, Wilhol ll wild bistoringl~lph ica l gesticulation s. the terror and cllaos

41 8 FLORII),\ HI~;TORIC:AL QUARTERLY

th at \\~\ r in niClcd o n ch~1ian po puhuions. T he COUSt:11l1 wrcquisilio ns" of supplies by IXHh arm ies, the abuse inflicted by each side o n the civili 'lIl suppo rters o f o th ers, and the reprisals inflicted by order of Union officers for guerri lla aHacks underscore th e fael Ihal by 1864. the Civil War largelcd civilians as wel l as 0 11 a rmies. DUllcan shows ho\\' both no nco mbatants and soldiers reacted to this rcali l)'. SOIl1h crn troops, rOl' installce, .... 'Quld sec inlhc Army of \\'(~S l Virgin ia's depredation of th e \~Illey an excuse for Ihl~ ir huer burning of Chamhersburg, Pennsylva nia. And olle mo rc point abuut c;vili,II I-lIIili tary interactions becomes obvious ;11 DUllcan's book. one of relevall ce 10 the entire Civi l War South : everywhere that the Uuiun army went, Arrican Am ericans seeking to gain the il' rreedom flocked to their side. Who rreed the slaves? In the Shenan doah Valley, il looks like the slaves freed the slaves.

T h is reade r could on ly make two critic isms o r Duncan 's book. The drYlless o f Dun can 's lone, \.\'hile efTecli"e in SOIliC places, migh t not please readers. Yet one must admi t tha t he docs a fine job of lc tl.ing th e sources speak fo r themselves. Second , the maps in this \,'ork-so important a 1001 for any milital)' histOl1'-leavc a great deal 1'0 be d esired . 11le map of the bau le orClo)'d's MOllnt:lin (54). fo r instance , looks as ir it was photoco pied 011 a machine radically lacking in toner. However, tll(:sl: arc the on I)' c.rit icisms til al most readers could make of th is solid piece o f schoJar~hip and writing. Thl: bouk provides a mode l fo r a slurdy campaig!! history, one th at also adds to our understanding of how noncombalams also suITe red in the path ofwar.

Ullillersif)' of M ifllni EDWARJ) E . BAI'T IST

Civil War Generals itl Defeat. Edi ted by Steven E. Woodwonh, (Lawrence: University Pres.~ o r Kansas, 1999. viii , 240 pp. Introduclion , rontributors, notes, index. 529.95 dOlh.)

Gil/il Unr Corm'rats in fJrj(!(ll is a collection or scve n essa)'S in which seve ra l scholars aHemp' 1.0 reason why ce rtai n capable, wellrr,\ined profes.~ iolla l soldicrs fai led in their respectivc leadership roles du ring the war. In th is volullle, histo rians such as Steven E. Woodwonh . Michael Ballard. Brooks D. Simpson. and Stephen $cars. amo ng olhers, probe deepl)' into lhe complex questions o r O" il War comllland, lhe circumstances that pcn,,\dcd each baltle,

BOOK R EV11< WS .J 1 H

and the losing ge n{'I~ II 's rok in it. It is nOl e nough 10 s:\y tha I th e tkff>al('d ge ne rals we rt' simpl}' incum pe te ll1 foo ls, Each orlhe COIIIma nde rs addressed ill tit is imig ln fll l vohmH ' had c;tmed Ih eir milk hased 011 their abil it.ies. imdtig('llce. and ('xpc ri c ll cc,

Woodworth , a histu'1' p ro fessor at Te xas ChriSlian Ull il'c rsil ),. heg-ill ~ I he \'01 IlIll l' lilt ing l)' wit h ;\ perceptiw; ana lysis of Albe rt Sid-1lC)'J ohnslOll's Elil lirc ill the IR(i I-I Hfi2 win Ll; r ("; lInpaign ill Tcnn csS('C, Thollgh Johnston c njo),cd all (' no rmon.' reputation in ttl(' prcw;u' arlll)' based 0 11 his prodig ious t alcn l.~ alld pr. lctic;ll cxperic nce , h t' E.li k d mi~cr.lhl }' ill hi ~ ft r.~ 1 m ;~jor co mma nd , 'Yofldwnrth ade ptly :lrglles lh:l lJu hnston \\· a.~ tliO ill gl~ l i n ed in old a rm)" \\';I)'S a nd biled to follow lip 011 his din.' CI ord<!rs to silho nlinalt!s in th(~

lIew \'oilltltec r a rmy 10 wri fy that they ,,'e re obeyed . J o lt nstOll fa iled to pcrcein.' weak nesses lIf h is silhordinatcs q uickl}' c nough and a Iso ncg)cc led 10 pe rso nally ove rsee kev a r(' as o f cOIllIll" nd, Iro lli callv, on cc ./o llllston learn ed lllis lessol l. h t' recch·ed a mortal wound at Shil oh while pe l'son" lI ), Ie"dill g hi s Imops.

Th e ot her essays ill the collcoio ll oner ('om p:11<Ible l'xalllpi t's o f perceplive analysis, AI;1I1 Dowlls probes illto J oseph E. J OIlllSlO l1 'S absorptinl1l o his falllil (~ 1<:g::IC')' a nd ('x plicales how Ihal d l'\'ot ion 10 hi s a nccstors, ami th e cOll co mi lan1 sell~impos(' rI high ('x p('n :n ions. ([1'0\'( ' him 1.0 be 100 call1iolis ill h is tan ics in Virg inia in I H!l2. j\'l ichad I~allard offe rs a CUt;l' ll L a rgu11Icn t reg::lrdi Ilg J o h II C. Pt'lIIhe rtoll 's ~h o rtcOinings al Vicksbm)!,. Assc rLin g Ih:l t Pembe rton 's ex pertise lay in :Id lllinistr:u ion . 11 01 ('nmh:u , Ballard fallit s llli' r.o nfcdt' I~t1c high t:o ll1l11,llId lo r placing a gen e r:11 so puo rl>' slIil ed fur lhe rule in sud 1 a str.ll cgic positiol] ,

Simi larly. Ste ph en Engk cxposllll:ttes IIml dnrin g Ih(' snmrnl' r f lf 1 86~ , 0 011 Ca ri(ls Buell 's ca ll1pai).{11 through Tenne"i_~ec and no rthern Alabama founde red );u'gc\y beC:lII.~c the gcncral fa il ed 10 adapt hi s conci liato ry pnliC)' 10 ftl 1he c ha llg ing 1I:1111rc of Ihl' war. Ilrouks 0 , Simpsoll cont c nds th at Co nfNtcr:w' fl d e;!1 <I I GCIl)'Sburg \\'a ~ thl' result o f :\ \\'(' a k nes~ o f the Anny of Northern Vil'g ini:l's cOlllllland struClU re :lml style. coupled with a Slro ng, cOIII:e rt( 'd e n'on by Ihe Union gt'llc l-;jls, Simpson ducs l10t fnC lI ~ I II ~

discussion o n Lee, bllt " lIh e r prese nts a broa(kr a rg lllllcnt thai \'iews Iht ' il lte raCl iun of Uninll ;l lld ( ;onrcckr;lIr ("(lIllmand in tl l'dc r 10 expose the' weaknesses of Ihe lal1er.

The IWO mOSI controve rsial ess;\)'s in the co llectil) n "rc Ihost' dcaling wit h I hc mOSI nota bl e failurcs i II I hc Union Arm}' of Iht' 1'0-1umac. Geo rgc B. j\IcClcl lan ;)ndJo.~cph I-looker. E,tha n Rafll s(;. a

FLORIIlt\ J-I1.!)"TORICAt QUARTERLY

docLOr:'11 Simien! at the Un i\'e rs ilY o f Mis.~O l lli· K<\IIsas Cil}" prCSel1L~

an apologetic and not \'CI)' cOII"incil lg defellSC or the "Young Napoleon. - Umlo llbledl}" mall}' scholal"S would rake issue with Rafll.';e·s bo ld SI;l!l'lIlCIlI . -Whcn \~ewcd from a purel}' rational perspccon.'which i\'lcClcl lan mailltained throllghol ll the campaign- the Incl'· ils of his generalship dllring the pellillsllia campaign are dilTIcull 10 d ispute." Iksidcs se nding sc\'eml irJ'ill iunal t e leg l~lms in which he de no unced Uncol ll and the War Depanmcm, Mct:le1lan also allowed his arm}' LO be splil by a swollen river and len the cril ic .. l h,lIlieS of Glendale and Malw:m Hill in the h,lI1ds of h is SlIbortiimlles.

I>c rh'lps the 1110S1 ovcrreaching concl usions arc those posed hy Slephe n Scars regarding J oseph '·Iooker. Sears is aggressive and v\'c l-ll'lIlo us in his defe llSt.' of-Fighting Joe." The oft-published ,111-Iho r docs abl), refute the charge Ihat !-looker confessed 10 losing t:lilh in himself. and he prescllls a cOllvincing case Ihal Hookcr \\~ IS

1101 drunk during th e bailie o f Chancellorsville . Ye l Sears fails to

persuade the reade r thai Hooker's defeat resulled solei}' fmlll his i l~iury by:.t shel l o n lhe mo rning o f the third dOl )' of the battle.

Woo(iIl"IWl.h ·s edition renrlers a \'cry thorough. e nJ, .... ging. and challen ging chroniclc to the Civil War lil erature, Man), biographies h:l\'c bce ll I\'rill c ll abOIll heroes. but few have seriously studied the reasons behind fa ilures. Each eS~I}' ill this \'olullle oilers a fresh pcrspcctivc em ~m old problem: how 1.0 explain th e defeats of genen\ ls who held such high promisc ill th eir natio lls' (')"es.

J UI1IUN BRo\\'NINC

Li"col" Q" Li"col". B)' Panl M. Zall . (Lexington: Ull i\'el"sit)' of Ken· lUck)' ",·ess. 1999. xiii, 198 pp. PrefaCe , some illlponanl dates, introdu ction . list of a hbrevlatio ns, 1I0t(~S. sclecled bibliograph),. indcx. 25.00 cloth .)

I'aul M. Zall, edilor of an estimable collection of htuno rolls SI.odes told h)' and :lbom Linco ln including Ahlll.illmill t (IIIKhi'lg (Ikrkclc)", I ~J M2), hilS co mpiled another useful volulllc that might be ti lled "' Lincoln 's AUIo biography.- Z."l I1. a se nior rcsearcher al the I-Iulltinglull I.ibra r)' in $om Marino. Californ ia , has supplemented the sixlecnt h presiden t's 1\\'0 ;:Ill tobiogrdphical sketches wilh ex· ce rpts fromlel lcrs. poems,specclws, interviews, alld re miniscences to creall ' a sl·lf-ponr::lil.

BOOK RrvlF\\s 42 1

'l.all Il'caws th ese ma terials 101;" 1111:1' smooth I)" a rrangi ug Ihelll ill ch rono lngical Clrdc::r. He pro"itll's eUllIlc::c ti\'e narr;:Iti vc..: hcadnotes wh ich arc lo r the most part aCCIII~ II C. though a fell' errors t:ree p in : ('.g., his assertion th at Lilwotn "nCI'l 'f IIIclHiuncd M his ruInann: wit.ll Alln Rutted~e ( I ). In fac t. he did so in :t cmll'el'S:lliOIl wi th Isaac Cogdal [see Douglas L. \\,il"oll and Rodn e), O. D~I\"is.

cds., /-fr'/'1l(loll j . IIIforlll(lII /s: 1..f'I/I'Tf, 11I1,.rllin(!!i. (wd Slu/PIII"'''S uboul

Abmlllllll UI/robl (Urbana . 111 .. 1998).440]. The se lec l ion~ a rc judicious. th ough Zal! omits "Olnl' il11por-

1:1111 :uuobiogT:lphical rmllCl'ial conl1dc ti IU IIl i noi~ culleagues at

th e bar. One Itu table example is li llenii t's f:ttttO liS - b LIJoO..,}'-ridc ("0 \1 -

fcs.'iion,M made to his l:n,' p"rlner \\, illialll H. Hemdull , ill \I'hic h Lincol n acknowledgel l thaI his muther lI'"s born Ollt nf wcdlock and allribllted his ambit ion and taiell t lu he r a risloc l~ ll ir I:tl he r (sec P;tul M. J\ngk, cd ., I·hn/doll s l ift' uf /.il/(I)III: T/u' 11i~I()I)' (111(1 P('/~

WI/III l lPt-olll'rlio//l> '1 I1bmha/JI l .il/colll a .. , Oligi//fllI)' \ V,.iff('11 I')' lVilIil/lII II. /-11'111(/011 (//ulj('sst Iv. 1\'eik [Clncl:1I1d. I!:H2J. 1-2). AIIOII\(:: r cxamph:: is a com'ersal io tl Lin(""ol n hart in Ifl53 \,'ith his ~ood friend , allornc), Leo na rd Well, ,tbout lhe -prclI)' pin ching li nles M he cxperiCllred as a },olllh (see /\l1Cll Th umdikl ' Rice, cd .. UrIllIllH("ell("1'1 uf

IIbmhflll/ Lmro/II try iJislin1--'"lIi.!ohrd MI'II oj ,·11\ 'nlll(, [New Yo rk. 1886 J. '1:' 7-:'8).

Morcow'r. Za tl (l ike almost el'CIV o the r Lin coln Sdl()1ar) i g~

n ures a remarkable 1860 campaign biography b)' J o hn Loc ke Scripps. In ;\11 illl po rt ;lIlI 1t.'1IC'r Ih:1I ha ... c \lrio usly beel! eJ\'~·rlcK)k.cd, Sc ripps reported Ihal in Ihe bril·f biugmph)', MSlaI C !I1C III_~ .. . . :l~ rcSpl·ClS the rac .... a mi inciden ts o f the carly life elr Li ncoln arlO Sl1h~ ~Ian t bllr as COlli rnuilicated by hi m In II re-snnw o f I he m in \\'l' ill(' 11 lllemu randa . C II he rs C Jt~c ll }', in l\TISlI'er lu Ill)' quc rie!s" (Sc: r'ipps Ie) ' Vi llial11 H. J-Ierndelll . 20 Jl rnc IS65. ill Crace Loc ke Scripps Dvc llc . "Jo h n Loc ke Scripps. Lincoln 's C;lI1lpaiJ.!:1I Biogr.:tphcr. M

j ()lll'llfli of 11,(, IIImQis SIIIII' lIi~ton"ml Sor-iet), 17 119241: 346) . The pas.,ag:l·s il l Scripps·s biog t~tphy dealing wi th Lin coln's ea rly life lit uS refl('C\ wh ;1I Lincoln himself recalled . As \-Villialll E. Barton rorrenl), obse rved . Scripps's b iograp hy "h ,,'\ all1lQM lhe \~Iuc oran :lIllobiugmphf( Bannn . ~Th e Lin coln of the i1iogr:'Iphe rs,'" TmIH(lI'I;ljlls oj Ihe

lIIillo;;<,' Slale I-li..~/(JI'I("(/I SON('t)· ~l6 l 1929 J: iO). Another suurce; lhat Zall might have profitably used is l !emy

C, WhillU.'y. 011 M:w '!i, 1856. Whi llle), ali<I Lit ten!n slrolkd ab01l1 Decallir. ll1illu i~. A.~ Ihe), reached Ihe cuurt ho usc. I.incoln announced that MHerc o n this spot. Iwe llty-six yea rs :lJ.!:u. I madc Ill}'

422 FLORI]),\ H ISTORI CAL Q UARTI-:RI.Y

li rst hall in Illinois: hcre I stood. and there our wagon stood. with all Ih"l we: owned in the world:' Obviousl)' ill a nostalgic mood. Li nco ln then lold Whilllcy ~ofhi!l early adve!U.ures in both Macon and Sangamon co unties, til e Hanks famil y, e tc.: a lso his earl)' struggles in life" (sec Whitney, l .ife 011 Ihe Cirrl/il willi tillrulll. I:d. Pau l M. Ang ie ICal.dwell. Idaho. 1940 J. 4 ~, 90-91) , In both Lifo 0 /1 Ihe CirrI/if wilh tll1rOl1l ;Hld t i l/ colli Ihe Ciliull (vol. I 01';\ l. iJr oj Linroln. cd . Marion Mills r.,·liller. 2 \'ols. INcw York , 1908J ), WhilllC)' re prodnced what he claimcd were stories Lincoln had told him ;1boul his earlic r lire. A Ilscrul con lri hlllion 10 Lincol n sch o];lrship wOllld be till': republicat ion of !.inro/n fil l! Cilium wilh th e passages excised by th c edi l.or reslOred . Man y of th ose omiued passages contain inforIllat ion about Lincoln's ('arl)' lif<., ,hat SCCll1l.O reflect what Lin coln hilnsdf confided LO Whitney.

Zall's \'ohmH.' . the il, pro\,idc~: 1 cnm pact bu t incolllplc[(' overvil!W of Lincoln's life- as he n :lllcmbered i[ lind II ~e. nsih lc selection or his must important leiters and slate papers.

Oml/rrlirlllOillrgr MICI IAH . BURI.l NGA;\I £

Bolivia (lIId the V'lilcd Slales: A Limiled Pmtlli'rship. By Kenneth D. I.e hm an. (t\thcns: Uni\'e rsity of Georgia Press, 1999. xx,·ii. 296 pp. Prefacc, acknowledgmellls, notes, bibliograp hical essay, index , 55.00 cloth , S20.00 papeL)

KeJlllClh Lchman's lil1(! hook dues a .~plc l1 did j ob narrat ing this hisLUI), ol'the intcr-relatiunship betwecn the Unit,cn States and Uoli\'ia wi t,hin the ow:mrchi ng structure o f Un ited Sta les-LHin Allle rican rela tio lls.

Lehman begi ns by l1o tin~ that Uni ted Statcs-L'uin America n diplomacy 1,'Cll! through a numbe r of significant turning poin tS. The cruci;,1 lI'a LCrsheds were thc late eightecnth and ea rly nine[cCllIh ccnturies, th e I 890s, and fina ll ), th c [940s. 111 th e lirst period, [[I e United States laid [he groundwork for its 1'0l11rc economic power on the int ernational sccnc, In the second cm, it assc rt.ed itself po li[icall >' amlmililarily in Luin Amc,·ica. Finally. by the 1940s, lhe Un it ed States projected its cultural presence th ro llghout the hemi sph ere.

This steady growth in U.S, influencc had a large impact o n the nonhern hq.{cl11oll'S relations wilh th e other nations in lhe hem i-

~ IJlwn" \\' h" 11 d i~("!I"illg 111l" ;!"l lIlIllt"ll"iC 1"'\\<'1 lviali"",hip II;"

III'IT" 1\"li,i;1 ,lIl d lilt" l ' lI ilt"d ~I:II I ". IIlI' :111 111111 :lIgW',.1 p,II I"n ·

c1it"11I I II"X II" fllli('kh d",l"I"pn l llt"l"t'l' lI lilt' l ' lIil( 'd SI.II(·~ .IIU[ 11.0'

li"I:I , .11It! Ill" lilld, 11 1.11 lhi~ 1.,nllnli"11 '("III.liIH·II h, ... i •. 11 1I IlIl '

,h.IIl).!.l"d lip 111!"I1I1g-1! 111"1'1"1" ,'111 11 :11. 111'II ' l"ic.l lh. Ihl' I ' lIil"1I "I.tlt·, 11:1., Ir i,'11 I. , ], ... 1 .. 1 p nl· l Ililnl ;"t.U I·" 'I,dlilil' ill IIll' \IHIt-.I11 ,"1111·

11"1 . • \h IH 'll.C; 1I B"li,i:1 h.t .. ( 1,",1111 1" ','11 :1 .1'·lwll d t' lll ill Illi, " lilllll1 'l1

P,IJ"tlh·r .. hip."· 1.l'I1itlan .. 11lg-1 .... "Ill ill' I.III("(·' IIlIelt· 1.~ lIlili:1 ilillil'

, ·IH I·t! lilt" ()\! ·r:IIII("l.lli l lll-.:hlp 1,,' III\'ell Ihe 1\10' 1I :lIi"",,. ,11th .1' III

lilt· 1.11t· 1\11;11, IIhl"n :tllli·llmlmIlIl'W,WH (, III .,d i,· j·ln , ' " "111111" ' 111

1Io(,·d ill I..ll ill .\IIIt ·,-i, ,I I" d"lIull ' 1IIt"IIIhl '" "I I '.S . 'II, i"11 1 , , '1111-

11l1'l1l l l1"lp"d {'''PI·llh .. I'(".IC<· ( :"11'" ,t lll[II,lli"'I:IIi,,' ( " til {'IiI. \'.1

"'11'1''1111"11'1' 01 tl ll'11" hlll g' ,1. llltlillg 1, ' I:lli'"I,hl P \,illl lilt· l ' lIjft"d SI .• I,·,. B"jili,,",' li,'II" 0 11111' 11"11111"111 ).:i:1I 11 11:1\'" hl"\ ' ll d"u[",I

~'"III ' /",/11 'ilIIIII I h.I\',· "','11 tilt" IIIII/r/llIWI/I 11 /11/1 ,I' I II ,'" . till II g .1 d 1"\ .. I· '11)1111 ' 111 :11 II1<,d"II'1 II .. , o pwd , ,Itld (,th"r, den'"111! I'd tht"lII .I' illl ·

I wri,lli'l ,Ig.c:n·'~, II ' .

1.,'11111.11 1 ">Ul[lt"lIi'l~h Il" tttl " 110" h I 1111" "Mh l.'iun" I l,il("(1 SI.II, ·' ,1Il(1 1 ~"IIII,1 ,,', ' 1", ' \) 11 ",(.dh (hltl·1t'llll l. lin I",-it ·,. F." ih 1).111.

1111' l lIil('d SI:lI , ', 11:111 '1 '1 11 1' :' 'l ' li" 'ol J,!," " ·11I111, ·IIt. 1I .Il1d "" ;,,1 il\· '1IIIIIi,,"~ 11i.ll ~;IIt· il till' l',ml'r 10 ah" II I! IITI lIilll"ll'lll ( 1111111.11 , ' 11

li l il ·' . ill ( ll1t1ll1g Ih~' ~p;llIi,11 1"ll tlo)"\ "t 1· 1,,,id,\. [ .. II, '!. III ,lmil.l!

1.I'lIi'»I . liI ,· l ' lIil,·" ~ I ;JI'" " ', ,11111 1:11..." ,I I.lIgl·' iIlIlI!...,,1 \I n .. i'''.IIII·

11)1" 1" h", "Illig I ' .S . .. ,,"1i cl' ·lI lt· .lIld 1""lw[[i!l)..: II 10 1'''lld ·pOIII'1 .. I,t·

1' ''' _ B" lili. l. 1)('1I(·1"·!. 11.1' IlIi ,, ''[ ill 1.'11 ).; ' 1"'111 I" "11 " 11111. "" I.I!. ,11111 I)' , 1iII' ~ tl ,ri ... " . ,I ,k'Vh ·1< " ,It·d .... · 11 -, I illt ,II p, · .... 111li'"1 I , ,~ IIII. ·,[

FI,»II Ih,''' ' dl'llIlIl PI\·III;"". lxllllldn ,I,·!tll .1111,111.,11" IH'\\ 111 1'

P'''U ' ' I S"UII! \11)("111 ,111 11,lIi"l1 h, ·,.\lII\· d " llI" lI ri"111 "II lilt' I 1I11, 'd SI: I1 .". \ 1.., '1 .1'1" " 1,,1 I Iii .. d"llt'll,kIHI II •• , IlI' t'll Blllil ;., ·' 1\' li .. 1111 ('

, ,11 ( .. .... . I'" 'Ilumel ,Illd IIIIJir.ln ;1 .... 1'1.1I1( " ,ill' " JI\I" I~.:)(), .

,\III"<llgli IIH' .1111111,1" .,limir:lhh di~llI"" ' " III " (["\1'1"1111)1 '111,,1

lilt· 1\"l il i.1I1 1'"1111 11"'1 11111<" . II<" n,"ltlll :"" hi " '11 11":,,1"1' ,I 11111"1

IIl1d'"I"'I:,"dlll~Ot 111 " 111" ,["111111 I,ll i.tl '1111111",11 'pli1'- ill Ih, ' 11.111"1 1.

I II ' ! 1·,.lIl1pl,·, ,"11"1(". · F"I 11111' Illill .!.!. l.dllll.lll ""1"111' III Iml'h 111.11 "'Ill!" ,[.I~Ij("d 1",l i, I "pli,,", IWI IlI" 1~ lIlill :m J.!,"\(·IIIIIl,·llIll1 tllI · lO lId .

I .. I.llt · 111111'11·,''' 111 , ', 'lIll1n (I,"ld 11,111 ""II<"lioll it'd III til<" IlIlfll"1

i ll,hl,i,," ,,[ IlIdi :lIl' ill 1111" 11 :111011:11 politI . lit- '1.111'" 111,(1 " 1 he ' ,k·

I'l'n<lt'lIll' 10 1 lilt· 1S,,[i, i: 1I1 ,1.11l"] "" I l lIdi:lIl ) II ihlll , ' 1111 ',1111 111:11

). \111"11111 I,,'" til ') ~lIn ,· , " 11"1,, I" ;111"<' 1"1'''1,11" 11.111\1'" illl" Ii.'li' " I:' ! lilt- 1\t·Jt· .• t,,, It ·I III III,II,·,r· (:!7) . \ 111I'llIgll rllt' , '( I1I"'"lil 1111-

1",!I.I!!I I' fi t Ir ltlllll' I~ t lt- .II . I 'lI'pnl tll,lI Ikt·p·,t·.llt"d .lIl1 j· litdi. 11I

'124 FLORIDA HISfORIC:\L Q U,\RTERLY

1~ IC is lll 011 thc part of Boliv1:111S of European hackground and meslilos (mixed-;mccstry people) was a more signific:11l1 obstacle 10 th e Indians' socie lal illlegr.n ion ,

Second , and more broa(Il }" he docs not fu ll ), ex plicate the idea that Bolivia is at least I\\,O n :ll ioll.~: Ind ian and whi!c-rllcstilo class, And til(' h ldiatls had I.Olall)' dilrc re lll views of the proper form of Ihe Irat ion-stalC, an importilll! slll~c(1 ofil llcrcsl :UI IOllg h istorians in nolivi:1 toda)"

St ill , for both il,~ come ll t and in novativc IIlclhodo\ob,)', Ihis 1lI(,nohrJ':lph \\'ollid be "crr good for classroom lise.

t\ 111:1'10 Srnrl' Ut/;lPffliir)' jA)IES F, Sn:t\)IEIER

Ti~stillg Ihe Li",irs: George A"" istead Smathers alld DJfd Wa r America. n ), Ikian Lewis Crispell. (Ath\:ns: Univen;ilY of (;cor~ia Press, 1999. xvii. 2~H pp. I'refa ('l' , ackll uwlcdgmell is. prologue. epilogllt', nOl es, bihl iogm ph)', in(\(·x. 35.00 hardcovc r,)

Among the more popula r and powerful Florida pol iticians of tllc POSI \\'orld \\'a r II e ra, George Smalllt' rs sen'cd rwo tenus in the U.S. Congress ( 19'1()' 19:.0) and tim'e terms in Iht· Senati' ( 1950-HIGS). Th c conSUln m;ltc Con~J'cssiona l insider. Smathers was a close (( lIl lidantc of two De illocratic presidellts, a key p<m 'f'f hrokcr \\'il hin 1 he Se llalc, and a leadin g DC:lll0CI,,;uic spokl 'small 011 foreign policy issnes, t~specia ll }' those pertaining tu L'ltin AllIerica. Hc was, 1111)1'('01'e r, perhaps till' domi nant fi gllre lI'ithin stale poli tics fnr \learl)' t\\'o decades. even c IIH'rgi ng as Fl orida's fal'ori tc-son camlidalt' I'm' the pre~idcnc}' ill 1960. Eminently I,'orthy o/,;, rull-scilk biognlphy. Smilthe rs has thus rar received surpli~ing ly scant ;l\Ielltion from ~holal's .

lirian Lel"is Crispell bid~ to fililhal "oid wil h this compet clII . if 11:11'1'0\\'1)' cast, st ud}' of Smat hers's po litical ca reer. DI~III'illg from a mnge (If puhlic a nd arc hiV:11 m;lI eri"ls, Crispell has produced a IISl" fil l ;lCCOUIiI thaI fflClIses pri1l1aril)' On Smathe rs's record as a politician, lc:gisbl llr, foreign policy advocale, and Sla ll' and nationa l political figllr!'. 'l eSli1lg I/''' Limils I;,ils, however. 10 go IlI I1( h beyond the surli.lce. TILl' Mquintcssl' lltial Cold Warrior," as Crispell ;Ip tl)' dl'~f'I'ibcs him. remai ns a rat her wnod c:n figure in this narrative. lillIe more Ih an Ihe sum IOlal of his puhlic positions and spceches , The alit hoI' nc,'cr mallag(~s LO hr'ing his subject to life: the fo rces drhing and shaping bUlh the inncr lIIan and the remarkable p ublic career

1:1-,

II!' 1t1l\!yd I I'ITI,liIT ludd,'u h"ITI 111'11. (ll\(' I,ITIIIlI! hdp lIuI 'li'IWI t

lilt' ,'\,,"h'lI( " ,,1,1 '11I1'ldl'loIlIlI mOl'" 'HIII'II·\. ITldTllrlTl.lllh.TlI liT\'

(lilt" pit 1t1T. dIll Ihi, '1l.ligllTiIlI "dltlh h"lllTl ,I( j (lITI1L

I III' .llIlh"l d".· ... 10 I", 'l1ll', PIOII(it' ,I 1\'11,lhk 1 lIT III Til I, ,11111

,IIT.,II'I' ,01 "IITI,lllll"", II"" I " I"I'IIHIII' I II" .H ld IlIl.!,h plll,ITt '11111,'

l tv ollt-" .1' 11\'11 ,111 1'\.1)("11 .IPPI.II, .II 01 .... 1]1.1111.·1'·' TllThl"" .11"

PI",I' II 1"1"111111 ,lll.nnp.TlglllIl:'; ,IITtI. ,1111'''1).; "1111"1 IT,'I.,hl. · 1,11111 1'

iJI II I""'. PI " IIt!." ,I 1,TldlTl '·\.,lTlllTl,llTlJll ,.1 III\' I I,TlIt- {" "1111

li,IIIII" I'\uhill:'; I Tt'1'" .lIld jlo,ili'''b "II ,,'I l,tll<'!'ITTTl.' TIll II~hl'.

," "li"lITII gl"lll h. IUIt'I!!,1T l',tll'T. ,11111 ()Ilin 1\1"1,'1111""' p"II'1

/f"I·,1 " '11'. hi ""I"lIlg, l ll'lwll ,,·d .. , III 1\1111111" "hdl Itl' \(11 11111,,',

,I' d,, · I'IUt.:,I.LlIlItIlI.!, '"flll.·lItT"IT.TI ""d"m" .111"111 ""I,((h"I' Ih,11

111'''-.111 IIIII.ITI1t !Tq':;IITlI' 1I11". III Ill<' ,111111,,1', jllll).!:IIIl'III-h"ld,

Ih.1I till' l ' I," id.1 Ikltl'" 1.11 11.1, ,III ITII" II'IlTTl,,", ,"HI I!!llllll\( IjllI-d

1 'PI"" 111111,1 "I \II '<1";1\ Id"1 1·1\ IT i, , ""'1,1<-1 ,11th- pVI '01 l.t! ,I! Itl '11.11 ' 'I

\I ,tl !!,tI I, III lIll' Il.iI,,·tI IHlI'llll "I jJ' ,\,,'1, I h,lI h(" .111\, >11111,,(/ 1" lill1l'

1111111' ,I' Ill<' nh-II'lw,I\('d jllIl "",,141 1t,11I' II. lit, l !I "",I 1.1,1-,.11\.11',1' ,II

IT It , ,\lWI!l1t'1I I l,tI. I'l.n 1"" polllit 1.1 II " (T\. \

l ,htllll \ III Ill" 'Lllu1.lId ITldlll1tlI'TlI I' Ih,' !II'\<J"""' I'I~,[)

'1'11.11<111,11 "llIlp.111.\11 Ih,1I "III,lIllt'I' III0111111'd ,II.\,IIT1~1 Illlllltd,,'lll

( 1.1I11!.- 1'l'j'lwl ,11,,11111'1 1!lI' lId ,tlHI P,III"11 \\!tCI,. "dl(,)' h,ll' ,", "'lI 'I,", ,11,1,,\,1111 .lIld ,1!'pl,".lhk 1.11 ,'. ,ltlll 1"41·10,111\11)..\ 1.11 II! ,

{ .1"1,1'11 'I'," ,I ,Ill, " I,·. I"Il'l·II,ltl\'· 11,111<)11.111'1 01,'1"111111",01 I"~ "lin ,111,1.:1111"'"' ,TlII'lll,ITTI" In 1'''1'1'''1\, Illi').:llIlkd 1'11' ...... '"11'1 Ill' hlld '

1"'11' \,l1lll l lill;': tI',11 "'11l.IIIT"I' \1,1' """III""lll I II""" .llld " ,1111'111·,1

".\11111''' ' 111 I," lIlt" p,,)tTll,d IlIg lI l.,,"" (.-,ITI IIII' .lIII!!'" (1c-,1I1t .ul-

11111'" III . · '11111 ' 1( ' p"IIITI ,11 ,4\ll\I(li""'lh,11 1.1\ I,dlilld hi, ,"1011" 1'-.

h.lld·l,i ll ing I"t lit', R<')I'I (111).: lilt' 1I1 1I 1.11I'·llIlgl "llJl',lIh'"llIltll R," I ,,,hili .111 ""'11,11 " 1 1""l'h \ 1, ( .. II TIll .1,1t,(lI' l"Il hI "'tll.HiT'· I '·' lIlli, ' .

( ti'p("lIll1'I'I' Ih,11 ""1I11li1-,I' III<" ill 1.11\"11 ,1I1d l"I'II'd \\1"'''"'111 ,,'1\

,111.1. 'l1l1.lIlt,·" I..I·jll It" ,llglllllt'l1l' IliTlll1I dl" It·.lilll ,II jl""lhdill" (i'dJ

'''II,.dlt·,,·, "1,11111 ' h. tI" I'I,1t l!lgl,lTlIl'd ,UlIH'III1I1I1'tll'itl. IIJlII,t! " I I It,· "( 01 i-:"!l,'1 .1111 ,,,'. , 01 II l u , II I", 11.1' ,I I holiin 1IH"lItill't. I,,, ITTC( I

Till' ]",,1..110111' "r lilt' 111111111,111', pohti, ',lln'l-, lIld ".,,'"' ,I' Illi,

1\0111..\ l\'!1ll.tlIITI"l!w (''''1",11 ,I" ,,,, T11.llllw ,,'11.111>1', PI'I'I,II'111

1"ll1)II"tI ,.1 \.:.1'"111'1''' I II I< 11ll1l ,lid jIll ,11111,111,' 11 1\1111'" I .11111 \rtl~'1

" ,I ,II ,tllTl\(·d I I' oTTl 'III 1,llit"I", ti," ·p""'I·.III·t! It- ,II' ,tI Jill It lit!" '11I1\ld "I

"'111111111 " '111 IIlt'I,1 Iq~"'" 01 ill l lt'",iTlg: l'\"llIlTllI{ IIT'Il, "t.ltll'· I"

III' 1t"BI<' '1.Ilt. " I III' .... ' ·11. ' 1"1 110111 1,11111 \ml·I!!,!."" ,I' lit" ',.1' d il l lllnlll\ "'I"lI,II",i,tlloll'·, I,l:.1U·. pl , ,h, 1101t ,II hwlt·,j t", gl",I1"',

FLORIDA. HISTORIV\L QCARTERLY

renown as ;111 inve leratcly lIggressil'c o pponent of th e Cuban regi me o f Fidel Castro, Ye t, liS the author "Iso emphasizes, the hawkish Smathers was wholl ), unprcpared for and perplcxed by the sudden collapse of the coulIl ry'S Cold War conSt'J1Sus dllring the Vi(:tnarn War, a d el"elo pmem tll a t helped prompt his polit ical retire me nt in 1968.

Testing lIlt! Limits. if h 'lfdl ), Ihe last word 0 11 Ccorge Smathe rs. is a 1~ lllIable study o f an impo rt,tnt figure. It is especially rccnmmcnded for SlUdenl.S of modem Flo rida politics.

RO I\£.RT .I . r-. lc MAI ION

/listorie Amerioo" TOW11S Alo1lg the Atla"tic Coast. 13)' Warren Roeschenste in . (Baltim ore: J ohns Hopkins University Press. 1U99. xv, 33 1 pp. Preface. appc:ncl ix. not es, references a nd bi bl iography, im](-x, about the amhor. 39.95. hardcover.)

What call \\'C lea m th !"t) ugh the examinatio n of Atlantic coaslal towns? In sho rt chaptl'r.;, a "h'id picture eme rges of c:lch of nint' distinctil'c comm unities. Some oft hesc chaptcrs-stlch as those o n Castine ( r-. la ine) , Oce;m Crove (New J crsc}'). and Ika ufort (South Clrolina)-are more successful in presenting the IU\\'IIS CUttlprch~nsi\"c lr Descriptions of 01 hers SI tch as Sa int Augllst inc (Flo rida) , New Castle (Ddawarc ). and Kcnnebunk's Pon (r-.·Iaine) seem tu tUlIch O il o nly thc highlighLi. failing to gil"c a fu ll picture (If the \\'hole 10WI1. Howcver. 1 suspec t Ih;"l t lil t' seeming inequality o f Ire a lment relates \0 th e individuality of c;lch com muni t)', a point illl porlan l 10 the author who has rlistinguished these particular towns for Iheir lil~lblc qualit ies.

Th~ o rganization of the Ix>ok is logically made "long the lines of Ihe usual geogm phical grouping o r 1\11<ll11ic coastal regions. In Ih rec sections. nine towns arc described in detail . Each o fth(' th rCl' seetiollS begins with :\11 o\"t· r ... iew of I he reb';011 COl11:tinin~ brier disc llssio ns of an add itional live to len towns. No att empt is madc 10 cre'a le a l l equal division ofsubjccls accorclin~ 10 geog raph ica l region , Th e Nonh Atbll lic sec tio n incl udes fOllr lowns, the Mid-Atlantic cUI'ers on I)' tl\·O. the South Atlantic includes Ihn:e lowns. Nor :Ire the same issncs disc ussed nnirormly ill e,"cry sec tion on each t()wn . Logically, there are din"crclII issucs of mor~ or lcs.'I importance in indh'idllal towns, such as Ihe importanc(' of the Spa nish plan for colo nial cit ies 1.0 $<lin t Augnstine, while ccn ;ti n iSSueS such

"'-- ,

.)' HI i('IIL11I<)1I "I ~11' "~I' 1" '''1'''1.:1.1]1111 .111' 01 '-II"\l~h ";':IIIIU,ltlO ('

I" Iw d"III"I '([ Itll ,',11 h ,111111'111""11

\\illl till' nl~.ltll!.IIIIII1. til<' 11'.lIl,'!. "hilt- dl·.I1iIl~ \\uh III! 'P' I !I,,, "I , '.11 II mdi'idll,tl (Pili!. 111,1\ \\01111" \.h,-,,- ,II{' 1\1 t.:'llllt:

\\11.11.110' th. ' 1l\l'I-.IIIIIIII!..t 1'''111'' 1111 .lIl1h,n I, 111.lkl1l!.,( ['It.h'"", n","" [!C'II'"'1I1 pHI\!!I" 1111 ,111"'1'1' 111 111' II1lu\l1I1I 11111 (h •• p"· ' 1,111'1,' h\, .11111111.111" till' dl " ' gll 11'''''"' Plok"j"II.d, 1111\.::111 11-.1111 llO.m I Itt' I h"'I'II' "1111111111111" ... 1111111' "'( 11011,' "lllp.Lll"'1I I,ilh II, . · '\1'\\ I ,11.1111'111 ,,','m, 'Q'I""pn.ltt' /.'1 lilt' ,\,,\, I ,1,.1111'" .11",1",," [", d"'I!!,H pllil. 'plt·, illn 1.111 .11 ["p' h"lll '11\\1',,1111 1011111111111111"

"I dw p.", II H' Plt'''')11 \1011-. III,II-.,~ ,11 1111 I' 'illl ,hUlII'" 111 the' eli

In ,,'111 11\ ~""I;': 'lit II ~IJVllttt IIt'lIl1l1l1)1l I" lit, 11",11111", lh,ll "','II' I" 1II,II-.""'11ll1t1l11111'" ,IIII,Utl\(' 1,1",," t" iii,' I"" 111'1.11"1- H"I .. ,111-'1'11'111 ,lell!!III"II,I1." h,,\, III', h''''''11 1"\111' , 1,'1111>11'11,11,' 'IH II ,11,",1111" hilI" ,,1 III<' '\. '11 1 I h,IIII,I. ,111"' 1 ,'" ,IIIUII II\', 1111111 I" II" IU"111'111 lilli' 111 "'1""II'~I"1\ I{ .,,1111 "1111 11 1 ,111l1 '1111'111,',1 t" 1110

,!lITI III 1\1 ,L1dUII ''''I '11th ( HII. ,1111,11 I I, Ill, ,\ Ilk, ,III ,uldnl1.III'1 • ,I

elq'lll II' lit" 1111111-.111:': "I Ih,' '\"11 1 lil,lilhh It,", 'P'" th'"1 ,111<1

,1.11111_ /1"/",,. \"10/, fll/ 1",'1'/1, III",,}.!. 11" 111.111/,' (.HII/III,'!.," ... , 1",1-

'''Ill! .ultlllhllll'llh, 1'\,1111111,111011 ,,1 'I It,ll 111,11-." .. ,1 ""11,,,1111 ,,,(11-1111111111

1111' I,mlh ,I""t' li .. 11,111 ' 1""1 tll"II" III,' qll,tilll l ''': II" ,111,,11.

'('1111111111111.111111 ,I lid ",lit-, l ilt, ,IIHI"'I '1'1'1-., "llt'lllglllIl' III. Ih'

1III.IIIk 1,1"''',1111-,111111'' "I t',1< II "I 1111"1' '1".llilll"-II"'" tll,'1 till' ," ,.·,11 It",. ""11 lit. 11'11.11,1'1""' 1 •• 1 d'-,I',II,I,'. ""11111111111 'PI,IIi,

III" lit. '111.llilH"'oI 1'1<.111011 .ll1d \,'""1"1"111 ,,1'111 11'11 bll),ldh

dl ,11\1 I ,t)I. I III~ ,I I, Hit' 1.lIlgI· ,,1 ,"'p' " I .. It I I" II It" II "\1'1 \ 1111\11 ,It" 111",d ',111 111 J It(" 11I.,hlt-lil I' 111,11 ~<l , ,,"1,1 I, '1, '''' II It" It d" 11111

'1",,[111 ,.' J..:.""tllIl("l<h li lt, 'p l,I]1I1 "I 11111(" I" 1t-,IIIt II" J.II"" ,.1

"\IJI C .... j"1I ,.j ,I 1(,(111,' 111'1011 hlltldlllg~ ,lIld 1,lIl1h,,(I"" 11"111

• ,1111'1 1" I ,Old, 11111 It ,,1"'1, Ih ," " I, 'II II' 11\ 'II I rill' 'W,': II I WI It .. I, "I ] '" ,'

l'.-rltl ,lIlIlldlllll'1.It'" hi hi 1111-\11 IIq,:lnl 1-1 ... 11 tilt ,',.,11 •• 11'" 1 •• 1\

1111 ... , hit II" 1111' ]11'1\.1'"" ('lIiI,'ltt" "I IHlII", ]1"1 ,,,,Ii lit.: II! II" ,''"' 111,11 h,I1.1 III "~ IIII' 11,",d 1111 ]1.11 I lIt 1', .. 1 \\, >I III \\ ,II II ,,,hili 1,,111 dt~

1,'I"p")I"11I '"I III, '''' '1'"lIlll1l1l1ll'~ II ", ,ltltll"1 ,H\I"" I,. It It' I1I1P'1i 1,111' \ ' .. 1 P"",'(IIII:-; 1111' ,'I 1,1,'1111' III 11111', hili k,II'" ,,.. \\<llItI"IIItt.:

1111\\ litl' 'I",dll l I 'Hcld hI' 1<', I ".II.·t! ,'I",\\!tn(', JIll' 1 •• ,11111 '1",11111

1111111,111 " .tl,· , 111.11 lit, 111'11111"1 I .1' ,I , • '"lll.It I d,'11'111 • II 'II I" 1111 , .... 11,-·

"'IIIIIIII'tI hi 1 .. 1111 I"IJI'~I.IIIIII ,111, 11,"1 ,'11

II I\' ,ltlll"l1 II"cil" tltt' 1'1,''''111 'IH'I'" ,.t 1111"'" \1111'111.111

\",1'1,11 Io,lIt" (,' litt' 1" ' ·"'II.ltt"" ,01 IJII' II IIldllidll,11 ,III hlll'lllll,tI

428 FI..oRIDA H ISTQRl('AL Q UART}:RLY

histo ries. History is presented as viml to the ([uality of life in the chose n commlln ily. Bocschenstein identifies individual chal,lcteristics of each exa mple by cxplain ing how their hi.~ torics influe nced th eir dc,·clopmcnt. HiSlori;ms ma), take hean in the message that th e prcse n'<llion o f hislory pays in qualify oflifc.

SlIIith,fonilll/ I I/Sli/IlI;OIl (.'yNTt-Il:\ R, FlEW

A C,mer-a/ioll Dividt..'t1: The New Left, the New Right, and the 19605. By Rebccca Klatch. (lk rkclcy: Univers ity of California Press, 1999. xiv, 386 pp. List ofil lllsU<llions, acknowtcdgmcll ts, inlrotlucliOIl. appe ndices. notcs, index. $55.00 d oll !. 522.95 paper.)

Rebecca Klatch's sociolobrical studyof Ma gc ncr'illion d ividedM follo\,'.~ her previous \\'ork o n \Vomell oj the Nell' Wght (Philadelphia, 1987). Sil ICl' Klat ch has also published art.ides on IIIC s. .... mc topic. she is well si tu.lled to \\'rite a COl11p'lI~ lIi\"(: s\lIdy of the Sixties' gcnemtiOIIS. Inspired by K;:ul iVlannheim's cssay. MThe Problem ofGencntlions,M Klatch conducted extensive intel-views ill all dlor! to understand the ideals of both Len and Right, and then 10 analyze how th ey dashed (and a t limcs meshed) \\~th one anothCJ: Hcr '11'pro:ldl is a thematic one, exami ning in turn the emerge nce of dissell l ill the 1960s. the backgrollllds of aceivists, and the spli ts Ix:t,,'cen lI-;lditionalists . al larcll ists, and radicals. Si lbscqllc nt chapters explore the cOllllterculture lind ito; impac:t on both Lei'!. and Right , thc -Woman Queslioll.~ ami II'h)' these mowm CIlLS decl incd at the end of Ihe decade. Final chapters fo llow her illl ervicwecs into the 1970s and \.)cyol ld ill an effort 10 delerminc ir lhei!' earlier c0l11lnitmell1 to ac t.h~sm disappeared with tilt: movcments ther hadjoincd . Her5101) ', sh t~ nOt es in Ihe Int roduclion , is MaOOlillwo wings of o ne gCIU:l<uion: their relalionships, t.h ei r tcnsions, their compatibilities, their fatesK

(2). Klatch concludes tit;" while lJIallY issues di\;ded Le fl li"Olll Right (chief ly ideology) . then: was .. ISll much that j oined them, stich as a cOlllm itmelll to activism ;1I1d to changing the Liberal paradigm.

As the litcl.l. ture o n the Six ties grows by leaps and bounds. Ix:rh:lps the fu ndamental question to ask of any new work is how it ch:llIges whal wc know aboll1 t,he decade. In Ihis reslx:cl, while K1:u rh pruvides a new window into lhe activislS ilnd thei r 111oti\'(:s, what Ihey tdilis docs not contt<ldict what we already kn ew abollt the hist.Ol), of these rears. Her 1l10S1 sigllificant contribution, and il is illlporlalH. li(:5 in her compa l<ltivc approach. Shl' h:l~ rcmoved both

1\(lIlh I{I\tllI'"

"'llltkl!l~ 1"1.1 Iklll'UI.,IH ""'111'11 \ ... 11"'1 .llId " "1111)..\ '1II' ·I; '.I1I~ j')1

h ,"'!I, nil (\ \1.\ h (1111 tilt-II 1 ... ,,1.1110'11 HI ]ILl' lilt! 1111'111 III 11"1.1]1' '''' '

1ioll I,. , " U h 111111'1. .1'" dl('\ 1\1' '' ' It! lilt · 1'11,11 .... 1\1 ,.111 Iwtll'l 1I11c1,'1

'(,11111 11"1 ,,"11 d'~""1 111 Ih,' ... "", .... hilI Ih,,~, lii""'III"I'" 111 1111-,In.ul\, th.lI loolh,\\\,d . 1111111' "."" . h,·, 11111]... ' ·III.II).!.'·' "" 1'.11111 ,1 ""'\ ,II H 11 .. 1 \",. f., /1. \ n" U /C;hl. 111"/1/,, /1);1/01 "//h' \ /\/In 11'1111.1111'1 1'111.\, 1 .... 11\. ~ )11 h .1 tn, I I '.11" .I!.!" ,h, 'H' 11.1' .dm. '~I 1111' 11111)..\ JlI ",''",,,,

bl,·I.I\III' .111t'"1 IIII' 11).:111 II II IL\. 1)1,'\1'1111 "llIdll'''' IInlll Ih.1I "1.1 Ih.1I

I.II).!.d, 1I.l11I,·d .111,,"1 111,- d.IlIt!'·I' III lI)..\hl lIillg .gll'''I'' .11111 .llIlIh

1I1t·1i 111 .. 11 11".11 I', .111,1"'"11111'111 "I 11"1",".1111' dd, ·II .. I Jl ll lllg ilil'

l'I'I(I,.II"I,,·h·l. 1I1,111t.1" h.lIlgl·d \\, ' 11,,11 h.ll!· ,,'\c·I.11 '1111111" .. "j 111"

i{1 .!.:f1l. "'P'" 1.1111 II ,"1 Ii. 111.,1 .11" .111. ,.", 1'1111'.11111'111 ,/".' •• 111,.11 ..... '111-

!'.lIh,[1I (1111', '11.1[1 .. 11\ 11.1 .. 1.1]...,'11 It- pl.\! " .1 ... 1 Lit 1,,, III tilt" IlI-h.111 · ...

"I till 1'11111... .llId l"I1I"H-III.IIII'''1 It II I' ( ,.,ldll.l11·1 "1.,1, Ii "'"I1.HI< ,d P'" II .111'" "t .11 III hI, I Illllpilt .11 ' · ... '"l! IllIlil'l ,1.111( hll~ _ oj 1)\ '111 .... 1) .... Itlo!

\ \ 1· I h,' .11.11 h'~lilll"I""" .11" .1111111 ..... \1'1\ '1'"'1lt'lIulg \11111',.11111' lillll' "1,,1t II, 'I,uh 1.11 ... ' · ....... 111' qu",,,,,, ....... h.·II ....

11\1"1\11'\1\'" ,,\,1111 I,ll" 1I1C1!1Idll.d, lilt .. 1\I' ,t .1111\\' dWIIIJ.: II"

1''',0, 1 1,1\\ Iqlll·",'III,III\\' .11,'1111'\' t.. rI"""""I' Ih.1II ,III ,lIw, d ,'I .• l hl'I' II I III Ih, ' P"II' ,d ~ ( )1 ,,j ..... 1> .... lIld \ U ' III IMll11 111.11. II h.11 1",,,1,·

tllt' ... · 11Idilldll.l1, !I II 1<"1 "111 """1 111,,1-.1< IlIi'l 1"IIIIi; (.11 1 I,,' .11' Il

1.11.-]1 ddlill Idl"I, 1 ... lt,..~1 .III1\1~"" "II 1111 1.1'11 .Iml RI ~III \\1111",11

1,,,.]...I1I L\ .11 pI "hk' 111 lIon',I< 11\ I .. l'~ 1'111,,11,. 1 ... l.l1i II'" h,,, ,]... II 111111,.111-

1" '11 11 ... 1111,' 1".ItI'·I, • ,t till' /'"1111.11 h,·. ,III ... , II ".11' 11111\- .11)1 'lit tI" .... ,.lIlh Itt lh.1I ... ,'11',', IIl1 t "IIIIII,It<"l, . Illc'I·IIII,I" .... dlll'''' "II'I\lllIlIg

"j,,' 11111H'11 .d"'111 111111, '11 11'111, .1I\d.,. 1111,1, ,.! dw .... "111"' (1'1t'~1I'"" .llId, 1111, ... 1I1 ....... lIk. 1111"'1' .111 illlp.III.11I1 "'"111< •• 1 ,II

11\1" ,.>lllh It d"I.III",,"'1 ',lIh ,lill ~'I "11< .",11111 '"1111.1111"" III I .• hlt'"

It·hglllll .. IIk,II ... 1'"hlli.III!I,·ol"J..:II· .... lIul tllt', 'III' hll Iht' 1"""1'. II

.• 1 .. " III~h Ilgh" !lIt !"I "11' t·, II 11 h;1I 1',1( Ii I II II,, · 111' ,\ "1111'11" r h.11 "\1'11

111.1111 1".1 I .. ,pi It- "tl 11,,1/1 [ t'll .1I11[ Ri g hI \1.1111 ,d Ih.",· dl lkl

,'11,., .11,' .. 1111 \,1I1i '" ,,,d.I'

NASA (t lll i llu' .\")(/1'1' I I/rill ' /I) ' I~ I 1,1,111 11",1 HI<,"d" ·I)..\ ( ltlll",,"!!·

1, ,1 11'" I h 'p]...III" lllll"I'"\ 1'1"""' . I-I'~'. '\. '11/1'1'· 1'11'1 .11('. 11"" "

lIihll")..\I"I'I" 11111,· ... "':.'1 \0, l"lh I

Itt \ \ \ \ '1111/ II" '111111 '111/1/ '/ '\, h"I' " 1.111 I_ •• 111 I I'.) 1'.1 I ,!!!b,'1 t.: 11I( ·"l'tl h .1I1 111"1 ).:,1111111 .1I1.,iI .. " ,.1 !III ' d, ·,. IIli', 1,1 \111"111.111 'p.II"

430 FLORIDA I-I ISrolUCAL Q UAII.TFRIX

hiSIOI) '. This book marks 'he a utho r's firs t \'(: lIlul'( into this area. In 1993, llw National Ae ro nautics and Space' AdminiSlfal icHl COllm lClcd Urombcrg \0 sun'c)' NASA's relationship with the P'; \,;:IIt" sector in lh e d e\'elopment of the space indllSll"Y. De~pile the filet that I~rolllbcrg's a(COIL IiI relics :lIrnOSt c lilirel), 011 secondar), lilc l~ l

lUre, tI-;I{\C ami busiw:ss mag:vine articles. and c:ungrcssioll:11 hearill~"i, the book sucn-cd.s in making a \~ lllIablc COlltr ibuliOIl 10

hi~lori :IIIS' understanding of the dc\'e!opment of Ill(- Ame rican space pn lg l~ \111.

Ilromlx:rg dl"idt:<; her analysis of the fin) rears of f\mcriCOIII

spac(~ hi51(1)' il1lO seven ch:.ptcrs. Her fi rst ch;tptt:r provides an o\'('ITie\,· o f S(l11 H.' of tile issues in\'oh'CcI ill ill1UwatiOIl :lIld (ommercia li ... ati!'ll!' Chapl crs 2 through 7 offer a detailed and readahle po r-1I,l it of IIll' principle feall1re~ of till: changing relationship hctwccll NASA :-tmllhe large and small compani."s and COIlIr.lCIOI1i, which (ol1slill1[(' Ihe core uf the SP;ICC industry.

nroll1her~ l!;tces Ihe el11crgC llC"1: of the space il1dllsl'1' in the I Y,IOs th rnugll 1!J60 in her second chaph:r, President Eisenhowe r':, ckci~iul1 to ask Cu ng-ress for ;lIuhori,,..""l. licl11 10 ere'He NASA ll'a..~ p ;II"

of a lilrger debate about tlw relationship Ix"tween 'he public ,\tid private Sl.'Clnrs as well as Ihe lI1ili t:u), al1ll chi lian nec:ds of S1)('icl)'. I! )' 1958, the reliuiollship Octween the milit:lry anti the civil ia n :1I,: rospaCe co mpanies had grown acrimoniuus. Much of the cantentiousncss ill the sp:tC(O illdllslt1' in the 1930s grew Ollt of differences ill the military'S procurement progmms. The anll)' re lied OIl ; \11 Mahenal ~ approach ill wh ich reSearch :lIId dcvelopmcnt of missi le and rocket ~}'stell1 s was conducted "i n-hOllseM wi thin existing arlll )' facilit ies. Thc air force prefc lTl'd a MII'eapo .. 's system" ;11>proach in which c0111pan ie~ sublllin ed bids 10 become lhe prime (011 11-:1(101' lor a missil ... o r an airCI-:lft . In 1958, NA$.>\ adopled:l r("St.'arch :uHI pl'OCUrelllC1lI SII-:\l.c6')', \I'hieh cumbined [he ann)' <lI lt! air force approaches.

The eiglll years fmm 196 1 to 1969 crcilted new o ppo nltnities :tnd rha lkllg'es lilr NASA. Presidc1lI Ke nn edy's COtlllll;tllll.'m \0

landing an American o n Ihl' moon by the clld of the deca(k compelled NASA to take a leadi ng role in the innova tion process of nell' technologies alld space products, Th e Apollo prugl" l11 gaw NASA Ire1nelldolls political and ecollomic lCVl.:r; lge, Brolllberg pl"ll\'ides a detailed analysis of hull' ,Ill" agency lIsed iL~ power in 11usciectiOiI nf Nort h American as a plillle conll, lClor in Ihe Apollo progm11l .

HI

\ \' \ I'I.LII·II. II<~\H·II · I..I ddt. II III 1,,11 ' dill III).; 1111' pI ' li"t! III

1111' Ikl l 'lopllh'ILI , II '''111111111111 .111"" ,.IIt·lll"· ... III L111" .1It'd , IlL, I'll '

1.111' 'I " "'1 I" "\.. 1111" 1, ·.ul,1I I 1I'.'lillg ,I 11I ·1I"'1\.. lit ~, .,."II( hH>110U"

.... Lt, · III1, .. 1)1 ."'111).; ')II II . tlld \\h.III ' II'" , 1I ~II1IH I1" 111 Iii ... "111111 ,.1 I (JIIIIIIIIIIII.III,II' .... 11'·1111' 1""gl,1I11 \ IQ'li l. HIIIIIII)I'I .I.{ .. 1111\, ... 11"1\

IIII' I [lIgl U" ( "I I" ",II" 'II \\.1' .Ihlt · I" U"(' 11111< 1\ .1111. ' irkd" II. \\ III .1

110111111.1111 1""It" '" Itl 1111 11I.,tiWli"IlI,I, ""111111I1il ,II"'" ... 111'11111· ...

I \II"IIIIt ' I~ ,Ugl"" Ih.1I ,hi' 19,11 .. 111.11\""111111" In·guLlIIII ).! .,1.1

111'\\ pIL.,'I IlIlht' hl .. lnn ot 1111 'p.llllllcill .. ,q. III'IIII .llh. t h. · "III

II· .... "t Ill., \poll" 1".,).: •. 1111 11I"llg hl \\I1IL II" 111"1'" I 1t,llIell),;! 11'1

\ \ .... \ ,I lid till 11.1"11'111 "p.1I t' melU ... II I I'III-II! 11111 ·'. · ... 1 III 111(' '1,.1< ,. plllg:1.1I11 11.1),:\,,\1'11 Hlldgl" ,,!!II1I1I1I ·It·d IIhllL- \ \ .... \ .. "ugh I ttll .1

1111'.111" ,., ,"11111111,' 1111' 1111111.111 1· ... pl," ,"I •• 11 "I 'p.", ' IIII' 'p.II"

.. !L 1111 It · 11.1 .. \ \ ... \, '(111111)11 I .. Ihi ... I" "hi, 111

g,ollll"'I),:;\ 1"11 ,11.11'("'" Ilv.HIII).: tilt' dl'I!'IUI'IlIt ' III "I 1111'

'P,It , ,IIIILlk .111<1 IIII' 1'1 .~ i i ( lI.tll"II,I.\I '1 <li",I'I,·' ,II" '''1'' '' i.111I II". '

II II I It, · '1,.1\ t - ,II 11111,· I to ", ·d .• 1',11 , ltI" ... II, 'III 11' • IIII! "1'11< III . () " I hi ' '''11' h ,"I!1 \ \..,\ 1" >1 11 .1" '11 11", .. hllllk '[" ,11111'.111" ,<) "'lllIiHII' lhl '

gl .I1ItI, · lllt·llui",· "I \ .... 111.'1 111,1.\ 'p.lt l' 1)11 tIll' "lil, ·I . \\ ... \ ["'

'l'lIlt 'd Ihl ... 11I1I11t .1 ... 11,,11 ,,,'I I.llImh ,dILl, 10 · th,lI \llutid ,,",Id I', ,II., "mIlito" 1.1111.111"" 1,1 "1'.11" , III<' .. 11111,10- <I' ·\I 'll'I'I'tIIll.1 dtlkl "Ill \\,1\ th.<l1 tilt' \1',011., plll~I.1111 I II III<' IIIi'll .. \ \ .... \ 1.11 \..' ·II,IH' I",lill< ,,111,,111 'h,1I II It.ld P""""ct! III 111<' "'1"1t" lit H .. 11,,111"111

pl.I, , -d ,I g h " U.-t 111111l1.1II1I· 1,,1,' III 11 1,· .. 11 \11111 '\ 1'11111111"11.

R'"I.lld 1~ ('.It..:.IIl·" .. kltH>!1 11.1111' IUI'''ltl''II'' .11111 II" (h .ll·

kll .!.!,' ·1 111 .... 1'1, '1 .Idrkll 111 11"' 111' I" 1111 111 .. 111'" 1.011 ' II I illtllll.llill · I'll' t"" III<' 1""111lt·ltl. IIII.IIU'11 (II "I,.ltv 11.1" ,.11t' 1,1 1~."I'.!,III"

PII"III"'" RI .'i.!.11I ".11, 1 ... 11" dr.lln.ltll .,111 I"fill, I tIll ' g ,I\"IIHIH'1I1 ,

toIle 111 tit .. '1'.11" 111£111 .. 111 \ \.., \ \\ 1' dill'! [, .<1 101 ,', I< 11111.1\,:" lilt,

I ,'IIIIIII '1( 1. 1111.1111111.,1 '1',(0 t' 1'.II.II I", ,, ,lIh, IIII' R' -, ' ,I.\,1I1 "dlllllll .. U.1 110"" . , 111 1"1 Iltl' "'II,II " g ll 1l,'II 'II'" 1"111 .11111' ( "'1,11 \\ .11") IIlld"1

Ittllwd ,II< ,-11 " 11 .. "",,',11,' ,(I ,11111'''- 11 t.11 '11,III'III"l.!t.1II1 I II( 1.11111 '

.... '.11 " ,Lt .. "'ltll.[lI' 1111"11 111.1111 1"1111,.1111' " .11,11 ,,"111.,,1"1" ,1I,.L1

11 \1m "'lilliit" 11.11 '-II\It-.I II '" IIii' I q:-;I, ( It .tlkll l.!'· 1 01".1,10'1 ,11111 -

pdkd., 1.-lltlll\..lllg ,.1 \ \..,\\ luk tit tlH ' Pi"" "Ill 11I1(l1.lll,,".llLri

11""'"III1Il'III.dll,I(j"1I "I 'p.lIl· \ .\ .... \ kH !!lId"1 11< ' ,1\' '1111<' ''111

I •• ) h.,tit t",llIlil.,1 .11,,1 1I1,1lt,lgl·'I.tI IIli .. I.II...I ·" (1t.,HI ·ltg'·1 I.,t,.'d

\ \ ... \ tn ,,'L1I1I1\.. Ih,· ," ... I' ..... ,1 IlIlItJ\.III,,".11II1 dl",i ,).! II'oI '1'.111'"''

1, ' 111 ..

1\1,,"tlwl g ' 1" .. ,1... 1''' ..... ' · ''1 ·' 111.1 111 ,111''').:111" II"" P, 'O, "II<' I\,,\

pt.·,,'II" .• (" gl ' llI "lIIlllI,\!1 .,t IIII' , 1" II ·I"PIIII 'III.t! '1,. 11 (' 1l1.11I'111

FI.oRIDA I-IISTORICAL Q UAKTERI _Y

from Ilw 1940s Ihrough Ihc 1990s. Seco nd , the ;1111.110 1' pn:sel1lS a PCIICI I, IIil 'g ;mal)'sis o f the process of hH1O\'alio n and commerciali1atiOll in lhe space program. Finally. Brombe rg cxplores Lhe relalio nship bt·twcell the public and private sectors in cont emporary America. Readers iIHerested in SpOlCC histol)'. the history of technolo!,,),. and the fnnnalion of public po lie)' ,,'i11 find this a valuable vook.

CQlifrrmlillg A/I/I(dachiall Stereotypes: Back Talk fro m atl Americall HegiOll. Ediled by Dwight B. Billings. Gurne)' Norlllan . and K.:lll u.: rinc Ledfo rd . (Lcxington : The Uni \"(' l'sity Pres..o; o f Ke lltud.),. 1999. xii. :!50 pp. Forc\\'ord, ackllowlcdgmel1l'j, introduction . contribut ors. ind ex. 529.95 d oth .)

Wh ell th e hislo ry ofa regio ll is red\l ced It) a Slory wid in evcn a 10llg play. th en:, is bO\lnd to be trouble. Ihhe reSt'ardi fo r ",riling the play appea rs to Ix' lillie IIIOfC than im pre ",sions br.lined fmlll rc;uling a couple: o f books and a bricl ,·isit. mail ers ca n only gct worsc. Sho uld such ;I pia)' then bc rcrognized ",ilb ;\11 ;1\\~tr( 1 of a Pu li l7.e r Prize. people ",ho know and Glre abOlI! the region wi ll STand up ;1Ilr! sian talking back , II is in th is SCIl )'C Ihal Robe'n Se henHan 's play. n il' Ken/llcky CJde. bega t Co'ifroll /;'Ij! tl/lplIlllrhir/ll Slrrro')"II>I'S: lJuck 'I i,lk {mrn 1111 A Inm((111 Ilpgiml. '17/1 hl'll/urk)' Cydi- was a ("";l I:lI )"SI fo r Ihis vol ume. but Appalachian acliviSIS and s('ho lat's in reccnt decades ha\"e oct'o lne i ncrc;L~ingl)' COllccmed o\"er Ihe jllla~c or the region in the American mind . Till: cditor~ cnlisu:d Ihc hdp of Ic;,dc rs ill li lt' fit:ld of Appalachian )' lndics and commun ity an ivisls 10 respond 10 IlIes(' !'l len:otnlCS. The compiled essays in C.(mJrrm /illJ! fI/IIJ(llllrllinll S" ,,.ro/-'1N..~ go far beyond simply addressing Ilw 11Cfi- lli\'c imagcs prescl' tNI in Thl' Kl'llIII rkJ ( )-rlp to cllcomp:\Ss a study of III(' prnccss ;mf! rcsuh.s o f image c realioll in Appalachia .

C(JI~rrul/lillJ! "111)(/111("11;'111 SleulJlJ/H!S is oq;ani/ed intu livc seCI ions exa mining the rcl:l1iollsilip bc tween t.he images and hiswry oi't he region. th e dl','c!opme rlt of the hillbilly ste reol) pc in li terat.urc. pel"SOIHII respon ~es 10 sic reolypical images, the imcrpla}' be tween activism and slereot ypes. and rcilectioliS un the pia}' iLsc lf. III the firs t scction. ROl1<lld L. LC'>'is providcs an excellent o\'c ly icw of tile history nf Appa lachia ",i l h deta iled information aOOm the develo p ..

1'.( II." RI \ II \\,

1111'111 II I dl(' I,·!.t"'" .mll lilt· d'I"""1 I,idlill II. Iii , "".1\ .11"'"111"-11th ,., II ... 1I'.,d,·, I., rli,' tlilf " '"I1,!" 1,,'01, , .I ,II"I 'gll1 111 IIH' I II'Inll

,01 rlH' Iwld •• 1 \pp .• 1.11 h •. II' ,\u<lll". II W '1'1 ,mil ,,', ,It H. "I lilt , 1"".1-,".1111111<" '''·!I·I,hl", .• l illl.I~'·' "I \l'p.ILu 11I.11I,,11i kwl, I "~ 1111,,'11 , 1. 1111 1111,1,10 <I!tlllill TI lt' II'" I- "I Ie ,1.11 , loll., ",,1," '. ",,"111'111 II< ''''f." .!t,d ,'.1111 !I.III ·I 111"1.'11111' I I", glll'l]! 111 ,', ... 11' 1\"1 " .01, 1"" h"" tilt·", 1111 •• )..\,·, nt I i, 01"1 HI, I"" ,', 'I. 1.11 1'111. .11 It I I.'flllt·'" h .'1 " • e 'II'" ,.,

,,' .. 1 III 1111' \'11,'11' .1I1.llilld J 1i",lii,,1 ,,', 11"" ".1111"1" 1',"'011,1111 ' I" "'''' ,., ' Iw IIq~.III\t· III'"'..!,,, 1"11 •• ,II.IIl, • • ·d hi 1"-111'1., 0 1 Ih •• ,

g"'" I h.''' ' 1' ..... 11 .. ,II ' ,,1"11 \\1111111 .1111111!!'·1 I"" 1I.1I111111".ghl III rh.' 11'."111)..\ ,11111 1111'llluln .. r.llldlllj.: 1I-'lIlnll,!.!, "<lll. ,h,'"'' ".HhUIII'..!

' '' ' ' 1'111 I 1" " I hi' 101111 h 'I" 'It." 1 n ""lIb III, · III .. ,,,, I 01 .11 1\11"111 III ,hi' 1\'~It)1I ,lllil \'".lIlIilw .. r !i1" 1 •• 1., ,,11111.1).,('" 11.,111 .. 1'''''1'\.1 I hi' t·,· ",II' .11 1' \\1.[1 diH 11I 11" llll'd ,1I.d., gl"O(IIII I",hlll,,'" ,., \1'[1.11.11 1I"m ,I< 1111'111 . 1.llIgllig 11 011. 10\,01 111I11I11:.!, .1I1i11l1l. " 1l" ,,, ,I ... Il(',d,lI 1,11\'

"'lIn"t \( 1) ..., jI.I'II'I1I' IlL III' tll •. d ,,_j 1""1. 1111 \IIi lt ·., t' l! 11" 111 rI", I .1I .1 1t" ,,1 'l it' h". ,I.. . II" ", 111111 Ii' (, ,d.-. . 111.( II II II!.!, II' ( ," IIIIIII,(U' 'Ii , .t \1'11.11.14 111.11. ' ... , ," .'1 I,.. ..

(·""I/!III/mJ.: If'll/dr"IrI"1I \I"" II/'/N' " .," ""p"II.II" ."ltllI"'" '"~ "h,.1.,,11 111,·,.1"11' ,111,111/ \1'1,.11." 1".1.1111111 .. ",111,,11 '1', 1I11 ,1!.!,, · .. ,h .t1

".nll111" t" .. "'11\, .,It"II' IIlI' 1I·!.!"'11 It I"ill" "tlu" Ullp".l.lI l1 \\Oul" "~"~ ,h,' \pp .• I.IIIII,1I1 'It'II'' '''I"' "Iii h., .. I kill I I) ...,1I.lplI'" 1/'1111/1/1"111 "" (II/I 1//1111 1111 \",IIhul/ \/"1111/1/1111 fl/li/ \/"'111/'1111''''' 11/

tI" \/11''' "/11 ( "11"'''1/'111 '" .llId I II \10111.1111'"" ''' 1I,1f1"IIII'lIId \\/111/ II" \ I !II 'I. , I J"I/" 1/" \/" '1/1/'1111' (/",1 \ \ /'" I /1" . \ 1.,,/11 /'"Ii' I hd /" III' \ /""

,,, I h" \.1111" "t rill, \11"1.. d.,,'" ".,. "'HI 1111], Ill< \1'1 ',11." IIt,III "luol.1I B, • ".,,"i"l"!.!, Ih~' I"'" 1-".II" I, ,,·~.ltI\t"I· .. lIlt.oI "t"I"(J'lp" ,kl "I"I"II" '11 II. \1111.11.111.,.1, (O/I/"'"II'I.!.! IN'{//lIIhlllll \11'1,<1/1/"1,,1 "', .. ,0.:, ... ,1 1I1"I~hl ,,, ,1111"11,' II l1l'lt",,·tlll1 IIII.I!.!'·' .,1 "II W I It'!.!,''''''

.11111,.,111'1 1-\1 ""1''' " I 111'''1'1<- I~I .ll'p",.IIIIIII)..: rill" ''''1< ,,1 .. 11 I,ll '"I"'" "' \1'1',11.11 III .• ,1110110.:" rllt, \11 11 11 I:.!,' "111''' ' \111,,.1[.. 111" \1111.111\

!I ,,, '1'11111'" .lIld Itl lIullldlllg ,,'11 1i .1 1.1111"1 "I '''pu .. II,, · h",,1.. 1" 1-

,,'1,"'.1 1"",ld 11\"\\ "I ,I " '4' ''" rllll"'" III P"II,iI,I""'1. "11 1 •• 11 .... ".·' . . llId III .. " 'I' 11 ... 1(111111)..\ '11 It- I. '"lId III til( ' , '''"1"1<-11 ''',II .. 1.11 1).:1'" 10"11111 '1\ 111" 1"'""1. 10",1'.\11(1.11 I ,'Il11 r, OI.I III 'l t'lI' ,,, tlv,.lIkd d,,, 111111 "' /.1111 111 .I.ul ;11),,11'1 .. , ,"IU llIlil ill ' I 1",I.I1h . II !':"llU·III, I h I' II •

• 111'1'" .11'1".,,1. h '·'hll"·" 11t.1I Iliell' l·d rl ... I'dil.", ''', 1,'1'11, ·.1 III

I ,,"II<II. lu l).: rh" 'It· I\ ·, jl\[w .. ,h ." I.d,,· IIII', <ll11ph, .11 1"11, ,,",',,,1.1 II'· 1.\1"" .l1Id """1,1.1\ 11"111.11, 1111111 g,'III·I.,h".IIII. ' "

( • 1'/" 1"1 1/'I"III/,hUII' ""rill'l '"111 \ ..,1'''"

FLORIDA HISTORICAL Q UARTERLY

Women Pionews for the Enviromnellt. By MoHy J O Breton. (Boslon: Nonllt"aslcrn Uni\'crsil)' Press, 1W9. xi\' , 322 pp. List ofi lluSlr..tlio ns. prcface, ackn owledgmcnts. introduction. aft erword. llOtes. sclt:ct bibliography. index. 26.95 doth .)

Despile the lact that women havc Illilde a SlibSlalllial cOllu'ibuLioll 10 Iht: CIIVi rQlIlllen lalmo\"eme nl , lh(' ir 1lOU11{:S arc not yel celltral 10 history I(·xlbooks. Alt hough mOSI accorrlllS of the Age of

Ecolob,)' include Rachel G.trlSon. the hundreds of gmssrOOI5 org:lIli-7.;l\ io lls init ia led by America n womell sincc the 1970s rern"i rl a liltie-IlICllliolled trend. r-,'Iary J o BrCI.on , a wli ter and a cOlISt!rv:uiu nist \\'ith the National Aud ubon Society. a tt empts 10 re llledy this sit uaLio n \\11h \\'0/1'1'11 Piolll'1"fS for II" Erwillmml'1lt. a compt'ndiullI uf biog"Iphies aboul :.ignificant fema le environmentalists.

Nat llr~III )'. the book il lcllldes wd l-known fignfes stich as C lrson. C'lrol Browner, ami Peu~ 1 Kel ly. bl1t it also prcSt: lll" mallY lilliemcmioncd herui nes. including r>.-Ia.I)' Si nclair. an unassuming scie misl who look on Dow CIIt~ llli<:al; Marjorie G irl", a biologist who hail ed a U.S. Army Corps of Engi nec rs proj ect o n th e Ock l :I\\~ lh :1

Rivcr in Flo rida; and Hazel wolr. all remarkable CC lHlIriOIl wito 01'

btan il.es and recrui lS anjvisls for I hc Audubon Socicly. An engagillg writer who adopts a jOllmalisl ic style in these bit e-silc biographies, 8 l'cto ll 's stre ngths arc hcr cye fo r c h :u~IClers and spic), quotes, Sitch as this from Wolf. who startcd her cancer at age 62: ~Th c chid enemies are grced ancl igIlOI~\IlCC . Education wi ll destroy ignOl"'lIlce, and I~\"l'n Ihe greed)' mIl)' finall)' rcalil.(' t hcy can nOt S t!l""\·!\"{· in :r polluted world M (236).

It is 1101 Ikt·ton·s illl e illioll 10 be theorctical: she provides no insights on e<:ofeminiSIll , nor docs Sltl' nlfer an o pinion un the itS

sertiOl1 lhat womcn haw' a tie 10 the earth because oflheir gende r. II I ;, two-page illlroduclioll , she asks MOO [women I bJi ng sped:!1 insights. \~ Ih. l e s)·ste ms. ,\lid lI'or"ldvkws IU environmental issues? Whal is diITereli1 aboUl womell 's approach II) resoh-illg et hical, cCCJlogical. and CCUIlUlllic dilel nln as? - ( I). She then leaves readers to draw their OWII concl usio ns ami misses an opponull it ), 10 1clllts wlt at she think!; after pUIting togeth er " II th ese SlOries. Perhaps becalls{: her research included few prima'1' sourccs-she did 1101. for example. illlcn;c\\' e:rclt woman alld inq lli re huw being fCIll:ltC allccted hCI' cn rnmic rne lll to t'I\VirOlllnell t:r1 issucr-Ihe kwl of person at illfurrnatio n and insi).!,ht va ries comider.rbl}" from biugra ph ), to hiogr~dph)'- Many women pio neers ti ll' the cll\'ironllll'1I1 did elll'UlIlller

l)IJllhRI\II";, '" . ,'"

,,11,1.1111-, 1001).; ,\(11/111 1-\ ,1111 1 'lw,II,lIl g \ 11111,, ' \ ,III'" "Ilhl'll gl'llIlt'1

1'111 n l " IOIl d"\ ,, 111, 1 I " pl,," ' Illwillt'l (II IlI'l 1l1"I,ivtlh .11,,, '"

I 1111< '11 II Ilblll ill<' 11\"" ' 111< III Ih, ' 1!

I" II<'I III ·dll . III, ' .111111<11 IIl1dll'l.lIHh Il w g loh,1I ,11.11,111,'1 III

1111111\'11 \ "111 ""11111, ' "1.11 1' 11111'111' , .1' ,1 It' It ' It'Il, I ht' "'"qWlilll g 'I' ,.

11,', , II !I I" I 1111'1.." 111, '\1 ' 111"111 11 1 I IHII , \. RU"I , lIl 111'111( ' 11 \\110 dl'lll'd III<' h(.B II I ,p",lk '1111 ,lg.III1,1 ,11111, 11 11111'111.11 1""'I III III .g . ,lIl d Ih .. ) ' '11,1111'" """1t'11 ,,jl " 11,11( ' Iwn'"J(' (' 1I\p,.\\I'II ,d dllllllg h 1' 11111""

IlIt ' lIl.,1 .u I II l'lll_ <"'11(' ,1",'11\1.1<" ,III ,II ( , '"i Ilk '11l1 I III .I I I ,01 1111 ' " III II

,111111'''1.. "j \, 11111,111. 1 .... 111\.1 . Iht· I llIku , 111""1"1 ,11111 1"III'I'.!"1

"h",, ' 1110-." h.III '/lIlIIIIl, ' I\( I'd , 'I'Iit'lIltlll'lli (1 1111 III hl ' l ,1'1"1\"'11

101 11'" lin , ,!It 11 .1' 1111' 1>111' I I 1>111 .... Im .1, II. "', .. It,· dllllig" "1111,' ,01 h " 1

"'\11 I'I ' I,PI " 1\1\' " 1111' 1l1.1" 1111111'1 i' , II ,HI lglll "I I. ,,,d (111)1111111\111

1111i. 1111.1" , . 11,, ' I" II' 111Idl ' \ TlH' 111.1111 1.1 1)1'1, " I \~I " "II 1('1011111'"1.

' " II'l l tlht ,Ig li. 1111111 .. . ,' II 11\\,1111 " lilt' dl'IIII'II"llloIl l lI ' 1' ''''1111,11

11111..,111'1\\1" ' 11 j"H" !iI, .1111111 ,11 hll,I •• IlIr1II , ,\ 11 01 ,1'.!IIIIIIHII" . l,hlll1 11.111 , 1)1'1')1 till" ~1I'1.1I11.\hl< III (1d, ' I" j:! ll )

I' o! ., 11 1111"\' l\ ' . I ~""~, tlll" hllol.. lid) hi 11I"~1 \1,1'11111111 11'11111"

IILIII ' li,1I ,IIH1 .(~ ,I It ' Ii ' l t 'IIt" 1"1"1.. II . t -.:11,h,tI 11;","1, 1\1))111 ' 11\ hh~

1, ,1'. , ' II\il"IHII \ 'IILIl 111'\'111 , 011)( 1, IIIW " '~I ; lI g ll "II<lllgil , 1' I,u"LI hi' 1'111 (I;I"I~ (I I ill( 1I l111-t!II,'" 11 11'111"11,,,',11 1'111111'111111"111.111'1'

1\11 ' 10 11 1' " /lilt-rl. 1111('1' h.lil h"lIl H." "I., <"'11<' 11'1, ' 1' I" Ihi, gelu'l

,III' I' 'pi' ",'111.111' ,II ,I' \ hI' '1· 1< II id,1 "111 "," 1111<'11 1.1! 111.1\1 1.111 III . " . lIld

II III"I',IIIII~ I"P;' 111.(1 "'llll ' d,lI IWI('"I1- ,111 I ' " 1'11 1"1 11 \1. 1,tt ' I" 1111"

'I~ ,II ,II'~' " 1,111"1) I I, "" ,It '1 , I III ' <';11111111',1,1 H ' 11I.1i ", ... 'I "'11,11 1111 11, ' 1'

I< 1'''''' ' II1''d III II " hl", k . ,I' , l it' !l ui 1111\ 1111 h"I, ' ]-\ ,'(111)( 1..;,111,1",

till ' ( ,111111">111\1', 11 111 ( I,I ' It ,), \\ ,"1"111 "'1111 ( ,111,1111,1 \ lIi , IIIII '

.... 1\1 · 0 111 ( 1IIIlill'lI,IIHI \ 11111111.1111' j .... t H \ 1 ). "I ,,1I1t'1 1l1l·11I1I. ' 1

,11\\1'11 '"1 / 1' 11' '.!I"IIP' 1111 , ' 1" I,,"IH'I! h,ll' 111.111 ' ([ '1.1I1111g 1'0I1'~ ( 'I,IIHIII I!. IklLI \h/llg ,III " Iilili ' t 11.1(111"1 1111l' "nil , j( 1111,1",1,,"1

, 1I1·d I "'I' lIl1'd I ikl ' " ' 1 I, '"' "H'I ' 11'1'11 ' '''111.111' '" I), "I )II . ' 1111"'(" '111111-

hi." .lIld d"II, , ( Illig 1111 ,)l I'I,\,' l lIlI" III (1l. l lillll ,III< ' 1111,· h, "It.. II" ~

\11 \ 1111111 III 1II1t/,/", ,, /,, 1" .. 11 11111 ,1 . 11,,1/1111 ('/1,1/" "" /111 til< /. 111' /11 111

" 1< '111 III 1II ,g· , 101 ,I 11111)l1)'1! , (! H I I(' l l(t, ">1111 ' 1" l n,11 k"h1l ' 1,,1Il1l ' 11 1..1 It 111 II

1111 .... 111 h' 1"'11I,'", '1IIdll " '1IIIklll' ,lI H II IlI ' ,111111,1 • ""lllllIl H II

/1,, '11"'( I "If'!:,i ( \ ( I \ I \!\\,\K.II g KII\I'

History News

'"The Popular Culture of florida!' Th e anllual meet ing of the f lorida Historical Soc ie ty will be IIcld ~3-26 May 200 1 i ll Cocoa. The gCll crallh clllc is ~Thc Popular Cuhurc o f Florida,- hul papers will a lso be presented o n ot her to pics rela ting 10 FIOI;d:l 's history, e nvironme nt. po litics. or CCU IIOIII )'. For further informat.io n, visit the Socie ty's wcbpag(! ;It <hlt p://www. flo rida-histuricai-soc.org/ >.

"' His tory and Community in the Sunbelt: A Symposium." ~Commll nit )' and l-liS10lY Discovering th e Past, B1I ilding the Futun : - is a l11ul, j·)'c;l r \ 'C nII II"C sponsured by the U nh'crsil), of Ce l tl rai ~lor·itla, com bin ing acade mic and public hisIOI) ' 10 explo re the reo Ialionsltips of IliSlorical knowled ge, i ' \lt~ rprelal inn, and sl.O,,'-,cl ling 10 COIllJllUnil), fonnalion . de fi n itio n. and identity. TIl(" first e"e nt is a s)"ll posiulll n n "HisWl), and CoU1 11HUl ity in the SUll beh H

W be held Wednesday. 28 February 200 1 at tin: universit), student ct:11Ie r. The prug:l~un \\;1\ focus Oll the intersectio lls o f mel'. gender. cOlllmunit),. and history. Schcduled pI'cse nters are Roge r Wi lkins (Ceurge Mason Unil'ersit )'). "Sun belt Dreams and the Founders' Aspir.Hions H

: David Goldlidd (U nive rs it ), o f Nonh Carolina at Charlotte). HSouthern HislOl) ' Meets the Sunb('h H

: and Gk nna ~ l athe\\'S (Sta nford Ull in'rsity) , "Silicoll Valle), \\'OInen and the (, ... 1-ifomi:. Ore:l m .

H

For in fo rmatio n. contact PfUl'. Shirl ey Leekit' OIl <slc("ki(·@peb""slls,CC. llcf.l:du>.

- Religion and Popular Culture!' The So111h\\'csl/Tex;L~ Popular Culture A~sociat ions and American Culture Association arc holding a series of palU; 1.~ :11 Ihe next meeling of th ese regional groups. 7- 10 Marc h 200 1 In Albuquerque. New ~kxico. at the Sher-Ho n Oldtown HOle l. Fo r mo re information . " isi l the conference \\'c bsilc ;II <l mp:/ / ww\\'2.oksl;ltc.edu/ swpca>.

[436[

,-"

Allen 1\Iorri .. Coufl' rc ncc nn till' Hi"I1I1' ~ ' of Flurid:, and tla' A,lilllli\' \\'orlcl. Iii. ' \11, ' 11 \1"1,,'( "Uli'l t III t' (0111111111, '" ,llld 11'U ld .1

""t .II' > I I,i\",,,111 111 ","11 Ikp.II''''' '11I .. I 1"'"111 tl' ,11111'111111" Ih. 'I, "lid IIWI1lII,II"'IIII-II'I'(( ' to I" III III .•• 11.ulrld .... t,ll' · l 11i1 ,""111 \

1IIIIIililII {'IIIt. 'I ' ,U" ("111< ' 1 lit l,d1.,II,,,'I '" "II 1'.1)111.111 I , ~, '1110'1 1 1l\ ' \lIl1kll'lllt ' Ilwllw" ·'llllll1lg',III'"!. \li ~I.LII'fJl. ,lIld i l,."p",.1 III '-I"nd .• ,11](1 til., \II.,IIIH \\!llld " lIlt' ""\lIul! ' '1)<" •• 1-", I\dl 11\'

I), 1.1111' \ . ""1,'/, Ilw I (.lIhl., ",,111'1'1111 "",t,-,,,,, "I 11""'1 1 ,I(

III!" t IIIH' I'1I1 ,.t '''I Iii ( _. 11 ,11111,1 ,II t Ii.'pd I hll. II Iu\ \\111 d,,( ",' (111!.t1l IIIUllil.:,l.ltltlil 1" ,;1 '.1111.1 1111' l'I" .~ t,111l (,'111111111" ,· 111111, ',

III ' 'I" ""I, I h,1I h" II' ,>II .""'" '111"1 ,III I! I 1·1')1 I( I. .. "I 1 hoi. ,,1.111' H, •••

111.1 ill.1 :.;I, ·,lh·1 \11.11 .11< I '"lh'\1.1111 lulllll .i.l 11110111,11· ,'1 •• P,IIII'" th.1I

1 I 'H ' I I h, ' ''''1',1 fll,11 B,)I fI " 1 1.11111" IIII' ( .1111111, \111 ,I lid " .1, I1I1.d "1',111

1,1t 1),1t I..gl<l'llId 1'1,1.11"1"\ i ll 1, 1'"1(1.. , '\,1111" \1111 '1 11,111 ,11111 t11(II~I '

Iii"" ,11,.'p"I .1 'II 111\1,,(1),.:.11 1011' III 1II1,I-II.,cllllilll.d 1't1l II II 1111:,.:1.111"11'. " "II,,,hllll ~ IIli ~I.UIiIIl, UIII,,:I,1I11 I.lh<" III Ih" \\l1ILI'1 I").!;'

",.11)1,- i.II II1'III , l'lIlll'llI . ,'1111 1,,11111 \111< '" ,III 1I111111J.:I,lIl1l1' 11I1t'1-

,-,to 'd p'I·,erlll·I' ,Il<lIild "l1llml! .1 1I11.",,,,d 1,1 II" 111."'- 11..111 1111, '"

ll111ldl, '41 lI'lrd, ,ltrtl" h,I<1 .11111111111111 I II ,It·. Ih.,w 1II1,""'Ii'd 111

'CI Iltl)..\ I h,ll1' ,II I '"I1II1'·l1l.rl'lI' ,11111 1111 hUlI,lId ,iLl ,I' 1\1 -11 1' 11'1"'<'

.11, 11111,1 I,,· In"",.,I"" 1.,1, '1 1II,IIl \ 1,1\ I . :!, II I I I '01 '"lid 111,1f" I I,lh

II' Il , ' , til" C., ", ' 11 , Ihop,I1IU1I"I' ,,1 111'1 , II I. I III' 1 101111,. "'1..1, '

l.III,'"lI'. 1 .• II .• h .• ", · ... Florld,1 :~'.2 :\III ,~:.!tiO ; ", •• ".1." I 1"'1 ,II q~ " ... II (f/III,III, ·1 ,,,' ,·, 111 " k",, ' "'ll III,· \\t·I, 'lit' .11 lilli'

11I."Ie ' . 1'11",1111 I h,'lt·ll., ,dkltlll' III I' 1"111

11"/",,, "I ' tIIldl' ·'· I'I"I'~ /111/111 / '.11, II/I

" Spring Inl ll lI i"or}," I III' t ,'11" ,1 11'10'111.1 I H, ,II 11"lon ( 0"

"II r 111111 \\.11 'I" 111'111 .1 " ' I II" 1,1 , '1"111' Iii l'l1,~I" '111 \ 1. ... h .1111 I \pll l

:.!01l1 , , · "'ph_""I!I~ lilt ' 1111"''' '( 11011 IW'\" ... ll 1""'1I1 ,1I1f1 • 1111111111-

1I1I, · hll,lIl1l1)..\ hll Ii II 1111 ' 1 11111)1111,,11."1. 1111 1,,!lII,g d .• I' " .1I1t! 1,,1.1 '

111m', ",II IIii' "( ""I1I1I1I1!!1 ,11111 11 1'1'11\ " IId'II.lL:'· .11 11111':

I'q:".''''.' ,.\" f ,', III - 11111''111 1 (III ",\:111,.1111111

Florida 11i,lflric al S.wit'l)' COIll11li.lt~t·1o., I],,, ,d,1 III". 'I 11 .11 ..... " "

.'11 I', . ,,, 1,' 111 \dol ( ' •. 11' \\1111,1111' 1',",II'I"liI111·, ll]II · Io,II""II' ,I.; ..... 11'

, ' II """l1lilll"" (1t,1I1"'1I 1. ·h".lo B,,,,l, \".lId 1])1 l ' It ~. · It" 1\'111 .

,"'II' lit (. ,11 \ \I,,, JlIIII" Ih , I ~ill \1.,11111' ). 1{"lIl1wll 1' .• 1111 l, g"ol..

FLQI{l t)'\ i-IISTO RI< :A I_ Ql'ARTU t \'

Awa rd (Dr . .l ose f e rnande 7. chair, Dr. J ulian PleaS;lI l1s, Dr. Da n & ha fer): J a mcs J '·Io rg-.i ll Bo o k Award (Dr. Robe n A ' '"<1),10 1'. cha ir. Dr. Ja mes Cllsik . Dr. Pa u l S. Gcoq:~e): Governo r Le Roy Collins l; I~ ldlLa te Essay pl'i ~e (Dr. Lc n Lcmpe!' chair, Dr. David Coles. Le · La nd 1-I:I\\,e5. Dr. Charles Am ade. Ik Joe Knctsch ): C:lro l)'1l Mays nl'c \~lrcl U ndcrg l~ ld ll ,Hc ESS;l}' p rize (Dr. L in)' Ri\'e rs, chai r, De a n De no ll . Dr. George I't'a rcc ): Frede'rick Clibberl)' High & hool Ess.')' a lld Olll~ I ; lIld i llg Teache r A\\~l rd Uean McNaq'. chair. Pe te r ('.owelre'Y' Ruhe n Ya rnel l); 1-1 ;11111'1011 Dun n Prim Media A\\'ards ( Ilalli nartle tt , chair. l\'la rin us l":IIOllr, Cynthia Cr,lIl ksh:m'); I lampton Dllnll Ekctron ic Med ia A\,-:.trd s (A. Clyde Field. chair, George L I la rre li. Ad a E. l'aTTis h ); 1-llIIT)' T. and Harrie tt e V. Moort' Awa rd lo r Eth nic and Social I lislor), ( Dr. Gon ion Pattc rson . chair. Dr. 1":11"')' Ri\'c rs. D;l\'id J ackso n ).

T ill' Flo rid a H isto rica l Con f~dcratio ll ,lIl llOlil lces iI ~ t ipe lld o f 2!iO [0 accompan )' its ~ 1 ;'lI"i nlls La to ur Outs ta ndi ng Voluntcer

A .... -:.ln l. Nanled aCler fonuc r Flori d a Histo ricli Socie ty prc~ i (1t- 1lI

f\ 1 ~II'iIll IS L lto ll r orCilille.w ille , Ih e :m,;u'd recogll izes the cOlllriblllions made by an o uts tanding \'olu nteer 10 a loe:.1 socie ty, lihr:u) ', museulIl o r o the r Flo rid ;1 h istory p rogr:llu o r o rg;m izil lion. Fo r illti..l l"ln,lI ion on the aw .. rd or ho I\' 1,0 Ilt ll ll i ll ;!le all individual for rcca g n ilio n , Wli lC the Confed eratio n's ofli cc , 435 BrC\~lrd A\'e ll ue, Coeoa . FL 32922. o r visil the Florida Hi!<: lorical Soc ie ty \\'chsil c al <1 [t tl':/ / w\\'w. tlo rida.h islnt·ical-soc.org/ >.

Ne w from the National Archh 'es. T he Nal io nal Arc hiw:s and Records Admin istra tio n announces a new project in Ihe DigiT:11 Ch .. sroom sec tio n o f its \,'e b sit c. MFrOll l.iers in Hiswr)': Ideas rrom Ihe National I\ rc hlves" presc nts d r sc ript jOll s o f fort ),·fo llr col1cclio ns o f records that an' ava ilabl e fo r s\tulc ll t n 'searc h and relate 10 Ill e 200 1 Nalio nal I listorr Day Th l'nu ': Front ie rs in Il i;; tor),: Peop ic, Places. Ideas. Lasl )'l':1r. IIC;lrly 600,OOO Stlldc ll [S panicip:l tl'd in Na tiunal IlislOI), Da),. [he yearlo ng. nalio ll wide educa[iu nal p rog l":lIlI th a t foste rs aca(ll'mic achic \'cmc lH a nd int e llecltla l g rowth \\hik'l' IICoUl~ lgi ng stude llL't in ~mdcs 6- 12 10 ge l t'x(ited aOO1l1 hisInfl'. Till' URL i ~ <h ll l):/ / \\·ww.n:II' l.gol'/ Cduc Hion/ histOI1day/

IIHllli"1 ;!UIlI .hllIl1

I'll \ . I, k .I' "1' 1111 IIH' '.11 il '!I.d \1 ( hil, ":' "111 ( ' \11.1).\'" '11111,'111' I" III '

\I ·,llg.III · .\111111.11 1"'111111'" ,d.lln l 1, •. 1111111 ' ',111),;1' .01 ,"hl"II',

1lllllulill).\ .111 ,11101 'p.UI ' .. 1I,mli, '·111 ·1\., .... . '1lilllglih, Ill!' 1'11111,111

II It'll I , .11lt! IIIt(,I~1l .dl.llI' I II , ' III'I , illI'd ,, " 0111(1 " .lIt· ,11,1I1.,1,lt'

11"111 lilt' II "oll'l, It t llll ;lIl . l'. i" ' III1"I\I ·1, .\lul lulm"ll1 1'{t " ldellil,11

111 ' 1.11 It ", .11111 ' \I{ \ \ H 'gl,," .11 Lit lilli," Itl \!I.1I11.1, 10...111',1' ( nl .

Ilt 'lnt· I .. 1IHI .... I·.IlII I , .

Hand !\IlIs i!' f rom the Civil War Er;I, 011 :-'Il'IIfI ' IIII1I ' 1 '27, I~j'; I.

111\' 'lIhlt 1> 11 1'11111 1,1111 ( ' I lIll .1I1 ot ( :Oll).!,'II'" 1("11,'.11, ,11 ., Ilpit.1I

111II1 1' 11 ,.1 hl.I" II.lfHI.IIlt! II'I.t1l1l1l'll 110111 lI\ld-IIII1,' I",' IIIIHI'Ii '

1111 I \ "II'1'iI,I . J h. 1f (I ,111,' 11 h,l' 111'1 0111 ,' iiII' '1. Inllll4-p'"111 f,1I B . III( I

\ 111'1(' II, ' 111 I hi ' ( :11 II \r,lI Fi .I. .11I "nlll II I, 11k, I illll 111.11 il l i 11).\, 10

.~ I 'lh,· , 11II1'H. d '(Oi l ". 1' ·'lIIdill).;' , I'h01"gl,lpll, .. lIld "".11' d'I<lI '

11It'lllin),: ,\II impl lll.1I1 1 hili ill'111111 1t'1111I n.pllt!( '11 [1,111 (.1 fht'

\1I1"llt ':l1I ttt\l~i('al P,I'1. [ IIi, t'il ll !'llll ,n Ito.tilill" 1I1t'I ' ('1 , '11 111111-

ellt'd 1I111,i, ,II ""11'111""1"11" .1' \\ .. l1,l~ "igh! hdl-"'f!I' 111"(\ 1'111 I'di·

(1"11'- .111<1 l1il1t ' I"t'l1 II" IIld,·t! 1"':,lIl1pll·' "I hl.l" h. lllr! 11111", In

1" · lbll lll.III(I· 111 ,H lditi(,n \'" III" 1I 1l1'ILII "Oil" .IIHI P,III'. n.tIld 'ii i,,, 111111. llw ( 1\ d \ \ ,11 I' ' .1 1111 IlIdl".1 ),:. 111"" "I pll " I"~I.lpl" ,Ind

1i1.IWill),:' ",II '(I,·d Ir'lI11 "'It 'I.'! t ih l;'fI "I ( '"11,1-:1<''' 1 ,oIk, li"lh

t h"'l' .11"'11"111(11" (,IPllll '" Iii,· 11, 11 11 1< ' "I lik It I lilt' ( .IIt! \ \ .11 \ I11d-

11.111 h.llll1.. .lIId 11I'1p '·'pl.lllI Iht' \.11'11' 11 "j thl·I,.lIld 1" ,, 11., II I IIII'

l,,!lnlit>II , ' ·i,illl1,· l.i l ll~11"\ 01 COi l),!" '''''' \\1 ' lh,I, · .11 ' hop: 111, ' m ·

OII , hH' .glll .1111111t'111 1111111111111 I\\lnIHIIlII' 1111111 •.

I III' 1" od I H 111 J( I 01 l ilt' ,.,,,,.,'/rt II II/" n, 1/1 <!.)/(I/ /..,-/" I' I I' It P' '''I bit-1'1 I I" III I 1111' .1"'1'\,111' I' o)j 111,1111 pl'opl, ' 1,110 '1' ld" " 1 I , 'U 'ilt, I n l Igll i

li ' "11\1I rlll'll illl"'II'd lill)(' .1I11 [ '· IIt ·I).., .... Rdl'II'I " , ,· .leI,·ler\ ,ulllnl'

"'iiI , ' 11I1,iil\'1 1111' tI",di!1 (I I r{' ~" .trl"ll ,\tlt l \\Iilillg . • 1I1t1 III,nilk

It·.ld,·,,· II'POlII, ' " .1It! 1114' e d itor. \ p;I1lt'11I1 fllclgt·, 1111",\ th"il

11l! 1t ' .11,,1 1" pl ' !"!i,, ' ill ([ "I "1"111111il l),; Ih, ' .• 111111 .• 1 l,il1l1"l \I I lIlt' .\llhlll

\\' . 1'I 11 1mp,oll \II,lI d 101 the (!..'/(/ '-Irl l\,' ~ 11t' ~1 .lItidl '. () IIll'1 III( Ii IIlI ·

11.1 h II 011 lilli""!" I lit· II ,,',t'.".( li. " d il"l"i,d ,\tid WI 11'1;11 I.d ,kil]" 10\\.11 d thl' prmh" "')11 "I tiLl' <2!1fIlll'l/l. III ~OOIl , it 11.1' 1111" ell'di, .,!l tllI , II

tlH"" 1'1 '''pl l ·~ R. III1''"HI () \1 '1' II ,lIdl . ClI111' ,\ ll'l ill. K. ",· Ikiln .

I.illl,', 1\ , (,1'"'1"". 1.11ll'·' 1 ,1I,il k. P .• Il]:-', (,l·ot').; \" . .\ 1.I,illl· J) JOIII"

1' , 1"'111111 I"dlin.\. [ .. ·,III. ll d IXIll])t' I. . JI I.dd I , \l il.lllil h . 1{.lllIlI'lI(i

.l40 FLORIDt\ I-I [~'TOR[C .. \L Q UARTERD'

1\ . Moh!, Cal)' R. Mormino, Christine Persons, Darden A~bur)' Pyron, Na ncy Ranscher, Daniel L. Scharer, R. Bmce Stephenson-that assured qualit), publication and effi cie l1t operation ufthe QIIrl11/,f'/)'.

We are most gra tefu l fo r their cont r ibutions.

Now You Can Take

The History of FLORIDA on the Internet!

For Infonnation Contact: Dr. William Marina florida Atlantic University 954-462-5812 marina@fau,edu www.wmarina.com

A GIFT OF HISTORY

\ U!I'llIh,',,11I1' III lilt J 1011<1., 111 ,1, 011(.11 ..... " 1\'11 ",li l ,'\1.,11,'111

glll!! l".1 I'll hllllll!.I"', ).:r, IIIII,III"II. HI 11'1 .1I1\(lIl, · 1111"11"'11'.1 III till' t 11 II ,II HI , " I< 01 1111 ,Ill' \ "I I 1411 lIl.t·, p.",

\ ,1I1t'-II',1I IIWllllwt,llIjJ li, .. h '"lh .... 10 ,1111 1 11 lilt l\1d,'" 10111 I"

' I II"' , ,I II II" t/"II,JII '/"/"1/1 III (LI/l1I /II". t I II" 1/111 "III II / '/111 \ \ '1/I"ld In. ,I ..

\",11 .,' .111 oth,,[ IJI!\dl'~I" lit 1I1I'lId",r,l,ip. \ IWt'Oll.lllC'u"l 1'''1ll

Iht , (·\\'lllIil " dlll'( 1<11 "I 1I1t''''", WII \\11111' oI l h 11 11 ' !I', iPI"111 01 10111

g l 'l II'" "ill ,lIld I '>Il'ld." ,III' III

1·1,.1 Ill., I [1'1(11 It .,1 .... , II It'll I :\~() IlI gll1.111I1 \\\ '1I11l" 1'. 111 ( •. dlil'·\klhulIll\l'. H y,!q'\-,

o \111111.11 111l'11I1l< , .. tl1!'-.... ltJ

C 1',lIl1 lh 1I1!'11I1WI,IIII'-"-'O

o [ 11 .. 1111111<111'- .... ~J.·)

o (, '1111 dlllting IIH'IIIi)t' l ,11I 1'-~:!( JlI 0 ( '111""·111·1114'11111.'1,1111'- .... -,4141 o .... 11141 .. 111 1IU'1111,,'I'llip-.... ~O

In

H{( 1\1

Guidelines for Authors Preparing Original Manuscripts fOT Publication

The QllfII'ln'ly ac[eplS for cOllsider.u io n :111)' m:lllllscl'iplS 011 Ihe hiswr)' of n o dda , it, people, ( )i" ib historic:11 rcl:lt iouship to the Uni ted Sla tes, the n tribbean , L.-. lin Arnetica, o r Ihe Atl:lIl\ ic World. All submissiulls arc' ex· pel' \('d to rel lect suhst:m tia l research. a dedic.uion to I\Tiling. ;lnd the scholarly r i)!;o r demanded of profc'ssil llla lly pnx iitcet i llisiorical works.

MaliuscriplS should Ix 1)'1><:(\, double ~paced throughout (including foot· nou~~. block (Iuotes. and tabul:l1" maller), 0 11 good quality whi le a.5~ x l l ~

p;lp":I'. The <l u thor 's name should 1101 he on the man uscript. T,,'o ropil~ of the man uscript a rc requc~ t C:fl , On not send a computer dbk ",ilh Ihe sub· mis.~ ion . In a co,'c r le tter, :uuhors should include phout· Il umocr. fax nu m· be l', email address. and mail ing address. Also, OIlIthors shuuld uull ine the suhst:tncl! :lIId ~ i gn i fi c;lll ce IIf 11 11;11' "'flI 'k and ideIHif}' all )'t) Il C who has ;11·

rl': ldy critiqued the malliiscript. If accepted . a llt hors are expected to nmkc f' lrl ltl'r rel';sion to manuscripts ~lIId prol'idc suggestions f~w i1ccolll pall)'inj{ ;\luSIl';lI ions, A II n<l1 hard copy \'el1liOIl of Ihe :Irtidc lIlust be accolllp:tnicd by a compll tl'r.-gcner.tted co p)' in o ne of the fullm"ing fon na\.S: Microsoft Word fo r \\'indo .... '5 6.0 01' i .O. o r Word Perfect 4.2. 5.0. 5. 1. 6.0. i.O. ()I'S.O.

All an icl l$ sublll iut.·d 10 the n On/I(I 1-I/.,\/m1((/1 QII(lr lrr"i)' :m: sul~ec t 10 blind peer fe\;e .... ·. No manusclipi will be considered if il has been pHblislw(t in ~O lll l.' form I><: fo l"c o r if it is s(Mln 10 be published elsewhere or if it is ull tier ('uusidcl';lI ion by anol lll:rjo urt1:t i " I' press, Pulem ial :tnicles a rc emluatcd by ( li lt' o r mure referee). UpOII thcir report 10 the ed ihJr. Ihe ;tulltor is con" I:lCted as to the suitability o f the ma nuscript to t.he Q!I(II'lrr/y Readcrs' ff'. POrtli :tn: advisor),: the editor is the final :Ifbitc r.

Whe n a manuscript is accepted, the editor projcclS a pro,isio nal publica. tion d:ue and makt!5 an inil.ial cop)'cdil oflhe mall ' lscript b<lscd on the fo l· 10 .... ; n8 cri teria: d llril),. coherence. and logic of ;lrgulTlcn t: punctualion, spd ling, fi gurt!5, a nd capit:llif.:llion: ;UXIl r.tC)' of namcs aud ti lk s; citatio n fo rm:!!s . Although it is the po licy of th e QII(II1nf)' to let authors' wording stal ld as lIIuch :lS possible, it is a lso in the intc rest of \he QUI/fln/)' I() Cfl;a1C clari t), wi thin articles and cohert'nce of st),le alllong :lrt idl"S. Editing ;lIId "' 'I'is;" n flrc negotiable I,ilhi ll li", its.

For further info rmation :II>Oll t 5ubm ission and other 1)OIicies relaled to the Hm"itfl/ H iJlorira/ QUllrlerly.. I'is;t lhe I,,,,·bs;t.! :11 <http://pt.'gllsuli.cc.ucf,ed u! - f1h isqlr! quan,· .. l)·,h\ III 1>.

UNlVERSlTY,",c%:£ The New History of Florida Edited by Michael GII/luon

Conlribulors-Charlt.'S \V. Amade, Canter Brown,. Jr., Amy Turner Bus~lI. William S. Coker, David It Colburn, Robin EA. Fabel, Mirna ... 1 Gannon, John II . I lann, Maxine D./OIlCS, Jane Landers. Eugene Lyon. John K. Milhon, Jenld T. Milanich, Raymond A.

Monl, Gary R. MQm,ino, Susan R I'ark" r, Q..'Orgc E. I'o<!:zctta. Samuel Proctor, William W. Rogcl')i, Daniel L. xhafer, Jcrrdl l-l , Shotn..'r, Bl't'nt R. Weisnum

Nl11e slandMd Ie).;' for thc next

quarter century is TIlr Nrw "istory (!fFulriofa .. . Iill will oc~omc the tc)..tbool.. for every college Florida H istory riass, but it also merits a wide Il'adcrship among the scn~ eral population of the state ." - Thomas Grah:ml, F/oridn HiSlor;rol Quar/aly

NUndoubledly wi!! become thc s tand,ud refe!"Cllce on ~lorida (or the next 'ltlartcr century." - Orlaudo Seuli",1

H A major new his tory of florida .. . and thi~ one gi\'~'S thc common folk D break."-Miami /Irraid

The New of Florida ~.,.

Mklmt/ GIl""""

H A }cwl!l, a readable narrative of Florida's his tory.H - Tilllahassre [km(>(7al

HU nU5U.ll and richly satisfying ... in its ambitious scope and organiza tion, in its scholarly quality, and in ils brisk rcadabili ly.H -S'lm, ' Nr'WS

"t-1orid a could be.:omc a plaC"e wilh a clvi(" lexture if we u nders tand its pitSl. I'rofC!isor Gannon's book is J good place to b.-gin.~ -51. PelmJlIlrg Times

Cloth-still only $3~ .95!

480 pp. ISBN 0-8\30- 14\5-8

Order through fu ll-S<.'rv ice booksellers, through our website at www.upf.comorwith VISA or M / C toll fl\.'C: \ ·1!O(}.226-38n.

l A Florida Sesqllicentennial Book C'm,· .. ,II. TolI.h." .. Tamp. ~~<O R"on P.~ ... ~I. Orl.n4" .... um' J.rk .. ,nv ,lI . FOri M ~.,.,

The Florida HislOioical Socic ly lho 110, 110.

110""". d ...... ,,' .. , II, ,,,.I., 1 ~ ." 11 ... ,.1.,11',' •• ,'."1 ...... ,, ,'" • ,""" I"'" I 10 .. "I., II ,,' .. ", "I .... " "II '" • Ij'" ,," 01 1 "'"

\01" ( """ I I 011,.,,,,, I'

R"I"" I" I." I /'" '." II ... 1',011" , .. ~" /'" /' .•

IIII{ I I 1 ( ll~'"

... ,II, II, ,1,10" ~ 110."",

I', ",' \ I .. ",Ion 1.,11")"",, t

I "'0,1 • .1,),1, I I, ,"" ,",

J •• " I,""'"'' I, I I, I."" I, , I .. ,.,~, I '.U" 11<" 1'"""01,,, 11.,,,,01,\ I "01,, I I ", .. ,,,1 I'" ... 10

" ,.

I I" .. 01 .. " \ '" 1 .. ,11" /', 1'.",,,,,11,,,,1<"1, .. , ".

iI_,,,oI 1,,<1 .. I I "''''

I, ,,,,,011''''1'' I 11.11""" I'., ,,10 J" 11.", 1'1, ,',,"" ("n II, ,II II,

I{" , .. "011',, ''',', I"" 11,,-, I .11 " RII' ,_ I ,II 01. '''' ,

11,,,1,,,,, ... ,,,,,,, oil \ "1'1" I· ",I

I",,,, II",,,. I" I', hi"~, \1 ",. 'II I '

I I""", I II, "", \' 1',,,,,.1,, 1 11011./' II" II, ,,,1., II"", I ,I "I, d, "","

1""",,1 ... 1 !II 0." \"',"""" ," 1 .. -". tI" 110., "I, II"" ,", 01 .... ",,' ",j" ,.1 ." ",' '" ,,,III,, d",'.!."""""", '" 11,,,,01,, ""I" ,,, ",I" ,,,01, '1.01< " •• k I".,."" .,1 "" 11'11 II" .... " .. ",.01,01,. ",'d'"!I"-I'"."\,"'''''''III,'"d'''I,,,''I,,, .. ,~Io'Io, , .. II"""" I

, 10" ,I ",.",'T, IT,"" , "" I I",t .10 .. "" ," . ,I 10 "', " " "I ,I, .. """ ",, ,"" I 1,10,,1 ,~" 'I ,I.· " ""I." I, "" '" 10 , .. ," 1,,,,,1,, .,11"" ,I" "''.:'' ,10, I I /I,,' .. ", "", ,.".\ " "', I ·,1 .""",h I,,, ,I" "'" _II' I",," , .. ,d I",t.h.t.",~ "111.,,,,1, I", ,," ""I", ""1,1,, 1",1', I"".,,,. I'"'''' ""II "",I , .. ",to ,01", "'''II 1I",,,,'~10 I I I.. /I ••• ' II" 0."""", """,.01 "", ," ,II .",1." ""~IIIIII"~ 01" ".11 I"".; .,111,.,,,1,, I"" 1'""" "'1"'1'1"' .k "HI .", '''''' "I"" ," "," In , 10,,,.,10.01 " \1' H,

, "".I 01" 11, .. ,01, I"

,,," I I" ... ,",,', "d I" ".1 I" .. I, I 11_" " ,,_'" I,. I ,', II ,.,. "', I~.",," II, " ,,,

I",,,,, ",,,,,, "I." I .. ", ... 11 I 'e" 11,~101 ""I \" \1, 'I .. ", ". II '_",:. ._'1

II" ... ,'",,', ,,,., 11,10, .. II, " .. ". ,",,,,",,,,",,, I" I ",,,I .. .J '''' '" "" """1",10",,, •• ,1 II,., "1,.,,,-, ""I.,,., ',11 ,,'1\, ,.,11 , I,,,,, "I d ~ ,,"" ,II, " 1.",,"

'" .. , '"

, .. '" '-" d, II"

.. I,L II"" .",.1., ", d.. "1,,",,,, ,I,,, ,I" I, ,., ,II I "I,,! "".,,' "I 11,.,,,1,, 11"1." II,. ,II ,I \,. (.". '" , I ,_"'" I,,, ,I" , .. I, .... "'".,, ,II., , .. , ,I" I I .• , "I, 110",,, ,. _,I

.... 'I 11'11 ILl' I,. I ,,,,,d ,," ,10. '"'' 'II .. 111'" \ " II" "01,, to", ,,"

Date post:	10-Feb-2023
Category:	Documents
Upload:	khangminh22
View:	0 times
Download:	0 times

F LORIDA - UCF Digital Collections

Documents