Guidelines to the implementation of printing vocational ...

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Guidelines to the implementation of printing vocational schools in Guidelines to the implementation of printing vocational schools in

Nigeria Nigeria

Samuel Bademosi Adesorioye

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GUIDELINES TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

PRINTING VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA

By


A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

in the School of Printing in the College of Graphic Arts

and Photography of the Rochester Institute of Technology

May 1980

Thesis Advisor: Professor Walter Campbell

School of PrintingRochester Institute of Technology

Rochester, New York

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

MASTER'S THESIS

This is to certify that the Master's Thesis of


with a major in Printing Technology has been approved bythe Thesis Committee as satisfactory for the thesis

requirement for the Master of Science degree

at the convocation of

May 1980

Thesis Committee:

Thesis Advisor

Graduate Advisor

Director or Designate

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I wish to thank my father, Chief Akinyemi Onibudo Idebi

Adesorioye. Without my father and mother, I should have been

a victim of the"Masters."

In the first place, the writer wishes to express his

appreciation to the Thesis Committee, Dr. R. Hacker, Graduate

Coordinator, Dr. J. L. Silver and Dr. M. F. Guldin. Dean of the

School of Printing; Professor Jere Rentzel , the staff of the

School of Printing and fellow graduate students for their useful

suggestions, and most especially to my advisor, Professor

Walter Campbell .

Secondly, the writer wishes to thank the various schools

teaching printing, printing companies and Rochester School

District Department of Education, without whose cooperation

and help this thesis would not have been in existence.

Words cannot express my thanks to Dr. Daniel Onoha, Dr.

Nwabueze Okoye and Professor Herbert H. Johnson for their hours

expended.

l n

1

ABSTRACT

This study is concerned with the implementation of printing

vocational high schools in Nigeria. It has been too long a wait

for the implementation of vocational schools in printing.

The methodology of this study is based on the information

gathered through personal interviews. The head of the schools

teaching printing, the production manager, or the president or

vice president of printing companies in both New York City and

Rochester responded to the questions that appear in appendices

C and D. For details see Tables 1 through 10. Also library research

was employed to obtain background information on the American voca

tional program such as justifications for their needs. Library

resources provided information on the existence of similar programs

in a developing nation.

The training of young men and women should be transferred from

the individual printers or"Masters"

because of its disadvantages,

including the lack of uniformity of training, the lack of standar

dization, and self-interest.

Vocational education could be the answer to the formal education

of Graphic Arts (printing), and the printing industry. The government

should gear its effort toward the establishment of at least one school

of printing for experimentation in each of the nineteen states in the

federation. The success of the implementation is of benefit to all.

Some of the future national problems will be solved to a greater extent

by the provision of craftsmen to the industry. The study is not

peculiar to the printing industry but also could be used as a model

for other trades.

In the short run, little effort will be needed to train young

people for entrance into the printing field. In the long run, it

will pay for itself.

Courses and content, type of equipment, etc. are recommended.

If these recommendations are strictly adhered to, most of the prob

lems will be solved. Courses of instruction should include the

following: Introduction to Graphic Occupation, Prepress Operation,

Presswork for both Letterpress and Lithographic Process of Printing,

Bindery Operations, Preparation for Employment, and Co-op (work-study

program) .

Committees include the National Technical Committee for Printing

Education, Curriculum Committee, Industrial Committee and theParents'

Body. These committees should advise and administer the implementa

tion of these printing schools. The federal government, the printing

industry and the public are therefore called upon to see the need of

vocational high schools for printing in Nigeria.

The result of the study shows that the vocational printing high

school is satisfactory as an entry level to the printing industry.

Schools train better than individual printers, therefore, we should

not wait indefinitely for the implementation of the vocational print

ing school at the high school level in Nigeria. If the United States

had waited as long as we are waiting, we should be categorized together

as the "ThirdWorld."

Abstract Approved:

Thesis Advisor

Title and Department

Date

TABLE OF CONTENTS

List of Tables viii

List of Figures ix

Chapter

I INTRODUCTION 1

Education in General . 1

A First Look at Nigeria 2

New Nigerian Policy on Education 3

The Purpose of the Study . 7

The Problem 7

The Background of the Problem 8

Footnotes 10

II TRADITIONAL TRAINING SYSTEM IN NIGERIA 11

Past System of Training 13

Present System of Training 14

The Practice of the"Masters"

15

Institutionalization as Opposed to Traditional System. . . 17

Footnotes 20

III REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE 21

Vocational Education Defined 21

Footnotes 29

IV RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESULT 30

Analysis A--High Schools Teaching Printing 32

Section I--School Set Up ....... 32

SectionII--Schools'

Administrations, Practices

and Student Employment ..... 36

Section III--Course Gradings and Examination

Procedures 39

Section IV--Cost, Time Spent Per Week by Student

and On the Job Training 42

Section V--Educational Qualifications of Heads and

Instructors of Printing Vocational High Schools. 45

Section VI--Problems 47

Section VII--Courses Offered and Areas to be

Emphasized 49

v i

IV RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESULT (Continued)

Section VII I--The Use of Demonstrations, Field Trips,

etc., Interaction with Parents 54

Analysis B--Printing Companies 56

Section I--PrintingCompanies'

Employment of High

School Graduates 56

Section II--PrintingCompanies'

Suggestions 60

Summary to Chapter IV 63

V RECOMMENDATIONS 65

Schools'

Set-Up and Financing 66

Length of Printing Program 68

Courses and Content 70

Equipment 83Students'

Age and Selection 85

Committees 87

International Aid and Cooperation 90

Retraining on the Job 90

Summary to Chapter V 91

Footnotes 94

VI CONCLUSION 95

APPENDIX A 100

APPENDIX B 102

APPENDIX C 104

APPENDIX D 110

REFERENCES AND SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 113

vn

LIST OF TABLES

Table

1 This is the response from the printing department heads

as regards the following questions. The data founded,

number of students enrolled, maximum and minimum enroll

ment, minimum age and educational qualifications of

students for enrollment 35

2 This shows the printingschools'

administration,

practices and student employment 38

3 (a) This shows the summary of grading and examination

procedures 40

3 (b) This shows ranking grading procedures 41

4 This shows the cost, number of hours per week, total

number of hours for practice and theory, and additional

training needed 44

5 This shows the educational qualifications of the heads

and instructors of printing vocational high schools. ... 46

6 This shows the problems 48

7 This shows the courses offered in schools 51

7-F This shows the equipment preferred 52

7-G This shows the rank of the courses emphasized 53

8 This shows the use of visual materials, demonstrations,

etc., interaction with parents, specific or exploratory

skills 55

9 This shows the printingcompanies'

hiring practices, etc.. 59

10 This shows the printingcompanies'

suggestions, assess

ment, etc 62

11 Length of printing program--Technical/vocational

training in printing high schools 69

v i i i

LIST OF FIGURES

Figures

1 Map of Nigeria Showing the Size, International

Boundaries, and the Main Political Subdivisions.

2 Map of Nigeria Showing the 19 States, Their

Capitals, and Federal Capital Territory

IX

APPENDIX

A. School for the Handicapped Children 100

B. Ink and Color Matching Courses 103

C. Questions to the Directors or Principals

of Printing Vocational Schools 105

D. Questions to the Managers of Related

Industries in Graphic Arts (Printing) Ill

x

GUIDELINES TO THE IMPLEMENTATION OF

PRINTING VOCATIONAL SCHOOLS IN NIGERIA

By


An Abstract

A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science

in the School of Printing in the College of Graphic Arts

and Photography of the Rochester Institute of Technology

May 1980

Thesis Advisor: Professor Walter Campbell

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

Education in General

Education is not only good for human dignity but it is also

an effective weapon with which we can fight ignorance, poverty and

disease, besides the irrefutable fact that it is an instrument with

wn ich we can develop ourselves, our social, economic and political

institutions, and environment. This is from an article in the

Nigerian Tribune, Tuesday, October 17, 1978, by G. B. Ajayi ,

(Development Economist) expressing his view about free education

proposed by nearly all the political parties just formed in Nigeria.

He went further to say that: "We must first of all admit that

education with its great value is not an end itself but a means to

2an end.

In fact there are two types of education which have been known

for ages. In formal education one attends structured classes taught

by professional teachers in specific subjects. Structured classes

do not exist in informal education. Children learn life skills

from parents or other elders. Those who have the formal education

are considered literates and those with informal education are

considered illiterates.

A large proportion of the people of the world are illiterates;

their inability to read and write prevents them from tapping the

vast resources of printed information. Thirty-four percent of the

adult population of the world -

one-third of all human beings over the

age of thirteen are illiterates. In Africa it is eighty percent. In

the industrial nations it is less than five percent. In Southern Asia

it is over sixty percent. Putting it in another way, eight hundred

million of the people in the world are illiterate, which means they

3have only an informal education.

Much has been done in the last two decades to eradicate illiteracy.

"The number of children attending primary schools in the emerging or

4developing countries has been trebled in fifteen

years."

In Nigeria there has been the introduction of Universal Primary

Education which means that there will be an increase in literate adults

in that country, eventually.

A First Look at Nigeria

The Federal Republic of Nigeria is the largest single geographic

unit along the West Coast of Africa. It occupies a position where the

western parts (including all the former French and British colonies)

of the African continent meet Equatorial Africa. It has an area of

913,073 square kilometers which lies between 4 and 14 north of the

Equator, so that it is entirely within the tropical zone, extending

northward from the coastline over 1040 kilometers. The population of

over fifty-six million, in light of the 1963 census, is by far the

5largest in Africa.

From the western border to the east there is a distance of 1,120

kilometers; at the widest part on the west is the Republic of Benin

(formerly known as Dahomey). To the north is the Niger Republic and

the Sahara. Along the eastern border is the Republic of Cameroon. On

the south, Nigeria is washed by the Atlantic Ocean, known variously as

the Gulf of Guinea, Bight of Benin, and Bight of Bonny. (See MAP 1,

Map of Nigeria showing the geographical location and size.)

Nigeria is now made up of 19 states; in which technical education

is considered a top priority in view of the skilled manpower requirements

of the economy. (See MAP 2, Map of Nigeria showing the 19 states, their

capitals, and federal capital territory.) These newstates'

governments

have embarked upon and proposed to set up technical and vocational

schools which means secondary education will be expanded to absorb

a greater proportion of primary graduates.

On 29 July 1975, General Murtala Ramat Muhammed was the head of

state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces. After his assas

sination, General Olusegun Obasanjo was immediately sworn in as the

new head of state and commander-in-chief of the armed forces of the

Federal Republic of Nigeria. It is a continuation of the government

established by Muhammed in 1975 after the abortive coup where the

assassins were suppressed.

A peaceful return to civilian rule occured on the 1st of October, 1979,

headed by Shehu Shagari as the President of the Federal Republic of

Nigeria. The draft constitution was launched for discussion by the

Nigerian public on October 7, 1976. This constitution is virtually a

copy of the United States of America's constitution.

6

New Nigerian Policy on Education

In an address by the Honorable Federal Commissioner for Education,

Col. (Dr.) A. A. Ali, at the 14th annual Colloquim of the Nigerian Students

in the United States of America held in St. Paul, Minnesota in July, 1977,

he said that the federal government is embarking upon schemes designed to

accelerate the pace of its social and economic development. He said that

there can be no better tools than education to move the people of Nigeria

towards the building of a truly democratic and just society. "We are in

the midst of revolution, an intellectual revolution designed to guarantee

Q

for all Nigerians, functionalliteracy."

He also said that the new philosophy on education is directed

towards attainment of Nigerian national objectives which seek to integrate

the individual to be a sound, effective citizen, and aim at democratization

of education at the primary level, secondary level and tertiary level,

both outside and inside the school system.

"Nigeria's new philosophy of education is based on

self-realization and self-actualization, better

human relationship, individual efficiency, effective

citizenship, national consciousness and national

unity; economic, political, scientific and technical

progress. "9

Dr. A. A. Ali enumerated all the twelve sections of the national policy

on education of which sections 3, 4, and 5 deal with primary, secondary

and university education in Nigeria, respectively. It is an educational

system purposely designed to make

"The Nigerian child not just functionally literate

but also employable, an individual satisfactorily

equipped to contribute his quota to national

development and reasonably prepared at e\iery stage

to derive enough remuneration from his profession

that will guarantee him meaningful co-existence

within Nigerian society. "10

There will be in this new policy on education, six years of primary

education, three years junior high school, three years senior high

school and four years university education.

"With the new secondary education system of six

years duration to be given in two stages- junior

secondary stage and a senior secondary stage-

each of three years duration. The junior secondary

will be pre-vocational and academic. Students

who leave school at junior high school, may then go

to an apprenticeship system or some school scheme

for out of school vocational training. "11

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this study is to set guidelines for implementation

of printing vocational high schools in Nigeria, through investigation

of American printing vocational high schools. This is to suggest to

the Nigerian government the adopting of American methods in establishing

programs at the entry level of printing education.

This eventually would help in solving some of the national

problems in Nigeria. For example, lack of uniformity of training in

the printing industry, shortage of skilled craftsmen, and better

utilization of young people in the industry, which are the results of

non-institutional ization.

The Problem

Until now there has been no printing school in Nigeria as an entry

level to the industry. The existing training system has a lack of

uniformity, standardization,and shortage of skilled craftsmen. With

the growth in education- literacy, industry and commerce, there is need

for training printers (craftsmen) in Nigeria.

The answer may be institutionalization. Printing vocational high

schools are urgently needed to absorb the primary school dropouts, the

elementary school graduates (those who cannot further their education)

and high school dropouts.

As a result of this national problem, guidelines will be drawn up

for the implementation of printing vocational schools in Nigeria.

The Background of the Problem

Vocational education has been found to be the entry level whereby

a young talented man can be put right into the printing industry.

After all the careers available in Graphic Communication have been

examined, the question arises as to where one can obtain the training

needed to enter the industry or promote oneself into a better position,

if already in the Graphic Arts. They are first of all vocational high

schools.

The greatest mandate of graphic communication education is that

students must be equipped with employable skills when their training is

completed. They must be job-ready. A training program is necessary to

produce skills. The best and the least expensive training program comes

from a formal education plan, qualified instructors, set in a learning

environment. People react by preparing to learn and become receptive

to the material that is presented. Individual effort is increased be

cause they are being evaluated with others who are learning and there

is a personal challenge. Learning from others who are also in a learn

ing or growth stage is not always a good idea. It is slow and

13inaccurate although it is inexpensive.

Vocational education is the answer to the formal education in graphic

arts (printing) supported morally and financially by the government,

the public, and the industry.

10

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER I

G.B. Ajayi (Development Economist). "FreeEducation,"

Nigeria Tribune, Tuesday October 17, 1978, p. 3.

2Ibid.

3Theo. H. Oltheten. The Penrose Graphic Arts International

Annual, 1973, p. 144. The article is based on UNESCO.

41 b i d .

5"Some Basic

Facts."

News from Information Division Nigeria

Consulate General, New York: p.l. 1978

Nigerian Year Book, 1977-1978. "Education inNigeria,"

p. 413.

Federal Nigeria. Embassy of Nigeria. Washington, D.C.: p. 10.

8Dr. A. A. Ali. Federal Nigeria, Vol.4, No.l, p.lO.Address on

"New Nigerian Policy on Education."

i 977

9Ibid., p. 12.

1I b i d . , p. 12.

Federal Nigeria. Embassy of Nigeria. Washington, D.C.: p. 12.

1 2B.D. Chapman. Graphic Arts Monthly, October 1976, p. 36.

1 3Ben E. Grey. Reproduction Review and Methods, October 1977,

Vol.27, No. 10, p. 20.

11

CHAPTER II

TRADITIONAL TRAINING SYSTEM IN NIGERIA

As far as training is concerned, that is, apprenticeship or

vocational training, printing is by far the largest that remains traditional

in Nigeria. The other industries include the following:

Tailoring- Fashion design

Cabinet making

Building construction

Shoemaking

Dry cleaning service

Plumbing

Weaving

Farming

Goldsmithing

Blacksmithing

Interior design and related services

Jewelry design and related services

Major and minor appliance repair

Photography

Drafting

Commercial Art

Carving and pottery

Fishing

12

Electronics

Petty trading

Entertaining

It is true that education started late in Nigeria. Both Islam and

Christianity brought new systems of education. The Koran and the Bible

were the main texts, respectively. Arabic culture was imparted to the

pupils of the Koranic schools by the agents of Islam, while the agents

of Christianity through their first contact, introduced into some schools

by 1879, such subjects as the 3 R's. In various ways they planted in

all parts of the Yoruba land and indeed Nigeria as a whole, the acorn

of education.

After many parents resisted the attendance of their children

to schools, attendance began to grow from 374 in 1870 to 390 in 1890

in the interior district including the coast district (Lagos in

particular).

The new form of education was not unaccompanied by its own

philosophy of life which until recently found its boundary in the walls

of school. The recipients were some young men who were uninfluential

members of the society.

Until recently, Nigeria was predominantly an agricultural

country. The main occupation of the people is agriculture, which is

traditional. Agricultural produce includes cocoa, palm produce, cotton,

rice, rubber, groundnut and yams. These were the main exports of the

country before the discovery of oil in the earlyI960'

s. Today the main

export is oil which makes a mark on the economic development of Nigeria.

13

Past System of Training

As mentioned earlier, up until now farming, the main occupation,

is done by local farmers, which is traditional. A child has to be with

his father until he or she is old enough to stand on his or her own.

A male child has to learn the trade of the father, mostly farming in

conjunction with petty trading, hunting, fishing, goldsmithing,black-

smithing, carpentry, etc. He has to be with the father and help him on

the farm. This is done by giving him a portion of the land to cultivate

for the father. His earning is only the food he eats and he has to

be under the control of the father until he gets married and is on his

own. Even some married men are still compelled to work a portion of the

parents'

farm. This is known as "Agbon".

The "IwofaSystem"

in Yoruba land is a contract entered into in the

presence of a witness called"Onigbowo"

i.e., a sponsor; the money

lender is termed"oluwa"

i.e., master; and the"Owofa"

i.e., a service

3man. This is a legal transaction recognized and protected by the law

of the country. This is a system of borrowing money in the early days

when monetary economy was introduced. This service man has all his

human rights. He is not a slave. He or she lives in his or her home,

but has to serve for the interest of the money loaned to a borrower.

This system is used also for apprenticeship. A man who wants his

son to learn a particular trade would put him under the craftsman for

this purpose and obtain from the craftsman certain money. The"master"

(craftsman) wishing to get his interest out of the boy, will see that

4he learns speedily and well, so as to be of some use to him.

A chief or a well-to-do man who has a stubborn or obstinate son and

wants to train or discipline him will also put the boy under a handicraftsman

14

until he is able to earn his own livelihood by the craft, and then

the principal of the money is paid to the craftsman and the boy goes home.

Present System of Training

The father and son relationship in farming, and the "IwofaSystem"

are the refined way of modern apprenticeship or vocational careers in

Nigeria. Although the Guild System started long ago with printing, this

father and son relationship in the traditional life of people made

the so-called "masterprinters"

-

managers used the apprentices as they

liked. (See page 15, paragraph 2) These apprentices include the primary

school dropouts, the primary school graduates (that is those who have

completed elementary education - 6 to 8 years in school) and high

school dropouts. The"masters"

used them for monetary gain.

Now, unlike the "IwofaSystem,"

where there is a borrower and a

lender and a service man to pay interest, in the modern apprenticeship

system in Nigeria the reverse is the case. When a child has completed

or is unable to complete primary education, the father will bring him

to the city where the"master"

printer resides and has his workshop,

to learn a trade. Irrespective of any trade, they have to pay some

amount to the"master"

-

now N30 -

N40, (American equivalent is $45 -

$60) for the duration of learning this trade. A written agreement will

be entered into for the collection of money and other things pertaining

to the training of the child. This money is collected at the beginning

of learning of the trade or at the end of the period of training.

Learning always takes a period of 3 to 5 years depending upon the

"master"

or the agreement made. An apprentice must serve at least 3 years.

15

Now the establishment of more schools in Nigeria has made the

number of children out of elementary school grow in large numbers.

This resulted in some"master"

printers having 20 - 25 apprentices in

a small shop with only one press, mostly letterpress.

The apprentices have to abide by whatever the"master"

says.

Their duties include some housekeeping work, washing the"master's"

car, cooking for him, before going to the so-called workshop. Some

even live with the"master"

as domestic servants.

One of the victims of these"masters"

is Chief Obafemi Awolowo,

who is now a leader of one of the leading political parties in Nigeria,

advocating free education at all levels. According to him in his

autobiography, he went through hell to obtain his education.

"My third master -

a very genial and kind-

hearted man - was a photographer .... He

sent me to school, paid a quarter fee and

later decided to make a photographer of me

instead of a teacher or clerk. He refused

to pay further fees and employed me in

carrying his camera along to the places

where he was called upon to practice his

profession. He taught me focusing ... but

after some two months of enforced trainingas a photographer, I took a French leave. "5

Chief Awolowo served many"masters"

because of the fact that his father

died when he was in elementary school. He had to fend for himself to

escape from the bondage of these"masters"

of whom many like him were

victims. The honourable chief later became the premier of the former

western Nigeria and introduced the Universal Free Primary Education into

the region.

16

The Practice of the"Masters"

As mentioned earlier, a gentlemen's agreement has to be entered into.

Towards the end of the training the"master"

has to notify the parents or

whoever signed the contract agreement that the"freedom"

is at hand. This

"freedom"

is equivalent to a marriage day in one's life. It is a good

experience to have been freed from the bondage of the "master". It is a

day of celebration. A lot is spent for entertaining the relatives of the

"master", friends, and the remaining apprentices.

This day the apprentice has to clear himself before a certificate is

given or presented to him. If damage has been done in the course of

training, the payment has to be made by the parents. After the clearance

and a certificate is presented, the apprentice is declared free. This is

known as "freedom."

Some of these apprentices are rehired by the"master"

with meager pay

until they find somewhere to go or look for employment somewhere else.

Some have ended up in a new field, entirely forgetting the whole fiveyears'

experience gained.

"A major difference between traditional and modern small-

scale enterprises is that whereas the former is handed

down along certain lineages, the latter allows the emp

loyment of apprentices (who are not usually blood

relation) as helping hands. "6

One question arises. What becomes of those who cannot establish or who

cannot find employment in their trade? They are left with a hopeless life.

This is the main reason why the army had no difficulty recruiting persons

during the three-year civil war in Nigeria, 1967-1970. This was an

alternative for this set of people in the society with different kinds of

trades. Many of these people found themselves fighting for survival.

As mentioned earlier, with the new policy on education in Nigeria,

17

which is almost a copy of the educational system in the United States

of America, vocational education at the high school level will be of

help in solving these national problems in Nigeria.

Institutionalization as Opposed to Traditional System

In Nigeria it is a general opinion that those who go into the

printing trade or any trade as apprentices, are the never-do-well in

schools. These include high school dropouts, elementary school drop

outs, elementary school graduates who are unable to further their

education because parents are poor. As far as I am concerned, this general

opinion is untrue. The printing industry requires young, talented

people with good training and skill.

The traditional system lacks better utilization of these young

people. As mentioned, it lacks uniformity of training, for there is no

curriculum of courses. Individual"masters"

train as they like and it

lacks standardization for there are no sufficient facilities for training,

although it promotes family ties. It seems that the best way for

training printers in Nigeria, is clearly, institutionalization.

With the level of industrialization, commerce, and literacy, which

creates a market for enormous amounts of printing work, there is a need

for training printers in Nigeria in a school environment.

Nigeria is going"American"

constitutionally, educationally and

politically. Why then, in America, are trade schools, high schools, and

colleges, such as Manhatten School of printing, New York School of

Printing, Printing Trade School of New York, Rochester Institute of

Technology School of Printing, and there is no Lagos School of Printing?

18

Does it mean that there is no printing done in Nigeria?

There were over 175 printing organizations in Nigeria in 1974

and they employed some 60,000 workers. About 60 printers employed more

than 100 workers, 9 employed more than 1,000 workers. These include the

Time Press, Daily Times, and the federal government printers. Most of

the 19states'

governments are interested in developing and expanding

their newspapers for effective dissemination of information to the general

public. Nigeria boasted of 12 daily and 20 weekly newspapers and 60

bimonthly and monthly journals and magazines at the end of 1974.

Estimated circulation of daily newspapers was 800,000, and that of

weeklies and magazines was 2 million. Circulation for 1974 totaled

1.5 million according to Grant International (Nig.) Ltd.

There are approximately 20 publishing companies in Nigeria. Most

publishers have 100-1,000 employees. Approximately 120 firms in Nigeria

engaged in commercial printing in 1974 and this sector at that time

employed 20,000 workers. The C.S.S. Press (Nig.) Ltd. (formerly C.M.S.

Press - Church Missionary Society Press) is the largest printing firm

.... .8

in Nigeria.

As we have shown above, a considerable amount of printing is done

9in Nigeria. According to a recent "Survey of Book Production in Nigeria,

the printing industry is almost completely dependent on developed countries

for printing equipment, technology, and training. The author points out

that industry leaders are most often trained in foreign countries such

as Great Britain and the United States, but more craftsmen are trained

on the job in Nigeria. He recommended institutionalization to improve

training in Nigeria.

19

"The department for training printers in Yaba

College of Technology and Kaduna Polytechnic are

not adequate provision for trained manpower

needed by the industry in Nigeria. Transfer of

knowledge can be best carried out by institutional

ization through competent authority. "10

A point to note at this time is that these two colleges place limitations

through their admission process for young men who are interested in

entering the industry. One can only gain admission if he is already in

the industry.

In this same survey conducted by Agbo Ella, there is a growing

tendency of conversion of letterpress into the lithographic process

of printing. It was revealed that:

"out of eight companies surveyed, three are fully

using letterpress, two combined offset with

letterpress, while the remaining three are using

offset lithography. Many of these companies use

one and four-color process in one or four passes

through the press. "1 1

Offset presses are now being used in Nigeria according to the

survey also conducted by the United States Department of Commerce.

It was stated that:

"Rotary offset is used for color printing,

although a few of the leading newspapers

appear to be potential end users. Print

ing presses of the lithographic sheet-fed

type are generally imported from the United

Kingdom and Germany. "12

20

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER II

G.J. Afolabi Ojo. Yoruba Culture: A Geographical Analysis,p. 230, The University of IFE and London University Press, Ltd. 1966

2Ibid., p. 231.

3Rev. Samuel Johnson. History of the Yoruba, p. 127. Routledge

and Kegan Paul, Ltd. London 1969.

4Ibid., p. 130.

5Awo: The Autobiography of Chief Awolowo. "I fended for

myself,"

p. 38. Cambridge University Press: London 1960.

A.O. Olayemi. Nigerian Trade Journal , Jan. - Feb. 1978, p. 37.

Nigeria: A Survey of U.S. Business Opportunity, U.S. Departmentof Commerce, p. 147. May 1976.

8Ibid.,p.l48.

9Agbo Ella. Survey of Book Production in Nigeria, Master Thesis,

1978, p. 8."

Ibid. , p. 77.

]1Ibid., p. 48.

12Nigeria: A Survey of U.S. Business Opportunity, U.S. Department

of Commerce, p. 147. May 1976.

21

CHAPTER III

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Vocational Education Defined

According to the definition of the Committee on Research and

Publications of the American Vocational Association, it was stated in

1954 that vocational education is:

"Education designed to develop skill abilities,

understanding attitudes, work habits and

application encompassing knowledge and informationis needed by workers to enter and make progress

in employment on a useful and productive basis.

It is an integral part of the total educational

program and contributes towards development of

good citizens by developing their physical, social,

civic, cultural and economic competencies. "1

Another definition of vocational education is given by the

Vocational Education Law of 1963 (Public Law 88 - 210) and 1968

(Public Law 90 - 576). The 1968 law states that:

"The term vocational education means vocation or

technical training or retraining which is given

in school or classes (including field or lab

oratory work and remedial or related academic

and technical instruction incident thereto)under public supervision and control or under

contract with a state board or local educational

agency and is conducted as part of a program

designed to prepare individuals for gainful

employment as semi-skilled or skilled workers or

technicians ... "2

The need for institutionalization in the printing industry in

Nigeria is one of the major recommendations of colleague, Agbo Ella,

3in his thesis, "Survey of Book Production in

Nigeria."

He even made

mention that printers in Nigeria have no association, which is true.

22

Therefore, self-interest is the priority of the printers in Nigeria.

These are the people who are directly concerned with the industry.

They are not willing to give up self-interest.

The rarified area of lower technology in the public service of

Nigeria has remained the least appreciated factor militating against

the retention of trained technical personnel. The draftsman, survey

assistant, printer, binder, mechanic, and technicians of all professional

descriptions - the absence of this basic technology has made the work

of doctors, engineers, production managers, etc., more of a drudgery

than a challenging vocation. It is necessary that this is the class

of workers who are in direct touch with the actual operation in the

various technical professions. The technical professionals only give

direction and supervision, therefore, it is logical to say if they were

to operate with maximum efficiency, the basic lower personnel should

be available. The cameraman, the pressman, the platemaker, the stripper,

the ink mixer, should be in direct touch with the production manager

in a printing plant for his work to be efficient.

Singapore, a British crown colony, achieved her independence in

1959. It lies on the southern point of the Malayan Peninsula, and

counts herself as one of the smallest nations in the world, with a

population hardly over two million. Its territory covers an area under

600 square kilometers. Singapore has set a model for all other emerging

nations of the world in which a school of printing was established under

the granting of Technical Help which was signed on the 18th of February,

1970 by the Federal Republic of Germany and Singapore government.

Their detailed opinion of the needs of the special printing school

23

was presented in November 1968. Their proposition and opinion have

been extensively realized. Educational work started on April 12, 1971.5

The graphic trades are taught in seven departments. There is regular

full-time instruction oftwo-years'

duration with a concluding

examination. There are also evening classes. The departments include

bindery, lithography, offset printing, reproduction photography, letter

press, process engraving and composing (hand and machine settings).

The selection of apprentices for these various departments is decided

by inclination and aptitudes of prospective apprentices. The part

icipants must attend for three years to be able to pass the examination

and become skilled workers. The success of this operation supports

the idea of teaching printing in a secondary school environment.

The proposition of non-profit, scientific research and educational

organization by several industry-spirited, employing lithographers

gave birth to the Lithographers Technical Foundation in 1924. Since

then, up to the present, this organization has been working in the

areas of education and research of the printing industry in the United

States of America. Many organizations have also sprung up; for example,

the National Association of American Lithographers and Metropolitan

Lithographers Association of New York.

Historically, printing was invented in Europe and later came to

America. America took giant steps in the improvement of this industry

throughout the world. The pioneers of the printing industry in the

United States put self-interests aside by doing what they felt could

be possible in the improvement and advancement of their industry. The

printing, or more broadly, the graphic communication field is one of

24

the nation's top ten industries when measured either by payroll or the

total number of employees. To a great extent this is the result of

educational development programs available in the country as a whole,

which have developed a market for printed matter. These include various

training programs from high school to the university level, appren

ticeship training programs by the government and industry, and research

center association educational programs. All these helped a lot in

promoting the advancement and development of the printing industry in

the United States.

The Graphic Arts Technical Foundation presented a very comprehensive

survey in 1972 reporting on the type of programs involved in preparing

people for employment in the graphic communication industries.

Orientation in developing skills is offered in vocational and technical

high schools, occupational skill centers, technical institutes and

schools, apprentice training programs, journeymen update training and

. . . 8journeymen retraining.

Although all these are craft-oriented with different objectives in

schools, here we see that the secondary school is included as a

starting point to enter the printing industry.

Today printing is being taught in depth at all levels of education

to give many students an opportunity to develop their interests and

talents.

"Vocational education programs are in depth and

skilled-oriented concentrating on experiences

related to the world of work ... Highschool

vocational programs provide students with the

opportunity to a greater block of school time

(generally three hours) to develop an occupational

skill of their choice. Graphic communication

is an option in many of these vocational schools.

25

Vocational programs concentrate on preparingstudents for entry-level positions. "9

According to the recent positive education survey by the International

Association of Printing Craftsmen, it was indicated that new graphic

communication technology is such that much more of what is now required

for job proficiency may be best learned at school. Basic skills and

technology may be best learned in school according to 88% of those

responding.

"Standardized achievement tests should be

available for objective measurement of vocational

high schoolgraduates'

mastery of graphic

communications technology, stated a strong 91%

of the craftsmen. Seventy-eight percent favored

the development and the use of standardized

tests which are designed to determine an indiv

idual 's general technical knowledge for use bya person seeking employment or by an employer

in evaluating qualifications of an applicant for

employment. "1 1

The report of the Commission on National Aid to Vocational

Education is a most influential document as far as vocational education

in the United States goes. It was subsequently incorporated into the

12Smith-Hughes Act 1917. The commission set forth the major reasons

why there is a crying need for vocational education in the United States.

(a) "Vocational training is required to conserve

and develop our natural resources.

(b) Vocational training is needed to prevent

waste of human labor.

(c) Vocational training is needed to increase

wage earning power.

(d) Vocational training is needed to meet increased

demand for trained workmen.

(e) Vocational education is a wise business

investment. "13

The commission concluded its recommendations by seeing vocational

education as a training needed to democratize the education of the

26

country and its indirect but positive effect on the aims and methods

of general education, and make it known to us that industrial and social

unrest is due mostly to a lack of vocational education. The commission

recommended a national grant for vocational education for they saw

that the states could not carry out the work alone. If all these were

to be accomplished the commission stated:

(a) "By reorganizing different tastes and abilityand by giving equal opportunity to all to

prepare for their life work.

(b) By extending education through part-time

and evening instruction to work in the shopor on the farm.

(c) By developing a better teaching process

through which children who do not respond

to book work instruction alone be reached

and educated through learning by doing.

(d) By introducing into our educational system

the aim to take its place in dignity bythe side of culture and connect education

with life by making it purposeful and useful. "14

All these programs and innovations in education have a tremendous effect

on the advancement and improvement and technological advancement on all

industries in the United States, especially graphic arts (printing).

Mr. Carl W. Van Kauren, the president of the International Association

of Printing Craftsmen, in his talk presented in the mid-west 1977, at

a meeting held in Dayton, Ohio, said, "Education is the key to continuing

success. Education is paramount in preparing the younger generation for

its place in the industrial society. Qualified talent can be obtained

1 5through

education."

The message he put across was that education in

the vocational high school and college level is a necessity to the entire

graphic arts, which is growing tremendously.

In a speech given by D.M. Cummings to the members of TALI, he

said the following, with regard to the important subjects of technical

27

training in the printing industry.

"In industry you must have technicians with the

know-how and you must have the skilled operatives

to do the actual producing ... There is a need

here to train the men coming into the industryto be able to take a fuller place and so still

further the quality and the output of the work

being done. In addition to the operative it isan absolute necessity that the industry should

have an ample supply of thoroughly trained

technicians who will be able to direct and coordinate

the effort of the operatives . "16

Mr. D.M. Cummings went further to say that there are at least two types

of distinct training centers that would be required, one which will

train the operatives of the industry and another one which will give the

proper kind of instruction and training to the men who will become

technicians and research workers. He said:

"I am not suggesting that the former types of

schools of printing will not produce technicians,because obviously, men who are trained in what

we might term Trade Schools, would in every in

stance qualify to become first class technicians.

But by and large it is reasonable to expect

that the best technicians will come from schools

that specialize in whole time training and have

set up a carefully planned program with the

technician in mind. "17

In a Master's thesis submitted in June 1974, "Suggested

1 ?Guidelines for Printing

Education,"

the author concluded and recom

mended the following: that high school students should be given

the opportunity to broaden their educational horizons through

theoretical and practical understanding of printing. Students should

work with the available equipment. He went further to say that the

demonstrations, visual aids and related material, field trips, guest

speakers and reviewing and up-dating courses are needed as important

teaching techniques and procedures in printing high schools. Lastly,

28

current information, major printing processes, and a well-rounded,broad-

based program should be within reach of students enrolled in high

school programs. "Printing education on the high school level should

19be an exploratory

experience."

29

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER III

Roy W. Robert. Vocational and Practical Arts Education, p. 9.

Harper and Row. N.Y.19777"~ ~

"""

2Ibid., p. 10.

3Master's thesis submitted in May 1978, Survey of Book Production

in Nigeria, p. 78.

4Daily Sketch of Nigeria, August 1, p. 5. 1978 p. 5.

5Anon. Expert Polygraph International (EPI), Vol.23, No. 25,

Sept. /Oct. 1975, pp. 15-17.

Latimer: 75 Years (1882 - 1957) of Lithography. Lithographers

Journal , September 1957, p. 7. The Amalgamate Lithographers of America,New York.

Graphic Arts Monthly, June 1977, p. 43.

gGAT Gravure Bulletin, Winter 1976, No. 4, p. 65.

9Inplant Printer, Vol.15, July/Aug. 1975, p. 16.

Inland Printer/American Lithographer, Vol.127, No. 8, May 1976,

p.24D, Educational Survey.

11Ibid. , p.24D.

1 2Marvin Lazerson and W. Morton Crubb. American Education and

Vocational ism: A Documentary History 1870 - 1970, p. 11 6.

13Ibid., pp. 119, 121.

14Ibid., pp. 124-126.

15Typewor1d, Vol. 2. No. 1, January 1978, p.16.

David M. Cummings. GAGA proceedings 1950. Technical Education

in Lithographic Industry, p. 46.

17Ibid., p. 46.

18Raymond A. Trella. Master's thesis (R.I.T.). Suggested Program

Guidelines for Printing in Secondary Education, pp. 44-58.

1 9Iylbid., p. 53.

30

CHAPTER IV

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND RESULT

The method used for this study was information gathering

through personal interviews and on the site examination of the

United States printing vocational programs following the

questionnaires.

Library research was employed to obtain background informa

tion on American printing vocational programs such as the

justifications for their development, and also library resources

provided information about the existence of similar programs in

developing nations.

On the site examination visits were made to schools and the

industries that hire graduates of vocational printing schools.

Before my visits I prepared a list of questions for each of

the two groups I interviewed; the heads of various vocational

high schools and the managers of related companies.

The parameters for this study include:

1 . school set up

2. school's administration, practices and student's

employment

3. course grading and examination procedures

31

4. cost, time spent per week by students and on the job

training

5. educational qualifications of heads and instructors

of printing vocational high schools

6. problems

7. courses offered and area to be emphasized

8. use of demonstration, field trips, etc., and inter

actions with parents

9. printingcompanies'

employment of high school graduates

10. printingcompanies'

suggestions

A survey was conducted by the author at five various printing

vocational high schools and six industries, both in Rochester and

New York City. The schools are designated with lower case letters

'a', 'b', 'c', 'd', and 'e'.

A survey was also conducted with six printing corporations in

the Rochester area. Some are union and some are non-union shops.

The corporations are designated with lower case letters 'h', 's',

g', 'k', 'p', and V. Satisfactory responses from verbal inter

views and questionnaires were received from either the production

manager or the president of each corporation as regards the high school

graduates employed by them. The analysis are grouped into Sections

A and B, representing high schools teaching printing and printing

companies, respectively.

32

Analysis: Section A - I

High Schools Teaching Printing

School Set Up

School'a'

was founded in 1908 in the city of Rochester. School

'b'

was founded in 1925 in New York City. Schools'c'

and'd'

are

the Board of Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES) both in

Rochester, founded in 1966 and 1968, respectively. Lastly, school

'e', attached to Rochester Institute of Technology, the National

Technical Institute for the Deaf (NTID), founded in 1968.

Each of these schools is unique in its establishment. For

example, school'a'

teaches both letterpress and lithography, and it

is a four-year program leading to a high school diploma. The first-

year exploratory courses in Graphic Arts are introduced to the

students. The second and third year students are brought into the

whole spectrum of printing. In the first half of the fourth year, a

student specializes with the advice of the instructor on what he or

she can do best and the last half of the fourth year, students are on

co-op (work-study program) which is a requirement to obtain the

New York State high school diploma in vocational education.

School'b'

is similar to school 'a'. It is also a four-year

school program with journalism as its main goal. The school also

teaches both letterpress and lithography, meeting the requirements of

high school diplomas of New York State.

The two schools,'c'

and'd'

are of similar structure, both

33

in management and school organization. The students have their home

schools; they come either in the morning or afternoon to learn

printing as a career. The two schools are known as Board of

Cooperative Educational Services (BOCES). School V teaches both

letterpress and lithography while school'd'

teaches only lithography.

They are both two-year printing program schools, each serving at least

eleven home high schools in the Rochester area.

My work would be incomplete if only surveys were done on schools

with advantaged people, and neglected those of the handicapped

children. The reason for inclusion of this type of school is that

handicapped children have been neglected so long in Nigeria with the

result that the blind, deaf, etc., have ended up begging on the

streets in the major cities, for survival. This is the reason why I

did the survey on school'e'

which is one of its kind. It is a school

founded by the federal government in the United States. It is most

unique to see individualized instruction in a school environment. One

instructor is responsible for approximately fifteen students, but

works with just one to four for instruction of theory. There is one

teacher to eight students in a lab situation, where the teacher does

more supervision than instruction. Lithography is taught in the

school. It appears similar to a commercial shop, well equipped and

well staffed.

As stated above, these schools were founded in different years,

meeting the need of communities in which they are located as

industrial centers of which printing is one of the largest industries.

For example, school'a'

was founded as far back as 1908. Minimum

34

enrollment at school'b'

into the printing program is 1500 students

and most of the school's minimum age of the student is 13 years, due

to the fact that to be admitted into the printing schools, one must

have at least completed junior high school in another school. At

BOCES I, maximum enrollment is not a factor. Any number of students

can be given admission, and home schools in the communities provide

students for the BOCES'c'

and'd'

after they have completed the

9th grade at their home schools. (See Table 1.)

The oldest school was founded in 1908 about seventy-one years

old, and the youngest school was founded in 1968, about ten years

old. The date should be of importance for the developing nation

like Nigeria. This shows how important institutionalization of

printing trades are to developing countries. By this date, the United

States was developing and today is one of the super-powers of the

world--no doubt about this. There was gradual development. As a

result, it is the author's hope that a developing nation like Nigeria

will not wait indefinitely to establish a school of printing of her

own.

35

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36

Section A-II

Schools'

Administrations, Practices and Student Employment

Care of the students when in school and after leaving the

school seemed paramount in importance to the administration of all

these schools. Each has its own placement office for the students

to implement work-study programs for the students. It was amazing

to see that the schools provide or seek employment for all students,

one-hundred percent, immediately after graduation. In another

school which is for the disadvantaged, they seek employment through

the parentinstitutions'

general placement offices, and ninety-eight

percent of the students are employed immediately after graduation.

Two of the schools responded"yes"

in regard to offering

summer courses in printing which means they have school all year

round. The other three schools said they do not operate at all

during the summer, therefore, they have classes for nine months of

the year.

Only one school reported it does not have follow-up infor

mation about their students. The rest have follow-up information

about their students. This is the way a school can keep track of

the progress their students are making after graduation.

The length of programs for printing at the high school level

ranges from two years to four years, and it was interesting to see

that three of the schools offer evening courses in printing for

those who cannot come to school to take printing classes in

37

the daytime. This affords equal opportunity for both working

people and students who are interested in Graphic Arts educa

tion. All of the schools teach practice and theory. According

to some of the instructors interviewed, they are taught simul

taneously. After the instructor explains how a theory works,

the students put it into practice immediately. The importance

of this is that the students take something home every day that

a class is conducted. If theory is done separately, students

may more likely forget what has been taught.

All of the schools except school'c'

reported that they

lose students to transfer or dropping out. When I asked one

of the instructors what might be the cause, I was told that some

of the students get jobs or have family problems. However, most

of the students do not want to leave school after they have seen

the opportunities that lie ahead of them. (See Table 2.)

38

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39

Section A - III

Course Gradings and Examination Procedures

Letter grading (A, B, C, D, E) leads in the types of grading

systems used by the schools. Some of the schools use a skill competence

form of grading system. This means that the student has to be

able to put into practice very well, what has been taught, and the

instructor has to see that a student is competent in a skill before

further training can proceed. This method of grading was very

pronounced in school'e'

with the handicapped students. Students

are required to complete all skills taught in the program. Skill

competency was ranked number one by schools'c'

and 'e'. Letter grade

was ranked number one by only school 'b', and was ranked number two

by schools'd'

and 'e'. Reviewing classwork was ranked number one

by school 'a', followed in rank by a numerical grade. All of the

schools have different ranking views, but schools'c'

and'e'

closely preferred school skill competency forms for each student as

to the evaluation of progress he or she makes.

All the heads of printing departments agree that the objective

type of test is their method of examination to test the ability of

students, except school'e'

where total evaluation is based on

a student's ability to perform the skill being taught. Schools

'a'

and'b'

use the essay type of questions in their examination.

At least two types of examination tests are used by the majority of

schools. (See Table 3. )

40

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42

Section A - IV

Cost, Time Spent Per Week by Student

and On the Job Training

The cost per student per year in printing vocational high

school ranges from one-thousand dollars to four-thousand dollars.

Most of the students are paid for by the state government.

On my visit to school' b'

the administrator said that every day

there is what is known as the "EnrollingRoom"

where all of the

students assemble at about 10:40 a.m. The attendance book is

checked to determine who is present or absent. He said that this

is necessary because the school is paid by the state according to

the pupils who attend the school, and if a student is absent

the state will not pay for that student that day. In schools

'c'

and'd'

the home school reimbursed these schools, which is a

special program. One of the instructors told me that the cost per

student averages one thousand two hundred dollars a year. In

school 'e', which is a federally funded school, it is estimated

that its cost per student is four thousand dollars a year. In

school 'a', the students pay one thousand five hundred twenty-five

dollars, which is half of the school's tuition, and the other half

is paid by the government, according to the administrator.

Students in the majority of the schools spent 15-20 hours

per week for both theory and lab work (practical). In school 'c',

students spent 11.5 hours, and in school'e'

students spent 12

hours. Both schools'a'

and'b'

spent three hours for theory

43

and the remaining nine hours for practical work, weekly.

School'c'

spends one and one-half hours for theory and 10

hours for practical work, while school'd'

spends two hours for

theory and 13 hours for practical work, weekly. In addition to

occupational courses, about 15-20 hours are spent on academic

related courses, for example, mathematics, English, science,

and social studies.

The majority of the schools surveyed, supported the idea

of additional training of students by at least one week of

working full-time, with the exception of school'c'

that re

ports additional training is not necessary because these students

are trained for job entry. School'b'

supported the additional

training but the administrator said, "It depends on thejob."

This question was also posed to the industries, whose response

was 'yes'. All of them responded, that because the students

are now in a different environment; the world of work, they have

to have additional training.

44

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45

Section A - V

Educational Qualifications of Heads and

Instructors of Printing Vocational High Schools

Questions were asked as to the educational requirements

of both the head and the instructors of printing vocational

high schools. The response, 100%, was that a degree holder with

industrial experience will do best as the head of a printing

school. School'e'

emphasized that teaching experience should

be included. For the instructor, industrial and teaching

experience is desired by all schools and school'c'

responded

that a degree could be an additional qualification.

It was a surprise to me, in response to the question of

how many instructors are in a school, to learn that in school

'b'

there are fifty-two instructors and in both schools'c'

and 'd', there is only one instructor each. School'a'

and

school'c'

have nine and five instructors, respectively. There

is an indication from the responses of printing schools, that

an instructor teaches one to three courses in printing vocational

high school at a time. (See Table 5.)

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47

Section A - VI

Problems

The problems facing the schools as regardsstudents'

enrollment, qualified instructors, obtaining equipment, dis

cipline, finance, were minor according to the responses of

the heads of these schools. All schools except'd'

reported

no problem in meeting minimum enrollment requirements. This

might be easily eliminated by open enrollment policy indicated

by school 'c', and advertising could cure this. Responses by

schools 'b','e'

and 'd', suggested that the best recruiters

are the students themselves, to bring in undecided students,

explain to others the opportunity that lies ahead for them in

Graphic Education (Printing). Equipment and finance are no

problem in these schools, for they are federally, state, and

locally government funded. Most of the schools get free dona

tions of equipment and paper from the industries who hire these

graduates. Two schools,'b'

and 'c', indicated minor problems

about discipline in their schools. They dealt with this individu

ally by reasoning with the students, talking to parents, and

suspension, etc. (See Table 6.)

48

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49

Section A - VII

Courses Offered and Areas to be Emphasized

These were the courses offered in the schools. In their

responses, these major courses in printing were offered.

School'a's'

response was that the following courses are offered

for printing in its school. These include: Camera and Stripping,

Presswork and Platemaking, Typo and Composition, Bindery and

Finishing, Offset Duplicating, Advertising Arts, Commercial Art, and

Photography.

School'b'

responded that the following courses in printing

being offered included the following: Copy Editing, Elementary

News Journalism, Magazine, Newspaper, Newspaper Workshop, Magazine

Workshop, Advanced Presswork, Automatic Binding, Copy Preparation,

General Printing, Offset Platemaking, and Offset Presswork.

School'c'

group all the courses offered and indicated that

Printing and Multi-occupational Graphic Arts are offered.

School'd'

responded that Typesetting (cold type), Process

Camera, Layout, Paste-up, Presswork Platemaking, Stripping, Photography

and Bindery were the courses offered in printing.

In the case of school 'e', courses offered were grouped to

gether. The courses offered include the following: Composition I,

II, and III; Camera I, II, and III; Stripping and Platemaking I, II,

III; and Press and Finishing I, II, and III.

In considering the employment of their students, the question

was asked, "Which area of printing should beemphasized?"

50

Almost all of the schools ranked Presswork as number one, followed

by Photo Composition and Camera, then Platemaking and Stripping.

This could be seen in the responses of industry which agrees with

the responses of the schools, that students are hired as general

workers or press operators or machine operators in training. But

school'c'

indicated that Presswork should be listed as number one

and the rest of the courses in printing "depend on theinstructor."

I asked from the administrator of this school what the comment means.

He said the instructor may put same emphasis on all courses which

means one course is as important as the other. This was the same

response from school'e'

which says "emphasis is the same for all

courses."

The response to the types of equipment that the heads of these

schools prefer to see in a printing vocational high school was that

according to school 'a', since students are going out to work, it

should be equipment related to the commercial areas (and this depends

on the knowledge of the instructor). School'a'

responded that it

should be related to trade-industry usage equipment. Schools 'b',

'd'

and'e'

gave a long list of equipment, especially the equipment

used in their schools, which is equipment used to train students in a

school environment for job-entry in the printing industry. (See

Tables 7, 7-F, and 7-G.)

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54

Section A - VIII

The Use of Demonstrations, Field Trips, etc.,

Interaction with Parents

Demonstrations, field trips, guest speakers, visual materials,

are of necessity in a printing vocational high school, was the

response of all heads of the schools. The question of exploratory

or specific skills, according to school 'b', 'd', and 'e's response,

was that only specific skills should be taught in high school printing

vocational schools, but both school'a'

and'c'

said that high school

printing education should be both specific and exploratory.

Interaction with parents is conducted in these schools by

informing parents by letter, meeting with parents, and Open House,

which is done at the first week of every semester with the exception

of school'e'

which indicated that its students are over 18 years of

age and therefore, individual students take care of their own business

in the school. (See Table 8.)

55

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56

Analysis: Section B

Printing Companies

Six companies were surveyed for this study. Four of

these printing companies are large commercial printing

companies and two are inplant printing for large corporations.

One of these corporations has branches in the United States

and all over the world. Some of these companies are inline

operationsfrom start to the finished product. Some even

cut, coat, and calender their paper and have their own ink

mixing departments.

Personal interviews were conducted with either the

production manager or the vice-president or the president of

each company. With questionnaires, questions were asked about

the employment of printing high school graduates working with

them. After completion of the interview of each of the

companies, a tour of the various departments was made. As said

before, these companies are designated with lower case letters,

'h', 's', 'g', 'p', 'k', and V.

Section B - I

PrintingCompanies'

Employment of

High School Graduates

Questions were asked about the number of printing

graduates from high school working with these various companies.

It is interesting to note that company'k'

hires more printing

graduates from high schools than other companies. Almost all

57

the people working or employed in the printing department

of the company are from high school printing programs. The

figures of the high school graduates employed, varies from

one company to another. Company'p'

hires only one graduate.

When I asked the production manager why this number was so

low, he told me that the reproduction technique being used by

the company is not taught in high school printing programs.

The industries responded, saying that high school graduates

have to be retrained upon entry into the job. Company'w'

said

that this is very important because school walls are different

from the world of work or job environment. Company'h'

said,

"We need to orient them to the industrialenvironment."

"Newly hired graduates receive wages corresponding to the

quality of work theydo,"

responded all of the printing companies

surveyed. All of the companies responded,"Yes"

to the question

of whether they have a minimum wage for high school graduates

hired. Only company'p'

responded,"No."

The reason for this,

as was explained by the production manager, was that this company

is non-union and with its special reproduction process, graduates

just out of high school printing programs have to be hired as

machine operators in training or be retrained on the job.

The question was asked whether the printing companies

consider high school as an entry level to the printing industry.

They all responded,"Yes."

This is an indication of the fact

that high school printing programs are an important step for

58

any person who is interested in Graphic Communications. This

also reflects in the response to the question of through what

sources graduates are hired, and the highest amount of other

alternative sources to high schools, followed by employment

agencies. The vice-president of company'h'

told me that high

schools which teach printing are contacted first when a vacancy

occurs in the company at an entry level. Other sources from

which graduates are hired, include employment agencies, and

advertisements through the newspapser, radio and television, or

the applicant may just walk into the company and request employ

ment. (See Table B-l , showing the printingcompanies'

responses

to the employment of graduates from high schools.)

The job title given to high school graduates when they are

hired by the printing companies were listed as general workers,

machine operators in training, and press operators. "They do

not absent themselves from work and this is one of the most

important criteria they have to meet on the job before becoming

permanentemployees,"

was the response of all the printing

companies.

59

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60

Section B - II

PrintingCompanies'

Suggestions

All of the printing companies interviewed agreed that

schools will train high school graduates better than commer

cial printers. But company'p'

said that commercial printers

can train better than schools in specialized areas or specific

areas, but not in the broad spectrum of printing training.

This company ('p') was the only one doing flexography which

is not taught, to my knowledge, at the high school level.

The printing companies were asked for suggestions they

have to offer specifically for improvements they feel are

necessary for printing vocational high schools regardingschools'

training in printing. All the printing companies said that Co-op

programs should be encouraged because high school graduates have

difficulty in the initial stages until they become familiar with

the working environment. These companies said that their

difficulty may be alleviated if they have Co-op (work-study)

experience.

Company's'

suggested that teachers should teach them

"pride and a positiveattitude"

toward the world of work. This

will inevitably help them to think properly as they start out.

"Rome was not built in aday,"

is what he was trying to say.

They should wait for their turns; they have four to five years

before they can grow with the company. This is true of company

's'. This company contracts with the Lithographic Union of Ameri

ca, therefore, a beginner needs time to grow with the company.

61

Company'g'

suggested that printing schools should always find

out what the industry needs are. Schools should communicate and

keep up to date with the local printers, teach them to be "street

wise"

and prepare them for the outside world, to be more concerned

and conscientious, was what'g'

suggested.

Company'w'

suggested that high school graduates should have

"more realisticattitudes"

toward work and more Co-op (work-study)

should be established. This company said that high school

graduates seemed not to be prepared to work and this adds more to

their problems when they are just starting to work. As a result,

if more Co-op is established, they will be able to see what they

are going to experience after graduation from high school.

Leadership, promotional opportunity, and willingness to assume

responsibility were indicated above average by the responses of

the printing companies. Only two companies indicated"low."

The

reason for this was that these two printing companies,'s'

and 'g',

have unions. Therefore, it takes a high school graduate four

to five years to grow with these companies. Company'k'

responded

that promotion, leadership and willingness to assume responsibility

"washigh"

for school graduates. It is surprising to see that this

world-known company has noworkers'

union.

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63

Summary to Chapter IV

It is conclusive through the resources from theindustries'

printing companies, that high school training is satisfactory for

an entry level to the printing industry in the United States. This

also could apply to Nigeria's situation. Institutions (schools)

train better than commercial printers, according to the survey.

A student must complete at least junior high school and be

thirteen years old for admission into the school of printing. Some

of the schools operate summer evening courses in printing and all

the schools teach theory and practice. The length of the printing

program ranges from two to four years.

The percentage of employment is very high, 75% - 100%, through

the placement office and most of the schools have follow-up

information about their students.

Letter grade is used mostly in the schools, plus skill competency

forms for the students. Most schools used objective, subjective

performance evaluation and hands on, to check the progress students

are making in the schools.

At least one week of on-job training is encouraged by the schools

for students to familiarize themselves with the world of work.

This was also the response from the industries.

There are no serious problems in obtaining equipment or financing

because these schools are federal, state and local government funded

and supported by industry.

Field trips, demonstrations, guest speakers and visual materials

are used by the schools, the majority of schools supported specific

64

skill rather than exploratory work. Only two schools supported

the idea that both would be better.

Parents and schools interact by letters, meetings with teachers

and Open House. Only one school has students over the age of 18

who enter its program.

Courses of instruction include all the departments in printing

at the high school level, from Pre-press to Bindery. Presswork

was ranked number one by most of these schools, for emphasis. Equip

ment related to commercial areas was preferred.

Changes of attitude and the establishment of more Co-op (work-

study program) for high school graduates were the main concern of

the printing companies, in improving high schoolgraduates'

standard

in the printing industry.

The industry needs graduates from high schools. One company

even suggested that Co-op should be made compulsory and be added

to the curriculum in the colleges offering printing. The same

effect will be realized when college graduates are workingfull-time-

a better understanding of the world of work.

65

CHAPTER V

RECOMMENDATIONS

The recommendations set forth here are based on the author's

survey of printing companies, schools that teach printing, library

resources done on printing vocational education in the United

States, and on the New Nigerian policy on education.

Based on the study as revealed in the U.S.A., high school

printing education is satisfactory as an entry level into industry.

Parents, the public, industry and the government are greatly

involved in the education of young men and women entering the

printing industry in the United States. I will, therefore,

recommend that these recommendations be used as guidelines for

the implementation and improvement of printing education in

Nigeria.

To make the implementation of printing vocational high schools

more effective, I will, therefore, suggest the following which

include:

(1) Set-up and financing of the schools

(2) Length of the printing program

(3) Courses and contents

(4) Types of equipment

(5) Age andstudents'

selection

(6) Committees to keep up to date

(7) International aid and co-operation

(8) Retraining on the job

66

SCHOOLS'

SET-UP AND FINANCING

The success of these vocational printing schools to be

implemented in Nigeria depends on proper planning in efficient

administration and adequate financing.

Administration includes organization and structured proprietor

ship, and control inspection and supervision. Under the new policy

on education in Nigeria this will not create many problems because

the federal government is to make the educational system in Nigeria

free in the secondary schools. Financing plans need to be developed

for these vocational printing schools to provide adequate and balanced

financial support from the federal, state and local governments, the

public, and industry. Therefore, sharing cost burdens among these

institutions is necessary for the implementation of these vocational

printing high schools.

Therefore, I will recommend that at least one school of printing

be established in each of the nineteen states for experimentation.

The federal, state and local governments, and the public will be

greatly involved in the implementation of printing vocational high

schools with the support of the industry that needs the graduating

students.

In view of the apparent ignorance of many young people about

career prospects, career officers and counseling should be part of

the administrative set-up of these schools.

Students'

guidance, counseling and placement offices should

assist in directing high school printing students to the field and

67

printing industry where they are most needed. Placement officers and

career officers are to advise the students on suitable areas of choice,

taking their aptitudes into account.

The Co-op (work-study program) is to be made a part of the

curriculum. The placement officers should always be in contact with

the local printers so as to know of possible vacancies, to absorb

students from the printing schools for this program. All schools

visited have placement offices and officers.

In the appointment of heads and instructors of these vocational

printing high schools, industrial plus teaching experience should be

given the highest premium. They will be able to train and impart the

necessary skills leading to the production of printing craftsmen.

(See the Result of the Survey)

68

LENGTH OF PRINTING PROGRAM

The length of the printing program is a serious considera

tion based on:

1. New Nigerian policy on education, (three-year junior

high school and three-year senior high school programs).

2. The result of the survey.

(a) length of printing program ranges from two to four

years

(b) an entry level to industry

(c) students must have at least completed junior high

school in another school.

I will, therefore, suggest a three-year printing program for voca

tional printing high schools to be implemented in Nigeria. The first

year is to be a survey of courses, with proper guidance. The second

year students should learn in depth in two areas of printing, and in

the first half of the third year, students should learn in depth

with advice from the school career officer, one area of printing. The

last half of the third year, students should be on Co-op (work-study

program). See the diagramatic drawing of the length of printing

program, Table 11. It should be noted that students must have at

least completed junior high school.

TABLE 11

LENGTH OF PRINTING PROGRAM

Technical/vocational training in printing high schools.

1st year

Survey of courses

Introduction Pre-press Presswork Bindery

69

B. 2nd year

In depth in two areas

Pre-press Presswork

Bindery

3rd year

In depth in one area

Pre-Press

Presswork

Bindery

Co-op (work study)

Course program should be planned by the curriculum committee

mentioned earlier as to give students at least 15-20 hours

per week for both theory and practical work. And also 15-20

hours per week for academic related courses.

70

COURSES AND CONTENT

Courses

Introductory courses in graphic occupations which require

simple techniques, equipment and instruction should be

implemented for the beginners in high school.

"Vocational program should be extensive,

given an introduction to all phases

of graphic communications and provide

the opportunity for specialization

in those areas of greatest interest.

Students completing the program

should have skills that will insure

immediate employment and background

that will permit them to advance in

accordance with their ability."!

As at present, lithography is increasing significantly

in Nigeria. The other process of reproduction, letterpress, will

linger for a long time. For the purpose of this study and the

need for the implementation of printing vocational high schools,

letterpress and lithography are suggested for courses of study.

In the United States, printing is in its simplest form in

high schools. It is an entry level to industry. Some areas which

are not taught in high school in the United States include gravure,

flexography and screen process printing. Further training should

be made available for students who are interested after graduation

from high school. With the enormous growth of printing in Nigeria,

as the reading public increases every day, the need for advanced

courses and equipment in high schools should follow as soon as

possible. The printing industry will dictate this, but at the

initial phase of implementation the schools require courses and

equipment that will lead to a high school graduate entry level to

industry.

71

COURSES (LITHO AND LETTERPRESS)

The courses suggested for both letterpress and offset

lithography are as follows:

Section I. Introduction to graphic arts

(a) class organization

(b) history of printing

(c) printing methods

(d) printing materials

(e) industrial organization

Section II. Pre-press operations for (letterpress and

lithography)

Section III. Presswork for: letterpress and lithography

Section IV. Bindery and finishing operations

Section V. Preparation for employment and Co-op (work-study

program)

In the completion of Section I. students will be able to

state school regulations pertaining to specific situations

and be able to describe the chronology of the evolution of

graphic methods and terminology and the outstanding developments

of printing technology from pre-Gutenbert times to the

present. Also, students will be able to identify by name,

the basic components and methods and will have demonstrated

habitual conformance to organizational and safety regulations.

In the completion of Section II, students will be able

to prepare a layout and compose a copy, make up and pull a

proof, proof read the copy and make corrections, and also

72

impose and lock up a job in letterpress. In offset lithography,

students will be able to prepare a layout and compose a copy, produce

and proof read camera-ready copy, prepare the darkroom and camera

for use, expose and develop the film, strip the film and make plates.

Section III deals with presswork. In my survey, almost all the

heads of printing schools ranked presswork as the most important

part in the printing production. On the completion of the section,

students will be able to set up, lubricate and ink the printing press,

at least one type of letterpress. Also, the students should be able

to set up, lubricate, ink and dampen, run a job, and wash up at

least one type of offset press (lithography).

Such special operations including perforating, scoring, numbering,

slitting and puncturing should be performed by the students in this

section.

Section IV is the bindery and finishing, where the finished

product goes to the customers. Students should be able to set up,

run a job, and perform routine maintenance on the paper cutter, folder,

collator, paper drill, stitcher, perfect binder, plastic punch and

binder, and paddle press. The students should be able after completion

of this section, to perform invoicing, storing, and inventorying, and

in-house distribution duties of the receiving department. Finally,

students should be able to perform the packaging, distribution, and

record keeping duties of the shipping department.

After completion of Section V, students should be able to prepare

a resume, complete a standard job application form, and demonstrate

73

those qualities which are known to create a favorable image in a

job interview. Students should also be able to evaluate various job

offers for relative superiority of working conditions, compensation

and job security. Finally, students should be able to prepare for

advancement in the graphics industries through acquired knowledge of

the various sources which persons employed in graphic occupations

may increase their knowledge and skills.

The other part of this section is the Co-op (work-study program)

which will take the students outside the school walls to the world of

work. Here, knowledge acquired from the schools will be put into

practice. Co-op extends the classroom into the working world. The

experience of learning by doing, broadens not onlystudents'

technical

skill but the many other skills they need to become productive

employees and to get ahead in their career fields. It also gives the

students the opportunity to test their skills and validate their

career choice before they finish school. In the survey, all of the

printing companies and schools teaching printing that the author

visited, emphasized the importance of Co-op work-study program. The

author is recommending that Co-op be made compulsory for every student

graduating from high schools in the printing field.

74

I- COURSE CONTENTS

Introduction to Graphic Occupation

Here the schools regulations are to be spelled out to the

students as regards class attendance and procedures, safety code

as regards fire drills and procedures of housekeeping for equipment

and shop facilities, personal conduct, clothing, jewelry and hair.

Industrial organizations include managementthe chain of command

in the industry should be known to the students; for example,

supervisor, foreman, and their roles in the shop.

History of printing technology from pre-Gutenberg to the

present should include the scribes, wood block printing, the birth

of production which is the Gutenberg period. The development to

date should include wood type, metal type, machine setting, cold

type setting strike on and photo composition. Press development

from wire press - platen - cylinder- offset - high speed presses.

Paper development from handmade to machine-made papers, evolution of

ink development and film development to camera development should be

discussed.

Printing methods should be discussed in the sections. Letter

press, offset and other methods should also be discussed for students

to understand that there are other methods of printing besides the

two they will be exposed to in the schools.

75

Printing materials should include paper-manufacturing process,

the common types, special types, the basic sizes, the weight, tex

tures, the grain, the uses and some of the paper problems should be

discussed. Types: classification and identification of types, sizes

and methods of setting types, principles of spacing, printers system

of measurement, etc. Inks: the components, characteristics and

property of ink should be discussed. Type of ink used for letterpress,

offset and other types of printing processesmatching and mixing of

ink.

II. COMPOSITION, COPY PREPARATION,

STRIPPING, PLATEMAKING AND CAMERA COURSES

Composition Courses

A simple rule of layout including different materials used in

drawing sketches, rough, comprehensive, and the dummy.

Methods of composition used in the printing industry today

including 'hottype'

and 'coldtype'

composition. 'Hottype'

refers

to the methods of building words, sentences, and paragraphs which

involves casting of metals in the preparation of type. 'Coldtype'

refers to the method of building words, etc., which does not involve

2

casting of metals in the preparation of type.

Students should be exposed to how to set and distribute

type by hand. The use of different types of composing (type-setting)

machines including monotype, linotype, intertype and ludlow should

76

be taught. Major parts of these typesetting machines, different

kinds of type, part of type character, type classification, the use

of various sticks, printer's system of measurement, printer's arith

metic, principles of spacing and justification, making simple

corrections, handling type, make-up and ink-up, the galley proof

press, pull a proof, reproduce, proofread, proofreading marks, lock up

a job, type of metals used and the temperature to be maintained in

metal smelting, should be taught to the students. Students should

learn how to impose simple form, multi-pages form, work and turn, work

and tumble, and work and twist. 'Coldtype'

composition: Student

should learn how to prepare materials and machines used in cold type

composition, routine maintenance should be performed. The machines

include phototypositor, veri-type headline, strip-printer and photo-

typesetter.

In phototypositor, set the horizontal and vertical percentage

scales, set the proper exposure, the point sizes, the spacing, remove

and then process the photographic materials. In headliner, select

and mount type master on the center drive plate, determine proper

point size, from the layout and then print. In strip printer, make a

word space, increase or decrease letter spaces, Kern and overlap

letters, screen characters, set the script type, expose and remove

the exposed materials, and process. In phototypesetters, on the

keyboard student should learn how to generate an input medium for

the phototypesetting machines, the use of special typographic function

codes. Removing and scanning copy for comprehensibil ity. Preparation

77

of phototypesetters for operation including installation of

proper type fonts, photographic materials and start-up tapes.

Instruction and demonstration should cover how to run the input

medium into the phototypesetters. The use of photo unit reader,

process the output and maintain quality control by visual inspection

and the use of densitometers to improve image density. All the

routine maintenance should be performed by the students.

Copy Preparation Course

Different materials to be used in copy preparations, simple

rule of layout. Student should be introducted to scaling. Art

work is to be prepared by students to be used in black and white

stripping and camera courses.

Flat color jobs should be dealt with. Some analysis of group

color preferences and putting this to use in designing by students.

This part should include color separations for color copy

preparations.

Stripping Courses

Students should be introduced to elementary stripping

procedures. These will include the introduction to terms and

techniques in simple black and white stripping. Materials

78

used for rule-ups and rule-up matters and make a blueprint for

proofing.

Creation of simple page impositions. Creep and folding dummies,

stripping of jobs prepared in color copy preparation. Surprints,

overprints, make color keys as proofs. This course should cover

the most interesting aspects of stripping. Some of the important

jobs using color separations, spread creating colors with some of

the jobs in the stripping table.

Platemaking Courses

The trade terms and types of plates used in surface and pre-

sensitized platemaking should be introduced to the students,

and the students should have practical experience in the making of

the most commonly used plates. The flats prepared in stripping

courses should be used by the students. This will enable students

to see interrelating in the printingcourses

copy prepared in the

copy preparation--, classes to be used for stripping and from

stripping to the platemaking courses to the camera courses from

camera to the presswork.

Methods of making long runningplatesdeep etch, bi-metal

and tri -metal plates. Step and repeat methods to be intro

duced to students. How to gum up and store an offset plate.

Camera Courses

Basic introduction to process camera, the types of chemicals

and films used in process cameras, safety in the darkroom that

79

is types of lights, etc. Methods of scaling original copy

to a new size. Procedure for shooting line copy. Tray versus

processor development, and types of copies used in process

camera. Factors affecting exposure and development.

Halftone reproduction techniques. The use of different

screen, pan films, doutones, methods of silhouetting, how to

establish correct exposure. The use of densitometers.

Direct and indirect color separation. Tri-masks and silver

masks compared. Tone corrections and color corrections. Filter

usage to compensate for different film and exposure charac

teristics. These separations could be used in the stripping

classes by the students.

Students have to make color separations and also get

involved with fluorescent colors, color correcting and during and

after colors have been separated. Students should be intro

duced to contract control, high light control, retouching, and

lastly, students should be taught how to make color trans

parencies.

80

III. PRESS WORK COURSES

Letterpress

Type of presses in letterpress including hand fed platen,

power fed platen and flatbed cylinder presses. To prepare and

lubricate, ink the press, insert the chase, adjust grippers,

makeready, run a job and wash up on the press should be shown to

the students in the handfed platen press. In the power fed platen

press, students should know how to set the feeder and delivery,

fill the ink fountain, lubricate the press, change packing, ink

the press, insert the chase, makeready, pull a proof, underlay and

overlay, if necessary, and run a job. These procedures should

also be used for flatbed cylinder presses. Also, in makeready,

the students are to be taught how to adjust the side guides,

obtain position, set ink fountain, and run a job. Students have to

be taught how to wash up the press to a condition of complete

readiness for subsequent class use.

Lithography

This will be black and white press work for lithography. This

part of the course should include principles of lithographic

printing of black and white jobs. Functions of roller-groups

should be discussed, as well as fountain solutions, feeding and

delivery mechanism. Chemicals, plates, inks and oaper or

stocks used should be known by the students.

81

Main controls of the press and the safety to adhere to by the

students should be shown and discussed. As in the press work

for letterpress, students should be taught the types of offset

presses available to the indsustry to date. Students should be

taught how to prepare and lubricate the duplicators, set feeders,

conveyor board, delivery and the impression cylinder.

Students should be taught how the inking and dampening systems

work. How to pack the blanket and attach the plate should be

taught to the students. Also, students should be taught

special operations including perforating scoring, numbering,

slitting, punching, with the use of offset presses. Students

should be taught how to wash up offset presses for subsequent

class use.

In color press work, students should be shown how to register

multi-color work. The possible working habits in the press

room should be analyzed for the students. The teacher must cover

trouble shooting in all aspects of press work. Plates that

are developed in platemaking classes by the students should be

used for press work.

Having gained knowledge of how to reproduce a proper job

in black and white, and color press work, the last part of press

courses should concentrate on anticipated problems. Therefore, this

part should cover some press problems.

Safety procedures in the press room is a must for the students.

82

IV. BINDERY COURSES

The types of equipment used in bindery operations should be

taught to the students, including paper cutters, folder collators,

paper drills, stitcher, plastic punch, plastic binders, perfect

binders and paddling press. The main parts of this equipment

and the functions of each part should be described to the students.

All safety systems should be known to the students on all of this

equipment in regard to their operations. Figuring stock dimensions,

and estimating quantities of stock needed for a job is necessary.

Types of imposition including the sheet wise, work and tumble,

work and turn, work and twist, should also be taught to the students,

Single, right angle, accordion, French, and parallel fold, as

well as special operations including scoring, perforating, cutting,

and slitting should be done by students.

The types of bindings should also be described and taught to

students.

Cleanliness in the bindery room is a must. Material handling,

receiving and storage, occupational practices of storing supplies

and materials should be described. Packaging, labeling and

accurate record keeping for a job must be known by the students.

V PREPARATION FOR EMPLOYMENT

An introduction to business procedures including estimating

of labor and material cost, simple bookkeeping, and job scheduling

should be learned by the students.

Students are to be taught how to write a resume, fill out

job application forms.

Students should be taught rules governing a job interview,

including personal appearance, attitude, conduct, and also how

to evaluate job offers, including working conditions, job security,

compensation. Students should learn descriptions of the various

means by which persons employed in the graphic occupation that may

increase their knowledge and skills.

TYPE OF EQUIPMENT

The equipment related to commercial areas was suggested by

one of the heads of schools teaching printing, because of the

fact that students are going out to work and are to be trained for

the job.

Therefore, I will recommend that equipment related to letter

press and lithography which is being used in industry in Nigeria

should be found in printing vocational schools to be implemented

in the country. This equipment includes the following:

(1) equipment for pre-press operations

(2) equipment for both press work in letterpress

and lithography

(3) equipment for bindery operations

Pre-press operationscomposition, stripping, platemaking and

cameraone operation leads to the other. For composition, machines,

linotype, monotype and Ludlow. In platemaking, the platemaker is very

important. In camera there is the enlarger, contact printer, film

cutter, gray scale, film dryer, brown and Nu-Arc horizontal and

vertical process camera. Standard light tables for stripping and

other uses, and overhead projector for various uses.

Presses for both letterpress and lithography include vertical

platen Miehle V-50, 10 x 15 or equivalent, automatic platen Heidel

berg 10 x 15 or equivalent for letterpress. In lithography, A B

Dick 300, Davison 500, multilith 1250, or equivalent. These are

duplicators. Heidelberg Kora press 13 inch x 25 inch, small web.

Press (Apolo) 2-color o% inch x 11 inch or equivalent are recommended

to be used for high schools doing printing.

In the bindery operations, the following equipment is

recommended for student's use; paper cutter, collator, folder, paper

drill, perfect binder, plastic binder, plastic punch, paddling

press, jogger, stitcher and stapler.

A list of equipment to be used by the industry was

85

recommended by Agbo Ella for faster production of books in Nigeria

to make the universal free primary education moreeffective.3

Some of the equipment recommended including flexography and gravure,

at the first phase of implementation of vocational printing schools,

will be too advanced. Expertise and cost of maintaining this

equipment will be too high. With the exception of this equipment,

all of the rest could be used in high school environment.

STUDENTS'

AGE AND SELECTION

Any prospective student who is interested in printing

education should be given admission into these schools regardless

of state origin and ethnic background. Therefore, I am recommending

open admission into these schools. When students are brought

from various states to learn under one school roof, an atmosphere

of unity will be created, which is what the country has been

struggling to achieve for quite awhile. Students, especially at the

high school level, from various states, should be given the chance

to mix together and learn together under the supervision of the

same instructor. This will also relfect on the "parentbody"

suggested earlier. Many parents will be able to mix together and

advise on the education of their children, also creating

unity.

The age of the student should not be less than thirteen

86

years, and should at least have completed junior high school

in another school where academic courses have been introduced to

him or her. This is how the high schools in the United States

surveyed, operate.

In each school, the population of the students should be

given serious consideration because of the equipment facilities

and instructors to teach in these schools are very important. If

there is sufficient equipment and an adequate number of instructors,

I will recommend that the minimum number of students in each school

to start the experiementation should be thirty and the number of

instructors should be six. Each instructor should be assigned

to a department as a head; for example, an instructor to head press

work (lithography). The total number of students will be five-

hundred and seventy, and ninety-four instructors for the whole

federation. These numbers are subject to change, depending on the

progress and improvement these schools are making.

The two existing schools teaching printing courses which placed

limitations on the enrollment of students should be advised by the

Federal government (National Technical Committee on Printing

Education) to tailor their admission procedures as to give

admission to any prospective student from these high schools after

graduation. I will therefore, also suggest an open admission

into these schools. This in effect will create more efficient

utilization of these printing students from high schools, and

87

eventually will create more quality craftsmen in the printing

industry in Nigeria.

COMMITTEES

The types of committees to be formed for the purpose of the

implementation of vocational printing high schools in Nigeria

are:

(1) National committees

(2) Curriculum committees

(3)Parents'

Body

(4) Industrial committee

(5) Student Body

National Committee:

The national committee should be composed of representatives

from the federal, state and local ministries of education.

The duties of this national committee are to make assessments of

financial needs and ways of raising money for the implementation of

these vocational printing schools throughout the country.

To establish these schools, a lot of money is needed for

purchasing equipment, wages of the personnel of the schools,

school maintenance, and other expenses. I will recommend in a

broad base, the ways to raise money. They should include the following:

loan from the bank, loan from insurance, donations of equipment from

the printing industry in Nigeria, donations of money from the public.

At this point, I will refer you to the result of my study in

the United States, especially the industry. The problems of

obtaining equipment in the United States is much less because of

free donations from printing industries to their vocational printing

high schools.

Curriculum Committee

The curriculum committee should be set up to determine the

syllabus for printing students in vocational printing high schools.

This committee should be composed of educators who are knowledgeable

in graphic occupations and should include representatives from the

printing industry. Increased use of this committee for each group of

courses should be made as to design course to satisfy the needs of

the industry. Because of the changing nature of technology in the

graphic industry, updating of the syllabus for the printing program

in high schools should be the duty of this committee. The committee

has to keep track of the day to day improvements in the printing

industry in Nigeria.

Industrial Committee

The industrial committee should be set up, composed mainly of

members from the printing industry throughout Nigeria, including repre

sentatives from government presses (federal, state, and local), the

newspaper industry, the publishers, commercial printers, advertising

companies, etc.

This committee is to advise the educators on what type of courses

and the possibilities of establishing a Co-op (work-study program)

for printing students.

Parents'

Body

Theparents'

body should also be set up, comprised of parents

of the prospective students, and private citizens who are interested

in graphic arts. This body should be established in each of the

nineteen states to decide where to locate the school that will be

convenient for their children.

Theparents'

body should visit with the teachers regularly

to know the progress their children are making in school. Fund

raising for the school program's improvement would be beneficial.

In the United States, there is an Open House for a week, when

parents meet with the administrators and teachers at the beginning

of each semester. This creates an interaction between parents and

teachers.

Student Body

When the schools are in progress, encouragement should be given

to students to form the student body. This body should be

comprised of elected students in each of the nineteen states.

Their duties should be to encourage student activities, for example,

the National Printing Vocational Club of Nigeria could be formed

and advertised for the school for private and public support.

90

INTERNATIONAL AID AND COOPERATION

If much problems are envisaged as to the implementation of

these printing vocational high schools, for example, in obtaining

equipment, getting qualified instructors, etc., I will recommend

that the Federal Government should welcome international aid and

cooperation. Such aid and cooperation should be in the form of

staff development, purchasing of proper equipment, curriculum

development, and exchanges of personnel and ideas. Through the

author's research, such aid and cooperation have been given to a

developing nation like Nigeria by the Federal Republic of Germany.

RETRAINING ON THE JOB

Printing companies are aware of some of the difficulties

encountered by newly graduating students from high schools while work

ing full time. Their problems or difficulties include handling of

equipment, getting along with other employees, attitudes towards

work, etc. This can easily be alleviated by giving high school students

orientation on the jobwhich means retraining students on the job.

Therefore, I will recommend that two to three weeks on-job training

be given to newly graduatingstudents from printing vocation high

schools to acquaint themselves with the work environment. The resultant

effect of this kind of training will make the students

91

more efficient and productive employees. Furthermore, retraining

on the job would expose newly graduating high school students to

pre-requisite experience necessary for developing desired aptitudes

while working full time.

SUMMARY TO CHAPTER V

The recommendations set forth here are for guidelines to the

implementation of printing vocational high schools in Nigeria. The

government, parents, the public, and industry should coordinate

their efforts to see that schools of printing at the high school

level are established to enable young men and women to learn and devel

op printing skills that will provide their job security. If printing

is institutionalized at the high school level in the country, it will

provide them technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for the

production of craftsmen including copy preparators, pressmen, camera

men, strippers, platemakers and binders for the printing industry.

The practical work tied in with a comprehensive, indepth study of the

history and the theory of printing technology students will be

readily employable in the printing industry.

Courses of study of a three-year period are suggested, including

development of skills in black, white, and multicolor copy preparation

for both letterpress and lithography reproduction, process camera work on

a variety of cameras from black and white line work through halftones,

92

to color separation and stripping courses should give the students

experience in black and white and book work through imposition

and color stripping. In platemaking, students should have experience

in the making of a wide variety of plates commonly used in the

graphic industry. In the press work, students will be able to

operate presses and print all types of work from simple line jobs

through full color jobs on a variety of papers. Lastly, students

should be able to bind from a few pages to a book, using a variety

of bindery presses.

Committees from the national level to the local level should

be formed to administer the implementation of these schools. The

success of the implementation depends on the efforts of these

committees.

Student's age of thirteen years, and their completion of

junior high school, and open admission policy for selection, are

recommended for the implementation of at least one school of

printing in each state. All schools must be co-educational.

Two to three weekson- job training is recommended to make

graduating students from printing vocational high schools in

Nigeria more efficient and productive employees. If International

aid and cooperation are needed, the government should welcome these.

If these recommendations are adhered to, the success of the

implementation will be of benefit to all. Printing education will

start to have its roots in Nigeria. Then some of the future

93

problems will be solved to a greater extent; for example, the

provision of craftsmen to the industry.

94

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER V

Addressograph, Multigraph Corporation. "Graphic Communi

cation Helping People toCommunicate,"

p. 12, Cleveland, Ohio, U.S.A. 1967

2A.B. Dick Company, "Techniques of

Offset,"

p. 20, Chicago,

Illinois, U.S.A. 1966

3Agbo Ella. Survey of Book Production in Nigeria. Master's

thesis, Rochester Institute of Technology, 1978, p. 82-93.

95

CHAPTER VI

CONCLUSION

In conclusion to this study and the result reported the

implementation of printing vocational high schools are

necessary in Nigeria. The results at high school level showed

that:

1. Government support and finance printing vocational high

schools.

2. Parents and the industry are involved in student's education

in printing high schools. Industry donates equipment to

these schools.

3. Satisfactory as an entry level to the printing

industry.

4. Institutions (schools) trained better than the commercial

printers.

5. Teaching techniques using demonstrations, field trips, guest

speakers, and visual materials are necessary in printing

schools for high school students.

6. Establishment of Co-op (work-study program) is a matter of

must to high school students.

7. Specific rather than exploratory skills is suggested in

printing high schools.

96

8. Placement office and officers are to be made part of the

administrative set up of printing high school.

9. Length of printing program for high school ranges from two

to four years. Recommended length of printing program for

Nigeria is three years.

10. Junior high school is the minimum qualification for student's

admission into printing program. Open admission is recom

mended for Nigeria.

11. One course is as important as the other courses. Students

can be placed as general workers, machine operators, press

operators depending on student's skills.

12. Students in high schools are tested through various examina

tion procedures. Theory and practice are used as teaching

techniques in printing schools learning by doing. Students

gain more by this.

13. Evening courses in printing programs are offered for equal

opportunity for those who cannot attend school during the

day.

14. Courses of study in printing vocational high schools should

include skills from composition to bindery and provide

opportunity for specialization in areas of greatest interest.

Students completing this program should be insured immediate

employment.

15. There is follow-up information about students after graduation

to know the progress they are making.

97

16. On-job training will help students to adjust to the work

or industrial environment. At least two to three weeks

retraining on the job is recommended while working

full time.

As mentioned earlier, printing is not the only trade left in

the hands of individual'Masters'

(commercial printers) for train

ing in Nigeria. Some important trades are also left to the individual

for training young men and women. If we want the new national

policy on education to work effectively government should transfer

training from these individual'Masters'

by establishing schools

with proper administrative set up, planned financing, proper curriculum

of courses, provision of equipment and other facilities, for various

technical education throughout the federation. This is the right

time for the implementation of these schools at high school level

in Nigeria.

At the early phases of implementation, effort must be made to

inculcate an attitude of respect for an appreciation of the

role of technical education in the society. Students should be

exposed to learning by doing, using their hand, --theory and practice.

The training system should be sufficiently linked with the

world of work, which will make graduates from these vocational high

schools job secure in areas related to their fields of study

immediately after graduation.

98

Although the purpose of this study was not to design curriculum

of courses in graphic arts (printing), however, general conclusion

can be drawn from the recommendations. The courses and their

contents indicated various enabling objectives and goals in printing

education at high school level.

The committees and international aid and cooperation will not

only help effective implementation of these printing vocational

high schools but also guide the implementation as to the establish

ment and administration of ;he schools.

Nigeria has a large reading public but there are not enough

expertise in publishing to meet the need of this reading public,

the only conclusion is to provide training in publishing areas

to offset the shortage of skilled manpower in the industry. This

training comes from printing vocational schools.

However, in conclusion of work presented, this note of concern

may be voiced. Nigeria needs schools of printing at high school

level. If nothing is done now as regards printing education at

this level, we shall need to stand up and account for our actions to

future generations. It is not too late, "Late is better thannever,"

is an old adage, then the implementation of printing vocational high

schools in Nigeria makes a lot of sense.

99

APPENDICES

100

APPENDIX A

SCHOOL FOR THE HANDICAPPED CHILDREN

School'e'

is for the handicapped children which is funded by the

federal government in the United States of America. Handicapped children

have been neglected for so long in Nigeria. At present for me there

are no statistical figures as to the number of handicapped children in

Nigeria; that is the blind, the deaf, etc. But to my knowledge there

are many throughout the country. This could be noticed in market

places, parks, railway terminals, etc., in the cities like Lagos,

Ibandan, Kano, Kaduna, etc.; these people are begging for survival.

Much was not said specifically about handicapped children in this

study, because the same benefits are enjoyed by handicapped people in

the schools I surveyed. There are differences in the structure of this

school compared to that of normal children. There are government

incentives for companies who hire handicapped children in the U.S.A.

They have equal opportunity in regards to education and employment in

the United States of America. Even as to what I have seen personally

in the school during this study, the handicapped children are cared for

more than the advantaged children because their school is well staffed

and equipped. They also have 98% employment immediately after graduation

from school' e'

.

In the personal interviews with the printing companies,

questions were asked about the employment of the physically handicapped

people. Some of them said they "prefer handicapped workers as opposed

to hiring normal workers for the simple reason that physically

101

handicapped people are "hard working, honest and concerned about their

work. They want people to believe that they are part of the society.

They are ready to learn and more serious at their learning andjob."

This was the answer given to me by the production managers of companies

's'

and'w'

.

Furthermore, the production manager of company's'

said that he

had a deaf employee that had worked with him for over fifteen years

and there has been no single complaint against him. "These people are

not only useful to the society they are also part of it. They should

not be overlooked as productiveemployees."

There are many physically handicapped children in Nigeria for whom

the government must provide a meaningful educational program that will

allow these individuals a self-sustaining and productive life. Vocation

al education will have to play an important part in the education. Some

of the problems are created by this set of people in the society.

I will recommend that a personalized and individualized training

program be developed for handicapped children in Nigeria. This is

where students and instructors work together individually. There are no

large classes and no formal lectures. One or two students work with

one instructor when learning new skills or information. Students may

share one instructor during lab and when practicing new acquired skills.

And also each student moves through this program at his or her own speed-

independent of his or her classmates. When a student finishes the require

ments for a course he or she immediately begins the next course. This is

the instructional method being used by school'e'

to provide occupational

instructional opportunity for handicapped children.

102

APPENDIX B

103

APPENDIX B

INK AND COLOR MATCHING COURSES

Introduction to color matching using printing inks, inks for

different processes and methods of printing, some of the simple

terminology in inks and color matching, principles of colortheory-

additive and subtractive colors the usage of filters, masking for

color separations and how color separations are made should be

discussed in class by the instructors.

Earlier in the recommendation (See page 75) it was mentioned

that some general introduction should be made to the students about

inks. But I strongly recommend that ink departments should be

found in vocational high schools and curriculum be developed. The

reason for this recommendation is that some of the printing companies

the author visited in this study have separate ink departments,

where the color matching and mixing are done.

If students from high schools got an indepth knowledge of

the various inks used in printing processes their problems and

difficulties would be reduced. This kind of experience helps

prepare a student to succeed on the job.

104

APPENDIX C

105

APPENDIX C

QUESTIONS TO THE DIRECTORS OR PRINCIPALS

OF PRINTING VOCATIONAL SCHOOL

1. When was your school established?

2. How many students are enrolled in printing courses now':

3. What is the maximum enrollment required?

4. What is the minimum enrollment required?

5. What is the minimum age required for admission into the printing

vocational program in your school?

6. What is the minimum educational qualification requirement for

admission into the printing vocational program in your school?

7. What are the printing courses offered in your school?

1. 7.

2. 8.

3. 9.

4. 10.

5. 11.

6. 12.

8. In considering the employment of your students, do you have a

placement service? If yes, what percent of your graduates

yearly get jobs through your placement service?

In considering the employment of your students, which areas of

printing should be emphasized? Rank order 1 - 7.

106

Press work 5. Photo composition

2. Camera work 6. Imposition & Finishing

3. Platemaking (Bindery)

4. Stripping 7. Others

10. Do you have follow-up information of yourgraduates'

progress

in employment?

11. About what percent of your graduates get employment in printing

immediately after graduation?

12. Should there be a work study program for students while in

training?

13. Do you offer courses in summer? How many months during the

year are printing courses offered?

12 months 9 months less than 9 months

14. What is the average length of printing program?

1 year 3 years

2 years 4 years

15. What type of grading system do you use to evaluate the ability

of a student?

Letter grade (e.g.) A, B, C, D, E, F

Numerical grade (e.g.) 100%, 90%, 80%

General description (e.g.) poor, fair, good, excellent

Reviewing work in class or lab - pass or fail

Other techniques

16. Rank the procedure of your grading in order of importance.

Letter grade Reviewing work

Numerical grade Other techniques

General description

107

17. In the examination to test the progress and ability of the students,

are they

1. Objective type of questions

2. Essay type questions

3. Other

18. Do you operate evening courses?

19. What is the number of hours spent per student each week?

Full-time Evening

15-20 hrs.

20-25 hrs.

25-30 hrs.

20. What is the cost per student per year dollars, in order

to know on the average, the amount to be expended to complete a

printing program in your school?

21 . Do your students transfer or drop out?

22. When students start working full-time, do they need additional

training on the job? 1 week 1 month 3 months

23. Education requirement you feel that is necessary for a head of a

printing vocational school is:

Person with a college degree (B.S.; M.S.)

Person with industrial experience

Person with both college degree and industrial experience

24. Should instructors in printing vocational schools have:

College degree (B.S.: M.S.)

College degree and teaching experience

Industrial and teaching experience

25.

26.

27.

28.

29.

108

How many instructors are there in the printing department?

Do the instructors teach, 1 course, 2 courses

, 3 courses

Do you teach theory and lab work separately in your school?

About how many hours for each, per week?

If you have trouble in getting the number of students you prefer,

what do you do to eliminate this?

30. If you have trouble in getting qualified instructors that you

prefer, what do you do to eliminate this?

31. If you have problems in obtaining equipment, what do you do to solve

this problem?

32.

33,

What types of equipment do you prefer to see in printing vocational

high schools?

1. 7.

2. 8.

3. 9.

4. 10.

5. H.

6. 12.

Is discipline a problem? If yes, how do you deal with this?

34. If finances is one of your problems, how do you deal with this

shortage of funds?

109

35.

36.

37.

Do you think vocational printing education should be exploratory

rather then specific training or skill?

Do you think demonstrations, field trips, guest speakers, visual

material, should be made necessary in printing education?

How do you interact with parents regardingstudents'

activities or

progress in school?

Inform parents by letter

Parent and teacher meetings

Other techniques

no

APPENDIX D

Ill

APPENDIX D

QUESTIONS TO THE MANAGERS OF RELATED

INDUSTRIES IN GRAPHIC ARTS (PRINTING)

1. How many graduates from vocational high schools are presently

working in your industry?

2. Do these graduates have to be retrained upon entry?

3. What are the sources through which you hire these graduates?

Examples; agency, schools, personal interview, by applicants,

advt.

4. In comparison with other employees, do high school graduates reflect

good quality?

5. Do you have a minimum wage for high school graduates hired?

6. Does the wage paid them correspond to the quality and work done?

7. Do you consider high school as the entry level into your industry?

8. What is the job title given to high school graduates when they

are hired?

9. Do you have any difficulty in supervising and directing high school

graduates hired?

10. How do you rate high school graduates employed in your establishment

in regard to (1) leadership, (2) promotional opportunity, (3) willing

ness to assumeresponsibility?

11. What would you suggest about high school graduates to the printing

schools that provide them, as to their training and skills obtained?

112

12. How would you rate the high school graduates hired by your establish

ment in regard to (1) interest in job, (2) job performance,

(3) cooperation?

13. Are they absent from the job more frequently than other employees?

14. What suggestions do you have to offer specifically for any improve

ments you feel necessary for printing vocational high schools as

regards school training in printing?

15. If you were given the option as regards training printers, do you

think commercial printers could train them better than the

vocational high schools?

16. Do you think printing vocational high school graduates have any

difficulty with their jobs? If yes, what type of difficulty?

113

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Communicate,"

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Ali, A. A., Col. (Dr.) News from Information Division:

Nigerian Consul tate-General , N.Y.: Address by the Honor

able Federal Commissioner for Education at the 14th Annual

Colloquim of the Nigerian Students in the Americas at

St. Paul, Minnesota, July 1977. "The New Nigerian Policyon

Education."

Anene, Obi. "National Policy on Education: Assessment,

Secondary Education and HighEducation."

Nigerian Observer,August 1 , 21 , 29r, 1978, pp. 5, 6, 7.

Anon, Export Polygraph International (EPI), vol. 23, no. 25,Sept. /Oct. 1975, pp. 15-17. "The Printing School in

Singapore."

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for mySelf."

Cambridge University Press: London, 1960.

Bonham, Barbara. "The Choice isYours,"

Graphic Arts Monthly.

vol. 49, no. 6, June 1977, pp. 42-46.

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Industry of Metropolitan N.Y. and Printing Industry of

America.) "Illiteracy Impact Seen as Challenge to PrintingField,"

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pp. 1, 6.

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and McKnight, Bloomington: Illinois. 1973.

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Illinois, U.S.A. 1966.

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Program."

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by B. D. Chapman, "A CareerCommunication."

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and Methods, vol. 27, no. 10, pp. 16, 20. October 1977.

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Survey."

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Printing."

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Vocationalism: A Documentary History 1870-1970. Published

by Teachers College Press, Columbia University, New York. 1974.

Master's Thesis, "Suggested Guidelines for Printing in SecondaryEducation."

Submitted in June 1974, by Raymond A. Torella

(R.I.T.)

News from Information Division: Nigerian Consulate-General, N.Y.:

Nigeria: Some Basic Facts.

News from Information Division. Some Basic Facts, pp. 1-10,

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Department of Commerce, May 1976, pp. 146-150.

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Ministry of Information, Lagos.

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G.B. (Development Economist). "FreeEducation."

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Times of Nigeria.

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