History of Sochi from XI to XIX Centuries AD:

Fortresses & Temples, Circassian Tumuli, Economy & Society 

(Updated and expanded translation of “Country of BurialMounds” 

in Yu. N. Voronov’s book «Древности Сочи и его окрестностей» ["Antiquities of Sochi

and Its Environs"], Krasnodar Publishing House, 1979. If you prefer to read in Russian: 

http://budetinteresno.narod.ru/kraeved/sochi_drev_4_2.htm)

The era of prosperity experienced by the localCircassian population in the Sochi Region in theearly Middle Ages (VII-X centuries AD) under theAbkhazian Kingdom ended in the XI-XII centuries AD.The glorious Circassian/Abkhazian fortified townsof yore turned into desolate towns and crumblingtemples, and the dilapidation caused thetranshumance [seasonal movement of populations fromlow areas to mountains] phenomenon to becomesharply reduced. Large mountainous town-fortresseswere replaced by small hamlets, with light woodenbuildings. At the present time, what have survivedfrom the town-fortresses are embers, debris ofkitchen utensils, as well as imported glazedceramics and bones of domestic animals. A largenumber of stones in these areas indicate the

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existence in antiquity of some grand edifices. Themost significant clusters of settlements of thatera were found in the coastal zone (Mamayka, mouthof the Psou River, etc.). During this period,Circassian hunters and shepherds reused caves inthe upper cultural layers, which fact explains whyresearchers often find monuments of "Circassian"character. In the Grand Vorontsov Cave [Photo 2],for example, iron arrowheads, knives and otheritems were found [Photo 3]. Many of thearchæological finds featured here can be found inthe Sochi museums.

1. Early mediæval pottery in the Sochi Region: wash-basin (1), pitchers (2-5), amphorae (6-7), dish (8). (1-6) from the vicinity of Sochi; (7, 8) from Veseloe.

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2. Grand Vorontsov Cave, Sochi Region. Arrowheads, knives, and other items of circassian hunters 

and shepherds of the Middle Ages were found here.

3. Articles found in several mediæval Circassian (burial)tumuli

in the Sochi Region. Iron arrowheads (1-4, 7-11, 14, 15, 18-20), knives (5, 6,

16), fire-strikers (12-13), glazed bowl (17).

From Akhshtir-2 Settlement (1-4); Vorontsov Cave (5-8); burial mound of Kepsha (9-17); 

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and from the forests in the mountainous part of the region(18-20).

There are sanctuaries in the mountains, oftenutilizing ancient pastoral structures, withaccumulated piles of iron arrowheads, brought byshepherds and hunters as sacrificial offerings tothe mountain spirits. One such sanctuary is in thevicinity of Lake Kardivach.

Fortresses & TemplesAt the beginning of the XI century, a Christiantemple was built atop Mount Akhuna (Axin; Photo 4),decorated with carved stone ornamentationcharacteristic of Georgian churches of that time.The Agua Church in the Sochi River gorge in theKhost District of Sochi is dated to the XIVcentury, and was (most probably) built byAbkhazians. Its construction plan resemblesGeorgian temples [Photo 5]. The Godlik Fortress onthe Godlik River (in Chemitokvadzhe District;a.k.a. Chemitokvadzhe Fortress) can be attributedto a more recent period [Photo 6]. The inner lineof defense is separated from the main fortress by asmall yard, oriented towards the sea shore, and nothaving a particularly strategic defensiveimportance. However, the most imposing portion ofthe Fortress is the site of tower number 3, and thebase portion thereof. The front of this wall islined with fine processed blocks. In those placeswhere the lining has collapsed, layers of rubbleare exposed. The wall is of thickness up to 2.5 m,and it is preserved to a height of 5 m. The

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techniques of wall construction indicate that itwas built during the period of Genoese colonizationof the Black Sea coast (XIV-XV centuries AD).

4. Akhuna Christian temple on top of Akhuna (Axin) Mountain, Sochi Region. XI century.

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5. The Agua Church in the Sochi River gorge in the KhostDistrict of Sochi, 

dated to the XIV century, built by Abkhazians. Its construction plan resembles Georgian temples.

6. Godlik Fortress in Chemitokvadzhe District, Sochi Region. Late Middle Ages.

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Circassian Burial Mounds (Iуашъхь; ’Waschh)In the period XIII-XV centuries AD, the custom ofbuilding mounds over graves was widely spread inthe whole of Circassia, including Sochi [Photo 7].There are hundreds of such monuments still visibleall over Circassia. Such burial mounds have beenfound in Abazinka, Vardane, Kepsha, Aibga,Krasnoaleksandrov, and elsewhere in the SochiRegion. In graves that were uncovered, such as in aforest near the village of Kepsha, a glazed vasewith images of birds, imported glass vessels, ironswords, a collection of iron arrowheads, fire-strikers (used with flint to produce sparks tokindle fire), knives, and other articles dated tothe XIII-XIV centuries AD were discovered. A burialmound of the same era in the area of Vardaneyielded a set of iron arrowheads, knives,whetstones, shield bosses, imported glasstableware, etc. [Photo 8]

7. Remains of Circassian burial mound in Western Circassia. 

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Hundreds of these tumuli can still be come across inCircassia.

8. Articles found in a Circassian burial mound in Vardane,Sochi Region. 

Glass vessels (1, 2), iron shield bosses (3, 4), arrowheads(5-13, 16), 

fire-strikers (14, 15), knives (18-21), whetstone (17).

In the Kapab Gorge (Krasnoaleksandrov village)tumuli are oval in shape with the longitudinal axisoriented east to west, and with height usually lessthan 1 m. The earth and stone mounds were contouredwith annular plates of 3-5 layers. In one of theuncovered burial mounds there were a bronzerectangular belt-buckle with a narrow piece ofleather strap, and an iron knife, typical finds inthe burial mounds of the Circassians of the XV-XVIcenturies AD.

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The (burial) barrows near the village Abazinka alsohave an oval shape and are girdled with stone slabsin 4-6 tiers of diameter of 3-4 m. Here, twomethods of burial mound construction have beendiscerned. In the first method, the tomb wasconstructed of thin stone slabs, the steadiness ofwhich was secured by a slight depression in theground. Around the tomb girdles were placed, afterwhich the mound was given its familiar shape. Inthese tombs repeated burials were performed,probably of close family members of the deceased –in one such tomb four randomly scattered skeletonswere found. 

In the second method, the bared surface ispartially covered with flagstone soil and the headof the deceased is placed to the west and his bodywas covered with slabs. Girdles were constructedaround it, and then a big barrow was formed. Inthese mounds two skeletons were usually found. Theinventory of these burial mounds includes fragmentsof dishes, flint, blue beads, and other itemscharacteristic of the XV-XVI centuries.

There are several known burial mounds in KrasnayaPolyana. In 1973, the author studied two tombs onthe right bank of the Beshenka River, north ofKrasnaya Polyana. The first case is of a limestonerectangular tomb, filled with earth, to which, at alater time, were added additional chambers on bothsides, covered with a thin layer of earth andstones [Photos 9, 10]. In the other case, theinterment was made in a burial pit, and on thesurface a stone fence was built, and covered with

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earth [Photo 11]. No articles were found in thegraves; however, in the mound were found fragmentsof glazed pottery, which date no earlier than thetime of the burial (XVI-XVII centuries AD). In arecently uncovered mound of the same era, on theleft bank of the Mzimta River opposite theEstosadok village (to the east of KrasnayaPolyana), a scrap was found, probably from anIranian fabric with gold embroidery pattern [seePhoto 12].

9. Plan of a late mediæval Circassian tomb in the vicinity of Krasnaya Polyana, Sochi Region.

10. Section of a late mediæval Circassian tomb in the vicinity of Krasnaya Polyana, Sochi Region.

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11. Well-shaped composite Circassian burial mound, Krasnaya Polyana, Sochi Region.

12. A scrap of fabric from a Circassian burial moundin Krasnaya Polyana, Sochi Region.

EconomyThe economy of the population of the Sochi Regionin the Middle Ages was based on plough and hoeagriculture, cattle breeding, and in the household,on a variety of crafts, aimed primarily at meeting

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the household and community needs. Unfortunately,the products of these workshops, especiallyceramics, are still very poorly studied. Blacksmithshops principally produced weapons (swords, spearsand arrows), and agricultural implements(ploughshares, axes, etc.). Trade and economicrelations are illustrated by the distinctive glazedutensils, imported from Byzantium, the Crimea andGeorgia, glass vessels, fabrics, etc.

Of particular importance in the economy of theSochi Region were the Genoese colonies on the BlackSea coast. At Genoese trading posts, Genoesemerchants bought from the local population avariety of goods: valuable wood (boxwood, etc.),honey, wax, animal skins, and animal husbandry andagricultural products. Genoese merchants procuredslaves primarily through the local feudal lords,and they supplied nearly all the slave markets ofthe Mediterranean and the Golden Horde. The slavetrade particularly intensified in the late mediævalperiod during the Ottoman expansion. The Genoesebrought luxury goods, weapons, glassware, andsalt. 

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Detailed map of Sochi and Krasnaya Polyana.

Circassian SocietyThe social structure of the Circassian populationof the Sochi Region was the same as in other partsof Circassia: principal class, nobility, free men,freedmen, slaves, serfs and menials.

The basis of the social order of the Circassians ofSochi in the Middle Ages was the rural community,composed of large patriarchal families. The mainproducers of wealth were freemen, who utilizedpasture and crop-land in the possession of thecommunity. By analogy with neighbouring Adigea andAbkhazia, it can be assumed that during the entireperiod under consideration, there were strongvestiges of patriarchal-tribal relations in theSochi Region, manifested in such customs as mutualassistance, sworn brotherhood, hospitality, the“ataliqate” institution [whereby children ofprinces and nobles were entrusted at an early ageto vassals to be raised and trained in a militaryfashion], dowries, respect for women & elders,

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blood-revenge, etc. The national assembly (Xase)wielded great influence.

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