Involving the process dimensions of time in case-based research
Lieven Quintens a,⁎, Paul Matthyssens b,1
a Maastricht University, School of Business and Economics, P.O. Box 616, 6200 MD Maastricht, The Netherlandsb University of Antwerp, Faculty of Applied Economic Sciences, Stadscampus S.Z.410, Kipdorp 61, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
Article history:Received 4 May 2007Received in revised form 24 December 2007Accepted 30 April 2008Available online 1 October 2009
Keywords:Case study researchTime and marketingTemporal researchLongitudinal case study
The lack of consideration of process dimensions of time in business marketing and management literature ingeneral and in B2B case-based research in particular is in sharp contrast to the importance of time in oursociety. Marketing scholars need a stronger involvement of time to enrich case study research. This paperoffers a structure and a set of questions on critical elements of time and presents a review of the debate onand treatment of time in management and (case-based) marketing science. Based on case-based articles inIndustrial Marketing Management and the Journal of Business and Industrial Marketing (2004–2006), a contentanalysis of seven process dimensions is presented that reveals a limited presence of time aspects. Our find-ings indicate that case studies can benefit from an explicit incorporation of time and its different dimensions.While often only steps or stages are described and references to the flow of time are made, richer casestudies also include the dimensions of duration, timing, frequency, pace and order. That way businessmarketing researchers will be able to deepen their case observations thereby increasing their learning.
Despite the long-lasting fascination with time, it remains a rela-tively incomprehensible aspect of our life. It is therefore not surprisingthat to date no generally accepted theory exists concerning what timereally is, how it functions, or what impact it has on our society andbusiness culture. Temporal research in the broadest term involvesall research that includes at least one temporal aspect such as processor a reference to past and future. Adam (1998:387) describes time asfollows: “Time … is a synergy of aspects, a mixture of contradictory,yet supportive characteristics”. Indeed, we use the word ‘time’ toindicate a specific moment (“it is time to do something”) as well as aduration (“for some time”).
One particular type of research where time and processes playa major role is case study research. Typically, a case study aims at a“deep understanding of the actors, interactions, sentiments, andbehaviors occurring for a specific process over time” (Woodside &Wilson, 2003:497). Dubois and Gadde (2002) assert that the inter-action between a phenomenon and its context is best understoodthrough in-depth case studies. They suggest how conclusions of casestudy research are dependent on time:
“Studies focused on processes have to come to an end, whereasthe processes in the real world continue. This makes the conclu-sions a function of the time at which the study was conducted.
l (L. Quintens),
l rights reserved.
The researcher has a deliberate choice on how far back in time hewants to trace the process in question.” (Dubois &Gadde, 2002:557)
In order to fully grasp the “dynamics present in single settings”(Eisenhardt, 1989:534), a process and longitudinal approach to casestudy research is specifically recommended. Process research is de-fined as “research concerning any process that exists between twopoints in time, regardless of whether actual processes are observable”(Tuttle, 1997:350). Stevens and Dimitriadis (2004) indicate four rea-sons for using longitudinal cases: (a) to identify the main sequencesof events while they happen, (b) to avoid ‘ex-post rationalization’, (c)to gain insights on decisions before, during and after events, and (d) toobtain a causal perspective on behavior. Halinen and Törnroos (2005)plead explicitly for the inclusion of the notion of time in case research.According to them, the role of time cannot be disregarded, but includ-ing it properly in research remains problematic:
“The inclusion of the concept of time is also complicated. Varioustime concepts exist and can be used intentionally in designing thestudy. To provide valid descriptions and explanations of networkprocesses, the time concept has to be incorporated consistently.”(Halinen & Törnroos, 2005:1287)
Also, Woodside andWilson (2003) propose to explicitly recognizetime in modeling behavioral marketing processes.
This paper intends to contribute to the business marketing liter-ature by sharpening our view on time by making an inventory of itspresence in recent case study research and by providing recommen-dations enabling a more structured and multifaceted incorporationof time.
92 L. Quintens, P. Matthyssens / Industrial Marketing Management 39 (2010) 91–99
This paper does not aim at describing how robust case-basedresearch should be done from a general methodological perspective.In fact, many contributions have given clear guidelines on how tosecure the quality of data collection, sampling, and data analysis in thecase method (Eisenhardt, 1989; Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007; Wood-side&Wilson, 2003;Meredith, 1993). Rather, we focus on a sharpeneduse of time in case based research.2
The paper is organized as follows: the following paragraphs seek toevaluate the current state of temporal research. The concept of time inresearch is discussed from a theory-driven managerial point of viewand, in particular, problems with introducing the concept in researchare reflected upon. Next, we introduce a pragmatic conception of timebased on seven process dimensions. This is followed by an exploratoryanalysis of the use of the process dimensions of time in the case-basedpapers in Industrial Marketing Management and the Journal of Businessand Industrial Marketing in the period 2004–2006. Here, we attempt tofind out what business marketing scholars take into account in theircase studies concerning the multidimensional character of time.Finally, this papers ends with prescriptions and recommendationson how to deal with the notion of time in future industrial marketingcase research.
2. Temporal research and the concept of time
In this section, we address three issues. First, we highlight threemain reasons for a lack of temporal research in general. Secondly, weacknowledge the importance of incorporating time as a component inorder to enhance business and marketing research. Finally, we focuson conceptualizations of time.
2.1. Problems with time in research
Currently, there is a great lack of knowledge in terms of how timeaffects business and society (Butler, 1995; Adam, 1998; Zaheer, Albert,& Zaheer, 1999; George & Jones, 2000; Plakoyiannaki & Saren, 2006).The gap in temporal research in marketing and management is re-markable, since numerous articles have been written in otherdomains, such as philosophy and the physical sciences (Bluedorn &Denhardt, 1988). Ancona, Okhuysen, and Perlow (2001b:527) claimthat management scholars are lost in a “Temporal Tower of Babel”.Three main reasons have been determined.
2.1.1. Time is a function of timeThe first reason why time has not been the subject of research
more often, is that the research object (time) is always part of thereality in which it is observed, i.e., it is a function of time (Filipcová &Filipec, 1986). As Zaheer et al. (1999) and Sztompka (1994) indicate,there is no truly holochronic theory, because when studying organ-izations time will always (explicitly or implicitly) be present. Theabsence of the temporal component in research is also often a matterof convenience since longitudinal data are hard to collect and thecomplex nature of time is not helpful in this respect (Ancona, Good-man, Lawrence, & Tushman, 2001a), so researchers tend to preferstatic snapshot data to explain certain phenomena. It is the specificnature of time that hampers the use of the concept in research.
2 Incorporating the time dimension might be realized with different methodologies.Focusing on CRM processes for example, Plakoyiannaki and Saren (2006) deem anarray of qualitative process research methods fit for this job. Especially case-basedresearch seems well suited in this respect. Given the specific issue topic, we only focuson case-based research, thereby neglecting other techniques. Nevertheless, otherresearch setups can also benefit from a better conception of time. For instance timeseries analysis and repeated measures analysis can be enriched by a more profoundknowledge on how time can be perceived and measured.
Time is not just ‘out there’; it is ‘in here’ as a social construction(Pettigrew, 1990:273).3 This is the real challenge for researchers. Evenif their aim is to place themselves in a position that is time-independent, researchers are always influenced by time. Thereforethey become part of the object under study because of their inabilityto stop time.
2.1.2. Different perceptionsSecondly, not everyone perceives time in the same way. The
perception of time contains all the ideas, beliefs and values humansattach to the relation between the concept of time and them. Ques-tions such as ‘What is time? What is the nature of time? What is itsorigin? And how do we – as human beings – fit in this?’ demonstratethe nature of this problem. To characterize our perception on time itis important to consider where we position ourselves during timeobservations. Western society, which dominates academic publica-tions, has a relatively unilateral conception of time. The western viewsees time typically as (a) unitary, i.e., subject to only one interpre-tation; (b) linear, i.e., progressing steadily forward frompast to presentto future, and (c) mechanical, i.e., containing discrete moments subjectto precise measurement (Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988:302).
2.1.3. Coverage by theories and modelsThirdly, time is not only a complex phenomenon; it is also poorly
taken into account. Mosakowski and Earley (2000:796) indicate that“time is incorporated into theories and empirical models of firmdynamics with virtually no attention to assumptions about time”. Thisis not surprising as time is a multifaceted phenomenon that is difficulttomeasure and describe inmodels. Abbott (2001:16) argues “that oneshould differentiate clearly between thinking about the world insequences (patterns) and in variables (causes)”. He argues that inorder to grasp the complexity of certain phenomena, linear modelsmight need to be complemented with ‘whole-sequence-base’ meth-ods. ‘Causal time’ should be distinguished from ‘real time’. Building ondifferent philosophers, Abbott evokes a multifaceted view of time inwhich clock time is subordinate to personal time. He agrees withMead that events, patterns, and conditioning “have reality” (Abbott,2001:227). Time is viewed as highly local and ‘indexical’ with a mul-tiplicity of overlapping presents.
2.2. The importance of time in management research
The lack of understanding the concept of time is in sharp contrastto the numerous calls for including time in management research.Ancona et al. (2001a) state that when focusing on time in research,new variables can enable a better understanding of organizations andtheir way of conduct. Pettigrew (1990:271) agrees on the potentialrichness: “Time sets a frame of reference for what changes are seenand how those changes are explained”. The impact of time on theorybuilding should not be underestimated since time impacts on theconceptualization and propositions of theoretical constructs and theirrelationships (George & Jones, 2000). This implies that procedures oftemporal research – such as triangulation and longitudinal settings –should be carefully checked for temporal inconsistencies. For instance,when time is included in a case study research design, results areoften based on only a few points in time, leaving open what happenedin the time between two reference points (Macharzina & Engelhard,1991). Some of the most explicit considerations of time in marketing
3 Time also has a societal value (Usunier 1996). Time is perceived as scarce, so alarge amount of time is experienced as more important. This is best seen in the usageof the popular saying ‘Time is money’. The scarcity of time varies across cultures.People with a cyclical vision on time generally regard time as available in abundance,whereas people with linear views have a view of time of being scarce (e.g., ‘one minuteparking’ signs in the USA).
are the studies from Kutschker et al. Kutschker and Bäurle (1997)analyzed the time dimension in international marketing and theyidentify four aspects of time: (1) timing, (2) duration, (3) chronolog-ical sequence and (4) velocity of different internationalization moves.Kutschker, Bäurle, and Schmid (1997) summarize them in terms ofprocess constellation, process timing, and process speed.
Time can be seen as a reference frame for explaining and under-standing organization, management and marketing processes (Lang-ley, 1999; Plakoyiannaki & Saren, 2006). As George and Jones (2000)point out, time can also hold the key for progress in theory develop-ment. In the words of sociologist Abbott (2001), “timematters”. In thenext section we introduce a model with seven process dimensions oftime.
2.3. Conceptualizing time
There are differences in viewpoints on whether time can be per-ceived objectively or only in a subjective way. Time is subjective whenwe, as human beings, give it our own interpretation. The psycholog-ical state of the individual (e.g., time seems to go faster when having‘a good time’) is, in this context of, great influence (George & Jones,2000). Moreover, the way of thinking of groups and organizationswe belong to in terms of experience, learning and knowledge gather-ing, influences our temporal perspectives (Tuttle, 1997).When time isperceived as objective, it is defined asmeasurable by somemetric, e.g.,when measuring the length of a temporal interval (Mosakowski &Earley, 2000; Ancona et al., 2001a; Tuttle, 1997). According to Mosa-kowski and Earley (2000), the vast majority of research is based onthis objective point of view.
This paper, with its focus on the process dimensions of time, canbe situated in this research tradition. We conceptualize time from alinear perspective by focusing on several dimensions. These dimen-sions are the timing, the duration, the frequency, the pace, the divi-sibility, the flow and the order.4 Here, we make abstractions of thephilosophical and psychological aspects of time (Abbott, 2001). Fig. 1gives a schematic overview. We will now reflect on each of theseprocess dimensions.
2.3.1. DivisibilityThe dimension of divisibility is probably the most crucial dimen-
sion of time, because other elements are dependent on it. Divisibilityof time can be discrete or continuous. A discrete state indicates thattime can be divided into units that are measurable. A continuous
4 Some authors have less linear perceptions of time, such as the notions of organictime and spasmodic time. Organic time is characterized by irregularity and non-linearity. Irregularity is represented by the novelty and multidisciplinary nature ofevents, while non-linearity indicates that the past is relatively uncodified and linkswith the future are not determined (Plakoyiannaki & Saren 2006). Spasmodic timedictates that time will flow discontinuously with different characteristics for past,present, and future. The past is heterogeneous, the present new and irregular whilethe future is unpredictable (Butler 1995).
perspective implies that time cannot be split up. Zaheer et al. (1999)represent a discrete process using interval time scales, which can havevarious lengths. Mosakowski and Earley (2000) further divide‘discrete’ in ‘discrete with equal duration’ (which they call discrete)and ‘discrete with non-equal duration’ (which they call epochal).Western or industrial societies focus on a particular type of a discretetime vision called clock time (Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988; Whipp,1994). Clock time is defined as measurable and divisible. Symbolicof clock time is the ticking of a clock. Even though time is seen asmeasurable, its measurement can differ. Examples are the measure-ment of a time period with a digital watch versus a mechanical clock,or a chronometer that is precise to 1/100 of a second compared to atimer on a microwave for which the smallest unit of measurement isthe second.
2.3.2. TimingA second dimension of process is timing, which can be defined as
the moment (a static reference point in time) at which a phenom-enon, process, or part of process starts or finishes, or a moment atwhich data is recorded. It is therefore presumed that a process can bedivided into sub-processes. Accordingly, every sub-process also has astarting point and ending. Beginning and ending times are crucial inthe discussion of frequency and pace. The dimension of timing refersto a state and is to a large extent dependent on the perception ofpeople. Lawrence (1988) points out that timing is not always per-ceived equally. What is good timing for one person might be badtiming for another.
2.3.3. DurationIn essence, duration is a measurement of how long a particular
state lasts over time. George and Jones (2000) indicate duration as oneof the possibilities to capture the temporality of phenomena. Twospecific concepts related to duration should be mentioned: timehorizon and empty time. The time horizon is generally defined as longterm and short term. The inevitable question that arises is ‘what islong term and what is short term’. The answer is not clear-cut: itdepends on the process and context in question. Time horizons playan important role in determining organizational effectiveness andstrategic planning (Das, 1991). A period when nothing “noticeable”(worthy of being noticed by the observer in terms of events, occur-rences or processes) happens is called empty time. Empty time occursin many processes (Tuttle, 1997). It is an inherent part of it, such asidle times in machines.
2.3.4. FrequencyFrequency is a measure of repetition of certain sub-processes.
Mosakowski and Earley (2000) discern three concepts related tofrequency: novel, cyclical, and punctuated time. Novel implies no orvery little repetition in the succession of events, while cyclical sug-gests many reiterations. Punctuated time is defined as the interme-diate form where novel events are alternated with cyclical ones.Again, much depends on the situation one is in: what is novel for oneperson might not be novel for someone else (Butler, 1995).
Table 1Time-related questions in case-based research.
Process dimensionsof time
Sub-dimensions Typical time-related questions
Timing Start point–end point
When do processes or phenomenastart/finish?Why do these processes start/finish?How are these moments experienced?How are these moments related toother aspects of time?
Duration Time horizon How long does a process take?Why does it have this duration?Is the time horizon realistic?Can it be changed?How is this related with the timebeyond the case research?
Empty time How do we have to interpret emptytime in events?Does it imply doubt or consultation?What are the implications for case-based research?
Frequency Novel–cyclical–punctuated
How often do processes (re-)appear?Can we detect a trend?What causes this trend?Do we notice reiterations or not?
Pace Constant–decline–incline
Can we detect a speed at whichprocesses succeed one another?How does it evolve?Can we detect a speed at whichreiterations occur?What causes a change in pace?What is the consequence of thechange in pace?
Time based–eventbased
Is the moment of time important?Are the previous processes or eventsimportant?What does this imply for thecase study?
Order Monochromic–polychromic
Can/do processes occur simultaneouslyor not?
Obligatory–non-obligatory
Is there an obliged order for theprocesses to succeed or not?How does this impact the case study?
Divisibility Discrete–continuous
Can we divide time in measurable unitsor not?Do these units have equal duration?
Flow Cyclical–linear–spiral
How are knowledge/insightsaccumulated?Is the process in the case study linearlyoriented, cyclical or spiral?
Past–present–future
What is the importance of past, presentand future?How are past and future linked tothe present?
94 L. Quintens, P. Matthyssens / Industrial Marketing Management 39 (2010) 91–99
2.3.5. PacePace is an indicator of the change in duration of events, and these
changes are often neglected in literature (George & Jones, 2000). Asmentioned earlier, a process can be separated into sub-processes, eachwith its respective starting and end time. Based on the moment when asub-process starts, three categories relating to pace can be defined. Thepace can be constant; it can decline, or increase. Kutschker et al. (1997)refer to the speed of processes, which can accelerate or decelerate. Pacecan also be described from the ends of sub-processes, as pace canincrease, decrease or remain constant towards the end of a process. Thepace for starting timeandend time is not necessarily the same. Paces canbe divided into two types. The first one is time based. The focus hereby ison a specific moment of time (e.g., every 5min a new action). The othercategory is event based. Hereby the occurrence of an event gives rise toaction, without specific reference to a certain point in time (e.g., aftertask A has been finished, task B starts) (Gersick, 1994).
2.3.6. FlowWhen referring to the flow of time, two important categories
can be discerned: the reference to past, present, and future and therepresentation of the flow. The way we refer to past, present andfuture can differ among individuals, cultures and organizations (Das,1991; Medlin, 2004). George and Jones (2000) state that researchbased on the past is used to explain a phenomenon, while the future isthe motivation for many actions and behavior in the present. Theyfurther indicate that “[p]eople's existence in the present is intimatelyconnected to their past and future and cannot be separated fromthem” (George & Jones, 2000:660). They nuance this, however, bystating that not all of the aspects of past and future are equallyimportant. When referring to the representation of time flow, Filipcováand Filipec (1986) describe three concepts: cyclical, unilinear up-down and spiral, the last being an intermediate form between thecyclical and linear form. The spiral flow of time can be inward oroutward. Spiral-outward refers to the accumulation of knowledge andnew insights whereas spiral inward converges to a central point.During this process, redundant information is filtered out. The linearflow of time is best described as clock time. Its representation is thetimeline, where time flows in one direction and concepts of past,present, and future are well marked. This flow is referred to as thecontinuum of time (Ancona et al., 2001a). Besides these moresimplified visions on time, there is also Makimono time. It is aJapanese vision of time, where the past flows continuously toward thepresent and also the present has strong connections with the future. Itis therefore often argued that for the Japanese, the past and the futureexist simultaneously in the present (Usunier, 1996).
2.3.7. OrderThe order of sub-processes can be monochronic and polychronic.
The former is linear by nature and is characterized by doing one taskat a time and a preference for schedules and fast action. The latter iscircular, i.e., tasks are done simultaneously, while open ends are pos-sible (Bluedorn & Denhardt, 1988; Usunier, 1996; Mayfield, Mayfield,Martin, & Herbig, 1997). Four different categories can be discernedbased on two variables: monochronic versus polychronic and obliga-tory order or not. (1) When a process is monochronic and the orderobligatory, the sub-processes are executed successively, in a knownorder. Little deviation is possible. This is in line with the vision ofBluedorn and Denhardt (1988) on time. The complete opposite is(2) polychronic processes with no obligated order. In this case, theconclusion of the process is more important than the way it is ef-fectuated. Two intermediate categories exist. (3) Polychronic pro-cesses can also have an obliged order. However, new sub-processescan start before another sub-process is completely finished, but acertain progression has to be made. Finally, (4) some monochronicprocesses do not require a pre-specified order.
Apart from this typology, Kutschker et al. (1997) use the termprocess constellation to indicate a required order. They discern thefollowing three categories: parallel, sequential and overlapping pro-cesses. The sequential category plays amajor role in current literature.It forms the basis for causality, as the cause must occur at least simul-taneously with, but preferably prior to the effect. A positivist woulddefinitely try to grasp causality into sequential events, whereas amoreinterpretivist viewpoint is careful when interpreting the relationbetween consecutive events, not necessarily assuming causality as oneevent occurs before another. This will necessarily have consequencesfor case study design.
2.3.8. Interaction between dimensionsThe process dimensions discussed above are all part of the com-
plex phenomenon we call time. Table 1 gives an overview of thedimensions. For each of the dimensions, we formulated accompa-nying questions. The purpose of this is twofold. First, it is used in ourevaluation of articles in the next section of the paper and second,
these questions can guide future research. The table provides a way toanalyze time from different points of view.
These aspects, however, have little relevance if they are not linkedwith each other to create a more holistic view on time. Let's considersome examples of interaction between process dimensions. Frequen-cy becomes relevant only if time is seen as a measurable and thereforedivisible construct. The order of time has a totally different meaningwhen flow is cyclical or linear (interpretation depends heavily onculture). Moreover, it should be mentioned that some combinationsbecome impossible. When discussing a process with continuous timeflow, the use of timing for sub-processes will become superfluous.Interactions between different aspects can be made visual. We do notdiscuss these mapping procedures here. For a good overview of dif-ferentmapping activities for time and for order, pace and duration, werefer the reader to Kutschker et al. (1997) and Ancona et al. (2001b).
3. Time in case-based research in business marketing
In this section we evaluate the use of time dimensions in case-based research in business marketing.
3.1. Study design
As it would be difficult to assess all case-based articles ever pub-lished in business marketing, we used the 2004, 2005 and 2006 issuesof Industrial Marketing Management (IMM) and Journal of Business andIndustrial Marketing (JBIM)5 as our reference points. First, both journalsare top journals in the business-to-business area. Moreover, both areknown for accommodating case-based articles. We deem the analysisof the last three years' volumes as representing a reasonable sample inviewof our research interest in how timeaspects are taken into accountin business-to-business case studies. All studies where case-based B2Bresearch tookupa substantial part of the research designwere includedin the analysis and 51 articles met this criterion. This corresponds to14% of the articles (39/243 for Industrial Marketing Management and12/122 for Journal of Business and IndustrialMarketing). The followingprocedurewas followed. Every article from both journals was screenedfor the period 2004–2006. Two reviewers (the two authors) indepen-dently evaluated the presence of time conceptions in the articles.Further, they used the seven process dimensions and their respectivesub-dimensions (Table 1) in the coding procedure. During the codingprocess, it was checked whether (sub)dimensions were present and inwhat way. If necessary, authors went back to the literature in order todeepen their arguments. When doubts arose on the appropriate codeand/or when seemingly new (sub)divisions on time were identified,the authors discussed these issues. When opinions deviated from eachother, the reviewers discussed their standpoint until agreement wasreached. In general, the process did not provoke many discussions,strengthening the reliability of the evaluation procedure and theguidance of extant literature on time studied by both authors. Table 2gives an overview of the results.
3.2. Findings
From the selected articles, we can conclude that time is not amajorcomponent of the case studies. As a defense, one might state that notall themes of case study research lend themselves to the inclusion of
5 For the articles of JBIM, we considered only case studies that were included inregular articles; i.e., we excluded the cases in the section “case studies” from ouranalysis, since the latter have only pedagogical purposes and the analytical content ofthese cases is absent or only limited. One exception was made for the Vaaland andPurchase (2005) case, which appeared under this heading but was clearly a case-basedresearch with theory building intents.
temporal elements. The article by Lindgreen, Palmer, Vanhamme, andWouters (2006), for instance, focuses on the development of an as-sessment tool from a static point of view. While the vast majority ofthe articles build to a certain extent on temporal dimensions, none ofthem take time into account as a key explanatory construct.
Overall judgment. Time seems to be more explicitly consideredby case researchers in the following situations: First, when the caseresearcher studies processes that seem to be linked to efforts of casecompanies to reduce competitive pressure. Secondly, time is takenmore explicitly into account when a process is the main focus of thearticle. Opening up product development (Wagner & Hoegl, 2006),and creating shorter delivery times (Mason, Doyle, & Wong, 2006)are examples of the former. The creation of long-term relationships(Mason et al, 2006), networks (Persson & Steinby, 2006) and theintegration of market processes (Windahl & Lakemond, 2006, Wagner& Hoegl, 2006) are examples of the latter. Thirdly, time and its processdimensions are particularly used to fully grasp the case contexts (e.g.,Beverland, 2005a; Tidström & Åhman, 2006) and to a much lesserextent as a variable in the construction of causal models (e.g., Gupta,Cadeaux, & Woodside, 2005).
Notwithstanding the acknowledgment that case study research isregarded as suitable for the study of complex processes which areembedded in time (Perks, 2005) and as the description of a detailedhistory of the firm to identify the major actors and events in a par-ticular time period (Beverland, 2005a), it should be noted that all toooften time is only latently present (for instance, Hingley, 2005). Ingeneral, time is seen as a constant flow, monochromic and obligatory(Hausman, 2005). Gupta et al. (2005) define discrete time phaseswhere relations between participants in a network become strongeror weaker after certain events. Time is sometimes also used as ameasurable variable into a larger setting. Cycle time (Fliess & Becker,2006), development time (Van der Valk & Wynstra, 2005), lead time(Fredriksson & Gadde, 2005) or time-to-market (Van der Valk &Wynstra, 2005) are examples of this. Time is then seen as a unitaryconstruct, with constant pace and clear start and end points, therebyimplicitly acknowledging the multifaceted character of time, whileexhibiting simultaneously a specific (Western) perspective. Referringto Bluedorn and Denhardt's (1988) notion of the dominant view oftime that is unitary,mechanical and linear, it can be concluded that themajority of case-based studies apply this view as a perception on time.
3.3. Process dimensions of time
In this section, we will evaluate the presence of the seven processdimensions of time in the analyzed case studies. Divisibility is presentin articles that describe a process of change and explain context. Sincestructure is needed, timemight be divided in time periods (e.g., Kamp,2005) or clear stages (e.g., Liu et al., 2004; Hyder & Eriksson, 2005;Rinallo&Golfetto, 2006). However, an equally large number of articlesthat seek to explain a specific context do not explicitly refer to thedivisibility of time but see time moreover as a background pheno-menon (e.g., Veludo, Macbeth, & Purchase, 2006; Roxenhall & Ghauri,2004). Flow schemes, time scales and blueprints (Jüttner, Godsell, &Christopher, 2006; Mason et al., 2006; Fliess & Becker, 2006) contri-bute to the vision that time can be divided. When time is taken intoaccount as a measurable variable, it is seen as discrete andmeasurablein units (Wagner & Johnson, 2004; Fredriksson & Gadde, 2005).
Duration is hardly taken into account. Clearly defined time framesare only sporadically given (notable exceptions are Beverland, 2005aand Nordin, 2006) and empty time is hardly covered (Fliess & Becker,2006 are one exception). Often; when causal relationships are soughtto be demonstrated, duration is not a focal element in research (Bush,Moore, & Rocco, 2005; Hausman, 2005).
Connected with the vagueness of duration, the concept of timing isonly touched upon in a superficial way. Sporadically, critical eventsare indicated mainly when explaining a particular context (Liu et al.,
Table 2Time dimensions in case-based marketing research.
Dimensions of time Outcome Examples of authors
Divisibility Time can be divided in time periods Beverland (2005a), Kamp (2005), Gupta et al. (2005)Time can be divided in clear stages Liu et al. (2004), Cheng et al. (2005), Hyder and Eriksson (2005), Fliess and Becker (2006), Ng
(2005), Rinallo and Golfetto (2006), Tidström and Åhman (2006)Time is not clearly divided, but present De Hildebrand e Grisi and Puga Ribeiro (2004), Palmer and Millier (2004), Roxenhall and Ghauri
(2004), Sievänen, Suomala, and Paranko (2004), Ford and Redwood (2005), Hingley (2005), Nooriand Hossein Salimi (2005), Beverland et al. (2006), Hagberg-Andersson (2006), Johnsen and Ford(2006), Salonen, Gabrielsson, and Al-Obaidi (2006), Veludo et al. (2006), Windahl and Lakemond(2006)
Not an issue Bush et al. (2005), Hausman (2005), Andersen (2005), Mason et al. (2006)Time is discrete and can be measured in units Wagner and Johnson (2004), Wouters (2004), Fredriksson and Gadde (2005), Van der Valk and
Wynstra (2005), Wucherer (2006)Duration Unitary time Fredriksson and Gadde (2005), Van der Valk and Wynstra (2005)
Not an issue Bush et al. (2005), Hausman (2005), Andersen (2005)Longitudinal Gupta et al. (2005)Often vague Emiliani (2004), Holland and Naudé (2004), McQuiston (2004), Roxenhall and Ghauri (2004),
Zackariasson and Wilson (2004), Cheng et al. (2005), Vaaland and Purchase (2005), Ellegaard(2006), Hagberg-Andersson (2006), Harrison and Håkansson (2006), Lindgreen et al. (2006)
Clearly determined processes Beverland (2005a), Perks (2005), Jüttner et al. (2006), Nordin (2006)Long-term perspective of process Ford and Redwood (2005), Kamp (2005), Prévot and Spencer (2006)Empty time Fliess and Becker (2006)
Flow Linear Tidström and Åhman (2006)Cyclical Van der Valk and Wynstra (2005)Constant Bush et al. (2005), Hausman (2005), Andersen (2005)Not specified Gupta et al. (2005)Spiral with lessons from the past Beverland (2005a), Hyder and Eriksson (2005)Cyclic driven by interaction Foster (2005), Johnsen and Ford (2006), Nordin (2006) Persson and Steinby (2006)Upward with learning elements Cheng et al. (2005)Forward, with feedback loops Hinterhuber (2004), Lindberg-Repo and Grönroos (2004), Fliess and Becker (2006), Veludo et al.
(2006)Frequency Cyclical processes Fredriksson and Gadde (2005), Van der Valk and Wynstra (2005)
Novel without iterations Bush et al. (2005), Hausman (2005)Mainly novel Beverland (2005a), Hingley (2005), Jüttner et al. (2006)
OrderNot an issue Wagner and Johnson (2004), Fredriksson and Gadde (2005), Wucherer (2006)Monochromic and obligatory Hausman (2005) Gupta et al. (2005)Polychromic Beverland (2005a), Ford and Redwood (2005), Fliess and Becker (2006)Obligatory Cheng et al. (2005), Perks (2005)Monochromic and polychromic Perks (2005), Jüttner et al. (2006)
Pace Constant Fredriksson and Gadde (2005)Not an issue Bush et al. (2005), Hausman (2005) Gupta et al. (2005), Andersen (2005), Mason et al. (2006)Distinct activities can have different time frames Zackariasson and Wilson (2004), Perks (2005)Certain periods are characterized by radical change Beverland (2005a), Ford and Redwood (2005), Hyder and Eriksson (2005), Rinallo and Golfetto
(2006)Learning accelerates pace Lindgreen et al. (2006)
Timing Clear set start and end points Fredriksson and Gadde (2005)Not defined Andersen (2005), Bush et al. (2005), Foster (2005), Hausman (2005), Gupta et al. (2005), Payton and
Zahay (2005), Ellegaard (2006), Mason et al. (2006)Periods have a vague starting and ending point Beverland (2005a), Hyder and Eriksson (2005) Fliess and Becker (2006)Periods can have a clear starting and ending point Beverland (2005b), Perks (2005), Harrison and Håkansson (2006), Rinallo and Golfetto (2006)Critical events Liu et al. (2004), Kamp (2005)
96 L. Quintens, P. Matthyssens / Industrial Marketing Management 39 (2010) 91–99
2004; Kamp, 2005). In this respect, dates are often used to indicatetiming elements (e.g., Beverland, 2005b).
Different visions on the flow of time are presented, which are basedon the idea of time cycles that incorporate learning aspects and aspectsof change (Hinterhuber, 2004; Cheng, Blankson, Wu, & Chen, 2005;Johnsen & Ford, 2006). The flow is often considered cyclic when pro-cesses of change are described, driven by interaction (Johnsen & Ford,2006), orwhenprocesses spiral apparently as a result of lessons learnedin the past (Hyder & Eriksson, 2005). As topics in case studies are oftenseen as part of a dynamic ongoing process (Nordin, 2006), embedded-ness in the past and consequences for the future are therefore impor-tant elements in case studyoutcomes (Wucherer, 2006).Nordin (2006)indicates that the sequence of events plays a key role, but he does notelaborate on this aspect in his study on alliance conflicts. In additionRinallo and Golfetto (2006) define the process of concertation as a“progression of stimulations” where the order is important. Studieswith a focus on explaining context also pursue a more linear trend.These can be characterized as upward with learning elements (Chenget al., 2005) or forward with feedback loops (Lindberg-Repo & Grön-
roos, 2004). Studies that take a more causal point of view tend to bemore constant (e.g., Andersen, 2005) while studies that include timeas a measurable construct, tend to be more linear (e.g., Tidström &Åhman, 2006).
Very few references aremade to frequency and pace in business-to-business case-based research. When the context of the firm is de-scribed, frequency could be seen as mainly indicating novel circum-stances. Onlywhen time is specified in terms of cycle time or lead time,do the processes becomedescribed asmore cyclic and repetitive (Fred-riksson & Gadde, 2005; Van der Valk & Wynstra, 2005). The notion ofpace is explicitwhen referring to radical change (e.g., Ford& Redwood,2005) or when authors indicate distinct activities that may have dif-ferent time frames (Zackariasson & Wilson, 2004; Perks, 2005) or de-scribe how learning accelerates speed (Lindgreen et al., 2006).
The order, finally, tends to be polychromic for studies explainingcontext (Beverland, 2005a; Ford & Redwood, 2005). Studies that focusmore on causalities tend to be more monochromic in their time visionand tend to have an obligatory order as well (Bush et al., 2005; Haus-man, 2005).
In the analyzed articles, time is always present, but often in animplicit way. Conceptions of time are therefore limited in scope, buttogether all case studies support the multifaceted character of time.Each of the seven process dimensions of time was present, althoughsome did not take up a very prominent place. Often, time is not clearlydivided, although it is in some way or another present. When it isdivided, a staged approach is mostly used. Duration is also treated in amostly vague way, with hardly or no consideration of concepts ofempty time and unitary time. Flow is conceptualized in a somewhatbroader way with some cyclic views and feedback loops even beingconsidered. Frequency, order, pace and timing are much less treated.As a conclusion, one might say that there remains a huge potentialfor a more explicit consideration of time aspects in B2B marketingresearch. Such an approachmight shed a different light on case storieshelping the case researcher to create a richer story in context.
4. Guidelines and conclusion
4.1. Conceptual conclusions
In this study, we evaluated the process dimensions of time in casestudies in actual business marketing literature. Although time andtemporal dimensions are taken into account to a certain extent, a largenumber of aspects remain untouched by the majority of the studies.We addressed seven process dimensions of time in this paper. Allseven are crucial for a thorough understanding of events and pro-cesses in case studies. In particular, case studies focusing on change,dynamics, processes and descriptive events can benefit from con-sidering time in its different dimensions. An in-depth considerationof the seven dimensions enables the case researcher to deepen thedecision-making processes of observed case companies while con-sidering urgency of issues, critical time lags, time targets, priorities,feedback loops and so forth. A consideration of these effects mightalso enhance the interpretation of observed phenomena and mightreveal, for instance, why some stages took longer than others, whythey got more managerial attention and why at specific stages, pro-cess stepsmight be parallel rather than sequential (Tidström&Åhman,2006). In line with Halinen and Törnroos (1995), a multidimensionalview of time aspects present in relational development processesmight bring into question the more linear view of relation develop-ment and provide a much deeper understanding of how past, present,and future are interlinked (Plakoyiannaki & Saren, 2006). Althoughmany studies implicitly support the divisibility of time, failing to makethe stages and their duration explicit may lead to unclear analyses andmisinterpretations. For instance, studiesmightmisinterpret the begin-ning and end of processes; they might overlook the value attached totime dimensions, and so forth.
This study stresses a consistent holistic view of time which meansthat some combinations of expressions of time dimensions might notbe feasible. For instance, a clearly specified start and end time impliesthat duration can be exactly defined and excludes a more cyclic viewon time. Researchers are invited to pay more attention to the inter-action aspects of the seven process dimensions suggested in this paper.Explanations of certain events might lie in these interactions and theinteraction effects between some of these dimensions might iden-tify (mis)fits and can lead to alternative interpretations of observedpatterns.
The current lack of attention to process dimensions of time, al-though they are known and often implicitly accounted for, suggeststhat hardly any consideration is given to the understanding of thesedimensions. Frequency, timing, order, and pace can be described, butif it is not fully understood why and how they occur, the interpreta-tions of the case study remain rather limited. What causes a pace toaccelerate? What makes a process occur again, or what are criticalantecedents? Is there a link with a specific moment that serves as
initiator? All such questions touch the heart of case study researchand aim at gaining a better understandingwith respect to the researchproblem. Similarly, case studies will become much clearer when aconsistent approach towards time dimensions is followed.
4.2. Methodological conclusions
Literature has already suggested a number of tools and guidelinessuch that the temporal component can be taken into account in casestudy research. Without claiming to be exhaustive, we indicate somemajor elements here thatmight be helpful in this respect (see Table 1).A first issue is the graphical representation of the process. Time lines,flow charts and activity schemes help in the analysis phase of casestudy research. This presumes that the divisibility of time is seen asdiscrete.
On the basis of this study, we would also like to recommendincorporating the time notion in the design stage of multiple casesstudies in general and in theoretical sampling processes more speci-fically. This implies that cases will also be selected on the basis ofdifferences in one or several time process dimensions. This way,a more detailed insight into observed processes (e.g., new productdevelopment) can be obtained while comparing, for instance, unitsor case companies that went faster through this process than othersor that have a linear versus a cyclical process and so on. A richer viewof the observed variables should then result. A good example is theinternationalization process of companies. When selecting cases thathad a fast versus a slow internationalization pattern, that interna-tionalized in a stepwise or parallel way (simultaneous entry in differ-ent countries), a much more detailed insight in the variables understudy (e.g., the commitment in market expansion) would probably beobtained.
During the case study research process, it is very likely that tem-poral aspects can lead to the identification of new concepts that shouldbe introduced and investigated. Iterative grounded theory and sys-tematic combining (Dubois & Gadde, 2002) could help in this respectby gradually introducing these concepts through time and systemat-ically analyze their impact on the research subject. As suggested ear-lier, the researcher should carefully check for temporal inconsistenciesand try to identify the actions and events between two observed‘moments’.
Although it is preferable to have long-term participation, we agreewith Woodside and Wilson (2003) that this is not always possible. Inthat case, multi-method procedures such as interviewing and addi-tional data collection are required. Multi-method procedures alsoreduce bias that might occur from a retrospective view of past pro-cesses and events (Eisenhardt & Graebner, 2007).
4.3. Managerial implications
Notwithstanding the more theoretical approach and perspectivesin terms of introducing time into case study research for researchers(see Table 1), this article also offers some implications for managersand practitioners. Differences in business behavior and problems dueto misunderstanding might often be influenced by different perspec-tives on time. Managers must be aware of the importance of time indifferent business settings and an evaluation of the seven processdimensions of time could be helpful in this respect. When focusingon time, managers can anticipate the strategic choices of competi-tors (Mosakowski & Earley, 2000) and they can define their own strat-egies or optimize their internal processes and their relationship withothers. The strategy of supplier integration (Fliess & Becker, 2006),managing new product development (Beverland, Ewing, & JekanyikaMatanda, 2006) and the creation of networks (Persson & Steinby,2006), to name a few, all benefit when temporal aspects are under-stood in-depth.
98 L. Quintens, P. Matthyssens / Industrial Marketing Management 39 (2010) 91–99
Understanding how marketing decision processes evolve in orderto observewhich stages are followed andwhichprocedures are skippedmight lead to faster marketing decision making. Differences betweenplants, functions and workgroups can be explained by looking at theprocess dimensions of time and empty time. This might lead to expla-nations for performance differences among units thatmight helpman-agers in output control. In this respect, it leads ex-post to correctiveactions.
Marketers can also benefit from a clearer view of the occurrencepatterns (e.g., timing, frequency) of critical incidents in order to im-prove marketing processes. Actual diagnostic control systems used bymarketers might not reveal implementation problems when time isnot taken into consideration. Looking at the process dimensions oftime, might lead to a marketing process redesign. This ex-ante eval-uation could lead to better decision making as well, since extra in-sights from the process dimensions on critical incidents or causalitycould lead to direct adaption of the processes and, consequently, tobetter marketing performance.
4.4. Time in future research
Wehave seen from the literature reviewand the (limited) case studyresearch analysis that there is still a lack of consideration of time aspectsin marketing research. This is often explained by the complexity of theconcept of time. Although this argument is valid given the philosophicaland psychological loading that time contains, we plead in this paper tofocus initially on the process dimensions of time. We argue that areduced conception of timewith a focus on process dimensions is a firststep to enrich case-based research in marketing.
In a follow-up stage, the interaction effects between the processdimensions can be added. Not considering interaction effects mightindeed lead to misinterpretations in interpreting causality and/or theflow of events. Given that marketing, the science of dyadic and net-work exchange processes, is more and more challenged by dynamiccompetitive environments, managers will place time and time dimen-sions more and more on their corporate agenda. This implies thatresearchers observing phenomena such as new product developmentprocesses, service delivery processes, or order-to-cash cycles cannotneglect the time dimensions any further.
In a later stage, the more psychological and philosophical notionsof time, as integrated in social sciences can be introduced into mark-eting research. Here, aspects such as (individual) perspectives ontime, cultural differences, etc. become important.
Marketing often focuses on parts of a process, such as on the de-livery and deployment of service processes. Building on the socialsciences (Abbott, 2001), such a linear view of a process might be re-considered as a cyclical process where the later stages are input forthe next round. This could lead to a fresh look at marketing processes.A clearer understanding of time effects would therefore lead to abetter design of case studies. In turn, by looking at multiple cycles orparallel occurrences, a richer case study design will result.
We firmly believe that case study research could merit from acareful consideration of time. Our suggestion for future researchers isto include the temporal component as much as possible to enrich thestudy and to observe the business marketing phenomena from amoreholistic, time-embedded perspective.
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Lieven Quintens PhD, is assistant professor at Maastricht University. His currentresearch interests include global purchasing, industrial buying behavior, industrialdynamics and strategic behavior of companies. His work has been published in Indus-trial Marketing Management, the Journal of International Management and the Journalof Purchasing and Supply Management.
Paul Matthyssens PhD, is a professor of competitive strategy and strategy imple-mentation at the University of Antwerp. His current research interests include strat-egic innovation, strategicflexibility, international sourcing strategy, internationalmarketexpansion andwithdrawal strategy. He has published inmany journals, including Indus-trial Marketing Management, Long Range Planning and the Journal of InternationalMarketing.
