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Human EcologyAn Interdisciplinary Journal ISSN 0300-7839 Hum EcolDOI 10.1007/s10745-012-9547-7

Indigenous Ex Situ Conservation ofQ'eqchi' Maya Medicinal Plant Resourcesat the Itzamma Garden—Indian Creek,Belize, Central America

Patrick Audet, Brendan Walshe-Roussel,Victor Cal, Francisco Caal, MarcoOtarola Rojas, Pablo Sanchez Vindas,Luis Poveda, et al.

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Indigenous Ex Situ Conservation of Q'eqchi' MayaMedicinal Plant Resources at the Itzamma Garden—Indian Creek, Belize, Central America

Patrick Audet & Brendan Walshe-Roussel & Victor Cal &Francisco Caal & Marco Otarola Rojas & Pablo Sanchez Vindas &

Luis Poveda & Todd Pesek & John Thor Arnason

# Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012

Abstract The Itzamma Garden and Medicinal Plant Projectis a collaborative effort focused on identifying traditionallyimportant plants used by the Q'eqchi' Maya of southernBelize. The Garden represents a cornerstone of the projectwhere these plant resources (~130 in total, of which 102 havebeen identified to the species level) are cultivated ex situ as ameans of providing primary healthcare by traditional healers.Here, we present a comprehensive agro-ecological survey ofthe Garden describing the layout and cultivation scenarios,development challenges encountered, and associated imple-mentation strategies for improving site practices. A generalrecommendation for the adaptation of this strategy to otherlocalities is the thorough depiction of ecological featuresbased on interactions with local practitioners, for example,leading to the effective cultivation of plants, the enhancementof soil, and the surveillance of crop nutritional status andmedicinal potency. We consider that the ‘ethnobotanical gar-den approach’ could provide a collaborative ‘working model’for rural development, especially indigenous communitiesinterfacing with their local agro-ecosystems.

Keywords Maya ecology . Traditional botanic knowledge .

Land-use fragmentation . Biodiversity conservation

Introduction

The Maya are the largest indigenous group in the Amer-icas and, collectively, they hold extensive traditionalknowledge of tropical biodiversity across Central Americaand adjacent Mexico. In the Maya worldview, all livingthings are connected and plants are recognized for the giftof healing. In recent years, the revival of Maya culture hasled to great interest in this medicinal tradition. For exam-ple, the extensive use of medicinal plants by the YucatecMaya in central Belize (Arnason et al. 1980) and theTzeltal Maya in Chiapas (Berlin et al. 1990) has beendocumented, and some Maya healers have been reportedto incorporate the ancient technique of pulse diagnosis intheir medicinal practice (Balick et al. 2008). These findings onuse of plants byMaya healers are generally supported by highinformant consensus suggesting that this is a well preservedtradition even across distinct Maya populations.

Ongoing ethnobotanical investigations with theQ'eqchi' Maya of southern Belize have identified anextensive collection of medicinal and culturally importantplants still used in regular practice for primary healthcareby regional healers (Amiguet et al. 2005, 2006;Bourbonnais-Spear et al. 2005, 2007; Pesek et al. 2006,2009, 2010; Rojas et al. 2010). While many Q'eqchi'have common knowledge of such plant resources, thesehealers hold an esteemed role in community health dueto their considerable knowledge of local forest biodiver-sity. Based on our previous studies, this ancient medici-nal practice includes a high proportion of primary (old-growth) rainforest species originating especially from thesurrounding Maya Mountains encompassing areas of high

P. Audet :B. Walshe-Roussel : J. T. Arnason (*)Ottawa-Carleton Institute of Biology, Department of Biology,University of Ottawa, Ottawa, ON, Canadae-mail: john.arnason@uottawa.ca

V. Cal : F. CaalBelize Indigenous Training Institute, Punta Gorda,Toledo, Belize

M. O. Rojas : P. S. Vindas : L. PovedaHerbario Juvenal Valerio Rodriguez, Universidad Nacional,Heredia, Costa Rica

T. Pesek (*)Cleveland State University, School of Health Sciencesand Center for Healing Across Cultures, Cleveland, OH, USAe-mail: t.pesek@csuohio.edu

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ecological integrity. This region is part of the Mesoamer-ican biological corridor and identified as a world biodi-versity hotspot for conservation recognizing associatedecospheres and ethnospheres as priorities for careful landmanagement and social development (Gorenflo et al.2012; Meyers et al. 2000; Penn et al. 2004). Hence,efforts toward sustainable land-use and indigenous develop-ment are urgent priorities for this area in face of impendingecological fragmentation and environmental degradation asso-ciated with agricultural expansion and human settlement (Neu-mann and Machlis 1989; Wassenaar et al. 2007; Young 1994).

A crucial step in addressing the conservation of southernBelize’s cultural and biological diversity has been the docu-mentation of Q'eqchi' ‘wild’ medicinal plant resources in theMaya Mountains region as well as the sophisticated traditionalknowledge of the local ecosystems generated through millen-nia of shared learning within this context (Pesek et al. 2006,2009, 2010). Another inextricably intertwined step was de-vised by the Q'eqchi' healers, themselves, who (in 1999) initi-ated an ex situ conservation of medicinal plant biodiversityfacilitated by plant collections on remote expeditions over thepast decade (Bourbonnais-Spear et al. 2006; Pesek et al. 2007).The Itzamma1 Garden andMedicinal Plant Project (Arnason etal. 2009) is a collaborative effort at public health promotionand agronomy for sustainable non-timber forest products(NTFP’s) supported by the Belize Indigenous Training Insti-tute (Belize), the Q'eqchi' Maya Traditional Healers Associa-tion (Belize), the University of Ottawa (Canada), ClevelandState University (USA), and the Universidad Nacional (CostaRica). The project focuses on identifying, characterizing, andcultivating medicinal and (or) traditionally important plantsused by the Q'eqchi' Maya. The project is built on the premisethat traditional botanical and medicinal knowledge could becontinually utilized as a vehicle for primary healthcare andculturally appropriate development in the context of the con-servation of culture and biodiversity. Located near the villageof Indian Creek within the community of Big Falls (Toledodistrict) and adjacent to the Maya Mountain foothills (Fig. 1),the Garden represents a cornerstone of this project whereendemic plant species transplanted from the remote and ruggedMaya Mountains are now grown, cultivated, and used inregular practice for community primary health care by at leastnine members of the Q'eqchi' Maya Healers Association(Bourbonnais-Spear et al. 2006; Rojas et al. 2010; Waldramet al. 2009). To date, 102 of the cultivated medicinal plantshave been identified to the species level (Rojas et al. 2010).

Following the outcomes of a series of recent field studies,the present analysis represents a bioregional and onsite agro-ecological survey of the Garden describing the diversity and

distribution of medicinal species therein. Furthermore, it com-plements prior inventory work in several important ways bydescribing the site’s layout and cultivation scenarios focusingon two key aspects: (1) forest gardening (referring to cultiva-tion beneath shade-trees) and (2) tree-fall ‘incubators’ (refer-ring to decaying logs as enriched sources for epiphytes).Accordingly, the major development challenges (e.g., geo-graphic, ecological, and socioeconomic) encountered duringits establishment are also described along with progressiveimplementation strategies for improving site practices basedon ongoing feedback between the healers and plant ecologists.With this general ‘ethnobotanical garden approach’ it is ourintention to provide a collaborative working model for ruraland especially indigenous communities interfacing with theirlocal agro-ecosystems for the conservation of plant resources.As such, we consider that this strategy could provide a cul-turally relevant development path for traditional peoples.

Methods

Bioregional Classification

Ecoregions in the Toledo district of southern Belize were iden-tified using remotely-sensed “Ecosystem classification” layers(Belize Biodiversity Mapping Service—BBMS 2006) whichwere made available by the Biodiversity and EnvironmentalResources Database of Belize (BERDS). GPS site markers (x,y) were recorded at all five reported plant loci (see below) andverified for accuracy using Google Earth v.6.0 (Google, Inc.,Mountain View, CA, USA). This depiction was used to situatetheGarden and cultivation sites in relation to regional biologicaland anthropogenic activities. Unless described otherwise,all mapping and processing methodologies were achievedusing ArcGIS v.10 (ESRI, Inc., Redlands, CA, USA).

Grid-Line Mapping

The Garden’s agro-ecological survey was conducted using acoordinated grid-line mapping method with direct assistancefrom the healers. This consisted of dispatching Cartesian refer-ence markers throughout the site to triangulate its periphery andecological features (e.g., established walking trails, cultivatedrows, etc.), and directly measuring all lengths and intermediatedistances between them. The site’s ecological succession zones(early or late) were determined according to the vegetation types(forest canopy or open-field grassland) and land managementpractices (cultivated or uncultivated). GPS data points wererecorded for selected reference markers and ecological featuresto verify the fit and accuracy of the final grid-line map. TheGarden’s ethnobotanical species list (including correspondingscientific taxonomies, folk names, ethnobotanical usages, andsite locations) was compiled from our developing research

1 Itzamma meaning “place of Itzamnaaj” who is a principal pre-Columbian Maya deity and “bringer of Itz” or life essence andhealth/healing.

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database which includes the work of Bourbonnais-Spear et al.(2005, 2007); Amiguet et al. (2005, 2006); Pesek et al. (2006,2007, 2009, 2010), and Rojas et al. (2010). These resourceswere collected previously based on individual open-ended heal-er interviews and verified through member checking and cross-referencing of names and voucher specimens.

Healer Interviews and Agro-Ecological Feedback

Information pertaining to the physical and spiritual treatment ofthe plants, agro-ecological status of ‘wild’ vs. transplanted/cultivated plant species, local agronomic challenges experience,and progressive management solutions was provided by four ofthe nine most active healers due to their special expertise andinvolvement in the project2. A group interview conducted overconsecutive days was performed to tabulate the essentialconsensus dataset. This was supplemented by more in-depth discussions with the Garden’s ‘manager’ and head-

healer both onsite and during field expeditions. In additionto establishing the identity and distribution of plant resour-ces, the healers were asked to classify the relative transplan-tation success and survivorship of plants ([1] high: trouble-free; [2] moderate: some difficulties; [3] low: problematic) inrelation to their place of origin (within range of: the ItzammaGarden, the community of Big Falls, the town of PuntaGorda, the village of Crique Sarco, or the village of Jalacte)and in rank of their apparent medicinal potency ([1] lowerpotency: usage not preferred; [2] somewhat lower potency:greater biomass required for equal dosage; [3] equal potency:no change in dosage). Albeit anecdotal in nature, these semi-quantitative data were collected as a Garden practitioners’field-level insight into the eco-physiological constraints of re-establishing often delicate Neotropical plants offsite (ex situ)as well as assessing the likelihood of their regular cultivateduse compared to wild-harvested (in situ) specimens.

Informed Consent and Ethical Approval

Informed consent protocol was approved by the Institu-tional Review Board and Ethics Committee of the

2 For example, regarding the identification and preparation of medic-inal plants, the implementation of daily garden practices, and thecoordination of species transplantations.

Fig. 1 Ecoregions in the Toledo district of southern Belize, C.A. [1: 1,500,000 scale] based on “Ecosystem classification” data layers (BBMP2006). The Itzamma Garden ( ) and cultivation sites (filled circle) are indicated along with regional ecological features

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University of Ottawa (File H 03-07-01) and the Institu-tional Review Board of Cleveland State University (File26228-PES-HS). Ethnobotanical information was collect-ed through a series of open-ended and qualitative ethno-graphic interviews. Participating healers granted priorinformed consent and their ethnobotanical knowledgewas protected as intellectual property through a researchagreement with the University of Ottawa. The identitiesof the healers were maintained in confidence to protecttheir privacy.

Results and Discussion

Site Description and Underlying Principles

Situated amid interlacing lowland broadleaved wet forestand zones of agricultural activity (approx. 16.20° N and88.47° W—Fig. 1), the Itzamma Garden is a 1 ha (2.4acre) managed agro-ecosystem located within 20 ha (50acres) of disturbed secondary rainforest and shrubland(Fig. 2). The site comprises hundreds of medicinal and(or) edible species (Tables 1 and 2) that were collectedover the past decade from remote sites on expeditionsthroughout the Maya Mountains and local forays withinrange of the community of Big Falls, the town of PuntaGorda, and the villages of Jalacte and Crique Sarco.From its inception, the Garden was a joint-initiative bythe healers who cited general concerns for disappearing‘wild’ species and the long travel required to collectmedicinal plants from the Maya Mountains and otheroutlying regions. Taking into consideration the changingbioregional status of southern Belize, for example, due tothe encroachment of shifting (slash-and-burn) agriculturalpractices (Arnason et al. 1982, 1984; Lambert and Arnason1986; Levasseur and Olivier 2000) and the expansion ofpasture-lands for grazing (Wassenaar et al. 2007), theGarden is at the interface of human settlement with thenatural environment. Facilitated by the recent prolifera-tion of modern roadways that seek to connect Belizenorth-to-south, the predominately rural, agricultural andsubsistence-based Belizean-Maya (including both theMopan and Q'eqchi') are, in part, responsible for theexpansion of agricultural activities that detrimentallyeffects contiguous forest and thereby threatens rare me-dicinal plant species. Hence, the Garden was proposedas a way forward for the conservation of plant resourcesin relation to impending land-use fragmentation andenvironmental degradation. In doing so, the Garden isintended as a cultural landmark for the dissemination oftraditional botanical knowledge and a vehicle for thepromotion of health and wellbeing among the Q'eqchi'communities.

Q'eqchi' ethnobotany incorporates a common and trans-cultural concept regarding the balance between health andillness found elsewhere within the region (e.g., Mexico &Guatemala) and worldwide (e.g., China & Southeast Asia).This holistic paradigm is characterized by a ‘hot/cold’theory of disease whereby, for instance, ‘hot’ ailments (suchas fever) are treated using ‘cold’ remedies—and vice versa.The Q'eqchi' tradition also treats spiritual imbalances (e.g.,mal viento, “bad wind”; susto, “fright or fear”) as well asorganic disorders (e.g., infestations and internal parasites)that are not easily accounted for by the general ‘hot/cold’theory. According to a consensus of ethnobotanical inves-tigations by Bourbonnais-Spear et al. (2005, 2007); Amiguetet al. (2005, 2006), and Pesek et al. (2010), a wide range ofmedicinal plant usage classifications have been identified3

according to Cook’s (1995) standardization which was adap-ted to include culture bound syndromes. Of the ~130 distinctplant resources at the Garden (of which 102 have beenidentified to the species level), those use with the highestfrequency are treatments for infections and digestive disor-ders (which are common in the tropics) as well as nervoussystem disorders. These treatments are typically accompa-nied by prayers and rituals performed by the healers as partof the Garden’s spiritual experience. Likewise, plant cultiva-tion practices (both in situ and ex situ) are accompanied byspiritual offerings (e.g., burning candles, incense, and tobac-co) and bulk harvesting is monitored and controlled by thehealers in an effort to sustain ‘wild’ and ‘domestic’ stocks. Asecond group of more common plants consisting of me-dicinal, edible, and ornamental species are also grown atthe Garden. These include plants widely used in Belize thatare also known outside of the Maya tradition, such as ginger(Zingiber officinale) for nausea, fevergrass (Cymbopogoncitratus) for colds and flu, guava (Psidium guajava) fordiarrhea, allspice (Pimienta doica) for digestion, cat’s claw(Uncaria tomentosa) for inflammation, and jackass bitters(Neurolaena lobata) for arthritis and ulcers. In discussions,the healers expressed a desire to evaluate their traditionalmedicine for safety and efficacy so that it can take its placewith other traditional medicine systems (e.g., TraditionalChinese Medicine). In this regard, the phytochemical and bio-molecular characterization of these plants for the purpose ofidentifying their respective mechanisms of biochemical activityis ongoing (refer to: Awad et al. 2009; Mullally et al. 2011).

3 For example: circulatory and respiratory disorders; digestive disor-ders; endocrine disorders; genitourinary disorders; nutritional and met-abolic disorders; musculo-skeletal disorders; sensory and nervousdisorders; poisoning; pregnancy, birth and puerperium disorders; skin,subcutaneous and cellular tissue disorders; general injuries and infec-tions; and mental disorders.

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Agro-Ecology and Forest Management

A substantial re-organization of the Garden (as it is now) wasundertaken in the wake of Hurricane Iris during the 2001Atlantic tropical cyclone season that resulted in the destructionof its basic infrastructure (e.g., trek-force building, onsitereference collections and seedlings) (Bourbonnais-Spear etal. 2006; Rojas et al. 2010). Since this time, the healers andplant scientists have paid careful attention to documents thediversity, distribution, and physiological status of the plantresources. Based on these analyses, the ecological successionhistory of the cultivated zones (Fig. 2a) is described as sec-ondary (mid- to late-succession) forest canopy and managedopen-field grasslands that are partially surrounded by a

seasonal floodplain due to the bordering Golden stream4.Given that most of the member species originate primarilyfrom outer-lying localities (Amiguet et al. 2005, 2006; Peseket al. 2006, 2009, 2010), the majority of medicinal plants arecultivated in the forest canopy zone which provides muchneeded shade and soil moisture. Still, the apparent sensitivityof these plants to this ‘novel’ environment (via transplantationand domestication) compared to their ‘wild’ cultivation hasprompted some concerns by the healers regarding their

4 During the wet season, the Golden Stream is commonly accessed bymembers of the Big Falls community as a site for artisanal fishingwhich supports the use of the Garden as a cultural centre.

Fig. 2 Agro-ecological survey of the Itzamma Ethnobotanical Garden atIndian Creek, Belize, C.A. The site’s (a) succession history is shownoutlining the cultivated (solid line) and uncultivated zones (dotted line),as well as (b) the distribution of plant species (e.g., row cultivars and fieldplots) within the forest canopy and (c) managed grassland zones. The

waking trails are represented as dotted lines. A précis of (d) epiphyticplants associated with Log 1 is shown. The distribution and relative areaof species are represented as solid circles; runner vines and bushes arerepresented as dotted free-forms. The corresponding identification numb-ers for all species are listed in Tables 1 and 2

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potential medicinal potency (see below). Conversely, betteradapted commercial cultivars are more prominent in the man-aged open-field which is exposed to high levels of sunlightand seasonal water drainage. In addition to the wide variety

and abundance of Maya medicinal species, some of the agro-ecological features of the Garden include: large patches ofcultivated tropical ginger (rows 1–14 in Fig. 2b and patch C4in Fig. 2c); tree-fall incubators (i.e., decaying logs) for the

Table 1 Catalogue of ethnomedicinal plants – Cultivated rows

Family Taxon Folk Name I.D.

Acanthaceae Justicia pectoralis Jacq. Xu kui kok 58

Justicia sp. Jolom chakmut 25,48,72,73, 75,77,84

Adiantaceae Pteris pungens Willd. Roq chiq'wan 19

Arecaceae Chamadorea sp. Xate’ 44,49,51,86

Araliaceae Dendropanax arboreus (L.) Decne.& Planch. Cojl che' 62

Begoniaceae Begonia glabra Aubl. Kaki pim 21a

Costaceae Costus laevis Ruiz & Pav. Tzu'un 15, 22, 23,40,61

Davalliaceae Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott. Uq mockoch 46

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha arvensis Poepp. Kak uqub 34

Gesneraceae Columnea sulfurea Donn. Sm. Kaki pim 21a

Haemodoraceae Xiphidium caeruleum Aubl. Ix qwa ihquch 20

Loganiaceae Strychnos panamensis Seem. Krus / Kurus qix 36,37

Malvaceae Pavonia paniculata Cav. Jolom pich 43

Melastomataceae Blakea cuneata Standl. Xoi pim 55

Clidemia capitellata (Bonpl.) D. Don. var dependens(D. Don.) J.F. Macbr.

Ixq pim 39

Clidemia crenulata Gleason Tzo pim 28

Miconia sp. Roq muqui 30

Monimiaceae Siparuna thecaphora (Poepp. & Endl.) A. DC. Chu che 50

Mollimedia guatemalensis Perkins Saki kejen 33,68,74

Myrtaceae Blakea cuneata Standl. Oxlaju Txajom 42

Pimenta guatemalensis (Lundell) Lundell Pens' 85

Piperaceae Peperomia tetraphylla (G. Forst.) Hook. & Arm. Puchuch retzul 29

Peperomia sp. Mai pim 57

Piper aff. aequale Vahl Puchuch rekanil 71,78

Piper hispidum Sw. Kan pom 14,16

Piper schiedeanum Steud. Marcus kejen / Tint it puchuch 18,56

Piper tuerckeimii C.DC. ex Donn. Sm. Cux sawi 66,67

Piper yucatanense C. DC. Tzulub pim 35b

Piper sp. Rax puchuch 79

Rubiaceae Gonzalagunia panamensis (Cav.) K.Schum. Chu che / Tzul che' 47,83

Psychotria sp. Koleras / Koleras k’aan 17,82

Schizaeaceae Lygodium venustum Sw. Ruxbi ka'ak 41,54

Selaginelliaceae Selaginella umbrosa Lem. Ex Hieron. Choq'l pim 65

Solanaceae Solanum megalophyllum Dunal Ix pim 27

Solanum sp. Iq kejen 31

Verbenaceae Adiantum wilsonii Hook. Ruj I raq'I tzi' 52,70

Hoffmannia sp. Rak so'sol 68b

Vitaceae Vitis tiliifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Roem. & Schult. Tzulub pim 35b

Zinginberacea Zinginger officionale Xan xir 1–13

~ 17 other taxons yet to be determined ~

a Folk name associated with more than one taxonb Folk name associated with more than one taxon

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Table 2 Catalogue of ethnomedicinal plants – Decaying log1 epiphytes and open-field patches

Family Taxon Folk Name I.D.

Acanthaceae Aphelandra scabra (Vahl.) Sm. Xilix 63

Justicia aff.fimbriata (Nees) V.A.W. Graham Jolom chakmut 63

Justicia albobracteata Leonard Xna' k'ejen 72

Adiantaceae Adiantum pulverulentum L. Sisb' k'itche' 50

Pteris pungens Willd. Rok' chitwan 9

Annonaceae Annona aff. glabra L. Jolob'ob' 23

Arecaceae Chamadorea sp. Xate' 48

Araceae Anthurium willdenowii Kunth. X ch'ich ma'us 25

Anthurium sp. Xtye' aj pu' 3

Philodendron sp. U'xb 61

Syngonium sp. Ruk' ma'us 13

TBD Letzeb / Sankil pim / Sankil kejen 31, 44

Asteraceae Matricaria recutita L. German Camomile C3b

Mikania guaco Humb. & Bonpl. Ra'an k'antyaj 10

Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass. sepi Jackass Bitter C2b

Vernonia stellaris La Llave & Lex. Joblo' te' 74

TBD Bak'nel pim 65

TBD Juruch aj pak' 19

TBD Rax i juruch' aj pak' 51

Begoniaceae Begonia glabra Aubl. var. Glabra Pa' ulul 33

Begonia heracleifolia Schltdl.& Cham. Xak' pek 58a

Burseraceae Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. K'ajal 35

Cactaceae Wilmattea minutiflora (Britton & Rose) Britton & Rose. Chik babak' 11

Cucurbitaceae Gurania makoyana (Lem.) Cogn. K'um pim 8

Davalliaceae Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott. K’uk mukoch 71, 52

Desconocida TBD Rax i ch'ajom k'ajam 18

Euphorbiaceae Acalypha arvensis Poepp. Kak' i uk'ub 69

Fabaceae-Caesalpinioideae Acosmium panamense (Benth.) Yakovlev K'an che' / K’an i che’ 6, 46

Senna hayesiana (Britton & Rose) H.S. Irwin & Barneby Karabans' che' 59

Gesneriaceae Columnea sulfurea Donn. Sm. Kak' i pim / Cua' bon 76

Marcgraviaceae Souroubea gilgii V.A. Richt. Jub'ub 37

Melastomataceae Clidemia capitellata (Bonpl.) D. Don. var dependens(D. Don.) J.F. Macbr.

Jix 32

Hyptis verticillata Jacq. K'otz / Ch'up i xim 75

Mimosaceae Acacia sp. Subin 40

Monimiaceae Mollimedia guatemalensis Perkins Chich' i mo'or 45

Epiphyllum phyllanthus (L.) Haw. var strictum (Lem.) Kimnach Sankil kejen

Moraceae Dorstenia sp. X cua chak'bo' lai 17

Moraceae Dorstenia contrajerva L. Xak' pek 58a

Orchidaceae TBD Jolom k'an tyaj 41

Piperaceae Peperomia hispidula (Sw.) A. Dietr. Cui i xul 14

Peperomia sp. Cui ajawchan 15

Peperomia sp. Mai pim 30

Piper aequale Vahl Pu'chuch re'tzul 42

Piper amalago L. Tziri tok' 56

Piperaceae Piper auritum Kunth U'bel 47

Piper hispidum Sw. K'an pom 1

Piper peltatum L. Tyut it 39

Piper sp. Pu' jix 16

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cultivation of epiphytic plants (log distribution and précis inFig. 2b–c); and, a variety of medicinal shrubs and rows oflemon grass and jackass bitters (patches C1 and C2 in Fig. 2c).

With regard to the secondary rainforest portion (i.e., latesuccession, forest canopy—Fig. 2b), the agronomic strategyhas focused on active forest regeneration for the conservationand expansion of existing understory crops, particularly theMaya medicinal species used in primary health care and trop-ical ginger. As a consequence of Hurricane Iris, many of theemergent canopy species in the Garden were destroyed (suchas large Acacia sp., Cassia sp., and Ficus sp.—to name just afew) resulting in the transformation of a relatively matureprimary rainforest site into disturbed secondary rainforest andshrubland with a lower and more sun-permeable canopy (i.e.,having relatively higher temperatures and lower soil moistureat ground level). Efforts at reestablishing some of these emer-gent species is underway through the selective planting ofseveral hundred cedar (Cedrela odorata), mahogany (Swiete-nia macrophylla), and ceiba (Ceiba pentandra) as well asunderstory cacao (Theobroma cacao) throughout the site. Sim-ilar to other species in the Garden, cultivated ginger preferssemi-shaded moist soils so the restoration of the rainforestcanopy will be essential to producing a sustainable crop. Forthis reason, active management of canopy gaps and nurturingof fruit trees planted along the periphery of the open-fieldgrassland has improved shade cover and promoted the growthof vulnerable species. Medicinal plants have also benefittedfrom intercropping with ornamental plants that are not neces-sarily used in the Maya ethnobotanical tradition which provideadded protection from desiccation and insect predation. More-over, fallen trees are used as ‘nurse logs’ or ‘incubators’ for the

cultivation of epiphytic plants (Fig. 2d, Table 2) which provideadded moisture and supplementary nutrients for an abundanceand diversity of rare and often precarious species number-ing up to 100 individuals per log and including many lowbushes and runner vines. Taking into consideration thehigh rate of understory turn-over in tropical ecosystemsdue to inherently rapid rates of decomposition and nutrientcycling (Cleveland et al. 2006), these tree fall ‘incubators’represent a transitory cultivation method for the successfulincorporation of rare and/or vulnerable plants followingtransplantation.

Unlike the forest canopy zone, the managed open-fieldsection (Fig. 2c) contains the majority of ornamental species,large medicinal shrubs, some fruit and spice trees, and rows ofcommon medicinal plants (e.g., lemon grass and jackass bit-ters) that are grown in quantity for public sale. In addition,three test plots of German chamomile (Matricaria recutita)were established (patch C3 in Fig. 2c) to increase the vegeta-tive cover and as a potentially new commercially viable cropas this is a relatively new medicinal species for Belize. Like-wise, peripheral intercropping of larger tree species is current-ly being implemented as a measure for protecting existingplants from desiccation and bolstering the soil’s nutrient con-tent. In particular, a range of Fabaceae (e.g., Acacia sp.,Erythrina sp., etc.) is being integrated due to their ability toreadily form key above- and below-ground linkages (e.g.,symbiotic relationships with nitrogen-fixing bacteria and my-corrhizal fungi) which contribute toward enhancing the soil’sfertility and matrix structure (Audet 2012; Cardoso andKuyper 2006; Hartemink 2003). These species were alsoselected because they are relatively fast growing, tolerant of

Table 2 (continued)

Family Taxon Folk Name I.D.

Piper sp. Rax pu'chuch 43

Poaceae Cymbopogon sp. Lemon Grass C1b

Polygalaceae Securidaca diversifolia (L.) S. F. Blake Ch'up k'an tyaj 73

Rhamnaceae Gouania polygama (Jacq.) Urb. Ik'l / Ch'ajom kajam / X abon' kajam 60,62

Rubiaceae Hamelia patens Jacq. Chaj max 70

Schizaeaceae Lygodium heterodoxum Kunze, Lygodium venustum Sw. Ruxbi kaq 2

Selaginelliaceae Selaginella umbrosa Lem. Ex Hieron. Chok'l pim 70

Verbenaceae Hoffmannia sp. Rok' so'sol 5

Adiantum wilsonii Hook. Ruj i rak'i tza 55

Zinginberacea Zinginger officionale Xan xir C4b

~ 22 other taxons yet to be determined ~

a Folk name associated with more than one taxonb Open-field patches

TBD To be determined; partial taxonomic identity only

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seasonal drought, and capable of generating large amounts ofcarbon-rich leaf litter.

Garden Practices and Challenges

While the development of ‘classic’ botanical gardens for theconservation and study of plant resources is well establishedand wide-spread at varying scales (Heywood 1991; Maunder2008), its further application as a vehicle for enabling primaryhealthcare among rural communities (as in this case) is lesswell documented. Since this strategy has never been previ-ously attempted in the region, it has involved a number ofgeographic, ecological and socio-economic challenges(Table 3). From the outset, the donation of land by the Gov-ernment of Belize did not result in clear legal title for thesite—an issue that is currently unresolved and ongoing. An-other challenge was that no templates or protocols were easilyavailable since the broad-scale domestication of medicinalplants was not a widespread or contemporary form of agricul-ture within the Maya culture. Although common andwell-known medicinal plants are often grown in Q'eqchi'villages and found along established walking trails, seedstocks were not available for the initial propagation of allmember species; especially rare plant resources. Hence, theGarden was and largely still is dependant on transplantationand ‘wild’ cultivation accompanied by spiritual offerings toestablish the ‘domestic’ stocks. Pending the development of asuitable nursery onsite. That being said, cultivation methodsfor preserving the biotic viability of rare and endemic speciesalso had yet to be established. While plants selected for

transplantation are carefully collected intact (i.e., with soiland roots) during field trips, a high rate of mortality amongtransplanted species has been encountered due to inherent rootdisturbances and leaf desiccation. Healer feedback has indi-cated that plants having low (or problematic) rates of trans-plantation also tended to have lower medicinal potency(Fig. 3) leading to the preferred use of ‘wild’ rather thandomesticated species. More specifically, species transplantedfurthest from their site of origin in cooler (submontane) uplandsites (Fig. 4) tended to be most problematic and sufferedrelatively lower survivorship. Unfortunately, this represents alimitation of the Garden’s utility since the healers have iden-tified these upland species (that are sometimes found only inprotected forest areas) as being highly valuable plant medi-cines compared to lowland coastal species5 (Pesek et al.2010). While the integration of cover trees for regeneratingthe forest canopy, the use of tree-fall ‘incubators’ and theactive irrigation of crops have all contributed to increasingtransplantation success of the upland species (data not shown),an alternative strategy may involve the relocation of suchendemic species to more suitable upland cultivation sites toensure their availability and medicinal potency. In this regard,we suspect that their sustainable cultivation should be linkedto the buffering of remote sites from anthropogenic activities

5 Based on healer feedback, the plants’ medicinal quality is a primaryfactor underlying the likelihood of usage. However, we suspect thathealer preference for remote ‘wild’ stock—for example, rare and (or)valuable species—could be associated to their protection of ‘secret’plant resources which are not openly shared between different healers.

Table 3 Summary of challenges and solutions experienced at the Itzamma Gardena

Challenges / Set-Backs Solutions / Implementations

Geographic 1. Hurricane Iris (2001) destroyed trek-forcebuilding, reference collections and seedlings

• World Bank, IPP, and IDRC aid to rebuildhurricane-proof facilities

2. Medicinal plants are mainly primary uplandforest species while garden is in post-agriculturalshrubland nearby to villages

• Use of forest gardening and shade trees withfrequent watering to improve survival; Possiblerelocation of endemic species to upland sites

Ecological 3. Botanic garden is not a widely practiced formof contemporary agriculture within the regional;Successful cultivation methods had to be establishedb

• Innovative use of habitats (e.g., decaying logs,wetlands, shade trees) leading to successfulestablishment of medicinal plants

4. High transplantation mortality, low medicinalpotency in relation to distance from origin;

• Efforts made to minimize desiccation and reduceroot disturbances; Innovative use of habitats leadingto successful establishment of medicinal plants

5. Leaf cutter ant damage • Traditional ceremony to reduce ant damage;Intercropping of species for integrative pest management

Socio-Economic 6. Limited success of micro-enterprise commercialcrops; Insufficient funds available to attractlocal agronomist

• Local agronomist replaced with research volunteers;Increased healer participation at garden

7. Donation of land by the Government of Belize didnot result in clear legal title to land

• Unresolved, ongoing; Informal agreements with localmunicipal council to monitor agricultural encroachment

a Based on feedback between the healers and plant scientistsb The Healers have traditional agronomic practices (e.g., milpa cropping-systems), but are not completely aware of the scientific details of their effects

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and the proximity of biological corridors that generally sup-port greater species richness than post-disturbed sites.

Several traditional plant protection strategies are usedonsite such as the regular removal of weeds by macheteand the monitoring of insect pests. Still, the newly trans-planted medicinal species are suspected to be more sus-ceptible to predation from resident leaf-cutter ants (Attacolumbica) than locally acclimated plants—a phenome-non requiring more in-depth investigation. To mitigatepest damage, the healers use a holistic form of integratedpest management such as intercropping techniques andtraditional ceremonies for protecting the plants. Intercrop-ping is well documented as reducing pest infestationscompared to mono-cropping (Risch 1983; Trenbath1993). Meanwhile, the use of traditional ceremonies isan important connection to the Maya cosmocentric viewof life, re-enforcing the medicinal Garden’s developmentas a culturally sacred site. As described previously, anotherunique and beneficial feature of current cultivation practice isthe use of large fallen trees as enriched growth media for anabundance of precarious upland species. However, since theselog resources are rapidly depleted in tropical ecosystems,

considerations are being made to construct raised bed micro-cosms for a ‘controlled’ (or less variable) cultivation of epi-phytic plants. We hope that this strategy will eventually besuitable for developing nursery stocks to supplement thecultivation of ‘wild’ species.

Conclusions and Implications for Rural Development

Overall, we consider the Itzamma Ethnobotanical Gar-den to be a culturally appropriate and ecologically sus-tainable approach to both primary healthcare andcommunity development for the conservation of Q'eqchi'plant resources and associated cultural practices withinthe Big Falls community. Clearly, the project has en-countered many challenges, but also successes. In fact,the commitment of both the healers and collaborators inthis activity has been encouraging and illustrates itspotential as a model for indigenous health and wellness.A critical first step for establishing autonomous Gardenselsewhere in the region and even among other Mayaethnic groups would be the development of open dia-logue between expert practitioners (e.g., the healers) and

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municipal government in order to establish clear expect-ations for development and recognition of proprietaryknowledge. Another step should be the acquisition ofsuitable ecological sites that mirror the form and func-tion of the original locations of plant cultivation toassure their appropriate quality for medicinal purposes,while also meeting the needs of the healers themselves(i.e., bridging the distances between the plant resourcesand localities in question). If these conditions cannot beoptimally met or if design templates are not readilyavailable, progressive modifications to the site practicesbased on interactions with the local practitioners shouldbe beneficial to the collaborative process. In our expe-rience, this necessitated an in-depth characterization ofecological processes required for the effective cultivationof plants of ethnobotanical interest and the monitoring oftheir medicinal potency. Subsequently, this led to theimprovement of forest gardening techniques and the der-ivation of innovative habitats for the successful establish-ment of medicinal plants. Due to the potentially variablenature of external funding schemes, these measuresshould contribute toward sustainable ‘best practice’among rural communities and, at the same time, rein-force traditional cultural identity. For these reasons, wehope that such a development strategy could serve as anapproach for the conservation of plant resources andpromotion of community health and wellbeing even be-yond the scope of the Q'eqchi' Maya of southern Belize.

Acknowledgements This paper is dedicated to the memory of KevinKnight who helped found the Itzamma Garden and the Belize Indige-nous Training Institute. The project was made possible by fundingfrom: the International Development Research Centre (IDRC-CRDI)of Canada (File # 105091) and the Aboriginal Health Research Net-work Secretariat (NEAHR-CIET) of Canada to JTA and TP; DiscoveryGrant from the Natural Sciences and Engineering Council (NSERC-CRSNG) of Canada to JTA; Canada Graduate Scholarship fromNSERC-CRSNG to PA; and, NEAHR-Scholarship to BWR. Specialproject funding came from by Naturaleza Foundation and IndigenousPeoples Fund of the World Bank.

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