Incidence of Cytomegalovirus IgG Among HIV Positive Patients Attending Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital...

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E-International Scientific Research Journal is indexed

by more than 16 worldwide Institutions…….

Indexing

Some of world wide renowned Editors and Reviewers…. ALGERIA

Bensafi Abd-El-Hamid

Associate Professor

Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences,

Abou Bekr Belkaid University, Algeria.

Highest Degree Obtained: Ph.D.

Field of highest degree obtained: Polymer

Thermodynamics

AUSTRALIA

Dr Melissa Stahle

Postdoctoral Research Associate

School of Molecular Bioscience, University of

Sydney

Sydney, Australia

PhD (Science)- Plant Genetics

BANGLADESH

Mirza Hasanuzzaman PhD Fellow - Plant

Physiology

Assistant Professor

Department of Agronomy, Sher-e-Bangla

Agricultural

University, Sher-e-Bangla Nagar

Dhaka, Bangladesh

Number of refereed articles published in

English-language journals: 55

BULGARIA

BORIS GEORGIEV ASSYOV

Senior Research Assistant

Department of Mycology

Institute of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Research

Bulgarian Academy of Sciences- BULGARIA

EDUCATION

Higher education

MSc in Botany

Department of Botany, Faculty of Biology

Sofia University “St. Kliment Ohridski (defence in

2001)

PhD

Institute of Botany, Bulgarian Academy of

Sciences (approved 2010)

PhD-thesis:"Taxonomy, economic value and

conservation importance of the representatives

of the genus Boletus in Bulgaria” (supervisor

assoc. prof. Dr Cvetomir Denchev



Number of journals published in English: 3

Primary areas of expertise:

Taxonomy and Nomenclature of fungi

Evaluation and Conservation of the fungal

diversity

Sustainable use of the fungal resources

CHILE

Dr. Koduri Venkata Surya Ramam

Associate Professor Department of Materials Science and

Engineering

Universidad de Concepcion, CHILE

Biography published in 2000 Outstanding

Intellectuals of the 21st Century 2009/2010–

International Biographical Centre, Cambridge,

England

Post Doctoral Research Fellow, Deutsche

Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG)

Martin Luther University, GERMANY.

Post Doctoral Research Fellow, NSTB Singapore

Fellowship,

Nanyang Technological University, SINGAPORE.

Post Doctoral Research Fellow, NRL Fellowship,

Seoul National University, SOUTH KOREA.

Research Associate, UGC-DST, Govt. of India

Fellowship,

Indian Institute of Science – IISC, Materials

Research Centre, Bangalore, India.



Areas of Expertise: Physics [Specialization: Solid

State Physics and Materials Science]

CROATIA

Dr.Ivan Sosa MD - Assistant/Junior Researcher

Department Of Forensic Medicine

Medical Faculty Of Rijeka University

Rijeka, Croatia


Editorial Board


Areas of Expertise: Forensic Neuropathologhy,

Injury Prevention, Brain Injury, Head Trauma,

Traffic Traumatisam

Editing for: Injury Prevention Journal, The

Forensic Examiner, Clinical Insight – Libertas

Academica Postgraduate Medicine

EGYPT

Alaa Hassan Sayed, Ph.D. . Researcher

Hormones Department, Medical Research Division, National Research Centre, Dokki, Giza, Egypt

Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D- Zoology

Helal Ragab Moussa, Ph.D. Assist. Professor in Botany (Plant Physiology),

Radioisotope Dept., Nuclear Research Center,

Atomic Energy Authority, Middle Eastern

Regional Radioisotope Center for the Arab

Countries.

Cairo, Egypt

Dr. Saber Mohamed Abd-Allah - Reproductive

Biology

Associate Professor of Theriogenology Faculty of Veterinary Medicine

Cairo University, Egypt Number of refereed articles published in


Member of Editor Board of American Journal of

Academic Research and Reviewer for many

international scientific journals such as Journal

of reproduction in domestic animals, Journal of

Chromosome Research, Journal of Dairy Science,

Journal of Assisted Reproduction and Genetics,

Journal of Tropical and subtropical

Agroecosystem, American Journal of

Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Malaysian

journal of medical sciences etc…

Ahmed Nabih Zaki Rashed

Ph. D in Electronic Engineering

University: Menoufia University, Egypt

Areas of interest and experience: Optical

communication systems, Advanced optical

communication networks, Wireless optical

access networks, digital and analog systems,

Optoelectronics devices, Advanced material

science

INDIA

Prof. (Er.) Anand Nayyar

Assistant Professor

Department of Computer Applications & IT

KCL Institute of Management and Technology,

Jalandhar

Ludhiana, Punjab, India

Highest Degree Obtained: M.Tech-IT

Field of highest degree obtained:Information

Technology

Primary areas of expertise: Networking,

Wireless Sensor Networks, Distributed Systems,

Information Systems, Software Engineering,

Digital Signals Processing, Network Security,

Mobile Adhoc Networks, Adhoc Networks,

Digital Image Processing, Artificial Intelligence &

Robotics, Wireless Networks

Dr. Pawar Rajkumar Tukaram

Department of zoology, Majalgaon Arts, Science

and Commerce College, Majalgaon Dist. Beed

Maharashtra, India

Assistant Professor & Head

Field of highest degree obtained : Parasitology,

Fishery

Your primary areas of expertise : Fisheries,

Limniology, Parasitology.

Ms. B. Vasavi M.C.A, M.Tech (Computer Science)

Associate Professor

Department of Computer Science and

Engineering

Hyderabad Institute of Technology &

Management

R.R District, India

Research Experience: In Networks Technologies,

Tibco Cloud Computing Environment, Network

Security and Data Mining–4 years

Mr. A. C. Suthar Assistant Professor

Ph. D. - Electronics and Communication

M.E.-Communication Systems Engineering

Department of Electronics & Communication

C. U. Shah College of Engg. and Tech., Wadhwan

City-363030, Gujarat, India

Areas of Expertise: Electronics and

Communication

Dr. Vivek Dalpatrao Kapse

Assistant Professor,

Department of Physics, Arts, Science and

Commerce College, Chikhaldara, Maharashtra,

INDIA

Field of highest degree obtained: Materials

science

Primary areas of expertise: Preparation of

nanostructured materials and their gas sensing

behavior

DR. ASHOK KUMAR KULKARNI ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSIOLOGY, MEDICITI

INSTITUTE OF MEDICAL

SCIENCES, HYDERABAD (A.P) INDIA

Field of highest degree obtained MOLECULAR

BIOPHYSICS

Primary areas of expertise: MOLECULAR

MODELING, NMR, SYNTHESIS OF PEPTIDES &

PROTEINS, CELL-ADHESION RESEARCH,

CANCER AND METASTASIS RESEARCH, HUMAN

PHYSIOLOGY TEACHING, STRUCTURE BASED

DRUGDESIGNING, STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY

Dr. N.Senthilkumar B.E.M.B.A, Ph.D

Assistant Professor

Department of Management

Studies

Anna University, Chennai – 600025

Ph.D Management

M.B.A Marketing& Operations Management

Dr. Govind P. Shinde, PhD

Bharati Vidyapeeth’s Institute of Management

Studies and Research, Navi Mumbai.

Maharashtra. India

Associate Professor

Field of highest degree obtained : Management

Science

Primary areas of expertise : Marketing, Finance

and Commerce

Dr. Prashant Singh, M. Sc. , Ph.D. (Chemistry)

Assistant Professor, A.R.S.D College,

University of Delhi, New Delhi, INDIA

Mr. MOHAMMAD SHAHID

T-73/5, Okhla Main Market Jamia Nagar, New

Delhi 110025, India

Research Fellow

Jamia Millia Islamia New Delhi India

Education Doctor of Philosophy (CHEMISTRY)

JAMIA MILLIA ISLAMIA NEW DELHI

Dr. Rajeev Singh

Department Of Chemistry, ARSD College,

University Of Delhi, Dhaula Kuan, New Delhi-

110021

Assistant Professor

Field of highest degree obtained:

ORGANOMETALLIC CHEMISTRY, BIOINORGANIC



Primary areas of expertise: BIOINORGANIC

CHEMISTRY, ORGANOMETALLICS,

BIOCHEMISTRY, NANOMEDICINE AND SOL-GEL

CHEMISTRY

DR. KANTI BHOOSHAN PANDEY

Department of Biochemistry, University of

Allahabad

City: Allahabad, U.P, India

Guest Faculty and Researcher

Biochemistry

Field of highest degree obtained : Biochemistry

Primary areas of expertise: Free Radical Biology,

Polyphenols and Human Aging

Dr. Anil Batta Associate Professor

Baba Farid Univ. Of Health Sciences, faridkot,

India

MD(Medical Biochemistry)

Primary areas of expertise- Tumor Markers &

Drug Deaddiction

Dr. Vijay S. Wadhai PhD

Assistant Professor & Head in Microbiology

Department ,

Sardar Patel Mahavidyalaya, Chandrapur,

Nagpur University Nagpur

Field Of Interest:- Environmental Microbiology

b)Biotechnology c) Industrial Microbiology

Dr. Arun S. Kharat Professor and Head

Department of Biotechnology, Dr. Babasaheb

Ambedkar Marathwada University, Aurangabad,

Sub-Campus Osmanabad.

Maharashtra, India

Highest Degree Obtained : Ph.D (Indian Institute

of Science) PDF-Universite Joseph Fourier,

Grenoble France and PDF-Rockefeller University,

New York, USA.

Field of highest degree obtained : Molecular

genetics, Molecular Biology, Genetic

Engineering, Microbiology, Biotechnology.

Primary areas of expertise: Genetic Engineering,

Genetics, Microbiology, Biotechnology

Dr. Ashwini Kumar Dixit

Pondicherry, India

Assistant Professor

Botany / Plant Biology and Biotechnology

KM Centre For PG Studies (Autonomous)

Primary areas of expertise: Microbiology,

Pharmacognosy, Environmental Biology,

Ethnobotany, Phytochemistry, Astrology,

Biophysics

Dr.V.E. Nethaji Mariappan

Scientist-D Department :Centre for Remote

Sensing & Geoinformatics

Ph D Agriculture, Soil Science Annamalai

University/SAC(ISRO

Ph.D. Title: Crop Simulation Model, Remote

Sensing and GIS for Zonal Rice Crop Assessment

and Yield

Forecasting [work carried out at Space

Applications Centre, ISRO as JRF)

Dr. Bharath Kumar Ravuru

Designation ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

Department BIOTECHNOLOGY

Area of Specialization Plant Biotechnology,

Medicinal Plants, Ethnobotany and Forest

Ecology

DESHMUKH MAHADEO SHRIRANG

Sr. Lecturer, Department Of Economics,

S. K. Somaiya College Of Arts, Science And

Commerce,

Vidyavihar, Mumbai- 400 077

M.A. ECONOMICS(AGRI. ECO. MONETARY ECO.)

Ph.D- Export Competitiveness Of Major

Horticultural Products In Maharashtra

Dr. Bhaskar C Behera

Scientist D

Plant Science Division , Agharkar Research

Institute

(Autonomous Institute of Dept. of Secience

&Technology, Govt. Of India),G.G. Agarkar Road,

Pune-411004, India

Education: Ph.D , M.Phil , M.Sc

(Botany, Specialization: Plant Physiology &

Biochemistry)

Nature of Research: The major broad area of

research Biodiversity and Bioprospecting

includes physiology, Biochemistry,

Biotechnology of lichen (a symbiotic organism in

association with fungi and algae) and in the sub

area of research includes:Tissue culture of

lichens for establishing of culture collections

towards conservation of germplasms, search of

natural product from lichens and their biological

activity profiling using in vitro / in vivo system

for their biomedical/pharmaceutical / food

nutraceutical applications.

Research Papers Published : 70+

Dr. Chandra Mohan Singh Bisht, Ph.D

Assistant Professor

Department of Chemistry, Government Post Graduate College, Kumaun University, Berinag (Pithoragarh) INDIA Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D. Natural

Product Chemistry (Phytochemistry &

Microbiology)

Dr.S.Sasikumar Principal Roever Engineering College, Perambalur, Tamil Nadu, India

Areas of Expertise: Signal Processing, Signal and

image analysis, VLSI, networking

Ph.D, Anna University, Chennai, India

IET-YPSC Young Teacher Award’2010.

Best Paper Award for national conference at

Excel College of Engineering for women,

Feb2010.

Biography accepted for Marquis Who’s Who in

the World (Nov 2010 Edition)



Books Published: 6

Dr. Vivek Dalpatrao Kapse. Assistant Professor and Head, Department of

Physics,

Arts, Science and Commerce College, Amravati

(M.S.), India

Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.,

Materials science



Dr.V.B.Sakhare, PhD - Reservoir Fisheries and

Limnology

Reader and Head Post Graduate and Research Department of

Zoology

Yogeshwari college, Ambajogai-431517

Maharastra - India



Number of book chapters published in English

:25

Number of books published in English :10

Dr. S. Subba Tata

M. Sc., M. Tech. Ph. D

Guest Lecturer

Department of Microbiology

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam

India

Dr. Jayant Dubey Ph.D. in Statistics

Associate Prof. & Head

Dept of Business Studies

BT Institute of Research & Technology, Sagar

Madhya Pradesh, India

Dr.Chandrapal Singh Bohra, Ph.D., NET (ICAR),

CES, M. Sc. (Forestry)

Assistant Professor & Coordinator, Environmental Science

Department of Environmental & Mechanical

Engineering

Amrapali Institute of Technology & Sciences

Uttarakhand (UK),

INDIA

Dr(Mrs) Anita S.Goswami-Giri, PhD

(Biochemistry)

Sr. lecturer

Department of Chemistry, B.Bandodkar college

of Sciences

Chedani Bunder rd , Thane (Mumbai,

Maharashtra

India

Dr. Sunil Kumar Mishra

Associate Professor of English

DRONACHARYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,

Gurgaon, India.

Academic Qualification:

•Doctor of Philosophy (D. Phil) in English,

University of Allahabad (India),

•Certificate of Proficiency in French, University

of Allahabad(India),2001

•Master of Arts (M.A.) in English, University of

Allahabad (India), 2001.



Dr.M.VIJAYARAGAVAN

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR

Department of Botany

GOVERNMENT ARTS COLLEGE,

THIRUVANNAMALAI (T.N).

Highest Degree Obtained Ph.D

Field of highest degree obtained

ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION


English-language journals 17

Editing or peer review experience (for English-

language journals) 12-JOURNALS

Your primary areas of expertise:

PHYTOREMEDIATION, BIOREMEDIATION, METAL

POLLUTION,SOIL POLLUTION, WATER

POLLUTION,

Madhavi Dharankar

Lecturer, School of Education,

Yashavantrao Chavan Maharashtra Open

University, Nashik, MS , India

Highest Degree Obtained: M.Sc., M.Ed., MADE

(M. A. in Distance Education), M Phil (Distance

Education),

PGDDE (PG Diploma in Distance Education),

PGDRD (PG Diploma in Rural Development),

PG Diploma in Environmental Education (Green

Teacher) and Online Certificate Program in

Instructional Design.

Field of highest degree obtained: Education



Primary areas of expertise:

Expertise in distance education and use of

Information Communication Technology (ICT) in

education.

Authored 6 books solely and 21 co-authored.

Contributed twenty-seven chapters as writer.

Instructional technology- edited nine books and

content edited five books.

INDONESIA

Prof. Dr.Tatik Suryani President (Dean)

STIE Perbanas Surabaya

Indonesia

DR. DJUWARI M. HUM, PhD

Director of Language laboratory

STIE Perbanas, Surabaya,

Indonesia

Primary Area of Expertise: Linguistic, Education

and Management

Fr. Dameanus Abun, SVD

College: St. Paul Major Seminary, Ledalero-

Maumere-NTT- Indonesia. Philosophy: 1987-1992, Theology : 1992-1995.

Ordination: 1995.

Graduate Studies:

MBA: Divine Word College of Laoag, Ilococ

Norte-Philippines (11999- 2002)

Ph.D: International Academy of Management

and Economic: Philippines (2002-2005)

Training: Strategic Positioning for Education Leaders

(SPEL): Asian Institute of Management (AIM):

2006.

Teaching Experience:

Divine Word College of Laoag, Graduate School,

2005-present

Divine Word college of Vigan, 2005-present.

Thesis panelist: Divine Word college of Vigan,

2005-present

Mr. Masoud Hashemi. Faculty member and lecturer,

English Department, Islamic Azad University

(IAU), Toyserkan Branch, Hamedan, Iran.

MA. in English Methodology ( TEFL ) , Islamic

Azad University , Tehran Central Branch , Iran.

1995

PhD Scholar of TESL,University of Technology (

UTM ) , Malaysia , 2010

LIBYA

Dr. Ibrahim Mohameed Eldaghayes Assistant Professor

Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Al-Fateh

University

Al-Fateh University, Tripoli, Libya

PhD, Bristol University, Faculty of Medical and

Veterinary Sciences, Bristol - UK



Areas of Expertise: Immunology and Virology

MALAYSIA

Dr. Muhammad Aqeel Ashraf Research Fellow

Department of Chemistry Faculty of Science,

University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur Malaysia

Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.,

Environmental Chemistry


English-language journals-10

Number of book chapters published in English- 4

Number of books published in English-1

Dr. Suk-Fun Chin

Senior lecturer at University of Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS) PhD (Distinction), University of Western

Australia, Australia. (2009)

Postgraduate Diploma in Teaching and Learning,

University of Malaysia Sarawak (2005)

Dr. Vasudeva Murthy C R SENIOR LECTURER

FORENSIC PATHOLOGY

MANAGEMENT AND SCIENCE UN IVERSITY,

SHAH ALAM

MALAYSIA

Highest Degree Obtained : DOCTOR OF

MEDICINE

Primary areas of expertise: MEDICINE/

FORENSIC PATHOLOGY

MECEDONIA

Dejan Marolov

Division International relations and EU law

"Goce Delcev" University

Macedonia

Highest Degree Obtained PhD

Field of highest degree obtained: International

law



Number of book chapters published in English 1

Number of books published in English 2

Primary areas of expertise: Law

MOROCCO

Professor Mabrouk BENHAMOU

LPPPC, Physics Department, Sciences Faculty

Ben M’sik

P.O. 7955, Casablanca, Morocco

A prominent scientist with more than 100

publications. Chosen as TOP 100 SCIENTISTS

2008 by the International Biographical Centre

NEPAL

Dr. Prakash Adhikari , M.S. Consultant and President of NGO of Nepalese

doctors (Healthy Human Society)

Department of ENT and Head and Neck Surgery and Research Director of Healthy Human Society, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Institute of Medicine, Kathmandu, Nepal Field of highest degree obtained: ENT and Head

and Neck Surgery


English-language journals: 58.

Number of book chapters published in English: 6

published.


language journals): in 13 international journals

and editor of international journal entitled:

RARE TUMORS

Primary areas of expertise: ENT and Head and

Neck Surgery and Research

NIGERIA

AGBABIAKA, LUKMAN ADEGOKE

Principal Lecturer

FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC,NEKEDE

OWERRI, IMO STATE, NIGERIA

EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICATIONS:

(Ph.D ANIMAL NUTRITION)IMO STATE

UNIVERSITY, OWERRI-2005-DATE

(MSc. ANIMAL NUTRITION), THE FEDERAL

UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY, OWERRI, IMO

STATE- 1999


English-language journals:: 12

Number of book chapters published in English: 1

Dr. ANJOV, Kahaga Terfa

Department of Religion and Philosophy,

Benue State University, Makurdi, Nigeria

ACADEMIC QUALIFICATIONS OBTAINED WITH

DATES

Ph.D Ethics & Philosophy 2011

M.A. Metaphysics (Master of Arts, Philosophy)

2011

M. A. Religious Studies 2004

Books Published: 6

Research Publication: 7

PAKISTAN

Dr. Zeeshan Nawaz

Technical Director, LEADS Pakistan, Lahore

PhD in Chemical Engineering & Technology,

Beijing Key Laboratory of GreenReaction

Engineering & Technology (FLOTU), Department

of Chemical Engineering,

Tsinghua University, Beijing, China. *Best

Researcher Award (Sept. 2007-June 2010)

PHILIPPINES

DUMALE, Wilfredo Jr., Arellano

Department of Plant Science, College of

Agriculture,

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, 3700 Nueva Vizcaya, THE

PHILIPPINES

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) in Biological and

Environmental Engineering, 2009

Graduate School of Agricultural and Life

Sciences

The University of Tokyo

Field of highest degree obtained: Biological and

Environmental Engineering

Dr. John Anthony A. Domantay, M.D., FPSP, Ph.D. Dean, College of Medicine, Saint Louis University, Baguio City, Philippines *Postgraduate Certificate in Epidemiology and

Biostatistics,Drexel University, Philadelphia,

Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

*Postgraduate Diploma (PG Dipl) in

Epidemiology, University of London External

Programme, United Kingdom

Dr. Ruben Castillo Umaly, Ph.D. Vice President for Research, Development and Special Projects, University of the Cordilleras, Philippines

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Foundation Curie,

University of Paris, France(Radiation

Immunology) (French Government Fellow, 3

years)

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Institute for

Tropical Medicine, University of

Hamburg,Germany (Immunology of Tropical

Parasites) (Alexander von Humboldt Research

Fellow, 3 years)

Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Medical

Malacology, University of Michigan, Ann

Harbor,USA (WHO Fellow) – one term

Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Immunology of

Parasites, Leiden University(WHO Fellow, one

term)

Postdoctoral Training in Applications of

Radioisotope Techniques in Parasitic

Immunology,Mahidol University, (WHO Fellow)

one month

Postdoctoral Training in Molecular Genetics:

National Institute of Genetics,Mishima Japan

(Asian Molecular Biology Association Fellow)

(one month)



Areas of Expertise: Radiation Biology

(Biophysics),

Professor Dr. Jimmy T. Masagca

Doctor of Philosophy Units in Science Education

(Major in Biology), De La Salle University-Manila,

Philippines and Philippine Normal University,

Manila

Doctor of Education (Major in Educational

Management), Meritissimus/ Outstanding

Doctoral Dissertation, Catanduanes State

Colleges, Virac, Catanduanes, Philippines

President

Pacific Island Institute for Pedagogy,

Technology, Arts & Sciences Inc.Constantino

Street, Virac City

Catanduanes, Philippines

Dr. Nenita I. Prado

Professor VI, Central Mindanao University,

Philippines

Executive Director, Central Mindanao University

Admission Tests Board

President, Philippine Association for Graduate

Education Region 10, Cagayan de Oro City

Board of Directors, Philippine Association for

Graduate Education (National)

Senior Accreditor, Accrediting Agency of

Chartered Colleges and Universities of the

Philippines

Assessor, Commission on Higher Education’s

Institutional Monitoring and Evaluation for

Quality Assurance

Author: Methods of Research

Research Project Leader: Effectiveness of

Instructional Materials in Mathematics,

Statistics and Methods of Research

Extension Project Leader: Adopt-A- School to

Sinangguyan National High School on Learning

Assessment

Member: Central Mindanao University

Publication Board

Member, Central Mindanao University

Instructional Material Development Board

Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of Philosophy

in Education major in Research and Evaluation

Field of highest degree obtained: Education



Number of book chapters published in English:

10

Number of books published in English: 6

Your primary areas of expertise: Curriculum and

Instruction, Assessment, Mathematics

Education, Research and Evaluation

Vicky Discaya Isonza, PhD

Professor, Graduate School

Holy Cross of Davao College

Highest Degree Obtained: PhD

Field of highest degree obtained: Education-

Research and Evaluation




language journals): 1 with Philippine Association

of Institutions for Research, Inc. and

International Association of Multidisciplinary

Research

Primary areas of expertise: Counselling,

Psychology and Research and Evaluation

DR. MARIA RIO ABDON NAGUIT

Director for Research

Jose rizal Memorial State University

Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of Philiosphy

in Marine Biology

Field of highest degree obtained: Marine

Biology




language journals): 5

Primary areas of expertise: marine biology,

population genetics, mariculture,coastal

resource management,

DR. Evelyn R. Campiseño

Vice President for Research, Extension and

Development/University Professor

Jose Rizal Memorial State University

Highest Degree Obtained: Doctor of Education

Field of highest degree obtained: Educational

Management



Number of book chapters published in English:

Number of journals published in English: 4

volumes

Primary areas of expertise: Education

SPAIN

Dr. Ángel F. Tenorio

Senior Lecturer

Applied Mathematics Division. Dept. Economics,

Quantitative Methods and Economic History.

Polytechnic School. Pablo de Olavide University.

Spain

Certificado de Aptitud Pedagógica (equivalent to

the Postgraduate Certificate in Education).

Institute of Learning Sciences. University of

Seville, March 2001.

Doctor (Ph.D.), University of Seville, December

2003

SRILANKA

Dr. Balasundaram Nimalathasan

Senior Lecturer

Department of Accounting, Faculty of

Management Studies & Commerce,

University of Jaffna, Jaffna, Sri Lanka

Academic Degree

· Doctor of Philosophy.

· Higher National Diploma in Accountancy

(HNDA) Advanced Technological Institute

of Jaffna, Sri Lanka.

· Post Graduate Diploma in Management

(PGDM), University of Rajarata, Sri Lanka.



Number of book chapters published in English:3

Number of books published in English: 3

THAILAND

Wichian Sittiprapaporn, Ph.D. Senior Lecturer

Department of Educational Psychology and

Guidance

Faculty of Education, Mahasarakham University

THAILAND

Postdoctoral Research Fellow in Cognitive

Neurosciences

Seoul National University College of Medicine,

Funded by the Korea Foundation for Advance

Studies (KFAS), Seoul, Korea, 2007

Certificate in Cognitive Neurosciences

Helsinki Winter School of Cognitive

Neurosciences, Organized by the Cognitive Brain

Research Unit (CBRU), University of Helsinki,

Finland, 2005

Ph.D. in Neurosciences

Neuro-Behavioural Biology Center, Institute of

Science and Technology for Research and

Development, Mahidol University, Thailand,

2002

USA

Dr. Prasanna G. Alluri, M.D., Ph.D. Resident Surgeon

Department of Surgery

University of Michigan Medical School

Highest Degree Obtained : M.D., Ph.D.

Field of highest degree obtained : Medicine

Primary areas of expertise : Medicine, Biological

Chemistry

Dr. Karni Singh Moshal, PhD

NIH T32 Fellow

Cardiovascular Research Center, RI Hospital

1 Hoppin Street, Coro West, Rm# 5100

Alpert Medical School of Brown University

Providence, RI

Dr. Ravinder Kodela

Research Assistant Professor

Department of Physiology and Pharmacology

City University of New York Medical School, New

York, USA

Field of highest degree obtained

Organic/Medicinal Chemistry

Primary areas of expertise Organic/Medicinal

Chemistry related Cancer Research

Murali Gururajan, Ph.D. Research Scientist (Research Assistant

Professor)

Uro-Oncology Research Program Atrium 103, 8750 Beverly Blvd, Department of Medicine, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA- USA

Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D-

Immunology &Toxicology

Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA –Post

Doctoral Fellow

Mohan Goli, Ph.D. Senior Researcher

Department of Biochemistry, UT Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX-75235 Field of highest degree obtained: Ph.D.

(Synthetic Organic Chemistry)

*Best Process Development Scientist from

Genentech Pharma Inc, USA(2007)

*Chemistry of the year 2010 from American

Chemical society at San Francisco C.A, USA

(2010)

Dr.Vicky Mody, Ph.D - Organic Chemistry

University of Houston- Houston, TX

Co-Founder, Novaphene Inc.,

Associate Editor for Internet Journal of Medical

Update, and

Assistant Professor of Medicinal Chemistry, Department of Basic Sciences,

Appalachian College of Pharmacy,

Oakwood, VA, 24631

Ms. Mingyan Chu

Senior Chemist Boehringer Ingelheim Chemicals, Inc.

Analytical Methods Development, Petersburg

VA 23805

Master of Chemistry, Queen’s University

Kingston, Ontario, Canada

Yuehua Wei, PhD Research Scientist

University of California, San Francisco

Field of highest degree obtained: Molecular

Pharmacology

Primary areas of expertise: molecular biology,

biochemistry, genetics, aging, cell growth

2010, Ph.D. in Molecular bioscience, Rutgers &

Robert Wood Johnson Medical School-UMDNJ,

New Jersey;

2005, M.S. in Molecular Biology and

Biochemistry, Graduate University of Chinese

Academy of Sciences, China

YEMEN

Dr. Ali Saleh Alarussi PhD in International Accounting (University

Utara Malaysia UUM),2008

Title of the PhD thesis

( Determinants of voluntary Financial and

Environmental Disclosure on the Internet by

Malaysian Companies)

MSc in International Accounting (University

Utara Malaysia UUM), 2005

Title of the Master thesis

( Voluntary Financial Disclosure on the Internet)

Dean of Business and Finance Faculty

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7. Bacteriological Examination of Locally Produced Beverage (Zobo) Sold In

Abakaliki, South-Eastern Nigeria

……Alo, M.N., Anyim, C., Aneke, C.J. and Orji, J.O.

…81

8. Morphometric Attributes of Terna Reservoir, Latur –Osmanabad Districts,

Maharashtra

……Md. Babar, R.V. Chunchekar and B.B. Ghute

…88

9. In Vitro Propagation of Chlorophytum borivilianum (Safed Musli) and Its

Root Regeneration

……A.M. Jakkulwar and V. S. Wadhai

…96

10. Socio-Economic Impact of Financial Institutions Crisis: An Analysis of

Nigerian Stock Exchange Market

…..Bassey, Antigha Okon., Ojua, T. A Ering, S. O.,

Omono, Cletus Ekok., and Bassey, Umo A.

…103

11. Availability and Utilization of Instructional Materials for Teaching Health

Education in Primary Schools in Kwara State, Nigeria

… Olukunmi ‘Lanre OLAITAN., Shuaib Olanrewaju ONIYANGI.,

Oyesegun Olufemi OYERINDE., Olasunsanmi Adeoye ONIFADE.

…112

12. Incidence of Cytomegalovirus IgG Among HIV Positive Patients Attending

Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital Kano-Nigeria

…….Hamid, K.M, Takalmawa, H.U. and Onoja, B.A

…119

13. The Preliminary Antibacterial and Phytochemical Analysis of Amaranthus

spinosus and Amaranthus hybridus on Staphylococcus aureus and

Escherichia coli

……Orji, J.O., Alo, M.N.,

Anyim, C. and

Onyebuchi, A.K

…126

Table of Contents

EEEE----International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME International Scientific Research Journal, VOLUME –––– IV, ISSUEIV, ISSUEIV, ISSUEIV, ISSUE---- 2, 2012, ISSN 22, 2012, ISSN 22, 2012, ISSN 22, 2012, ISSN 2094094094094----1749174917491749

58

Bacteriological Examination of Locally Produced Beverage (Zobo) Sold In Abakaliki,

South-Eastern Nigeria

1Alo, M.N., 2Anyim, C., 2Aneke, C.J. and 2Orji, J.O. 1Department of Medical Laboratory Science and Technology,

Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria. 2Department of Applied Microbiology,

Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria.

Author for Correspondence: Anyim.C

Email: [email protected]

AAAAbstract This work was investigated to evaluate the bacteriological quality of Zobo drinks produced

locally was investigated. 20 Zobo samples were randomly purchased from local markets in

Abakaliki and analyzed microbiological according to standard methods. pH and temperature of

the sample were determined. The temperature and pH for the sample range from 21.80C –

24.40C and 1.50- 1.67 respectively. Bacterial isolated from Zobo drink samples include

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Out of

20 Zobo samples analyzed, a total of 38 bacteria isolates were obtained. Of which 12 (31.6%)

Staphylococcus aureus were present, 8 (21.1%) are Bacillus subtilis, 15 (39.5%) are Escherichia

coli and 3 (7.8%) are Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from Zobo drink. And the total bacterial

count ranges from 1.08 X 104 to 8.4 X 10

4 cfu ml

-1. There were variations of bacteria isolated

form Zobo at post production time of 24 hours. A vinegar flavour and off odour were

pronounced characteristics of the deteriorating beverage.

KKKKeywords: Bacteriological, examination, Zobo, beverage, Abakaliki

IIIIntroduction The name “Zobo” is derived from the local Hausa (Northern Nigeria) name for the Rosella plant is, “Zobrodo”. It contain about 8.3% moisture, 4% citric, 1.5% pigment, 6.9% protein and about 9% soluble solids with a pH of about 2.7 (Adenipekun, 2004). Zobo is an indigenous non-alcoholic drink made from a hot water extract of Rosella calyxes. The extract is usually sweetened with sugar and many be flavoured with other materials such as ginger, pineapple and strawberry. It is quite popular in Northern Nigeria enjoying patronage at various social gatherings and its popularity has recently spread across the entire country because of its purported medicinal value as well as the increasing cost of other available soft drinks whose concentrates mostly constitute a drain on the economy.


59

In spite of the increasing popularity of “zobo” juice of its greatest limitation for large scale production is that it deteriorates rapidly. In fact, its shelf life is approximately 24 hours following production if not refrigerated. Rosella is locally called “zoborodo” in Hausa and sorrel in English (Harrigan and McCance, 1976). H. sabdariffa is natural to India but was introduced to Central America and West Indian when it becomes popular in Jamaica at the beginning of the eighteenth century. H. sabdariifa is adapted to a wide range of soil conditions and is often grown on relatively inter the soils but economic yields and obtained in soil which are well supplied with organic matter and essential nutrients. The tender leaves and stalks are eaten as salad and as a pot herb and are used for seasoning. The seeds contain oil and are eaten in Africa; the seeds are also boiled fermented and dried for use as condiments for local soup preparation (Aliyu, 2000). In this regards many investigators recommend the use of food preventive to disinfect or protect food from contamination with harmful microorganism. “Zobo” drinks are locally produced beverages which of recent became popular among the various non-alcoholic drinks in Northern part of the country particularly in the campuses of higher institution because of their relative cheapness to other beverage (Ayo, 1998 and Gaffa, 2000). The traditional method of production and sales of Zobo drink is likely to expose it to high level of contamination by pathogenic organism through various means. This study is aimed to assessing the bacteriological quality of Zobo drink in Abakaliki.

MMMMaterials and MMMMethods

The processing of Zobo drink involves: Steeping of the dry calyces in hot water (800C for 30 mins), filtered (cloth sieve), sweetened, pasteurized (700C for 5 minutes), cooled and packed (Onwuka and Omeire, 2001). 20 hawked Zobo samples were purchased randomly from the different local markets in Abakaliki, Ebonyi State and were transported to the laboratory immediately for analysis. Samples were collected as packed in plastic cans normally presented to the consuming public. Five folds serial dilution of the samples were made and analyzed.

Enumeration and Isolation of Bacteria

After appropriate serial dilutions of the samples were made with distilled sterile water, 0.1cm3 aliquots were plated in prepared duplicate plates in a standard media: Nutrient agar, MacConkey agar and Eosine methylene blue agar then incubated at 370C for 24 hours. The growths of the bacterial in the culture plates were enumerated by colony count and further subcultured in agar slants fro characterization and identification.

Characterization and Identification of Bacterial Isolate

The bacterial isolates were characterized and identified by initially examining the colonies macroscopically, followed by physiological and biochemical tests (coagulase, indole, motility, catalase, voges-proskaner and sugar fermentation tests), including Gram-staining technique using standard microbiologically techniques (Cheesbrough, 2006).


60

Determination of pH and Temperature

The pH and temperature of Zobo drinks was determined using pH meter and laboratory thermometer respectively.

RRRResults Table 1: Temperature, pH reading and total bacterial count of the Zobo sample

Sample Temperature (0C) pH Total bacterial count (cfu ml

-1)

1 24.4 1.50 8.40 X 104

2 23.4 1.67 1.08 X 104

3 22.1 1.60 6.50 X 104

4 21.8 1.55 4.12 X 104

5 22.4 1.66 2.20 X 104

6 24.2 1.67 3.11 X 104

7 23.7 1.59 2.14 X 104

8 23.9 1.57 1.18 X 104

9 24.3 1.65 3.12 X 104

10 24.4 1.62 4.09 X 104

11 21.9 1.52 2.10 X 104

12 24.1 1.63 5.30 X 104

13 22.8 1.55 3.20 X 104

14 24.1 1.58 6.60 X 104

15 23.7 1.61 4.40 X 104

16 21.4 1.56 3.30 X 104

17 21.9 1.58 6.82 X 104

18 23.5 1.54 4.00 X 104

19 24.2 1.51 7.20 X 104

20 23.5 1.62 3.80 X 104

The temperature ranges (21.8 - 24.40C) and pH ranges (1.50 -1.67). While the total bacterial count ranges is 1.08 X 104 to 8.40 X 104 cfu ml-1. Table 2: Morphological and biochemical test result of bacterial isolates from Zobo drinks

Morphological

characterization

Gra

m s

tain

ing

Ca

tala

se T

est

Ox

ida

se T

est

Ind

ole

Tes

t

Vo

ges

Pro

ska

uer

Mo

tili

ty T

est

Sugar

Fermentation

Test

Suspected

Organisms

Glu

cose

La

cto

se

Fru

cto

se

Colour Consistency/

Texture

Creamy Raised/ smooth edge

+ve + - - - - + - - Staphylococcus

aureus

Grayish Small round colony

+ve - + - - - + - - Bacillus subtilis

Greenish Rough surface -ve + - + - - + + - Escherichia coli


61

Light yellow

Slightly raised -ve + + - - - + - - Pseudomonas

aeruginosa

Four bacteria were isolated in this study and suspected to contaminate Zobo drink. The organisms were then characterized as shown in Table 1 above. Table 2 shows that Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas

aeruginosa were isolated from Zobo drink. The pH and temperature of Zobo drink did not show any correlation with the microbial counts obtained. This could be ascribes that the fact that the pH ranges (1.50-1.67) and temperature ranges (21.8-24.50C) is relatively small to allow any marked effect, also the fact that the pH range of microorganisms particularly the non-acid ones. The temperature and pH locations of sales outlets were found have any significant effect on the counts. The variation in count could be due to difference in level of hygiene condition maintained during processing and the level of purity of the water used. Table 3 shows the percentage occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus

subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Table 3: Frequency of bacterial occurrence in Zobo drink

Isolates Number (%)

Staphylococcus aureus 12 (31.6)

Bacillus subtilis 8 (21.1)

Escherichia coli 15 (39.5)

Pseudomonas aeruginosa 3 (7.8)

Total 38 (100)

Out of 20 Zobo samples analyzed, a total of 38 bacteria isolates were obtained. Of which 12 Staphylococcus aureus were present, 8 are Bacillus subtilis, 15 are Escherichia coli and 3 are Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolates from Zobo drink.

DDDDiscussion

The microorganisms in Zobo drink is not high enough to cause health hazard to consumers, although the presence of some pathogenic microorganism such as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa calls for attention of the institution to tighten their control to avoid epidemic. The microbiological quality of Zobo drink would be greatly enhances if the producers and hawkers maintain good hygiene during preparation and sales of the product respectively to avoid the possible danger of contaminating the product. The producers may also be advised to apply heat treatment (pasteurization) (Adeyemi and Umah, 1994). This will improve the whole sameness of the drink. The microflora of Hibiscus sabdariffa were isolated and identified. The low number of the microorganism is an advantage whereas the presence of sporulating organism such as Bacillus subtilis and Enterobacter is not. This knowledge associated with Zobo drink of H. sabdariffa will serve as guide in the design of appropriate preservation techniques for the Zobo drink.


62

Since the Zobo drinks deteriorate rapidly, may be due to the microbial activities, especially when not refrigerated, the major problem is therefore to preserve the drink. Bacteria isolated from Zobo drink samples in this study include as Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus

subtilis and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In other study Amusa et al. (2005) reported that hawked Zobo drink haboured similar bacteria including Streptococcus spp. and Proteus spp. The presence of these bacteria of these bacteria in Zobo drink is therefore no longer doubt but studies must be pursued towards reducing the bacterial load. This may be explained by the microbial quality of ingredients used and personal hygiene. The occurrence of the different types of bacteria in Zobo drink is of public health importance because the result obtained indicated that isolation of Staphylococcus aureus from Zobo drink occurred frequently followed by Escherichia coli and other bacteria. The presence of these bacteria indicated possible contamination of the drink. Staphylococcus aureus in Zobo drink could possibly be through the processing method which usually involves the use of hands since the organism is a common flora of the skin. The organism is responsible for Staphylococal food poisoning (Hobbs and Robert, 1993). General Escherichia coli is an indicator of water pollution (Hurst et al., 2002) and therefore, the presence of the organism in Zobo drink is probably related to the source or quality of water used for processing. In addition Escherichia coli isolated from water may have some health implication (Nwachukwu and Otokumefor, 2002). Moreover, additives which were incorporated into the Zobo drinks after extraction may be source of contamination. Furthermore, packaging materials which probably were not sterilized as well as containers and soil particles or the environment can serve as a source of additional microbial contamination of the Zobo drinks (Frazier and Westhoff, 1995). In this study no preservative was use and Fasoyino et al. (2005) determined the effect of three storage conditions and also reported the microbial load of samples at ambient and refrigeration increased with time. There is also need to investigate other natural preservatives especially of plant origin on microbial quality of drinks. Since Zobo drink is easy to produce at home, packaged in polyethylene containers and sold as source of income for most families. In other to enhance the keeping quality of Zobo drinks, the processing environment should be hygienic while the packaging materials and additives should be adequately sterilized. Portable water should be used during processing to avoid bacterial contamination of the drink. Producers of Zobo drinks should be educated to know the importance of adherence to quality control measure during processing to avoid the hazardous effect of microbial contamination. Previous work has reported the presence of these organisms isolated in other locally prepared drinks as well highlighted their significance in food (Lawal and Awura, 1990; Abbakarrem and Okagbue, 1991). These microorganisms have been implicated in outbreak of dysentery, typhoid fever, and other gastrointestinal diseases (Uzuebu and Okeoma, 1999; Onuorah et al., 1987a; Onyewu and Odekunle, 1995). The presence of these organisms like Bacillus spp. suggest inadequate heat processing and use of unclean water (Onuorah et al., 1987b), while Escherichia

coli and Micrococcus spp. is equally in indictable of faecal contamination of water, human skin (Frazier and Westhoff, 1995), cereal used spices (Dugui et al., 1975). The contamination could be from the water used as they are mostly from shallow well water (Freedman, 1977; Onuorah et al., 1986).


63

CCCConclusion This work has shown that there is growth inhibition of the test organism by combination of spices and heat treatment. Theses spices can be obtained locally and are very inexpensive.

RRRReferences Abbakarrem, V.N., Okagbue, R.N., 1991. Studies on the microbiology of cassava. Nigeria Food Journal 9, 85-91. Adenipekun, I.T., 2004. M. Sc. Thesis, University of Ibadan, Ibadan. P. 37-38. Adeyemi, I., Umah, S., 1994. Effect of method of manufacture on quality characteristics of “kunun zaki”. Nigerian Food Journal 12, 34-40. Aliyu, L., 2000. Roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) production as affected by pruning and sowing date. J. Applied Agric. Technol, 6, 15-20. Amusa, N.A., Ashaye, O.A., Aiyegbayo, A.A., Oladapo, M.O., 2005. Microbiological and Nutritional quality of hawked Kunun (a Sorghum based nonalcoholic beverage) widely consumed in Nigeria. Journal of Food, Agriculture and Environment 3(3&4), 47-50. Ayo, J.A., 1998. Effect of C. farinose crude extract on the quality of “kunun zaki”.M.Sc. thesis, Department of Food Science and Technology, University of Science and Technology, Enugu. P. 48-50. Cheesbrough, M., 2006. District laboratory practice in tropical countries, part 2. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK. P.137-150. Dugui, J.P., Crushank, R., Marmion, B.P., Swani, R.H., 1975. Medical Microbiology. 12th edition. Churchil Hill, Living stone. P. 170-188. Fasoyno, S.B., Ashaye, A.O., Ademola, A., Samuel, F.O., 2005. Chemical and storability of fruits flavoured (Hibiscus sabdariffa) drinks. World J. Agric. Sci. 1, 165-168. Frazier, W.C., Westhoff, D.C., 1995. Food Microbiology. 4th edition, Tata McGraw-Hill Publication, New Delhi, USA. P. 539. Freedman, B., 1977. Quality of drinking wat5er in sanitation handbook. Theory and administrative practice for environmental health. Peerless Publishing, USA. P. 144. Gaffa, T., 2000. Improving the traditional “kunun” production and its storage stability. PhD thesis. Biological science program. Abubakar Tafawa Belewa University, Bauchi, Nigeria. P. 67-69.


64

Harrigan, W.F., McCance, M.C., 1976. Laboratory methods in food and diary microbiology. Revised E.L. Academic Press, London. P. 452. Hobbs, B.C., Robert, D., 1993. Food Poisoning and Food Hygiene. 6th Edition, Arnold, Hodder Headline Group, London. P. 103-110. Hurst, C.J, Crawford, R.L., McNerney, M.J., Knudsen, G.R., Stetzernbach, L.D., 2002. Manual of Environmental Microbiology. ASM Press, Washnington DC. P. 181-197. Lawal, M,A., Awura, J.G., 1990. Bacteriological quality of locally sold shrimps in Nigeria. Nig. Food Journal 8, 101-104. Nwachukwu, E., Otokumefor, T.V., 2002. Pathogenic potential of E. coli isolated from rural water supplies. Afr. J. Clin. Exp. Microbial 13, 64-68. Onuorah, S.I., Adeseyin, A.A., Adeleke, J.O., 1987a. Occurrence of enterotoxin among strains of Staphylococcus and coliforms in “kunun zaki” and utensils used in its preparation in Samaru, Zaria. J. Food Agric. 1, 131-134. Onuorah, S.I., Adeseyin, A.A., Adeleke, J.O., 1987b. Survival and multiplication of S. aureus and E. coli in a Nigeria cereal drink (“kunun zaki”) effect of spices, pH and temperature. J. Food Agric. 1, 169-173. Onuorah, S.I,, Adeseyin, A.A., Adeleke, J.O., 1986. Incidence of Enterotoxin production amongst strains of Staphylococcus aureus from a local drink (“kunun zaki”). Nig. J. Microbiol. 1(3), 169-173. Onwuka, G.I., Omeire, G.C., 2001. Effect of different treatment on the shelf life of “Zobo” drink. Proceedings of 25th Annual Conference of Nigeria Institute of Food Science and technology. 5-9 November. P. 124-125. Onyewu, S.C., Odekunle, F.O., 1995. Studies on the stability of Soreel drink. Book of abstract of the 18th Annual Conference of Nigeria Food Science of Nigeria Institute of Food Science and technology 28-30 October. P. 23. Uzuebu, J.O., Okeoma, C.C., 1999. Assessment of sanitary quality of preparation and handling of “kunun zaki” using coliform limit. Journal of Applied Sciences 2(1), 230-231.


65

Morphometric Attributes of Terna Reservoir, Latur –Osmanabad Districts, Maharashtra

Md. Babar, R.V. Chunchekar and B.B. Ghute

Department of Geology, Dnyanopasak College, Parbhani-431 401 (M.S.)

Author for Correspondence: Md. Babar


AAAAbstract In the present study geomorphometric analysis has been carried out in the catchment of Terna

reservoir in Latur district of Maharashtra covering an area of 358.73 Sq. Km and ranging in

elevation from 746 to 618 meters above msl. The drainage pattern varies from dendritic to sub-

dendritic and sub-parallel. The stream length and stream areas to stream numbers relation

follow the Horton’s laws. Stream density shows low value for all stream orders. The bifurcation

ratio is moderate and the lower values of drainage density and stream frequency indicates the

region is of permeable subsoil strata and the catchment will not generate runoff soon. This is due

to the variation in stream frequencies in successive order. From the values of circularity ratio,

elongation ratio and form factor of the catchment it is expected that the catchment is of irregular

in nature, with moderate relief and ground slope and elongated hydrograph.

KKKKeywords: Morphometric, Geomorphometric

IIIIntroduction

Hydrological characteristics in linking with the geomorphological parameters of the basin provide a simple way to understand the hydrologic behaviour of the river basins particularly of the basins, which have very less or no gauging stations. The hydrologic and geomorphic effects of nature and human process with in a catchment are focused on its outlet. The advent of morphometric techniques was a major advance in the quantitative description of the geometry of the drainage basins and its network which helps in characterizing the drainage network. The geomorphometric properties which are important from the hydrological point of view include the linear, aerial and relief aspects of the catchment of the reservoir (Babar and Kaplay 1998, Kaplay et al, 2004, Sreedevi 2004, Babar and Shah, 2010 and Varalakshmi et al, 2010).

The techniques of morphometric analysis was a useful tool in the quantitative description of the geometry of the drainage basins and its network which helps in characterizing the drainage network. For the first time it was proposed by Horton (1945). Later it was modified by Strahler


66

(1957). In the present study geomorphometric study has been carried out in the catchment of Terna reservoir in Latur – Osmanabad districts of Maharashtra.

Study Area

The study area, the catchment of Terna reservoir covers an area of 358.73 sq. km with the elevation range of 746 and 618 meters in Latur – Osmanabad districts. It is bounded by latitude of 180 18′ 06′′ N and180 25′ 48′′ N and longitude 750 48' 00′′ E and 760 07′ 0′′ E. The study area belongs to semiarid and subtropical climate characterized by hot summer and the normal average annual rainfall of 802.40 mm.

Fig. 1: A) Location and drainage map of Terna river catchment.


67

Fig. 1B) Google image of Terna river catchment.

Geology Geologically, the study area belongs to the Deccan trap basalts of late Cretaceous to early Eocene period. The basaltic lava flows occurring in the study area are massive compact basalt flows (aa type) and which are at places separated by red bole beds from vesicular-amygdaloidal (compound pahoehoe type) as observed in the well section (Fig. 2a) and exposure in the river bed (Fig. 2b). The groundwater in the study area is restricted mostly to the zones of secondary porosity developed due to fractures, joints and weathering of vesicular-amygdaloidal part of the basalt flow.

Fig. 2: A) Well section showing jointed compact basalt (aa type) and red bole bed

B) Exposure of spheroidal weathering in compact basalt in Terna River bed.


68

MMMMethodology

Drainage morphometry deals with the management and mathematical analysis of the configuration of the earth’s surface and of the slopes and dimensions of its landforms. It is used to determine the geometry of the drainage basin especially it drainage network. Morphometry gives a little idea of erodibility of soil. Morphometric characteristics play a vital role on the hydrologic performance of the catchment and in turn the drainage basin. Hence a number of parameters, which signify the drainage basin characteristics, are evaluated from the toposheets.

The first step in morphometric analysis of catchment is determination of stream order following the method of Strahler (1957). Accordingly the Terna reservoir catchment is of sixth order (Fig. 1). Bifurcation ratio (Rb) is the ratio of number of stream segments of a given order (Nu) and the number of stream segments of next higher order (Nu + 1) table 1. The number of streams of each order is plotted against the corresponding stream order of the catchment (Fig. 3a).

The lengths of the various stream segments were measured order wise and the total lengths as well as the mean stream length for each order were computed. The length ratio, which is the ratio of the mean length of the streams of a given order to the mean length of the streams of the next lower order, was then calculated for each pair of order (Table 1). The length of streams of each order is plotted against the corresponding order of streams of the catchment (Fig. 3b).

Table 1. Bifurcation and length ratios of Terna Reservoir.

Stream

order

No. Of

Streams

Bifurcation

Ratio

Total Stream

Length

Mean Stream

Length(Km)

Length

Ratio

1 436 300.78 0.69

3.60 0.58

2 121 142.88 1.18

3.90 0.73

3 31 49.82 1.61

3.44 0.40

4 9 35.91 3.99

4.5 0.22

5 2 36.55 18.28

2 3.47

6 1 6 6

For determining the shape of the drainage basin, a quantitative study of the Terna reservoir catchment is made using three dimensionless ratios including form factor, circularity ratio and elongation ratio. The form factor (F) as suggested Strahler (1968) is the ratio of the catchment area to the square of the length of the streams and the value obtained is 0.30 (Table 2).


69

The circularity ratio (Miller, 1953) is the ratio of the area of the basin to the area of a circle having the same circumference as the perimeter of the basin. The value obtained is 0.52 (Table 2). Elongation ratio (Schumm 1956) is the ratio between the diameter of a circle of the same area as the drainage basin and the maximum length of the basin. The value thus obtained is 0.61 (Table 2).

The drainage density of the catchment is calculated using the formula Dd=L/A, where Dd is the drainage density expressed as Km/Km2, L is total length of streams and A is the total basin area. The stream frequency is calculated using Fs=N/A, where Fs is stream frequency expressed in streams/Km2, N is total number of streams and A is the total basin area.

RRRResult and Discussion

The drainage patterns vary from dendritic to sub-dendritic and sub-parallel (Fig. 1). The values of bifurcation ratio of the catchment are between 2 and 4.5 (Table 1) indicating that the geological structures do not distort the drainage system (Strahler, 1964). The plot (Fig. 3 a and b)

1

10

100

1000

10000

1 2 3 4 5 6

Str

ea

m N

um

be

r

Stream Order

Stream Order vs

Stream Number of

Terna Reservoir

1

10

100

1000

10000

1 2 3 4 5 6

Str

ea

m L

en

gth

Stream Order

Stream Order vs

Stream length of

Terna Reservoir


70

shows that the number of streams of given orders in the catchment forms an inverse geometric sequence by decreasing systematically with increasing order in conformity to the Horton’s (1945) ‘law of stream numbers’. The plot of mean stream length of each order against stream order (Fig. 3a) gives exponential form around the regression line. It is apparent from the plots that the average length of streams of a given order forms a direct geometric sequence by increasing systematically with order and thus conforms to Horton’s (1945) ‘law of stream length’ (Fig. 3b).

The values of circularity ratio and elongation ratio indicate that the basin is moderately elongated. The circularity ratio is a significant ratio, which indicates the stages of dissection in the study region. Its value (0.52) can be correlated with the early mature stage of the cycle of the erosional development. In comparison with Strahler (1964) the value of elongation ratio (0.61) suggests that the basin is associated with moderate relief and gentle ground slope (Schumm et al, 1996).

The values of drainage density (1.59 km/km2) and stream frequency (1.67 streams/km2) are the low values and indicate the area of weak impermeable subsurface rock or soil with sparse vegetation and undulatory topography.

Table 2. Morphometric parameters of Terna Reservoir.

Sr. No. Parameters Values

1 Total Basin Area (A) Sq. Km. 358.73

2 Maximum Basin Length (l) Km 34.83

3 Total Stream length (L) Km 571.94

4 Basin Perimeter (P) Km 92.97

5 Radius of the circle with the Perimeter as circumference (r) Km 14.80

6 Area of the circle with same perimeter (Ao) Sq. Km. 687.79

7 Form Factor (F=A/l2) 0.30

8 Circularity ratio (C=A/Ao) 0.52

9 Diameter of the circle of the area of the basin (lo) Km. 21.38

10 Elongation ratio (lo/l) 0.61

11 Drainage density (Dd=L/A) Km/Km2 1.59

12 Total Number of Streams (N) 600

13 Streams frequency (Fs=N/A) streams/Km2 1.67

14 Length of Overland flow (1/2Dd) Km. 0.31

Horton (1945) used the term length of overland flow to refer the length of the run of the rainwater on the ground surface before it gets localized into definite channels. The length of overland flow for the Terna reservoir is 0.31 km which means that the rainwater has to run over this distance before getting concentrated in stream channels and corroborate the lower drainage density derived for the catchment. The bifurcation ratio is moderate and the lower values of drainage density and stream frequency indicates the region is of permeable subsoil strata and the catchment will not generate runoff soon. From the values of circularity ratio, elongation ratio and


71

form factor of the catchment it is expected that the catchment is of irregular in nature, with moderate relief and ground slope and elongated hydrograph.

CCCConclusion

The area of Terna reservoir catchment belongs to Deccan Basalt of Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene period. Field characters of basalt revealed that the area is dominated by compact basalt flow (aa type) and red bole bed. The Terna reservoir catchment is a sixth order stream with dendritic sub-parallel and dendritic drainage pattern. The total area of the catchment is 358.73 Sq. Km and range in elevation from 746 to 618 m above msl. Bifurcation ratio and length ratio of streams of the sub-basin indicate that there is no structural or tectonic control on the development of drainage of the catchment. But the study of bifurcation ratio and length ratio of whole Terna river basin show the evidence of structural control on the fifth and sixth order at the downstream of Terna reservoir (Babar 2009). Morphometric attributes like form factor, circularity ratio and elongation ratio reflects the irregular basin with strong relief, moderately steep ground slope, elongated hydrograph and early mature stage of erosional development. Lower value of drainage density and stream frequency indicates the region of highly permeable subsoil strata and the catchment will not generate runoff soon. This technique can be adopted as a preliminary investigation for evaluation of drainage basin on sustainable basis.

RRRReferences

Babar, Md. and Kaplay, R.D. (1998). Geomorphometric analysis of Purna River basin Parbhani District (Maharashtra). Indian J. of Geomorphology, Vol-3 No.1, pp.29-39. Babar, Md. R.V. Chunchekar, B.B. Ghute and R.D. Kaplay (2009). Tectonic Geomorphology of Terna-Manjra River Basin, West Central India. Journal Indian Geological Congress, Vol.1 (2), pp. 69-78. Babar Md. and I.I. Shah (2010). Application Of Remote Sensing And Geomorphic Characteristics For Groundwater Prospect Zones In Tawarja Sub-Basin, Latur District, Maharashtra, India. In proceeding volume of 3rd International conference on Hydrology and watershed Management held at Hyderabad held during February 3-6, 2010, Vol. I, pp. 400-409. Horton, R.E.(1945). Erosional development of streams and their drainage basins: Hydrophysical approach to Quantitative morphology. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am. Vol. 56, pp. 275-370. Kapley, R.D., Md. Babar, D.B. Panaskar and A.M. Rakhe (2004). Geomorphometric characteristics of 30th September 1993 Killari Earthquake Area, Maharashtra (India). Jour. of Geophysics, Vol. XXV No.2 & 3 pp.55-61.


72

Miller, V.C.(1953). A Quantitative geomorphic study of drainage basin characteristics in Clinch Mt. Area Virginia and Tennessec. Tech.. Rep. No.3, Dept. Geog. Columbia Univ., New York, Contract N6 ONR 271-030, pp. 1-30. Schumm, S.A. (1956). The evolution of drainage systems and slopes in bad lands at Perth, Amboi, New Jersey. Geol. Soc. Ame. Bull. 67 (5), pp. 597-646. Schumm, S.A., Erskine, W.D. and Tilleard, J.W.(1996). Morphology, hydrology and evolution of the anastomosing Ovens and King rivers, Victoria, Australia. GSA Bull., Vol. 108 (10), pp. 1212-1224. Sreedevi, P.D. Subramanyam, K. and Ahmed, S. (2004). The significance of morphometric analysis for obtaining groundwater potential zones in a structurally controlled terrain. Environmental Geology Vol. 47, pp. 412-420. Strahler, A.N.( 1957). Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology. Tans. Am. Geophys. Union, Vol. 38, p.931. Strahler, A.N.(1964). Quantitative geomorphology of drainage basin and channel networks. In : Handbook of Applied Hydrology (edited by V.T.Chow), pp. 4.39-4.76. Strahler, A.N.(1968). Quantitative geomorphology. In: Fairbridge, R.W. (ed). The Encyclopedia of geomorphology, Reinhold Book Crop. New York. Varalakshmi, V., Venkateshwara Rao, B. and Satayanarayana, B (2010). Estimation of Drainage Network Characteristics for the Catchments of Himayatsagar and Osmansagar Reservoirs Hyderabad. In proceeding volume of 3rd International conference on Hydrology and watershed Management held at Hyderabad during February 3-6, 2010, Vol. I, pp. 202-208.


73

In Vitro Propagation of Chlorophytum

borivilianum (Safed Musli) and Its Root Regeneration

A.M. Jakkulwar and V. S. Wadhai

Department of Biotechnology, Sardar Patel Mahavidyalaya, Chandrapur-442402 (India)

Author for Correspondence: V. S. Wadhai


AAAAbstract

Roots of Chlorophytum borivilianum (safed musli) were regenerated by taking explants from isolated field grow mature plants. Two types explants stem disc and shoot base were used in the micropropagation. This was achieved by culturing on MS solid medium with and without harmones. Both leaf base and tuber explants gave very poor response. MS medium containing 3mg/l NAA gave more number of roots. The root proliferation was observed on full strength of MS medium after inoculation with the increasing concentration (1 to 3 mg/ml) for Indole acetic acid (IAA) at 1mg/l and Napthaline acetic acid (NAA) at 3mg/l. Micropropagation is to be the effective method compared with other methods of multiplication. This protocol can be used to generate cost-effective protocol for large scale in vitro cultivation of safed musli

KKKKeywords: Chlorophytum borivilianum, Tissue culture, Plant growth regulators,

Micropropagation

IIIIntroduction

Medicinal plants are of great interest to the researchers in the field of biotechnology as most of drug industries depend, in part, on plants for the production of pharmaceutical compounds (Chand et al., 1997). Roots are the economic parts and having aphrodisiac properties due to presence of steroidal saponins, viz., neotigogenin, stegmasterol, tokoregenin. Conventional method of propagation of this plant is through root tubers, since poor seed germination restricts its use. Tissue culture methods have been successfully used for multiplication of many medicinal plants and several others members of Liliaceae. Indian herbal industry is at a blooming stage now-a-days. There is an increasing awareness towards consumption of herbal medicines. Large numbers of plants have medicinal properties like Aloe, Jatropa, Satavari, Piper methystium, Ginkgo etc. One of such important medicinal


74

plant is Chlorophytum borivilianum Sant and Fern. The genus includes about 300 species, which are distributed throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of the world (Canter et al., 2005) Safed musli, one of the finest Indian herbs, is a traditional medicinal plant. Its tuberous root are used to prepare herbal products and ayurvedic medicine, especially a nutritive tonic used for curing general sexual weakness. It is a rich source of over 25 alkaloids, vitamins, mineral, proteins, carbohydrates, steroids and carbohydrates. The demand of safed musli is not only in India but all over world which has made it famous by such names as ‘Indian Viagra’,”Roots of gold”,”Herbal Viagra”, “The wonder crop etc. Safed Musli a unique gift of nature to mankind since the time immemorial. Safed musli ‘a golden root’ is a unique gift of nature to mankind since time immemorial as an alternative to chemical aphrodisiac. Safed musli botanically known as Chlorophytum borivilianum belongs to family Liliaceae. The genus Chlorophytum comprises of about 250 other species which are distributed in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. Seventeen among them are found in India, the most common and commercial being Chlorophytum borivilianum which is diploid with basic chromosome number 2n=16 (Kumar and Subramanium,1986). It has exorbitant market demand in domestic and global market as aphrodisiac. There is a lot of demand for its processed products. But the production is far behind the demand. The estimated global market demand is approximately35000 tonnes/annum. Presentaly estimated production is 5000 tonnes/annum which is not even 5 % of the estimated demand. Current global trade in medicinal plant is more than $ 60 billion which is expected to rise to 222 billion by 2050.India earn more than $ 3000 billion per year as foreign exchange from products of medicinal and aromatic plants (Biradar, 2005).

MMMMaterial and MMMMethod Safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum Sant and Fern) plants were collected from Shri Shale Medifarm, Nagpur (M.S.) in month of October 2011. Stem disc and shoot base portion were used for culturing. Vegetative propagated plants raised under moist house condition were carefully brought to laboratory and washed 3-4 times under running water and then different explants were treated and soaked with detergents like teepol or tween-20 + systematic fungicide bavistin (0.1%) + 0.2 per cent streptomycin sulphate. Further surface sterilization of these explants was done with mercuric chloride (HgCl2) at concentration of 0.1 per cent for 5 minutes duration except tuber (10-12 minutes) and finally these explants were washed with double sterilized water for 3-4 times before inoculation. Auxins are used to induce cell division and root differentiation. E.g. IAA, NAA. IAA 1mg/lit and NAA 3mg/lit concentration were used in in vitro propagation of roots of safed musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum) Murashige and Skoog (1962) medium was used for the present investigation. The stock solutions of macronutrients (31.25 ml), vitamins (5ml) were mixed in the required proportion and three per cent sucrose per litre was added and after dissolving sucrose, growth regulators (as per treatment requirements) were added and volume was made up to 250 ml by adding distilled water. The pH of the medium was adjusted between 5.6 to 5.8 by using either 0.1 N HCl or NaOH with the help of a digital pH meter. Finally the volume was adjusted (250 ml) and required amount of agar (1.5 g/250 ml) was then added and boiled to clear it. The medium was then immediately dispensed


75

into culture tubes or bottles, the media was autoclaved at 121°C at 15 lbs/square inch pressure for 20 minutes. Inoculation was carried out under aseptic conditions inside laminar air flow chamber, The cultures were incubated in an air conditioned room at a temperature of 25±2°C Under 16:8 hour light: dark photoperiods. All cultures were examined daily and the observations were recorded.

RRRResults and DDDDiscussion Maximum contamination percentage (80%) was recorded in case of tuber explants followed by leaf base explants (27.4%).Maximum survival percentage (80%) was noticed in case of stem disc and shoot base explants (77.5%).But survival percentage was absolutely nil in case of leaf base and tuber explants. Significant differences were noticed among the growth regulator levels with respect to root initiation. Cultures on MS medium containing 3mg/l NAA (NT6) and 1 mg/l IAA (IT2) took minimum number of days 22 and 23 days for root initiation respectively. On the other hand the cultures on MS medium with other concentration of NAA and IAA required more number of day’s i.e. up to 30 days. Table No.1 Contamination, survival and days taken for roots initiation for given medium

code (IAA)

Medium

Code

Contamination Survival Days taken

for root

initiation

Root length Root yield

IT1 + _

IT2

_

+

23

+

++++

IT3

_ +

25

+

+ +

IT4

_ +

28

+

+

IT5

_ +

28

+

+

IT6

+

_

IT7

_ +

26

+++

+

IT8

-

+

28

+ + + +

+

IT9

+

-

-

-

IT10

_ +

28

++

+

IT11

_ +

28

+

+


76

IT12

+

_ _ _

Table No.2 Contamination, survival and days taken for roots initiation for given medium

code. (NAA)

Medium

Code

Contamination Survival Days taken

for root

initiation


NT1

+

_

_

NT2

_

+

29

+

+

NT3

_

+

28

+

+ +

NT4

_

+

28

+

+ ++

NT5

+

-

-

NT6

_

+

22

++

+ + + +

NT7

_

+

28

+

+++

NT8

_

+

29

+

+

NT9

+

_ _

NT10

_ +

28

+

+

NT11

_ +

26

++

+

NT12

_ +

26

+ ++

+

NT13

_ +

29

+ + +

++

NT14

_

+

29

++++

+ +

NT15

+

_ _

NT16

+

_ _


77

Table No.3 Contamination, Survival and days taken for root initiation for given medium

code (NAA+IAA)

Medium code

Contamination

Survival

Days taken

for root

initiation


N(0.5)I(1.0)T1

+

_ _

N(1.0)I(1.0)T2

_ + 28 + +

N(1.5)I(1.0)T3

_ + 28 + +

N(2.0)I(1.0)T4

+ _ _

N(2.5)I(1.0)T5

_ + 21 + + + + + +

N(3.0)I(1.0)T6

_ + 19 + + + + + +

N(3.5)I(1.0)T7

_ + 23 + + + + +

N(4.0)I(1.0)T8

_ + 27 + + +

¾ N(0.5)I(1.0)T1

_ + 29 + +

¾N(1.0)I(1.0)T2

+ _

¾N(1.5)I(1.0)T3

_ + 26 + + + +

¾N(2.0)I(1.0)T4

_ + 25 + + + +

¾N(2.5)I(1.0)T5

+ _

¾N(3.0)I(1.0) T6

_ + 28 + + + + + +

¾N(3.5)I(1.0)T7

_ + 28 + + + + +

¾N(4.0)I(1.0)T8

_ + 30 + + +


78

Traditionally, safed musli could be multiplied by planting seed tubers, with an annual multiplication rate of six to eight folds. Like seed, seven to eight months dormancy is recorded in the fleshy roots of Chlorophytum borivilianum (Jat and Bordia, 1990). Due to the fact of long tuber dormancy period, only one crop per year can be grown. In general, various explants viz., meristems, shoot tips, hypocotyl, epicotyl, seeds, singal nodal cuttings, leaf disc, tuber disc, roots, etc., can be used for micropropagation. In the present investigation, two different explants from grown up safed musli plants raised on earthen pots through vegetatively viz., shoot base and stem disc were used for standardization of better explants to achieve rapid multiplication of safed musli plantlets. From the results following out comes could be observed As the first step in tissue culture of any plant involves the establishment of aseptic cultures and the sterilization of the explants is very important Therefore, explants must be free from all the microbial contaminants when they are placed on a nutrient medium. To achieve this objective in the present study the explants were treated with various chemical solutions. From results, it could be observed that above treatment found to be better for shoot base and stem disc explant to generate a root resulting least (10%) contamination percentage and highest (90%) survival percentage. Present results are in agreement with (Suri et al., 1999; Patil et al., 2002; Mishra et al., 2004). In the present study, significant differences observed for root induction from shoot base and stem disc on the MS media both full strength and ¾ strength used in the study. Significant differences were also observed by using 1, 2, 3, 4 mg/lit NAA and 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, mg/lit IAA. This result is in conformity with the findings of Pudake and Dhumale (2003).The MS media containing high concentration of salt (full strength of MS) have produce more number of roots (++++, intense) with NAA concentrations ranging 2 to 3mg/lit (T6 to T14). This result is supported by Ranjan (1998). Plantlets on MS media having low concentrations of salts (3/4 of MS) produced the highest root length (4.21 cm) at 3mg/lit NAA (T7) .Similar type of result observed for IAA of 1mg/lit. This result is in agreement with findings of Ranjan (1998), Pudake and Dhumale (2003). By the combination of 3mg/lit NAA and 1mg/lit IAA with full strength of MS shown maximum root yield within 19 days, whereas with same concentration on ¾ strength of MS shown maximum root length within 29 days.

CCCConclusion

Two different explants viz., stem disc, shoot base were used for micropropagation and it was observed that stem discs gave the quickest response and maximum survival percentages (80%). Growth regulators Auxin like, IAA and NAA at different concentrations and combinations were used for the study. Survival percentage of leaf base and tuber explants was nil. The growth regulator combinations of IAA (1 mg/l) and NAA (from 2 to 3 mg/l) resulted in intense root proliferation. Maximum root length (4.21 cm) was observed on ¾ strength of MS medium with 3 mg/l NAA+/1mg/lit IAA. Maximum root yield was observed on full strength of MS medium with 3 mg/l NAA+/1mg/lit IAA.


79

RRRReferences

Biradar, M.S, 2005, Tissue Culture Studies in Safed Musli (Chlorophytum borivilianum), M.Sc (Agri) Thesis,University of Agriculture Science, Dharwad. Canter H.P., H. Thomas and E.Ernst, 2005. Bringing Medicinal Plants into Cultivation : Opportunities And Challenges for Biotechnology. Trends in Biotechnology ,Vol 23,No 4 Chand,S., A.K. Sahrawat and DVSSR Prakash, 1997. In Vitro Culture of Pimpinella anisum L.

(Anise) Journal of Plant Biochemistry Biotechnology 6:1-5. Jat R.D. and P.C.Bordia,1990, Comparative Performance of Transplanted Seedlings of Safed Musli ( Chlorophytum species) from Sexual and Asexual Means, Crop Breeding Research Newsletter 1(1-2): 14-15 Kumar V. and B.Subramanium,1986, Chromosome Atlas of Flowering Plants of Indian Subcontinent(B.S.I.,Calcutta), Vol.2. Monocot. Mishra, A., R. K. Pandey and R.K. Gupta, 2004, Micropropagation of Tuberose (Pollianthus tuberosa L.) cv. Culcuttia Double. Progressive Horticulture, 37(1):226-230. Murashige T. and F. Skoog, 1962, A Revised Medium for Rapid Growth and Bioassays with Tobacco Tissue Culture. Physiological Planetarium, 15:423-497 Patil, G.D., R.N. Pudake and D.B. Dhumale, 2002, Response of Indian Aloe Barbadensis Miller to In Vitro Culture. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 28 (3): 267-268. Pudake, R.N. an, D.B.Dhumale, 2003, In Vitro Multiplication of Chlorophytum

borivilianum Sant and Fern. Journal of Maharashtra Agricultural Universities, 28 (3): 265-267. Ranjan, M.P. 1998, In Vitro Propagation of Cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.) M.Sc (Agri)Thesis. University of Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore. Suri, S.S., S. Jain,D. K. Arora and K.G. Ramavat, 1999, In Vitro High Frequency Regeneration of Plantlets and Tuberous Root Formation in Chlorophytum borivilianum. Gartenbau Wissenschaften, 64 (3): 106-110.


80

Socio-Economic Impact of Financial Institutions Crisis: An Analysis of Nigerian

Stock Exchange Market

Bassey, Antigha Okon.,1 Ojua, T. A., 2 Ering, S. O., 3 Omono, Cletus Ekok., 4 and Bassey, Umo A.5

1,2,3,4 Department Of Sociology, University Of Calabar

P.M.B 1115 Calabar, Cross River State, Nigeria 5Unified Local Government Service Commission

Calabar, Cross River State

Author for correspondence: Bassey, Antigha Okon


AAAAbstract

This paper present analysis of the global financial institutions’ crisis and its manifestation in

Nigeria financial sub-sector with special emphasis on the Nigerian stock exchange market. The

causes and consequences of the crisis were reviewed. The paper identified the following socio-

economic impact of the crises, namely; collapse of companies’ market value and stock prices,

low volume of trading and decline in market capitalization; inability of companies to access

long-term fund in capital markets; liquidation, merger and acquisition of companies,

unemployment and poverty; lack of confidence in terms of savings and mobilization of fund for

investment; Stress, tension, psychological and health problems on the part of public investors;

and decline in people social status and worth as a result of drastic decline in the value of their

stock and investment. The paper recommended strict regulation, compliance, monitoring,

financial support for investors with trap fund as poverty alleviation and restoration strategy.

KKKKeywords: Stock Exchange, Financial Institutions, Investment, Crisis.

IIIIntroduction

The financial industry is an important aspect of the economic system which itself is a major social institution performing vital functions in the sustenance of the society. The economy is responsible for production, distribution of goods and services for the satisfaction of human needs. The financial industry is principally a service providing unit of the economy which is made up of banking and non-banking financial institutions. Crisis in the financial industry in Nigeria started to manifest in 2008 as a result of the inability of clients to repay and service mortgage loans from finance houses, as well as low regulating activities from industry


81

regulators, worsened by inadequacies of financial liberalization policy of the late 1980s to early part of first decade of the 21st century (Abdullahi and Obiechina, 2009). The stock exchange market is the outlet where investors can buy and sell existing securities like shares, stocks and debentures. It is a marketing channel in which people interested in the purchase of securities are brought into contact with the sellers. The stock exchange is a vital component of financial market. Nigerians elites invest widely in stocks as a means of building wealth. Alade (2009) maintain that most Nigerians invest in stock and survive with income generated from stocks either in terms of dividends gained, sale of bonuses and profit generated from buying and selling of shares. In-view of the importance of the stock exchange market, as a veritable source of income and means of livelihood to many Nigerians who work as employees in various organizations that are key players in the Stock Exchange Market like Stock Broking Firms, Issuance Houses, Registrars of companies registered in the stock exchange market and investing public, it becomes pertinent to examine the socio-economic impact of crisis in the financial industry in general and the stock exchange in particular. In examining the impact of the crisis many questions emerge; such as:

1. What is the fate of investment of Nigerians in shares and stocks? 2. What happens to those whose wealth are tightened up? 3. What happens to the employees of operating firms with their depleting income? 4. What is the hope of business organizations in Nigeria that desire long term financing

from the capital market via the stock exchange? This paper attempt to provide answers to these questions in addressing socio-economic effect of crisis in the financial institutions in Nigeria. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

Functionalism provides analysis of social world from the standpoint of interaction of its interdependent and interrelated parts. The theory focus on the systemic principle in which the social system is embedded in an environment which is in perpetual flux with the system. Functional theory reveals itself in its present form in the work of such eminent sociologists like Talcott Parsons and Robert Merton. The pressure from the environment to an open system as the society can influence its component parts and affect its members. It is on this light that the financial sub-sector of the economy is considered as a component part of the society. The financial crisis experience is a form of structural imbalance which is moving the society towards disequilibrium and requires drastic social action to ensure equilibrium, stability and system persistence. Consequently, this study attempts to x-ray the problems in the society occasioned by the dislocation in financial sector and how to overcome it for the survival of society.


82

STRATEGIC ROLE OF FINANCIAL SECTOR AND THE CRISIS

The primary and fundamental role of the financial sector is the mobilization of savings and investment. This is generally considered under financial intermediation role, under which Banks and other financial institutions gather or mobilize savings from surplus income areas and channel them for investment in desirable areas to foster economic growth and development. Beyond this primary function, regulatory financial institutions like Central Bank issue and implement policies, financial guidelines and directives which directly or indirectly impact on the performance of other finance houses as well as the entire liquidity in the economy in terms of interest rate, and exchange rate. The activities of Banks affect other financial institutions like stock exchange and other financial institutions operating in the exchange market such as stock brokers. For instance, margin loans from Banks to stock broking firms help the firms in terms of liquidity to acquire shares and other securities offered by firms to ensure the achievement of their growth and development objectives in terms of generation of fund for business expansion. Baran (2009) noted over-indebtedness of households and businesses resulting in bubbles in both financial and assets management due to unregulated activity in financial sector as striker of the crisis in the United State of America and with globalization, spread to Asia, Europe, South America and Africa. The cardinal point in the crisis is the crash of mortgage market owing to wide spread defaults, as well as rising illiquidity as a result of credit squeeze leading to reduced lending to real sector, therefore hindering household demand and the confidence crisis resulting is failure of banks across the world to meet their statutory obligations. This impacted negatively on other financial institutions including the stock exchange and its operative firms. The margin loans from Banks to stock brokers were banned in line with stipulative regulating requirement of Central Bank. Banks were required to recapitalized as well as other financial institutions including Insurance Companies, Issuance Houses, Stock Broking firms, etc. The essence of the recapitalization was to ensure availability of fund to meet obligations and restore public confidence in the institutions (Udom, 2003). Consequently, all organizations that were able to meet the recapitalization requirement have to merge or go into liquidation, which negatively affected many. This exerted impact on the stock exchange operation and the investing public in Nigeria, necessitating this investigation. The Nigerian Stock Exchange was established in 1959 and it commenced operation in 1961. It was registered as a private non-profit organization limited by guarantee for the following functions (Olowe, 1998):

1. To provide trading facilities for dealing in securities; 2. To enhance the flow of long-term capital into productive investment; and 3. To ensure fairness at which prices of quoted securities are traded.

Trading in the exchange is divided into two: the first tier security market and the second tier security market. The first tier involves both primary and secondary market for new issues of securities in terms of offer for subscription, right issue, offer for sale and private placement. The second tier securities market is to encourage small and medium scale indigenous companies to seek quotation on the stock market. The listing requirement for the second tier market are less stringent.


83

Contemporary modifications and introduction to facilitated trading and improve operation at the exchange include; introduction of Central Securities Clearance System (CSCS), introduction of E-Bonus, introduction of Trade Alert, and Margin Loans. The Central Security and Clearance System (CSCS) is an automatic clearing settlement and delivery system aimed at easing transactions and fostering investors confidence in the capital market. The E-Bonus refers to electronically captured bonus shares into CSCS system that contains the normal specific bonus allocation to each investor in place of a share certificate. Trade Alert is an investors protection scheme which involves the installation of a software to rear-end of the mainframe of the CSCS computer system to provide SMS message to investors alerting them on transaction on their stock. Margin loans are granted by banks to stockbrokers and institutional investors to trade in equities (Udom, 2009). Despite the innovations in the Nigerian stock exchange, the market crash as a result of general crisis in the financial industry of which the stock market is a part. In line with the functional theory, any unit of a whole can not strive well if the whole itself is sick. Thus, the crisis in the global financial sector engulf the Nigerian stock exchange. Consequently, the market collapse with drastic decline in market prices of shares, market capitalization and all share index.

Table 1: Market Values of Firms

Quoted Company

(Banks)

2007 December 2008 December Differences

Access Banks Plc 160,497.70 116,211.48 44,286.22

Afribank Plc 186,907.36 129,800.60 57,106.76

First Bank Plc 889,084.45 521,228.29 367,856.16

IBTC Chartered Bank Plc

248,625.00 243,055.07 5,509.93

UBA Plc 558,868.86 283,467.48 275,401.38

UBN Plc 498,624.70 205,347.84 293,276.86

Zenith Bank Plc 533,810.02 368,385.53 165,424.49

Source: NSE (2009) Table 1 above shows decline in the market value of Quoted Banks between December 2007 and December 2008.


84

Figure I: Histogram of Sectorial Contribution to Market Capitalization

Key: Other sectors contributing to total market capitalization

Banking sector contribution to market capitalization.

Source: NSE (2009) Figure 1 above which represents market capitalization shows growth from 2003 with peak at 2007 after which decline set in. the point of decline from 2008 coincided with the onset of global financial industry crisis. The Banking sector declined from N6.3 trillion in 2007 to N3.8trillion in 2008 and N2.4trillion in 2009. This decline is global not peculiar to Nigeria alone. Table II below indicates fall in selected stock market around the world. The table is all inclusive, does not reflect banking or financial sector alone. Table II: Percentage fall in selected stock markets as at end of December, 2008

Some International stock market

Country Percentage (%)

London 31.3

New York 33.8

Frankfurt 40.4

Sydney 41.3

Tokyo 42.1

Paris 42.7

Hongkong 48.3

1.3 1.9

2.9

5.1

10.2

6.9

5.1

10.80

9.60

8.40

7.20

6.00

4.80

3.60

2.40

1.20

0.4 0.7 1.9

2.1

6.3

3.7

2.4

2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008


85

Singapore 49.2

Mumbai 51.9

Shanghai 65.2

Nigeria 45.2

Source: Morbi (2009). Figure II: Bar chart showing Stock Market Loses as at end of December, 2008

Source: Yakub, M. (2009) Figure II indicates diagrammatically as in Table II Bar Chart of global decline in stock market. The financial crisis impacted negatively causing decline in stock market globally, Nigeria not left out. As at 2006 there were three major stock broking firms in Cross River State, all located in Calabar linking inhabitants of the state with the stock market in Lagos, as there is no branch of Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) in Cross River State, apart from Port Harcourt, Lagos, Kaduna and Uyo, Akwa Ibom State. The three companies and their operational status are represented in table III below.

Table III: Stock Broking Companies in Cross River State as at 31st December, 2007 and

their Current Operational Status

Name of Banking Firm Current Operation as at

2011

Status

APEX Security Ltd. Suspended from stock/ not trading

Not active

DFS Investment Ltd Suspended from stock/ not trading

Not active

Amyn Investment Closed down the state office Not active

Source: Information from Companies premises and investors (2011). The conditions of these firms further indicates the collapse of the exchange operation in Nigeria, as brokers are unable to render required services to investing public in Nigeria. The condition above presents far reaching socio-economic implications.

31.3

33.8 40.4

41.3 42.1 42.7 48.3 49.2 51.9

65.2

45.2

Lo

nd

on

New

Yo

rk

Fra

nk

furt

Sy

dn

ey

To

ky

o

Par

is

Ho

ng

Ko

ng

Sin

gap

ore

Mu

mb

ai

Sh

ang

hai

Nig

eria


86

Implication of Stock Exchange Crash The impact of the crash in the stock exchange market as an integral component of the financial industry is enormous, as it affects the entire economy, quality of life of citizens, organizations survival and social interaction generally. Thus, the entire society is affected in the following ways:

1. Low Profit/Collapse of Business: Financial institutions with high exposure to the stock market shrinked in terms of size of their balance sheet. Some can not meet up statutory obligations and have to go into merger or forced liquidity.

2. Take over of Firms: With the continuous dumping of companies shares into the unattractive market, the firms were engrossed to the risk of take over, by local or foreign competitors.

3. Margin loan and Collapse of Stock Broking Firms: Since Central Bank in its regulatory function stopped the commercial banks from giving loans to stock brokers, the brokers were unable to sustain themselves in business, nor regulate the dwindling prices of shares in the market. This resulted in continues stock price depreciation, and brokers closing down their businesses.

4. Unemployment: Many investors in Banks, stock broking firms and other financial institutions were laid off. The high rate of unemployment in the financial industry occasioned by the crisis further worsen the poverty condition in the country.

5. Lost of Investment: Many investors lost their investment. This discourage savings and capital build up impeding upon general economic growth and development which capital build up through savings and investment is the primary motivator.

6. Decline in Social Status of Investors: As a result of lost of wealth due to stock price decline, many wealthy people were rather poor. Poverty increased in an alarming rate. Many people developed tension, causing psychological and health problems. This resulted in the death of many people who were unable to withstand the shock of the crisis and subsequent lost of their wealth and income. This particularly affected market speculators who live and depend on buying and selling of shares as a means of livelihood and income generation.

Generally, stock market decline affected the entire economy as manufacturers could not access long term finance for business development which is principally available in the capital market, represented by the stock exchange.

RRRRecommendations and CCCConclusion The following recommendations are provided:

1. Government through the regulating activity of the Central Bank should monitor the commercial Banks and other financial institutions to prevent re-occurrence of the crisis.


87

2. Regulating agencies like the Security and Exchange Commission should supervise the activities of the stock exchange and its various operators strictly.

3. There should be no regulatory power vested in the stock exchange itself to prevent abuse of such power.

4. Activities of Stock Broking firms should be closely supervise and monitor by a special agency of government with regulatory power in order not to over burden the security and exchange commission regulatory and policy making function.

5. The marginal loan to stock brokers should not be applicable again to ensure normal pricing of stock and prevent artificial pricing

6. Public enlightenment should be adequately provided to investing public to guide them in direction of investment.

7. Investors should also be given the current market value of their investment as a guarantee, as it is done to depositors of failed Bank, to prevent further poverty and possible death.

The stock market as an institution is a very important component of the financial industry. The Nigerian Stock Exchange (NSE) is affected by the global financial crisis. Consequently, every Nigerian who have any relationship, business or investment in the stock exchange is also affected. The financial institutions contributing fund by way of loan and investment are all down, and the stock exchange suffers diversity of decline in terms of stock price, market capitalization and general decline in value of quoted companies. This negatively hinders availability of investment fund for business development, growth and expansion. Employees of organizations so affected are out of employment, as salary are not paid as at when due, worsening poverty level and general quality of life of people so affected. Social status of people whose wealth is rooted in stock investment held by them decline and market speculators suffered lack of income, causing tension, stress and in some causes psychological set back and death. Financial crisis affect the socio-economic life wire of entire Nigerian society resulting in a culture of anti-saving and investment. Regulation of financial sector and stock exchange and its operators is considered as appropriate remedy to this problem. It is also considered that government intervention in terms of providing succor to investors whose fund are trap as a result of suspended trading/operators suspension from market is likely to alleviate suffering, poverty and improve the quality of life and standard of living. The financial industry is a component of the economy, any thing affecting it, affects the entire society, as no society can function well when any of its paid is in crisis. Every one must join hands in abiding by regulatory policies and framework of government regulating agencies in order to ensure growth, stability and development of the financial subsector, economic sector and the entire society.

RRRReferences

Abdullahi, A. and Obiechina, M. (2009). Nigerian Banking Industry and the Challenges of Global Financial Crisis: Threats and Initial Responses by the Monetary Authorities” in Bullion, Lagos: Central Bank of Nigeria, vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 16 – 22.


88

Alade, S. (2009). The Central Bank of Nigeria’s Strategy against the Effects of the Global Economic Recession on Nigeria, April 2009, A Paper presented at the Nigerian Defence College, Abuja.

Barau, S. (2009). Central Bank update: The Central Banker’s Role in Testing Timis, www.cenbank.org

Haralambos, M. and Holborn, M. (2004). Sociology: Themes and Perspectives. London: HarperCollins.

Merton, R. (1968). Social Theory and Social Structure, enlarged edn. New York: The Free Press.

Movdi, C. (2009). The Global Economic Crisis and the Nigerian Financial System: the Way Forward, A paper delivered at the 16th Seminar for Financial Correspondents and Business Editors, at Benue Hotels, Makurdi, July 16, 2009.

Nigerian Stock Exchange (2009). Statistical Report, Lagos: NSE.

Olowe, R. (1998). Financial Management: Concepts, Analysis and Capital Investment. Lagos: Brierly Jones Nigeria.

Pandey, I. (1993). Financial Management. India: Vikas Publishers.

Parson, T. (1951). The Social System. New York: The Free Press.

Udom, I. (2009). “Equity Market Crash in Nigeria: Causes, Consequences and Remedies” in Bullion, Lagos: Central Bank of Nigeria, vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 31 – 38.

Yakub, M. (2009). The Global Financial Crisis: Challenges to the International Financial System 4, in Bullion, Lagos: Central Bank of Nigeria, vol. 33, No. 4, pp. 23 – 30.


89

Availability and Utilization of Instructional Materials for Teaching Health Education in

Primary Schools in Kwara State, Nigeria

1Olukunmi ‘Lanre OLAITAN, Ph.D., 2Shuaib Olanrewaju ONIYANGI, Ph.D., 3Oyesegun Olufemi OYERINDE, Ph.D., 4Olasunsanmi Adeoye ONIFADE, Ph.D.

1,2,3,4Department of Human Kinetics and Health Education

University of Ilorin, Ilorin, Kwara State, Nigeria

Author for Correspondence:- Olukunmi ‘Lanre OLAITAN, Ph.D.


AAAAbstract

This study examined the influence of the availability and utilization of instructional materials on

the teaching of health education in primary schools in Kwara State. The descriptive survey

research method was used. Two hundred respondents were randomly sampled for the study; a

structured validated likert format questionnaire was used. The reliability of the instrument using

test retest method was 0.85r. The instrument was administered by the researchers and some

research assistants. An inferential statistics of chi-square was employed to analyse the data

collected to test the hypotheses set for the study at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The findings

revealed that, instructional materials are not adequately available and so teacher does not use

them. It was then recommended that instructional materials should always be made available,

teachers should always be encouraged to make use of them teacher negative attitude toward the

use of instructional materials should not be allowed to affect the teaching of health education

and the use of instructional materials in primary schools.

KKKKeywords: Availability, Utilization, Instructional materials, Health education, Primary

school

IIIIntroduction

The importance of the education in any country can not be over emphasized. Education is a life long process which aimed at enabling the child to learn how to think clearly and improve his fundamental capacity to solve problems as they arise to distinguish and choose between good and bad and get familiar with and be initiated into culture and ways of life of his own society According to Aberi (2005) education was derived from Latin word ‘educare’ meaning to bring up to lead out, to rise-up and to educate. In it original sense, to educate means acting in order to lead out fully all the potentialities of an individual. In other word, it means the process of leading society to which he has been to live, work and die. Education is also described in


90

general term as the set of knowledge, skill, effective and psychomotor behaviours learned to contribute to the harmonious development of an individual in a given environment. This development constitutes higher cognitive skills of ability to communicate, to obtain information, to work independently and groups and to socialize. It constitutes values which will enable a nation to produce individual that will be socially, emotionally, politically and economically fit into the society and also contribute perfectly to the development of his nation (Idowu, 2000). Within the last few decades, health education has witnessed tremendous changes in its nature and scope. Although health education is a science, its application to life and other multidisciplinary areas such as medicine, physics, physical education, engineering, chemistry and a host of other subjects has led to a much heated controversy about the subject. In recent times, health education have started using laboratory experiments, separated partially from physical education or human kinetics to understand in one vividly about the subject. Oshodin (2000) defined health education as a process of acquiring health information to make improvement on health behaviour and practice. Health education is a social science that draws from the biological, environmental, psychological, physical and medical sciences to promote health and prevent diseases, disability and premature death thorough education driven voluntary behaviour change activities. Health education is the development of individual, group, institutional community and systematic strategies to improve health knowledge, attitude, skills and behaviour. Health education in primary school is a crucial and significant for the survival of human-being ad for effective undemanding of a human environment. The importance of school health education is to promote health of the youths and contribute to the overall public health. School health education is one of the most effective way to reduce and prevent serious health problem in primary school including sore childhood disease, etc school health education could be improve through enhance curriculum planning and development, curriculum implementation, teacher qualification and preparation and health education assessment and evaluation. Health education is a concept discipline course of study and even an approach or method through which the right health, information can be impacted into people’s lives so as to stimulate them to have positive health attitude, approach and practices. Health education empowered people to take informed decisions about their health. The purpose of health education is to positively influence the health behaviour of individuals and communities as well as the living and working condition that influence their health. Health education also focus on promotion of healthy environment, the prevention and control of communicable diseases, encourage the correction of defects help in the counselling of pupils parents, teachers and others with regards to health problems; develop sense of responsibility for their own health, for the community and increase the ability of individual to participate in community life construction; it influence the behaviour of pupils and society to adopt health practices; help to dispel belief, taboos about health and help minimize sickness and disease in the society through well planned health instruction. The use of instructional materials in teaching health education go a long way in helping pupils think deeply in order to actualize their dream in its proper perspective for the benefit of the


91

pupils, nation and the world at large. However the uses of instructional materials become inevitable. Instructional materials are all forms of information devices which both teachers and learners can use to enhance the quality of instruction. Block (2005) confirmed that availability of suitable instructional materials in good supply and in education is essential for crucial achievement of curriculum objectives. Instructional materials enhance the good quality of education; bring about high level of assimilation in pupils and also excellent performance of teacher while teaching. Attitudes determine the way individual interprets ideas, concepts and information within ones’ own reach. Olagunju (1996) and Bloom (2004) put it that attitude reflects in the way they translate curriculum into knowledge. It is very important for effective assimilations of pupils.

Statement of the Problem

There are various factors that could influence the effectively of teaching of health education in primary schools. One of these factors is the availability and utilization of instructional materials. It is unvisual for the teacher to produce and use instructional materials in the classroom except during practical teaching. It is important for health education teachers to use instructional materials both in class and laboratory.

Purpose of the Study

To assess the influence of availability and utilization of instructional materials, and attitude of teachers towards the use of instructional materials in the teaching of health education in primary schools in Kwara State.

Research Questions

- Will availability of instructional materials influence health education teaching in primary schools?

- Will appropriate use of instructional materials influence health education teaching in primary schools?

- Will teachers’ attitude to the production and utilization of instructional materials affect health education teaching in primary schools?

Research Hypothesis

Ho 1: Availability of instructional materials will not significantly influence health education teaching in primary schools.

Ho 2: Appropriate use of instructional materials will not significantly influence health education teaching in primary schools.

Ho 3: Teachers’ attitude to the production and utilization of instructional materials will not significantly influence health education teaching in primary schools.

MMMMethodology The descriptive survey method was used. The population consists of all the primary school teachers in Kwara State. A multistage sampling technique was used to select two hundred


92

respondents comprised male and female who participated in the study. A likert format questionnaire developed by the researchers was validated by the experts and tested for reliability using a test retest method. The reliability coefficient of 0.85r was obtained. The data were collected by the researchers and research assistants. Analysis of data was done using inferential statistics of chi-square at 0.05 alpha level of significance.

RRRResults and DDDDiscussion

Table 1: Personal characteristics of respondents N=200

Gender No. Percentage (%)

Male 84 42.0 Female 116 56.0 Age( in Years) ≤ 30 22 11.0 31- 40 82 41.0 41 – 50 61 30.5 ≥ 51 35 17.5 Years of Experience ≤ 5 63 31.5 6 – 10 77 38.5 11 – 15 30 15.0 16 – 20 18 9.0 ≥ 21 12 6.0 Religion Christianity 65 32.5 Islam 129 64.5 Others 6 3.0 School Kwara North 50 25.0 Kwara Central 80 40.0 Kwara South 70 35.0

Table 1 shows the personal characteristics of the respondents. The gender of the respondents shows 42% male and 58% female participated in the study. Their age ranges from ≤ 30 years (11%), 31 – 40 years (41%), 41- 50 years (30.5%) and ≥ 51years (17.5%). However, the year of experience of the primary school teachers are; ≤ 5 years(31.5), 6 – 10 years (38.5%), 11 – 15 years (15%), 16 – 20 years (9%) and ≥ 21years(6%).While 32.5% are Christian, 64.5% are Islam and 6% others. The teachers were equally represented from the three senatorial districts of the state thus; Kwara north 50 (25%), Kwara Central 80 (40%) and Kwara south 70(35%) to make a total of 200 teachers used for the study.


93

Table 2: X2 result on the influence of availability, appropriate use and teacher’s attitude

towards production and use of instructional materials on teaching of health education in

primary schools N=200

Variable No

.

Items Cal

X2

df Crt

X2

Decision

Ho1:Availability of instructional materials on teaching of health education

1. Charts and models are available for teaching health education

97.39

9

16.92

Ho rejected

2. Textbooks are available for teaching health education

3. Instructional materials are available in the school laboratory for teaching health education

4. Teachers present available instructional materials to the pupils during health educational lesson.

Ho2:Appropriate use of instructional materials on the teaching of health education

5. Teachers make use of chart and models during health education teaching.

53.35

9

16.92

Ho rejected

6. Teachers use textbooks to teach the pupils during health education lesson.

7. Teachers use the laboratory for teaching health education class.

8. Pupils are allowed to go on field trips to see physical objects related to their lesson during health education lesson.

Ho3: Teachers’ attitude towards the production and use of instructional materials on the teaching of health education

9. Teachers do not have interest in the use of instructional materials during health education lesson.

90.35

9

16.92

Ho rejected

10. Some health teachers do not belief is the use of instructional materials during health education lesson.

11 Teachers are discouraged from the production of instructional material due to lack of materials.

12 Lack of fund affect the production of instructional materials to teach health education.

P ≤ 0.05

Table 2 shows the calculated chi-square value of 97.39 which was greater than the table x2 value of 16.92 at a degree of 9 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The significance difference existed, therefore the Ho 1 was rejected. This implies that the availability of instructional materials will enhance the teaching of health education in primary schools. Based on the result and findings, significance difference existed in hypothesis one and the result revealed that availability of instructional materials enhance the effective teaching of health education in primary school, this is indicated in table 1, meaning that the majority of the respondents are of the opinion that availability of instructional enhances the teaching of health education in primary schools. The finding of this research work was in line with the submission of the Yusuf (2001) who asserted that instructional materials integrate the instructions; it enhances student’s


94

academic performance. Also Joshua (1995) confirmed that when teachers make use of instructional materials, it enhances effective teaching/learning activities thereby resulting in achieving higher educational attainment by the students.

Also in Ho 2, the calculated chi-square value of 53.35 which was greater than the table x2 value of 16.92 at a degree of 9 at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The significance of differences existed, therefore the hypothesis was rejected. This implies that the appropriate use of instructional materials will positively contribute to the teaching of health education in primary schools. Significance difference existed and the result revealed that appropriate rise of instructional materials enhances the teaching of health education in primary schools. Meaning that majority of the respondents are of the opinion that appropriate use of instructional materials enhances the teaching of health education in primary school. The result of this research study was in support of Aggarawal (2003) who affirmed that the use of instructional materials help the teacher to present and illustrate teaching point. And in Ho 3, the calculated chi-square value of 90.35 which was greater than the table x2 value of 16.92 at a degree of freedom at 0.05 alpha level of significance. The significance difference existed, therefore the hypothesis is rejected. This means that the teacher attitude towards the production and use of instructional material will positively enhance the teaching of health education in primary schools. The result on the attitude of teacher toward the production and use of instructional materials was rejected. A significant difference existed and the hypothesis is therefore rejected. The result revealed that teachers attitude towards the production and use of instructional material enhances health education teaching/learning in primary school. Meaning that majority of the respondents are of the opinion that attitude of the teachers towards the production and use of instructional materials enhance the teaching/learning of health education in primary school. The finding of this research study was in line with the submission of Bran 2004 who confirmed that attitude is the acquisition of certain feeling about something or someone either positively or negatively that influence his/her choice of action in a consistent way. He added that studies of instructional materials revealed that attitudinal frame of mind varies across gender and tend to affect disposition towards the teaching subjects, that is, attitude are fundamental to the dynamic of behaviour. They are the determining factor of how the teacher will function effectively on a subject matter.

CCCConclusions and RRRRecommendations Based on the findings of the study it could be concluded:

- That availability of instructional materials enhances effective teaching and learning of health education teaching in primary school.

- That appropriate use of health education instructional materials enhances the teaching/learning of health education in primary school.

- That teacher attitude (positive) toward the production and uses of health education instructional materials enhances the teaching/learning of health education in primary school.

Based on the findings it therefore recommended that:-


95

- The school should provide adequate and enough instructional material for the teacher of health education to teach in the class, teacher should also encourage the production of locally instructional materials and the school should ensure good maintenance.

- The teacher should make use of available instructional materials. Teachers should be periodically checked to make sure that they use the instructional materials provided by the school. Seminar and workshop should be organize for teachers on improvisation of teaching materials.

- Teacher should be motivated towards the production and use of instructional materials. Government should endeavour to organize workshop where locally made teaching materials are displays and award prices to the best teaching aid so as to serve as driving force into the production and utilization of instructional materials. Teacher should show positive attitudes to the production and use of instructional materials for higher degree of imagination, captivation of students attention and also for efficient and effective participation of students on the classroom.


96


97

RRRReferences

Aberi, O. O. Perspective on History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Emiola-jay communication. Inc. 2005. Aggarawal, J. L. Essential of Education Technology, Teaching and Learning Innovation in Education. New Delhi; Vikas Houst Pvt Ltd. 303-305, 2003. Block, J. Mastery Learning models in International Encyclopedia of Teaching Education, New York: USA; Pentagon Press. 435-450, 2005. Bloom, B. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives the Classification of Educational Goals, Hand Book 1, Cognitive Domain. New York: USA; Long mans Green Ltd. 215-223, 2004. Bran, J. Essential of Learning for Instructional, Singapore; Mac graw Hill Book Company. 39, 2004. Idowu, A. A. An examination of the legal and Constitution framework of Universal Basic Education in Nigeria. Ife Journal of educational studies 7 (1) 56-57, 2005. Joshua, O. O. Educational Resource an Introduction: Ilesha; Gbemi Sodipo Press Ltd., 1995. Olagunju, M. A. The Attitude to the use of the Computer for Teaching and Learning Implication for Science Education Nigeria Journal of Computer Literacy 1, 41-47, 1996. Oshodin, O. G. Health Education and Promotion in Nigeria. Journal of Health Education 9(1) 31-38, 2000. Yusuf, M. O. Learning and Instructional Resources/Materials. Fundamental Principles and Practices of Introduction Abimbola, I. O. (ed.) Ilorin, Department of Science Education Unilorin 256-26, 2001. 7


98

Incidence of Cytomegalovirus IgG Among HIV Positive Patients Attending Aminu Kano

Teaching Hospital Kano-Nigeria

* Hamid, K.M.1, Takalmawa, H.U.2 and Onoja, B.A3 1. School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Usmanu Danfodiyo University Sokoto, Nigeria

2. Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, Bayero University, Kano, Nigeria. 3. Department of virology, College of Medicine, University of Ibadan, Nigeria.

Author for Correspondence: Hamid, K.M


AAAAbstract

A detection of cytomegalovirus IgG antibodies was carried out among HIV infected subject

attending Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital Kano. A total of 90 subjects were enrolled for the

study. The studied populations were divided into two groups, Pre-HAART and HAART groups.

The serum samples were analyzed for CMV – IgG using CMV IgG ELISA kit. The incidence of

CMV IgG in the studied population was 97%. Pre-HAART group incidence was 95% and

HAART group incidence was 100%. The seroactivity showed that 43 (95.6%) and 45 (100%) are

seropositive for Pre HAART and HAART groups, respectively while 2 (4.4%) are seronegative in

Pre HAART group only. Sixty seven (67) individuals were at risk of disease progression due to

low CD4+ cells count (<450 cells/µl). Twenty three (23) individuals have normal CD4+ cells

count (>450 cells/µl), therefore, were not at risk of disease progression. There is high incidence

of CMV IgG in the studied population. Majority have protective antibody. However, many have

low CD4+ cells count, consequently were at risk. Thus suggest the need of changing therapy

which may improve the immune system to avoid opportunistic infection from reactivation,

particularly CMV.

KKKKeywords: Cytomegalovirus, Human Immuno Deficiency Virus, HAART, Seroactivity.

IIIIntroduction

Cytomegaloviruses (CMV) are ubiquitous beta herpes viruses that infect animals as well as humans, primary infection with CMV is followed by persistence of the virus in a latent form. (Kirubakaran, 2003). CMV has been found as a major cause of morbidity and mortality in patients with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) (Lerner et al., 1994). AIDS is a human viral disease that ravages the immune system, undermining the body’s ability to defend itself from infection and disease, caused by the HIV, AIDS leaves an infected person vulnerable to opportunistic infections. Such infections are harmless in health people, but in those whose immune systems have been greatly weakened, they can prove fatal (Kirubakaran, 2003).


99

CMV infection is one of long list of latent human infections that, although controlled by the cellular immune responses are activated after Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) takes its role on the T4 lymphocytes. (Drew, 1988). It is estimated that 47 million persons worldwide have been infected with the HIV and close to 14 million have 90% of infected persons today live in the developing countries and most are in Africa. In fact, it is estimated that in some countries in Sub-Saharan Africa, one fourth to one third of all adults are infected. (Gladwin, et al., 2002). CMV is contracted from dose personal contact with persons who excrete the virus in their bodily fluids hence CMV infection is one among the major cause of secondary infections in patients with AIDS. (Kirubakaran, 2003). About 80% of adults in the world have antibody against CMV, (Gladwin et al., 2002). Between 50% and 80% of adults in the United States are infected with CMV by 40 years of age. (CDC, 2005). In Europe 60% of people have had the infection by adulthood (CDC, 2006). Epidemiological studies suggest that since 1992 nearly half of HIV infected patients eventually develop CMV as an end-organ disease with its most prominent manifestations being chorioretinitis, oerophaptis, colitis, pneumonitis and central nervous system disease (Hoover, et

al., 1993).The introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) has dramatically improved prognosis for patients infected with HIV and has a profound impact on the incidence of CMV disease. (Deayton, 2001). The study is therefore aimed at determining the incidence of CMV amongst HIV infected people attending Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano.

MMMMaterials and MMMMethods

Study area/population

Samples were collected from Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital, Kano State, Nigeria. The hospital serves as one of the facility for managing HIV/AIDS patients. The populations sampled were HIV infected subjects.

Sample collection

Sample collection and processing about 5ml of venous blood was collected from each patient using needle and syringe after tying with tourniquet and disinfected with 70% alcohol etc. The blood was transferred into test tube and the patient’s number labeled. The blood sample was allowed to clot and was centrifuge at 3000rpm for 5 minutes, and serum was pipette using Pasteur pipette and transferred into clean cryovials and stored at - 20°C until tested. Detection of CMV IgG Microwell (ELISA) method with CMV IgG (BIOTECHR) was used for the quantitative determination of IgG antibodies to cytomegalovirus in human serum. All reagents calibrators (Standards and control) and samples were brought to room temperature for 1 hour before use. They were carefully mixed and the test was performed according to the manufacturer’s instruction. The samples were diluted 1:100 with the sample diluents. 100µl of standard/control wells of CMV synthetic antigen coated wells. 100µl of the sample was each dispensed into 90 wells. The Microwell plate was covered with adhesive film and was incubated at room temperature (23 - 25°C) for 15 minutes. The adhesive film was peeled out and microwells were washed by inverting and flicking into a sink. Completely were filled with wash buffer and washing was repeated 3 times. They were refilled with wash buffer and soaked for 5 minutes.


100

Wells were emptied and blotted with absorbent paper. 100µl of enzyme conjugate was added into all wells of the microplate. The microplate was covered with adhesive film and was incubated at room temperature (23°C - 25°C) for 15 minutes. The adhesive film was peeled out and the reaction solution was washed-up. The washing procedure was repeated as above. 100µl of TMB substrate was added into the calibrators and sample wells. The microwells were covered with adhesive film and incubated at room temperature (23-25°C) for 5 minutes. 100µl of stop solution was added into all wells, the same pipetting sequence as for TMB was used. The exterior of the wells were wiped carefully and the absorbance of each well was read at 450nm using ELISA machine – a micro-plate reader.

RRRResult A total of 90 HIV infected subject attending Aminu Kano Teaching Hospital in Kano State was analyzed for CMV IgG antibody detection. They were divided into two groups based on Drug Therapy, those that are not under therapy (i.e. Pre-HAART) and those that are under therapy (HAART). The incidence of CMV IgG antibody in this study population was calculated to be 0.97 (97%). The incidence of the CMV IgG antibody detected in those not under therapy was calculated as 0.95 (95%). The incidence of CMV IgG antibody detected in those under therapy was calculated as 1 (100%). (Table 1) Among the 90 HIV infected subject tested for the detection of CMV IgG antibody (Table 2). Based on the seroactivity of the CMV IgG antibody towards the standard antigen 88 (97.8%) show seropositive activity towards the antigen, while 2 (2.2%) show seronegative activity towards the antigen. In pre-HAART group 43 (95.6%) had seropositive activity while 2(4.4%) had seronegative. In HAART group all the 45 (100%) subjects had seropositive activity. Depicted from table 3, 37(86%) of 43 seropositive under Pre-HAART group had low CD4+ cell count this denotes they have higher percentage over those with normal CD4+ cell count 6(14%). From HAART group 30(66.7%) of 45 with seropositive activity had low CD4+ cell count they have higher percentage when compared with 15(33.3%) of those with normal CD4+ cell count. In subjects with seronegative activity only two had normal CD4+ cell count. Also from total of pre-HAART group 37 of 45 had low CD4+ and 8 had normal CD4+ cell count while from the HAART group 30 of 45 had low CD4+ cell count and 15 had normal count.

Table 1: Incidence of CMV IgG among Pre - HAART and HAART groups

Groups No of people

involved

No of sick

people

Incidence

(%)

Pre- HAART 43 45 95

HAART 45 45 100

Total 88 90 97


101

Table 2: shows seroactivity (seroconversion) of CMV IgG antibody detected between the

two groups

Variable Pre- HAART group (%) HAART group

(%)

Total

Number (%)

Sero Positive

43 (95.6) 45 (100) 88 (97.8)

Sero negative

2 (4.4) 0 (0.0) 2 (2.2)

Total

45

45

90

Table 3: Correlation of seroactivity with CD4+ cell count of Pre HAART and HAART

groups

Sero activity No of

subjec

ts

Pre HAART GROUP

No of

subjects

HAART GROUP

No of

subjects

with normal

CD4 cell

count

(>450cells/ul

)

No of

subjects with

low CD4 cell

count

(<450cells/ul)

No of

subjects

with normal

CD4 cell

count

(>450cells/ul

)

No of

subjects

with low

CD4 cell

count

(<450cells/

ul)

Seropositive

43 6 (14) 37 (86) 45 15 (33.3) 30 (66.7)

Seronegative

2 2 (100) 0 (0) 0 0 (0) 0 (0)

Total 45 8 37 45 15 30

NB: values in parenthesis are in percentages


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DDDDiscussion The risk to develop serious disease related to CMV subjects with AIDS being particularly high when the CMV primary infection occurs during the course of the HIV infection, the prevention of CMV primary infections is thus a major element in the counseling of HIV – infected subjects. (Robain et al., 1998). The incidence of CMV IgG antibody in this study population was 95% in Pre – HAART group and 100% in HAART group (Table 1). Though this incidence is high in both group, showing that majority of the studied population have protective antibody. This however, is in agreement with the findings of Doornenbal et al., 1996, who reported an incidence of 91% among AIDS patients in Netherland. Among the 90 HIV infected subject tested for CMV IgG antibody, 88 (97.8%) had CMV IgG in their serum while 2 (2.22%) had no CMV IgG in their serum (Table 2). This shows that majority of HIV infected subjects had CMV infections; this can be attributed to the fact that immunocompromised patients are more susceptible to CMV infection. Similarly, Mathiesen et

al., (1988), also reported CMV IgG in 17/17 (100%) AIDS patients in Sweden. The seroactivity among the two groups revealed that 43 (95.6%) of Pre – HAART group had seropositive activity while, 2 (4.4%) had seronegative activity and 45 (100%) of HAART group had seropositive activity (Table 2). This showed that in both Pre HAART and HAART groups, majority of the subjects responded towards the CMV infection despite the HIV infection. However this finding disagrees with the findings of Weinberg et al., (2003) who reported that HAART reduces the incidence of CMV viraemia. In another study involving 16 patients, HAART resulted in the disappearance of CMV DNA from circulation without specific anti CMV therapy. (Deayton, et

al., 1999). The correlation of seroactivity with CD4+ cell count was presented in table 3. In both Pre-HAART and HAART groups, there is higher percentages of low CD4+ cell counts (<450cells/ul) in seropositive subjects i.e.86% and 66.7%, respectively. This denotes that the subjects have protective antibody, but may be at risk of developing disease progression due to the low level of CD4+ cell count. However, the low level of CD4+ cell count may be attributed to synergistic effect to immune system due to co-infection of CMV and HIV and this is in line with the report of Goh et al., (2002), who reported that, in HIV patients co-infected with CMV, a synergistic effect between infections may serve to worsen the immunologic profile during HIV infection which in the long-term could potentially translate into a more rapid disease progression. This also reason with Martinez, et al., (2000) in a study, made at Gatell Hospital Spain that CMV remains a significant problem despite the availabilities of potent antiretroviral therapy especially for patients with persistently low CD4+ cell counts. However, 6/43 (14%) and 15/45 (33.3%) of seropositive subjects in Pre HAART and HAART groups, respectively have a normal range of CD4+ cell count, hence they are protected and safe from developing CMV infection. This is in line with the report of Palella et al., (1998) that HAART decreases HIV replication and increases CD4+ cells count. This is associated with a marked reduction in the incidence of opportunistic infections. However, the two subjects with seronegative activity have a normal CD4+ cell counts (>450cell/ul) in the Pre HAART group, this mean that at the time of the study, their immunity is intact, but there is tendency of developing low CD4+ cells as they are not on anti retroviral therapy, and they may be subsequently exposed to CMV infection.


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CCCConclusions It can be concluded that there is high incidence of CMV IgG antibody in the studied population and high seroconversion. Therefore, majority of the population studied have protective antibody. However, many are at risk of developing CMV disease progression, this is attributed to low CD4+ cells count of <450 cells/µl.

RRRReferences

Centre for Disease Control (CDC) 2006. Up date on CMV. Centre for Disease Control (CDC) 2005. Information about CMV for clinician and others in Health Care Settings. Deayton, J. Mocroft, A., Wilson, P. Emery, VC., Johnson, MA., Griffiths, PD. 1999. Loss of CMV viraemia following HAART in the absence of specific anti- CMV therapy. AIDS. Vol. 13,

pp 1203 – 1206. Deayton, JR. 2001. Changing trends in CMV disease in HIV infected patients. HERPES. Vol. 8,

pp 37-40. Doornenbal, P., Seerp, B.G., Quint, W.G., Kijlstra, A., Rothbarth, P.H. and Niesters, H.G. 1996. Diagnostic assays in CMV retinitis: detection of Herpesvirus by simultaneous application of PCR and local antibody analysis on ocular fluid. Br.J. Ophthalmol. Vol. 80, No 3, pp 235-40 Drew, WL. 1988. CMV Infection in patient with AIDs J. Infect Dis. Vol. 158, pp 449 – 456. Gladwin, M., Trattler, B. 2002. Retroviridae, HIV and AIDs. In: Clinical Microbiology Made ridiculously simple 3rd edition Medmaster, Inc. U.S.A. pp 195 Goh,L.,Capt, A., Bernard, M., Lampe, F., Janossy, G., Cooper, D., Cunningham, P., Andersson, J., Kinloch, S., Mcdade, H., and Perrin, L. 2002. A synergist effect of HIV and CMV infection/reactivation on response to HAART and plasma CD8+/CD38+ But not CD4+ Cell Populations in patients with primary HIV infection. In the XIV international AIDS conference, from the body PRO. (July 10, 2002) Hoover, D.R., Saath, A.J., Bacellar, H., Phair, J., Detels, R., Anderson, R. 1993. Clinical manifestations of AIDS in the era of pneumocystis prophylaxis. Multicenter AIDS cohort study. N. Engl. J. Med. Vol. 329, pp 1922-26 Kirubakaran, S.I. 2003. The advent of cytomegalovirus infection in HIV infected patients – A review Journal Health Allied Sec. Vol. 4, pp 2.


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Lerner, CW., Japper, ML. 1994. Opportunistic infections complicating AIDs. Clinical features of 25 cases. Medicine. Vol. 63, pp 155 – 164. Martinez, E., Buira, E., Mallolas, J., Garcia, M.A., Blanco,J.L., Garcia, F., Miro, J.M., Pumarola, T. and Gatell, J.M.2000. Long term effects of HAART on Morbidity and Mortality in HIV-1 infected patients at risk for CMV disease. In the 7th conference on retroviruses and opportunistic infections, from the Body PRO. (January 31, 2000) Mathiesen, T., Sonnerborg, A., Von sydow, M., Gaines, H., Wahren, B. 1988. Immunoglobulin G subclass reactivity against Human immuno deficiency virus (HIV) and Cytomegalovirus in cerebrospinal fluid and serum from HIV infected patients. J. Med. Virol. Vol. 25, No1, pp 17 -26. Palella FJ, Delaney, KM., Moorman, AC., Lovelen, MO., Fubrer, J. Satten, GA. 1998. Declining morbidity and mortality among patients with advanced human immunodifficiency virus infection. N Engl. J. Med. Vol. 133, pp 853 – 860. Robain, M., Carre, N., Salmon-Ceron, D., Dussaix, E. and Meyer, L. 1998. Prevalence and incidence of cytomegalovirus infection in patients infected with HIV-1.Presse Med. Vol. 27, No 20, pp 949-53 Weinberg, A., Wohl, D.A., Ma Whinney, S. 2003. Cytomegalovirus specific IFN-gamma production is associated with protection against cytomegalovirus reactivation in HIV- infected patients on highly active antiretroviral therapy. AIDS. Vol. 17, pp 2445-50.


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The Preliminary Antibacterial and Phytochemical Analysis of Amaranthus

spinosus and Amaranthus hybridus on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli

1Orji, J.O., 2Alo, M.N., 1Anyim, C. and 3Onyebuchi, A.K. 1Department of Applied Microbiology,

Ebonyi State University, P.M.B. 053, Abakaliki, Nigeria. 2Department of Medical Laboratory Science,

Ebonyi State University, P.M.B. 053, Abakaliki, Nigeria. 3Fedreal Medical Centre, Abakaliki, P.M.B. 102, Abakaliki, Nigeria.

Author for Correspondence: Anyim.C


AAAAbstract The antibacterial properties of Amaranthus spinosus and Amaranthus hybridus extracts against

Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli was investigated using agar well diffusion

technique. The phytochemical properties were also determined using standard procedures. The

result showed that some concentrations of cold water extracts of A. hybridus and hot water

extracts of A. spinosus had no activity on the tested bacteria, while the ethanolic and methanolic

extracts showed positive activity on the tested bacteria at varying concentrations. Also, the hot

water extract of A. hybridus showed positive activity while the cold water extracts of A. spinosus

showed significant activity on the tested organisms. The MIC was 0.1g/ml on all the tested

bacteria. The phytochemical analysis of the extracts revealed the presence of alkaloids,

saponins, tannins and flavonoids. This justifies the use of A. spinosus and A. hybridus as a

potential source of treatment of disease caused by these bacteria.

KKKKeywords: Amaranthus spinosus, Amaranthus hybridus, antibacterial activity,

phytochemical constituents

IIIIntroduction

Plants have provided a source of inspiration of novel drug compounds, as plant derived medicines have made large contributions to human health and well-being. Their role is twofold namely; they provide key chemical structure for the development of new antimicrobial drugs and also as a phytomedicine (Abukakar et al., 2008) to be used for the treatment of disease. Many


106

studies have been undertaken with the aim of determining the different antimicrobial and phytochemical constituents of medicinal plants and using them for the treatment of both topical and systemic microbial infections as possible alternatives to chemical synthetic drugs to which many infectious microorganisms have become resistant (Akinpelu and Onakoya, 2006; Chopra, 2007). Because of the emerging development of drug resistance by pathogenic microorganism against synthetic antibiotics; attention has now shifted to extracts of biologically active components isolated from plant species used as herbal medicine. Medicinal plants may offer a new source of antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral activities (Maiyo et al., 2010). The potential antimicrobial properties of plants are related to their ability to synthesize by secondary metabolism several chemical compounds of relatively complex structures with antimicrobial activity, including tannins, phlobatannins, alkaloids, coumarins, cardiac glycosides, terpenes, phenylpropanes, organic acids, flavonoids, isoflavonoids and saponins (Evarando et al., 2005 and Matasyoh et al., 2009).

Amaranthus spinosus is an annual weed that is widely distributed in the humid zone of the tropics including Kenya. The weed has been reported to have some pharmacological properties. Extracts of the leaf had also been used in the treatment of menstrual disorders in man (Ayethan et al., 2006). The plant is used as a sudorific and febrifuge and is recommended for eruptive fevers. The leaves are considered a good emollient, lactogogue and a specific treatment for (Ayethan et al., 2006).. Externally, the bruised leaves are applied locally to treat eczema (Leyel et al., 1987).

Amaranthus hybridus named “Terere” by a majority of communities in Kenya is cultivated in several areas of the world including South America, Africa, India, China and the United States (He et al., 2002). In Kenya, their leaves are eaten as spinach or green vegetables. In Nigeria, Amaranthus leaves combined with condiments are used to prepare soup (Oke, 1983). These leaves boiled and mixed with a groundnut sauce are eaten as salad in Mozambique (Oliveira and De-Carvalho, 1975) or pureed into a sauce and served over (farinaceous) vegetables in West Africa (Martin and Telek, 1979). The plant is used in the treatment of intestinal bleeding, diarrhoea and excessive menstruation (He et al., 2003). This study was aimed at determining the phytochemical constituents and preliminary evaluation of antimicrobial activity of cold water, hot water, ethanolic and methanolic extracts of Amaranthus spinosus and Amaranthus hybridus.

MMMMaterial and MMMMethods

Collection of plant material

Fresh leaves of Amaranthus hybridus and Amaranthus spinosus were collected from farm lands in Abakaliki Metropolis, of Ebonyi State, Nigeria. The plants were identified and authenticated by Prof. S.C.C. Onyekwelu (taxonomist) at the Department of Applied Biology, Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Ebonyi State. Voucher specimen was deposited in the departmental herbarium.


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Preparation of Plant Materials

The fresh leaves of A. spinosus and A. hydridus were harvested and carefully washed in running tap water and then rinsed in sterile distilled water. The leaves were dried separately in oven at 300C - 350C till the moisture content was reduced. It was then pulverized into fine powder and sieved through No. whatman filter paper. The fine powder were stored in airtight glass container protected from sunlight Kudi et al., 1990).

Preparation of Crude Aqueous Extracts

Exactly 20 g of pulverized bark each was respectively dissolved in 200 ml of ethanol, cold water and hot water (boiled for 20 minutes). Each mixture was allowed to stand for 24 hours, filtered with No. whatman filter paper and concentrated to dryness in rotary evaporate. The dried extracts were each transferred into sterile bijou bottle bottles and kept at room temperature (320C) until use. The extract were later reconstituted using distilled water in the following concentration 0.1 g/ml, 0.2 g/ml, 0.4 g/ml and 0.6 g/ml (Ibrahim et al., 2002).

Preparation of Crude Ethanol Extracts

Pulverized leaves (20 g) each, was respectively introduced into 200 ml of 95% ethanol. The sample quantities of grinded leaves were similarly introduced into the solvents. Each mixture was allowed to stand for 24 hours and filtered with whatman No. 1 filter paper and subsequently evaporated to dryness in a rotary evaporator. The dried extracts were each kept at room temperature (320C) until use. The extracts were reconstituted using distilled water in the following concentration 0.1 g/ml, 0.2 g/ml, 0.4 g/ml and 0.6 g/ml (Ibrahim et al., 2002).

Preparation of Crude Ethanol Extracts

The same procedure as in above was followed.

Determination of Antibacterial Activity of the Extracts

Agar well diffusion technique as described by Cheesbrough (2006) was used to determine the antibacterial activity of the extracts. The test organisms were respectively diluted to 0.5% McFarland equivalent standard (Cheesbrough, 2006). An 18 ml of Nutrient agar plates that has been checked for sterility were seeded with 2 ml of an overnight broth culture of each bacterial isolate in sterile Petri-dish .The seeded plates were allowed to set after a uniform distribution of the bacterial isolate following slow rotation of the Petri dish. A standard sterile cork borer of 8 mm diameter was used to cut uniform wells on the surface of the agar. The wells filled with 2 ml of each extracts were with the aid of a sterile syringe. One of the well in each Nutrient agar plate was filled with 250mg of Augmentine served as a control. The plates were then allowed to stand for 1 hour at room temperature to allow proper diffusion of the extract to occur. All the plates were incubated at 37oC for 24 hours and observed for zones of inhibition. A zone of clearance round each well signifies inhibition and the diameter of such zones were measured in millimeter (mm).

Determination of Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC)

The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) in mg/ml was determined by comparing the different concentration of the extracts that have different zones of inhibition and then selecting the lowest concentration of each extract (Agatemor, 2009).


108

Preliminary phytochemical screening test for the extract

A small portion of the dry extract was subjected to the phytochemical test using Perez et al. (1990) methods to identify the active constituents (alkaloids, flavonoids and tannins).

RRRResults The result in this work indicates that the various leaf extract demonstrated varied degree of antimicrobial activity on the test organism which was concentration dependent. Table 1: Antibacterial activity of the leaf extracts of Amaranthus spinosus

Test

Organisms

Concentration (g/ml) Inhibition zone diameter (mm)

Ethanol Methanol Hot water Cold Water

S. aureus 0.1 13 15 - 9

0.2 12 15 - 11

0.4 11 13 - 8

0.6 8 11 9 13

E. coli 0.1 10 13 12 11

0.2 13 15 16 12

0.4 11 10 12 10

0.6 14 8 9 7

The result in table 1, shows the antimicrobial activity of the aqueous, ethanol and methanol extracts of A. spinosus on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli. The ethanolic, methanolic and cold water extracts of A. spinosus showed a positive antibacterial activity against Staphylococcus aureus at varying concentration while hot water extracts of A. spinosus did not show antibacterial activity on Staphylococcus aureus.

Subsequently, table 1 shows that aqueous, ethanol and methanol extracts of A. spinosus showed positive antibacterial activity on E. coli at varying concentrations. The methanolic extracts showed highest inhibition zone diameter of 15 mm on S. aureus at 1.01 g/ml and 0.2 g/ml concentration respectively, while the hot water extracts showed highest inhibition zone diameter of 116 mm on E. coli at 0.2 g/ml concentration. The minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) of the extracts as shown in table 1 was 0.1 g/l on the bacterial isolates, but the hot water extract showed MIC at 0.6 g/ml on S. aureus. Table 2: Antibacterial activity of the leaf extracts of Amaranthus hybridus

Test

Organisms

Concentration (g/ml) Inhibition zone diameter (mm)

Ethanol Methanol Hot water Cold Water

S. aureus 0.1 16 11 11 -

0.2 16 11 12 -

0.4 13 11 9 -

0.6 11 9 7 -

E. coli 0.1 14 12 17 10


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0.2 13 13 16 8

0.4 15 9 10 5

0.6 10 12 13 4

Table 2 shows the antibacterial activity of aqueous, ethanolic and methanolic extracts of A.

hydridus on S. aureus and E. coli. The ethanolic, methanolic and hot water extracts of A.

hydridus showed positive antibacterial activity against S. aureus at varying concentration, while the cold water extracts of A. hydridus did not show antibacterial activity on S. aureus. The aqueous , ethanolic and methanolic extracts of A. hydridus also showed a positive antibacterial activity on E. coli at varying concentrations. The hot water extracts showed the highest inhibition zone diameter of 17 mm on E. coli at 0.1 g/ml. The MIC of the extracts in table 2 was 0.1 g/ml on the bacteria isolates, but the cold water extracts showed no inhibition on S. aureus.

Table 3: Photochemical constituents of leaf extracts of A. spinosus and A. hybridus

Spinosus Hybridus

Test Ethanol Methanol Cold

water

Hot

water

Ethanol Methanol Cold

water

Hot

water

Flavonoids + + - - + + - -

Alkaloids + + - - + + - -

Tannins + - + + + - + +

Saponins + + + + - - + +

Key: + = presence of phytocontituents, - = absence of phytocontituents

Table 3 shows the phytochemical constituents of the leaf extracts of A. spinosus and A. hydridus. The ethanolic extracts of A. spinosus contain the following: flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins and saponins.

DDDDiscussion The phytochemical analysis of A. spinosus and A. hybridus showed the presence of alkaloids, tannins and flavonoids. Alkaloids, tannins, saponins and flavonoids derived from plants have shown to have antibacterial and pharmacological activities (Evans et al., 2007).The antibacterial activity of A. spinosus and A. hybridus observed in this study could be attributed to the presence of these compounds. The preliminary antibacterial screening indicated that the ethanolic, methanolic and aqueous (hot and cold water) extracts showed positive inhibitory effect on the test organism. From the result obtained, ethanolic, methanolic and cold water extract of A. spinosus were more active on the test bacterial organism. The cold water extract of A. hybridus was active against 1 out of 2 test bacteria organism. The result obtained in this study were in agreement with similar studies by Sofowora (1993). All the


110

extracts demonstrated antibacterial activity with methanol and ethanol showing highest activity against the test organism. When plant material are grand in water or the plant cells are damage, some phenolases and hydrolases are often released and these enzymes might have modulatory effects on the activity of the active compounds in the extracts or there may be incomplete extraction of active principles thus explaining the low activity. Generally, ethanol and methanol showed broader and greater spectra of activity against the tested organism (Evarando et al., 2005). The ethanolic, methanolic and aqeous leaf extracts showed a wider range of antibacterial activity when compared to control, it was found in this work that test bacterial organism were susceptible to the ethanolic and methanolic extracts than the aqueous extracts. This may be due to its phytochemical extraction capability. It was also observed the zone of inhibition varies from one organism to another at different concentrations. Similar results have been reported by several researchers. According to Evans et

al. (2007), the activity of antibacterial agent is concentration dependent. The position of zone edge (inhibition diameter) is determined by the initial population density of the organism, their growth rate, and the rate of diffusion of the antibacterial agent. The result obtained showed that the higher the concentration, the more the activity and vice versa. Hence, an acceptable and effective dosage can be prepared by traditional healers for the control and eradication of bacterial pathogens. The demonstration of high MIC values is an indication that the phytoconstituents of these plants have little therapeutic properties and therefore justified its uncommon usage in traditional medicine though the tyherapeutic properties may be increased if used in a refined form. The antibacterial activities demonstrated by crude extracts of these plants may, therefore justify some of the ethanopharmacological claims about these plants for the treatment of disease like toothaches, diarrhea, fever, abscesses, arthritis, menstrual disorder, diabetes, boils, wounds, hemorrhoids and eczema (Ayethan et al., 1996; Ibewuike et al., 1997 and Hilou et al., 2006) among others caused by organisms used for the purpose of this investigation. Results of this investigation therefore have shown that A. spinosus and A. hydricus are potential source of antibacterial substances for use against these test organisms.

CCCConclusion

The two species of Amaranthus leaves contains various pharmacological active compounds. The leave extracts demonstrated antimicrobial activity and was concentration dependent. Results from this current study indicate that these plants are of ethnopharmacological importance further confirming the pharmacological basis in the use of said plant in traditional medicine for the treatment of infections and consumption. It is also hoped there that this study will contribute to the improvement of food habits and public health in Nigeria and other tropical countries.


111

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coli NCTC 10418 and Proteus vulgaris NCTC 4636. J of Pharmaceutical Res Dev 2, 20-26. Maiyo, Z.C., Ngure, R.M., Matasyoh, J.C., Chepkorir, J., 2010. Phytochemical constituents and antimicrobial activity of leaf extracts of three Amaranthus plant species. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9 (21), 3178-3182.


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