Analyse the role music played in bringing an endto the Apartheid regime in South Africa.

After watching the film ‘Searching for Sugar Man’,directed by MalikBendjelloul, earlier thisyear I was intrigued andinspired to look further into the role music playedin ending the Apartheidregime in South Africa.‘Searching for Sugar Man’is a critically acclaimedfilm, winning an AcademyAward for Best DocumentaryFeature, which tells the story American musician Sixto Rodriguez role in introducing the people of South Africa to anti-establishment ideas and his eventual role in bring the Apartheid regime to an end.

BackgroundSegregation and cruelinequalities imposedon the native blackpopulation had beendeeply rooted in theSouth African psychesince it was firstcolonised. SouthAfricans had a longhistory of livingunder white rule, theDutch East IndiaCompany landed inSouth Africa in 1652to use using the Cape of Good Hope as a base for ships travelling trade route between Europe and Asia1 and where

1 Michela E. Vershbow, "The Sounds of Resistance: The Role of Music in South Africa's Anti-Apartheid Movement." Student Pulse, 2010. Web. Accessed 15 May 2013. <http://www.studentpulse.com/articles/265/the-

Figure 1- Movie poster of 'Searching for Sugar Man'

Figure 2- Table showing unequal treatment of Blacks during Apartheid

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followed by the British. The Boer Wars, fought in the late 1880 and early 1890s show how for the South African nation the main international concern was it's wealth of materials, not the people itself. The Boer wars also showthe dominance of whites within South Africa and the disregard and the disrespect with which they treated the natives. Segregation was intensified when the NationalistParty introduced Apartheid in 1948. Through a series of laws the Nationalist Party made inequality not only permissible, but actively encouraged.2 The Nationalist Party forced indigenous South Africans to reside in impoverished townships where they where denied even theirmost basic human rights and where exploited by the white minority. These townships where separated into tribal groups and were situated on the outskirts of towns. SouthAfricans who lived in these townships worked as mainly miners and servants, for white superiors, and received very small payment for their work.

Introduction Plato once noted that at times music can carry meaning that goes beyond purely musical level and enters the political sphere3 This notion was evident in South Africa during the period of Apartheid. Apartheid, which literally means ‘apart’ in Afrikaans, was implemented by the National Party in 1948 and was enforced through legislation until the end of the Apartheid regime in 1990. Music played an extremely vital role in bringing Apartheid to an end as it brought native South African communities together, gave a voice to the voiceless, gavehope to those oppressed by the Apartheid and those fighting it and made the international community aware ofthe plight of South Africans, Musician Sifiso Ntuli states “At the height of the South African madness… Others were engaging Apartheid with the guns. Others were

sounds-of-resistance-the-role-of-music-in-south-africas-anti-apartheid-movement>.2Chokshi, Monal. "The History of Apartheid in South Africa." Student Information, 1995. Web. Accessed 14 May 2013. <http://www-cs-students.stanford.edu/~cale/cs201/apartheid.hist.html>.3 Plato. “The Republic”. Trans. Benjamin Jowett. Kaye Dreams Novel Art, n.d. Google Books. Google. Web. Accessed 11 May 2013. <http://books.google.com.au/books?id=qHYQFgwQK8cC>. (pg 226)

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engaging them through discussion. Others were engaging ‘em through song. That's how we managed to turn the tide of the world.”4

Music as means of protest before Apartheid (before 1948)South African music in the 1920s and early 1930s was heavily influenced by American vaudeville shows, as well as by church choirs due tomusicians and audiencesvaluing close imitations ofAmerican musical styles5. Bythe mid 1930s South Africanmusicians began to integrateAfrican elements into musicwith the aim of making apolitical statement againstthe unsympathetic white rule."The content of the shift wasto assert the belief thatthere was intrinsically a value in the adoption or incorporation of music materials that where African".6  The integration of South African elements musical elements into ‘Western’ styles of music was the first real protest in South Africa against white rule. The music of the mid 1930s early 1940s foreshadow the political protest movement to come using music and was adopted by groups such as the African National Congress (ANC) as a means of fighting the Apartheid regime.

Music as means of political protest during Apartheid (1948-1990)During the late 1940s and early 1950s many popular songs started to reflect the current events within South 4 “Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony”. Dir. Lee Hirsch. Perf. Miriam Makeba, Abdullah Ibrahim, Hugh Masekela and Vusi Mahlasela. ATO Pictures, 2002. DVD. Accessed 11 May 20135 Coplan, David B. "The African Musician and the Development of the Johannesburg Entertainment Industry, 1900 – 1960." Journal of Southern African Studies. 5.2 (1979): 135-64. Web. Accessed 11 May 2013.6 Ballantine, Christopher. "Music and Emancipation: The Social Role of Black Jazz and Vaudeville in South Africa Between the 1920s and the Early 1940s." Journal of Southern African Studies 17.1 (1991): 129-52. Web. Accessed 13 May 2013.

Figure 3- Sign from during Apartheid

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Africa. Mary Thoebi, a recording during the 1950s explained "Our songs all had meaning. They reflected whatwas happening right now [...] Cuthburt used to listen thenews, you see. Then he would come there and say, 'Did youhear about in the news they said this and that and that?'It ended up we are going to record that". Musicians afterthe 1950s joined in on the open political opposition to the implementation of apartheid recording songs such as Dorothy Masuka’s ‘UDr. Malan Unomthertho Onzima’ (Dr. Malan’s governed is Harsh). One of the most famous songs from the1950s, released in August 1956, went ‘Hey Strydom, Wathint’a bafazi, way ithint’imbodoko uzaKufa’ which translates to ‘Strydom,now that you have touched the women, you have struck a rock, you have dislodged a boulder, and you will be crushed’. This song, like Masuka’s ‘UDr. Malan Unomthertho Onzima’ and other popular songs of the 1950s such as ‘Naants’indod’emnyama, Verwoerd bhasoba, naants’indod’emnyama’ composed by political activist Vuyisile Mini and later recorded by Miriam Makeba translates to ‘behold the advancing blacks, Verwoerd. Beware of the advancing blacks’7 the politician is addressed directly, a common feature of songs during this era. These songs aimed to get the politicians they where addressed towards attention and reflect the fact that ordinary people wherebecoming more politically conscious.

During the 1960s songs took on a mournful tone. ‘Senzeni Na?’is a typical example that demonstrates the desolation that characterised the 1960s. The accusatory and confrontational tone of songs written before 1960 is abandoned, as is evidentin the lyrics of ‘ThinaSizwe’; ‘Thina Sizwe, thina sizweesinsundu/ Sikhalela, sikhalelaizwelethu/ Elathathwa, elathathwangabamhlope/ Mabayeke,mabayek’umhlaba wethu’ whichtranslates to ‘We thenation, we the blacknation/ We mourn, we mourn7 Pieterse, Cosmo. "Towards a Survey." South Africa History Online. Web. Accessed 10 May 2013. <http://www.sahistory.org.za/archive/towards-survey>.

Figure 5- Map showing important locations in South Africa, such as Sharpeville and Soweto

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for our land/ Stolen from us, stolen from us by the whiteman/ let them leave, let them leave our land. The 1960s also saw a change in the political climate within South Africa with the intensification of Apartheid causing amplified feelings of discontent. On the 21st March, 1960 sixty-nine unarmed protesters, who where protesting against the change pass laws, where shot dead during the Sharpeville massacre. The 1960s also saw the African National Congress (ANC) and the Pan Africanist Congress (PAC) outlawed and 169 black political leaders put on trial for treason. This, alongside the Sharpeville massacre, left the anti-Apartheid community shaken and the future of the movement was questioned. These feelingsonly intensified with destruction of the creative community of Sophiatown and the following jazz exile hushing the music community and the South African Broadcasting Cooperation (SABC) preventing anti-Apartheid music being aired.8 However, Hugh Maskelabelieves that “music becamean even more importantweapon in the struggle asany possibility of openlegitimate protest had tocome to an end after theSharpeville massacre”.9

Through out the 1970smusicians protested and sparked rebellion through hidden messages in their songs and leading to social demonstrations such as the uprisings in Soweto on June 16, 1976 caused by students protesting the introduction of teaching in Afrikaans. Songs context was almost alwayspolitical and frequently contained a metaphor that allowed musicians to hide the true meaning of their songs. With the government censoring anti-Apartheid

8 Hamm, Charles. "‘The Constant Companion of Man’: Separate Development, Radio Bantu and Music." Popular Music 10.02 (1991): n. pag. Print.9 “Freedom Sounds: the Musical Liberation of South Africa.” 2004. SixPart Series. Presented by Hugh Masekela. Produced by Alex Feldman andNicki Birch. BBC Radio 2, London. Broadcast on 31 March 2004, 7 April2004, 14 April 2004, 21 April 2004, 28 April 2004, 5 May 2004

Figure 6- Image of anti-Apartheid protests

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music, music spread through bootlegging and people singing music they had learnt at demonstrations, churchesand in social gatherings and in live shows. Many of the songs sung at demonstrations and meetings were so widelyknown that that they functioned in a way similar to folk songs and enabled performers to “take refuge, like the originator of a rumor behind this anonymity.”10 The importance of music in ending Apartheid was known to the musician of the time,with Miriam Makebacommenting “I couldnot afford the luxuryof just being asinger who singsabout happy thingsand love.”11

By the time the 1980scame around musicianswhere ready tochallenge the state directly and move past the subtle wayof undermining Apartheid used in the past. The songs of the anti-Apartheid movement took on a new militancy as students and youth took to streets with the aim of makingSouth Africa ‘ungovernable’. Manala Manzini, an anti-Apartheid activist, points out that “these songs expressed not just the mood, but the political momentum of the time. The more radical the situation was becoming,the more militant many of these songs became”.12 August and September of 1984 where filled with protests against the inauguration of the tri‐coloured parliament, with representation for Indians, ‘coloureds’ and whites, but none for blacks). These protests caused violent confrontations between the police and members of the African youths. The government responded to these clashesby deploying large numbers of troops into townships and on July 1985 declared a State of Emergency, giving security forces even greater powers. The fact that 10Scott, James C. "Domination and the Arts of Resistance: Hidden Transcripts." Yale Press (n.d.): 161. Yalepress. Web. 9 May 2013. <http://yalepress.yale.edu/book.asp?isbn=9780300056693>.11 “Freedom Sounds: the Musical Liberation of South Africa.” Opcid 12 “Amandla!: A Revolution in Four-Part Harmony”, Op Cit

Figure 7- Image of anti-Apartheid protests in Soweto

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“earlier songs anticipated a vaguely defined victory; mass singing now quite openly acknowledged the young people who have left South Africa since 1976, to train asguerrillas” shows how music reflected the changing political system and encourage youths to take on a more physical and confrontational method of protest. The 1980swas full of music that aim was to undermine the state andreflected the growing confrontational approach of the anti-Apartheid movement. Through music musicians and individuals sought to advance political change within South Africa and to construct an alternate reality to theharsh and prejudicial one they lived in.

South Africa musicplayed an extremelyimportant role inuniting the manydifferent tribes ofSouth Africans underone goal- taking backtheir homes. Prior toits EuropeanColonisation, SouthAfrica had been atribal nation,13

meaning it was never united, that is until Apartheid was implemented. The native South Africa became compelled to strive for unity to overcome the hardships, brutalities and injustices that came with Apartheid. South Africa’s tribal past reinforced disunity and their identity was disjointed, something that can be seen through the languages that where spoken.14 Despite lingual, cultural, economical and political differences that divided South Africa’s indigenous population they found common ground and united to fight and ultimately end Apartheid.

Music played a central role in everyday life within SouthAfrica and provided a way for people to connect and sharetheir experiences.15By listening to music from other tribes in South Africa people from other communities 13 Monal Chokshi, Op Cit14 "The Languages of South Africa." South Africa. Web. Accessed 11 May 2013. <http://www.southafrica.info/about/people/language.htm>.

Figure 7- Image of anti-Apartheid protests

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where able to see that they experienced the same racial vilification and segregation. These similar experiences also allowed South Africans to understand the meaning of songs, even if they didn't speak the language it was sungin. A popular folk song during this time with the lyrics ‘Let’s unite, Let’s unite/ Let’s unite fellow Africans/ Down with inter fighting/ Up with peace’16 shows how musicbecame a way of expression that unified the native South African population and gave them a way to overcome the polices of Apartheid which where aimed at disintegrating the native population.17 The lyrics directly tell South Africans to resist the chasm that the Apartheid government where trying to create within the anti-Apartheid movement. Due to music being universal and something that South Africans could understand it was inherently unifying. Music, acting as a from of communication, spread new ideas, connected individuals and brought a nation together against one common thing- Apartheid.

Songs not only promoted unity within the anti-Apartheid movement but also promoted a sense ofresliance and endurance. With manymembers of anti-Apartheid groups suchas the African National Congress (ANC)being imprisoned and others beingexecuted, music became a way of givinghope and lifting the spirits. NelsonMandela recalls singing ‘Naants’indod’emnyama, Verwoerd bhasoba,naants’indod’emnyama’ with Vuyisile Miniduring the treason trials atJohannesburg prison, commonly know as‘The Fort’. “Everyday Vuyisile Mini, who years later was hanged by the government for political crimes, led the group in singing freedom songs… We sang at the top of ourlungs and it kept our spirits high”.18 During trials in 15 Wang, Allen. "The Soundscape of Apartheid." Phy Duke. Duke University. Web. Accessed 15 May 2013. <http://www.phy.duke.edu/~dtl/89S/restrict/Historical/Wang.html>.16 Ibid17 Ibid18 Nelson Mandela, Op Cit, pg 115

Figure 8- Vuyisile Mini

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court as well as facing police at protests songs promoteda sense of unity and endurance, and gave individuals the hope and courage to keep on declaring their opinion. Baleka Mbete, a speaker of parliament stated, “Music had played such a role that I just don't see how we would have pulled through the many years of struggle, at home, in exile, in camps, all over the world with out being sustained by song.”19

Music as means of protest during Apartheid (1948-1990) outside South AfricaThe outrage the international community felt towards the moral injustices caused by Apartheid became part of Western pop culture. Artists released songs such as ‘Biko’ by Peter Gabriel and ‘Free Nelson Mandela’ by The Special A.K.A aimed at bringing the realities of the brutal Apartheid system to light and giving people an individual’s story, which they could relate and empathieswith. Peter Gabriel’s ‘Biko’ bring attention to the police brutality in this lyrics, "September '77/ Port Elizabeth weather fine/ It was business as usual/ In police room 619/Oh Biko, Biko, because Biko.../ The man is dead" Musicians also released albums with the same intention, to bring the realities of the brutal Apartheid to the attention of Western culture and the spark outrage and protest that would hopefully lead Western government to denounce Apartheid. This can be seen in albums such as ‘It Don't Bother Me’ by Bert Jansch, ‘From South Africa to South Carolina’ by Gill Scott-Herron and Brian Jackson, ‘Rastaman Vibration’ by Bob Marley and Peter Tosh’s album ‘Equal Rights and Heros’. The Anti-Apartheid sentiment outside South Africa reacheda peak in 1998 when the ‘Mandela’ concert was held at Wembly. Musicians brought people together to protest one common thing, Apartheid. These songs, albums and concerts reflected the growing anti-Apartheid sentiment in Western culture and informed its citizens of the struggles and racial vilification people in South Africa faced.

19 "Chapter 4: Resistance to Apartheid." Understanding Apartheid Learner's Book. Oxford UP, 2006. 59. Understanding Apartheid Learner's Book. The Apartheid Museum. Web. Accesed 16 May 2013. <http://www.apartheidmuseum.org/sites/default/files/files/downloads/Learners%20book%20Chapter4.pdf>.

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In the United States Americancitizens, made aware of theplight of South Africansthrough music and other formsof media, where able to putpressure on the US governmentto change it’s policy towardsthe Apartheid regime fromplaying a role in it’s initialsurvival to aiding in it’seventual downfall.20 Due to theSouth African government beingan ally against communism inNorth Africa, during a time ofimmense fear caused by the coldwar, United States presidentHarry Truman didn't speak outagainst Apartheid and behindclosed doors supported it,21 all the while actively tryingto eliminate racism within the United States. Due to mounting pressure from U.S musicians and the public and the end of the cold war the United States government put in place trade embargos and cultural sanctions which leadto South Africa experiencing significant loss in revenue,security and international reputation in the 1980s and ultimately played a part in ending Apartheid.

Role of ‘Western’ music in ending Apartheid within South Africa ‘Western’ music also played and extremely crucial role inintroducing South Africans to new, anti-establishment ideas, and telling South Africans it is okay to be angry with the society you live in. This idea was evident in musician Sixto Rodrigues and his album ‘Cold Fact’. In the film Searching for Sugar man Stephen Segerman explains how Rodriguez's songs became anthems for the countries white youth who began to stand up against Apartheid, "To us it was one of the most famous records of all time. The20 "The End of Apartheid." U.S. Department of State., 2001-2009. Web. Accessed 14 May 2013. <http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/pcw/98678.htm>.21 Ibid

Figure 9- Image of Mandela concert heald atWembly

Figure 10- Poster encouraging sporting boycotts

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message it had was 'be anti-establishment.' One song is called 'The Anti-Establishment Blues.' We didn't know what the word was until it cropped up on a Rodriguez song, and then we found it's OK to protest against your society, to be angry with your society." 22 The film also states "Any revolution needs an answer and in South Africa Cold Fact was the album that gave people permission to free their minds and start thinking differently."23 Afrikaans musicians such as Willem Möller, Koos Kambuis and Johannes Kerkariel, who are regarded as icons of the Afrikaans music revolution, where all inspired by Rodrigues and released songs such as ‘Set It Off’ which encouraged people to turn the televisionoff when P.W. Botha came on the television.24 "Out of the Afrikaans community emerged a group of Afrikaans musician and song writers and for the when they heard Rodrigues it was like a voice spoke to them and… that’s where really the first opposition to Apartheid came within the Afrikaans community". 25

Conclusion Music played a pivotal role in ending Apartheid in South Africa. Inside South Africa music developed from having subtle political undertones and being a means of expression and sharingstories to a weapon used tospark protest and attackmembers of the Apartheidgovernment directly. Musicalso played an extremelyimportant role in unity thedifferent South Africantribes and giving peoplehope and the courage tovoice their opinions.Outside South Africa people

22 Searching for Sugar Man. Dir. Malik Bendjelloul. Perf. Sixto Rodriguez.Sony Pictures Classics, 2012. DVD23 Ibid24 Ibid25 Ibid

Figure 11- Image showing unity in SouthAfrica

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became aware of the situation within in South Africa through songs and where able to protest the government. Like Sixto Rodrigues said in the song ‘The Establishment Blues’, “This system's gonna fall soon, to an angry young tune” . And fall it did. In the year 1990 Apartheid officially came to an end and in 1994 Nelson Mandela was elected President of South Africa, making him the first black South African to hold the office. South African is now a place of unity and equality between ethnic groups, as canbe seen in the National Anthem that was changed in 1997 to contain five different languages within one song. The National Anthem, like music did during Apartheid, shows the political situation of South Africa, however unlike the Apartheid regime the political system now is fair andequal.

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