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7PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER - AUGUST 1999

Joint Management in the MakingReflections and ExperiencesYildiz Aumeeruddy-Thomas,

Sushil Saigal, Navin Kapoor and

Anthony B. Cunningham

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not implythe expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of UNESCO concerning the legal status of anycountry, territory, city, or area of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers orboundaries. The opinions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the authors and do not commitany Organization.

Photos: all photos by Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas except photos 2 by A.B. Cunningham and 6, 7 and 8by R. Höft

Cover: Dry Dipterocapaceae forest, N. Thailans (top), Babar grass (Eulaliopsis binata) from community forests being traded at Kharagpur market, West Benghal (centre), marketing plant products in Bodgaya, India (bottom).

Published in 1999 by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization7, place de Fontenoy, 75352 Paris Cedex 07 SP, FRANCEPrinted by UNESCO on chlorine-free recycled paper

Edited by Martin Walters and Robert HöftDesign: Ivette FabbriLayout: Robert Höft

© UNESCO / Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas & A.B. Cunningham 1999

SC-99/WS/56

Recommended citation: Y. Aumeeruddy-Thomas, S. Saigal, N. Kapoor & A. B. Cunningham 1999.Joint management in the making: Reflections and experiences. People and Plants working paper 7.UNESCO, Paris.

Authors’ addresses:

Y. Aumeeruddy-ThomasLaboratoire de Botanique TropicaleUniversité de Montpellier163, rue Auguste Broussonnet34000 MontpellierFRANCE

Sushil SaigalEcotech ServicesA-3, Sarvodaya EnclaveAurobindo MargNew Delhi - 110 017INDIA

Navin KapoorSociety for the Promotion of WastelandsDevelopmentShriram Bharatiya KalaKendra Building1, Copernicus Marg.New Dehli - 110 001INDIA

A.B. Cunningham84 Watkins StreetWhite Gum Valley, Fremantle, 6162 W.A.AUSTRALIA

We are grateful to all participants who attendedthis workshop and who have contributed directlyor indirectly to this paper. We are particularlygrateful to Dr. S.B. Roy from the Indian Instituteof Bio-Social Research and Development(IBRAD), Dr. K.C. Malhotra and Dr. MichelPimbert for their support during the workshop andfor their encouragement to write this paper. Weare also grateful to Jeffrey Campbell (FordFoundation), Alan Hamilton (WWF International)for their suggestions for improving the manu-

script. Sushil Saigal and Navin Kapoor from theSociety for Promotion of Wasteland Development(SPWD) have provided an invaluable input inwriting a major part of the annotated bibliography,which was produced with the help of a grant fromthe Ford Foundation to the National SupportGroup of the SPWD. Finally, we would like tothank all those who contributed directly to writingparts of this paper, including Vasant Saberwal,Rob Wild, Gary J. Martin, Melanie McDermott,A.L. Hammett, and Jackson Mutebi.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 7, AUGUST 1999Joint Management in the Making, Reflections and Experiences

Y. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS et al.

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Acknowledgements

Joint Management in the Making, Reflections and Experiences

International workshop on non-timber forest product (NTFP) assessment methodologies for Joint Forest Management.

November 7-12, 1994, Rural Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, INDIA

Photo 1. Group photo of workshop participants on sabai grass based items designed at the Rural Development Centre,International Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.

PEOPLE AND PLANTS WORKING PAPER 7, AUGUST 1999Joint Management in the Making, Reflections and ExperiencesY. AUMEERUDDY-THOMAS et al.

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1 Acknowlegements 2 Contents

3 Introduction

4 Major issues in Joint Management4 Joint Forest Management: the role of research networks6 Ecological issues in JFM: diversity and resilience

10 Comparative analysis: searching for a matrix for analysing different situations12 Conflict resolution

14 Methodologies and approaches14 Participatory approaches and planning16 Monitoring ecological and social sustainability indicators21 Approaches and methods in marketing and trade

25 Examples of joint management systems25 Joint Forest Management in India25 Case study from Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP), Uganda26 Example from Nepal

27 Conclusion

28 Annotated bibliography

57 Subject index

58 List of institutions and addresses

Contents

Photo 2. An opportunity for field practitioners from different countries to meet during the workshop, InternationalInstitute of Technology Kharagpur. From left to right: Gemima Cabral Born (Brazil), Luiza Majuakim (Malaysia) and

Augustine Masareka (Uganda)



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As human needs and numbers increase, so doland-use conflicts at the interface between localcommunities and protected areas. Such conflictsare common, and practical examples of successfulconflict resolution are rare - particularly wherehuman population densities are high. One of themost extensively implemented success storiesunder extremely difficult circumstances of con-flict between state (forest) departments and localcommunities has been participatory planningprocesses for Joint Forest Management (JFM) inIndia. Methods developed for participatory plan-ning processes for JFM in India have been wellpublicised in the past 4 years, influencing fieldworkers in Africa and Latin America. Conversely,field workers outside India have developed meth-ods not yet used in India that could be of use there,and have received less media attention.

This training workshop, which was held at theIndian Institute of Technology at Kharagpur, India(7-12 November 1994), had several objectives.Firstly, to bring together field practitioners work-ing at the interface between people and naturalresources management in different parts of theworld so that they could compare and contrast themethods they were using with those in WestBengal in India. Secondly, through bringing themtogether in the field and through case study pre-sentations, to encourage normally isolated field-workers to realise that beyond their individualcase studies there is a synergy in addressing simi-lar issues elsewhere - which they could draw onthrough networking with one another in the future.Thirdly, to realise that rather than "reinventing thewheel", there are extremely useful and adaptablefield methods that could be applied under theirown local situations. Fourthly, to realise that whileJFM in India has been accepted at a governmentpolicy level as well as being widely implemented,there was the opportunity to benefit fromapproaches developing in India or those used else-where in the world.

In the light of the experience gained from thisworkshop on NTFP assessment methods for JointManagement, it appeared that many fields ofresearch and activities have to be clarified andunderstood - including initial conflict resolutionprocesses, participatory approaches and methodsfor establishing forestry management plans, insti-tution building, monitoring of biological and socialindicators, commercial chains and trends, creationof appropriate technologies and new end-products.This multi-dimensional approach to JFM wasfavoured during this workshop through theoretical

discussions and fieldwork, bringing together acad-emics from social and scientific backgrounds,workers from NGOs, protected area managers,members of communities, and government offi-cials, particularly those from forest departments.Just as Joint Management is based on co-operationbetween different perspectives, and the acknowl-edgement of the needs and constraints of differentparties, this interdisciplinary event has shown theneed for crossing the frontiers of our own disci-plines in order to achieve a holistic approach whichaims at legally empowering communities to useand protect the forest on a sustainable basis.

Thanks to the generosity and flexibility ofthe local organisers and hosts, the workshop pro-vided a rich human experience based on the shar-ing of information, methods and enjoyable fieldexperiences (see Photos 1 and 2, page 1 and 2).This helped to create mutual understanding andself-confidence, an invaluable opportunity forfield researchers who often work in isolation.

In order to highlight key issues in JointForest Management and disseminate the experi-ence gained by workshop participants, it hasbeen commonly agreed that these proceedingsshould cover the main themes discussed in theform of overviews. These express the thoughtsand findings of many participants. They aregrouped under three main headings: major issuesin joint management, methodologies, and casestudies. The latter are either case studies whichwere presented during the workshop, or a compi-lation of a few case studies which demonstrateexamples from different parts of the world. Thecase studies also illustrate processes and solu-tions found by different groups in a diversity ofsituations, and the necessity for site-specificstudies. Some participants contributed overviewsdirectly in a written form, while other overviewsare a compilation of edited notes which expressthe views discussed during the workshop.

This working paper is not meant to be a fixedblueprint for joint management of forests, butrather seeks to identify trends, concerns andmethods, and initiate further discussion and con-tributions on this subject. The annotated biblio-graphical references are included to give thereader an extensive view of the diversity of expe-riences in these different fields of activity. Somereferences included in the text are not in theannotated bibliography which is far from beingexhaustive and also because some major refer-ences became available only after the work onthe annotated bibliography was completed.

Introduction

Joint Forest Management: therole of research networks

Sushil Saigal and Navin Kapoor

Joint Forest Management (JFM) is a newapproach to forest management that is being triedin India. In JFM, the forest department of theGovernment and local communities jointly man-age the state forest lands. In turn, both share theresponsibilities and benefits. JFM is being adopt-ed as a strategy to counter the problem of forestdegradation in India. It stems from the realizationthat, without the willing and active participationof the fringe communities, no programme toregenerate the degraded forests would succeed.However, village communities will have littleincentive for participation unless they benefitdirectly and have sufficient authority to be effec-tive.

West Bengal is the pioneering state whereearly experiments with this approach were car-ried out. In a few other states, such as Haryana,Gujarat and Orissa, similar efforts were simulta-neously initiated by forest department officialsand/or communities.

The Government of India facilitated theprocess by issuing a circular to all stateGovernments, directing them to involve peoplein the management of degraded forests. Thisorder was in line with the new National ForestPolicy announced in 1988.

To date, fifteen states have passed resolutionsto implement the JFM programme, and there areover 10,000 Forest Protection Committees(FPCs), protecting around 1.5 million hectares ofState Forest lands. In addition, there are a numberof informal forest protection groups, especially inOrissa and Bihar, protecting forest patches neartheir villages without entering into a formal agree-ment with the forest department.

As the programme gets underway in so manystates with different sets of local conditions, dif-ferent issues are coming up. A number of novelapproaches are being tried at different places andthere is a need to document these, share with oth-ers and obtain feedback. Similarly, there is aneed for research at the policy level also as theprogramme is still new and policies need to befine-tuned in the light of field experience. It isbecoming increasingly clear that issues involvedin JFM are more complex than those in tradition-al forestry. There is a need to match the diverse(and often conflicting) needs of the communitywith the capacity of the regenerating forests. The

issues encompass ecological, economic, social,institutional and political aspects, and these areclosely interwoven together.

Forest departments are realizing the need foracquiring new sets of social skills and for devel-oping new management tools for meeting thechanged objectives of multi-product manage-ment. It is apparent that JFM practice calls formulti-disciplinary skills and research inputs.While forestry research is being conducted at thenational and the state levels by the State Forestdepartments, this is limited to traditional fieldslike silviculture. The research in academic circleshas not really been tuned to address the practicaland immediate concerns of the communityforestry manager nor have the findings been dis-seminated beyond academic circles to affect pol-icy or implementation.

It is in this context that an effort was made todevelop research partnerships in different statesand at a national level. The networks includestate forest departments, NGOs (of various lev-els, from grassroots community organisers tonational level organizations), academic insti-tutes/universities and individual researchers. Theearly efforts in developing this network weremade by the Ford Foundation, several NGOs anda few foresters, who began documenting andsharing their experiences in a series of meetingsand workshops. These efforts were mainlyfocused in the states of West Bengal, Haryanaand Gujarat.

At the state level these partnerships were for-malised in the form of JFM working groups inWest Bengal, Haryana and Gujarat. These work-ing groups at different levels allow discussionbetween forest departments, academics andNGOs, which result in more responsive policies.These working groups meet periodically and dis-cuss the progress of JFM, identify training needsand note successes and failures. Although thesegroups have no legal status, they have had a verypositive impact on the state policy for JFM.Recently Orissa state has also formed a similargroup at the state level and termed it the steeringcommittee. Now these states are also experi-menting with working groups at circle, divisionand range levels. Andhra Pradesh has also issuedorders for constitution of JFM working groups atdifferent levels. In these groups, officials fromother related Government departments also par-ticipate. In Himachal Pradesh, a working groupof NGOs has been constituted recently with sup-port from ICIMOD.


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Major issues in Joint Management

The national level JFM network started as agroup of institutions and NGOs with grants fromthe Ford Foundation, along with a few forestofficers from states where these were working.As the JFM programme expanded, the networkalso developed to include many more organiza-tions and individuals. A National Support Group(NSG) has been constituted within the Societyfor the Promotion of Wastelands Development(SPWD) which has emerged as a focal point ofthis research network. Network members meettogether to share experiences, evolve commonmethodologies, discuss training needs and setresearch agenda.

The contribution of network members hasbeen of immense value in developing the scien-tific basis for village level microplanning, silvi-cultural practices for management of forestswhich are compatible with the community'sneeds and priorities, process documentation ofthe functioning of FPCs and the reorientation offoresters for the new role.

At many places specific inputs have influ-enced policy, as in Haryana where research by asupport team from Tata Energy Research Institute(TERI) has helped the forest department in ascer-taining the impact of existing forest managementpractices on the yield of Eulaliopsis binata grass(Photo 3). This helped the department and com-munities adopt appropriate management systems.Similarly, in West Bengal the Government orderon JFM has been modified to give greater repre-sentation to women. This has been achieved in thepast through a number of diagnostic studies high-lighting the functioning of FPCs and discussingthe findings with forest department officials.

Various studies for example on the impact of leafharvesting, and the role of NTFPs in householdeconomy have also been carried out.

Apart from the research, many field NGOshave become involved with the programmeimplementation and they act as laboratories ofJFM where innovative approaches are tried out.NGOs serve as an interface between the commu-nity and forest department. In almost all thestates where JFM approach is being followed,NGOs are involved for example in disseminatinginformation, organizing communities, documen-tation and diagnostic studies, and conflict resolu-tion. At a number of places, NGOs have alsotaken up support activities such as bringing outcommunity newsletters in local languages, orien-tation of forest officials and communities, and



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Photo 4. Meeting of workshop participants including Sushil Saigal and Navin Kapoor with local villagers, near Kharagpur.

Photo 3. Ropes made of Babar grass, Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.) C. Hubb, Kharagpur.

training of village communities in NTFP pro-cessing and marketing.

The field experience of NGOs and researchfindings are discussed in workshops and semi-nars at different levels, in which decision makersat district, state and/or national level also partici-pate. NSG has organized several such workshopsat national, state, district and village levels to dis-cuss national or regional issues. These work-shops provide excellent fora for interaction anddiscussion and the proceedings are widely dis-seminated at various levels, including policymakers.

Regular training programmes have also beenorganized for the network members, such asGender Analysis Training, teaching of Trainers,and Training in NTFP AssessmentMethodologies. Another mechanism for sharinginformation is through publications, includingcase studies, analytical reports, and manuals.

The JFM research network is still growingand evolving and there have been some prob-lems. However, it is encouraging that peoplefrom so many different disciplines are comingtogether to search for viable alternatives for thetwin objectives of empowering the local commu-nity and reversing the process of forest degrada-tion. As the network does not have any prede-fined boundaries, it is hoped that it will continueto grow and evolve in the future. It has provided,and will continue to provide, a forum for theexchange of ideas and healthy debate between allinvolved in the complex task of JFM It was inthis spirit that this JFM workshop was held inKharagpur.

Ecological issues in JFM: diversity and resilience

Anthony B. Cunningham

It is widely recognized that co-managementsystems are a complex mix of ecological, social,cultural and economic factors within a particularpolitical framework. A process that succeeds inone place will not necessarily succeed in another.This section emphasizes the need to take biolog-ical principles into account so that the ecologicalcontext of the JFM "recipe" is recognized. Forpurely ecological reasons, for example, imple-menting JFM in tall moist tropical forest or inmontane coniferous forests will be very different.Three ecological issues have a particularlyimportant influence on the success or failure ofJFM systems. The first is the diversity of the veg-etation type involved, the second factor is theresilience of harvested species and the third fac-tor is soil type (or arable potential).

The fact that forest reserves and nationalparks cannot be conserved in the long term with-out acceptance and support of the surroundinghuman population is widely recognized. As aresult, approaches to conservation have broad-ened worldwide since the 1960s, from the pastemphasis on strictly policed preservation areasprimarily for large mammals, to an emphasis onsustainable resource use, maintenance of ecolog-ical processes and genetic diversity. This changein approach coincides with the realization that, inthe foreseeable future, greater human needs andnumbers will pose the major challenge to conser-vation of biodiversity.

A greater interest in sustainable harvest ofnon-timber forest products (as well as wood usedfor building poles and fuel) has also developedsince the 1960s. This includes their controlleduse in forest reserves by local people and, insome cases, from national parks. Managed use ofresources within buffer zones around nationalparks or specific zones within them has becomea widespread strategy as a means of defusingland-use conflicts. "Joint Forest Management"(JFM) systems in India and community forestryapproaches in Nepal are very important exam-ples. This has increasing significance in Africadue to the wide publicity given to JFM in Indiaand its consideration as a model for community-based resource management systems in Africa.

There is a need for caution, however.Effective management of natural resources usedby people similarly depends as much on anunderstanding of the ecological principles as itdoes on the social, religious and economicaspects of natural resource use. If this does not


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Photo 5. At the beginning of the discussions the Forest Officer chose to sit separated fromthe rest of the group in the background. This changed during the course of the workshop.

take place, neither local people nor protectedareas will benefit if there is over-exploitation ofvalued and vulnerable natural resources, howev-er well-intentioned the application of Joint ForestManagement (JFM).

What are the concerns? There are a number of reasons for caution in

transplanting the Indian JFM approach to forestsin Africa. These are:

(i) small size and fragmented nature ofAfromontane and coastal forests as islandssurrounded by rural farmland;

(ii) high species diversity means a high diversityof forest products and more complex man-agement with a likelihood of higher manage-ment costs;

(iii) direct costs of management have to be takeninto account. These costs increase withincreasing species diversity, due to a highernumber of uses and users. When demand ishigh and higher impact harvesting occurs, itis naive to assume sustainable resource use,particularly with commercially importantspecies in forests;

(iv) big differences in soil type and arable poten-tial. There is equally a need for caution in trans-

planting policy on forest-people interactions fromAmazonia to Africa, yet a few anthropologistswho have worked in South America have beenvery influential and effective influencing policyon people in African and Asian conservationareas. An impractical aspect of this has been theassumption of sustainable resource use by people,possibly due to the large size of the forest areasand lower human population densities there. Thisis not the case in southern or eastern Africa. Incontrast to the massive forest areas of the Zaire(1,056,000 km2) or Amazon (8,027,760 km2)basins, Afromontane and coastal forests of easternand southern Africa are distinguished by theirsmall size, covering a fraction of the land surfacearea. Indigenous closed canopy forest cover inTanzania is only 1 - 2%, South Africa 0.3%,Kenya 1.1% and Uganda 3% of land surface area.

Valuable lessons, both positive and negative,can certainly be gained from experience in Indiaand Brazil, but it is essential that JFM and multi-ple-use management systems in East and southernAfrica are developed locally, on the basis of localexperience and constraints, and are not dictated byissues of political expediency that lead to resourceoverexploitation. This benefits no-one in the long-term, and rural communities probably least of all,for as Marilyn Hoskins recently pointed out, in apaper on forestry and food security:

"All research and management by outsidersmust remember that their activities come and go,but food security - land and resources surety - is along-term, life and death issue for rural peoples".

In forests of Zaire and the Brazilian Amazon,population densities of Mbuti pygmy (1 per-son/km2 and Amerindian "forest peoples" arelow (0.7 person/km2 in the case of theYanomami). Afro-montane and coastal forests,as small patches surrounded by rural farmlandsare at the opposite extreme. In montane Rwandaand south-west Uganda, for example, forests for-merly occupied by the Batwa, (a group of pyg-mies), have become a focus for harvesting ofplant resources by the farmers who cleared them.Population densities of rural farmers in theseareas are now between 100 - 400 people/km2.

Due to a cool and malaria-free environmentwith good rainfall, East African montane forests(particularly those stretching through westernUganda, Rwanda and Burundi), which formerlyhad a hunter-gather population density of about 1person/km2, are now one of the most denselypopulated rural areas in Africa. Population densi-ties in the area surrounding Bwindi-ImpenetrableNational Park, for example, range from 100-400people/km2. Agricultural expansion has causedextensive transformation of these montane high-lands, converting forest to field and fallow areas,with high levels of soil loss. Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park in Uganda is just oneexample of a forest that has become an island ina sea of rural farmers, gold miners and pit-sawyers. In 1954, approximately 120 km2 of for-est remained within a 15 km radius outside theBwindi forest boundary; by 1972 this wasreduced to 42 km2 of forest, and by 1983, lessthan 20 km2 of for-est remained outsidethe protected area.Today, virtually noforest remains out-side the protectedarea.

By contrast,miombo (Brachy-stegia - Julbernardia- Isoberlinia) andmopane (Colopho-spermum mopane)woodlands, withpoor soils, tsetse fliesand malaria, are lessdensely populated,far more extensiveand have far greaterpotential for JFM.



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Photo 6. Dry miombo woodland dominated by Brachystegia boehmiiand B. spiciformis (Caesalpiniaceae), Likubula, southern Malawi.

Ingredients for successful JFM The sal (Shorea robusta, Dipterocarpaceae)

forests where JFM has been implemented inIndia are unusual in several respects, several ofwhich are discussed in detail below. Theseinclude the arable potential of the soils on whichpotential "JFM" forests exist, their species diver-sity, resilience and size.

Soil type and arable potential In India, Joint Forest Management has been

implemented in areas with low arable potential,such as the lateritic soils of West Bengal in India.Like many production "Forest Reserves" in EastAfrica, these have been set aside as timber produc-tion areas, rather than strict national parks for bio-diversity conservation as is the case withAfromontane forests such as Bwindi-ImpenetrableNational Park in Uganda. Sal forests, by contrastwith many Afromontane forests in East Africa,occur on extremely poor lateritic or sand-coveredlaterite soils under physiologically harsh condi-tions due to the long dry season followed by mon-soonal floods. Most remaining sal forests are onsoils too poor to be worth clearing for agriculture.Sal forest on good arable soils was cleared andconverted to fields long ago. I would suggest thatJFM has a far greater chance of success on soilswith low arable potential, such as laterites or on theZambesian woodlands on the leached, nutrient-poor sands that cover so much of sub-equatorialAfrica, than on arable soils.

Low diversity, simpler management In sal forests, Shorea robusta forms large

dominant stands. This is unusual amongst dipte-rocarps, which are often dispersed in high diver-sity forests. African parallels of sal forest are thetwo major Zambesian woodland types: miombo(Brachystegia - Julbernardia - Isoberlinia) savan-na woodland, and mopane (Colophospermummopane) savanna woodland. Similar examplesare the high biomass production or resilient veg-etation types such as reedbeds, thatch grass, palmsavanna or Acacia thickets.

Tropical forests are generally very different,however: more complex and more expensive tomanage sustainably. The higher the number of har-

vesters and usesof a species andthe scarcer theresource, thegreater the chancethat resourcemanagers andlocal people willget embroiled in acomplex juggling

of uses and demands in an attempt at a compromisethat could end up satisfying nobody. In theory, sus-tainable harvesting of plants (as opposed to seeds)from wild populations is possible, but in practicethis is seldom practical. What is often glossed overis that high conservation priority habitats with ahigh species diversity and vulnerability to over-exploitation require a level of management of anintensity that is not possible with the economicconstraints that are a feature of many conservationdepartments. The intensive management of forestspractised in the southern Cape region of SouthAfrica for valuable hardwood (mainly Ocotea bul-lata; Lauraceae) is unlikely to occur within nation-al parks or forest reserves due to financial con-straints and the number of species involved. Muir(1991), for example, has demonstrated that culti-vating alternative sources of building material out-side of indigenous forest (US$ 7,600/yr) is tentimes less than the intensive monitoring pro-gramme for the same resource (US$ 100,000/yr).Muir (1991) only dealt with a single forest use cat-egory, building timber. Inclusion of monitoring forthe greater complexity of other uses, such as forcrafts and medicines, would be even more expen-sive, even if it were only the vulnerable speciesinvolved. For those species or vegetation types it isessential that management concentrate on provid-ing alternative sources of supply outside core con-servation areas.

Afromontane and coastal forests are relative-ly small, yet are characterized by many specieswith comparatively low biomass production perspecies, each with multiple uses. Medicinalplants are harvested for leaves, roots, bark andfruits, traditional dyes from bark and roots, polesand laths for hut building, and edible fruits gath-ered. These greatly complicate sustainable man-agement plans which are normally for a singlesize class "cohort", such as mature trees for tim-ber, with sustainable management plans based onDBH measurements and densities of speciespopulations. Wood use by local communities isby no means as simple. In East Africa, for exam-ple, the same species may be used, for example,for bean stakes (1-4 cm DBH), building poles (5-15 cm DBH) and beer boats (>50 cm DBH), eachuse affecting the forest canopy, either during thepresent time, where trees are felled for beer boatsor the future canopy of 200 yr time, when beanstakes are cut. In contrast to the short rotationtimes of reedbeds (1-2 yr) or palms for palm saptapping (6-8 yr per stem), forest tree replacementtimes between harvesting and regeneration areseldom less than 50 yr and often as much as 200yr. Rotation times for Afromontane forest inUganda for example is about 80-100 yr.


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Photo 7. Sustainable management of diverse forests such as thisone in coastal Kenya is particulalry complicated.

Reseeding, resprouting and resilience These deciduous savanna woodlands have a

low tree species diversity (about 8-10 treespecies >10DBH/ha) with high resilience to har-vesting due to their vigorous resprouting habit.At the other extreme are forests and shrublandsdominated by trees that reproduce primarily (orsolely) by re-seeding. Examples are theMediterranean type shrublands of westernAustralia, the Cape floral region of South Africa(both dominated by Proteaceae) and California(with most reseeders in the Pinaceae), the conif-erous forests of the Himalaya or coniferousspecies such as Juniperus and Podocarpus inAfrican mountain forests.

Reseeders and resprouters are at oppositeends of a continuum (Box 1). Most trees forexample resprout to some extent, some very vig-orously, some weakly, and a few, likePodocarpus trees and Raphia palms, not at all.As a consequence, tree species like Podocarpusand Juniperus have been seriously overexploitedfor their timber. Characterizing plants accordingto resprouting or reseeding habit is useful, how-ever, as this has important implications for

resource management and wider implementa-tion of the JFM approach.

Financial and material returns from rotation-al harvesting sal (Shorea robusta) stems is animportant component of the JFM system. This ispossible because sal trees are vigorousresprouters, coppicing when cut to enable rota-tional harvest of timber. Tree, climber or shrubspecies and populations vary tremendously intheir vulnerability to stem removal, however. Thesame applies to stem death due to harvesting ortapping of apical meristem in monocarpic speciesor die-off after uprooting or ring-barking.Important questions to ask when considering theecological aspects of resilience and the opportu-nity for JFM are: Is the species characteristicallysingle-stemmed or multi-stemmed? What are theselection criteria, if any? Do plants regenerateafter stem cutting or not? Does this vary betweensites or with stem age/diameter? Does the specieshave multiple uses and do these uses affectrecruitment by exploiting different stem sizeclasses within the same population?



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Box 1: Characteristics across a continuum: reseeders and resprouters (from Cunningham, in press).

RESEEDERS

⇒ examples are common in the Proteaceae, Pinaceae,Ericaceae,

⇒ regenerate from seed, some maintaining canopyseed-banks ("serotiny");

⇒ are single-stemmed, not multi-stemmed. Examinesmaller shrubs closely. Some reseeders are single-stemmed, but branch off close to the ground, givingthe incorrect impression that they are multi-stemmedreseeders.

⇒ do not resprout when the stem is cut;

⇒ usually are self-pollinated or have diverse pollinators;

⇒ vulnerable to extinction if dependent on specialist pol-linators or seed dispersers;

⇒ seeds often germinate faster than those ofresprouters;

⇒ produce abundant seedlings (a large "seedlingbank");

⇒ have higher growth rates than resprouters, as theyallocate nutrient resources into growing upwards,rather than into underground storage organs. As aresult, reseeder species in a particular vegetationtype tend to be taller than resprouters.

⇒ most are short-lived compared to clonal resprouters;

⇒ often are habitat specialists (wetlands, moist montanesites, cool temperate forests);

RESPROUTERS

⇒ maintain "bud-banks" rather than seed-banks, regeneratingclonally by sprouting rather than from seeds;

⇒ often multi-stemmed, some shedding stems as they getolder;

⇒ produce new stems from buds which are above or belowground level (basal or upper trunk sprouting);

⇒ cut stems show obvious signs of resprouting (but be care-ful here: resprouting vigour declines when trees are cut lowdown, and with tree size or age);

⇒ may have large underground storage organs (rhizomes,tubers, ligno-tubers) or lateral runners (eg: many forestlianas);

⇒ recruitment from seed is infrequent and irregular;

⇒ may be pollinator limited, but can still maintain long-livedclonal populations consisting of a genetically identical clon-al organism (the genet) which is made up of ramets, sprout-ed from buds, each of which has the potential to grow andreproduce as an independent, individual plant.

⇒ few seedlings in the population, most small plants are ram-ets;

⇒ grow slower than reseeders, as they have to put resourcesinto underground storage organs and into protection andproduction of buds.

⇒ usually generalists, found in a wide variety of habitats,rather than habitat specialists.

Photo 8. Juniperus procera stand on Mt. Elgon, Kenya:a species reproducing primarily by re-seeding.

Regeneration after stem harvesting can befrom seed or re-sprouting or both. Stem removalof single-stemmed plants can reduce reproduc-tive output of the species population, but this isless the case with multi-stemmed plants whereseveral stems remain due to selective harvestingor where rapid re-sprouting occurs. Intensiveharvesting of seed, flowers, stems or roots hasvery different effects on reseeder or resprouterpopulations. Distinguishing reseeders fromresprouters is not possible directly from herbari-um specimens and has to be done in the field.Ethnobotanists have an advantage in this, as theywork in the field with resource users who oftenhave valuable insights into how various tree,palm or shrub species respond to fires or otherdisturbance or to stem removal when they beencut for local use.

Why is this important in a wider context? Where the objective of timber and non-tim-

ber forest product (NTFP) use is either econom-ic or ecological sustainability, it is important thatthese ecological factors are taken into account.This is crucial, for example, where JFM or mul-tiple-use management systems are proposed fornational parks or protected areas set aside withthe primary goal of maintaining habitat andspecies diversity. Achieving these goals requiresan understanding of ecological processes as wellas socio-economic ones.

An example given in August 1994, during afield workshop in the Babati district of Tanzania,was the decision supposedly "taken by the com-munities" to exclude fire and cattle from miom-bo woodland. This is a decision applicable toclosed canopy forest, but not to miombo wood-land, where natural fire frequency is 1-3 yearsand where cattle/wildlife are an important eco-nomic use of miombo woodland. Second, theapproaches taken to community management ofmiombo woodland are also being promoted indry Afromontane forest patches at the edge of theRift Valley, as if they were the same vegetationtypes. In each case, inappropriate resource man-agement recommendations are being made, dueto an apparent lack of understanding of ecologi-cal principles. In addition, rather than a collabo-rative approach between the state forest depart-ment and the local community, which has beenthe Indian JFM model (where the communityharvest NTFPs and get 20% of the revenue fromauctioned timber managed by the Forest Depart-ment and cut on a 15yr rotation), Tanzanian for-est department local staff and forest guards havenow been excluded from any control over theexploitation of miombo woodland resources andare reduced, as one forester in Babati said "to

carrying polythene bags [for tree seedlings] fromBabati town to the local office".

In summary, JFM has led to successful co-management systems in several cases - but itdoes need to be applied with caution.

MAIN REFERENCES Cunningham A. (in press) Applied Ethnobotany: peo-

ple, wild plant use and conservation. People andPlants Initiative Manual. WWF, UNESCO,R.B.G. Kew.

Muir, D. P. 1991. Indigenous forest utilization inKwaZulu: a case study of the Hlatikulu Forest,Maputaland. MSc thesis, University of Natal,Pietermaritzburg.

Posey, D. A. 1990. The application of ethnobiology inthe conservation of dwindling natural resources:lost knowledge or options for the survival of theplanet. pp. 47-59 in: Posey, D. A. and Overal, W.L. (eds) Ethnobiology: implications and applica-tions. Proceedings of the First InternationalCongress of Ethnobiology. Vol 1. MuseuParaense Emilio Goeldi, Belem, Brazil.

Scholes, R. J. and Walker, B. H. 1993. An Africansavanna: synthesis of the Nylsvley study.Cambridge University Press.

Comparative analysis: searchingfor a matrix for analysing dif-ferent situations

Vasant Saberwal, Rob Wild and GaryMartin

A comparative analysis group was formedduring the workshop and had as its principalobjective the identification of key factors thatmight influence the success or failure of JointForest Management programmes. Table 1 (page11) is the result of discussions within that group.

We thought that some form of comparison ofJFM across political, cultural, economic and eco-logical contexts might elucidate key factorsresponsible for success or failures in particularJFM initiatives. Rob Wild first drew up a list ofcriteria likely to influence the functioning of JFMprogrammes. He tried to make a comparison,using these criteria, between the situation inWest Bengal and Bwindi National Park, Uganda.Rob and I (Vasant) discussed these criteriabriefly, then sat down with Gary to come up withthe final list given below. The comparative infor-mation on Bwindi and West Bengal remains thatprovided by Rob. The process of trying to drawup a comprehensive list was illustrative of thevalue of making such comparisons, for a numberof tangential themes distilled out as we worked.Each of us works in different cultural, ecologicaland political contexts. Each of us has a differentprofessional background. In a sense we repre-sented some of the diversity that the workshopsought to bring together in the first place.


10

The most obvious outcome of the exercisewas the realization of the fact that such an exer-cise must necessarily be multidisciplinary andmulti-cultural. Even given the preliminary natureof the list we drew up, there is an obvious needfor inputs from a range of disciplines, includinganthropology, sociology, economics, ecology,and others. Equally, the creation of such a listshould be based on inputs from all culturalgroups likely to be influenced by a JFM pro-gramme. Thus while constituting an evaluativeteam or one assessing the potential of initiating aJFM programme in an area, care needs to betaken to ensure that the team is both multidisci-plinary and multi-cultural.

Table 1 is an example of factors used duringthe workshop to compare different sites. We aresure there could be other criteria, and, as Garyoutlined in his presentation, this list is likely togrow as people attempt such comparisons. Inturn, this list is likely to be classified and sub-divided into divisions other than the ones wehave suggested. In other words, this is a sugges-tion of what an initial comparison might be basedupon, and should be elaborated as comparativecases come to light.

What might such a list be used for? Primarily for two things: to evaluate existing

JFM initiatives, and to assess the potential suc-cess of establishing a JFM initiative at a new site.Further, we see this as a circular process, inwhich criteria used to evaluate a JFM projectbecome part of a growing list used to assess thepotential of future JFM projects, and in turn toevaluate existing JFM initiatives.

Finally, we attempted to construct an over-arching framework by which one might describeor analyse the conditions under which a JFM pro-ject originates, and progressesover time. Let us imagine a four-square box, with the ForestDepartment (or analogous stateelite) on one axis and the ForestProtection Committee (or analo-gous community institution) onthe other axis. One can think ofthe two being in win/lose situa-tions, and so we have four boxes,as shown in Figure 1.

Under what win/lose combination will thestate elite and local community come together tojointly manage a forest (or any other resource)?



11

Win Lose

Win

Lose

Forest Protection Committee

Fore

st D

epar

tmen

t

Figure 1. Win - lose diagram

Table 1. Contrasting and comparing factors affecting joint management in West Bengal, India, and Bwindi,Uganda.

List of criteria Range of responses West Bengal Bwindi

Site features

Intensity of use Low - High High LowSite integrity Low - High Low HighBiodiversity Low - High Low HighCultural diversitySite purpose Description Production forest Biodiversity conservationStatus Description Reserved Forest National ParkResilience Low - High High LowSize km2 Extensive 330 km2

Community

Cultural diversity Description (number Several tribal communities Bakiga 70%, Bafumbira 25%, Batwa 5%and size of groups) in West Bengal

User groups many manyPopulation density <40km-2 100-350km-2

People/km2

Institutional criteria

Institutions Listing Forest Department, Uganda Wildlife Authority, local NGOs, local Forest Communities, NGOs governments (LCs)

Conflict levels High - Low Currently low LowMethods of estimation Description/PRA/ PRA Meetings, surveys of households and in the

planning forestInstitutional capacity High - Low High LowCommunity institutions Good - Bad Good GoodSegmentation High - Low Low Low

within the community

Thus, ten years ago in West Bengal, it was a lose-lose situation, with both the FD and the commu-nities suffering because of the absence of any pro-tection to the forests. By co-operating with eachother, rather than one trying to impose the law,forest protection increased dramatically, and boththe FD and the FPC moved into a win/win situa-tion. However, with the imminent harvesting ofthe sal forests in 1995, one can imagine the situa-tion changing, such that the FD could see itself ina win position and the FC might find itself in alose situation. Should that happen, protection bythe FC would cease, and regeneration return tothe Pre JFM levels. The JFM initiative couldmove once again, to the box it started in, withboth the FD and the FCs in a lose/lose scenario.

Such a win/lose analysis contrasts with thefirst, criteria-based analysis we presented above.In the criteria-based analysis, we suggested theuse of a detailed list of factors that might influencethe successes of JFM initiatives. In a sense, such alist compromises the nuts and bolts approach,which examines the actual functioning of a JFMprogram, as well as the specific political, ecologi-cal, cultural and social factors that influence theworking of such a programme. It tries to identifykey factors that might be potential loci for conflict,factors that need to be dealt with prior to setting upa JFM programme, or monitored in an on-goinginitiative. The matrix approach allows a moreover-arching analysis, providing, in a sense, asnap-shot view of the conditions (win/lose) underwhich the main participants are likely to co-oper-ate. One might be able to use such a model to pre-dict how a particular JFM initiative mightprogress, should the win/lose situation of one orthe other participant change over time.

To be cautious, participants suggested thatthere was no empirical evidence of how usefulthis type of analysismay be. What we did learn,however, was the value of contrasting two verydifferent situations. The complexity of any onesituation became that much clearer when viewedin the context of a totally different situation. It isfor this reason that we think that there is value inattempting such an analysis.

What participants in this section of the work-shop were unaware of at the time was the extent towhich the “ingredients” for successful (or unsuc-cessful) community-based natural resources man-agement had already been identified in studies byEleanor Ostrom (1990) and Robert Wade (1987).

Conflict resolution Identifying conflicts pertaining to resource

use and the reasons underlying these conflicts isprobably the first step to Joint Management. A

conflict can be defined as a misunderstanding ora disagreement between two or more parties.Conflicts are usually based on incompatibility ofneeds, disagreement in terms of opinions, inter-nal values, interest, actions, goals and means toachieve goals. Conflicts give way to physicalviolence, coercive methods to the detriment ofone party, argument, non-cooperation or indiffer-ence. Situations of conflicts are common featuresto all human societies, and conflict is a universalcharacteristic of human nature, the same personbeing sometimes in conflict between one state ofego and another.

Among the situations where conflict arises isthe case of natural resource scarcity which affectshuman survival. In the field of forest managementthe traditional forestry approaches which restrict-ed access to resources, to people for whom theseresources were vital, has generated and still gen-erates tangible conflicts in terms of thefts, fines,abuse of resources, poverty, and non-tangibleconflicts such as psychological feelings of injus-tice, dissatisfaction, deprivation. The latter mayalso emerge between for example different socialgroups, sexes, races, nations, and religions. Valuesystems differ from one society to another, orbetween different social groups of the same soci-ety, according to factors such as gender, and age.Values may be put in two main categories:

- preferences not supported by formal rulesand laws

- values based on rules and laws.

Values and norms express themselvesthrough institutions, an institution being, accord-ing to Roy (1994), "a cluster of roles and statutesdesigned to meet a certain social need. It consistsof the resources and roles required to pass knowl-edge and cultural traits from one generation tothe next". In cases of conflict over naturalresources, conflicts arise not only between indi-viduals, but also between institutions which donot have a mutual appreciation of each other'sgoals and problems.

Approaches to resolving problems

Conflict resolution in West Bengal has beenbased on the following ideas (for further detailssee Roy & Bhadra, undated):

- raising awareness of foresters through trainingin order to leave aside the shell of prejudices,develop active listening, become aware ofbody language (for example much attention isfocused on the ways people sit, their gestures,postures and intonations) Photo 5 (page 6) isan example of what a forester should not do ifhe starts negotiations for resolving conflictswith villagers.


12

- starting to learn from villagers instead oftelling them what to do.

- using participatory tools to involve the localcommunity in the processes of learning aboutaspects such as the amount of resources used,the distribution, and problems of access.

- appreciating and nurturing grounds of commoninterest.

- generating recognition between institutions,and underlining similarities of their aims.

- establishing realistic, dependable and completeinformation on the resources on which con-flicts are based.

- conducting group discussions with villagers inorder to find consensus which correspond tothe collective goal of villagers rather than indi-vidual goals.

- raising questions on real issues, seekingoptions or suggestions for planning togetherforest management and ways of implementingpragmatic plans.

- developing and monitoring a plan of action. Conflict resolution processes in Bwindi,

Uganda were based on three types of activity:trust building, initial resource assessment, andnegotiations on multiple-use management.

Many conflicts about resources arise in crisisconditions. In India for instance the process ofestablishment of JFM has been boosted by a sit-uation of crisis which enhanced large-scalefelling of forests after abolition of the Zamindari(West Bengal Estate Acquisition Act, 1953, andWest Bengal Land Reforms Act, 1955) in post-independence India. Forest exploitation whichhad previously been controlled by land-lords(Zamindar) supported by the BritishAdministration were not under the same type ofcontrol anymore and rights of use of the popula-tion were no more respected as a situation of freeaccess was established momentarily from lack ofcontrol. Forest degradation was also enhanceddue to the influx of population from Bangladeshinto South West Bengal as well as a generalincrease of indigenous populations.

In Uganda a similar scenario took place: post-independence civil war prevented progress in con-servation activities, and during this period therewas minimal protection, widespread poaching,encroachment and overuse of resources in all pro-tected areas (Wild and Mutebi 1996). In these twocases it was too costly for the new forestry sectorto apply an efficient control on protected areas andpublic lands. Slowly the idea of seeking the par-ticipation of local populations emerged, as isdescribed in the historical background in India(see case studies in Chapter 3). Similar experi-ences developed in other parts of the world.

Questions raised

Who sets the priorities during conflict reso-lution processes? Do the communities have anequal power of decision? Communities andforesters have different perceptions of the valuesand uses of resources and we may pose the ques-tion of how far this diversity has been document-ed? How much local-based knowledge isallowed to express itself?

Conclusion

The most difficult thing to achieve in con-flict resolution processes is the change of attitudewhich is required, both from the forestry sector,and from the inhabitants who may still have feel-ings of mistrust. Face to face interactionsbetween the two parties is required, and creativetools such as drama and video need to be foundand adapted according to each specific site.Transfer of conflict resolution processes, as such,is not always possible.

Recommendations and possible strategies:⇒ Tools should be used only after gaining clear

understanding of each situation⇒ Self-sensitization is most important ⇒ Short workshops and manuals may help in

training of conflict management tools⇒ Follow up and process documentation of

conflict management will help⇒ There is a need for collecting bibliography

and sharing information through networking

MAIN REFERENCES

Cava, R. 1991. Dealing with Difficult People, PanMacmillan Publishers, Australia

Cernea M.M. (Ed) 1985. Putting people first: socio-logical variables in Rural Development, WorldBank, Oxford University Press N. Y.

Cornelius, H. and Faire S. 1989. Everyone can win:how to resolve conflict, Brookvale, NSW. Simon& Schuster

Maidment R. 1987. Conflict: A conflict about manag-ing differences, Reston Virginia NASSMelbourne Lothrain Publishing Co.

Ostrom, E. 1990. Governing the commons. The evolu-tion of institutions for collective action.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Roy, S.B. and R.K. Bhadra (undated). Conflict resolu-tion in participatory forest management: a casestudy from Sarugarh Range, North Bengal,IBRAD Working Paper no 18.

Wade, R. 1987. The management of common proper-tyresources: collective action as an alternative toprivatisation or state regulation. CambridgeJournal of Economics 11; 95-106.

Wild, P.and Mutebi J. 1996. Conservation throughcommunity use of plant resources. Establishingcollaborative management at Bwindi Impenetrableand Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda.People and Plants Working Paper 5. UNESCO,Paris.



13

Participatory approaches andplanning

Participatory approaches

In order to establish partnerships betweenthe State (forest department) and the resourceusers, a step-by-step approach may be used forthe planning process. The main idea is to estab-lish a shift from protection to management ofresources by merging the empirical technicalknowledge of communities and the scientifictechnical knowledge of the forest departments.Eventually this will lead to better recognition ofthe needs and priorities of communities withoutnegating the goal of maintenance of habitat andspecies diversity.

Participatory methods have been developedin different fields of activity. Their developmenthas been noteworthy in agricultural extensionservices to facilitate group discussions using asfar as possible visual techniques. The develop-ment of Joint Management plans in India ismarked by the emergence of participativeapproaches, in particular the PRA (ParticipatoryRural Appraisal) techniques. A recent article byChambers and Guijt (1995) describes PRA(Participatory Rural Appraisal) as "a growingfamily of approaches and methods to enable localpeople to share, enhance and analyse theirknowledge of life and conditions, to plan and toact". Though RRA (Rapid Rural Appraisal) andPRA have many common grounds, PRA differsfrom RRA in that the latter is used by outsidersto gain information quickly and in a flexible waywhile analysis of the data is carried out outside

the area of study. "PRA field exercise is not onlyfor information and idea generation, but it isabout analysis and learning by local people. It isabout building the process of participation, ofdiscussion and communication, and conflict res-olution" Chambers and Guijt (1995).

Participatory Rural Appraisal Methods havebeen used by many groups as a tool for assessingresources used by communities in a way which isa learning process between the researchers andthe communities. PRA methods are also used forworking out microplans for development at thevillage level. The two JFM Field MethodsManuals produced by the Society for Promotionof Wastelands Development and the FordFoundation show the diversity of tools which areused in PRA to generate interdisciplinary data.The following sequence of activities may beobtained from these manuals:

- before initiating PRA fieldwork activities,all useful information from reports, casestudies, bibliography on physical and humanbackgrounds of the area need to be reviewed.

- the first step may then be to establish withthe community the historical background ofresource use in the area, through historicaltransects, trend lines and time lines. Mapsmay be produced to show the forest extent atdifferent periods, and lists of useful speciesavailable at different periods may revealinformation about the decline of some of theproducts.

- community perceptions and attitudes towardsforest and resources may be explored throughranking exercises (see Box 2).


14

Box 2: Community forest perceptions and attitudesextract from Poffenberger et al. (1992).

“The Ghodbar research team learned a substantial amount regarding community perceptions of theforest's environmental importance while conducting a forest product scoring exercise. The team beganthis activity by walking through a three year protected forest with village members and then holding aninformal discussion under a tree. Rather than initiating the exercise by referring to the species list pre-pared earlier, the team asked village members about the relationship of the community to the forestand its importance. The ensuing dialogue elicited a range of social and environmental functions thecommunity perceived the forest to play. The team encouraged the villagers to construct a typology ofbenefits which was given in the following order: peace, clean environment, protector of the water table,nest for birds, shade, green manure, fruits, fuel, grass, timber, and income earning opportunities. It isinteresting to note the preponderance of social, environmental, and non-commercial values mentionedby the community participants. Although the Ghodbar team did not request the villagers to score therelative importance of each of these types of benefits, this may have generated a deeper understand-ing of their perceived significance.”

Methodologies and approaches

- sketch maps of land use and resource use areuseful tools which provide a visualizationand rapid understanding of distribution ofvillages, forest lands, farm fields, markets,roads. This type of map (Photo 9) providesan opportunity to discuss resource use man-agement issues, product flow, and conflictsover specific resources. Details of the distri-bution of resources can be superimposed onthe same map.

Many other types of exercise are carried outwith the community in a sequential way in orderto progressively acquire a holistic view of the sit-uation of resource use. Other types of exercisedescribed in the J.F.M. Field Methods Manual(Poffenberger et al., 1992) deal with subjects asdiverse as: activity schedule and seasonal calen-dars, species inventories, ranking and scoring offorest products, produce volume flows, labourand capital costs, forest product prices, process-ing, marketing, analysing forest product benefitsand cost. A main observation is that analysis ofdata with the participant community is of primeimportance in planning a joint managementscheme with the community.

Planning

Planning of project activities as such needsto go further than the phase of understanding thesituation or resource use through PRA methods.Regarding planning, the following ideas werediscussed during the workshop at Kharagpur:

- A broader geographical approach is prefer-able as opposed to the isolated villageapproach. An area may also be selectedbecause of its relevance for biological con-servation, or for social reasons for examplebecause specific resources are endangeredwhich are vital for sustaining livelihoods.

- Once a site has been selected, the secondstep consists in assessing with ParticipatoryRural Appraisal (PRA) methods, the needsand priorities of the communities, qualita-tively and quantitatively, the different usergroups (men, women, specialists, "outsiders"to the village), the state of tenureship ofresources (land, forest), local village institu-tions and authorities controlling resourcesstill existing or which existed.

- Groups such as NGOs are currently workingas facilitators at the interface between Stateofficers and communities in the planningprocess in order to facilitate communicationand negotiations, and to diffuse secular atti-tudes. They also make the link with scien-tists and academics, who bring in method-ologies for making inventories of resources,assessing the social and ecological sustain-ability of resource use.

- Long term monitoring of the impact of har-vest systems on the conservation of biodi-versity requires ecological assessment meth-ods and approaches which may vary fromone site to another.

- Change may be required in institutions bothin the forest department sector and at villagelevel. Old institutions may be rehabilitated ornew ones created. NGOs may here play a rolein developing skills in the village communityand also facilitate the transfer of informationfrom top to bottom. For example, in WestBengal, work was carried out with ForestProtection Committees at the village level, inclose collaboration with Panchayat situated atthe district level. The horizontal spreading ofsuccessful experiences to other communitieslies in the co-ordination of grassroots work-shops and training programmes which act asmultipliers. New bodies, such as associationsof village committees, may be needed to dealwith various matters such as lobbying, andmarketing chains.

Policy and institutional level

In order to secure usufruct rights to communi-ties, changes are often needed at a policy level. Co-operation between NGOs, academics, and com-munities for lobbying at the State level may givepositive results as has been the case in India, inorder to legally empower communities to use andprotect the forest. Joint management implies hav-ing a clear legal background, because long-termsecurity of rights plays an important role in theway the terms of the negotiations are respected.

- It has been argued that the budget of forestdepartments should be flexible, so that bud-get may be reallocated to other areas ofactivity according to the new managementplan. Transparency and accountability of



15

Photo 9. Drawing resource use maps on the ground, Bwindi, Uganda.

financial and management records should beavailable at all levels.

- Changes in decision making are also inducedby the change of perspective related to jointmanagement. For example, forest guardsstaying near the villages need to have greaterpower for making decisions which were ini-tially taken at the top. However, a record ofwhat is happening is required at all levels.

Conclusion

Planning is site-specific. The most difficultaspect of planning is to obtain shifts in power anddecision-making systems which fit into existingstructures such as forest departments. Moreover,the forest department is not a rural developmentdepartment, while Joint Forest Managementaddresses development issues. Good microplan-ning requires a lot of time and funds. Planningmight shift from its initial focus and get very dif-fused. There is a need for constant readjustmentof the objectives, according to advances madeand the results of the monitoring of biologicaland socio-economic sustainability. Increasingpopulation creates problems of demand versussupply. Introducing new technologies may createsome flexibility, but requires capacity building.A good knowledge of commercial trends and cir-cuits is very useful for planning. Evaluations andmonitoring require processes which involve par-ticipation at all levels. Working with traditionaldecision-making institutions also introducesbiases in terms of equity because they usually donot represent in an equitable way all user groups(for example women, lower classes, ethnicminorities), some of which may be neglected.Whose values are being respected - the highdiversity of cultural and social values are basedon different perceptions of uses? - What is use-ful, and for whom? Joint Management planningintroducing new methods should take into con-sideration local social processes.

MAIN REFERENCES:

Chambers, R. 1992. Rapid but Relaxed andParticipatory Rural Appraisal (discussion PaperNo 311) London Institute of DevelopmentStudies.

Chambers R. and Guijt I. 1995. PRA - five years later.Where are we now? Forest trees and PeopleNewsletter No. 26/27.

Poffenberger M., McGean, B., Khare, A. andCampbell, J. 1992. Joint Forest Management,Field Methods Manual Volumes II, SPWD Delhi.

Mascarenhas, J. et al. 1991. Participatory RuralAppraisal: Proceedings of February 1991Bangalore PRA Trainers.

Carter J. 1996. Recent approaches to ParticipatoryForest Resource Assessment ODI RuralDevelopment Forestry Study Guide series, 344 pp.

Monitoring ecological and social sustainability indicators

Ecological indicators

Joint management schemes should be basedon a good knowledge of resource availability,vulnerability, ecology and turnover. Ecologicalmonitoring is required during the negotiationprocesses, that is through participatory approach-es with the community, and preliminary ecologi-cal studies may also be required to obtain accu-rate estimates.

During the workshop, Dr.N.H. Ravindranathgave some guidelines of methods which could beused to assess the diversity and amount of NTFPsavailable, estimate the seasonality of NTFPflows, the production and level of extraction, andestimate the impact of local practices on regener-ation. These methods are based on conventionalecological methods such as species distribution,density per hectare of trees, shrubs, climbers,grass productivity, canopy cover, vegetation pro-file, use of quadrats and transects, and analysis ofbiomass (DBH, height). Plots are selectedaccording to different types of management sys-tems used by the community (for example pro-tected plots, grazing area, firewood collectingarea). These methods are completed by a system-atic record of volumes, in metric and traditionalunits, of products extracted according to season.Household approaches may be used, with trainedpeople from households filling data sheets week-ly, monthly or at specific seasonal rhythms.

A major problem lies in the difficulty of mim-icking local practices. For this reason the simulta-neous use of four different approaches to estimateavailability and harvest flow of NTFPs is recom-mended. Table 2 (page 17) is a summary of thefour methods recommended by Dr. Ravindranathfor cross-checking ecological field data.

During the workshop, participants weredivided into three sub-groups to investigate theuse of firewood in a village, using ecologicaldirect measuring, social surveys and PRA. Thisquick survey showed that the three methodsreached similar results and are therefore quitereliable.

Studies on NTFPs are now carried out inmany development and conservation projectsaround the world. In India, the book dedicated to"The role of non-timber forest produce in villageeconomy" published by IBRAD (Malhotra andal. 1992) develops a methodology to determinethe volume, flow and varied uses of NTFP alongwith the total income flow to the forest commu-nities. "Sustainable Harvest of Non Timber Plantresources in Tropical Moist Forest: an Ecological


16

Primer" (Peters 1994) published by BSP(Biodiversity Support Programme) is amanual which may be considered as "atoolbox that provides simple and effectivetools for the what and how of determiningsustainable harvest level of NTFPs intropical moist forest". In Uganda, recom-mendations for the use of resources inmultiple-use zones around Bwindi Forestwere based on Rapid VulnerabilityAssessment techniques (Box 3).

The FAO Non Wood News dissemi-nates ideas and information on latesttrends and activities in the field of NTFPs.The FAO has also published since 1995 aseries of publications dealing each withspecific non-wood forest products (medicinalplants, gums and resin, edible nuts etc.).

Ecological monitoring indicators found to bevery useful by participants at the workshop aregiven in Table 3.

Indicators are site-specific and need to bedetermined for each situation according to social,economic, ecological and political issues. Forexample in India, the visit to sal (Shorea robus-ta; Dipterocarpaceae) forests showed that thisextremely resilient species regenerated into

monospecific stands where other native speciessuch as mahua (Madhuca indica; Sapotaceae)and some Terminalia species are now absent,possibly due to very bad soil conditions and tolarge-scale felling which took place just afterindependence. Furthermore the actual manage-ment system, a 10-year coppicing rotation cycleof sal, will probably not enhance the regenerationof species such as mahua which are slow grow-ing trees. A consequence of this is that local peo-ple plant mahua trees in adjacent cultivated



17

Table 2. Estimation of products used and quantities (Table provided by Dr.N.H. Ravindranath, Kharagpur Nov. 1994)

Method Main characteristics Advantages and constraints

Conventional social Based on "memory of quantities", Seasonal variations are difficult science surveys questionnaire survey to recollect; quantification is difficult

P.R.A. Semi-structured interviews with: Seasonal variations can bekey informants, group interviews, captured, methods are flexible, sampling of households, participate community consensus mayin gathering be obtained

Direct measurement Local trained investigators mimic Very intensive, continuous presence the harvest and transportation of investigator needed, accurate

estimation, expensive method

Daily diary kept by local Daily entry in notebook Accurate data, training of local students, teachers, personnel, payment is an incentive collectors for participation, periodic monitoring

is needed.

Box 3: Factors considered in Rapid VulnerabilityAssessments from Cunningham (in press)

SITE

Ecosystem Characteristics Social characteristics

habitat diversity, life form diversity, population density, community cohesion, species diversity, size development level

SPECIES

Species ecology Species use

life form, abundance, distribution, parts used, demand, age/size class selectivity,habitat specificity, persistence, quality, seasonal collection, traditional growth rate conservation practice, subsistence/commercial

use, availability of alternatives

Table 3. Ecological indicators

Indicators Methods Location

Biodiversity Monitor valuable species, Forest protected areas, Community biodiversity monitoring, forest outside protected areas. area cover (aerial photos)

Impact on individual species Inventory, use of harvest Comparison of harvested caused by human harvest and control plots vs protected sites

Alternatives provided Tree cover outside a protected area Adjacent conservation area

areas. As was emphasized by Tony Cunninghamduring the workshop, one may talk about eco-nomic sustainability for regenerated sal forests,but he considers that ecological sustainability isdoubtful, since most vulnerable species of theseforests are no longer regenerating (see chapter onEcological issues, page 6). The success of JFM in West Bengal, through com-munity protection, could be explained on thebasis of the large demands from landless farmerswho rely on NTFPs, in particular sal leaves as amain source of income (Photo 10).

In Bwindi, where the gorilla population is amajor issue of conservation importance, themovements of gorilla groups need to be moni-tored so that the multiple-use area may be closedwhen used by gorillas (Wild and Mutebi 1996).

Social and institutional indicators

Monitoring ecological indicators cannot beconsidered a sufficient exercise in systems wherethe central actors are people with economicneeds and specific social and institutional back-grounds. As we have seen in the case of theRapid Vulnerability Assessment method, the usefactor is important to determine the level of vul-nerability of species or ecosystems. Before estab-lishing joint management plans, thorough sur-veys on socio-economic status, market flows,and systems of control over resources may beuseful to identify the main user groups, and con-flicts over resources. Though this can be donethrough conventional socio-economic surveys,participatory approaches may be useful at thestarting stages, for establishing joint planning.Once joint management planning has beenachieved it is assumed that the population willbenefit from this new situation, and social and

economic impacts should be monitored in orderto analyse changes.

Social indicators of "success" or "failure" ofjoint management may show a high degree ofcomplexity, as the following questions raised byMelanie McDermott, one of the participants tothe workshop, show.

What is success? According to Melanie, thedefinition of success is value-laden and relative.Possible definitions of success should considerthe increase in well-being for the poorest socialgroups without generating major social conflictor causing unacceptable losses for others. Levelsof success should be evaluated according to stan-dards of relative poverty and well-being asdefined by different actors or social groups. Forexample the community standards or internation-al standards (nutritional level, infant mortalityand education) may diverge.

Most difficult is to let different social groupsdefine "success" for themselves; their definitionsmust also be operationalized so that they can bemonitored.

In order to evaluate the impact of joint man-agement policy or projects, these issues shouldbe resolved, even if only instrumentally for a par-ticular case.

Guidelines given in Box 4 (page 19) byMelanie McDermott also show that monitoringsocial and economic indicators requires a cau-tious approach.

Changes in resource management and marketing and associated social impacts

Triangulating among PRA, interview anddirect measurement methods will also allow thefollowing set of indicators to be monitored.

Main questions could be as follows:

Who went to the forest then (before co-man-agement implementation) and who goesnow? What management activities do theyundertake there? (Results may indicate thatcertain uses and/or user groups have beenexcluded).

- What products and quantities are beingextracted or harvested in much smaller quan-tities then versus now ?

- Are certain products being marketed for thefirst time, or in much larger quantities thanbefore? How have prices changed for collec-tors and traders in marketed products?

- If some products are either being harvestedin much smaller quantities or not at all, or arebeing marketed to the extent that subsistenceuses are being displaced, what, if any, aretheir substitutes? Who is availing themselvesof them, and at what cost? What are the con-


18

Photo 10. Sal (Shorea robusta) leaves traded at Kharagpur market.

sequences for those who do not have accessto substitutes?

- How has the ownership of forest products orother concessions, licenses or permitschanged?

- Who processes, buys and or sells forestproducts? Are these roles now filled by dif-ferent groups (women vs. men, migrant vs.indigenous residents)? Who is making profitfrom trade in forest products?

It is possible that while formal rights to for-est products have changed, the social relations ofproduction and exchange or patterns of surplusextraction have not, or have not changed in adirection beneficial to user groups within localcommunities. In other words, formal relation-ships (including with the government agency act-ing as the co-management partner) and rights(such as concessions) may be less important tosocial welfare than relationships with traders,suppliers of credit and the like.

Changes in the division of labour and intra-household relations

- Are more indigenous community membersand, or migrants finding employment eitherin non (forest) resource-based areas or in dis-tant places?

- How are labour patterns changing and towhose gain or detriment?

- How has the composition of the local com-munity changed?

- How have intrahousehold relationshipschanged (among genders and generations)?Have the allocation of income and or therights of resource control and inheritancechanged?

Changes in social institutions

- Have traditional institutions been incorporat-ed into co-management processes? If so,have old patterns of equity (or the lack there-of) been reproduced?

If new organizations have been introduced,which functions, if any, of traditional institu-tions are they replacing? How does the mem-bership of the new organizations differ fromthat of the old, if at all (for example tribalelders)? What status, power and welfarehave resulted?

- What sort of changes might be commentedon or observed in local cultural expression(such as stories and songs)?

The researchers' monitoring team should tryto understand and document local land andtenure systems, tenurial security relative to out-



19

Box 4: Monitoring social indicators of "success" or "failure" of co-management or joint management

Success for whom?

Who participates?

We should consider among other things:

- Membership of management committees and the like (such as FPCs in W. Bengal)

- Attendance at management meetings or other venues in which resource management decisions aremade (for example for resource management plans as required for co-management implementation)

- Who speaks at such meetings?

- Who approves or objects to the outcomes of such meetings or other decision-making processes?

- Who has knowledge and understanding of them?

- Do these "actors" include women, the landless, ethnic or other minorities, illiterates, youth, elders? Allthe different user groups of various forest products/natural resources?

- What is the relationship of various social groups to the government partner(s) (such as local government,Forest/Wildlife/Park Departments), in the co-management relationship?

- Use PRA techniques (for example social mapping, wealth indexes & ranking) to identify the local basesof differentiation (both in terms of wealth & power and in terms of degree of use and dependence on dif-ferent sets of forest products) and the nature and membership of different social groups within this com-munity and their relationships to outside stakeholders.

- Once the groups are identified, the extent of their participation in and derivation of benefits from the co-management policy can be assessed by:

- PRA exercises with relatively homogenous groups, and by

- Interviews. Main question: Are you better or worse off than before the initiation of this policy? How andwhy or why not?

siders (government, migrants), channels ofaccess to and control over resources and markets(such as harvesting concessions, licenses, rela-tionships to traders, and sources of credit) andhow these may be changing under the implemen-tation of co-management policy. Who wins andwho loses?

The team should be aware of the possibilitythat a local or external elite (in terms of eitherwealth or resource control, education, ethnicity,"acculturation" or other factors) may be able,under a co-management arrangement, to gainprivileged access to the state, and thus have yetgreater access to resources (such as governmentsubsidies, and concessions) relative to othercommunity members.

Other changes

- Have the rates of occurrence of violation of(forest) laws and acts of resistance (such asburning or uprooting plantations) changedwith the implementation of co-manage-ment?

Indicators for monitoring institutional andeconomic changes as given in Table 4 (below)have been indicated by a group of participants tobe particularly useful.

MAIN REFERENCES

Cunningham A.B. (in press) Applied Ethnobotany:people, wild plant use and conservation. Peopleand Plants Initiative Manual. WWF, UNESCO,R.B.G. KEW

Clüsener-Godt and Ignacy Sachs (Eds) 1994.Extractivism in the Brazilian Amazon:Perspectives on regional Development, MABDigest 18, UNESCO, Paris.

Malhotra K.C., Debal Deb, M. Dutta, T.S. Vasulu, G.Yadav and Adhikari M. 1992. Role of Non-timberForest Produce in village economy. IBRAD,Calcutta, 124 pp including appendix.

Nepstad D. and Schwartzman S. (Eds) 1994. NonTimber Products from Tropical Forests:Evaluation of a conservation and DevelopmentStrategy. Advances in Economic Botany - TheNew York Botanical Garden.

Pei Shengji and Percy Sajise 1995. Regional Study onBiodiversity: Concepts, Frameworks, and Methods,Yunnan University Press, Kunming, 295 pp.

Peters, Charles M., 1994. Sustainable Harvest of Non-Timber Plant Resources in Tropical Moist Forest:An Ecological Primer, Biodiversity SupportProgramme, World Wildlife Fund, The NatureConservancy and World Resource Institute,Washington.

Wild R.G. and J. Mutebi 1996. Conservation throughcommunity use of plant resources, establishing col-laborative management at Bwindi Impenetrable andMgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda. Peopleand Plants Working Paper 5. UNESCO, Paris.


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Table 4. Monitoring institutional and economic indicators

Category Indicators Method (Approach) Location SourceLocation

INSTITUTIONAL Community attitude PRA and Different distances Adjacent communities, interview surveys for source FD, NP

Changes in size of Maps, aerial photo, resource e.g. forest species abundance

Conflict between Forest Map sites of conflicts Forest catchment areaDepartment (FD), Nature e.g. logging, firesProtection institutions and community

Extent of policy Identify key individuals FD, NP staffimplementation supporting JFM

ECONOMICAL Price changes in NTFPs Market surveys Markets Cities, towns, villages,local markets

Percentage of people en- Interviews, market Adjacent communitiesgaged in NTFPs industry surveys, PRA

Volume of NTFPs used PRA, interview, Adjacent communities(consumed) by local surveyscommunities

Changes in household PRA, interview, User communitiesincomes surveys

Changes in quality of Direct observation, Farmers, MarketsNTFPs PRA, interviews primary producers

Approaches and methods inmarketing and trade

Marketing of NTFPs and management issuesAnthony B. Cunningham

Developing a predictive understanding ofwhether harvesting is likely to be sustainable ornot depends on interfacing information on bio-logical factors influencing resilience or vulnera-bility to harvesting with the economic and socio-cultural factors that drive demand.Understanding these social and economicprocesses is as important in selecting species formonitoring or management. One of the strongestinfluences on increasing intensity and scale ofharvesting occurs when local or indigenous peo-ples shift from a subsistence to a cash economy,as this strongly influences factors such asresource tenure and the intensity and frequencyof harvesting.

From a resource management perspective,there are several reasons why marketing and saleof wild plants should be the focus of ethnobotan-ical surveys leading to well-designed JFM sys-tems. First, commercial trade or barter reflectdemand. If demand for a species or resource cat-egory (such as fuel, basketry fibre, herbal medi-cine) is high, then these species or resource cate-gories will be sold in many market places.Conversely, a species or category of plant use inlow demand would be less common in marketplaces. The most useful species will be frequent-ly sold by more sellers in many more marketsthan species for which there is little demand.Systematic market surveys therefore provide auseful way not only of classifying the species onsale, but of arranging them into hierarchical lev-els which reflect their relative popularity andusefulness - with one proviso: some of the mostuseful and popular species no longer feature inmarkets, due to over-exploitation. Second, pricereflects resource supply in relation to demand.Locally common species are rarely sold in localmarketplaces unless it is for bulk-sale for pro-cessing or retail elsewhere. When a popularspecies is scarce, whether it is due to geographi-cal distribution or over-exploitation, then tradeoccurs from resource-rich areas to the placeswhere there is demand, but little or no supply. Asscarcity increases, so does the price. When alter-natives are not available, the higher the price, thegreater the incentive to go further and furtherafield for a scarce species.

Improved roads and cheaper transport reducethis cost. As a result, internal marketing systemschange in two ways, each shortening the market-ing chain. First, cheaper transport enables rural

people to get to larger centres to sell their prod-ucts. Second, better roads improve the access thatoutsiders have to more remote plant resources.Outsiders frequently have more buying powerthan local people in remote, resource-rich areas.If this takes place and resource tenure starts tobreak down, then this hastens the scramble forresources in high demand.

Price also stimulates a shift from high densi-ty, resource-rich patches to low density, lessaccessible or marginal areas where resource den-sities are lower. Where alternatives are available,this continues until what is termed price cappingoccurs, where prices reach a point where otheralternatives are cheaper. For highly species-spe-cific uses, such as traditional medicinal plants,prices continue to rise because only that specieswill suffice in a traditional remedy for symbolicor medical purposes. This stimulates a trade oververy long distances. In between these is a situa-tion where there is a ripple-effect, where over-exploitation of one species results in a shift inharvesting onto other species. It is becomingincreasingly difficult and expensive to obtainaromatic bark of the Afromontane forest treeOcotea bullata (Lauraceae) for the traditionalmedicines trade, for example. As a result, bark oftwo forest trees in the same family (Cryptocaryalatifolia, Cryptocarya myrtifolia), each with asimilar bark aroma to Ocotea bullata, are substi-tuted and sold by urban herb traders as the realthing.

Third, the shift fromsubsistence use to com-mercial harvesting, withcommercial demandfrom towns or cities inthe case of regional tradeor for export in the caseof international trade(such as for rattan, medi-cinal plants, selectedfruits, and oilseeds), pro-vides an incentive tooverturn customary con-trols of resource use.Harvesters are often peo-ple with low incomes andfew resources in reserve.The temptation to "mine"rather than manage theresources is high, particu-larly when there aremany other harvesters asa result of high localunemployment or whereresource tenure is weak.



21

Photo 11. Workshop participants looking at herbarium sam-ples displayed at the Rural Development Centre, IIT,

Kharagpur.

A result is that high quality plants (taste, fibres,medical effectiveness etc.)with the greatest valueto local people, or those with national/interna-tional potential for horticultural/industrial devel-opment as new crops, are those most likely to beover-exploited.

In some cases, commercial harvestingstrengthens resource tenure and the incentive toconserve individual plants. Commercial sale ofwild fruits for example, maintains the incentiveto conserve wild fruit-bearing trees in parts ofAfrica where development of a social stigmaagainst gathering wild fruits as a food resource isundermining the "traditional" practice of con-serving wild fruit trees. The "use it or lose it" phi-losophy is behind the concept of extractivereserves in Latin America and JFM in Asia,which has been strongly supported by severalconservation and development agencies. In othercases however, commercial harvesting can leaddirectly to depletion of economically and cultur-ally important plant resources. As transport sys-tems reach further and further into remoteresource-rich frontiers, catalysing settlement,clearing and commercial harvest, this problem islikely to increase. Improved transport networksstrengthen the link between rural resources andurban demand. They also result in an influx ofoutsiders, frequently disrupting traditionalresource tenure systems and increasing thescramble for economically valuable resources.

Some methodologies A good knowledge of market geography and

marketing chains is required if a joint manage-ment scheme is to become successful. Marketstudies are useful before starting the joint man-agement plan in order to trace the origin of mar-keted resources, the quantities of products beingmarketed, and therefore the key resources for

which a management plan would be particularlyuseful. Market studies reveal ways people rely onresources.

One way to work on market chains is to domarket surveys and trace back the resources tothe sources. This reveals a hidden economy, andin particular the role of different intermediatesbetween the production centre and the market.

MonitoringAspects of market field surveys discussed by

Tony Cunningham during the workshop:

- Rapid surveys are simple inventories of thenumber of species of medicinal plants orother forest resources sold on one market.

- Surveys of quantity of biomass harvested(small-large), harvest frequency (low-high)lead to a better knowledge of actual flow ofa specific product on a market place.

- When looking at markets, a main issue lies inbiological characteristics of the specieswhich are being marketed and in the partswhich are marketed. Such knowledgeenables one to know whether these speciesare vulnerable or not.

Surveys based on local knowledge at thesource area are cost-effective and give manyinsights into resource availability. At the sametime, urban specialists may also have a good per-ception of scarcity. Cross-checking from bothsides is relevant. When visiting the source area,morphological characteristics of plants harvest-

ed, and harvesting methods deserve closeinvestigation. For example, ringbarkedtrees will die very quickly and one canmeasure the percentage of bark which isbeing harvested (>10%, 10-25%, 26-50%,etc.; see Figure 1). This gives an idea ofthe sustainability or otherwise of the har-vest system.

Transects made in collection areasshow these different classes of damage.The same type of exercise may apply forroots.

- The shape of tree crowns reveal theamount of roots collected. Indeedthere is a direct relationship betweenroots and different parts of the crown.

- In cases where flowers are collected, flower-ing rhythm of the species can be investigatedand also impact on regeneration of thisspecies.

- The monitoring of the thickness of bulbs andbark collected over a period of time may alsoshow the trends and biomass collected andtherefore also reveals whether a species isbeing over-harvested or not.


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Figure 1. Categories of bark damage

Adding value in order to decrease pressure onresources?

Tom Hammett, using a case study from Nepal,suggested methods of increasing the marketingpower of producers. How can people learn on theirmarket grounds? A participatory method consistedin getting farmers to make their own inquiries atmarkets about the price of their own product.

The ideaof suppressingmiddlemen sothat producersmay get moreincome isnaive becausethe middle-men also needto make a liv-ing and wouldprobably turnto other products if some are no longer availablefor sale.

A main issue raised at the workshop is howto launch viable enterprises, having the rightscale and which do not keep people in too lowincome activities. Moreover, any commercialenterprise approach within communities shouldtake into consideration risks related to variationof international enterprise. Domestication of wildproducts may be a solution in some cases whentechnically possible. Landless people however,who are the usual collectors of NTFPs, may notbenefit from this process of domestication.

The best marketed species are generally therarest species. The idea of a green label may be away of regulating the marketing of scarceresources.

Tom Hammett gave some guidelines duringthe workshop on how to conduct a marketing sur-vey which can benefit communities (see Box 5).

MAIN REFERENCES

Uma Shankar, Murali, K.S., Uma Shaanker, R., Gane-shaiah, K.N. and Bawa K.S. 1996. Extraction ofnon-timber forest products in the forests ofBiligiri Rangan Hills, India. 3. Productivity,extraction and prospects of sustainable harvest ofamla Phyllanthus emblica (Euphorbiaceae).Econ. Bot. 50 (3): 270-279.

Homma, A.K.O. 1992. The dynamics of extraction inAmazonia: a historical perspective. In: D.C.Nepstad & S. Schwartzman (eds.), Non-timberproducts from tropical forests: evaluation of aconservation and development strategy.Advances in Economic Botany 9. The New YorkBotanical Garden, Bronx, NY.



23

Photo 12. Non conventional energy press for mounding sal (Shorea robusta) plates at the Rural Development Centre,Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur, West Benghal. One of the key questions discussed during the workshop

was how to launch viable enterprises of an appropriate size which do not keep people in low income activities.

Photo 13. Sal plates produced with non-conventional press at the Rural Development Centre, Kharagpur.


24

A. Pre-feasibility studya. Assess request for marketing information assistance1. identify need for increased market information by a local com-

munity group2. determine whether there is or is not a formalized system for

collecting, assembling, and disseminating market informationat the local level

3. determine whether marketable products are (or will be soon)produced above the local consumption levels.

b. Establish partnership with local counterpart group at site1. establish contact with potential counterpart groups2. investigate feasibility of starting a working group focused on

market information3. develop working relationship with appropriate counterpart

group B. Local situation analysisa. Assess current collection and use of market information1. identify and describe existing markets for local community

level forest products2. identify and describe existing (formal and informal) market

information systems3. describe current use of market information (type of informa-

tion and its users)4. assess the capabilities of the local people to use increased

levels of market information to support their marketing efforts5. assess the scope of system needed. b. Assess local market information needs1. identify and survey key informants including farmers, exten-

sion workers, and local leaders to determine what informationshould be collected

2. develop a profile of local market information needs (type andfrequency of information; common products and markets).

c. Identify sources of market information1. identify existing market information sources available at the

local level2. identify new market information sources3. identify appropriate communication channels for market infor-

mation4. locate other organizations having relevant market information

systemsd. Identify possibilities for institutionalization1. identify mechanism(s) by which the system can be sustained

without outside financial or other support2. survey local leaders for possible ways to institutionalize sys-

tem within existing infrastructure3. develop an institutional framework

3.1. determine possible linkages with other agencies to makesystem institutionally sustainable3.2. assess support system's needs

4. determine appropriate method(s) of financial and logisticalsupport

5. identify local user group, co-operative or farmer associationinvolvement opportunities

6. identify potential collaborating organizations.

C. Setting up the systema. Determine whether to operate within an existing system1. assess existing organizations which collect and disseminate

market information2. assess possible linkages with or use of existing information sys-

temsb. Develop market information collection procedures1. determine approximate level of sophistication2. determine suitable collection format3. determine necessary collection logistics4. determine appropriate collection channelsc. Determine appropriate procedure to analyse and process the

market information1. determine appropriate market information record keeping pro-

cedures to insure2. determine appropriate market data storage format3. develop appropriate data analysis techniques4. develop appropriate information presentation methodsd. Determine appropriate information dissemination method(s)1. select appropriate dissemination techniques (ie. dissemination

media and location)2. develop system of reporting so that group will be accountable

to collaborating or supporting agenciese. Determine needs for training system operatorsf. Determine appropriate extension activity to devise on either on

use of market information. [Re-write this sentence] D. Monitoring and evaluationa. Determine composition of evaluation teamb. Develop evaluation criteriac. Conduct market information system evaluation1. identify and survey the information users2. appraise the appropriateness and the scope of data collected,

its timeliness, and the availability of information to potentialusers

3. examine the system by interviewing farmers outside the systemoperating area

4. examine the system's operations5. determine the sustainability of the system6. assess the system's applicability to other sitesd. Prepare evaluation report and disseminate to appropriate orga-

nizations and collaborated agencies. Some suggestions1. Protecting rare species in their natural environment is a way of

preserving value. On the other hand if value is added for exam-ple by rearing or cultivating species, value falls on the market.

2. When large landowners cultivate some resources, prices on themarket tend to fall. Poorer people may then need to harvestmore from the wild to earn enough money. A problem of equitylies at the source and need to be solved first.

3. A way to give value to NTFPs is not necessarily through inter-national markets.

New rules need to be drawn up which rely on local values ofexchanges of services which fit into the social context. This maylead in adding valuebut not necessarily in terms of money.

Box 5: Guidelines for establishing a local level market information system for com-munity managed non wood forest products by A.L. Hammett



25

Joint Forest Management inIndia

Extract from Malhotra et al. (undated)

"By mid-sixties vast tracts in the three south-western districts were denuded of natural vegeta-tion. This led to acute shortage of fuel, fodder,food and other non-timber forest produce(NTFP) for the local communities. The bulk ofthe population had to seasonally, 4-6 months peryear, migrate to other areas in search of wageemployment. The denudation of forests resultedin erosion of soil affecting its water holdingcapacity and reduced biodiversity and decline ofproductivity of both forest and agricultural lands.The forest department lost all the sources of rev-enue, and instead had to spend a great deal in themaintenance of infrastructure and forest person-nels.

The conventional measures of ForestDepartment (FD) became grossly inadequateeven to protect regenerating Sal [Shorea robus-ta] coppice bushes (Palit, 1990). In this contextit is of great significance to note that in a con-ference of the foresters of the West BengalForest Department (WBFD) observed whiledeliberating on "Problem of Protection' that"effective forest protection is possible onlythrough the co-operation of the local people andby meeting the needs of the local populationwithout loosing sight of the ultimate aims of sci-entific forest management in the region". It wasalso at this conference that for the first time inthe history of the forest management in thecountry the idea of 'Joint Management of Forest'(JMF) was mooted as revealed by the recom-mendations made to the Government of WestBengal. The recommendations were: "(a) toencourage setting up of local forest protectioncommittees with suitable recognition and con-ferring powers of honorary forester on membersand such other concession as may be madeavailable; (b) to identify the needs of forest pro-duce of local population, particularly wheresuch communities are set up and meet their needbefore any sale to market through open auctionis done...." (Anonymous, 1972).

It is highly noteworthy that in 1972, Dr.A.K. Bannerjee, the then Divisional ForestOfficer, Midnapore District, launched a mostinnovative project (on the lines of the above rec-

ommendations) called "Socio-EconomicProject", in a cluster of 11 villages in the ArabariBlock of the District. This approach involvedeliciting local villages in the protection of cop-picing Sal forest (as well as plantation of a fewselected species) through the formation of ForestProtection Committees (FPC) in return for freeusufructs of all non-timber forest produce(NTFP), first preference for employment, and apromise share in the net cash benefits from saleof short rotation Sal poles. Altogether 618 fami-lies participated in the project, protecting 1,272ha of forest lands.

Based on the overwhelming success of theArabari experiment, the Joint Management ofForest Lands programme gradually spread toneighbouring areas and received increasing sup-port from the Forest Department and NGOs."

Case study from BwindiImpenetrable National Park(BINP), Uganda

by R.G.Wild and J. Mutebi

National parks in UGANDA are surroundedby high population densities, resource-poor farm-ers who depend on the forests as an important con-tribution to their livelihoods. Restricted access toforests over the last eight years has led to consider-able bitterness and hostility towards the parkauthorities and the parks themselves. To improvepark benefits to adjacent communities, Uganda hasmade a progressive decision to allow resource usefrom within its national parks. The principle of themanagement at Bwindi Impenetrable NationalPark has been to establish low impact, specialistresource use from multiple-use zones inside thepark and provide substitutes to high impact, gener-al uses of forest resources on farms outside, in whatis called the sustainable development zone.Cunningham (1992) recommended that high vol-ume general uses, where a wide range of speciesare harvested by all community members in largequantities in this densely populated landscape,should not be considered for resource use.Community needs for these resources should bemet by on-farm substitution. Specific uses, prac-tised by specialist resource users, using smallquantities of selected species, were recommended.Medicinal plants and basketry species were themain resources considered.

Examples of joint management systems

Negotiations for Joint Management hadthree main purposes:

- Trust building

- Final selection of resources and areas

- Production of a joint management agreement

Trust building took place in group sessionsencouraging wide debates and allowing people

to express theiranger against thenational park. Aflannel boardwith picturesd e p i c t i n gresource use wasan important toolto facilitate theexpression offrustration in astructured way(Photo 14).Group sessionsalso included spe-cial sessions onc o m m u n i t yevents and foresthistory, resourceavailability andp o p u l a t i o ntrends.

Various methods have been used for the finalselection of resources:

- Rapid Vulnerability Assessment, whichexamines ecological, social and use factors,and assesses where the species lies on a gra-dient of potential use (for more details seeCunningham in press),

- community workshops using PRA tech-niques such as resource identification andranking, ground mapping of forest and vil-lages, resource flows,

- resource user interviews with nominatedusers,

- product surveys, during which individualproducts were quantified and demands perhousehold calculated,

- market surveys: markets were visited toexamine the forest resources that had enteredthe commercial trade. They provided valu-able insights on the economic activities ofthe local communities and impact on the for-est.

- forest surveys: these consisted in visitingparts of the forest with local resource users,

locating and estimating the abundance ofspecies in demand. Potential sites for multi-ple use were identified.

- participatory plots: permanent and tempo-rary forest plots were established at resourcesites. Plots were set up and recorded withresource users. Species identification of treesin the plots was recorded, using local expertsidentifying using local taxonomy. This wassupplemented by the collection of herbariumspecimens.

- participatory harvesting trials: trial harvest-ing was carried out with specialists or nomi-nated users, often in plots. Material harvest-ed was weighed and measured. Informationwas gathered about the number of itemsmade or people supplied from the harvestedquantity. Field and summary forms weredeveloped to assist with the collection ofdata. Once summarized, a team of peopletook the decision as whether to use thespecies. Species were put into categories,and a flow-chart used to help clarify thinkingon the species to be used, and monitoringlevels.

Joint management negotiations were con-ducted during workshops and aimed at identify-ing community management structures, andnominating resource users. A Forest Society wasestablished, aiming at improving relationshipswith Uganda National Parks and on farm produc-tion of forest products. Finally, a JointManagement Agreement was signed betweenUganda National Parks and the community, anda monitoring programme was laid out.

Example from Nepal Forest policies have been in continual

change over the last 3 centuries in Nepal, movingfrom the period of the Gorkha Empire (1768-1846), when all forests were owned by theempire but remained relatively uncontrolled -and forests could be handed to individuals andinstitutions as a privilege - to the Panchayat sys-tem under King Mahendra who established theForest Act of 1961 which included a provisionfor handing over the protection of forests to thenewly-formed panchayats (village level institu-tions). In the 1980s, the Sixth Five-Year Plan(1981-85) emphasized community participationin the management, conservation and utilizationof forest resources. The period of establishmentof community forestry in Nepal is described inBox 6 (page 27).


26

Photo 14. Conflict resource management: an example of the use ofthe flanel board to prioritize resources at Bwindi, Uganda.

This section of the Working Paper is anassemblage of discussions and ideas whichemerged from the 1994 workshop (Kharagpur).It aims at giving a vision of the different phaseswhich may lead to joint management experi-ences. It shows that a multidisciplinary approachis required, including ecological, social, econom-ical and political perspectives, which requireslong-term involvement and monitoring. Theexperience of the Indian research network speaksfor itself. Building into existing institutions suchas the Forest Department or village committees(panchayats) to create new institutional concepts,such as the user group concepts in Nepal andUganda, are major challenges.

Joint management, community forestry, co-management or multiple-use zone system - thisdiversity of names highlights a diversity of situa-tions. Site-specificity appears - whether it is eco-logical, social or political - as a major underlyingprinciple of joint management. However, allthese different experiences may gain from eachother. The Ugandan experience, which is a case

of joint management of areas of very high biodi-versity, is probably a situation not yet encoun-tered in the Indian experience, which puts muchemphasis on regeneration of highly degradedforests. However, protected areas and nationalparks also require specific types of joint manage-ment in India or Nepal, and the Ugandan experi-ence, which is specifically about thepeople/parks interface, is a key experience in thatfield which it is to be hoped will help improvethe people/parks interface in South Asian coun-tries.

The different aspects which are discussed inthis paper could obviously be developed in anumber of different ways. However this patch-work also represents the reality of joint man-agement, which involves being able to have anoverall view of the different ingredients whichmake up a joint management scheme. The restis very much a question of creativity, network-ing, and humanity, together with a good back-ground knowledge of ecological and social sciences.



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Box 6: Extract from “Participatory Forestry: the process of change in India andNepal” (M. Hobley 1996)

“The decade of 1980s was an extraordinary period of experimentation with different forms of community forestry [...]. This arrayof diverse experiences gained its greatest focus in 1987, when the government undertook the task of developing a 20-yearMaster Plan for the Forestry Sector (MPFS). This placed greater emphasis on community forestry, with 47% of proposed invest-ment to the forest sector in support of community forestry programmes. The Master Plan formed the basis for a draft forest pol-icy in 1989, the first priority of which was to meet the basic forest-product needs of local people through community forestryand private planting. Several principles were clearly articulated to meet this priority:

* phased handing over of all accessible hill forests to the local communities, to the extent that they are willing and able to man-age them

* entrusting the users with the task of protecting and managing the forests and receiving all the income

* emphasis on an extension approach aimed at gaining the confidence of the woodcutters and others, particularly women, whoactually make the daily management decisions

* retraining the entire staff of the Ministry of Forests and Soil Conservation for their new role as advisers and extensionists.

[...] As project and government staff gained more experience there was a more general questioning of the underlying causesof deforestation. Several projects reappraised their interpretation of community forestry and began to look in detail at the com-munities and their existing forest practices. The evidence provided by several studies suggested that farmers are not ignorantbut are quite capable of managing their natural resources. Farmers have not been wantonly destroying the forests and trees,but in many cases have preserved and planted trees on their private lands without any outside support. [...] This was a funda-mental shift from panchayat or village-based forest management system as a unit for organization to user group forestry.[...]The user group as an organizing concept was formalized post-1990 in legislation and policy statements.”

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Agarwal, A. and S. Narain. 1990. Strategies for theInvolvement of the Landless and Women inAfforestation: five case studies from India - A TechnicalCooperation Report. World Employment Programme,International Labour Office, Geneva. The report documents and assesses five cases of afforesta-tion programmes in India. It was carried out under theinter-regional research project on energy and ruralwomen’s work with the support of the NetherlandsGovernment under the programme on Rural Women of theRural Employment Policies branch of the ILO.Comparative studies have been cited from Peru, Ghana,Mozambique, India and Indonesia. This study is a policy-oriented effort intended to offer lessons and promote dis-cussion in India as well as in other developing countries.Ahmed, M. Rukunuddin. 1993. Community ForestryDevelopment in Bangladesh: Constraints, Prioritiesand Strategies. Paper presented at the Forest, Treesand People Programme Review and Planning Meetingheld on 14-17 December, 1993 at RECOFTC, KasetsartUniversity, Bangkok, Thailand. The author gives a brief history of community forestrydevelopment and details constraints of community forestrydevelopment in Bangladesh. The constraints include bio-physical, socio-cultural, institutional, political, technologi-cal and economic aspects. The conclusion is that commu-nity forestry, developed as a component of an integratedapproach to farming and rural development, offers excel-lent scope for social and economic rehabilitation of thelandless agricultural farmers and ecological stability of theenvironment in Bangladesh. Prerequisites for this arechanges in government policy and legislation in theforestry sector, restructuring of the existing forest depart-ment, adopting participatory forestry management tech-niques with community members, involving women inproject activities, provision of incentives and supports,technologies and extension, and conducting client-orientedresearch.Anonymous. 4th Consultative Workshop on UplandDevelopment Issues. Proceedings, 1994. Benguest, LaTrinidad April 28-May 2, 1993. Upland NGOAssistance Committee, Manila, UHAC/ PURC. The proceedings highlight the activities on communityorganizing in the uplands and the status of selected people-oriented forestry programmes. Though there was no com-mon framework evolved in community organizing, it wasgenerally viewed as both a critical requisite in the NGO’swork and a major source of weakness in their developmentstrategies based on their experiences in ongoing communi-ty forestry programmes. Undoubtedly, community organis-ing (co) was found to be the key process in sustaining ameaningful and constructive interplay between people,forests and NGOs.Anonymous. 3rd NGO Consultative Workshop onUpland Development Issues. Proceedings, Cebu City,May 28-June 1, 1992. Upland NGO AssistanceCommittee, Manila: UNAC/PURC. The book highlights the main agenda that was set forUNAC’s third NGO consultative workshop on UplandDevelopment Issues. The emergence and implementationof different approaches and programmes for upland devel-opment have been discussed. The different NGOs in thePhilippines shared their experiences and strategies that

they feel, will lead to the end goal of community-basedforestry. It also focuses on two current major governmentprogrammes affecting the pace and efforts of upland devel-opment - the community Forestry Programme (CFP) andthe Local Government Code (LGC).Anonymous. Joint Forest Management in India. 1995.Rajagiri College of Social Sciences Kalamassery,Cochin and Land People, Trivandrum. This study examines the overall technical, social manage-ment and sustainability aspects which are related to partic-ipation of people in the management of forest resource inthe country, both in philosophy and practice. Almost all thestates in India have decided to implement JFM and theyhave adopted the classic models developed in WestBengal, Gujarat, etc. The existing models in West Bengal,Tamil Nadu and Gujarat have been specially selected forthis study. It intends to study the historical evolution ofJFM, the various aspects of the present models, need forchanges etc., so that location and community-specific sus-tainable models can be designed. It concludes that keepingthe momentum of existing JFM models at this level, it ishigh time that all concerned also look at other options,which provide much stronger partnership and sustainabili-ty to meet the goals of JFM.Arora, S. Sunder, Rohini, Vijh and V. Varalakshmi.1993. Yield of Bhabbar and Grasses From the AreasManaged by HRMS and Ballarpur Paper Mill - AComparative Analysis (Joint Forest Management series-5). Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.This report is based on a study undertaken to assess andcompare the yield of bhabbar and other grasses from theforest areas leased to different agencies. Economics of thebhabbar extraction and marketing mechanisms being prac-tised by the two agencies (Ballapur paper mill and the HillResource Management societies) have also been workedout. The conclusions show that when the Department leas-es its forest areas to the societies, the lease amount is basedon a proper estimation of the actual/potential productionfrom that particular area, whereas when the paper mill isthe lessee, a per quintal rate is agreed upon by the depart-ment and the mill does not find it economical to harvest theentire produce. This, in turn, leads to a proportionate lossin revenue to the department.Arnold, J.E.M. 1991. Community Forestry, Ten yearsin Review, Forests, Trees and People Programme(Community Forestry Note 7). Food And AgricultureOrganisation of the United Nations, Rome. This note (review) provides an historical perspective of thedevelopment of new kinds of forestry activities, and con-tributes a forward-looking assessment of constraints andopportunities for strengthening participation in all forestryactivities. Arnold, J.E.M. 1992. Production of forest products inagricultural and common land systems; economic andpolicy issues. In Narendra P. Sharma, [ed.]. Managingthe World’s Forests; Looking for Balance betweenConservation and Development, Washington, D.C.:World Bank, pp. 433-53.This paper distinguishes different kinds of forest productsin the rural household economy - 1, household inputs suchas fuel, fodder and food; 2, agricultural income andemployment. It sometimes happens that fodder shortages

Annotated Bibliography on Joint Forest Management

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are more threatening than fuelwood shortages because,unlike the latter, there are no available alternative sourcesof fodder. It examines the adverse environmental impact ofthe replacement of local leadership and authority with cen-tralized political control, thereby undermining local insti-tutions for communal management of natural resources.Most communal woodlot-planting in India has been on dry,degraded lands where CPRs are in abeyance - and has con-centrated on tree stocks and wood products rather thanintermediate products such as fuelwood and grass thatwere previously harvested from those areas. The transfer ofresponsibility for management of woodlots on commonland to the community that was planned is rare, and theplanning and control of woodlots tend to be centred in localgovernment bodies rather than user groups, so that com-munal woodlot projects may be unwittingly convertingCPRs into state-controlled resources. It recommends inter-ventions to bring about joint management of forest land,building on the mutual benefits to be obtained from greateraccess to forest products by local people, and reduced pro-tection costs for the forestry department. Seven factors thatcontribute to successful participatory forestry are: (i) avail-ability of government land for CPRs; (ii) similar patternsof resource use throughout the community; (iii) manage-ment by user groups rather than whole villages or pan-chayats; (iv) security of tenure to the user group; (v) useregulations that have evolved and are enforced locally; (vi)community management of benefit allocation; (vii) man-agement focus on low value products of local importance.Worldwide, constraints on participatory forest manage-ment include: (a) reluctance of government staff to devolvecontrol; (b) pressures within the community such as in-migration, which undermine local protection agreements;(c) combination of access to forest products with cultiva-tion rights; (d) weaknesses in the legal framework. Insocial forestry interventions, the emphasis on meeting sub-sistence needs has tended to overshadow the importance ofmarket demands for wood products, such as urbandemands for wood fuels, so that there has been a failure tomatch project production to market possibilities, or to linkproducers to markets.Arnold, J.E.M., and W.C. Steward. 1991. CommonProperty Resource Management. Tropical ForestryPaper No. 24. Oxford Forestry Institute, University ofOxford.In an evaluation of the Orissa Social Forestry project it wasfound that 82% of villagers didn’t know how the producefrom village woodlots would be distributed; most didn’texpect any share from the final output and looked on theseas another category of reserved forests; nearly everywherethe Forest Department had worked through panchayatsrather than user groups or other local organizations select-ed by a village specifically for managing the woodlot; ben-efit sharing agreements are frequently neither finalized norformalized.Berkes, Fikret [ed.]. 1989. Common PropertyResources: Ecology and Community-based SustainableDevelopment. London: Belhaven Press.Excellent collection of articles and editorial overviewwhich clarifies many of the critical issues involved in inter-ventions designed to improve CPR management; includesarticles by Gadgil and Iyer: On the diversification of com-mon property resource use by Indian Society.Bernard, H.R., Killworth, P., Kronenfeld, D. 1984. Theproblem of informant accuracy: the validity of retro-spective data. In Ann. Rev. Anthropol. 1984, 13: 495-517.This review focuses on informant accuracy in reporting

past events, behaviour and circumstances. A simple exam-ple of the problem is this: if an informant says that she dri-ves 6 miles to and from work, then does she? If she reallydrives 5.3 miles each way to work, then is her report closeenough, and under what circumstances is it inadequate?This paper also reports on relevant literature dealing withinformant accuracy in the field of child care, health care,communications and social interactions. Bhatia, Anupam. 1995. Challenging the new profes-sionals, moving from Participatory Rural Appraisal toEmpowering Rural Appraisal, Presented at NepalParticipatory Action Network Workshop, Dhulikhel,Nepal. Unpublished report available from ICIMOD.This author introduces the changing development para-digm from the overriding state centralized actions to theemergence of people’s participation in development. Heemphasizes the role of community institutions as well asthat of individuals and professionals.Bhattarai, Tara N. and J. Gabriel Campbell. 1985.Monitoring and Evaluation of the Community ForestryProject in Nepal. In FAO/SIDA. Monitoring andEvaluation of Participatory Forestry Projects, pp. 31-102, FAO, Rome.Under the overall rubric of Panchayat Forestry, blocks ofup to 125 ha of government grazing land and upto 500 haof government forest are allocated to each of 4,000Village Panchayats to meet local needs; researchers triedto keep monitoring and evaluation close to standardnational monitoring systems, but had to improve on theseso as to account for local impact, rather than just effi-cient supply of infrastructural inputs. They found thatfield officers and technicians on low salaries were placedin duty stations which frequently required two to threedays walk from a seasonally served airstrip or fairweath-er roads, and that promotion from jobs in these harshconditions is generally perceived as having little relationto performance; this situation has encouraged bureau-cratically conservative behaviour, where the most suc-cessful strategy for government employees is to avoiddecisions which would jeopardize their sinecure. Thereis a strong preference for informal oral rather writtenevaluation procedures at the local level, since writtencommunications are understood as legal documents forwhich the writer can be held accountable. It suggestsadditional roles for Monitoring & Evaluation (M. & E.):to encourage more attention to work planning; toincrease the extension of activities of CommunityForestry Assistants, and to provide a performance incen-tive to field staff by encouraging self-evaluation at thenational level. M. & E. information can gather addition-al political support for community forestry and answerinappropriate criticism.Bhattacharya, Debasish, et al. 1994. Socio-EconomicProfile of Forest Protection Committees (FPCs) ofNayagram, West Midnapore, West Bengal (PFM studyseries (Sept. 1994)). Participatory Forest Management(PFM) Project, Rural Development Centre, IndianInstitute of Technology, Kharagpur. This paper deals with the various aspects of socio-culturaland economic life of the people of Nayagram in DistrictMidnapore of West Bengal. Socio-economic aspects ofForest Protection Committees (FPCs) have also been high-lighted in detail. It is meant especially for network circula-tion, with the purpose of transmitting up-to-date informa-tion and experiences amongst all who are involved in themovement (JFM), especially the West Bengal ForestDepartment who are the initiators of the programme in theeastern region.



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Bishop, J., A.B. Cunningham, M. Pimbert, I. Scoonesand B. Terry. 1994. Beer and Baskets: The Economicsof Women’s Livelihoods in Ngamiland, Botswana.Hidden Harvest Project, International Institute forEnvironment and Development, Worldwide Fund forNature, Switzerland. This report examines the economics of basket making andbeer production in two sites on the western edge of theOkavango delta in Ngamiland, Botswana. UsingParticipatory Rural Appraisal methods, the study focuseson the priority concerns expressed by villagers, andexplores women villagers’ use of wild species. Income-generating activities based on the use of wild resources areevaluated in a total livelihood context. After offering avery brief introduction to methodology, the report providesan overview of the social and environmental setting of thestudy area. This is then followed by an examination of thenatural resource profiles of each village site. Resourcemanagement and control issues are addressed by examin-ing harvesting practice and resource tenure issues. Thenext section examines the costs and benefits of basketmaking and contrasts the economics of using wild and cul-tivated palm. The comparative returns to labour of differ-ent livelihood activities are discussed, setting the role ofbasketry within a wider context; resource conservation andmanagement options are then identified.Brown, L.D. and Tandon R. Ideology and PoliticalEconomy in Inquiry: Action Research andParticipatory Research. Journal of Applied BehavioralScience Volume 19(3): 277- 294.The spread of applied behavioral science requires adapta-tion to new circumstances and audiences, and applicationsin new settings can generate new insights. This paperexamines two traditions of applied behavioral scienceinquiry - action research and participatory research - thatespouse many similar values and employ common meth-ods in different settings. The authors have worked togeth-er as applied behavioral scientists in each other’s countries(the United States and India), applying common conceptu-al equipment to diverse cultural, political and economicsettings. They have used both action research and partici-patory research approaches to inquiry, and this paperfocuses on the ideological, political and economic differ-ences between these approaches.Campbell, J. Gabriel, and Jeannette Denholm [eds].1992. Inspirations in Community ForestryKathmandu: International Centre for IntegratedMountain Development.Report of the Seminar on Himalayan Community Forestry,Nepal, June 1-4; the Nepalese policy of turning over 100%of forestry income to local communities was seen by manyparticipants as something which India should learn from,whereas the Nepalese were interested in learning from theIndian experience in dealing with commercialised forestproducts through revenue-sharing arrangements.Arguments for and against 100% local control of forestryincome are examined; there is general agreement on somelessons so far from both Nepal and India. Community plan-tations through panchayats have failed to elicit genuineparticipation. Private farmer tree-planting has exceeded allexpectations, although marketing and technical support arestill inadequate. Farm households have shown little interestin planting trees to meet their own subsistence needs; equalparticipation of women in either community or householdforest decision-making is lacking; natural regeneration offorest through community participation is potentially cost-effective. Silvicultural technologies need radical revisionto address social, economic, and conservation needs; and

long-term changes in policies, legislation, training, andinstitutional support are needed.Carter, J., S. Connelly and N. Wilson. 1994. RuralDevelopment Forestry Network - ParticipatoryForestry in Sri Lanka: Why so limited? Change on theHorizon. (Network Paper 17b), RDFN. OverseasDevelopment Institute, London. This paper is an outsider’s view of the Sri Lanka forestrysituation though the comments are based on experience ofparticipatory forestry in a number of countries as well asthe authors’ work on professional foresters in Sri Lanka.The authors have described how past attempts of people-oriented forestry in Sri Lanka have fallen short of partici-patory forestry. They suggest forest policy and legislativereform for improving the implementation of the joint man-agement system.Case, D. D’Arcy , T. Grove and C. Apted. 1990. TheCommunity’s Tool Box; The Idea, Methods and Toolsfor Participatory Assessment, Monitoring andEvaluation in Community Forestry (CommunityForestry Field Manual 2). FAO Regional Wood EnergyDevelopment Programme in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand.Food and Agriculture Organisation of the UnitedNations, Rome. This manual is organized into three sections. Section oneintroduces the idea and benefits to be gained from a newapproach. This section also provides some two-way com-munication exercises for field staff. Section two providesthe methods for determining information needs, and waysthat information can be analyzed and presented. Sectionthree describes the information collecting tools and offerssome suggestions for selection of tools.Cernea, Michael. 1992. A sociological framework: poli-cy, environment, and the social actors for tree planting.In Narendra P. Sharma, [ed.]. Managing the World’sForests: Looking for Balance Between Conservationand Development. Washington D.C. World Bank. pp.301-335.A simple and clear overview of the need for social analy-sis and ‘social engineering’ in social forestry projects;attention of planners needs to shift emphasis from com-modities to people and their activities; future policies mustpursue change in agricultural practices to incorporate trees;these should be complemented by natural forest manage-ment; social actors need to be empowered to grow trees,and discouraged from forest-degrading activities; collec-tive social forestry needs organised groups, informationwhich convinces people that it is in their interest to growtrees, and leadership/norms and procedures to enable peo-ple to manage trees; units may be those already existing,purpose-built forestry units, or organizations designed fornon-forest purposes which can add forest to their func-tions; economic incentives for tree-planting are of vitalimportance. The report lists seven reasons why ‘communi-ties’ are rarely ready to take on sustained and equitable col-lective tree cultivation: (i) residential populations are notnecessarily corporate organizations; (ii) community sub-groups often have widely different interests that precludethe kind of collective unified action required by long-termafforestation programmes; (iii) community lands often toolimited for tree-planting; (iv) tenure status uncertain; (v)authority systems have uneven mobilization power overcommunity subgroups; (vi) benefit-sharing and exclusion-ary rules against non-contributors seldom specified at out-set; (vii) most communities not organized for other jointproductive activities. It concludes that foresters and plan-ners of social forestry community-based programmesshould acknowledge that social forest connotes both the


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philosophy of development and a pragmatic operationalstrategy. Chambers, Robert, N.C. Saxena, and Tushaar Shah.1989. To the Hands of the Poor: Water and Trees.London: IT/New Delhi. Oxford & and IBH PublishingCo.A key text that looks at connections between degradationof the commons, failures of institutional development forimproved CPR management, and rural poverty; the ruralpoor need not only income but stable subsistence, securitybased on assets and rights, and self-respect based on inde-pendence and choice. Looks at lift irrigation, tree-planting,and natural forest management, and how interventions inthese sectors could help the poor and the reasons why theyfail. Key problems examined include: insecurity of landtenure, legal problems in harvesting and sale of trees, mar-ket imperfections, lack of extension services, and the‘catches’ and ‘hassles’ involved in tree planting schemes.The ‘practical political economy’ approach is advocated asa strategy, which identifies ways for both the powerful andthe powerless at the same time.Chatterjee, M. Undated. Women in Joint ForestManagement: A Case study from West Bengal,Technical Paper 4. IBRAD (Indian Institute of Bio-Social Research and Development), Calcutta. This paper discusses how Government policy regardingforestry programmes can change women’s role in a com-munity and how this policy can also help to raise the eco-nomic status of rural women. To begin with women’s con-tribution in the domestic economy in rural areas is exam-ined, followed by their role in utilization of naturalresources and the effect of deforestation on women. Lastly,a community forestry programme in West Bengal is brieflydescribed.Chatterjee, M. and S.B. Roy. 1994. Reflections fromTraining on Gender Issues in Joint ForestManagement, Indian Institute of Bio-Social Researchand Development, Calcutta. This book is the result of the two authors’ research andtraining experiences through a Participatory ForestManagement Project supported by the Ford Foundationand the Ministry of Environment and forest, Governmentof India. It starts with a brief preface in which the genderissues are highlighted, followed by 10 chapters dealingwith different aspects in relation to JFM.Chatterji, J. and M. Gulati. Undated. Co-managingtheCommons - The Jammu & Kashmir Experience,Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development,Shriram Bharatiya Kala Kendra, 1,Copernicus Marg,New Delhi. This report is based on a study of the functioning of the vil-lage forest committees, commissioned by the Departmentof social forestry of J&K to the SPWD. It presents adynamic picture of the evolutionary process of JFM as it ispractised in Jammu and Kashmir. The issues discussed inthe report are peculiar to the Himalayan region but it maybe of relevance anywhere in the country.Chetri, Ram. B. and Tulsi R. Pandey 1992. User GroupForestry in the Far-Western Region of Nepal. CaseStudies from Baitadi and Accham Kathmandu, ICI-MOD (International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment).Available from ICIMOD GPO Box 3226, Kathmandu;eight case-studies with details on User Group compositionand local population, nature of forests, and protection andmanagement practices; the authors agree with the generalview that User Groups have been effective in slowing orreversing deforestation.

Colchester, M. 1994. Salvaging Nature; IndigenousPeoples, Protected Areas and Bio-diversityConservation. Discussion Paper 55. UNRISD. WorldRain Forest Movement, WWF. This paper catalogues the programme on Environment,Sustainable Development and Social Change taken up bythe United Nations Research Institute for SocialDevelopment. It gives a critical review of the implicationsfor livelihood and conditions of life, especially of the lowincome groups, of a wide variety of projects to rehabilitatedegraded sources and protect wild animals and plantspecies in national parks and reserves. The author arguesthat conservation, which has emerged as a powerful globalforce, dominated by Northern technical institutions,increasingly seeks to limit human activities in biodiversity-rich areas, especially in the south. Mainstream conserva-tionists have sought to impose their culturally bound visionof natural resource management on indigenous peopleswithout taking into account their rights under internationallaw or their different priorities and perceptions.Cunningham, A.B. 1994. Combining Skills: ParticipatoryApproaches in Biodiversity Conservation. In Huntley,B.J. (ed.). Botanical Diversity in Southern Africa, 1994. This paper emphasizes the value of a ‘cross-pollination’ ofideas between resource users, researchers and resourcemanagers in conserving customary knowledge and botani-cal diversity, on the basis of examples drawn from Africa,Australia and the Americas. Knowledgeable rural people,who have learnt through resource use and acute observa-tion rather than through formal training, can be an invalu-able source of information for plant conservation purposes.In this context, people from rural communities surroundingprotected areas can play decisive roles in species invento-ry, planning, research and monitoring, for conservationpurposes. What is urgently required before much of theaccumulated customary knowledge of ecosystem function-ing and species uses disappears, is the development of for-mal and field-based training to develop cross-cultural com-munication skills for participatory research.Cunningham, A.B. 1996. People, Park and Plant use.Recommendations for multiple-use zones and develop-ment alternatives around Bwindi ImpenetrableNational Park, Uganda. People and Plants WorkingPaper 4. UNESCO Paris. This working paper focuses on resource use and manage-ment issues relating to wild plants and multiple-use zoningin Bwindi Impenetrable National Park. Foresters usuallygroup products into two categories for forest managementpurposes: major forest products (such as timber, fuelwoodor other wooden products), and minor forest products (allnon-wooden products). The results and recommendationsof this report are presented first for the latter category,involving mainly specialist users of non-wood products,including wild plant resources, honey, basketry and bam-boo use. The various uses of wood, the major forest prod-ucts (e.g. blacksmiths, carved wooden handicrafts, beerboats, building poles, bean stakes) are then considered.These recommendations need to be seen as part of an on-going process of interaction between rural communitiessurrounding Bwindi Impenetrable National Park and thepark management; with DTC (Development ThroughConservation) staff at the interface between the two groups.Dahal, Dilli Ram. 1994. A Review of Forest UserGroups: Case Studies from Eastern Nepal,International Centre for Integrated MountainDevelopment, Kathmandu, Nepal. This study is one in a series commissioned by ICIMOD toprovide insights into community-managed forests. This



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particular document looks at User Groups from three dif-ferent areas of Nepal; Sankhawasabha, Dhankuta, andIlam, and appraises them in the context of success and fail-ure, with a practical perspective on what we can learn forthe future in relation to problems and conflicts that are aris-ing and which may arise. It is part of a nationwide reviewof FUGs undertaken by ICIMOD, and the objective is tohelp in identifying mechanisms and processes that can pro-mote more effective management and development of for-est resources in Nepal.Das, Nilanjana et al. 1994. Ecological study of theForest Under FPCs in the Nayagram Range, WestMidnapore, West Bengal. Participatory ForestManagement Project, Rural Development Centre,Indian Institute of Technology, Kharagpur.This paper based on a study in Nayagram in the WestMidnapore division of West Bengal reveals that the Sal(Shorea robusta) coppice generating forests have tremen-dous natural ability to establish a large diversity of plants.A significant portion is used very frequently by the localcommunities for subsistence needs of food, fodder, fuel,medicine, household articles, religious and ornamentalpurposes. It also provides a methodology for the analysisof vegetation status. The findings clearly demonstrate thatin most of the FPCs, regenerating forests are gradually get-ting into better shape as far as coppice regeneration is con-cerned. Compared to a plantation approach, natural regen-eration of degraded forests is not only cost effective butalso socially relevant and ecologically sound. The signs aredefinitely positive as far as participating forest manage-ment practice is concerned. The villages have taken ade-quate care and interest to protect the forest. Continuousmonitoring is suggested to check the deterioration in theecosystem.Das, S., A. Das and P. Sharangi. 1995. A Report onInterim Assessment of Impact of JFM Activities onForest Based Ecosystem. Ramakrishna MissionLokasiksha Parishad, Ramakrishna Ashram,Narendrapur, West Bengal, India. The report is based on a study of a village (Ichadih) inPurulia Forest Division of West Bengal. It aims at evaluat-ing the performance of the Forest Protection Committeemembers, in various activities in order to develop theirskills in managing both the human and natural resources ona sustainable basis for amelioration of the ecosystem andimproving their socio-economic status. The main recom-mendations of the study presented in the report are: (i)appropriate skill is yet to be developed through regulartraining and monitoring to cover the period of unemploy-ment; (ii) NTFP resources are yet to be identified anddeveloped both silviculturally and commercially; and (iii)alternative fuel arrangements are to be explored and intro-duced. Das, S., A. Das and P. Sharangi. 1995. A Study Reporton Status & Marketing of Lac Under Joint ForestManagement Project. Ramakrishna Mission LoksikshaParishad, Ramakrishna Mission Ashrama,Narendrapur, West Bengal, India. This report is based on an intensive study conducted in thearea of Jhalda, the major lac producing area in PuruliaDistrict in West Bengal. In this area the main village econ-omy is totally dependent on lac cultivation. The objectivesof the study are to understand the status of lac cultivation;socio-economic problems among the fringe population inand outside the forest areas; lac marketing; and to find outthe problems of cultivators with remedial measures. Themajor findings of the study are that from the substitutes oflac point of view, the future status of the lac market is

uncertain. Buyers decline to pay the cultivator the realprice for lac because mixed lac is widespread on the mar-ket. Lac provides an additional annual income of Rs. 2000-3000 on average. Women are involved in lac cultivation atalmost all stages of activities, i.e. production, processingand marketing. It is recommended that the Kusum plantsmay be introduced in sizeable numbers in the future plan-tation programme, and an easy and workable arrangementis to be made for supply of good seed lac to the cultivatorin time.Das, Chandreyee et al. 1994. Aspects ofCommercialisation of Selected Non-Timber ForestProducts in the Nayagram Range of West Midnapore,West Bengal. Participatory Forest Management (PFM)Project, Rural Development Centre, Indian Institute ofTechnology, Kharagpur. This report intends to explore the possibilities of productdiversification through appropriate technology transfer andits commercial disposal. It attempts to bring out the inher-ent potential and possibilities of NTFPs to serve a separatesection of ultimate users so that the value addition compo-nent increases significantly. Four projects initiated underthe programme – the production of sabai grass-baseditems; making moulded sal leaf plates using non-conven-tional energy devices; cultivation and processing of mush-rooms; extraction and processing of medicinal plants - arediscussed. It is concluded that the introduction of the setsof new items to the existing economic and marketing fab-ric would call for a reorientation of the system as it impliesa few new forms of production, a new channel of distribu-tion and a new set of customers. Diagrammatic presenta-tion of the present and prospective channels of productionand marketing of the various NTFPs and their byproductshas been made in the report.Dembner, Stephen A. Undated. Forest Land for thePeople: A Forest Village Project in North EastThailand. Food and Agriculture Organisation of theUnited Nations. This report is one of the series of case studies of FAO-assisted community forestry projects. This forms part ofFAO’s Forestry for local community development pro-gramme. This is based on the work of Jacques Amyot ofChulalong Korn University Social Resource Institute inBangkok. The author had interviewed representatives ofthe several government cooperating agencies who had per-sonally been involved in the implementation of the project.All were unanimous in the view that the project was worth-while and had generated many benefits.Dhar, S.K., J.R. Gupta, and Madhu Sarin. 1991.Participatory Forest Management in the Shivalik Hills:Experiences of the Haryana Forest Department, NewDelhi. Ford Foundation. Sustainable ForestManagement Working Paper No 5.Useful case-study of a famous success story (at least in itsinitial stages). By the mid-70s, Sukhna Lake in Chandigarhhad lost nearly 70% of its water storage capacity due to sil-tation; the HFD had failed to persuade herders (mainlyGujjars) not to graze their animals in the catchment area;the concept of ‘social fencing’ was tried out in Sukhomajri,a Gujjar hamlet 4 km from Pinjore Garden; villagers weregiven irrigation dams in return for protecting catchment,resulting in annual three-fold increase in agriculturalyields; water was distributed equally, irrespective of landownership; barbed wire fences were removed; milk pro-duction increased by 200 litres per day, giving villagersadditional Rs. 150,000 annually; the project was replicatedin Nada, also in Shivalik foothills, 15 km from Chandigarh,in a hamlet of 17 Harijan families; Nada villagers were


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very successful in growing bhabbar, which brought goodreturns within about 4 months of planting; concept of HillResource Management Societies caught on rapidly from1983 to 1988 - too fast to be effective, so there were initialproblems in administration and communication; JointManagement Planning team was formed to strengthenHFD’s capacity to work with villagers; also informalworking groups to meet every 4 to 8 weeks, chaired byPCCF, with DFO, Support team Leader, RO, and consult-ing group; also HRMS Support Unit with social scientistsorganizers, and HFD staff formulated Range and Beat pro-files prior to each project initiation, giving information onlocal geography, forest use, social composition, etc to helpdraw up microplans for JFM agreements; the departmentalconstraints on dealing with female forest offenders werediscussed, and it was recommended that the only long-termsolution was to increase the strength of the women staff atall levels of the FD hierarchy.Dhar, S. K. 1994. Rehabilitation of Degraded TropicalForest Watersheds with People’s Participation (JointForest Management series 16). Haryana Forest Depart-ment and Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi.This report deals with the status of land degradation in thefoothills of northern India. The traditional forest manage-ment practices have failed to provide goods and services tothe village community. The Report says that the attitudesof the villagers and foresters have changed with the adop-tion of a new conservation strategy which includes har-vesting of rainwater for irrigation to rainfed agriculturallands, grants of fodder and fibre grass leases to registeredvillage societies and involvement of the people in forestmanagement. It concludes that harvesting rainwater fromhilly watersheds for the benefit of the local communityhelps in enlisting their active support in protection whichhas greatly promoted the rehabilitation of the degraded for-est watersheds. Thus due to trees and grasses over the hills,the risks of soil erosion have been minimized. It also seemspossible that backward villages can be turned into self-sus-taining units of development.Directorate of Social forestry, Jammu & Kashmir,(Undated), Social Forestry in Jammu and Kashmir,Social Forestry Project, Jammu & Kashmir.This report in brief, presents the status of Social Forestry,in the state of Jammu & Kashmir. It has been presented in8 chapters. The first chapter deals presents general back-ground information about the forest and forestry in thestate. It is followed by a chapter II on ‘Socio-EconomicProfile of Jammu & Kashmir, chapter III on ‘communityparticipation’, chapter IV on ‘Forestry DevelopmentProgramme’, chapter V on ‘Social Forestry’ ProjectJammu & Kashmir, Chapter VI on ‘Wood BalanceStudies’, Chapter VII on ‘Involvement of NGOs’ and thelast chapter on ‘Impact of Social forestry on wildlife ofJammu & Kashmir’. Thus, the report covers almost allaspects of social forestry. It is mainly based on secondaryinformation collected from different sources - mainly fromthe Forest Department.Dove, Michael R. 1985. Government perceptions of tra-ditional social forestry in Indonesia: The history, caus-es and implications of state policy on swidden agricul-ture in Y.S. Rao et al. [eds]. Community Forestry:Socio-Economic Aspects. Bangkok: FAO RegionalOffice for Asia and the Pacific/Honolulu: Environmentand Policy Institute, East-West Centre.Argues a very strong case for politico-economic analysisof the reasons for state misinterpretation of local forest useand forest management; provides an overview of empiricalevidence in favour of swidden (shifting) agriculture’s high

returns on labour, and the Indonesian government’s dog-matic refusal to recognize this; traces deliberate ignoranceto early Hindu Kingdoms in Java which wanted to keeppeople in concentrated populations cultivating irrigatedland which they could tax and control; antipathy to scat-tered populations. Swiddening, natural forests, has persist-ed in contemporary Indonesian national ideology; looks atcontemporary forest policy towards tree crop developmentand commercial forestry development and interprets theirbiases in this light.Dutta M. and M.Adhikari. 1991. Sal Leaf Plate Makingin West Bengal: A case study of the cottage industry inSabalmara, West Midnapore (Working Paper 2).Indian Institute of Biosocial Research andDevelopment, Calcutta.This paper looks at the way the sal (Shorea robusta) plateindustry operates, both in terms of the production processand the marketing system. The relative importance of salplate production in the village economy is then evaluated.The machine-finishing of the raw plates is finally dis-cussed. It is a household level survey on sal plate produc-tion in 9 villages in Sabalmara (West Midnapore District),covering 45 representative households. It has been con-cluded that this household industry, which is largely oper-ated by women, is very cost-effective, and should beencouraged, to enhance rural welfare.FAO. 1985. Tree Growing by Rural People. FAOforestry paper 46. Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nations, Rome.The report assembles a clear picture of the different cir-cumstances in which the growing, managing and use oftrees and tree outputs is of benefit to rural people, and indi-cates the most effective ways in which support can be pro-vided. It focuses on one of the most important productionstrategies which meets such needs - tree growing by ruralpoor.FAO. 1991. Trees and Forests in Rural Land Use. Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,Rome. This booklet is a modest contribution to the Tenth WorldForestry Congress, especially to the role of trees andforests in land management. Deforestation is nothing new;nor are its consequences. As it proceeds, especiallythroughout much of the developing world, the rationalmanagement of remaining forests and trees becomeincreasingly important in rehabilitating degraded lands,supporting agriculture, enhancing food security, protectingwater supplies and increasing the well-being of rural peo-ple. In order that this role of forestry is appreciated, its con-tribution to sustainable rural development requires thor-ough economic appraisal, hitherto confined to traditionalforestry, which focused on industrial wood production.The role of forests and trees in rural land use are discussedand assessed under the main headings of forestry and eco-logical security; forest genetic resources; forest manage-ment and the economics of forestry in rural land use. FAO/SIDA 1985 Monitoring and Evaluation ofParticipatory Forestry Projects. Rome: FAOBased on M and E of two FAO/World Bank projects, onein Malawi and one in Nepal. People’s use of trees and for-est outputs is usually embedded in complex human andresource systems, so that project implementation is affect-ed by many non-forestry factors, which are often only par-tially understood at the project design stage. Chapter byEric Clayton on M and E of Participatory Forestry Projectsrecommends on-going evaluation, along with monitoring,in order to make any needed adjustments to the objectives,activities, operation and performance of an on-going pro-



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ject; useful indicators include the production and con-sumption of forest products by wood growers and users,attitudes to wood scarcity, commercialization of woodproducts, prices, patterns of social organization for treeplanting, adoption of more efficient wood using technolo-gies, tree survival rates and growth rates (proxy indicatorswhere it takes too long to see whether they actually growas expected); Tara N. Bhattarai and J. Gabriel Campbell‘M and E of the Community Forestry in Nepal’ (see sepa-rately).Forest Department, Junagadh , AKRSP (I) andVIKSAT, Ahmedabad, 1994, Report of TrainingProgramme on Joint Forest Management. This report is based on the proceedings of the TrainingProgramme on Joint Forest Management held at AKRSP,Gadu campus, Distt. Junagadh, Gujarat during May 6-8,1994. It brings out interesting issues, and identifies areas ofcooperation between the partners in the JFM programme.Whole report has been presented in 4 chapters. Chapter Ideals with the background, chapter 2 gives informationabout the training schedule, while chapter 3 presents thesession wise report, of the training in which history ofJFM, its status, role of NGOs, etc. are briefly discussed.The annex contains some details and an interesting gameof snake and ladder used during the training.Fox, Jefferson. 1990. Diagnostic tools for social forestryin Mark Poffenberger [ed]. Keepers of the Forest: LandManagement Alternatives in Southeast Asia. WestHartdford, Conn. Kumarian Press, pp. 119-33.Very useful article which looks at various PRA methods -semi-structured interviewing, aerial photos, sketch maps astools for planning community participation in forest man-agement; argues that if foresters and farmers are to com-municate, the onus is on the forester to start the process byunderstanding farming practices; this includes knowing thecrops grown, the place, time, and methods of planting andharvesting, how the products are disposed of, and howincome and other benefits are shared; in addition, under-standing how forester management plans affect differentmembers of the community requires some knowledge ofvillage tenure systems; understanding patterns of conflictand cooperation within and among villages requires someknowledge of historical land-use practices, while sensitiv-ity to local priorities requires some knowledge of farmers’perceptions of environmental problems; discusses inter-view techniques structuring while looking as though in afree conversation; key informants, group interviews;observation to offset misleading local myths; crop calen-dars, labour calendars, activity-sequence calendars, ani-mal-feed calendars; the role of local informants as essentialinterpreters of aerial photos; discusses the different uses ofsmall-scale (> 1:50,000), medium (1:10-50,000) and large(1:10,000) photos; plastic overlays can be used to recordinformation about land and resource-use on public and pri-vate land; sketch maps can serve similar functions inabsence of photos; good if based on enlargements fromprinted topographic maps; for social forestry appreciatedtechnology, since it is cheap, easy to do, easy to teach,although often very inaccurate and may introduce distor-tions into mapping process.Government of India Ministry of Environment. 1988.National Forest Policy Resolution 3, 1/86-FP NewDelhi: GOI.Salient features include environmental stability, conserva-tion of natural heritage, meeting the basic needs of the peo-ple (especially fuelwood, fodder and small timber), pro-tecting the customary rights of tribal land, other poor peo-ple living in and around forests, through people’s own

involvement in protection, conservation, and managementof the forests; the objective of increasing the productivityof forests to meet essential national needs is to be com-bined with provision for local based needs; this willinvolve the strategy of ‘creating a massive people’s move-ment with the involvement of women, for achieving theseobjectives and to minimize pressure on existing forests’;explicitly forbids state governments from leasing orassigning forests to private parties or NGOs without priorapproval of the Central Government; the diversion of goodand productive agricultural lands to forestry should be dis-couraged in view of the need for increased food produc-tion; the national goal should be to have a minimum ofone-third of the total land area of the country under forestor tree cover (two-thirds in the hills and in mountainousregions), unused village and community lands should bedeveloped for tree crops and fodder resources, and the rev-enues generated should belong to the panchayats who con-trol the lands, or shared with the local communities; landlaws should be modified wherever necessary so as to facil-itate and motivate individuals and institutions to undertaketree-farming and grow fodder plants, grasses and legumeson their own land; degraded lands should be made avail-able for this purpose, either on lease or on the basis of atree-patta scheme; there should be substitution of wood forbuilding and fuel; fuel-efficient “chulhas” should be popu-larized in rural areas; construction of dams and reservoirs,mining and industrial development and expansion of agri-culture should be consistent with the needs of conservationof trees and forests, and projects which involve such diver-sion should provide funds for regeneration and compen-satory afforestation; contractors for forest products shouldbe replaced by institutions such as tribal co-ops, labour co-ops, and government corporations; there should also beintegrated area development programmes to meet theneeds of the tribal economy in and around the forest areas;there should be no regularization of existing encroach-ments into forest land; grazing in forest areas should beregulated with the involvement of the community; forest-based industries must not only provide employment tolocal people as a priority, but also involve them fully inraising trees and raw material; natural forests should beconserved for their biodiversity value and ecological func-tions rather than being made available to industries forplantation etc, and the practice of supplying forest produceto industry at concessional price should cease.Government of India, Ministry of Environment andForests. 1990. Involvement of village communities andvoluntary agencies for regeneration of degraded forestlands. Circular No 6-21/89-FP. New Delhi: GOI.Sent in June to Forest Secretaries of all states and UnionTeritories, it clarifies issues concerning participation ofNGOs and local people in implementing the nationalForest Policy. The NFP, 1988, envisages people’s involve-ment in the development and protection of forests. Therequirements of fuelwood, fodder, and small timber suchas house-building material, of the tribals and other vil-lagers living in and near the forests, are to be treated as firstcharge on forest produce. Committed voluntary agen-cies/NGOs, with proven track records, may prove particu-larly well suited to motivating and organizing village com-munities for protection, afforestation and development ofdegraded forest land, especially in the vicinity of habita-tions. The State FDs/Social Forestry organizations ought totake full advantage of their expertise and experience in thisrespect for building up meaningful people’s participationin protection and development of degraded forest lands.The voluntary agencies/NGOs may be associated as an


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interface between State FDs and the local village commu-nities for revival, restoration and development of degradedforests, although no ownership or lease rights over the for-est land should be given to the beneficiaries or to the vol-untary agency/NGOs; the beneficiaries, but not the volun-tary agency/NGO should be entitled to a share in usufructs;access to forest land and usufructuary benefits should beonly to the beneficiaries who get organized into a villageinstitution, specifically for forest regeneration and protec-tion. This could be the panchayat or the co-operative of thevillage, with no restriction on membership. It could also bea VFC; FDs should be people for raising nurseries, prepar-ing land for planting and protecting the trees after planting,using funds from the SF programme, although villageorganizations may obtain funds from other Governmentagencies and sources for undertaking these activities; itshould be ensured that there is no grazing at all in the for-est land protected by the village community. Permission tocut and carry grass free of cost should be given so that stallfeeding is promoted; no agriculture should be permitted onthe forest land; tree to meet needs other than fuel, fodderand timber may be grown - e.g. fruits, legumes, medicinalplants; the benefit of people’s participation should go tothe village communities and not to commercial or otherinterests, which may try to derive benefit in their names;the FD should closely supervise the works. If the benefi-ciaries and/or the voluntary agency/NGO fail or neglect toprotect the area from grazing, encroachment, or do not per-form the operations prescribed in the working scheme in asatisfactory manner, the usufructuary benefits should bewithdrawn without paying compensation to anyone for anywork that might have been done prior to it. Suitable provi-sions in the MOU for this purpose should be incorporated.Gulati, Mineesh and Sushil Saigal. 1992. Joint ForestManagement Orientation workshop for A.P. officials.Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development,New Delhi. This report was prepared as reading material for the partic-ipants of an orientation workshop on Joint ForestManagement for A.P. officials organized by the Society forPromotion of Wastelands Development, New Delhi, atHyderabad during October 21-22, 1992. It consists ofinformation on Andhra Pradesh forests, including generalbackground of the state. An analysis of earlier schemes,and of Andhra Pradesh forests have also been given in thereport. JFM resolution of Andhra Pradesh and areas whichneed to be further strengthened have also been discussed indepth. In the last, salient features of JFM resolutions in 11states have been presented, with information about variousaspects of the programme, including a systems diagram offorest users and managers in Pinjore, Haryana.Hammett, A.L., Messerschmidt, Don and RichardCamille (eds.). 1994. User Groups in CommunityForestry: lessons learned and case-studies from Nepal(IOF project technical paper TP 94/2), USAID/Nepal.Office of Agriculture and Rural Development, Instituteof Forestry, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. The report (study) is based on field data and findings fromthe Forest User Group (FUG) study conducted in 1991 inthe Districts of central and western Nepal, combined withinterviews and secondary data on forest user group devel-opment, provided by a number of projects in central andeastern Nepal. Parts of this study are based on a shortreport highlighting twenty-two hypotheses generated fromthe work and presented at a regional conference onCommunity forestry in 1992. That unpublished paper isentitled “Forest User Groups in Nepal - perspectives onwhat works and why”. Rapid Appraisal technique have

been used. It includes a brief account of different forestcommittees under study.Harris, Jill Carr. (undated). Forests and People: AStudy of the Development of Forest DependentCommunities. South-South Solidarity and Lok JagritiKendra. This report is a significant contribution to South-South sol-idarity’s Development Series. It draws attention to one partof the forest’s biomass resources, that is, minor forest pro-duce. There is a tremendous conflict between commercial-ization of minor forest produce on a large-scale and thesubsistence needs of forest dependents. As it is difficult forthe forest department to understand the traditional and sub-sistence use value of minor forest produce, this report cov-ers a local study in south Bihar. It focuses on communitieswhose subsistence requirements and livelihoods are condi-tioned by their nearness to a forest. With the hindsight oftwenty years of Government regulation, it has been con-cluded that deregulation would strengthen the local devel-opment of forest dependents. It gives an exposure towardsalternative strategies for forest dependent communities.Harvey, Nick. 1994. Changing Colours or MaintainingThe Status Quo; Institutional Aspects of Joint ForestManagement in Bankura District of South-WestBengal, India. School of Agriculture and ForestSciences, University College of North Wales, Bangor,United Kingdom.This report is an outcome of a dissertation (MSc) submit-ted to the university college of North Wales, Bangor,United Kingdom. It reveals that the changes offered byJFM are evaluated differentially according to the percep-tions and experiences of the particular interest group orindividual involved. These actors, having weighed the ben-efits and costs of accepting and maintaining such an agree-ment, will then adopt their own strategies within or outsideof the set of rules laid down. For the strategies not to jeop-ardize such a collaborative venture and return the manage-ment regime to one of open access, both the forest depart-ment and the forest protection committees need tostrengthen their own capacity to monitor, evaluate andimplement this programme. This dissertation has attempt-ed to highlight the process of decision making and evalua-tion that FPCs, the interest groups found within them andthe individual FPC members undertake when presentedwith and when acting within a new approach to forest man-agement. Set of conditions are not conducive to a uni-mod-ular approach spread over a country whose heterogeneityof people is as, if not more, varied than its diverse ecolog-ical zones and history. Thus, a process-oriented approachis required which acknowledges and builds upon these.Hughes, Erin. 1994. Women in Forestry and NaturalResources -Workshop Proceedings. Institute of Forestry,Pokhara Campus, Tribhuvan University, Nepal. This report contains the proceedings of the workshop onwomen in forestry and natural resources held at theInstitute of Forestry, Pokhara campus, TribhuvanUniversity, July 14-18, 1994. It summarizes the presenta-tions made by different participants in the workshop. It isconcluded that in Nepal, women are the day to day man-agers of forest resources and are directly affected by deci-sions regarding natural resources. Despite their importantrole in national resource management, cultural norms andbiases preclude women in general from holding local leveland national level resource management positions. It issuggested that if participating natural resource manage-ment is going to succeed, women need to be included inlocal and national level management positions, in spite ofthe social barriers. Women need to be included and repre-



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sented in user group meetings, in committee meetings andwithin the Ministry of Forest and soil conservation.Summaries of twelve case-studies relating to differentaspects of women’s participation in local-level naturalresource management are also presented in the report.Appendices contain talks presented by two important par-ticipants, PRA techniques, selected references on womenin forestry and natural resources etc. IBRAD. 1992. Problems and Prospects of ParticipatoryCommunity Development (Working Paper No. 15).IBRAD and Department of Sociology andAnthropology, North Bengal University. This paper is an outcome of a seminar held at theDepartment of Sociology and Social Anthropology, NorthBengal University, jointly organised by the Indian Instituteof Bio-social Research and Development, Calcutta and theDepartment of Sociology and Social Anthropology, NorthBengal University on Aug. 21-22, 1992. It presents pro-ceedings of the seminar. Some papers entitled “Women’sEducation is Essential for Real Community Development”by Mahbubul - Alam, “Problems and Prospects ofParticipatory Community Development. A case study ofICDS in West Bengal” by Manas Gupta, “Role ofParticipatory Development and its Rivals” by P.C. Sarkar,“Deforestation and People Participation in Conservation ofForest Resources in West Bengal” by M.M. Jana, and“Spirit of Participatory Development” by Dr. RangadharSahu are enclosed/presented in the report.IBRAD, Calcutta & RDC, Indian Institute ofTechnology, Kharagpur. 1994. InternationalConference on Participatory Forest Management:Enabling Environment - Abstracts. The booklet includes the abstracts of the papers presentedin the Conference which explores the opportunities andchallenges encountered during the implementation ofParticipatory Forest Management programmes in differentparts of the world, and discusses the prerequisites of a suit-able enabling environment. The proposed bill of 1994 andits likely impact on participatory Forest Management pro-grammes in India are discussed. Resource-sharing propos-als for the Mafungausti Forest Area (MFA) in Zimbabweare compared with experiences of Joint ForestManagement in India. The term ‘JFM’ is critically exam-ined. In total, it consists of abstracts of 32 papers relatingto the theme from different authors from India, as well asabroad.Indian Environmental Society/Ford Foundation. 1990.Forest Management Partnerships: RegeneratingIndia’s Forest. New Delhi: Ford Foundation.Executive summary of Workshop on Sustainable Forestry;expresses optimism about JFM on recent efforts by FDS inWest Bengal, Haryana, Gujarat, Orissa, Jammu andKashmir, to collaborate meaningfully with rural communi-ties; in 1975, State Forest Departments managed nearly 75million ha of land, 22% of the nation’s territory - but theyhad to try to control 300 million forest users with only100,000 FD officers; between then and 1982 the nation lost1,3 million ha each year, and these losses resulted in the1980 Forest Conservation Act which put sweeping restric-tions on commercial logging; social forestry was neitherdesigned nor able to address the increasing degradation ofIndia’s reserve and protected forest management; by com-parison, JFM is much cheaper; recent Landsat imageryindicates 40% of the state forest area (30 million ha) hasthe capacity to regenerate naturally with community pro-tection - at a cost of less than 5% of the comparable costsof managing plantations; benefits would include better bio-mass supplies, better groundcover with improved

soil/water conservation, better employment opportunities,especially for landless and women in forest management,harvesting, processing and marketing, increased incomethrough higher forest productivity, reduced conflictsbetween FD and locals, improved capacity for communityresource management; studies of West Bengal’s ForestProtection Committees show that groups with at least 75%of all communities participating are the most effective for-est management units; tribal communities and other groupswith heavy forest dependent people; recommends sketchmapping and micro-planning as important ways of involv-ing local people in planning-especially women since menoften must consult their wives about biodiversity, areasfrom which fodder and fuel are collected, etc. case study ofShivaliks in Haryana shows that social fencing resulted inincreasing fodder grass productivity by 10 to 40 timesbetween 1982-87, and sale of fodder by FD reduced coststo villagers from Rs. 460 to Rs. 150 per year, even whereopportunities for increasing forest productivity area waslimited, there may be huge potential for increasing revenueby improving processing of NTFPs e.g. sal leaf plates,medicines; presently, many NTFPs are sold at 5 to 20% oftheir market value; improved access to markets could sim-ilarly increase income for forest dependents.Jackson, Bill, Michael Nurse and Hukum BahadurSingh. 1994. From the Field: Participatory Mappingfor Community Forestry, Rural Development ForestryNetwork. Understanding the relationships between farming and for-est management is one of the most important aspects ofcommunity forestry. Participatory mapping is a simplemethod that provides an effective and efficient tool forfield workers to collect the socio-economic and bio-physi-cal data they need to understand farm-forest relationshipsfor implementing community forestry programmes. In thispaper the author describes the methodology of participato-ry mapping, and discusses the merits of the system.Jodha, N.S. 1986. Common property resources andrural poor in dry regions of India in Economic andPolitical Weekly 11, 27, July 5.Similar to his paper published by HED (1991), but withmore specific details; in Karnataka 100% of poor familiesdepend substantially on common property biomass forneeds of fodder, fuel and fibre, and 84% for food; the mon-etary value of only a part of this (product collection and ani-mal husbandry) was found to be between 530 and 830rupees per family; these incomes, underestimation of thetotal, are higher than the income generated by a number ofgovernment-supported anti-poverty programmes in similarareas; but by the time of the study, none of the villages hadeven simple communal control measures such as grazingtaxes or penalties for violation of norms on the use of com-mon lands; only 8 out of 82 had rotational grazing or hadappointed watchmen to protect commons; only 12 weredoing any fencing or trenching to improve upkeep of thecommons; the proportion of Common property Resource(CPR) to total village area ranged from 9 to 28%; poorhouseholds’ greater dependance on CPRs for grazing ismainly because they don’t own grazing land; CPRs are alsoimportant for employment - study looked at time allocation,number of employment days spent on CPRs, share of CPRbased activities in total household labour time allocation,and CPR activities during days of involuntary unemploy-ment for the poor. CPRs provide exclusive employment on43-89 days per household or 18-31 days per adult worker -marginally higher than their employment on their own land;CPR activities take 10-20% of daily labour time; suppliesfrom CPRs don’t translate well into income flows - the


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importance of income received from the use of CPRsshould be evaluated more in terms of its temporal and situ-ational contexts, rather than in terms of its magnitude alone;CPRs reduce income inequality and contribute more than afifth of the incomes of the poor; since land reforms of1950s, re-allocation of CPR land to poor has actually madethings worse for the poor by denying them access to CPRs.Alternative strategies to help the poor are needed, such as todevelop CPRs and improve their use through technical andinstitutional interactions; however, growth in CPR produc-tivity alone may prove counter-productive, since this mayattract wealthier users who oust the poor; i.e. there is a catchin operation - CPRs are only useful to the poor if they areuseless to everyone else.Kanetkar, Rajashree S. and V. Varalakshmi. 1994.Women in Godam - Haryana: A Gender and Caste basedStudy on Conservation of Forest Resources (Joint ForestManagement series -13), Haryana Forest Departmentand Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi. This report is based on a study conducted in the village ofGodam of northern Haryana which is inhabited by peoplebelonging to 4 different castes. Women in the village per-form both household as well as productive activities,wherein the income generating activities have beenreferred to as productive activities and those which are car-ried out to run the household and take care of the familymembers, such as fuel and water collection, food prepara-tion, cleaning and laundry etc. have been categorised ashousehold activities. The former are mostly caste basedand the latter are common. Some of the productive activi-ties help in income generation directly and the others con-tribute towards their traditional role of house keeping. Itassesses as to what impact these activities have on the livesof women belonging to the few castes and whether these doin any way either modify or redefine their roles and status.Further, depending upon the activities, the relationshipbetween women and the forest resources, has been defined.Kant, Shashi, Neera M Singh and Kundan K Singh.1991. Community Based Forest Management Systems(case-studies from Orissa), Indian Institute of ForestManagement, Bhopal, Swedish InternationalDevelopment Authority, New Delhi andISO/Swedforest, New Delhi. The report raises important issues of policy, including apossibility of subsequent conflict between the need to pre-serve forests and the rapaciousness of village committeeoffice-bearers who might be swayed by greed in future. Itprovides systematic analysis of community-based forestmanagement systems in Orissa. The philosophy anddynamics of such management systems can provide a basisfor the development and strengthening of participatory for-est management systems. Specifically three different casestudies - from Binjgiri Protected Forest, District Puri,Rupabalia reserved forest District Dhenkanal, and lastlyfrom Phulbani are presented. These cases have been select-ed to present a wide spectrum of locally evolved manage-ment systems. The first two situations have been presentedin the form of case-studies, whereas an overview has beenprovided for the third. The study (report) is the result ofcollaboration of three organisations - Indian Institute ofForest Management, ISO/Swedforest and SwedishInternational Development Authority (SIDA).Kapoor, Charla, Britt, 1994, A Tale of TwoCommittees: Villager Perspectives on LocalInstitutions, Forest Management and Resource use inTwo Central Himalayan Indian Villages (Networkpaper 17 a), Rural Development Forestry Network -Overseas Development Institute, London.

This paper concentrates on the experiences of two forestcommittees and community forest users in two villages sit-uated in the middle hills of Nainital District, Kumaon,India. After briefly reviewing historical developmentsleading to the institution of the Van Panchayat (forest com-mittee), the paper traces the history of forest managementinstitutions in each village, by comparing present procure-ment patterns with those of the past. The work draws fromresearch that was conducted over a four month period ofresidence in the villages. Methods used included semi-structured interviews, participant observation and a vil-lage-wide survey questionnaire. Field work was based onthe premise that past and present use practices shape users’decision-making and resource-related activities. Theemphasis throughout is on villagers’ perceptions of theirrelationship with forests and in particular, the role ofwomen, who are the main forest product procurers. Bybuilding upon the institutional history of the villages’ for-est committees and their procurer-users, this paperattempts to provide insights into factors which positivelyor negatively influence the effectiveness of local resourcemanagement bodies.Karki, Madhav, Jay B. S. Karki and Neeta Karki. 1994.Sustainable Management of Common ForestResources: An Evaluation of Selected Forest UserGroups in Western Nepal - case studies of PalpaDistrict and the Phewa Watershed. InternationalCentre For Integrated Mountain Development (ICI-MOD), Kathmandu, Nepal. This book is one in a series commissioned by ICIMOD toprovide insights into community managed forests. Themain objective of this book is to provide a comprehensiveevaluation of selected forest user groups (FUGs) with par-ticular reference to their structure, function and perfor-mance. It deals with the operational procedures and forestmanagement activities of selected FUGs in Palpa andreviews the performance and impact of the Phewa TalWatershed Development Project’s (PTWDP) activities inKaski to emphasise sustainability, equity and environmen-tal soundness.Kaul, R.N. and M.G. Gogte. 1993. Greening of ForestGrasslands in Nasik District. National Afforestationand Eco-development Board, Ministry of Environmentand Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. This report documents a centrally-sponsored scheme ofWestern-ghats development, known as the IntensiveDevelopment of Fodder resources division, in Nasik and itsenvirons. It has been prepared based on observations madeduring visits to a number of grassy banks (locally known askurana) and on the information furnished by the intensivedevelopment of fodder resources division, Western ghats,Nasik. It is apparent that community investment in protec-tion of Kurans is necessary for fostering strong communi-ty stake in grassland protection. The method of benefit-sharing by the community will have to come from the com-munity itself, rather than imposing a single model by thedepartment, as it will vary greatly from village to village.The report gives an idea for developing degraded forestareas through community participation.Kaul, O.N. (ed.). 1993. Joint Forest Management inHaryana - Workshop Proceedings (Joint ForestManagement series 15), Haryana Forest Departmentand Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi. This report is an outcome of a state level workshop on JointParticipatory Forest Management organised by theHaryana Forest Department at Pinjore on March 24, 1993.It was attended by the officials of the Forest Department,TERI, the Ford Foundation, and representatives of the



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selected Hill Resource Management Societies. It reviewsthe progress/programmes undertaken by the said partners.It discusses the strengths and weaknesses or successes andfailures of the programme. Finally it gives an account ofthe future strategies/programmes and facilitating factors.The report is presented in 8 chapters. Two papers entitled`Joint Forest Management’ in Haryana by Gurnam Singhand `Joint Forest Management on Haryana’ by O. N. Kaulare also annexed in the report. In the ‘summary’ part, anoutcome of the whole workshop has been presented.Kremen, C., Merenlender, A.M., D. D. Murphy. 1994.Ecological monitoring: a vital need for integrated con-servation and development programs in the tropics.Conservation Biology 8(2): 388- 397.The following abstract is taken from the above publishedarticle: The integration of conservation with rural econom-ic development is the latest proposed means of preventingloss of the earth’s biodiversity and of solving the dilemmaof “people versus parks ”. International development agen-cies now recognize the need to preserve natural resourcesand biodiversity in concert with improving human well-being likewise, conservation agencies acknowledge thatparks cannot be protected over the long term without theconsent and the support of local inhabitants. Nonetheless, of36 integrated and development projects (ICDPs) reviewedby us and others, only five demonstrate that they have pos-itively contributed to the conservation of wildlife. In thispaper, the authors promote ecological monitoring to: (1)evaluate the ICDP paradigm and specific ICDPs, (2) pro-vide feedback to guide the future course of ICDPs, and (3)integrate information relevant both to conservation anddevelopment. Few ICDPs have included ecological moni-toring programs to date, although several have plans tomonitor in the future. The authors outline a flexible plan forecological monitoring of ICDPs and provide an examplefrom our ongoing work in Madagascar. To establish com-prehensive ecological monitoring programs, the authorsrecommend that two types of monitoring be carried out atmultiple levels of ecological organisations and accrossdiverse taxa. First, monitoring programs should assess thetotal effects of ICDPs on biodiversity and on overallecosystem health by tracking indicator assemblages acrossspace and through time (biodiversity monitoring). Second,ICDPs should monitor ecological processes that will bedirectly affected by changes in human activities due toimplementation of ICDPs by comparing target speciesdiversity and abundance in unregaluted areas, managedbuffer-zones, and core protected areas through time (impactmonitoring). Comprehensive ecological monitoring is criti-cal in shaping ICDP management plans and in furtheringthe integration of conservation and development. Kuusipalo, J. and Kangas. J. 1994. Managing biodiver-sity in a Forestry Environment, Conservation Biology8(2): 450-460.In forest management and other land-use planning, ecolog-ical, social, and economic demands often conflict. Forestplanning in particular has been biased towards maximisingeconomic output while disregarding the ecological effectsof forestry practices. In this paper an aproach is presentedfor taking biological diversity into account in strategic for-est planning. The Analytic Heriarchy Process (AHP)method for resource allocation and priority setting is used.A case-study was conducted whereby a set of managementstrategies was evaluated in order to identify the strategywhich best fulfills the requirement of maintaining biologi-cal diversity while at the same time yielding a reasonableincome from timber production. This was applicable insolving different forest management and conservation

planning problems, as well as assessing ecologicalimpacts.Lahiri, Somdeb. 1994. Sharing costs and sharingRevenue under Joint Forest Management, NationalWorkshop on Joint Forest Management (August 25-26,1994). Centre for Management in Agriculture, IndianInstitute of Management, Ahmedabad.The main objective of this paper is to prove the existenceand optimality of solutions which adhere to the rules ofcosts and revenue-sharing taking place in the same propor-tion. It critically examines the question of cost and revenuesharing under JFM and proposes proportional sharing as aworkable mechanism for simultaneous costs and revenuesharing rather than based on abstract notions of equity.Lal, J.B., Rekha Singhal and J.K. Das. 1994.Experiencing Community Forestry Programmes inPhilippines: Modalities and Outcomes, Indian Instituteof Forest Management, Bhopal.This report is an account of the details of the experiencesof the IIFM team which visited the Philippines from July26-31, 1993. In the first part, the background aboutPhilippines forestry and relevant policies is dealt with. Thesecond part gives a brief description of the organisationalset up of the Department of Environment and NaturalResources in the Philippines. Part 3 provides the details ofvarious alternatives under the National Afforestation pro-gramme of the Philippines. An account of various fieldprojects visited and the salient features of the field visitsare given in the fourth part. Finally, the fifth part presentsthe general conclusions that emerged and the lessons theIIFM team learned from the experience.Lele M. Sharachchandra. 1993. Degradation,Sustainability or Transformation? A case study of vil-lagers’ use of forest lands in the Malnaad Region ofUttara Kannada District, (CES Technical Report No.27). Energy & Resources Group, University ofCalifornia, Barkeley, U.S.A. and Centre for EcologicalSciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.The book proposes an approach that recognises the sociallyconstructed nature of “degradation”, uses multiple assess-ment criteria to deal with the complexity of forest ecosys-tems under intensive human use, and focuses on the varia-tion in needs, interests and constraints of the rural house-holds using the resource. This approach is applied in a case-study of villagers’ use of forest lands in the hilly Malnaadregion of Uttara Kannada District in Southern India. Theresults of a woody biomass balance for the sampled villagesshow that production in the village forests is higher than pre-vious estimates and that woody biomass harvests do not ingeneral exceed its production. Herb layer production showssubstantial trade-offs, with tree canopy, and significantintra-annual reductions under certain grazing regimes. Theresults of investigations of vegetative structure and soil char-acteristics are inconclusive. In the rural Malnaad, forest useis not directly linked to the market. The outcome of biomassresource use is, therefore, governed by the balance betweena number of variables operating at the household level: ahousehold’s domestic, agricultural, and livestock-relatedneeds, its access to uncultivated biomass resources to satis-fy them, its capacity to control those resources and to investin their management, and the regime of property rights thatenables and allocates this access and control.Lele, Sharachchandra (undated) Village-forest interac-tions in Uttara Kannada : Ongoing research and itsimplications for forest management. [Source unknown:may be available with ODA/DfID] This paper addresses the problem of zoning according todifferent biophysical and social requirements, and rural


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people’s involvement in planning and management offorests; recommends a people-oriented approach in whichplanning and zoning would begin from the village upwardsand starting with the identification of people’s biomassneeds and the development of an ecologically sound man-agement strategy to satisfy those needs, along with an insti-tutional framework for implementing this strategy. Thepaper also outlines research on the following: rural bio-mass consumption (fuel, fodder, mulch/manure, timber,etc); productivity of natural and lopped forests, grasslands,areca gardens, paddy fields, nutrient flows from forests toagricultural lands and resultant status of soils; physicalproduction-consumption patterns and economics of live-stock management; historical, political and legal issues thathave shaped availability of access to forests, and conver-sion of forest lands to other uses; special problems of land-less and marginal cultivators; categories of forest in UttaraKannada (Reserve Forest, Minor Forests, Soppina bittaForests, Hakkals, Village Forests); emphasises variation insize of revenue villages, and diversity of kinds of forestcategory to which they have access; suggests that becauseof uneven village allocations of usufruct rights to forests,re-allocations of forest areas across or transcending rev-enue village boundaries might be needed; stall feeding canreduce destruction of saplings, but only those able to affordto hire labour for fodder collection can afford this; landlessor marginal farmers, who have a greater need for livestockas productive resources, cannot afford stall feeding, andwill have to be provided with grasslands and assisted topractise rotational grazing.Mahapatra, Sundip. 1994. Identification of Leadership:A Quantitative Approach (Working Paper No. 33),IBRAD, Calcutta.This paper is submitted as a dissertation under the sixmonths diploma course on Participatory ForestManagement conducted jointly by the Indian Institute ofBio-Social Research and Development, Calcutta and theRural Development Centre, Indian Institute of Technology,Kharagpur. It is based on quantification of certain qualita-tive characters through the process of scaling and ranking ofthe characters under consideration. The main objective ofthis paper is to identify a leader in the easiest way andwhich is also mathematically sound. In order to test themodel, a few common characteristics of a leader have beenenlisted depending on the community character and natureof the study. But this list may not be applicable everywhere.Mahapatra et al. 1994. Technological ApproachTowards NTFP Utilization for Livelihood Generationunder the Participatory Forest ManagementProgramme, Participatory Forest Management (PFM)Project. Rural Development Centre, Indian Institute ofTechnology, Kharagpur. This report deals with the five areas identified for appro-priate technology transfer which are based on the studieson NTFPs and human resources. These are sabai grass andsabai rope-based utility and decorative items manufactur-ing; collection, cultivation and processing of edible mush-rooms; sal leaf plate and bowl making; collection and pro-cessing of forest-based medicinal plants; and developmentof agro-forestry. This report is meant for network circula-tion with the purpose of transmitting information and expe-riences amongst all who are involved in the movement,especially the West Bengal forest department, who are theinitiators of the programme in the eastern region.Malhotra, Kailash C. 1991. People, Biodiversity andRegenerating Tropical Sal (Shorea robusta) Forests inWest Bengal, India (Working Paper No. 7). IBRAD,Calcutta or In: Tropical Forests, People and Food,

Biocultural Interactions and Applications toDevelopment, Eds. Hladik, C. M., Hladik A., Linares,O.F., Pagezy, H., Semple, A. and Hadley, M. Man andBiosphere Series, Vol 13.This paper was prepared for the International Symposium

on Food and Nutrition in the Tropical Forest: BioculturalInteractions and Applications in Development held atUNESCO, Paris from Sep. 10-13, 1991. The aim of thispaper is four-fold: (i) to document historical processes thatled to the denudation of biodiversity in five Districts ofWest Bengal, India, (ii) to give a description of theprocesses that led to the emergence and spread of the con-cept of Joint Management of Forest Lands (JMFL) in WestBengal, (iii) to highlight the salient features of the innova-tive approach, and (iv) to report results of our extensivestudies on the restitution of biodiversity, and the role itplays in meeting the subsistence needs of food, fuel, fod-der, medicine, etc. of the local communities. It has beenemphasised that the biodiversity in the sal forests has pro-found potential for the overall well-being of the people,and the development of the area.Malhotra, Kailash Chandra and Debal Deb. 1991.History of Deforestation and Regeneration/Plantationin Midnapore District of West Bengal, India (WorkingPaper 13). Indian Statistical Institute, Calcutta andIndian Institute of Biosocial Research andDevelopment, Calcutta. This paper was prepared for the IUFRO InternationalConference on ‘History of Small Scale Private forestry’held at Freiburg, Germany during Sept. 2-5, 1991. Thepaper shows the historical processes that led to change inthe management, and deforestation of forests in theMidnapore District of West Bengal. Five phases in thisregard have been identified. It shows how privately man-aged and owned forests by local communities were gradu-ally taken over by the state. During all these phases theforests progressively got denuded and eventually totallydestroyed. With the emergence of the Joint Management ofForests in the District since the early eighties, much of thelost biodiversity has been established in the region. Therestituted biodiversity plays a very important role in meet-ing the subsistence needs of the local communities.Malhotra, K.C., Debal Deb and T.S. Vasulu. Undated.Restitution of Natural Biodiversity in South West BengalForests (Working Paper No. 5). IBRAD, New Delhi. This paper reports the innovative approach of JointManagement of Forest Lands initiated by the West BengalForest Department and its adoption by several other stateslike Haryana, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Bihar. Its endorsementby the Government of India has opened up fresh avenues andhope for the restitution of biodiversity in the millions ofhectares of degraded forest lands. Studies clearly demon-strate that wherever feasible, the regeneration approachshould be preferred as against the plantation approach. In theformer approach, not only more biodiversity gets established,but it also fulfils the subsistence needs of the forest-dwellingcommunities. It has also been emphasised that the saidapproach is highly cost-effective, ecologically sound andcapable of meeting the subsistence needs of the rural poor.Malhotra, K.C., N. Satish Chandra, T.S. Vasulu, L.Majumdar, S. Basu, M. Adhikari and G. Yadav.Undated. Joint Management of Forest Lands in WestBengal: A Case Study of Jamboni Range in WestMidnapore District, Technical paper No. 2. IndianInstitute of Bio-Social Research and Development,Calcutta.This paper reports the results of a diagnostic study under-taken among 42 FPCs in Jamboni forest range of



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Midnapore District. The object is to examine the role ofselected socio-economic factors on the functioning statusof the FPCs. The study concludes: (i) 74% of the FPCswere functioning well; (ii) the smaller the number of vil-lages participating in a FPC the greater its effectiveness;(iii) the greater the proportion of tribal composition in theFPC the greater its effectiveness; (iv) the greater the pro-portion of households in each participating village(s)included as FPC members the better its management of theforest and (v) the greater the proportion of natural forest toplantation in the FPC project area, the better the protection.Malhotra, K.C., Mark Poffenberger, ArunabhaBhattacharya and Debal Deb. Undated. Rapid RuralAppraisal Methodology Trials in South West Bengal:Assessing Natural Forest Regeneration Patterns andNon-Wood Forest Product Harvesting Practices(Working Paper No. 11). Sustainable ForestManagement - Working paper series: FordFoundation, New Delhi. The paper examines a methodology used in rapid under-standing of the general pattern of sal (Shorea robusta) for-est regeneration in the Jamboni range in West MidnaporeDistrict of West Bengal. It has been concluded that therapid assessments of forest regeneration patterns andNTFP harvesting systems can be useful in providing infor-mation on change in forest areas experiencing rapidregrowth under community protection. The analysis indi-cates that enrichment planting of fodder grasses and kendu(Diospyros melanoxylon) should be limited to forestperiphery areas, where they will not be shaded out by saltrees. Enrichment planting of mushrooms and many medi-cinal plants should probably be delayed until the 4th or 5thyear of regeneration to ensure sufficient canopy closurehas occurred to protect shade-tolerant species from toomuch light. Further field trials of RRA methodologies forunderstanding illuminating management options for regen-erating natural forests need to be carried out to enhance theresearch tools discussed in the paper.Malhotra, K. C. and Mark Poffenberger. 1989. ForestRegeneration Through Community Protection: TheWest Bengal Experience - Proceedings of the WorkingGroup Meeting on Forest Protection Committees, WestBengal Forest Department, Calcutta.The Report is an outcome of a working group meeting onForest Protection Committees held at Calcutta duringJanuary 21-22, 1989. It begins with an excerpt from theMinister’s inaugural address, in which he underlines thecommitment of the State Government to respond to theneeds of forest people in an ecologically sound manner.Part I presents papers from two of West Bengal’s mostsenior foresters (Shri U. Banerjee and Shri S. Palit) whohave played an instrumental role in the development of theforest protection committee programme and provide con-siderable insights into the programme’s implementationand evolution. In Part II, the results of the workshop dis-cussion are presented, covering needs for improving pro-tection, production, planning and departmental staff sup-port capacity. Part III deals with the results of case-studiesfrom forest protection committees. Mascarenhas, James. 1992. Participatory ruralappraisal and participatory learning methods: recentexperiences from MYRADA and South India. Rome:FAO Forests, Trees and People Newsletter 15/16.Discussions of Participatory Learning Methods (PALM) -alternatively known as Participatory Rural Appraisal - pro-moted by MYRADA for participatory planning of naturalresource development; the typical PALM exercise hasabout 25-30 ‘outsiders’ taking part - drawn from various

orgnisations - NGOs, research and training institutions,government; a village is selected where some externalassistance is proposed; seems to use ‘PALM’ interchange-ably with ‘PRA’; the exercise usually last 5 days; a majorissue is learning how to deal with ‘dominant’ participants -especially those with ‘vested interests’.Mascarenhas, James et al. (ed.). 1991. ParticipatoryRural Appraisal - Proceedings of the PRA Trainers’Workshop (RRA Notes Number 13). IIED, London andMYRADA, Bangalore. The principal aim of the report is to share current experi-ences and methods among practitioners of RRA and PRAthroughout the world. The objective of this report is toshare some of the thoughts and findings of the participantsof the workshop conducted by the MYRADA, an NGO inBangalore. It is presented in the main sections. The first isan overview of the major issues arising during group dis-cussions and presentations. The second section containsthirteen different papers presenting overviews and case-studies of PRA, particularly detailing innovations in bothmethods and process.Mascarenhas, J. et al. 1991. Participatory RuralAppraisal: Proceedings of the February 1991Bangalore PRA Trainers Workshop London: IIED.Very useful basic introductory guidebook, 140 pages;introductory section covers full range of techniques;emphasises importance of night halts and report-writing inthe field; includes the following papers: JamesMascarenhas ‘PRA and participatory learning methods:recent experiences from MYRADA and South India’;Aloysium Fernandez, J. Mascarenhas, and VidyazRamachandran ‘Sharing our limited experience for train-ers’; Parmesh Shah, Giris Bhardwaj and Ranjiit Ambastha‘PRA and Planning (PRAP); ‘The experience of AKRSP’; Parmesh Shah, Giris Bhardwaj and Ranjit Ambastha‘Farmers as analysis and facilitators in training workshopfor Action Aid India and Tagore Society for RuralDevelopment’; John Devavaram et al., ‘PRA for ruralresource management’; Somesh Kumar ‘Anantpur experi-ment in PRA training’; Ravi Jayakaran ‘PRA camp atMahilong, Bhar: Krishi Gram Vikas Kendra’; AnupSarkar, ‘Wealth ranking in Mahilong, Bihar’; EvaRobinson, ‘PRA approach and strategy: theHIDA/MYRADA agroforestry Programme in AndhraPradesh’; Parmesh Shah, Giris Bhardwaj and RanjitAmbastha ‘Participatory impact monitoring of a soil andwater conservation programme by farmers, extension vol-unteers and AKRSP’; A.L. Shivaraja et al. ‘MYRADAKamasamundram Project: a brief report’.McGean, Betsy. 1991. Sustainable Forest Management:Working Paper Series, NGO Support Groups in JointForest Management: Emerging lessons (WorkingPaper No. 13), Ford Foundation, New Delhi. This report is based on a workshop held at New Delhi dur-ing May 29-30, 1991. The report summarizes the importantissues and plans for follow up which emerged from theworkshop. A synthesis of the four panel discussions, whichaddressed relevant themes and reviewed experiences, ispresented first, and is followed by an encapsulation of thesmall working group discussions which highlighted specif-ic topics of concern and derived action agendas and tenta-tive research schedules.McGean, Betsy [ed.] 1991. NGO Support groups injoint forest management ; emerging lessons New Delhi: Ford Foundation. Sustainable Forest ManagementWorking Paper No 13.Discusses the importance of NGO involvement to patchover contradictions between the policy of participatory for-


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est management and the current unsuitability of FDs forimplementing the policy; whereas the JFM program callsfor an approach to management that is multi-sectoral,interdisciplinary, process-oriented, need-driven, flexibleand participatory, the FD structure by nature is sectoral-ized, uni-departmental, target-oriented, resource-driven,standardized and authoritarian in terms of management;there is a lack of training in ‘attitude reorientation, valueadjustment, behavioral change, inter-personal skill-build-ing, and participatory techniques for JFM. Furthermore,despite much pressure from NGOs and donors to incorpo-rate gender sensitization in forestry training, the treatmentof women’s issues has remained superficial or marginal-ized into separate, token programs’; discusses the AgaKhan Rural Support Programme (Gujarat) approachwhich suggests a ‘microwatershed development strategy’as a wider approach than just ‘JFM’ - this they hope willgenerate a more unanimous vested interest group in a vil-lage than a single-resource user group; JFM societies tendto become too formalised - if they formally register thereis a danger that as an ‘NGO’ they will no longer be enti-tled to sign lease agreements with FD so that benefits canaccrue to members (see GOI memo June 1990 on this);there is an urgent need for ‘social process documentationto track patterns of institutional change’; JFM may not bean appropriate entry strategy in some village, for exam-ple, where 75% of the population migrates for six monthseach year; social process research should address the fol-lowing issues: patterns of user-group formation; factorsaffecting management systems; variance in localapproaches to management; problems in control ofresource use; users’ interactions with FD staff, contrac-tors, middlemen and others; changes in FD as manage-ment devolves to local people; effectiveness of staff re-training; changes in departmental procedures, staff atti-tudes and behaviour; ways in which FD staff involvecommunities in JFM; suggest baseline studies on the fol-lowing, using RRA: history of degradation and humanactivities that have caused it; livestock and animal pres-sure; inter-relation of different types of degradation activ-ity; the pattern of regeneration once protection is in place(which species predominate and which are suppressed?).Changes in succession? Increase of biomass? Changes inregenerative processes under silvicultural manipulation;rate of increase in productivity of NTFPs; effects ofenrichment planting strategies on volume yields; totalvalue of produce for each year or regeneration; cost ofinputs at various points during the regeneration process;which management systems give good supply of steadyincome with rapid start-up?Mehrotra, Shivnath and Chandra Kishore. 1990. ACase study of Voluntary Forest Protection inChhotanagpur, Bihar, Indian Institute of ForestManagement, Bhopal.This is a project report prepared by the authors in partialfulfilment of the postgraduate programme in forestry man-agement for IIFM Bhopal. It is a result of the collaborativeefforts of SIDA and IIFM. The interest in forest propertymanagement has been stimulated by discoveries of village-level institutions which have been managing their sourcessuccessfully and effectively. Information about their exis-tence in the Chhotanagpur area of Bihar was little regard-ing their functional modalities. This report gives informa-tion on such community efforts and has the followingobjectives - to enumerate villages practising voluntary for-est protection in Ranchi and Hazaribagh Districts, and tostudy 10 selected villages to understand the mechanismbehind such protection.

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government ofIndia, New Delhi. 1994. India’s Initiatives inImplementation of the Forest Principles. This document deals with the initiatives on implementationof the forestry principles. They have listed the policies andprogrammes, views on information-sharing, steps takentowards strengthening of institutional capabilities,approach to plantation forestry, trade of forest produce andinternational cooperation to show their Commitment to theimplementation of the forestry principles.Moench, Marcus. 1991. ‘Training and planning forjoint forest management’ New Delhi: Ford Foundation.Sustainable Forest Management Working Paper No 8.Defines JFM as ‘sharing of products, responsibilities, con-trol, and decision-making authority over forest landsbetween forest departments and local user groups whichinvolves a contract specifying the distribution of authority,responsibility, and benefits between villages and state for-est departments with respect to lands allocated for jointmanagement’; problems are likely to increase greatly as thenumber of villages regularly using a single forest area grow,so joint management possibilities may be best where a sin-gle forest area is used by a single village; JFM institutionsare likely to function better and more equitably in villageswhich are relatively homogeneous with less domination byelite powerful groups, and a broadly-shared interest in for-est resources; lists five factors contributing to successfulJFM: 1. available resources to be shared with villagers inreturn for protection; 2. possibility of establishing a directlogical link between improvement of degraded lands andaccess to specific resources; 3. individual villages are pri-mary users of a specific forest area; 4. homogeneity of vil-lages in terms of caste/economic makeup; 5. high depen-dance of participants on forest resources. FD staff still tendto take a technical approach to exercises that demand amore qualitative approach - JFM is seen as ‘dam building’or ‘society formation’ without assessment of whether thetechnical activities support the organisational ones; themain primary source of ‘diagnostic information’ is the vil-lagers themselves, but forest guards also have intimate localecological and social knowledge, and FD records have lotsof information, such as existing resource allocation arrange-ments (e.g. lease or collection rights for NTFPs and timberharvesting schedules) and detailed maps showing legaldemarcation of forest areas and timber stock.Moench, Marcus. Undated. Sustainable ForestManagement - Working Paper Series - Training andPlanning for Joint Forest Management (Workingpaper No. 8). Ford Foundation, New Delhi.Despite widespread interest and Joint Management Projectactivity, there are few clear statements on what Joint ForestManagement is or how to go about it. As with the slogan“people’s participation”, Joint Management can be inter-preted in many ways. The purpose of this paper is to pre-sent one definition of Joint Management and then toexplore some of the practical implications for programmeinitiation which flow from that definition. Besides this, thepaper examines methods, training requirements, and theimplementation of Joint Management programmes.Mukherjee, Raktima. 1994. Process Documentation ofthe Meeting for Cooperative Formation held on22/11/93 at Illambazar (Working Paper No. 25).IBRAD, Calcutta. The proceedings of the meeting for cooperative formationto support JFM programme at Birbhum District held on22/11/93 at Illambazar have been documented in thispaper. It is concluded that the cooperative system helps tobridge the gap between FD & FC, and also helps to take a



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joint decision and the responsibility that goes along withthis decision are shared jointly.Mukherjee, R., D.S. Roy, G. Yadav and S. Mahapatra.1994. Comparative study of the Functioning of ForestProtection Committees of the Villages Dahi andLengamara, Midnapore District, West Bengal(Working Paper No. 26). IBRAD, Calcutta.This paper presents a comparative picture of the function-ing of Forest Protection Committees of the villages Dahiand Lengamara in District Midnapore, West Bengal. Theaspects covered are structure and functions and rights ofFPCs, physical background, ethnic composition, occupa-tion, dependence on forest, historical background of theforest, and its management, inter-villages conflict, presentcondition of the forest factors affecting the functions ofFPCs, meetings patrolling, offences, punishment, aware-ness, the government order, ways of getting usufructuarybenefits, relationship with forest department, conflict with-in the FPC and leadership, possible ways of intervention tomake the programme sustainable. Nadkarni, M.V., K.H. Ninan and Syed Ajmal Pasha.1994. The Economic and Financial Viability of SocialForestry Projects: A study of selected projects inKarnataka, Joint Forest Management, Working PaperNo. 16. National Support Group for Joint ForestManagement, Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment, New Delhi and Ford Foundation, NewDelhi.This paper examines the economic and financial viabilityof 13 social forestry projects in Karnataka. The basic ques-tion it attempts to answer is whether the direct benefits interms of fuelwood, fodder, food and timber produced bysocial forestry projects are commensurate with the costsincurred. Among the costs is included the opportunity costof the land in the form of grazing opportunity foregone.Financial viability is assessed in the criterion whether thefinancial returns expected from that part of the producewhich is sold is commensurate with the paid out costs. Thispaper attempts an economic evaluation, avoiding some ofthe conceptual and methodological pitfalls. It clearly estab-lishes the economic as well as financial viability of socialforestry projects, even under fairly rigorous assumptionsunder all the three measures -net present value, cost-bene-fit ratio and internal rate of return.Nadkarni, M. V., Syed Ajmal Pasha and L.S.Prabhakar. 1989. The Political Economy of Forest Useand Management, Sage Publications, New Delhi.This book provides a unique perspective on the problem offorest use by combining historical analysis with contempo-rary field studies. It examines the conflict of interestsinvolving the local population, the Government and thecommercial forces at work in the wider economy over a100 year period (1880-1980) and the impact of this conflicton the forests and the local economy. Simultaneously,based on a survey of selected villages in Karnataka, theauthors highlight the class character of the local socio-eco-nomic structure and the highly inequitable use of forests bydifferent interest groups. In the process, they show how thebulk of the local population was alienated from the man-agement of forests and how most of the benefits of forestuse accrued to the two richest classes of rural society. Thestudy exposes the weaknesses inherent in the populist solu-tion which calls for handing over forests to the locals andin the bureaucratic and technocratic solution which isbased on the presumed omnipotence of the forest depart-ment. In conclusion, it argues for a more objectiveapproach to the problem and urges that alternative institu-tional forms be evolved which involve the local popula-

tions, including poor peasants and the landless, in forestmanagement.Norgaard, R. 1992. Environmental science as a socialprocess. Environmental monitoring and assessment 20:95-110.The need for better environmental information for plannersand voters is based on maladaptive beliefs about the natureof knowledge and social order. Because there is not a meta-model which links the individual environment sciencesinto a coherent whole, understanding complex environ-ment problems is necessarily a process of discoursebetween scientists from separate sciences – a process ofgaining trust, building new patterns of thinking, and reach-ing toward new concensus. By acknowledging the natureof the process, we can improve upon it and relieve the needfor better environmental information.NWDB. 1988. Hill Resource Development andCommunity Management: Lessons Learnt on Micro-Watershed Management from cases of Sukhomajri andDasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal. National WastelandsDevelopment Board, New Delhi. The report briefly describes the Sukhomajri project and theactivities of the Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal, especial-ly those related to the rehabilitation and management ofuncultivated lands by village communities. It identifies keyelements in the success of both these projects and consid-ers replication of these projects and proposes an intermedi-ary support agency as a buffer between voluntary agenciesand government in the development of micro-watershedand related village development. Also it mentions con-straints in the management of uncultivated lands by villagecommunities and suggests some policy changes. Finally, itdiscusses the broader implications of these projects on hilldevelopment. Pachauri Rashmi. Undated. Sal Plate Processing andMarketing in West Bengal, (Working Paper No. 12),Sustainable Forest Management: Working PaperSeries. Ford Foundation, New Delhi. This paper presents a detailed study of the production andmarketing of sal leaf plates in South West Bengal. The firstsection includes information on area under sal forests, vol-ume levels, marketing channels for both the products, pric-ing structures and profit margins at each step of the mar-keting channels, persons involved in the collection andprocessing systems, seasonal fluctuations and labourdemand, problems and opportunities. Case-studies of vil-lage level production groups have also been included. Thesecond section deals with an attempt at estimating thepotentials both on the demand side as well as on the supplyside, of sal leaf `plate’ and of consumption and production.The last section includes the broad constraints and oppor-tunities both for non-wood forest products in general andfor sal plates specifically.Palit, Subhabrata. 1993. ‘The future of Indian forestmanagement: into the 21st century’. New Delhi: Societyfor Promotion of Wastelands Development. JointForest Management Working Paper No 15.Looks at forest management and deforestation in pre-colo-nial, and post-independence periods as the backdrop tocontemporary long-term forest management objectives;discussing the trade-offs between timber and NTFP pro-ductivity, recommends that technical and research supportfor NTFPs should include market cells in FDs, liberaliza-tion of transit rules, better communications, collectiondepots, dissemination of market information, local pro-cessing products, establishment of small-scale industries.The need for creating supportive staff attitudes and skills isemphasised - to be achieved through orientation and train-


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ing, community motivation for JFM, performance assess-ment, and creating a meritocracy in FDs; FDs’ new orga-nizational needs include staff redeployment, planning andmanagement information systems, and independant M&E;strategies are required for reducing community depen-dance on forests; supportive policies and procedures forJFM still need to be developed - especially under the JFMsystem, the forestry personnel will have to maintain a veryhigh level of integrity in financial matters, transparencyshould be maintained in all dealings as this will help plugcorruption at the staff and community levels. This is a newculture that has to be introduced gradually, and its accept-ability might not be easy; the West Bengal experienceshows that only 10 to 15% employment can provide forsome additional income, the extent of which will varywidely, depending on the situation; further suport activitieswill be needed, such as assistance and organisation in mar-keting of NTFPs and reassessment of whether co-ops andLAMPS need to continue or whether their functions can betaken over by FPCs.Panda, Abhash, Manoj Dabas, V. Varalakshmi, V.N.Shah and J.R. Gupta. 1993. Grass Yield UnderCommunity Participation in Haryana Shivaliks (JointForest Management series No. 1). Haryana ForestDepartment and Tata Energy Research Institute, NewDelhi. This report shows that effective protection and manage-ment of degraded areas improves their vegetative coverdue to better regeneration. In order to maintain grass pro-duction on a sustained basis in the jointly managed forestareas, alternate management strategies like wider spacingfor planting of tree species, use of light-crowned treespecies for afforestation, identification of separate areassuitable for tree and grass cultivation etc., need to beworked out. It shows that the Joint Forest Management inthe lower Shivaliks by the Haryana Forest Department hasgiven good results in regenerating degraded forests andgrasslands.Panda, Abhash, V. Varalakshmi, J. R. Gupta,Bakhshish Singh and Manoj Dabas. 1992. Impact ofParticipatory Forest Management on the Ecology ofShivalik Hills in Haryana State (Joint ForestManagement Series No. 2). Haryana Forest Departmentand Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi. The report shows that the local community is actively par-ticipating in the joint management programme initiated byHaryana Forest Department in the degraded forest patchesof the lower Shivaliks. The Report shows that in order toprovide incentives to the forest community on a sustain-able basis the Haryana Forest Department has to take intoconsideration factors like composition of crop, land-usepattern, hydrology of the watersheds, and the significanceof the diversity of the resources. Water for irrigation fromthe earthen dams, fodder grass as forage for the livestockand bhabbar grass for rope making are some of the impor-tant incentive mechanisms through which the HaryanaForest Department involves the local community in theprotection and management of the above forests.Pathan, R.S. 1992. Forest Protection Committees inGujarat - Joint Management Initiative. FordFoundation, New Delhi.Since the Gujarat Forest Department initiated its forestprotection committee activities in 1987, significantprogress has been made in involving forest villages in theregeneration of degraded lands and the custodianship ofhealthy forests. The experiences coming out of southGujarat are important because, prior to this programme,successes from the West Bengal programme were often

attributed to site-specific conditions including the socio-political context, the coppicing ability of sal, and thegreater rainfall in Bengal. The Gujarat Forest Department’sprogramme demonstrates that in a very different humanecological setting, empowering communities to protectdegraded lands can result in rapid ecological recovery.Despite lower rainfall and a different cultural environment,community response has been very strong, with vigorousforest regeneration resulting as local management controlshave emerged. Further department officers and field staffhave shown great capacity to shift from a confrontationalmode to a cooperative style, effectively mobilizing com-munity action, while building local management capacity.The government of Gujarat is currently reviewing a gov-ernment order which would allow for the gradual expan-sion of this promising approach to participatory forestmanagement.Pathan, R.S., N.J. Arul and Mark Poffenberger. 1991.Forest Protection Committees in Gujarat - JointManagement Initiative. Ford Foundation, New Delhi.Sustainable Forest Management Working Paper No 7.Gujarat has only 0.05 ha of forest per capita - less than halfIndia’s 0.11 average (world average 1.04 ha); there hasbeen dramatic reduction (about 75%) in the incidence ofviolence against forest officers since the mid-eightiess, dueto new arrangements between FD and Forest ProtectionCommittee; FPCs are commended for policing the forest(though the report ignores the possibility that such com-munity policy may, like FD policing before it, be carriedout in a socially insensitive manner - i.e. keeping defence-less migrant herders out of their path of forest, thus forcingthem to overgraze other patches of land); operating the for-est restoration project is maximally effective if workedsimultaneously in groups of adjacent villages; presentscase-study of the Aga Khan Rural Support Project inPingot village.Pati, Biswanath. 1994. Status of Medicinal Plants in theReserve Forest of Marakanam Medicinal PlantsConservation Area (Working Paper No. 29). IBRAD,Calcutta. This paper concludes that sound forest management ensuresadequate regeneration of forest all the time. Regenerationmay be by seed or by coppice or by any other vegetativepart. In the Reserve Forest of Marakanam regenerationoccurs naturally. Most of the medicinal plants are shrubs,and they regenerate very well from seed and stumps. Soregeneration will come up if grazing is controlled. No graz-ing rights were recognised in this reserved forest, yet thisright is not possible to enforce due to local pressure andlocal demand. Soil condition, temperature, rainfall etc. aresuitable for the regeneration of the medicinal plants.Pendzich, Christine, Garry Thomas and TimWohlgemant. 1994. Forests, Trees and PeopleProgramme, The role of Alternative ConflictManagement in Community forestry. RESOLVE andFood and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.This working paper has been prepared as ‘concept paper’written for a global audience, rather than the primarilyLatin American audience of the Workshop. It includesthree case-studies contributed by Mauro Barbosa deAlmedia, Zulema Lehm and Carlos Villarreal. Appendicesinclude the outline used in preparing the case-studies, thelist of names, institutional affiliations and addresses of allworkshop organisers and participants, and the workshopagenda. This paper deals largely on conflict managementissues. It argues that when incorporated into broader par-ticipatory strategies and adapted to the local cultural con-text, alternative conflict management can empower com-



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munities to develop creative solutions to their forestresource dilemmas. Alternative conflict management is noteasy to implement - it certainly is no panacea - and theremight be times when the alternatives of legal or politicalconfrontation are the more intelligent choices, despite thecosts. But when the costs of conflict are great for all stake-holders, when the issues are highly complex, and whenbuilding good, long-term relationships among the parties isimportant, alternative conflict management has a numberof distinct advantages to more adversarial strategies of goalattainment.People’s Management School. 1992. JFM ExecutiveCommittee Training Manual, Seva Mandir, Udaipur.This manual presents a session-by-session plan of a JointForest Management Executive Committee training. Thesessions are based on a training which was conducted bySeva Mandir’s People’s Management School to train theExecutive Committee members of Shyampura village, thesite of the JFM project in Rajasthan.Peters, Charles M. 1994. Sustainable Harvest of Non-Timber Plant Resources in Tropical Moist Forest: AnEcological Primer, Biodiversity Support Programme,World Wildlife Fund, The Nature Conservancy andWorld Resources Institute, Washington.This Report attempts to narrow the gap between the poten-tial and the reality of land-use practice. The main objectiveis to give a concise overview of the ecology, exploitationand management of non-timber tropical forest plantresources in terms that can be easily understood by non-specialists. Section I summarizes the principal ecologicalcharacteristics of tropical plants that limit the nature andintensity of resource exploitation. Section II discusses thepotential long-term ecological impacts resulting from theharvest of different parts. Section III presents a generalstrategy for managing non-timber plant resources on a sus-tained-yield basis. Within the context of the report, a sus-tainable system for exploiting non-timber resources isdefined as one in which fruits, nuts, latexes, and otherproducts can be harvested indefinitely from a limited areaof forest with negligible impact on the species beingexploited. The report focuses exclusively on the ecologicalcontext of non-timber tropical forest products, with partic-ular emphasis on the structure and dynamics of tree popu-lations. It does not address the innumerable economic andsocial factors which are also important in determining theoverall sustainability of forest resource exploitation.Phillips, O., Gentry, A.H., Reynel, C., Wilkin, P.,Galvez-Durand, C. 1994. Quantitative Ethnobotanyand Amazonian Conservation. Conservation Biology8(1): 225-248.Ethnobotanical data were used to compare the usefulnessof six floristically distinct forest types to mestizo people atTambopata, southeast Peru. The aim was to evaluate whichforest types are most useful, and why. Ethnobotanical datawere collected with informants in inventory plots andanalysed using a new technique that uses a two-tier calcu-lation process to derive an informant indexed estimate ofeach species’ use value. Use values are estimated based onthe degree of consistencty between repeated interviews ofeach informant, and between different informants.Poffenberger, Mark. 1991. ‘Joint forest management inWest Bengal: the process of agency change’. New Delhi:Ford Foundation. Sustainable Forest ManagementWorking Paper No 19.The closed forest cover in the Midnapore District of WestBengal has increased from 11% to 20% in the past sixyears, mainly due to the discovery that local peopoe willenable sal stumps to coppice by restricting grazing and lop-

ping, if provided with the right incentives; rapid growth to2000 FPCs in West Bengal has meant that they aren’t yetwell registered or monitored.Poffenberger, Mark, Betsy McGean, Arvind Khare andJeff Campbell (ed.). 1992. Field Method ManualVolume II, Community Forest Economy and UsePatterns: Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA)Methods in South Gujarat, India. Society forPromotion of Wastelands Development, New Delhi. This ‘Field Methods Manual’ is an outcome of a ‘FieldTraining Workshop’ held in Gujarat between April 5-11,1992. The Manual is organised into an introduction, twomain parts and a summary discussion. The introductionbegins with a brief description of the research settings inGujarat, India, followed by the rationale for employingPRA and a process approach to initiating the field research,including team formulation, site selection and team intro-duction to the community. Part I describes nine differentclasses of information collection with useful outputs whichcan be generated through application of PRA methodolo-gies,such as key informant and group interviewing, strati-fied sample surveying, sketch mapping, participant obser-vation, and secondary background research. Part II beginswith a description of the natural resource situated inGujarat and a forest divisional history in the research areain order to provide background for the current forest man-agement programme. Then it describes three village case-tudies, representing different forest conditions, years ofprotection, rehabilitation and management strategies. Themanual (report) concludes with a summary of the method-ological lessons learned through the PRA trials, and a dis-cussion of the forest contexts, product flows, and partici-patory management implications which emerged throughthe exercise.Poffenberger, Mark. 1990. Joint Management of ForestLands: Experiences from South Asia. Ford Foundation,New Delhi.This booklet briefly examines three regions within SouthAsia where poor land management is causing environmen-tal degradation and social and economic problems for ruralcommunities. Within each setting, an example is given ofa Government Agency which is attempting to improve landmanagement through partnerships with community groups.The experiences of each programme are discussed andassessed in terms of the productivity, equity and sustain-ability of emerging joint management systems. It con-cludes by describing the Foundation’s efforts to supportforest agencies developing new approaches to participato-ry management. The three human-ecological settingsincluded in the booklet are tribal regions of central India,semi-arid western India, and the middle hills of theHimalayas where the Ford Foundation is attempting tofocus its land resource programme on the development ofa joint management system for degraded reserves and pro-tected forest land.Poffenberger, Mark. 1991. Joint Forest Management inWest Bengal: The Process of Agency Change. WorkingPaper No. 9. Ford Foundation, New Delhi. The West Bengal experience indicates that communitiesand forest departments can work together to establisheffective control over forest use. These promising develop-ments are of recent origin. Twenty years ago the area suf-fered from high tensions between forest community andforest department, where violent conflicts were commonevents. This paper discusses the process of change throughwhich agency community relationships improved in threephases: the emergence of joint management systems dur-ing 1972 to 1982; the informal expansion during 1983 to


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1989, in which forest protection committees emerged inChingra Forest area; and the consolidation of the pro-gramme from 1990 onwards.Poffenberger, Mark, Betsy McGean, N. H.Ravindranath and Madhav Gadgil. 1990. FieldMethods Manual Volume I: Diagnostic Tools for JointForest Management Systems. Society for Promotion ofWastelands Development, New Delhi.This book suggests selected research tools that forestdepartments, NGOs and researchers might use to assistcommunities in developing effective forest managementsystems. It describes a range of diagnostic tools and tech-niques which can be employed to better understand thecomplexities of the community forest relationship, andthereby help derive improved participatory managementstrategies. The methods are designed to provide an initialunderstanding of forest use practices and conditions, whileopening a dialogue with community members regardingmanagement problems and opportunities. Part I of the bookreviews the macro-forest management context in India andhighlights common management problems that can beaddressed through diagnostic research. Part II outlines thesteps in preparing for community forestry research. Part IIIdescribes the four major components of an integrated rapidappraisal strategy for helping develop community forestmanagement programmes. These include: community pro-filing techniques using PRA methods and analysis proce-dures for understanding patterns of vegetative change,approaches for illuminating socio-political and institution-al characteristics affecting resource management andassessment of the economics of forest production systems.Part IV reviews strategies for forest departments and com-munity groups to utilize learning from rapid appraisals inorder to develop more effective, collaborative managementsystems.Poffenberger, Mark and Betsy McGean. 1994. AsiaSustainable Forest Management Network: PolicyDialogue on Natural Forest Regeneration andCommunity Management. Research Network ReportNo. 5, East-West Center, Hawaii. This report is based on a workshop held at East-WestCenter, Honolulu, Hawaii during March 2-4, 1994. Part Iof the report reviews the current conditions of forests inThailand, the Philippines, Indonesia and India as presentedby senior policy makers at the meeting. Part II describespreliminary strategic action plans formulated by each par-ticipating country.Poffenberger, Mark and Madhu Sarin. Undated. FibreGrass from Forest land: A Case from North India,(Working Paper No. 10). Working Paper Series. FordFoundation, New Delhi.This paper explores how acacia forests and grasslands aremanaged by the Haryana Forest Department and lease har-vesting rights allocated to contractors and a paper mill. Italso chronicles the experience of the Hill ResourceManagement Societies (HRMS) in protecting and utilisingthe grass lease lands under a forest Department (HFD) pro-gramme to transfer non-wood forest product harvestingrights to communities to improve forest management. Theinformation presented in the report is drawn from fieldstudies and process monitoring reports compiled under theJoint Forest Management Support Programme, over a peri-od of three years. The experience of working with commu-nities to manage reserve forest lands may provide lessonswhich can help in developing new approaches to managingand restoring India’s valuable forests and grasslands. Theauthors suggest that the community grass leasing arrange-ments need to be integrated with long-term resource man-

agement requirements of the larger forest ecosystem. Astree cover increases and forest succession proceeds, grassproduction will gradually fall, and communities will needto continue to benefit through rights to other forest prod-ucts. They say that the experience of the HFD’s JointForest Management programme is significant as it repre-sents the types of problems other forest departments andcommunities will be likely to encounter as they attempt todevelop collaborative forest management systems andenhance the productivity and profitability of non-wood for-est products for rural families. This shift to collaborativemanagement will continue to require major changes in for-est department procedures and Working Plans. Raju, G. 1994. JFM orders : a critique from the field.Wastelands News 9(2): 65-68.Criticises the JFM orders issued in Gujarat, Orissa, andWest Bengal, based on a year-long study of forest protec-tion committees (FPCs) in those states; gives a table show-ing the main features of JFM Orders; found that the rele-vant Sarpanches were often unaware of the activities of theFPCs, especially where villages come under groupPanchayats and the Sarpanches are from different villages.There also limitations to the number of FPCs each BeatOfficer can effectively give personal attention to; it alsofound that local people’s regular small timber needs hadbeen completely ignored; government agencies continue tomonopolise the sale of NTFPs, though some FPCs havestarted demanding the right to collect and sell these; noneof the state orders provides any punitive powers to theFPCs - although this theoretical powerlessness does not inpractice stop them from effectively apprehending culprits,generally, the Government Orders concerned do not givethe FPCs enough leeway to evolve in a flexible manner.Rao Y.S., Marilyn W. Hoskins, Napoleon T. Vergaraand Charles P. Castro (ed.). Undated. CommunityForestry: Lessons from Case Studies in Asia and thePacific Region. RAPA of the Food and AgricultureOrganisation of the United Nations, Bangkok, Thailandand Environment and Policy Institute, East-WestCentre, Hawaii, U.S.A.This book is an outcome of FAO/SIDA’s Forestry forLocal Community Development Programme (ELCDP)funded Workshop in Bangkok during August, 1985. It is acompilation of 13 case-studies presented from differentcountries, including India, on community forestry. It con-cludes that the major benefits of the activities should goback to individuals or groups in the participating commu-nities. The idea of local management and control over treeand forest resources has also been considered important.The description of a variety of community forestry activi-ties in different countries is given. Other aspects includedare the minimum length of project implementation to pro-vide valid observations; the amount of available datarequired; training and reference materials; etc. The impor-tance of social issues is stressed in the book: if the trees donot address local needs, and institutional arrangements donot allow farmers to benefit in ways they value, the pro-jects would not work.RCNAEB. 1994. People’s Participation in Forestry -Joint Forest Management, Agriculture FinanceCorporation Ltd., New Delhi. This report is based on a study which attempts an assess-ment of the status of implementation of the JFM resolutionof the Government of India in the states of Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan and Haryana. Though only the Government ofRajasthan has so far issued two state resolutions as a fol-low up of the GOI resolution, the movement has been start-ed in one form or the other in all the three states. The report



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brings out the magnitude of the problem and suggestsadministrative and other measures required to cope withthe same. It also provides general guidelines for the prepa-ration of Joint Management Plans for degraded forests andcommon property source lands.Robinson, J. G. 1993. The limits to caring: sustainableliving and loss of biodiversity. Conservation Biology7(1): 20-28.Caring for the Earth represents current, middle-of the-roadthinking on the relationship between conservation anddevelopment. This IUCN/UNEP/WWF documentembraces a purely utilitarian perspective: it considers theconservation and development of natural resources to bethe same process. In this analysis the author argues that thegoal of creating a sustainable society, as defined in Caringfor the Earth, is an unattainable utopia, and that the mech-anisms proposed to attain this goal will lead irrevocably tothe loss of biological diversity. The author considers thehistory of the concept of sustainable development, and thendocuments the constraints on the sustainable use of naturalresources. Sustainable use only occurs when both humanneeds are met and the losses of biodiversity and environ-mentle degradation are acceptable. These conditions arenot always met when natural resources are used and thefundamental conditions between resource potential andhuman needs are considered. The author concludes byemphasizing that while sustainable use is a powerfulapproach to conservation, it is not the only one, and theconservation of many species and biological communitiesalso requires a preservationist approach.Roy S.B. 1994. Bilateral Matching Institution: AnIllustration in Forest Conservation (Working PaperNo. 22). IBRAD, Calcutta. No human society is imaginable without institutions, andin every society some individuals are authorised to assumethe responsibilities for supervising the observance of thenorms, values and institutions. Gradually they become thegovernors and the restore governed [re-write!]. With thepassage of time, the values, norms and procedures of theformer develop into bureaucratic institutions.Simultaneously, the values and procedures of the lattercrystallise into social institutions. The two sets of institu-tions diverge sometimes over how to achieve similar ends,resulting in conflicts. Conflicts are found between thebureaucratic institution of the forest department and forestcommittees in India and elsewhere. The author finds asolution to such conflicts in the strategy of what he termsbilateral matching institutions. A few instances presentedin the paper show that this matching is a process based onequality between the followers of two institutions and theirmutual appreciation of each others’ goals and problems.Roy S.B. and Mitali Chatterjee. 1994. Joint ForestManagement - A Training Manual. Inter IndiaPublications, New Delhi.This manual contains the essentials for training the mem-bers of the forest department. The manual makes clear thatJoint Forest Management is a multidisciplinary endeavourwhich needs the services of anthropologists, sociologists,foresters, environmentalists, etc. It records a number ofcase-studies in places as distant as Maharashtra, TamilNadu, West Bengal and Bihar, focusing on how the plan-ners went about micro-planning to initiate the new concept. Roy, S.B., Raktima Mukherjee and Mitali Chatterjee.1992. Endogenous Development in Participatory ForestManagement. In: Journal of Indian Anthrop. Soc., 27:48-55. Based on a number of case-studies, this paper shows howpeople can be involved in participatory forest management

programmes through endogenous development. It alsomakes very clear that just by providing fuel to the commu-nity will not take the programme closer to them. Rather,people should be involved at all levels of the process,define their own needs and participate in the decision-mak-ing process.Roy, S.B., Raktima Mukherjee and Mitali Chatterjee.Undated. Endogenous Development, Gender Role inParticipatory Forest Management, ( Technical PaperNo. 3). Indian Institute of Bio-Social Research andDevelopment (IBRAD), Calcutta. The paper argues, with the help of case studies in Nilgiri,Tamilnadu, that, through endogenous development, peoplecan be involved in Participatory Forest Management pro-grammes. It also makes clear that it is not sufficient to pro-vide fuel for the community to take the programme closerto people. If people take the initiative, participate in theprogramme as a part of their own need and culture, and areempowered as decision makers, it will socially institution-alise the programme. Unless the traditions of the commu-nity and its institutions respond to the changing environ-ment, the transformation of society for accepting newnorms is not possible. The case-studies reveal clearly whatfactors prevented women from getting involved in forestryprogrammes, even when fuel was provided for them.Saigal, Sushil (ed.). 1993. Proceedings of theOrientation Workshop of AP Officers of Forest andAnimal Husbandry Department, Government ofAndhra Pradesh. Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment (SPWD), New Delhi.This report is based on a two-day orientation workshoporganised by SPWD in Hyderabad on October 21-22,1992. It gives information about the A.P. JFM resolution,certain problems faced by the participants of the workshop,including the experiences of field visits taken by the par-ticipants in different parts of the country, particularly inWest Bengal. The following subjects have been discussed :Review of the Andhra Pradesh JFM order, preparation ofoperational guidelines for implementing JFM, institutionalchanges required for JFM and interface of different depart-ments and organisations with social forestry divisions. Saigal, Sushil, Mineesh Gulati, Ramesh Chakravortyand Varalakshmi. 1993. Joint Forest Management -Orientation Workshop for Field Officers of AndhraPradesh. Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment, New Delhi.This report was prepared during March 11-16, 1993.Several portions of this booklet are based on materialobtained from ‘How to communicate effectively withgrass-roots women’, published by Society for ParticipatoryResearch in Asia, New Delhi and ‘The Community’s toolbox’, published by the Food and Agriculture Organisationof the United Nations. In the ‘introduction’ part of thereport, it gives information about JFM - what and why, andits evolution. It gives information about the process oforganising village communities into FPCs. Planning forJFM and Monitoring aspects are also been discussed indepth, along with sketches. Monitoring and evaluation sys-tems have been proposed. As a whole, the document givesa general background to the system.Sargent, Caroline et al. 1994. Incentives for theSustainable Management of the Tropical High Forestin Ghana. In: Commonwealth Forestry Review 73(3). In this paper, a coherent set of incentives for better forestmanagement in Ghana is described. These incentives bal-ance demand and supply-side issues, and are aimed at theforest user and manager. The sharing of rights or benefitsand the assumption of responsibility are considered to pro-


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vide the fundamental incentive which will encourage man-agement of the resource in a biologically sustainable,socially equitable and economically effective way. This isrealised as joint forest management at the District level.Building of capacity for all partners involved providesadditional incentive. Fiscal, financial and other incentivescan be used to reinforce the framework of shared rights andresponsibilities: financial incentives can be directed to pro-tect or promote particular species groups or to introducepreferred systems of biological management. They areessential in cases where complete protection of a species orsite is required, since protection can incur costs withoutgiving rise to any financial benefit.Sarin, Madhu. 1993. From Conflict to Collaboration:Local Institutions in Joint Forest Management(Working Paper No. 14). National Support Group forJoint Forest Management. Society for Promotion ofWastelands Development. New Delhi and FordFoundation, New Delhi. This paper examines some of the major issues related tolocal institutions which will need to be addressed to effec-tively translate the goals of JFM into practice. Part I exam-ines some of the guiding principles on which democraticand effective local institutions need to be based to under-take the resource management tasks expected of them. PartII deals with the complexity of existing forest people rela-tionships. Part III examines the internal structure and func-tioning of participatory local organisations capable of per-forming the role expected of them in JFM. The importanceof the leadership’s representativeness, transparency andaccountability in decision making and commitment to prin-ciples of equity for the sustainability of autonomous localorganisations is highlighted. Part IV deals in depth with theorganisational functions of local institutions, concentratingon operational rules and procedures necessary to ensure theproper functioning of local institutions. The paper empha-sizes the participatory process of nurturing and empower-ing diverse and autonomous local institutions. This processmust become an integral part of implementing JFM, incontrast to the tendency among forest bureaucracies tocommand people’s participation through top-down direc-tives and executive fiats. The author has relied heavily onher personal learning during 13 years of involvement withthe Haryana Forest Department’s JFM programme.Sarin, Madhu. Undated. Regenerating India’s Forests -Reconciling Gender Equity with Joint ForestManagement. University of Florida and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi. This paper looks at how JFM in its present phase is dealingwith the least addressed issue of gender equity. It notes acontinuing invisibility of women in State JFM resolutions.As a consequence, current implementation methods tendnot to take gender differences into account. Therefore it isfeared that JFM may transfer the Forest Department’s tra-ditional policy role against the predominantly women gath-erers of forest produce to male members of their house-holds. Women might then be seen as ‘offenders’ withintheir own homes. After a brief overview of the nationalcontext and the current patterns in both self-initiated forestprotection and state promoted JFM, the paper examines theevident gender differentiated impact of such communityforest protection at the field level. Due to the total absenceof any empirical data on the differential impact of JFM bygender, this section of the paper relies primarily on case-studies and information gathered during field visits. Thelast section of the paper suggests how policy commitmentsto promoting women’s equal participation can be bettertranslated into practice through structuring women’s sepa-

rate identity and entitlements into state JFM resolutions,and designing procedural guidelines and implementationmethodologies sensitive to gender equity concerns.Sarin, Madhu, and Renu Khanna. 1993. ‘Womenorganise for wasteland development: a case study ofSARTHI in Gujarat’. In: Andrea Singh and NeeraBurra [eds], Women and Wasteland Development inIndia. New Delhi/London: Sage, pp. 129-170.The NGO called SARTHI (Social Action with Rural andTribal Inhabitants of India) has been working with womenPanchmahals since the 1987 drought; collective women’saction has been effective so far, but the ambiguous legalstatus of wasteland is problematic for development pro-grammes; men see plantation as a means or earning easywages without any accountability for work output; maleopposition has been expressed as suspicion that the NGOis trying to take away both land and trees from the men.Scoones, I., M. Melnyk, Pretty J. N. 1992. The HiddenHarvest: Wild Foods and Agricultural Systems. ALiterature Review and Annotated Bibliography.International Institute for Environment and Develop-ment, Swedish International Development Authority,World Wide Fund for Nature International, publishedby the Sustainable Agricultural Programme, London.This bibliography comprises 971 annotated references. Theyhave been selected to provide an indication of the range ofresearch carried out on wild foods in agricultural systems,highlighting key themes of policy interest. It is organised intoa number of thematic sections which are: wild foods in agri-cultural systems, swidden agriculture and foraging in forestareas, pastoral systems, wildlife utilisation, food security,nutritional significance, tenure and institutional implications,and socially differentiated use and economic valuation.Scott, Christopher and J.R. Gupta. Undated.Sustainable Forest Management, Forest ResourceConservation and Development Plan: Shivalik Hills(Working paper No. 6). Ford Foundation, New Delhi. This paper details the vegetative and physical conservationstrategies that will aid forest resource regeneration in a for-est beat in the Shivalik Hills. It comprises the technicalaspects of forest micro-planning that the Haryana ForestDepartment intends to implement on a beat basis throughoutthe Shivaliks. Although it makes reference to the institution-al and social decision-making process that results in com-prehensive forest management, this plan is intended primar-ily to present options for field implementation in Dhamalabeat (Surajupr block, Pinjore Range, Haryana) which maybe considered a representative beat in terms of various for-est conditions and its use patterns. It is comprised of a forestresource inventory for Dhamala, a map indicating prioritiza-tion of forest areas for treatment, and text covering a varietyof vegetative and physical conservation techniques and theirsite suitability. In this paper, primary emphasis is given tothe propagation of certain vegetative species rather thanphysical structures, which require significantly higherinvestment. An example of the species emphasised is bhab-bar (Eulaliopsis binata) which results in financial returns tovillagers organised in Hill Resource Management Societiesand the Haryana Forest Department. Water harvestingthrough the construction of earthen or masonry dams isexplored. However, given the current paucity of funds, suchan approach is not considered to be widely replicable.Sethna, Armin and Anil Shah. Undated. InfluencingWasteland Development Policy. The Aga Khan RuralSupport Programme (AKRSP), Ahmedabad.This paper describes how AKRSP, an NGO supportingincome generation by the rural poor through improved landand water management in Gujarat, attempted over last



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three years, in loose coalition with two other NGOs, tochange government procedures which were impeding localparticipation in wasteland development. The process of influ-encing government described in this paper included exten-sive correspondence; meetings with central state and localofficials; the development of workable afforestation pro-grammes; the setting up at village level of a people’s organi-zation for forest protection, and the process of maintainingeffective links with departmental officials and staff at thelocal level. It was characterised by periods of official silenceor indifference; periods of unofficial empathy and encour-agement; and finally a level of understanding and agreement.Seva, Mandir. Undated. Information about JointForestry Management, Seva Mandir, Udaipur.This is a pictorial monograph giving information aboutvarious aspects of JPFM, such as what is JFM? What kindof forest land can we work on? What are the responsibili-ties of the villagers? What are the rights of the villagers?What is the membership system to F.P. Committees?Shah, Tushaar. 1989. Case study - Collective Action onVillage Commons: Community Fodder Farms inKheda District, Gujarat. Institute of RuralManagement, Anand, India.This paper presents four case-studies of local collectiveefforts to improve the management of the gauchers (villagegrazing lands) in the Kheda District of Gujarat by estab-lishing community fodder farms - two successes and twofailures. The successful experiments were well managedand resulted in manifold increases in the biomass outputper acre. They altered the relationship between theresource and the user by introducing a pay-to-use system,thereby eliminating common property externality thataffected the rest of the gauchers. Both are economicallyviable even while selling green fodder at subsidised prices.The cases of failure had little in common: one failed due tolack of effective demand and initiative from the communi-ty; the other failed primarily due to a corrupt leader. Thereport suggests that the pay-to-use system creates condi-tions that mimic a market system and reduce the cost ofexclusion. Also offered is a tentative hypothesis on the roleof leadership in collective action.Shankar, Manish & Vineet Rai. 1994. Exploring People-Forest-Industry Linkages in Rayagada District of Orissa.Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal. This report is based on a project (study) of organisationaltraining - the second component of post-graduate diplomain forestry management for the Society for Promotion ofWastelands Development, New Delhi. This study has beenconducted in the Muniguda block of Rayagada District inthe state of Orissa. An attempt has been made to explorethe linkages that exist between the people and the forests,and to study how strong these linkages are and how theyhave been changing over time. Recent changes in the envi-ronment include the interest shown by the forest-basedindustries, and endeavours have been made to study theways in which the intervention by industry has affected theaforesaid linkages. The study gives a general idea of howthe work of other development agencies has affected/ isaffecting the aforesaid linkages. In a nutshell, the studyprovides an insight into how the people subsist, the prob-lems faced in the area, and the scope for improvement inthe development of the area.Sharma, Narendra P. [ed.]. 1992. Managing the World’sForests: Looking for Balance Between Conservation andDevelopment. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.A 605-page textbook covering both technical and politi-cal/social aspects, in 19 chapters; generally a comprehen-sive introductory text, but with few detailed case-studies.

Especially interesting articles are: Gillis, Malcolm, ‘Forestconcession management and revenue policies’; Mercer, D.Evan and John Soussan, ‘Fuelwood problems and solu-tions’; Cernea, Michael ‘Sociological framework: policy,environment, and the social sectors for tree planting’;Palmer, John and Timothy J. Synnou ‘Natural Forests’;Nair, P.K.R. ‘Agroforestry systems design: an ecozoneapproach’; Arnold, J.E.M. ‘Production of forest productsin agricultural and common land systems: economic andpolicy issues’; Brooks, Kenneth, Hans Gregersen et al.‘Watershed management: a key to sustainability.’Shepherd, Gill. 1989. Joint Forest ResourceManagement in India: Legal constraints and opportu-nities relevant to the proposed Forestry andEnvironment project in the Western Ghats. Reportprepared for the ODA. London: Overseas DevelopmentCorporation.In hill and forest fringe areas, common property resources(CPRs) are still substantial; in the hills, large areas (e.g.one ha per family) are available to meet needs for greenmulch and fodder; despite increased commercialisation,extraction of CPR products could still be fringe; CPR man-agement originally covered most of the area; here, minorforest products are used as a source of income rather thanas inputs to agriculture - meeting as much as 50% of sub-sistence food needs as well as leaves, flowers, medicinalherbs, honey, bamboo etc for sale. The appendix by N.C.Saxena provides a critique of the National Forestry Policy(NFP) and Forest Conservation Act.Shepherd, Gill. 1991. The Communal management offorests in the semi-arid and sub-humid regions ofAfrica: past practice and prospects for the future. In:Development Policy Review. June 1991, pp. 151-176.This review of research on indigenous forest managementpractices argues that landowners are the most successfulmanagers; looks at various mechanisms of ownership -herding lineage, sedentary kinship groups, the householdhead, and the creation of tenure through labour; also looksat various indigenous woodland management techniques -long and short fallow systems, reservation, sacred grovesand religious sanction, and management of the individualtree; presents case-studies of four projects that haveattempted to involve locals in forest management. Thetransfer of political and economic authority from indige-nous managers to the state over the last thirty years sug-gests that future management by locals should focus on thecreation of tree resources on the farm, management byarea, and ownership of resources.Shiraz, Vira. 1993. Joint forest management andnomadic groups - the potential for conflict: a baselinestudy from the Himalayan region of Uttar Pradesh andHimachal Pradesh. New Delhi: SPWD mimeo.The nomads may be removed by FD at any time: in recentyears the animals of both nomadic groups and settled pop-ulations have increased, leading to conflicts between bothgroups. Rotational closing of pastures is needed; appleorchards have been planted on prime pasture land, by brib-ing forest officers; in UP grazing covers 83% of forestlands; collected case-studies on Gujjars of HP and UP,Gaddis of HP (semi-nomadic practising agriculture; forpart of the year) Bhotias of Garhwal and Kumaon(nomadic, trading with Tibet); in the past, villagers used togive Gaddis and Gujjars free fodder in exchange formanure and milk; but in the Chamba area now, because ofovergrazing and deforestation, villages have started planti-ng fodder trees and demarcating areas near villages forregeneration, trying to prevent pastoralists from passingthrough their land; incorporation of pastoralists’ needs into


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JFM agreements requires attention to rights over resources,permits, and forest and pasture management.Shiva, Vandana, V.M. Meher Homji and N.D. Jayal.1992. Forest Resources Crisis and Management. NatrajPublications, Dehradun.Tropical forests have become a major area of conflictbetween north and south in recent years. The north isincreasingly demanding global control over third worldforest resources as carbon sinks and lungs of the earth. Thisbook shows how northern governments, corporations andaid agencies have played a major role in forest destruction,and how this destruction has affected the environment andlives of forest dwellers.SIDA, Indian Institute of Forest Management andISO/Swedforest. 1991. People’s Participation in ForestResource Management: papers presented at the nation-al seminar on people’s participation in forest resourcemanagement, IIFM, Bhopal. The report is based on a national seminar on people’s par-ticipation in Forest Resource Management held atBhubaneshwar during January 21-23, 1991. This embodiesthe edited version of 19 papers presented at the seminarwhich, along with the recommendations will be helpful indeciding the strategies for people’s participation in forestresources management in India and other developing coun-tries. It also reflects the idea regarding involvement of peo-ple, organisational structure, sharing of benefits, extension,etc. in the field of social forestry.Singh, Bijay Kumar. 1992. Models for implementingcommunity forestry and the concept of user groups: thecase of Nepal. ODI Rural Development ForestryNetwork Paper 14d.This paper follows the classification of community forestrymodels put forward by D. Palin (Management ofDevelopment Forestry: A Comparative Study of PublicForestry Administration in the Asia-Pacific Region. ReportGCT/RAS 46 (SWE), FAO, 1980); types include SuperManagement (adopted in early attempts at communityforestry in Nepal, when nursery plantation work was fund-ed by government, all management decisions taken byDistrict Forest Office, and local people simply hired toimplement the programme); Support Service (privateplanting component, DFOs distributed seedlings free ofcharge to local people; has become very popular in theTerai); NGO Supported (NGO acts as catalyst by supply-ing seedlings and technical assistance, local groups makeall decisions); Partnership (contract between DFO and for-est user groups for management, development and utilisa-tion of a forest area to fulfil the forestry needs of usergroup members; government provides land, technicalknowledge and financial assistance, locals identify theirown user groups and form a committee); LeaseholdContract (contract between government and leaseholder -either an individual, a community, an institution, or a pri-vate enterprise; government provides land on lease, as wellas technical knowledge, leaseholder pays fee; at present,leases are for 25 years: leaseholders are allowed to sell treeproducts according to their own wishes, and can form theirown organisation; not popular in Nepal and governmentgiven it a low priority); in Nepal, unlike other parts of Asia,contracts between User Groups and government are notlimited by a set time frame, and there is no sharing of ben-efits with government, though UGs have the right to man-age forest and use produce, but not the right to tenure - theycan’t sell or mortgage the land; mentions the Manapathisystem whereby villagers are locally appointed to act asforest guards, and paid in cereals - the measuring unitbeing a manapathi; poor people are often appointed; this

payment system is also used for messengers, barbers, andblacksmiths in Nepal; lists of main features lacking in usergroup forestry in Nepal: no legal provision for UG associ-ations which could seek markets for their products, agro-forestry potential and short-term rather than long-term ben-efits, small-scale soil erosion, technological developmentof fodder tree species, and no programme for rural-basedforestry industries. The problems encountered in UGforestry in Nepal include unclear concept and philosophy,especially by young FD field staff, failure to apply knowl-edge from social science systematically, and the use of out-dated methods to train field staff. Old attitudes of forestryprofessionnals die hard and many are reluctant to changeroles from policing to extensionist/advisory roles. Theroles of different organisational strata within FD andMinistry are unclear, there is a low sense of accountability,and financial regulations of government are not oriented tosupport development but to control activities.Singh, Bakhshish, Sham Sunder Arora and J.R. Gupta.1993. Management of Bamboo Forest under JointParticipatory Forest Management in HaryanaShivaliks (Joint Forest Management Series No. 6).Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi. This report is based on a study undertaken in Badgodamforests, which represent the bamboo areas being managedunder JPFM to assess the existing stock and regenerationstatus, etc. of the bamboo crop. The results of the studyshow that the area has about 850 bamboo clumps/ha withabout 11 bamboos per clump and producing about threenew culms per clump, each year. Against the present levelof supply of 330 bamboos/ha/year to 27 bhanjda (localbamboo artisan community) families from 73.6 ha of thebamboo forest, the area is producing 2550 newculms/ha/year, which can more than suffice to sustain thecurrent level of supply of bamboos to the bhanjda commu-nity. It also attempts to analyse the various attributes of thecrop, such as level of congestion in clumps, distribution ofbamboo clumps in different age and diameter classes, andthe overall condition of the crop.Singh, Bakhshish, J.R. Gupta and Sham Sunder Arora.1993. Effect of Juvenile Grass Cutting on Fibre Yield ofBhabbar and Hay Yield of Fodder Grasses in ShivalikHills of Haryana. (Joint Forest Management series No.8). Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi. This report examines the effects of clipping juvenilefoliage (in July, August, September) on the yield of maturefibre of bhabbar grass and hay production of fodder grass-es (in November). The results show that clipping of younggrasses for fodder during the active growth period of Julyto September is harmful for the overall vigour, basal cover,clump size and biomass production. Therefore it recom-mends that the harvesting of grasses for fodder should beavoided during their active period of growth in July-August.Singh, Samar and Arvind Khare. 1993. People’s partic-ipation in forest management. CommonwealthForestry Review 72(4): 279-283.This is a simple and short overview, with special referenceto India and Nepal. Three current trends are the shift fromstate to individual and collective local control, the devolu-tion of management functions to locals, and the changingrole of government agencies. Worldwide, FDs prefer ‘thebeneficiary approach’ with individual tenure, and measur-able physical targets. It gives a reminder that although theNational Forest Policy, the GOI circular 1990, and theState government orders ‘form the overall legal and policy



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framework facilitating peoples’ participation in the man-agement of forests’, none of these three is a legal enact-ment and they ‘are not enforceable in a court of law. Theyprovide the basis for access, enjoin locals to protect forest,and assure them a certain part of produce from the forestthey protect. FPCs have generally provided successfully sofar, but some FDs still retain the right to cancel committeesand to punish offenders. This will have to change, beforeparticipatory forest management becomes a functionalreality. Long-term policies especially for providing securi-ty of tenure, will have to change, and even “silviculture”responding to community needs will have to evolve.Lessons for the future include: the need for serious politi-cal commitment, clear policy guidelines, institutionalarrangements for collective assertion of rights, conflict res-olution and implementation of self-abnegation rules; landtenure and access rights need special attention; reorienta-tion and attitudinal changes are required, not only in FDs,but also in communities.Singh, Ramvir. 1991. Managing the Village Commons(Proceedings of the national workshop on managingcommon lands for sustainable development of our vil-lages: a search for participatory management models).Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal.This report focuses attention on contentious managerial andtechnical issues including sustainability of community-based management models; the efficiency and equity con-siderations in managing the resources; and allocation ofroles and responsibilities amongst various actors. It contains15 papers presented and recommendations made in thenational workshop held at Bhubaneshwar in December1991. The recommendations are related to the strategy ofparticipatory forest management (PFM), including the roleand responsibilities of Village Forest Protection Committees(VFPCs) and Forest Departments. They also discuss theroles and responsibilities of NGOs, the sustainability ofcommunity-based management models, sharing of benefits,extension creation of an executive body for managing thecommons, management and maintenance of the village com-mons. Furthermore, the report includes some case-studiesfrom different parts of the country relating to JFM.Singhal, Rekha. 1994. Gender Issues in Joint ForestManagement: More Than a Trendy Issue: an experi-ence in Madhya Pradesh. Indian Institute of ForestManagement, Bhopal.The report is based on an evaluation of Paraswara ForestProtection Committee in District Jabalpur of MadhyaPradesh (Bilaspur Forest division). The study suggests theshift in preoccupation from gender to participation issues,participation both by the men and women. It also supportsthe conviction that equal participation by women is not ameans to an end but an end in itself. The study concludesthat there is an urgent need to shift the focus from womento the family, as the forest products are utilised at the fam-ily and not individual level.Singhal, Rekha. 1995. Gender Issues in Joint ForestManagement: a Force Field Analysis. Indian Instituteof Forest Management, Bhopal. This report deals with a Forest Protection Committee (FPC)named Tribank situated in the Joyapur range of Bankura,north forest division in West Bengal. It is observed that itwas not the gender of the people which contributed to thesuccessful functioning of the FPC, rather it was theapproach of the individual towards the problem. It throwslight on the role and significance of gender issues in JFM.Singhal, Rekha. 1995. Behavioural Factors inInstitutional Effectiveness. Indian Institute of ForestManagement, Bhopal. This report is based on a study conducted in the villages of

Balasauli and Fakirdange of Bankura South ForestDivision in Bankura District of West Bengal. The primaryobjective is to identify certain determinants of institutionaleffectiveness in the forestry sector. Two FPCs(Institutions) have been selected to identify the factorsdetermining their success. Members and non-members ofFPCs in both the villages are included in the study. Theresults indicate that a number of factors determine the out-come or performance of the FPCs. Among them behav-ioural factors have emerged as the major indicator in theeffective or ineffective functioning of such institutions,under the same conditions and institutions. Thus, the studyattempts to answer the following questions: Who are theparticipants? How did they become FPC members? Whydid they become FPC members? What are their rules andactivities as a member? What are the perceived objectivesof the FPC? What are the perceived problems and solu-tions? What is the perceived role of the forest department?What are their needs and motives?Singhal, Rekha. 1995. Joint Forest Management atNilgarh, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Institute of ForestManagement, Bhopal. This report is based on a study of Nilgarh Forest ProtectionCommittee in the Vineka range of Obedullaganj in the for-est division of Bhopal circle in the District of Raisen,Madhya Pradesh. It has a rich flora of tendu, bamboo,shisam, mahua, etc. The man-made resources are few incomparison to the natural resources. It gives some generalinformation about the village setting, including its cultural,socio-economic aspects etc. A brief account of the formationof the Forest Protection Committee is also given in thereport. It is concluded that the involvement and participationof the people of the village in the JFM programme indicatesthat the trust and confidence in the capabilities of the peopleand the approach made by an individual is important. Theresults suggest that in JFM it is not the registration of theFPC but the processes which are more important and deter-mine its success. The report throws light on the factors thatmakes collective action successful. The results suggest anumber of factors contribute to the collective behaviour,such as sociological, organisational (leadership), psycholog-ical (trust, awareness, attitude, expectation). It is importantto note that these factors act as a foundation for the imple-mentation of the JFM programme. This explains why andhow Nilgarh FPC became successful in less than a year, andhas become a model FPC for neighbouring villages.Skutsch, Margaret M. 1990. Social Forestry inIntegrated Rural Development Planning - Sri Lanka(Field Document No. 24). Technology and DevelopmentGroup, University of Twente Enschede, TheNetherlands. Food and Agriculture Organisation of theUnited Nations, Bangkok.This paper describes first the setup of Integrated RuralDevelopment Programmes (IRDPs) in Sri Lanka and thenthe types of social forestry encountered in six of them,where a total of 15 different social forestry designs werefound. The achievements of these programmes arereviewed. The objectives of the study are to identify andreview the different approaches and strategies used by dif-ferent IRDPs in Sri Lanka in social forestry and agro-forestry, to compare results and identify common prob-lems, and to consider the special role of IRDPs in promot-ing social and agroforestry in an integrated framework.Smith, Alan. 1994. Incentives in Community ForestryProjects: a Help or a Hindrance? (Rural DevelopmentForestry Network Paper No.17 C). OverseasDevelopment Institute, London.The theme of this paper is whether we are deceiving our-selves about the nature of external incentives. Do they not


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become in many cases subsidies which have to be main-tained or else the new practices will be abandoned? If so,not only is there no sustainability, but do not the incentivesrisk fostering dependence and paternalism? If that is so, dothey not work counter to the accepted social forestry goalsof inducing greater grassroots participation and responsi-bility? These are the questions tackled in the paper.However, legal incentives (exploitation rights, exemptionfrom takes etc.) are not touched upon.SPS. 1991. Janaaranya - People’s Participation in theManagement of Natural Resources. Samaj ParivartanSamudaya, Dharwar.This booklet was published on the occasion of the commonlands Jatha (procession) organised to highlight issues relat-ed to use and ownership of common lands. It contains thefollowing documents: National Forest Policy and theNational Policy on Common Property Land Resources. Adraft paper, circular of the Government of India aboutinvolvement of village communities and voluntary agen-cies in the regeneration of degraded forest lands (1.6.90).Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development(SPWD). 1991. Working Together: State, People andForests of Uttara Kannada. SPWD, New Delhi.This report puts forward a set of proposals to lay a properfoundation for the participatory management of availableresources in the District. It is the outcome of a series ofconsultations with the people of Uttara Kannada, represen-tatives of Zila Parishads and non-government agenciesoperating in that area. It contains detailed guidelines formanagement of forest resources and deals with groundrealities of encroachments, fodder requirements for live-stock, problems of rehabilitation, soppina betta lands andnon-wood forest products and their marketing. It’s recom-mendations have relevance for the country as a whole.SPWD. 1992. Joint Forest Management: Concepts andOpportunities. Proceedings of the National Workshopat Surajkund. Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment, New Delhi.This publication is of special relevance to the implementa-tion of JFM in different parts of India. It consists of a num-ber of case-studies from different states on the issue ofJoint Forest Management. The proceedings cover differentaspects of JFM, like participatory micro-planning, involve-ment of local communities, integration with working plans,benefit-sharing, coordination with other forestry pro-grammes, marketing, integrating JFM into rural develop-ment, monitoring and evaluation, conflict resolution andmanagement, gender issues, legal and technical issues,community institutions, the role of NGOs in JFM, and eco-logical issues, etc.Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development(SPWD). 1993. Workshop on Joint ForestManagement, Bhubaneshwar.This report is a compilation of papers presented in theworkshop on JFM in Bhubaneshwar during May 28-29,1993. These papers are related to different aspects of JFM.The first paper which is compiled by Mineesh Gulati andSushil Saigal, is a fact sheet on Orissa’s forests. It is abackground paper for the workshop. This is followed by‘Joint Forest Management in Orissa - some unresolvedissues’ by S. C. Mohanty; ‘JFM in Orissa: Past, Presentand Future’ by L. K. Jagdev; ‘The legal framework forJoint Forest Management’ by R. A. Sharma; ‘Joint ForestManagement in Budhikhamari’ by D. P. Singh; ‘JointForest Management’ by Col. G. Mishra; ‘Five years ofJFM....’ by A. K. Patnaik; ‘Comparative assessment of for-est protection by communities’ by Suvendu Pati, RanjitPanda, Ajay Rai. Lastly it deals with the proceedings of

two workshops - one at Keonjhar on 5-6 February 1993and a second at Bolangir and Sambalpur Districts inDecember 1992.SPWD. 1993. Joint Forest Management Update.Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development,New Delhi.This booklet is a compilation of circulars and resolutionsissued by the Government of India, as well as 14 of the stategovernments on the Joint Forest Management programmeand its implementation. It also contains a status report onthe progress made by the new concept in various states. The73rd Constitution Amendment Bill pertaining to PanchayatiRaj institutions has also been included in the booklet.SPWD. 1993. State Level Workshop on Joint ForestManagement. Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment, New Delhi.This report is based on a state level workshop on JointForest Management organised at Bhubaneshwar duringMay 28-29, 1993. It discusses the key issues with regard toJoint Forest Management and the steps required to opera-tionalise and institutionalise JFM on the basis of experiencefrom field situations. An account of the workshop recom-mendations has also been given, relating to the amendmentin the Government resolution, forest management, researchadministration and the activities of the forest department.The involvement of industries, to make the degraded forestslands productive, has also been mentioned.SPWD. 1994. Note on Participatory Rural Appraisal.Society for Promotion of Wastelands Development,New Delhi.This report has been prepared by the Society for Promotionof Wastelands Development for the participants of a work-shop on Joint Forest Management held at Patnitop, J&Kduring May 19-21, 1994. It gives background informationand some key principles relating to Participatory RuralAppraisal in forest areas for JFM. It gives informationabout methods and approaches relating to PRA, used bydifferent people under different situations. Equity aspects,social mapping, focus groups, village meetings, manage-ment plans, and community proposals have been defined.The advantages of participatory mapping, along with theparticipatory mapping types and applications and sketchmapping of different areas and aspects have also been pre-sented in the report. Seasonal calenders of forest productflows etc. are also given.SPWD/Ford Foundation. 1993. Joint ForestManagement Field Methods Manual Vol. I: DiagnosticTools for Supporting JFM Systems. New Delhi. Societyfor Promotion of Wastelands Development. JointForest Management Working Paper No 15.This is a very useful working manual with examples fromvarious parts of India. It starts with an overview of con-temporary issues in participatory forest management inIndia including: use of fuelwood at the level of the sub-continent (133 million tons per year); use of bamboos; therole of fire in the increase of grass productivity and treegermination. The manual then provides a table of manage-ment issues and ecological, institutional, and economicresearch questions (e.g. for headloading the ecologicalissues are growth rate/potential/impact, the institutionalissues are user groups, control of access, rights, and incen-tives, and the economic issues are the amounts needed forsubsistence and commerce, degree of economic depen-dance employment alternatives). It also gives guidelines onpreparing community forestry research (identifying anddeveloping a research team and user network; backgroundresearch and selecting a research site; choosing a sitewhere communities are already active or interested in



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establishing forest management systems; well-defined col-lection areas and community of users needed for accuratequantification of use and dependency; working together;community-research team interactions). Guidelines arealso given on Rapid Appraisal research methods and PRAfor community/forest management profiling. Communityprofiling should involve collection of background informa-tion (census, livestock, land, religion/cast), community andforest history (historical transect, time-line, trend line),community forest values and perceptions (ecological,social, religious, economic values), spatial information(sketch map, product flow charge, land-use transect), tem-poral information (seasonal calendar, daily activity sched-ule), inventory and classification (species, gender-specificinventory, species use typology), and forest product rank-ing. It recommends ‘process documentation’ wherebyresearchers act as ‘the eyes and the ears’ of institutionalchange by attending village and FD meetings, holding in-depth interviews with staff and villagers to record the evo-lution of JFM systems. It provides a table on institutionalmanagement issues, research questions, and methods(macro-assessment, community assessment, FD and sup-port group assessment); suggests drawing social systemsdiagrams on forest users, management, relations with FD,contractors, traders; suggests charting of time constraints,procedural and other constraints on FD staff-incentive anddisincentive for JFM work, information flow-charts on theFD. The section on ‘Using learning effectively’ emphasis-es the importance of analysing and interpreting researchfindings for programme development; research must beavailable in the relevant form to the right people at the righttime.SPWD/Ford Foundation. 1993. Joint ForestManagement Field Methods Manual Vol. 2:Community Economy and Use Patterns: PRA Methodsin South Gujarat. New Delhi: Society for Promotion ofWastelands Development. Joint Forest ManagementWorking Paper No. 15.Another useful manual based on the Aga Khan RuralSupport Programme (AKRSP) case-studies and a 5-dayworkshop. It discusses the reasons for promoting PRAmethods; the composition of the research team, site selec-tion, introductions to the community; forest history, com-munity forest perceptions and attitudes; sketch maps, prod-uct flow-charts, transects, activity schedules and seasonalcalendars; inventories, ranking, scoring FPs; product vol-ume flows, labour, and capital costs; FP prices, processingand marketing; analyzing FD costs and benefits. It looks indetail at three village case-studies in Gujarat; PRA canhelp generate information on the socio-economic and eco-logical conditions prevailing in the research site prior tothe collection of more quantitative biophysical and eco-nomic data; but they acknowledge that some kinds of moredifficult and detailed economic data-gathering and analysisare too difficult for quick PRAs. It is important to haveinterdisciplinary teams, wherever possible, including per-haps a forester, a social scientist and an ecologist, andpreferably including both men and women; recommends amix of formal and informal approaches in PRA - informalis less disruptive but limits the team’s ability to clarify theirobjectives, whereas ‘The more formal approach encour-aged many members of the community to gather and learnabout the study’. The case-studies showed that there wasan obvious need to schedule more time for group analysisand discussion following each field exercise; team mem-bers regretted that they had not spent any villageovernights to supplement their more formal learning aboutthe community, its practices and beliefs.

SPWD and Forest & Environment Department, Bihar.1994. Workshop on Joint Forest Management in Bihar,Ranchi. Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment, New Delhi.This booklet was prepared for the participants of a work-shop on `Joint Forest Management in Bihar’ held in Ranchiduring September 26-28, 1994. It gives information on thepresent status of Joint Forest Management in Bihar which isfollowed by 3 case-studies relating to Saraiya, Thakuragutuand Maheshpur village forest committees, in which the roleof women in forest protection has been discussed. It givessome success and failure stories relating to JFM.Srivastava, J.P.L and R.N. Kaul. 1994. Greening ofCommon lands in the Aravallis, Aravalli Project.Forest Department, Government of Haryana,Gurgaon. This report deals with activities under the Aravalli projectundertaken by the Haryana Forest Department. The reportsays that the results so far achieved are due to people’s par-ticipation and support in greening common lands. The reportindicates that the project activities have generated employ-ment and income. This has led to amelioration of povertyconditions and has also contributed significantly towardswinning the confidence of the people so essential to effec-tive project implementation. Other benefits like substantial-ly increased fodder production and income from the sale ofgrass seeds have begun to flow, which in turn have given thepeople a stake and consequent involvement in regeneratingthe village commons. Strategies for the involvement of com-munities have been presented, particularly in micro-plan-ning, Mahila nurseries, grass seed collection, incentive,extension and monitoring and evaluation activities.Srivastava, J.P.L and R.N. Kaul. 1994. JointManagement of Common Lands: The AravalliExperience. Aravalli Project, Forest Department,Government of Haryana. Common lands throughout India have long been degradedto mere wastelands through the open-access system whichhas developed. In the Aravallis this has changed to a sus-tained management system controlled by the villagersthemselves. This report explains how this has beenachieved. It describes the methods of working with the vil-lage people and the formation of village forest committees,in which women as well as men actively participate indecision-making. This is very relevant to other Indianstates carrying out similar work. The innovative plan ofmanagement, the microplan, developed in partnership witheach community, is not a rigid document like the tradition-al working plan so familiar to Indian foresters. It is a flex-ible plan which can be amended as the village forest com-mittee gains experience. The publication documents theexperience gained over the four year period (1991-92 and1994-95) of vegetative rehabilitation of common lands inthe Aravallis with people’s participation and the variousinnovative measures that the project has introduced toensure a meaningful participation of village communitiesin greening these otherwise difficult sites. A number oflessons learnt are discussed which may be of interest tothose engaged elsewhere in projects related to JFM.Detailed examples are given of Participatory RuralAppraisal (PRA) and the compilation of a microplan.Stevens, Merrim E., Suree Bhumibhanon and HenryWood. 1990. Research Policy for Community ForestryAsia Pacific Region: Proceedings of a Seminar(RECOFTC Report No. 5). The Regional CommunityForestry Training Centre, Bangkok. This report is based on a seminar organised in Bangkok onJan 8-11, 1990. It contains 36 research papers including 6


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country papers relating to different aspects of forest man-agement. On the basis of the discussions, five research pri-orities have been suggested: agroforestry and watershedmanagement; natural forestry ecology and management;tree breeding and tree improvement; marketing; and policyand socio-economic research. It has been suggested thatsocial and economic research should not be promoted asbeing a single science as implied when using the hyphen-ated term ‘socio-economic’. Joint venture of managingforests has been advocated. According to the authors itmay mean reorganisation of existing research structures,making it easier to respond to the issues of people’sinvolvement in forestry programmes. The overall strategyis to promote a bottom-up input to regional and countryforestry research programmes that reflects a partnershipwith the people and the communities with which they areassociated.TERI and Haryana Forest Department. 1993. TrainingWorkshop on Joint/Participatory Forest Managementfor Block officers/Deputy Rangers of Haryana ForestDepartment. Tata Energy Research Institute, NewDelhi. This report is based on a training workshop onJoint/Participatory Forest Management for block offi-cers/deputy rangers of the Haryana forest department,organised by the Haryana forest department and TataEnergy Research Institute at forest complex Pinjore,Haryana, during October 11-16, 1993. It gives a descrip-tion of the workshop, a profile of the participants andresource persons including field exercises made during theperiod of the training workshop programme. It summaris-es the lectures delivered by the resource persons during thetraining period. These lectures are related to variousaspects of JFM including the forest resources of Shivaliksand the peoples’ dependence on them; an overview of for-est management; Joint Participatory Forest Managementpolicy and rules; concepts and strategies for JointParticipatory Forest Management; Participatory RuralAppraisal; basis for Participatory Forest Management;micro-planning; society formation; monitoring; and groupexercises - resource team. It includes 23 annexes, including5 maps showing land use, soil erosion, forage condition,forest condition and a command area map of Nada villagein Haryana where field exercises were taken by the partic-ipants of the training programme.TERI and Haryana Forest Department. 1993.Proceedings of State Level Workshop onJoint/Participatory Forest Management. Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.This report is based on a state level workshop onJoint/Participatory Forest Management held in forest com-plex, Pinjore on March 24, 1993. A review of the progressof JPFM in Haryana has been presented. The need forexpanding the programme to other areas and training forall partners has been stressed. The report includes fourpapers prepared by TERI, Haryana Forest Department, HillResource Management Society and Ford Foundation.TERI and Haryana Forest Department. 1994. TrainingWorkshop on Joint Participatory Forest Managementfor Members of Management Committees of HillResource Management Societies. Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi. This report is based on a training workshop on JointParticipatory Forest Management for members of manage-ment committees of Hill Resource Management Societiesorganised by TERI and Haryana forest department in for-est complex, Pinjore, Haryana during June 8-9, 1994.Views of the participants and resource persons, relating to

different aspects of HRMS and for better implementationof JFM are given and discussed in brief. As part of thetraining, field sessions also were taken in Tarlokpur villageDharamsala, and were included in the report, together witha map of Tarlokpur forest block. The resource persons alsopresented their main points in brief.Tiwari, D.D. 1994. Collective Protection Under JointForest Management: a Case Study of Bharuch District.National Workshop on Joint Forest Management (Aug.25-26, 1994). Centre for Management in Agriculture,Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad.This case-study is aimed at exploring the causes of suc-cessful protection in the Bharuch District. It is based on asurvey of some 33 villages having a JFM programme. Thesalient features of JFM programme in the study area arediscussed in the second section, followed by a review ofmodels of collective action and forest common propertyresources in the third section. Some tentative hypotheses ofcollective protection are discussed in the fourth section.Econometric models of collective protection are developedand tested in the fifth section. The study throws light on thecollective protection of jointly managed forest areas andtries to explain what makes collective protection success-ful. Based upon primary survey data, the study builds uponsome hypotheses and tests them using an econometricapproach. The results suggest that the following factorscontribute to the success of collective protection: (i) size ofmembership of GUM/VKS; (ii) size of total illiterate pop-ulation; (iii) size of expected economic benefits for JFM;(iv) numbers of visits by the coordinating agency; (v) yearsof interaction with the coordinated agency. The followingfeatures contribute negatively: (1) size of village; (2)unemployed graduates of the village; (3) livestock popula-tion of the village.Tiwari, D.D. 1994. Joint Forest Management at Soliya,Gujarat. National Workshop on Joint ForestManagement, August 25-26, 1994. Centre forManagement in Agriculture, Indian Institute ofManagement, Ahmedabad.This report is based on a study of Soliya village in BharuchDistrict in Gujarat. The major objectives are to study theinstitutional issues related to JFM in the village; toappraise the financial feasibility of the afforestation pro-gramme and to suggest alternative forest managementstrategies; and to study the patterns of income flows tocommunity and forest departments under different income-sharing arrangements and the perceptions of people withregard to these arrangements. The study shows that the for-est is an integral part of the people’s life style in this vil-lage. JFM as a new institution provides an opportunity toregenerate degraded forests and to afforest new areas, ful-filling the people’s various requirements such as fodder,fuelwood, water and other environmental needs. Economicbenefits from the JFM programme have also been estimat-ed. A financial analysis of different schemes has also beenundertaken. The economics of benefit-sharing have beendetermined to the sustainability of JFM as an institution.The author is of the opinion that the people will sooner orlater realise the economics of current benefit-sharing andwill ask for a larger share.Tiwari, R.N. and O.A. Mascarenhas.1983. WastelandDevelopment and Environmental ManagementThrough Community Forestry. Natraj Publishers,Dehradun, India.In this book the authors develop the thesis that the goal ofcommunity forestry is to exploit the economic potential ofthe system - the natural as well as the human resource. It isbased on actual observation of experiments in the field, in



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particular in the village of Khakripora in Bihar. Theauthors set forth the techniques and principles for decision-making in planning and executing a multiple delivery pro-ject. An effort is made to understand the social dynamicsof the resident community, to achieve simultaneously thetwin goals of the rehabilitation of the weaker section andenvironmental conservation. It is only when the residentcommunity is able to perceive individual as well as groupstakes that the success of such a project will be assured.Decision-making parameters are analysed, and a bold andrather successful attempt is made to plan communityforestry at the grassroots level. It presents several villagestudies in which the community forestry programmes areplanned for implementation and evaluation.Tiwari, B.K., R.P. Kapoor, S.K. Barik and R.S.Tripathi. 1992. Models for Regeneration of DegradedForests through Participatory Management -Proceedings of the Training Programme held atShillong during 4-5 June, 1992. Regional Centre,National Afforestation and Eco-development Board,North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong.This report is based on discussions held at Shillong duringa training programme on Participatory Management. Itincludes the findings of integrated wastelands developmentprojects implemented in the states of Meghalaya, Sikkim,West Bengal and Rajasthan.Tiwari, B.K., K. K. Gaur and R.S. Tripathi. 1994.Participatory Forest Management in Tripura: People’sParticipation and Sharing of Benefits/Usufruct.Regional Centre, National Afforestation Eco-develop-ment Board, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong.This is a study conducted in the state of Tripura onParticipatory Forest Management. The objective of thestudy is to review the rate and magnitude of success of thePFM programme in relation to the resolution of the TripuraGovernment. The main findings are that large-scale forestprotection efforts by the members of Forest Protection andRegeneration Committees in Tripura present great poten-tial for forest regeneration and sustainable management.Joint management of the forest resource by the forestdepartment and the FPRCs is now emerging as a betteralternative forest management system. Though in its infan-cy, the PFM programme in Tripura is moving towardsequity and sustainability.Tripathi, R.S., K.K. Gaur and B.K. Tiwari. 1993.People’s Participation and Sharing of Benefits/Usufructin Manipur. National Afforestation and Eco-develop-ment Board, North-Eastern Hill University, Shillong.This report is based on an evaluation study on ParticipatoryForest Management conducted in two districts, namelyThoubal and Senapati of Manipur. It aims to discover theimpact of PFM on afforestation programmes in the state.The level of implementation of the National Forest Policy1988 in the state of Manipur has also been studied.UNDP. 1991. Conservation and Management ofIntertidal forests in Vietnam. Economic and SocialCommission for Asia and the Pacific - United NationsDevelopment Programme, New York.This report has been prepared as a follow-up activity in linewith the objectives of the DESCONAP (DesertificationControl in Asia and the Pacific) project. It introduces theproblem of mangrove forest degradation in Vietnam andapplied technical and social measures adopted for theirprotection and expansion.Varalakshmi, V. 1992. Economics of Bamboo BasketMaking: a case study (Joint Forest Management SeriesNo. 3). Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.

This report looks into various aspects of resource avail-ability and utilisation, volume of basket production andemployment generated, and the economics of the varioussizes of baskets made. It also investigates the problems ofmarketing these baskets, the role of middlemen, and the netprofits accruing to the Bhanjdas (the basket-making com-munity in Haryana). Keeping in view the socio-economicstructure of Bhanjdas, the likely options for the bettermentof the lot of this forest community and sustaining the pro-ductivity of the forests are discussed.Varalakshmi, V. 1993 Economics of Goat and BuffaloRearing: a case-study from Haryana (Joint ForestManagement series No. 4). Haryana Forest Departmentand Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi.In this report an attempt has been made to analyse and com-pare the economics of buffalo and goat rearing. It is basedon a study of the village of Moginand in the Morni-PinjoreForest Division in Haryana State. In this village Gujjars arethe dominant community and, livestock rearing being themainstay of their economy, the villagers depend a great dealon the surrounding forest, all the more so because individ-ual land holdings are too small to supply enough fodder.The forest lands near the village have, therefore, been ren-dered barren. Families that own no land depend on goats,and the rest rear buffaloes and cows. The likely options forsustainable utilisation of the existing forest resources arediscussed, in the context of the constraints the villagers facein changing from goat rearing to buffalo rearing.Varalakshmi, V. 1993. Women as Partners in theRegeneration of Haryana Shivaliks (Joint ForestManagement series No. 11). Haryana Forest Departmentand Tata Energy Research Institute, New Delhi.This report attempts to make a qualitative and quantitativeassessment of the benefits accruing to womenfolk in thevillages where the programme is operational, and whiledoing so it also assesses the level of involvement of womenin the programme and whether the current level of involve-ment provides adequate room and opportunity for them toexpress and find solutions to their problems on an equalfooting with the menfolk. It is concluded that the member-ship of women to the HRMS and its management commit-tee, and attendance at the general meetings are necessary inorder to assess women’s participation in the programme.Varalakshmi, V. 1994. A Dynamic Process ofInstitution Development in Lohgarh Village inHaryana (Joint Forest Management Series No. 14).Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.This report is an analysis of the management systems thathave evolved in Lohgarh village of Haryana in response tocertain factors. It is important to note that systems whichhave evolved at the grassroots essentially due to the effortsand involvement of the villagers have a better chance ofsurvival as compared to the systems developed due toexternal leadership. These systems are also seen to be high-ly flexible while systems imposed from the outside are lesslikely to evolve any further or sustain themselves. It con-cludes that the institution has been able to integrate theland, water, human and livestock subsystems in its pro-gramme, which is a holistic approach, an important factorfor ensuring sustainability. Varalakshmi, V., Rohini Vijh and Sham Sunder Arora.1993. Constraints in the Implementation of JointParticipatory Forest Management Programme - SomeLessons from Haryana (Joint Forest ManagementSeries No. 12). Haryana Forest Department and TataEnergy Research Institute, New Delhi.The Joint Participatory Forest Management approach is


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based on Sukhomajri and Nada experiments in 1980-82,which were implemented by Chandigarh Central Soil andWater Conservation Research and Training Institutetogether with HFD; non-wood FPs were the main benefitsto locals. TERI has conducted and coordinated researchtogether with villagers and NGOs. A state-level WorkingGroup is chaired by the PCCF, and acts as the advisorybody on the whole project ; divisional level WGs look ateveryday programme operations, and solve problems thatdo not need policy changes. This tiered system ‘bypassesthe regular bureaucratic and top-down approach’; so toowith research, there are tiers from local village meetings,popular training workshops to improve capabilities of vil-lages and HFD staff; there is ‘regular documentation ofinstitutional process’ at village level, with periodic analy-sis of specific issues; those relevant to policy are passed upto the WGs. The main failure has been non-functioning vil-lage societies for dam maintenance, catchment protection,and equitable irrigation distribution. All failed, mainly dueto the inexperience of HFD staff; but also due to vaguenessconcerning the rights and responsibilities of users, and thelack of clear HFD policy on benefit-sharing with commu-nities. A new emphasis on institutionalisation followed theGOH order in 1990; problems continued until 1992 - hencethis study of 7 villages with non-functional village soci-eties; but reasons given for failure in the table all concerntechnical problems - likewise the solutions offered - ratherthan organizational problems and solutions. HFD stafftransfers are cited as a major problem; laws may need to bechanged to enable village societies to fine offenders.Varalakshmi, V., Rohini Vijh and Sham Sunder Arora.1993. Systems of Bhabbar Grass Lease Management inHaryana (Joint Forest Management Series No. 7).Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.The Haryana Forest Department awards bhabbar leases toBallarpur paper mill, Hill Resource Management Societiesformed under the Joint Participatory Forest ManagementProgramme, and to local contractors. There are significantvariations in the way these lessees harvest bhabbar grassand channel it to its end use. Broadly, there are six differ-ent combinations of agents and channels through whichbhabbar ultimately finds its end use. The report is based ona study which aims to follow closely these six managementsystems and to assess the economics of each. The flow ofbhabbar grass from the lessee to the final consumers is alsobeen traced, and the value addition at each level computedand compared.Varalakshmi, V. et al. 1993. Constraints in theImplementation of Joint Participatory ForestManagement Programme - Some Lessons fromHaryana. New Delhi: Haryana Forest Department andTata Energy Research Institute. JFM Series 12.The Joint Participatory Forest Management approach formanagement of degraded forests in the Shivalik belt ofHaryana aims at providing certain incentives to the localcommunities listing their interests to the regeneration andsustainable utilization of the forests. This report focuses onthe various reasons as to why this particular approach hasnot been successful at some places compared to others. Itis based on a study of six villages. It investigates the vari-ous strategies adopted for eliciting people’s participation inthe programme and the inadequacies in the present strate-gies in matters concerning a range of instituitional , legal,economic, technical and ecological issues. Lastly it dealswith the various problems and issues which nees to beaddresses for the furtherance of the programme inHaryana.

Viegas, Philip, and Geeta Menon. 1993. ‘Bringing gov-ernment and people together: forest protection com-mittee of West Bengal - role and participation ofwomen’ In: Andrea Singh and Neera Burra [eds],Women and Wasteland Development in India. NewDelhi/London: Sage, pp. 171-210.Case-studies of 10 Forest Protection Committees (FPCs)under different conditions. The absence of formal repre-sentation for women is problematic; voluntary agencieswere helpful in mobilising women; due to increasing rawmaterial value of timber, there has been a gradual transferof unclassed forest lands to the category old Reserve Forest- e.g. in Orissa and Madhya Pradesh; by 1990 there were1300 FPCs in the three southern districts of Purulia,Midnapore, and Bankura - mainly sal forests. Recentlythere have been conscious efforts to involve women inthese, although so far they have been almost exclusivelymanaged by men; GOWB first gave FPCs official recogni-tion in the 1989 Resolution, 15 years after the first oneswere formed in Arabari; recognition gave them 25% ofusufruct; ‘If the most significant contribution of theGovernment Order were to be singled out, it would mostcertainly be the empowerment of the local people. In otherwords, it is the creation of an atmosphere most conduciveto people’s active participation in the joint management offorests through actively empowering them in the true spir-it of democracy.’ However, decentralising tendencies areoffset by the centralising influence of the ExecutiveCommittee of the FPC, which has gram pradhans and/orgram panchayat members on it; there are major problemsinvolved in tying the non-political structure of the FPC tothe political structure of the panchayat samiti, through theimposition of the sabhapati and the gram pradhan as mem-bers of the Executive Committee which ‘introduces an ele-ment of State control’. For women, the implication of thisis that the FPC will become as male-dominated as localpolitics; each household can have only one member on theFPC - female membership ranges from 5% to 65%,although their active contribution to FPC work is muchmore than that of the sale members. Finally, it criticises thetotal monopoly which LAMPS societies have on the mar-keting of NTFPs, which keeps prices very low and exploitsthe collectors - if sold through middlemen, most productswould fetch a higher price.Vijh, Rohini, Sham Sunder Arora, and V.Varalakshmi. 1993. Pisciculture under JointParticipatory Forest Management Programme inHaryana (Joint Forest Management Series No. 10).Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.This report is based on a study which aims to assess thesocial, technical and economic feasibility of pisciculture invillages under JPFM in Haryana, to be taken up as a com-munity activity and also to be developed as an economicventure by interested communities. It concludes that pisci-culture is found to have great potential in many villagesunder the Joint Participatory Forest ManagementProgramme. Cost-benefit analysis techniques have alsobeen used to show the economic returns under the scheme.Vijh, Rohini and Sham Sunder Arora. 1993. Economicsof Rope Making under Participatory ForestManagement (Joint Forest Management series No. 9).Haryana Forest Department and Tata EnergyResearch Institute, New Delhi.This report is based on a study undertaken in the village ofPrempura, Haryana. Information was collected throughinterviews and discussions with the contractors etc. A cost-benefit analysis of the entire operation was done under the



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systems of management. It looks into the economics ofrope making by the Bhanjara community and the econom-ic benefits accruing to them as a result of JointParticipatory Forest Management. The study also com-pares the economics of rope making by machine with thatof making rope by hand, and analyses why the bhanjarastake to a certain option under a given set of conditions.VIKSAT. 1993. Joint Participatory ForestManagement: An Implementation Manual. NehruFoundation for Development. Thaltej Tekra,Ahmedabad. This contains the Government of Gujarat’s policy regard-ing Joint Participatory Forest Management. Some ideasregarding training and micro-planning are also provided inthis manual, which reflects the collective efforts of thestate forest department, voluntary agencies and, mostimportantly, the communities protecting their forests.Vira, Bhaskar. 1992. Local Cooperation for the Care ofForests. St. John’s College, University of Cambridge. This paper presents an analysis of community managementof forest resources, using a social custom model of indi-vidual behaviour. Agents are sensitive to the reputationwhich follows from observing social rules, and suffer whenthey violate the norm. Cooperation may arise out of thisprocess of interdependent decision-making. In particular, itis shown that partial cooperation may be a stable outcomeif agents are heterogeneous. Superior cooperative out-comes may exist at the same time as less efficient modes offorest use with no (or less) cooperation. Sustaining cooper-ation may be more feasible in certain communities than inothers. The paper suggests that collective action must bepromoted in communities where conditions are more con-ducive to such behaviour. On the other hand, where socialrelations suggest that cooperation is less likely to succeed,it is necessary to devise alternative institutional arrange-ments which will promote the care of resources. Policymust reflect a sensitivity to the needs of local populations.This paper outlines some conditions under which commu-nity management of resources may be a feasible alterna-tive. For policy makers, it is suggested that there is no uni-versal formula which can guarantee the emergence of suc-cessful local institutions for commons management underall circumstances.Wade, Robert. 1988. Village Republics: EconomicConditions for Collective Action in South India.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.One of the most interesting books available on CommonProperty Resource (CPR) management, based on research(1977-82) into the local organisation of irrigation inKurnool District of Andhra Pradesh. It addresses the gen-eral question of the circumstances under which peoplecooperate over natural resources for mutual benefit,achieving what they cannot do individually, i.e. how the‘tragedy of the commons’ can be avoided. The book arguesthat villagers are often more effective at public resourcemanagement than they are given credit for by planners;local organisations for CPR management may be regardedas proto-states, in that they rely on a conjunction of con-tract and coercion. It rejects the ‘sweeping pessimism’about voluntary organisations displayed in the Prisoner’sDilemma, Hardin’s ‘tragedy of the commons’, and Olson’s‘logic of collective action’. Irrigators’ organisationsrespond to problems encountered at the ‘tail end’ of irriga-tion schemes; the arm of the State does not exercise enoughforce at the village level to be able to prevent the usersfrom making their own arrangements - indeed, state offi-cials outside the village barely know of the organization’sexistence. However, CPR organisations aren’t unconnect-

ed with the state - in fact, among their important functionsin rural India is to respond collectively to opportunities forbribing state officials to ensure preferential treatment notonly in irrigation, but agricultural assistance, credit, veteri-nary services, electricity supply, village access roads, etc.Watts, Joe. 1994. Developments Towards ParticipatoryForest Management on Mount Cameroon. The LimbeBotanic Garden and Rain Forest Genetic ConservationProject 1988-1994. Rural Development ForestryNetwork: Network paper 17 d. Overseas DevelopmentInstitute, London.The objectives of this paper are to discuss the historic andcontemporary institutional aspects of land and naturalresource use in the area, describe the approach taken by theLimbe project and outline its plans for the future. TheLimbe Botanic Garden and Rain Forest GeneticConservation Project has been working towards biodiver-sity conservation on Mount Cameroon. As the project hasdeveloped towards a more participatory approach to forestmanagement it has tried to reconcile the outside ideas ofbiodiversity conservation with locally held aspirations forthe forest.Wood, Henry and Williem H.H. Mellink. 1992.Sustainable and Effective Management Systems forCommunity Forestry. Proceedings of a Workshop (Jan.15-17, 1992). RECOFTC. Bangkok.This report contains 18 papers relating to various aspectsof Forestry Management systems in Australia, Bangladesh,Bhutan, China, India, Indonesia, Japan, Malaysia,Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Philippines, Sri Lanka,Thailand, U.S.A., and Vietnam. Excellent examples ofcommunity forestry management systems are discussed, asalso are the roles of NGOs, local initiatives, and of womenin forest management. Sustainability, effectiveness andequity aspects are emphasised and further discussions inthe working groups, focusing on conditions and require-ments for successful implementation, changes needed inpolicy and planning, and training requirements, are pre-sented.Wild, R., A.B. Cunningham and Mutebi, J. 1995.People, parks and plant use: network to enhance theconservation of montane forests in Uganda, EastAfrica. In: Nature Conservation 4: The Role OfNetworks. Ed. D. A. Saunders, J. L. Craig and E. M.Mattiske (pp. 112-121). Surrey Beatty & Sons, 1995.This paper outlines a process of developing and maintain-ing networks at the interface between conservation anddevelopment around Bwindi-Impenetrable National Parkand Mgahinga Gorilla National Park, Uganda.Oppositionto national park status among local people arose from neg-ative effects of loss of access to wild plant resources, bee-keeping sites, pit-sawing, gold mining, water points, andconcern about crop-raiding animals. A phased process ofinventory and resources assessment, taking in the views oflocal people, resulted in zoning of multiple-use areas.Understanding social processes and resource harvestingthrough networks was critical to development of guidelinesfor resource use by local people from zones within the pro-tected area. Community leaders and resource users wereinvolved in negotiations to set guidelines for ecologicallysustainable resource use.World Wide Fund for Nature-India and Society forPromotion of Wastelands Development. 1994.Participatory Forest Management in West Bengal: aCase Study. WWF-India and SPWD, New Delhi.This report attempts to look at various factors which ledto the development of the PFM approach in the state ofWest Bengal and its various impacts - ecological, insti-


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tutional and socio-economic. The study is based on sec-ondary data available from different sources includingthe state forest department, NGOs etc. It is mentionedthat land reform measures, the social forestry programmeand usufruct-sharing with the people have led to thefoundation of the successful implementation of aParticipatory Forest Management Programme. Incomefrom NTFPs and additional employment have also beenconsidered as important factors for involvement of vil-lage communities in the programme. There is great stresson meeting people’s needs from the forests and the con-cept of micro-planning. NGOs and academic/researchinstitutions involved in the programme, are performingtheir roles in training, documentation, and informationdissemination, which are important aspects for makingany programme a success. It is concluded that people arenot only enjoying greater flow of forest products buthave also gained greater access, and control over theirforest resources.

Yadav, G. and S.B. Roy. 1994. Significance of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs): Availability and ItsUtilization Pattern in Rural Community of Midnapore,West Bengal. (Working Paper No. 24). IBRAD, Calcutta.This paper highlights the present vegetation status, forestresource availability, range of non-timber forest produces(NTFPs), and its collection and utilization pattern in ruralhouseholds. It concludes that the people’s participation holdsgood in the case of Midnapore, where community institutionsof forest protection have contributed significantly to theimprovement of the ecology, economy and forest resource-base. Local communities largely depend on the rich biodi-versity available in the sal forests of Midnapore District. Theforest serves as an important source of fuel, food, fodder,building materials and medicinal plants, and plays an impor-tant role in the social and economic sustenance of the com-mons. The forest history of the area emphasises the past ver-sus present state of natural resources, which have now regen-erated after people’s involvement in forest conservation.



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Subject indexCase studies1, 2, 9, 14, 24, 25, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 37,39, 42, 47, 48, 49, 57, 58, 60, 61, 67, 72, 74, 75, 76,82, 87, 91, 92, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 103, 104, 106, 109,111, 123, 125, 128, 144, 145, 157, 158, 163, 164,167, 168, 171, 173, 176, 186, 187

Conflict resolution processes87, 89, 99, 114, 121, 134

Gender Issues17, 22, 23, 51, 54, 57, 122, 123, 141, 142, 172

Institutional issues13, 19, 21, 24, 25, 29, 31, 41, 42 , 48, 49, 53, 54, 56,59, 60, 61, 65, 69, 71, 73, 76, 84, 88, 89, 97, 101,103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 114, 115, 121, 124, 125,135, 136, 139, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 149, 154,155, 157, 163, 165, 166 , 171, 173, 181, 183, 187

Marketing/Product values6, 15, 32, 33, 70 , 92, 94, 109, 124,131, 170, 175,178, 179

Methodology/training/workshops11, 17, 19, 27, 28, 30, 43, 47, 51, 52 , 62, 63, 64, 65,68, 69, 75, 76, 77, 78, 80, 85, 86, 90, 100, 102, 104,107, 115, 129, 130, 137, 138, 150, 152, 153, 154,155, 156, 160, 161, 162, 165, 184, 185

Participatory approaches/PRA5, 7, 13, 15, 18, 23, 27, 28, 44, 55, 75, 77, 78, 104,107, 116, 126, 149,153, 154, 155, 157, 182

Policy Issues1, 3, 4, 8, 18, 20, 22, 26, 38, 45, 46, 50, 53, 58, 62,66, 81, 83, 84, 93, 107, 125 108, 110, 111, 112, 113,126, 130, 132, 133, 134, 140, 149, 151, 154, 159,174, 177, 180, 181

Miscellaneous10, 40, 127, 169


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List of Institutions and Contact addressesFord FoundationNew Delhi Office55, Lodi EstateNew Delhi 110 003INDIATel (91) 11 4619441Fax (91) 11 4627147

Indian Institute of Bio-Social Research andDevelopment (IBRAD)Head Office3A, Hindustan Road Calcutta-700 029INDIATel (91) 33 743105Fax (91) 33 766554/2482314

International Centre For Integrated MountainDevelopment (ICIMOD)P.O. Box 3226KathmanduNEPALTel (977) 1 525 313Fax (977) 1 524 317

International Institute for Environment andDevelopment (IIED)Sustainable Agricultural Programme3 Endsleigh StreetLondon WC1H 0DDUNITED KINGDOMTel (44) 171 3882117Fax (44) 171 3882826

Rural Development Forestry Network - OverseasDevelopment InstituteRegent's CollegeRegent's ParkInner CircleLondon NW1 4NSUNITED KINGDOMTel (44) 171 4877413Fax (44) 171 4877590

Society for Promotion of WastelandsDevelopment (SPWD)Shiram Bharatiya Kala Kendra Bldg.1 Copernicus Marg,New Delhi - 110 001INDIATel (91) 11 384 521/383 713/386210Fax (91) 11 382633

WWF InternationalAvenue du Mont-BlancCH-1196 GlandSWITZERLANDTel (41) 22 364 91 11Fax (41) 22 364 53 58

Already published in this series:

1. Cunningham, A. B. 1993. African medicinal plants: Setting priorities at the interface between conservationand primary healthcare. (This publication is also available in Spanish.)

2. Cunningham, A. B. and Mbenkum, F.T. 1993. Sustainability of harvesting Prunus africana bark inCameroon: A medicinal plant in international trade.

3. Aumeeruddy, Y. 1994. Local representations and management of agroforests on the periphery of KerinciSeblat National Park, Sumatra, Indonesia. (This publication is also available in French and Spanish.)

4. Cunningham, A. B. 1996. People, park and plant use: Recommendations for multiple-use zones and devel-opment alternatives around Bwindi Impenetable National Park, Uganda. (This publication is also availablein French.)

5. Wild, R. and Mutebi, J. 1996. Conservation through community use of plant resources. Establishing collab-orative management at Bwindi Impenetrable and Mgahinga Gorilla National Parks, Uganda. (This publica-tion is also available in French.)

6. Höft, M., Barik, S.K. & Lykke, A.M. 1999. Quantitative ethnobotany. Applications of multivariate and statisti-cal analyses in ethnobotany.

Contact addresses:

WWF InternationalPlant Conservation OfficerPanda House, Weyside ParkGodalming, Surrey GU7 1XRUNITED KINGDOMFax: 44 1483 426409

Division of Ecological SciencesMan and the Biosphere ProgrammeUNESCO, 7 Place de Fontenoy75352 Paris Cedex 07 SP FRANCEFax: 33 1 45685804

The DirectorRoyal Botanic Gardens, KewRichmond Surrey TW9 3ABUNITED KINGDOMFax: 44 181 3325278

The People and Plants Initiative

was started in July 1992 by WWF, UNESCO and theRoyal Botanic Gardens, Kew to promote the sustain-able and equitable use of plant resources throughproviding support to ethnobotanists from developingcountries.

The initiative stems from the recognition that peoplein rural communities often have detailed andprofound knowledge of the properties and ecology oflocally occurring plants, and rely on them for many oftheir foods, medicines, fuel, building materialsand other products. However, muchof this knowledge is being lost with the transformationof local ecosystems and local cultures. Over-harvesting of non cultivated plants is increasinglycommon, caused by loss of habitat, increase in localuse and the growing demands of trade. Long-termconservation of plant resources and the knowledgeassociated with them is needed for the benefit of thelocal people and for their potential use to localcommunities in other places.

The diversity of traditional plant-resourcemanagement practices runs through a spectrum from“cultivation” through to gathering “wild” plants, all ofwhich are included in the People and Plantsapproach.

Ethnobotanists can work together with local people tostudy and record the uses of plant resources, identifycases of over-harvesting of non-cultivated plants, findsustainable harvesting methods and investigatealternatives such as cultivation.

The People and Plants initiative is building supportfor ethnobotanists from developing countries whowork with local people on issues related to theconservation of both plant resources and traditionalecological knowledge. Key participants organizeparticipatory workshops, undertake discussion andadvisory visits to field projects and provide literatureon ethnobotany, traditional ecological knowledge andsustainable plant resource use. It is hoped that anetwork of ethnobotanists working on these issuesin different countries and regions can be developed toexchange information, share experience andcollaborate on field projects.

Date post:	21-Feb-2023
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