การจดท าแผนทธรณวทยารายละเอยดของแหลงธรณวทยาและการจดท าล าดบชนหน

ขอมลจากสวภาคย อมสมทร/นราเมศวร ธระรงสกล

เทคนคการจดท าแผนทธรณวทยารายละเอยดของแหลงและการจดท าล าดบชนหน1. Stratigraphy2. Detailed mapping3. Measuring section4. Lithostratigraphy

Stratigraphy• Stratigraphy is the study of these layered rocks,

especially their sequence, correlation from place to place, relative ages and interpretation. Several important stratigraphic principles emerged from the study of stratigraphy centuries ago by the early founders of the science of geology:

ageLayer rocks

correlation

relationship

• Lithostratigraphy –– Study of the physical relationship among rock

units; • No time connotation other than superposition

• Physical properties and stratigraphic position relative to other lithostratigraphic units

• Chronostratigraphy –• Integrated approach to establishing the time

relationships among geologic units

Stratigraphy

Chronostratigraphy:

• Biostratigraphy– Study of the fossil record with emphasis on faunal succession

to establish relative time relationships

– The correlation web

• Magnetostratigraphy– Study of the magnetic properties of rock units for the

purpose of correlation using magnetic polarity reversals

• Geochronology– Various techniques, especially isotope geochemistry, to

establish the absolute age of rock units

• Basic principles of stratigraphyRelative dating means that rocks are placed in their proper sequence of formation. A formation is a basic unit of rocks. Below are some basic principles for establishing relative age between formations.

✓Principle of original horizontality

✓Principle of superposition

✓Principle of faunal succession

✓Principle of cross-cutting relationships

• Principle of original horizontality:

Original horizontality

Layers of sediment are generally deposited in a horizontal position.

Lateral Continuity

Sediment layers extend laterally in all direction unit they thin & pinch out as they meet the edge of the depositional basin

Facies Diagram• distribution of lithofacies (rock-types)

- these are associated with their respective EOD

• biofacies are similar but refer to fossils rather thanrock types

• Principle of superposition:

In an undeformed sequence of sedimentary rocks, each bed is older than the one above and younger than the one below.

The rule also applies to other surface-deposited materials such as lava flows and volcanic ashes.

Principle of superposition. (W.W. Norton)

• Applying the law of superposition to the layers at the upper portion of the Grand Canyon, the Supai Group is the oldest and the Kaibab Limestone is the youngest. (photo by Tarbuck).

• Principle of cross-cutting relationships:

When a fault cuts through rocks, or when magma intrudes and crystallizes, we can assume that the

fault or intrusion is younger than the rocks affected.

principles of cross-cutting relationships

principles of inclusions

Cross-cutting Relationships

That which cuts through is younger than the Object that is cut

dike cuts through

granite is cut

Breakout in to groups and discuss the sequence observed here

Principle of Inclusions• Inclusions (one rock type contained in another rock type) areolder than the rock they are embedded in. That is, the younger rock contains the inclusions

Principle of Inclusions

OLDER/YOUNGER?

• Unconformities: Markers of missing time

When layers of rock formed without interruption, we call them conformable.

An unconformity represents a long period during which deposition ceased and erosion removed previously formed rocks before deposition resumed.

✓ Angular unconformities

✓ Disconformity

✓ Nonconformity

DisconformitiesA surface of erosion or non-deposition betweenParallel sedimentary rock beds of differing ages.

Angular UnconformitiesAngular Unconformities• An angular unconformity is an erosional surface on tiltedor folded strata, over which younger strata have been deposited.

NonconformitiesA nonconformity is an erosional surface on igneous ormetamorphic rocks which are overlain by sedimentary rocks.

Relative Age Dating

• Principle of faunal succession:

Groups of fossil animals and plants occur the geologic history in a definite and determinable order and a period of geologic time can be recognized by its characteristic fossils.

Illustration of Principle of Faunal Succession

The principle of fossil succession. Note that each species has only a limited range in a succession of strata. (W.W. Norton)

Faunal/Floral Succession•• Fossil assemblages (groupings of fossils)

succeed one another through time.

• Correlation of rock unitsThe method of relating rock units from one locality to another is called correlation.

✓ One way of correlation is to recognize the rock type or rock sequence at two locations.

✓ Another way of correlation is to use fossils. A basic understanding of fossils is that fossil organisms succeeded one another in a definite and determinable order, and therefore a time period can be recognized by its fossil content.

The principle of correlation of rock units. The rock columns can be correlated by matching rock types. (W.W. Norton)

The geologic column was constructed by determining the relative ages of rock units from around the world. (Next) By correlation, these columns were stacked one on top of the other to give relative ages of rock units (W.W. Norton)

QUESTION?

Detailed Mapping

1.มาตราสวน 1:4,000 หรอใหญกวา2. 40m ตอ 1 ขอมล3. แบงหนวยหนออกเปน member

4. Survey interval 10m5.ภาคตดขวาง

Detailed Mapping

15

ใหความส าคญตอการแบงขอบเขตทางธรณวทยา-แนวชนหน/ความสง-รองน า-รอยเลอน

2

1

25

20

15

3

Measuring section

Measuring section

12

3

4

A sin xA sin x+y

A sin x+y

A sin x

True dip

apparent dip

1.ก าหนดกลมชดหนใหเปนลกษณะ lithofacies2.ความหนาในภาพรวมเพอเปนกรอบ3. ท าภาพตดขวางและท าล าดบชนหนในภาพรวม

4. Field checking the upper/lower contact unit of the Khuan Klang Formation (type section)

Pa Samet

Khuan Klang

Kang KrachanSri Paen

Ya Ha

Betong

>200m

>300m

>150m

Devonian-Carb. boundary

Contacted rock model

Contact of rocks in type section

Dps

Ck

Ck

Pkk

Lithostratigraphy

Lithostratigraphy

Description LithologyGeometrySedimentary structurePaleocurrentFossils

Graphic LithologyGrain sizeGeometrySedimentary structureFossils

Lithostratigraphy and 8 lithofacies

Column sample facies member No.fossilsKK30KK29KK28KK27KK26

KK25

KK24

KK23

KK22

KK21

KK20

KK19

KK18KK17KK16KK15KK14KK13

KK12KK11KK10

KK9

KK8KK7KK6KK5

KK4KK3KK2KK1

10

0m

Upper mudstone(37.00m)

Upper lithic sandstone(6.00m)

Middle thick mudstone and claystone (38.50m)

Chert (2-2.5m)

Lower mudstone claystoneand qtzitic sandstone (64.95m)

12113

1

4

4

5,2

6

6

7

686671

763

6

7667

7766

*********************************************************

^^^^^^^^^^

^^

^^

^^

^^^^^

^^^^^^

^^

^^^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^

^^^^^^^^^

^^^^^^

^^^^

F

4.Field checking on the Khuan Klang type section

Graphic: Lithology /Grain size/Geometry/Sedimentary structure/Fossils

Description: Lithology/Geometry/Sedimentary

structure/Paleocurrent/Fossils

•Mudstones interbedded with sandy siltstones and lenses of sandstones.

Mudstones are light greenish grey and light grey, smooth, concoildal

fracture, poorly laminated, thick-bedded. Well preserved Posidonomya

sp., ammonites, bivalves, crinoid stems and lignite jet are usually found.

Sandy siltstones are fossiliferous, dirty, light yellow to light orange yellow,

micaceous, thin- to medium-bedded and flaser beds. Posidonomya sp.,

ammonite and plant remains are very abundant. Sandstones are white,

loose, lenticular bed, medium-bedded (20-30 cm). Cross lamination,

flaser lamination, mud cracks, ripple structures and iron hard pans are

also associated.

-ตวอยาง 1-

Naramase TeerarungsigulDepartment of Mineral Resources,

Rama6, Ratchatawi, Bangkok, Thailand, 10400Tel. +66811737503, naramase@hotmail.com

)

Objectives

1. to conduct the systematic geological mapping.

2. to define the lithostratigraphy of the non-marine Mesozoic rocks distributed in the area of Thung Yai-Khlong Thom, southern Thailand.

3. to analyse the sedimentary sequences in terms of sedimentary facies and to reconstruct the depositional environment of the sediments concerned.

Geological Map

Scale

1:1,000,000

2554 (1999

Edition)

by

Department of Mineral Resources, Thailand

DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE AND

NON-MARINE JURASSIC

ROCKS OF THAILAND

GEOLOGICAL

MAP

OF

PENINSULAR

THAILAND

Distributions

The Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks in peninsular Thailand, from Chumphon Province the north, Krabi and Trang Provinces to the south

Gelogical Map

Measured sections

17 measured sections around Thung Yai-KhlongThom area

Thu

ng

Yai

Composite section

Thung Yai Group is composed

of Khlong Min, Lam Thap, Sam Chom and Phun Phin Formations.

The combined section of the group is divided into 9 lithofacies.

The total thickness of the Trang group based on 17 measured sections, varies from 65 to 1,145 metres thick whereas the total thickness of the combined section is approximately 400 metres.

Thu

ng

Yai

Khlong Min Formation(a) Definition: Khlong Min Fm. refers to the sequence

between sandstone and limestone of Sai Bon Fm.(Upper Triassic) and arkosic sandstone and siltstone of Lam Thap Fm.

(b) Lithology: Khlong Min Fm. mainly consists of 4 lithofacies: I. Mudstone interbedded with fossiliferous limestone lithofacies: II. Siltstone lithofacieIII. Calcareous sandstone lithofacies:IV. Fossiliferous limestone lithofacies:

(c) Thickness: From 58 to approximately 116 metres. (Raksaskulwong,1994 is different, 75 metres).

(d) Contact: unconformably overlies the marine Triassic

(e) Paleontology and age: Lower Middle Jurassic-Ostracode (Darwinulla sp., Jumnongthai, pers. comm., 1998)-sporopollens of Classopollis(86.18% of the total amount) and Dicheiopollis (4.25%) of Cheirolepidaceae ( Zuoqi , 1999) -vertebrates of hybodont sharks, lepidotes-like actinopterygians, lung-fishes, temnospondyl amplibians, mesosuchian crocodilians, and cryptodiran turtles (Buffateut et al., 1994)-Modiolus sp. (Meesook, pers. comm.,1999)

Praemytilus dominate

ภาพแสดงซากดกด าบรรพหอยกาบค และ หอยนางรมน ากรอยยคจแรสซกจากชนหนตอนลางของหนวยหนท ๒ บรเวณบานคลองล านาว ก-ค: ไมรน (Myrenesp.), ง-ฉ: ซากหอยนางรม และ หอยกาบค แอกทโนสเตรน (Actinostreonsp.), อโนเมย (Anomia sp.) และ แพรไมตลส (Praemytilus sp.)

Fossils Rock Units

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Oysterแอกทโนสเตรน (Actinostreon sp.)เดลทอยเดยม (Deltoideum sp.)

--

x-

x-

x-

x-

x-

x-

xx

x-

-x

x-

--

--

x-

x-

x-

Bivalveอโนเมย (Anomia sp.)โมดโอลส (Modiolus sp.)ไมรน (Myrene sp.)นโอมโอดอน (Neomiodon sp.)แพรไมตลส (Praemytilus sp.) โปรโตคารเดย (Protocardia sp.)

------

x-x-xx

- xx-xx

-xx-x-

----x-

--x-xx

----x-

----xx

------

---xx-

----xx

--xxxx

----x-

--xxx-

----x-

-xx-x-

Conchostracan

เอสทเรย (Euestheria sp.) x - - x - - - - - x - - - - - -

Ostacodดารวนนลา (Darwinulla sp.) x - - - - - - - - - - - - x - -

Gastopods - - - - - - - x - - - - - - - -

plant - - - x - - - - - x x - - - - -

Thu

ng

Yai

Lam Thap Formation (a) Definition: Lam Thap Fm. takes its name from AmphoeLam Thap of Nakhon Si Thammarat, and proposed by Raksaskulwong (1989).

(b) Lithology: consists of 2 lithofacies:

I. Thick-bedded arkosic sandstone lithofacies:II. Siltstone interbedded with mudstone lithofacies:

(c) Thickness: The thickness ranges from 30 to 197 metres.

(d) Contacts: Conformably overlies the Khlong Min Fm. and unconformably underlies Sam Chom Fm.

(e) Paleontology and age: -fern-like leaves: Assama et al.(1981) identified and described six species of plant fossils. They belong to Filicales, Beunettitates and Coniferales indicating the early Early Cretaceous age.-Unio sp. : Lower Cretaceous correlated to the Sao KhuaFormation of the Khorat Group. NE, Thailand

(f) Reference section: at Laem Pleo of Ban Bo Muang(Section Q) and the Bang Khan section (Section F).

Thu

ng

Yai

Sam Chom Formation(a) Definition: Sam Chom Fm. is that sequence lying between the Lam Thap and Phun Phin Fms.

The type locality of the formation is situated at Khao Nam Daeng and Khao Sam Chom, Nakhon Si Thammarat.

(b) Lithology: It is characterized by conglomerate, conglomeratic sandstone and thin-to medium-bedded sandstone.

(c) Thickness: 15 metres thick sequence was measured at Khao Nam Daeng, 100 metres at Khao Sam Chom, and 7 metres thick at Laem Pleo of Ban Bo Maung. However, the measured thicknesses differ markedly from previous estimates of 140 metres by Raksaskulwong (1994).

(d) Contact: Unconformably overlies the Lam Thap Fm. and underlies the Phun Phin Fm.

(e) Type Locality: Khao Sam Chom and Khao Nam Daengeast of Khlong Min are the type localities.

Thu

ng

Yai

Phun Phin FormationThe rocks of this formation in the Surat Thani area were mapped and named by Teeyapirat (1989).

(a) Definition: Phun Phin Fm. predominantly consists of red to reddish brown fine-grained sandstone, conglomerate/breccia.

(b) Lithology: I. Fine-grained sandstone lithofacies : II. Fanglomerate lithofacies:

(c) Thickness: Approximately 102 metres to 770 metresand possibly exceeding 1,000 metres thick at the south of Khao Sam Chom

(d) Contact: Generally, it unconformably overlies the Sam Chom Formation and underlies the Tertiary rocks.

(e) Paleontology: Moderately common trace fossils in this formation, at the southern part of Ban Bang Khan.

C0NCLUSIONS

1. The sedimentary sequences of the Thung Yai Group unconformablyoverlie the basinal basements. The Group consists of 4 formations, namely, Khlong Min, Lam Thap , Sam Chom , and Phun Phin Formations, in ascending order.

2. The total thickness varies from 65 to 1,145 metres.

3. The fossils assemblages in the lower part reflect lagoonalenvironment and gradually change over to lacustrine environment and fluviltile in the upper part.

4. From stratigraphical and paleontological evidences, the age of the Thung Yai Group should be assigned as lower Middle Jurassic-Upper Cretaceous.

KHOB KHUN KRAB

fossils

ตวอยาง 2 การท า Measure SectionKhlong Khut reference section

Khlong Khut reference section

b). Exposure

The reference section has continuous exposure (450 m) currently

mined north of the road. Good exposures of fresh rocks and

continuous sequence without break and aboundant fossiliferous

beds are superb for studying characteristics of the rock units

a. Location This reference section of the Khuan Klang Formation is located at

a large quarry currently mined in the Khlong Khut area, Khlong

Khut Urban, Muang District, Satun Province. The reference section

can be accessed by road no 406 and no 5076 (Muang-Ban Khlong

Khut). Grid reference of the section is 616287E 0735631N in Changwat Satun (5022 III) sheet at scale1:50,000

•General GeologyRocks units in this reference section

have generally NE-SW trending with

northwestward dipping. Generally, azimuth

of beds varies from 40/315 to 55/325.

Characteristics of strata are very smooth,

continuous sequence with slighly

movement of beds by conjugated faults,

especially in the northern part of the main

quarry.

Faulting and jointing occurred in the

area is characterized by the two oblique

strike-slip faults trending NE-SW and NW-

SE directions. Cleavages are well

developed particularlly in argillite strata. The

direction is parallel to the strata.

Two formations of rock units recognized

in this reference section are described in

detail, in ascending order, as follows:

Stratigraphy

Lower to Middle? Carboniferous Khuan Klang Formation

The exposures of this formation are represented by

natural outcrops and quarries in the southern and central parts of

the main quarry. The sequence was measured to be more than

125 m thick. The Khuan Klang Formation at the reference section

can be divided into three subunits. Detailed information of each

subunit will be presented in the next topic.

Lower Permian Kaeng Krachan Group

The exposures of this formation are represented by

natural outcrops and quarries located in the northern part of the

main quarry (Figures 48 and 49). Thickness of this group in the section area exceeds 20 m. The sequence consists of sandstone,

white, yellowish brown, medium-grained, feldspathic with load

casts in the lower part. The upper part consists of mudstone, pale

grey to grey, yellowish brown, laminated with fossils of

Spinomartinia sp. and other bivalves; and sandstone, siltstone,

and mudstone, thin- to thick-bedded, Feldspathic, continuous

grading from white beds to grey beds, laminated, with load casts.

Parasitic folds and tight folds are common in argillite.

•Lithostratigraphy

The Khuan Klang reference section, approximately 125 m thick, comprises 3 subunits

or 15 lithostratigraphic rock units.

•Lower clastic member

interbeds of sandstones, mudstones and

claystones with 30 m in thickness

Middle red mudstone member :

thick mudstone overlying thick–bedded quartzitic

sandstone strata and ends at the mudstone bed

underlying the resistant, thick-bedded

sandstone. They are generally characterized by

the presence of red mudstones intercalated with

sandy siltstone and sandstones with 46 m in

thickness

Upper mudstone member :

The rock sequence is characterized by light

colour, thick to massive mudstones and

claystones, and some lenses of sandstone beds with 49 m thick

Lower

•Lithostratigraphy

The Khuan Klang reference section, approximately 125 m thick, comprises 3 subunits

or 15 lithostratigraphic rock units.

•Lower clastic member

interbeds of sandstones, mudstones and

claystones with 30 m in thickness

Middle red mudstone member :

thick mudstone overlying thick–bedded quartzitic

sandstone strata and ends at the mudstone bed

underlying the resistant, thick-bedded

sandstone. They are generally characterized by

the presence of red mudstones intercalated with

sandy siltstone and sandstones with 46 m in

thickness

Upper mudstone member :

The rock sequence is characterized by light

colour, thick to massive mudstones and

claystones, and some lenses of sandstone beds with 49 m thick

Middle

Upper

Lithofacies

•Quartzitic and lithic sandstones interbedded with

mudstones and sandy siltstones. Sandstones are

quartzitc and lithic, light brown, light yellowish white,

yellowish brown, fine- to medium-grained and

medium-grained, well-bedded, thin- to thick-bedded

(10-20 cm to 1.5 m). Lamination and some cross

laminations in sandstone strata are common.

•Mudstones are light grey and pale yellowish white to

reddish brown, clean and dirty, fissile with developed

cleavages, thin- to medium-bedded. Posidonomya sp.

is occasionally found in mudstone strata. Iron-oxide

hard pans are also observed in the top of sandstone

strata.

Mudstone to siltstone, light grey, pinkish white, pale

yellowish white, reddish brown to purplish brown,

powder, some laminations, dense, thick-bedded to

massive. The rocks are stringering by laminated

sandstone, yellowish brown to brown, fine- to

medium-grained, thin-bedded (5-10 cm). Fossilifeous

beds with Posidonomya sp, pygidium of trilobites

and chonitid brachiopods are usually found,

especially in the upper portion of this member

Lower

Middle

•Lithofacies

•Red mudstones and lenses of iron oxide hard

pans and bioturbated zone. Mudstones are red,

reddish brown to purplish brown, smooth,

concoildal, medium- to thick-bedded (20-80 cm).

Fossil assemblages of the complete form of

Posidonomya sp., pygidium of trilobites;

ammonites and crinoids are very abundant

especially in unit 7 of this section. Laminations

and iron oxide hard pans are common.

Bioturbated zones are yellow or yellowish brown

and black layers of organic matter, thin-bedded.

•Lithic sandstones, light brown, light yellowish

white, yellowish brown, fine- to medium-grained,

well-bedded, poorly to moderately sorted, thin- to

medium-bedded (10-20 cm to 50 m). Iron hard

pan is present. Lamination and some cross

laminations in sandstones strata are common.

•Mudstones and siltstones, white to pale grey

fresh colour, yellowish brown weathered colour,

thick-bedded, laminaed, cross bedded, with

stringering of very fine-grained sandstones

strata. Top of unit contains complete

Posidonomya sp., nautiloids, pygidium of

trilobites and crinoid in several beds which

located in the upper portion of this member. The

lithofacies is recognized to be intercalated with

red mudstones in the lower part.

Middle

upper

•Lithofacies

•Mudstones and siltstones, pale greyish white,

light brown colour, thin- to thick-bedded,

laminated, with small-sized fossils of Pecten sp.,

Posidonomya sp., bivalves, brachiopods,

ammonites, pygidiums of trilobites and crinoids

(unit 15).

•Mudstones, white to pale grey, thin- to medium-

bedded, laminated, cross bedded, with load

casts; small-sized fossils of ammonites,

brachiopod, crinoids and rare Posidonomya sp.

Four Iron hard pans are also intercalated.

•Sandstones, white fresh colour, yellowish

brown weathered colour, medium-grained,

medium- to thick-bedded, Feldspathic,

subrounded, well sorted, with load casts. The

lithofacies is recorded in the middle part.

•Mudstone grading to siltstone intercalated with

sandstone. Mudstone to siltstone, reddish

brown, thin- to medium bedded, laminated,

cross-bedded, with abundance of Posidonomya

sp and crinoids. Sandstone, pale greyish white,

fine- to medium-grained, Feldspathic, fining

upward, laminated, cross bedded, with fossil

fragments (unit 12).

upper

•Lower and Upper contactsThe lower unit is still unseen. However, the Ordovician Thung Song

limestone and the Devonian black shale is located 500 m east of the

section. The upper unit is continuously conformable with the underlying

Kaeng Krachan Group. The unit is grading gradually from mudstones and

siltstones, pale greyish white, with small-sized fossils of Pecten sp.,

brachiopods, bivalves, ammonites, pygidiums of trilobites and crinoids to

sandstones, siltstones, and mudstones, thin- to thick-bedded, Feldspathic,

continuous grading from white beds to grey beds, laminated, with load casts

and changing to mudstone, pale grey to grey, laminated with fossils of

Spinomartinia sp. and other bivalves.

ตวอยางท 3 : PHU NOI, BAN DIN CHI, KHAMMUANG, KALASIN

Location: The dinosaur bones have recently been discovered at a small hill called Phu Noi, Kham Muang District, Kalasin

Province (grid reference 48 3 640 67N and 18 725 92E). The hill is located 80 km NE of Kalasin town (highway No.

227). The highest peak, trending N-S, is 245 m above MSL.

Description The fossil from Phu Noi is

composed of teeth, cranial remains and

postcranial skeletons of dinosaurs and

crocodiles, turtle plates and bones, fish and

sharks. The diversity of this fossil locality is

remarkable because discovered fossils reveal

at least 4 taxa of dinosaurs, probably a new

species of crocodile, a new species of turtle (in

the course of studies) and the latest discovery

of new species carnivorous fish,

Isanichthyslertboosi.

Stratigraphy:

Detailed stratigraphy of this area has been

carried out. The succession consists of siltstone,

mudstone, sandstone and maroon conglomerate.

Calcrete nodules, caliches and nodular silcretes

in the top of mudstone bed are occasionally

found. The structure of this area is anticline and

its axis trends to NW-SE

The sequence of this site can be subdivided

into 3 units, from bottom top as follows;

Stratigraphic column of the Phu Noi area

-The lower part is composed of maroon siltstone, the

thickness of this unit is about 5 m. It is overlain by red

sandstone which shows thin to medium bed, thin- to medium-

grained and rich in feldspar minerals. The dip direction is

15°/132°

-The middle part consists of red siltstone, the thickness of this

unit is about 5 m. It underlies thick to very thick bedded,

fine-grained, white sandstone showing parallel lamination.

The dip direction is 25°/250 °

The upper part consists of maroon conglomerate with

Lepidotes scale. It is overlain by red siltstone and pebbly

sandstone with bivalve. The upper most part comprises

siltstone and cross-bedded sandstone. It is overlain by red

siltstone with dinosaur bone beds. The dip direction is

5°/157 °Stratigraphically, the rock at Phu Noi Site is belonging to the

Phu Kradung Formation of the Khorat Group indicative of

Middle to Late Jurassic.

Previous works

งานสนาม22-30 ม.ย. 2563

บานทากระดาน กาญจนบร

Scope of Works:

1.Geological Mapping

2. Measure Section (3 Teams)

3. Lithostratigraphy and

Paleoenvironments4. etc.