PA RA S ITIC FUN GI ON GRA IN CROPS

1 . B lade of wheat attacked by rust .

2 . Portion of blade of wheat (magnified), show ing t he first stageof grow th of rust called Uredo.

3. Section of leaf, showing uredospores protruding from leafand threads of fungus (hypha ) feeding on cells of leaf.

4. Uredospores germinating and commencing t o form t he

threadlike body (hyphae).5 . A Barberry leaf, show ing t he second stage in the life history

of the rust6. A transverse section of Barberry leaf (lower sideshowing the diseased portion of leaf specially thickenedw ith a cup- like {Ecz

'

d z'

zmz full of round spores .7 . Another stage in life of rust of wheat showing the

t wo celled resting spores7a . Three of the resting spores—tw o in the process of germination .

7b . A portion of leaf, showing clusters of P uccz'

m'

a.

8. Ear of oat attacked by smut9. S ingle spikelet of oat (magnified

l attacked by Ust z’lago.

10. Dark spores of smut (magnified) .roa. Same with Spores germinated, ready t o attack oat .1 1 . Ear of wheat attacked by Bunt T1 2 . S ingle spikelet of wheat (magnified) attacked by Tz

'

llet z'

a

1 3. Four of netted spores (highly magnified) .4. Section of grain of wheat. filled w ith dark spores.0

LIST_

OF PLATES

VO LUME

PA R A S I’I‘IC FUNGI ON GRAIN CR OP S

SHROP SH IRE SHEARL ING R A M

SHROPSH IRE EWE

S IMPLE S L INGS

SOUTH DEv-

ON R AM

Sou'

rn'

: DEVON EWES

S OUTHDOWN Two - S HEAR R AM

S OUTHDOWN EWE

SPRA‘Y ERS

S TEAM PLOUGH‘ A ND CULTIVATOR

ST ILTON CHEESE

Sy FFOLK STA LLi-ON—“ BAWDSEY LADD IE

SUFFOLK MARE— f-‘SUDBOURNE SURPRI S E

SUFFOLK S'HEARL ING R AM

SUFFOLK EW-E‘

S

SUSSEX“

BULL A PSLEY LIBERTY

S -UssEx COW—“ GALET" GI'RL

TAMWORTH ROAR—“ A SHLEY A BBOT

TAMWORTH Sow CONSTANCE

iDEpeEers AND D ISEASE-S or Tmm

FIN ISH ING THrRESH IN-G MACH INE

X I

PAGE

Fran t zls'fi ziew

200

LIST OF CON TR IBUTORS

VO LUME XI

The con t ribu t ors S ign by t heir init ials a t t he conc lusion Of

their respec t ive art ic les. Those in t he presen t volume are as

follow s

A . H .

A . N . M ‘A .

A . H osking , Instruct or in H ortic ultu re in t he West of ScotlandAg ric ultural Co l lege ; Author of “ The Teach ing Of Gard en ing inS choo ls and t he Format ion of Schoo l Gard en s

A lexand er Lau d er, D .so. , Lecturer in Ag ric u ltu ral Chemistry ,East Of S cotland A g ric ultu ral Co llege ; H on . Con s ulting Chemist t ot he R oya l S cotti sh Arboricu ltural Soc iety ; A utho r of “ Variation sin t he Composition of M ilk

A lfred M ansell , B reeder and j udge Of Shropsh ire Sheep ; Sec retary t o t he Shropsh ire Sheep - B reeders’ A s soc iation ; Co rrespondentt o t he Board of A g ric ultu re ; A utho r of art ic le Sh rop sh ire Sheep

A lex . M a in , B . Sc . , Lec turer in Ag ricu lture , West ofScotland Ag ric ultural Co llege .

A . N . M ‘A lpine , A s soc . R . O . S . , P rofes sor of

Botany , West of Scotland Ag ricultu ral Co l lege , Con s u lting Botanistt o t he H igh land and Ag ricultu ral Soc iety of Scotland ; Author OfA Botanical Atlas ”

, &c .

Th e R igh t H onou rab le Earl Carringt on , K.G. , P .C . ,

P resident of t he Board of Ag ricultu re .

Ch arles Crow t h er , Ph .D . , Lecturer on A gricu l

tura l Chemistry , Leed s Un iversity ; A utho r of “ M ilk In vestigat ions at Garforth &c .

Ch arles M . L uxmoore , P rinc ipal ,Cen t ral Technical Schoo ls for Co rnw a l l , Tru ro ; A utho r Of “ The

Soils of Dorset “ The Hyg roscop ic Capac ity of So ils ”

,

Cec il W a rb urt on , M .A . , Zoolog ist t o t he Royal Ag ric ultu ral Soc iety of Eng land ; A utho r of “ O rchard and Bu sh Fru itPests ”

,

. A . J .

L ist Of Con t ribu t ors

Ch arles W . S le igh , M .A . , J . P . , Estate Factor and Va l uer, Secret ary and Trea s u rer t o t he S cottish Estates Factors’ Soc iety , and

Ed ito r O f it s Magaz ine .

David B ruce , M .A . , LL.B . , Lecturer in Ag ric ultural Law ,W est

of S cotlan d Ag ric ultu ra l Co llege.

D . H ou st on , Royal Co llege of Sc ience, Dublin .

Dan ie l K . R obb , S uperintendent of t he Westof Scotland Ag ricu ltu ra l Co llege Experiment S tation , Ki lmarnock .

Edw ard B row n , Lec tu rer on Pou ltry a t t he Un ivers ityCo l lege, R ead ing ; Sec retary Of t he N ational Po ultry O rganiz ation ;Author of “ Pou ltry - keep ing

”

, &c .

Edw ard Joh n R u sse l l , Chem ist for So i lIn vest igation at t he R o t hamst ed Experimental S tation , H arpenden .

F . B . Sm i t h , D irec to r of t he Tran svaa l Department ofAg ri c u ltu re ; Autho r Of

“ Ag ric u lture in t he N ew W o rld &c .

Franc is H . A . M arsh a l l , Lec tu rerin Ag ric ultu ral Phy s io logy i n t he Un ivers ity of Camb ridge .

Fred . Sm i t h , Sec retary t o t he S uffo lk H orse Soc iety .

F . V . Th eoba ld , V ice- P rin c ipa l and Zoo log i s t a tt he So uth -Ea stern Ag ric ultural Co l lege, Wye , Kent ; Autho r of

A Tex tbook of Ag ric ultura l Zoo logy”

,

“ R eports on Econom icZoo logy &c .

G renv ille A . J . Co le , F P rofesso r of Geo logy in t he Roya lCo l lege of Sc ience , Dublin ; Di rec tor of t he Geo log i ca l S u rvey Of

I reland ; Autho r of “ Aid s in P rac tica l Geo logy”

, &c .

G . N . Ke l le r , Tobacco Expert t o t he Department of Ag ricultu refor Ireland .

S ir George W at t , M .E. , C .M . , F .L. S LL.D . , Kew , London ;A utho r of “ Econom ic P rod uc ts Of Ind ia &c .

H arry B amford , M . Sc . , Lectu rer on Ag ric ultura lEng ineering , West of Scotland A g ric ultura l Co l lege .

H aro ld Leeney , Autho r Of “ H ome Doc toring of

A nima l s “ The Lambing Pen &c .

H . S . H o lmes P eg ler, Sec retary of t he B riti sh Goat Soc iety ;A uthor of “ The Book of t he Goat ” .

H ugh s . R . E l l io t .

J . A rt hu r Thomson , M .A . , Professo r of N atura l H istory , A berd een Univers ity , Exam iner in Ag ric ultural Zoo logy for t he N ationalD ip loma i n Ag ric ultu re ; A uthor of H ered ity &c .

J . A u gu stu s Voelcker, Ph .D . ,M .A . , B .Sc . , &c . , Con

su lt ing Chemist t o t he R oyal Ag ric ultural Soc iety of Eng land .

J oh n B row n , B . Sc . ,O rganiz er of Ag ricu ltural Inst ruc

tion , South Canterbu ry , N ew Zealand .

J . G. M ‘P

J . Go .

J . Lo .

J . M ‘I .

J . R . M ‘C .

J . Wr.

L ist Of Con t ribu t ors vii

J . Cossa r Ew a rt, M .D . , R eg i us P rofes so r Of N atural

H i story , Ed i nb u rgh Un ivers ity ; Author of “ The Penycu ik Ex

perimen t s &c .

J . C . N ew sh am , P rinc ipal of t he Farm Schoo l , Ba sing , Bas ingstoke .

Joh n G la i s te r, M .D . , P rofesso r O f Med i cal Ju ri sp rudence and

P ub li c H ea lth in t he Univers ity Of Gla sgow .

R ev . J . Go rd on M ‘P h erson, M . A . , Ph .D .

, Lec tu reron Meteo ro logy t o t he Un ivers ity of S t . Andrew s ; Author of “ The

Fa iryland Ta les of S c ience ”

, &c .

Joh n Go ld in g , H ead of t he Chemical and Bac

t erio log ical Departments a t t he M id land Ag ricu ltu ra l and Da i ryIn stitute , King ston , Derby .

Jam es H en d r ick , B . Sc . , Lec turer in Ag ri c u lturalChem i s try in t he Aberd een Un ivers ity , Chemi s t t o t he H ighlandand Ag ri c u ltura l So c iety of S cotland , Ana lyst t o t he Countie s of

Aberdeen , Banff, and N ai rn .

James Kn igh t , M .A . , D . Sc .,

Autho r Of “ Food and it s

Func tion s ” , &c .

James L on g , formerly P rofe s so r o f Dai rying and Farm ing , R oya lAg ric ultu ra l Co llege , Ci ren ce ster ; Autho r of “ B riti sh Da iry Fa rming

”

,

“ Elements Of Da iry Farm ing”

,& c .

Jam es M ‘In t osh , Lec turerin Ag ric ultu re and Dai rying , South Ea stern Ag ric u ltura l Co llege ,Wye , Kent .

Joh n N isbe t , P rofes sor of Fore stry , W est Of S cotlandAg ric u ltu ra l Co l lege ; Ed ito r of The F or/ 8 5 16 7 , Author Of “ S tud iesin Fo restry B riti sh Fo rest Trees &c .

John P e rc iva l , P rofessor of Ag ricu ltu ra lBotany , Un ivers ity Co llege , R ead ing ; Autho r of “ Ag ricultu ralBotany Ag ric u ltu ra l Bac terio logy

”

J . R . A in sw o rt h Davis ,M .A . , P rin cipa l of R oyal Ag ri

c ultu ra l Co llege , C i ren cester ; Author of “ The N atu ra l H i s to ry of

A n ima ls

Joh n R . M ‘Ca l l , P rofe s sor Of Patho logy and MeatIn spec tion , Gla sg ow Veterinary Co llege .

Joh n S p e i r , Kt . S t .O laf, N ew ton Farm , near Gla sgow , Member oft he R oya l Commi ss ion on Tuberculo s i s , 1 897 ; Autho r of “ R eporton M i lk R ecord s

J ames W y l l ie , B . Sc . , Lec turerin Ag ric ulture , W es t of Scotland Ag ric ultu ra l Co l lege .

Joh n W r igh tson , late P rin c ipal Of Dow nton Ag ric ultu ral Co l lege ;A u tho r of Farm Crop s

”

,

“ Sheep B reed ing and Feed ing &c .

M i les B en son,Manager and Chief In structo r in Dairy ing , B riti sh

Dai ry In stitu te , R eading .

E

L ist of Con t ribu t ors

R eg ina ld A . B e r ry , P rofe s so r of Ag ri c u ltu ralChem i s try in t he W e st of Scotland Ag ric u ltu ral Co l lege ; Jo in tA uthor of “ So i l Analys i s “ Selection of Seed by Chem i calMethod s &c .

R . B . G re ig , Lectu rer on Ag ricultu re ,Aberdeen and N orth Of S cotland Ag ricultura l Co llege .

R ich a rd H en d e rson , Lec tu rer on S urveying in t he W e s t of

S cotland Ag ric ultural Co l lege ; Autho r of,“ The You ng Estate

Manager’s Guide The Mod ern H omestead &c .

R enw ick H u tson L e i tch , M .A . , B . Sc . ,

Lectu rer in Ag ric ultu re in t he West Of S cotland Ag ric u ltu ra lCo llege .

R . H . R ew , H ead of t he S tati stical Department , Boa rd of Ag ric ultu re .

R . I . P oc ock , S uperintend ent o f t he Zoo log i ca lSoc iety

’s Gard en s , R eg ent’s Park , Lond on .

R . P at r ick W r i gh t , Princ ipa l of t he W estof Scotland Ag ri cu ltu ral Co llege .

R obert W a l lace , P rofe s so r of Ag ri cu ltu re , Ed inb u rgh Un ivers ity ;A uthor of Farm Live S to ck of Great Britain ” Ind ian A gricu lture &c .

S amu e l R . Sh e rw ood , B reeder of S uff o lk S heep ; Member of

Co u nc il of t he S uffo lk Sheep Soc iety .

S an d ers S pen cer, H o lyw el l Cro ft , S t . Ive s ; Autho r Of “ P ig sfor B reeder s and Feeders P ig s , B reed s and Management

T . H al l issy , B .A . , of t he Laboratory for t he Inve stigation of So il s ,Geo log i cal S urvey of I reland .

Ve ro Sh aw ,Autho r of “ H ow t o Choo se a Dog Don’t s for

Dog Ow ners 81 0.

W . A . Tha in , P rofes sor o f Land S u rveying and

Estate Eng ineering , R oya l Ag ricultu ra l Col lege , C i rencester.

W i l l iam B arber, M .A . , Tererran , Moniaive .

W . E . B ear , formerly Edito r of Mark Lane Express.

S ir W a l te r G ilbey , Bart . , D .L. , J .P .,Pa st P res iden t of t he

Sh i re H o rse So c iety ,Member of t he Roya l Comm i s s ion on H orse

B reeding ; Author of “ R iding and Driving H o rses “ H orsesPa st and P resent Thoroughb red and other Pon ie s &c .

W i l l iam G . Sm i t h , B . S c . , Ph .D . , Lecturer in Ag ric ultu ra lBotany , Eas t of Scotland Ag ricultura l Co llege , Edinb u rgh ; Tran slato r of Tubeuf’s “ D i seases Of P lant s

W al t e r J . M a ld en , late P rinc ipa l , Ag ric ultu ra l Co l lege , Uckfield ;A utho r of “ Til lage and Improvements Up - t o - Date FarmImp lements &c .

L ist of Con t ribu t ors

W . Sou . W . S ou thw o r t h , late Lectu rer on Ag ric ulturalBotany and Entomo logy , Uckfield Ag ric u ltu ral Co llege .

W . S t . W i l l iam S t even son, B . Sc . , Lectu rer o n Dai ry

ing i n t he W est of Scotland Ag ric ultural Co llege ; Autho r O f“ Culture S tarters in Da i ry ing

”.

W . W . W i l l iam W at son , Cu rato r , R oyal Gard en s , Kew ; Edito rof “ The Gardener’s A ss i s tant

W . W . C . W a l t er W i l l iam Ch apman , Sec retary t o t he N ationalSheep- B reeders As soc iation .

The classic series of artic les on insects by t he la t e John Curtis have been embod ied in t he

work , revised by Professor F . V . Theoba ld a nd Mr. Cecil Warburton , M .A . , and bear t he initia lsOf J . C . a nd F. V. T. or C. W.

In like manner t he g reat bo t anica l artic les of t he late Professor John Lind ley, which, likeCurtis 's articles above -mentioned , were con t ributed t o Morton 's Cy cloped ia of Ag ric ult ure, have,und er Professor A. N . M ‘A lp ine

'

s revision , been embod ied over t he initia ls J . L. and A. N . M ‘A .

THE STA N DA RD CYCLOPEDIA

OF MODERN A GR ICULTURE

S h ro p s h ire S h ee p .—OR IGIN A ND H is

TORY.- There is a general consensus of opinion

that this breed is descended from t he M orfaCommon sheep in Shropshire and t he CannockChase breed in t he neighbouring county of S t affordshire. M orfe Common , near Bridgnorth,occupied an area of about 4000ac. on t he bor

ders of t he R iver Severn ; and P rofessor Wilson,in his report of t he breeds in t he Journal of t heR oyal Agricultural Society, vol . xvi, states thatwhen t he Bristol Society in 1 792 procured as

much information as possible regarding sheep inEngland

,they reported as follows in reference

t o Morfe Common sheep : ‘On Morfe Common,

near Bridgnorth, there are about sheepkept during t he summer months, which producewool of a superior qual it y. They are considereda native breed, are blackfaced, or brown, or

spot ted- faced horn sheep,little subject t o either

rot or scab, weighing, t he wethers from 1 1 t o

1 4 lb .,and t he ewes from 9 t o 1 1 lb. per quarter,

after being fed with clover and turnips,and

clipping near 2 lb. per fleece. This appears t obe t he original stock from which t he presentbreed of Shropshire sheep has sprung.’Smith

,in his history of wool and woollen

manufactures (Chron . R usticum, publishedquotes t he wool of Shropshire as being t hechoicest and dearest in England ; and this isconfirmed by Anderson in his Origin of Com

merce,giving prices for English wool in 1 343 .

Cannock Chase, in Staffordshire, an enclosedcommon, w as also t he habitat of a very similarand equally valuable race of a somewhat heaviertype

,from which many of t he best flocks in

Staffordshire were originally descended.Though some few writers state that t he Southdown w as used in t he first attempt at improvement of t he breed, and t o effect t he removal oft he horns

,many men equal ly wel l qualified t o

give an Opinion , adhere t o t he statement thatt he present uniformity of character and perfection of form is t he result of selection from homebred shee of t he best type. There appears t obe no dou t that some breeders, many years ago,had recourse t o t he Southdown but w hetherSouthdown or other rams have been introducedis a matter of small moment. One thing is certain

,that no one during t he last sixty ears,

w ho has obtained any success as a bree er of

Shro shires, has deviated from a line of purebree ing. By careful selection and j udiciousmating of its ow n species t he Shropshire sheep

VOL. XI .

has been brought t o t he leading position it nowoccupies . The best characteristics Of t he breedwere present when t he work of improvementbegan . It has been by developing t he stronglyinherited characteristics of t he native breed oft he district that all t he best flocks have beenbuil t up.

The public appearance of t he breed in t he‘R oyal ’ show yard at Gloucester in 1 85 3 w as

t he turning oint with t he Shropshire sheep, andencouraged reeders t o use their best judgmentin selection , and t o do all in theirpower t o placetheir breed of sheep in t he front rank . Shropshires were next seen at t he Great N ationalShow in 1 85 7 at Salisbury, and again in 1 85 8at Chester. Mr. M illward

,in his report in t he

R oyal Journal of t he latter year,states that ‘t he

new class of Shropshires ( 1 84 animals) was verysuccessful ’; but it w as not until t he Warwickmeeting

,t he following year that special

classes for t he breed were adm itted into t heR oyal Agricultural Society’s prize sheet. Onehundred and ninety - t w o Shro shires were thereexhibited. Sin ce then they have considerablyincreased in numbers at t he ‘R oyal ’shows, culminat ing in t he grand display at ShrewsburyR oyal Show in 1 884, when 875 Shropshireswereexhibited

,against 420of other distinct breeds

,

being considerably more than double t he number of sheep of all other breeds, and demonst rat ing very conclusively that t he Shropshireis a sheep which best meets t he requirementsof t he present day .

So far back as 1 861 one of t he Shropshiresheep judges at t he Leeds exhibition gave t hefollowing report : ‘Perhaps no description ofsheep excited more interest in t he show yardthan these. H ere w e find them in greater number than any other breed of sheep Shown . It isimpossible not t o be struck with t he appearanceof these as a most useful rent- paying kind ofanimal. It would be well for t he breeders ofthese sheep t o bear in mind that qualities whichhave brought their sheep into notice are theiraptitude t o produce great weight and qualityof both mutton and w ool

,combined with early

maturity, whilst they wil l bear t o be stockedmore thickly than any other breeds of equalweight. In addition t o these good qualitiesthey are farmore prolific than any other breeds,and capital nurses.’In describing what a Shropshire sheep should

be,one cannot do better than give t he points

1 5 8

2 Shropsh ire Sheep

which were chiefly considered by three eminentmen who acted as j udges at t he Birmingham1 876 meeting of t he R oyal Agricultural Societyof England. They say that they selected forprizes those animals which they considered bestcalculated t o uphold and perpetuate t he mostdistinctive t y e of t he Shro shire

,namely, a

wel l - developed head, with eliaar and strikingexpression of countenance ; a muscular neck, wellset on good shoulders ; t he body symmetrica l anddeep

,

placed as squarely as possible on short

legs ; ue regard being aid t o a grandeur ofstyle, a well - covered head

)

,and wool of t he best

staple and most valuable kind . A rider t o thisdescription should state that t he skin should bea nice cherry colour

,and t he face and legs of a

nice soft black—not sooty,nor a rusty brown

and free from all white specks. The belly shouldalso be well woolled.Some farmers prefer a big coarse sheep on

long legs, but t he most rent- paying class is t hemoderate- sized sheep of good quality, because t hebut chers can sell them more readily and at bet

t er prices,and a greater weight er acre can be

raised than where t he larger an coarser sheepis resorted t o

,as 100ewes in t he former instance

require as much land for their support as 1 20well - bred moderate- sized ewes.P O IN TS—Prolific Character.

—1 50t o 1 75 lambsper 100 is t he usual average. ewes in1 896 reared 1 68 lambs per 100ewes.T/zeEwes Good Mothers—Shropshire ewes are

excellent nurses,and nature has endowed them

with great milk - yielding properties.Wool.—A n average weight of fleece fora whole

flock would be 7 t o 8 lb . individual fleeces oftenattain 1 6 t o 1 8 lb. The Shropshire sheep cutsa heavy fleece of wool of t he most marketabledescription , being of good staple, fine in textureand very dense

,with smal l loss in scour

,and

is always readily saleable. Ram and ew e tegswould average quite 10 lb. of washed wool

,and

a fair average for a w hole flock would be 7 t o8 lb.

A dap tability to VariousSoils and Climes.—The

most ubiquitous sheep extant, in every countyin England t he Shropshire sheep flourishes, alsoin t he northern parts of Scotland, t he humidclimate of Ireland, and t he mountainous districtsof Wales, frequently at an al t itude of 1000 ft.above sea level ; and also thrives and does wellin t he United States, Canada, Sout h America,R ussia, France, Germany, t he Australian Colonies

,South Africa, Jamaica, and t he Falkland

Isles,and indeed in every part of t he world .

Ewrly Ma turity—If wel l cared for

,t he wethers

are fit for t he butcher at t en t o twelve monthsold

,and that on a moderate consumption of food.

Shropshire lambs mature very early as fat lambs,and t he Shropshire cross for t he fat - lamb tradecannot be beaten.Constitu tion and H ardihood .

—The breed isnotoriously sound in constitution , and capableof standing extreme variations of heat and cold,and is one of t he most hardy breeds in existence.

The writer wel l remembers seein a Shropshireew e nineteen years old , hale and icarty , havingreared thirty- three lambs, and herself enjoyingan absolute and life- long immunity from footrot.

Quality of Mu t ton—The mutt on of t he Shropshire is rich in flavour

,close in grain , j uicy, and

contains a lar e ercent age of lean meat, andcommands t he ig est price in t he London, Man

chester, Liverpool, and all t he principal marketsof Great Britain . Again

,t he Shropshire of t he

resent day has all t he quality of t he Southow n, with considerably more size it carries

a large pro ort ion of lean meat t o fat , is l ightin offal , an with good management it comes t omarket at t en t o twelve months old , weighing1 8 t o 22 lb. per quarter, in some inst ancesattaining even greater w ei hts. Wethers ateighteen t o twenty months 0 d at t he Birmingham Fat Show often att ain 50 lb. per quarter,and ewes have been exhibited over 46 lb. perquarter.Docile Character and Economic Consumers.

The Shropshire is a placid and contented animal, not given t o roaming and trampling downpasturage, and has t he special aptitude t o maket he best of t he food at hand, and t o producemutton at a minimum of cost.Genera l-p urp ose Sheep

—Shropshire sheep haverapidly increased in favour in all parts of t heworld ; and combining as they do t he most desirable points (from a wool and mutton point ofview) t o a greater extent than any other breed

,

with t he minimum of objectionable features,they have attained an eminent and permanentposition in t he estimation of sheep- breeders allover t he world . In fact they meet all t he re

quiremen t s of t he present day as a successfulgeneral - purpose sheep, and are therefore veryprofitable t o farmers and graz iers. The Shropshire has been largely bred forcrossing purposest o produce freezers ’, with splendid results.MAN AGEMEN T.

—The fol lowing is a short epitome of t he general management of Shropshireflocks. The ewes are put t o t he ram so as t o

drop their lambs in February and March. Therams are usually run ou t with t he ewes

,except

in t he case of a valuable animal , when sometimesa teaser is used

,and t he ewes as they come on

are brought t o t he ram. Flushingt he ewes is

a general practice, either on secon year’s seedsor a fresh ast ure. An average of about fiftyewes t o eac ram is t he rule. Shearling orolderrams generally do service

,and ram lambs are

not greatly used, except in cases where ewes haveturned several times and t he season is advancing.From this period t o lambing time t he ewes arerun on old seeds or pastures

, and , as t he seasonadvances, are assisted with long hay and a fewroots. When lambing commences they are foldedat night. The ewes and lambs are kept in fora day or so, and receive a few oats

,bran

,cut

roots, and a l ittle hay , and then t o t he youngseeds or a fresh pasture. Only t he ewes withtwins get any assistance, except perhaps a fewlambs for show purposes. Oats and bran is t heusual diet, with perhaps a little 00d l inseedcake. The lambs ears are all punc ed numerically for the purpose of keeping correct pedigrees, and when any of them are passed intot he breeding flock, metallic ear t a s are used.These ear tags are very neat an l ight

, andremain safely in t he ear for a long time.

Castration is not a general practice, t he pro

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4 Shropsh ire Sheep Shrubbery

this flock have realiz ed 240 gs. for export,and

as much as 75 gs. has been obtained for ewes.The flock consists of about 400breeding ewes.The Cahir flock

,which numbers at present 1 50

breeding ewes,belongs t o Lady Margaret Char

teris, and w as founded in 1 879. The in t roduc

tion of blood from noted strains has raised thisflock t o a high level of excel lence. TheWolgar

stone flock, t he property of Mr. G. Brown , and

descended from an old - established strain of

Shro shire sheep,includes at present about 1 40

breeding ewes. Like t he last-mentioned, consistent improvement has been made by t he int roduct ion of noted prizewinning rams. The

H olker flock, own ed by Lord R ichard Cavendish, was established by t he Duke Of Devonshire in t he year 1 897. S ecimens of this breedhave been exhibited at s ow s since 1 903 , andgood prices have been realized for Shearlingewes and lambs. The present flock consist s of80 breeding ewes. The Corston flock, t he property of Mr. T. A. Buttar, founded in 1 870, consisting of 260breeding ewes

,has been raised t o

a high level of excel lence by t he use of t he mostsuccessful sires. N ot ed prices have been oh

t ained for specimens of t he flock. In 1 897 Buttar Blue fetched 1 50gs.

, in 1 898 R oyal R ecordw as sold for 3 10gs.

,and in 1 900R ecord Knight

made 1 30gs. The Corston flock has taken a re

emin ent position in t he United States an inCanada, sheep bred by M r. Buttar having w ont he championshi at t he Chicago Internationalin 1 898—9, and t e Toronto Industrial in 1 9067- 8 . The Lower Eaton flock

,owned by Mr. C.

T. P ulley,and insti t uted in t he year 1 866, em

braces 1 70breed ing ewes,and has been built up

by t he u se of t he very best sires purchased fromwel l - known breeders at high prices. A largeexport trade has been enjoyed for many years,and representatives Of t he flock have been successfu lly shown both at home and abroad. The

Acton H il l flock of Shro shires,belonging t o

Mr. R . G. Paterson, w as ounded in 1 894, andat present consists of 1 70 ewes. The ArbourFarm flock , owned by Mr. J. E. Bourne

,origi

nat ed in 1 890, and consists at present of 1 40breeding ewes. This flock has had considerablesuccess in t he show yard, and commands a goodexport trade. The H ardw icke Shropshires havebeen maintained at H ardwicke since 1 887 . Within recent years t he flock has been strengthenedby t he introduction of several ens of first - classewes obtained from leading reeders. Greatcare has been exercised in t he selection of sires,with t he resu lt that high honours have been oht ained in t he show yard. A good export tradehas been experienced for some years past, manyrepresentatives from this flock having securedpremier positions at t he Chicago InternationalExhibition and at many of t he leading Statefairs in t heUnited S tates. About 1 90breedingewes are kept. The Thorpe H al l flock, w hichdates back its origin some forty years ago, hasbeen built up by t he use of rams of exceptionalmerit, and ewes purchased at high rices fromnoted prizewinning strains. The ock, whichhas enjoyed a very successful show- yard career,consists of 1 10 t o 120 breeding ewes, and hascommanded h igh prices forindividual specimens,

t he ramDoncaster Royal having real ized 250gs.as a four- year-old, and t he ram Deemster 1 90gs.TheWhiston H al l flock of Shropshires, insti t utedas far back as 1 820

,is t he proper ty at present of

Mr. Matthew Williams,

‘

and has a foundationstock of 1 50 breeding ewes. N umerous priz eshave been w on in t he show yard, and rams havebeen sold for high prices. A representative of

this flock w on t he first priz e at t he

Show in 1 907, and subsequently real ized 250gs .In 1 904 a ram of t he Whiston H all flock w as

sold at M elbourne for 1 90 gs. At home t he

best draught ewes have fet ched up t o 10 gs ,

and, in t he year 1 906, ewes bred at Whiston were

sold at M elbourne and made as much as 63 gs.each . The Tern flock of Shropshires, foundedin 1 862

, and at present t he property of Mr. T.

G. Jnokes,consists of 1 25 t o 1 30breeding ewes ;

and though t he flock has not been shown, andno high rices made

, yet a lot of shee havebeen sol t o America and have realiz e satisfactory prices. The Great Chatwell flock of

Shropshires, founded in 1 860, consisting of 1 32ewes, owned by Mr. J . Corden, has long beenmaintained in a high state of purity. The

Shrawardine flock,instituted about eighty years

ago, has been represented in t he R oyal show yardevery year since 1 85 8 . The flock consists of 1 20breeding ewes

, and is at present t he propertyof Mr. Alfred Tanner. Many noted prize- winn ing rams and ewes have been used t o build upthis flock

,and premier honours have been w on

at t he leading shows at home. F inally,there

is t he M ontford flock,founded in 1 873 , and at

present t he property of Mr. T. S . M inton. Thisflock has produced many noted prizewinners.At t he annual home sale held in August or September

,over 200gs. has been reached for rams

,

and 1 50 gs. for a pen of 5 ewes. The type of

Shropshire at M ontford is an animal on shortlegs

,with close wool and dark muscul

lar fl

eh .

A. M .

S h ru b b e ry .—This term is usually applied

t o a plantation of shrubs which may ormay not

also contain plants of a different character,rather

than to grounds planted with shrubs here and

there. Shrubberies in t he past Often containeda poor selection of plants

,and were consequently

gloomy and uninteresting,but of late years they

have been improved. A good mixed shrubberyof deciduous and evergreen lants con tains aproportion of flowering shrugs

,of those with

fol iage conspicuous in au t umn orwinter,and of

plants with ornamental stems and fruits. It isnot a good plan t o have bare earth beneath t heshrubs. It is much better t o carpet t he groundwith plants that will endure some shade, or in t hecase of a thin shrubbery, bulbs may be planted.

A shrubbery may also be made more attractiveby planting a foreground of low - growing perennial flowers. A satisfactory shrubbery cannotbe formed under large trees. In planting

,it is

essential that t he most com act - growing andsmall shrubs should be placed

pin t he front

,with

those of medium stature next in order,and t he

largest plant s in t he middle or at t he back .

Overcrowding is a common fault,but shrubs

may be planted somewhat thickly at first foreffect, with a view t o t he removal of some t o

Pho to. Chas. R eid .

SH ROPSH IRE SHEA RLIN G RAM

FIR ST PR IZE W IN N ER . SHOW , 1 008

Photo. Chas. R eid .

SH ROPSH IRE EWE

ONE OF CHAMPION SH IP PEN ,SHOW, 1 908

Shrubs Shy ing

o ther quarters when they develop. In mixedShrubberies it is very necessary t o see that t hestron est -

grow ing plants do not overcrowd theirneigh ours. W. W.]S h ru b s . F lower gardens and pleasure

grounds would be poor places without shrubs,and very many gardens would be even moreattractive if they contained more of them . Int he larger gardens, in addition t o t he shrubberyproper, it is an excellent plan t o plant shrubs

,

such as free - growing roses,berberises, coto

neast ers

, philadelphuses, diervillas , &c .,in beds

,

and t he effect may be still further enhanced by

planting such bulbs as chionodoxas

,snowdrops

,

luebells, &c., underneath them. Other bedsmay be planted with evergreen shrubs forwint ereffect. Most shrubs abundantly repay troubleexpended in trenching

,manuring

,and cu lt ivat

ing t he soil,while pruning is also an important

matter. Some shrubs, however, such as cy t i

suses and genistas,will make good growth and

flower more freely in comparatively poor soil .Autumn

,or

,fai ling that

,February

,is t he best

season for transplanting shrubs, but many evergreens may be moved with balls of soil fromAugust til l May . Bamboos require t o be transplanted in M ay . I t is important that, in transplanting

,t he roots of shrubs should not be

allowed t o become dry. The number of goodgarden shrubs is fortunately very large, and iscontinually being added t o. The following listswil l aid those w ho require t o lant shrubs whichwill thrive under special con it ions

SHRUBS FOR SEAS IDE PLANTIN GDcczd zwas

H ippophae rhamnoides. Lycium europaeum and L.

Ulex europaeu s. barbarum.

Tamarix gallica. Cyt isu s scopariu s.

Myricaria germanica. Berberis vu lgaris.

Sambucus nigra. Rhamnus cat hart icu s.

Cory lu s A vel lana. J uniperus communis.

R osa spinosissima. R ibes sanguineum.

R osa rubiginosa. Symphoricarpus raceme

H y drangea hort ensis. sus.

Ceanot hus americanus.

Evergreen

Euonymu s japonicu s. Rhamnus A lat ernus.

V eronica decussat a. Phillyraea media.

R hododendrons (t hick Phillyrae a angust ifolia.

leaved kinds). Phillyraea lat ifolia.

Escallonia macran tha. Cot oneast ermicrophy lla.

Escallonia pt erocladon . Cot oneast erSimonsii

Ilex A qu ifolium (t hick A t rip lex H alimu s.

leaved vars ). B erberi s Darw inii .

H edera H elix variet ies. B erberis empet rifolia.

Q uercus Ilex. B erberis A quifolium.

Crat aegu s pyracan t ha.

EVERGREEN SHBUBS FOR SMOKY TOWN SR uscus acu leat us.

Skimmia japonica.

Ulex europwus.

Yucca gloriosa.

Yucca recurvifolia.

[w . W.]S h u d e s .

‘Shudes’is a name used t o deSIg

nate t he outer husk of certain grains. In thi scoun t ry it is applied more particularly t o oatsand rice. The

‘shudes

’ consist practi cally of

t he outer glumes of t he flower. Another name

1 Cont aining nitrogen2 Including sand and silica

that is sometimes used for them is ‘hulls’, butthis is more generally applied t o t he shel ls ofpeas and beans.Shudes are not , properly s

peaking, a feeding

material at all, for they are ard, indigestible,

and frequently produce irritation in stock t owhich they are iven . They consist largely ofindigestible w oo y fibre, and have a considerableamount of sil ica ; in t he case of rice husk t hequantity of this latter is very high , and t he‘shudes

’ have a rough irritating feel ing. Pro

erly speak ing, ‘shudes’ought merely t o be usedorpacking and similar purposes, or for treadingdown intomanure, j ust as ‘cavings ’from threshing are employed. It is , however, unfortunatelyt he case that ‘shudes’, both of cat s and rice (andt he latter in particular), are largely u sed forad u lt erat ing meals, differen t Ofials of wheat, &c.

,

and for compounding in feeding cakes. The easewith which

,when ground fine, t he can be in

corporat ed w i t h such materials as arley meal,oat meal , wheat meal , rice meal , &c.

,and escape

detection by t he eye, renders their employmenta profitable source for t he dishonest trader. Event he shudes by themselves are sometimes groundvery fine and are sold as ‘pig meal ’, &c .

,or they

are incorporated with meals as mentioned above.

N ot long since an exposé was made of a practicewhich had reached considerable dimensions , viz.that of selling under t he name shudes’or Shudemeal’ a material composed of sawdust and gyp~

sum (sulphate of lime), t he gypsum giving t heappearance of flour being present.The following are analyses of oat shudes and

rice shudes :Oat R ice

Shud es. Shudes.

Moist ure 9‘

23 9'

70Oil1 N it rogenou s mat t ers 32 5

Digest ible carbohydrat es, &c 50‘

73

Indigest ib le woody fibre 39‘

902Mineral mat t er (ash ) 303 1 3 5 5

10000 10000

26 4 1 3'

20

[J . A . v.]S h y in g .

—The sudden startingaside as if infear, is known in horses as shying, and is a mostobjectionable habit and difficul t t o overcome.

I t has been attributed t o defective sight, part icularly t o short sigh t and t he inability t o cor

rect ly focus Objects at a distance. On t he otherhand

,it is wel l known that many horses with

defective vision caused by cataract and by opacities upon t he cornea do not shy. Mr. Galvayneand other famous horse-masters attribute it t obad management at some period of t he colt’seducation . N early all R ussian ponies have t hehabit, and it is said that they acquire it in avoiding ‘faults’ in t he ice over which they travel .If t he habit originates in a nervous temperament it may be overcome t o some extent byfamiliarizing t he animal with t he Objects whichmost startle him , keeping an inverted wheelbarrow and a prone bicycle in t he stable yard,and compelling him t o stand while railway trucksare being shunted ormotor vehicles started. Ift he shyer can be convinced that there is nothingharmful in t he particular object he fears, he will

6 S ickle Silica and Silicates

gradually cease t o shy at it. When these mea

sures fail,there is nothing t o be done but ar

range a more or less complete blindfold fromone side of t he bridle t o t he other. [H . L .]S ic k le . The sickle as a tool for cuttingcorn has become almost extinct in recent years,

commonly used,very

large areas of grainwere cut by it. The sickleis either made with a

serrated or somewhatsawlike ed e, or witha smooth e ge ; and

former is used in a differont manner

,as

,in

stead of t he cutting beingdone by a swinging chop,t he corn is gripped byt he left hand abovepoint of cutting, and heldaway from t he reaper’sbody ; whilst, holding t hesickle in his right

,he pulls

it sharply towards him,

practically sawing through Sickl"

t he handful. The stubbleis usually left 8 in. or so high. [W. J. M .]S id e b o n es . The lateral cartilage whichforms an extension of t he pedal bone on eachside is normally elastic and compressible undert he finger

,but specially l iable t o undergo a

change in its structure, whereby t he cartilage

Pedal Bones, Show ing ossificat ion of lat eral cart ilages,const it uting sidebones ’

cells are filled up with mineral matter and itassumes t he form of bone on t he side of the foot,thus acquiring t he name above given t o it.N arrow and upright feet are pet ha s more pronet o it than others, and it is agreed y veterinarians that the defect is hereditary. H eavy horsesare more subject t o sidebone than nags. It mayor may not be accompanied by lameness in t heearly stages, and it may be arrested before ithas attained t o any great siz e. The degree of

ossification of t he lateral cartilage, its presenceor absence, has been t he subject of disputeamong experts, and many cases in t he law courts.

t h e

Chlorit eH ornblende (see t he art . )

MgoA ugit e MgOSiOz , or CaO SiOz .

FeOLeucit e KAlSiQOG.

P ronounced cases are easily felt, and generallyt o be seen withou t Special knowledge ofanatomy.M uch benefit is conferred by suitable shoeing.Blistering often has t he effect of arresting furtherossification

, and is credited with causing a cer

tain amount of absorption. Firing is resortedt o in bad cases, and on t he Continent sawingthrough t he hoof and working t he animal whilereunion is takin place. The latter practice isdiscouraged in t is country as being cruel andunjustifiable. [H . L.]S ila g e . See EN S ILAGE.

S i l ic a a n d S il ica t e s are compounds ofsil icic acid with metallic oxides. They formalmost t he whole of t he mineral matter of t he

earth’s crust, and even t he remaining mineralsare t o a large extent derived from them. S ilicon in fact plays in t he mineral kingdom t he

same predominant part that carbon plays int he organic world ; and it is remarkable thatthese t wo dominating constituents are chemical ly very closely alliedSil ica (SiOz), t he anhydride of silicic acid,

occurs in t he pure state, usually as a depositfrom water, in quartz or rock crystal found inmasses varying in weight from a fraction of anounce t o more than a hundredweight ; also in aless pure state as sand. At ordinary temperatures it is comparatively inert

,reacting only

with hydrofluoric acid t o form a volatile fluoride ; bu t at very high temperatures it is chemically active

,displaces most acids

, and uniteswith most oxides t o form silicates. This happened during t he stage in t he earth’s historywhen t he whole mass w as molten .

The silicic acids do not occur in nature,

bu t some of them have been prepared int he laboratory ; like other weak acids theygiye rise to a number of complex and basic

sa ts.The Silica tes—A n example of t he simplestsilicates is afforded by waterglass (KgsiOa) ;but such simple silicates rarely occur in thesoil

,usually t w o ormore metals are present,

aluminium almost invariably ; iron , pot assium , sodium ,

calcium,magnesium very fre

quently occur, and small quantities of manganese are common.The silicates generally form isomorphousmixtures

,so that no formula can be given t o

express exactly their composition ; nor can

tables of exactpercentage compositions be

drawn up,since t ese vary between t he limits

of isomorphic replacement.The following are some of t he importantsil icates in t he soil

Silk 7

In all cases there is likely t o be some isomorphicreplacement.The first three decompose and give rise t o t heclays ; orthoclase forming kaolin, which con tain skaolinite. H ornblende and augit e are oftenblack from t he presence of magnetic iron oxide,and as such form t he black constituent of manyrocks ; they readily weather. M ica, on t he otherhand

,does not . The Zeolites (cg . N atrolite)

are a class of compounds derived from t he original rock silicates by some chemical changesoccurring in t he cavities of basalt, lava, and

less frequently, granite and gneiss ; they are

hydrated silicates of alumina wi t h lime, soda,potash , and occasionally baryta. Many of themfroth up when heated before t he blowpi e, hencetheir name (zeolite ‘boiling stone ’ Theyare di stinctly reactive, and have been supposedto play an important part in t he soil SOI

]L).

E. J. R .

S ilk is t he fibre produced by a‘worm ’

or

caterpil lar, in order t o form a protecting caseor cocoon, in which it may live in safety as a

Chrysalis, _until t he time comes for it t o emerge

as t he winged insect or mot h. The mot h layseggs, which, after a certain period of hiber

nation, Spontaneously hat ch and yield worms.These are fed on certain plants unti l in theirturn they attain maturity and spin their co

coons. After a second hibernation as chrysal ids,t he final stage, of t he perfect orwinged insect,is once more attained, when each cocoon givesforth a male or female mot h. From egg t o

moth is thus t he life- cycle or generation , andwhen this is accomplished only once a year, t hein sect is termed unioolt ine. But certain breeds(or erhaps rather cl imatic races) are known tobe b

livolt ine, that is t o say have t w o generations

a year ; others are trivolt ine, quadrivolt ine, or

even mult ivoltinc (have as many as eight or ninebroods a year). But t he nature and quality of

t he silk varies according t o t he species or raceof Silkworm reared and t he kind of food plan ton which fed . By far t he most important silkworms are those t hat l ive on t he mulberry, and,because these have been for t he longest timedomesticated, they are often classed as t he Domest icat ed Silkworm , all t he ot hers being throwntogether into a second grou somet imes desi

gnat ed t he Wild Sill/swarms. he mulberry- fee

ing silkworms, however, belong t o a differenttribe—t he Bombycidae—from t he non -mulberryfeeding species—t he Saturniidae. Moreover, t hesilk obtained from them is much superior, andalso so very different from that of the wild silks ,as t o have caused many writers t o speak of t hemulberry as

‘true silk ’ and t o place all t he

others either as wild S ilks ’or as ‘tasar (tusser,tussore, &c.) silks But within recent years anew complication has arisen. The cocoons, aft era certain treatmen t which softens them, are

reeled ; that is t o say, t he threads (bave) workedin to t he walls of t he cocoons are drawn ou t

,

and t wo or more such original filamen t s arethrown t ogetherand twisted around each othert o form t he yarn employed by t he silk weavers.A small portion of each cocoon cannot , however, be reeled, and , un t il quit e recently, thatportion was t reated as wast e. I t is now carded

and then spun , thus forming yarn quite different from , and inferior t o, that of reeledsilk

,but stil l very valuable. N ow , since many

of t he wild silks cannot be reeled at all,or

reeled very im erfect ly , they are largely cardedand s nu , an either used by themselves asspecia silks, or are mixed wit h carded mulberry silk and worked up in t he form of variousgrades of spun silks, so that in modern commerce w e have now two important kinds ofsilk—reeled and spun.The mulberry - feeding insect is Bombyx mori.It w as perhaps originally indigenous t o t he

warm temperate re ions of nort hern Ch ina and

t he mountains t o t e south, until t he confinesof Burma and India were reached. To- day t he

w orm has been taken t o every art of t he globewhere it has been found possi le t o grow t he

mulberry plant. But just as there are severaldistinct species, and under each of these manydifferent races of t he plant

,so there are numer

ous forms of this silkworm, some of which havebeen evolved within the countries of their ro

duction. Of t he countries that now ro uce

silk,mention may be made of t he fol owing :

Europ e—Italy (Lombardy), France (Central andSouth), Spain , Portugal, R ussia ; A sia Minor,(fa—Turkey, Algeria, Egypt , Syria, Armenia ;A sia—Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan , Kashmir

,India

, China, Japan, Corea, S iam, Burma,&c. ; America, and Australia.

The mulberry silkworm everywhere thrivesbest and gives t he finest silk where t he climateis temperate, so that t he insect may be only univoltine, or at most bivoltine, and its food lantone or other of t he races of t heWhit e M u l erry(Mora-s alba). Under skil led treatment

,both of

t he food plant and t he insect itself,immense

improvements have been effected,especially in

Europe and Japan, so that it is commonly said,both of China and India, that they have fal lenbelow the modern level of quality. But this islargely due t o t he fact that t he climate of t he

areas of greater roduction in these countriesis almost tropic, t us causing t he insect t o become multivoltine, and necessitating t he use of

other and less favourable species of mulberry,such as M. indica. M oreover, t he heat of theseregions engenders a spirit of indifference if not

of apat hy on t he part of t he cultivators—aframe of mind fatal t o sericulture. In perhapsno other industry is cleanliness

,regularity

,and

method more essential than in silk -rearing. Int he most highly favoured silk-

grow ing countriest he mulberry is grown as a tree ( the standardsystem). This is t he practice in Europe and in

northern India (Kashmir, the P unjab, butin more tropical tracts t he bush system prevails,as for example in Bengal . N ot on ly is t he insectimmediately influenced by t he race or stock oft he food plant given it, but by t he method of

cultivation pursued. Thus many insects wil lnot eat leaf produced from t he bush cultivation,even if t he plant u sed be t he same, while others,such as t he chhota alu of Bengal

,will only thrive

on bush—producedJ

leaf. The mulberry can be

grown on any kind of high well - drained soils,but more successfully on loams than st ifi clays.From 1 865 t o 1 870Pasteur devoted himself

8 Silk S ilkw orms

to t he st udy of t he diseases of t he silkworm,and t he remedial measures which he recommended have since been not only widely adoptedin Europe

,but throughout t he si lk - rearing

regions of t he world. These consist in t he selection, under t he microscope, of eggs free fromd isease, and t he rejection of all eggs laid bydiseased moths. It is most important that t hehatching should not take place till t he mulberries have put forth their spring flush of leaf—this is t he foremost of all considerations. Immed iately t he eggs are hatched t he worms arej ust a little over i in. in length. They are at

once given mulberry leaves cut into fragmentsin . in size

,and spread, for that purpose, on

shal low wickerwork trays , arranged on shelveswi thin a well - ventilated breeding shed. The

worms rapidly devour t he leaf and increase insize, t he skin of t he rapacious creature beingfrom time t o time renewed. The greatest caremust be bestowed in removing t he waste materials, w ith t he supply of each fresh batch of

leaf, t he worms being al lowed t o crawl fromt he old t o t he new supply. Uniformity of climate and liberal ven t ilation, combined withthorough cleanliness

,are t he essentials of suc

cess. On t he worms discontinuing t o eat , theyare placed in large trays, partitioned off intonumerous cells

,each suffi ciently lar e t o al low

t he caterpillar t o spin undisturbed an t o changeinto t he chrysalis. Cocoons with a hard, firmshell and of large size are most valued, sincethey contain a greater amount and higher percentage of silk

,capable of being reeled. Soft,

thin, and smal l cocoons are inferior in value.

If intended t o be reeled, t he cocoons are heatedin an oven , or are steamed until t he containedchrysalids are killed ; then they are baled and

consi ned t o t he filat ure, and finally t he silkreele from them is taken t o t he mill

, t o beworked up into silk goods.The ‘Wild S ilks ’ are both numerous anddiversified

,so that t o do them justice a little

volume would have t o be written , and t he readeris therefore referred t o technica l works

, of

which many exist. Speaking generally, theymay be said t o be collectively much more tropical in their habitats than t he mulberry insect,and less restricted in their food plants. The

one most often mentioned is t he Indian Tasar(A nflzeraea apl n

'

a), a denizen of t he uplandforests of fiat country, and main ly in regionsunsuited t o Europeans . The insect is an in

tractable one that has resented all efforts atdomestication, l ives on lofty trees, and has butone advantage, viz. the cocoons are large, aresus ended from t he twigs, and can thus berea ily seen . Collection is, however, expen sive,and comparatively little progress has been madewith this insect. All this is changed with t heChinese Tasar (A . pemyi) ; it is a native of warmtemperate tracts, feeds on t he oak leaves

,has

been semi - domesticated for centuries, and givest wo cr0ps a year. Bu t in modern commerce

‘M uga S ilk ’ of Assam is wel l known, and veryd ifferent from tasar, though in European com

merce t he t wo are hard ly distinguished. The

insect that produces it is A n therwa, assamica. Itoccurs throughout t he eastern side of India, andis fed main ly on t he leaves of a laurel (Litsceap olyan tha). I t exists in a state of semi- domest icat ion

,t he worms bein placed on t he trees

t o feed and then remove indoors t o spin theircocoons. There are generally five generationsa year, but, of these, t wo are regarded as t he

chief and t he most valued. The Eri S ilkworm ’

(A t tacus ricz'

m'

) has many features of

great merit,so that it may be said, of all t he

wild silks, t o be t he one deserving of t he greatest attention in t he future. It is fed on t he

leaves of t he castor- oil plan t , which could besystematica lly produced for it ; is naturallymultivoltine

,and can be reared entirely within

doors, so that it may be spoken of as completelydomesticated. It is fairly largely reared in Ind iat o- day , but is capable of indefinite extension asan auxiliary in t ro ical agriculture. Other wildinsects exist in Ma agascar, Africa, Japan , Java,&c. ; but t he above particulars are sufficientlyindicative of t he present position and futureprospect s of t he wild- silk industry of t he world.Their future turns on chea production and an

extended demand for cardedsilks. [G. W.]S ilkw o rm s .

—The common silkworm is t hecaterpillar of a moth ca lled Bombyx mori. Thisinsect has been cultivated fora great many years,and is probably t he one first used in China invery remote eriods. As far back as 2640t he Empress e- ling was known t o have largelyencouraged t he rearing of t he silkworm and t hereeling of silk. The Chinese guarded t his wormmost zealously, and it w as not until 300 A .D.

that silk was made in Japan . Soon after,t he

silkworm spread t o India. In 5 50 A .D. tw o

Persian monks,encouraged by t he Emperor

Justinian, went t oChina and brought back largequantities of silkworm eggs and mulberry seedshidden in bamboo staves. From this stock, manufactures were set up in Corinth , Athens, andThebes

,and later spread over It aly

,France

,and

Spain. The stock which t he Persian monksintroduced supplied t he worms which suppliedt he Western H emisphere for 1 200years

,but in

t he last century t he introduction of new stockbecame necessary.

The greyish silkmot h Bombyx mom: and itsallies and races are all incapable of any properflight. Several so- called species

,most a parent ly

only local races, of mori are cultivated)

,such as

t he Boropooloo of Bengal (Bombyx textor), whichhas one generation per annum ; t he Bombyx sinenszls

,t he Chinese Monthly Worm,

which hasseveral generations ; t he Madrasi Worm of Ben

gal (B . Craesus), t he Desi Worm of Bengal (B .

fortuna tus), and t he Burmese Worm (B . arra

canensis) .These silkworms feed upon t he foliage of mulberry and require constant care. The grey wormlives for six weeks, and moults its skin fourtimes. Before they are going t o spin

,they are

either separated or bunches of fine twigs are putwith them, and t he so- called worms ‘head ’ or‘mount’upwards and spin t he cocoons amongstt he twigs. The cocoon takes abou t three dayst o form, and is composed of an inner compact

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10 Silpha quadripunc t at a—Silurian Systemleaf ; fig. 3 shows one magnified

, as wel l as fig. 4,which is more attenuated , and supposed t o bet he male. They bury themselves t o change t onpac. The beetles are black and punctured,u t clothed at first with short tawny hairs, ivingthem a surface like satin . Fig. 5 is a emaleflying ; 6, a male walking

,a little magnified.

As t he beetles breed in manure,it is important

that on land subject t o this attack it should be

eacht w o black Spots. It is found in summer on oaks

,

where it mainly feeds on caterpillars.BF. v. T.]

S ilp h id a (Carrion , Burying, an BeetBeetles) , a family of beetles containing tw o wellknown genera—N ecrophorus (Burying Beetles)and S ilpha (Carrion and Beet Beetles). The

former,of dull -red - and - black

,feed upon dead

animal matter. The latter are smaller and

rounder, seldom more than 5 in . long, generallyblack in colour and flattened . The S ilpha are

omnivorous,feeding on dung

,carrion

,and in

sects,as wel l as vegetation. Two species are

harmful t o crops. The larvae are active and sixlegged

,and with their segments notched orwith

sharped edges. See preceding articles. [F . v. r ]S ilt . S il t

,in t he broad geological acceptation

of t he term, is applied t o any fine- grained pro

ducts of rock weathering that have been depositedfrom water. In t he science of soil - physics t heterm has been used for t he particles which const itute t he ‘fine earth ’ of a soil. The term isalso used by many soil- analysts t o denote t he

grade of soi l- grains intermediate in size betweenne sand and clay. The dimensions of t he

silt grade are variously placed at diameters of°25 mm.

,05—005 mm.

,04—002 mm., or

01 - 005 mm.,&c. S ilt in this restrict ed sense

has t he function, in t he soil, of a coarser clay, inasmuch as it presents a comparatively large surface t o serve as a feeding ground for plants andfor t he retention of soil - moisture. It differs

,

however, from clay ’ in favouringa higher rate

of capillary water movement,an in con t ribu t

ing less stiffness and tenacity t o a soil. [1 EL]S ilu ria n S y s t em -

“ Under this head willbe described t he strata and soils that belong inreal ity t o t w o systems. These are commonlyseparated as Ordovician (or Lower Silurian) andS ilurian proper (or Upp erSilurian) respectively.

The Upper S ilurian is also styled Got landianby those w ho wish t o retain t he term S ilurian

,

as established by M urchison in 183 5 , as a con

venien t one t o cover both t he systems, especially where their limits have not been ade

quat ely worked out . The broad use of ‘S ilurian ’prevai ls in many parts of t he Continent and inIreland.

The strata included under this general nameare as follows

Ludlow Series.Wenlock Series.

Llan dovery Series.Bala and Caradoc Series.Llandilo Series.Arenig Series.

Upper Silurian (Gotlandian ; Silurian as

oft en restrict ed).Lower Silurian (Ordovician c

c

H

EQ

OD

Consisting of old shales, often converted intoslates, and well - cemented sandstones, passingeven into quartz ites, t he S ilurian beds give riset o hummocky land

,even where not elevated

into t he region of crags and precipices. Thereis a remarkable deficiency of limestone in t heLower S ilurian system.

The Lower Silurian or Ordovician System is

best, studied in N orth Wales. The AREN IGSER IES includes numerous flint y rocks representing ancient lavas. The volcanic activitythat began in this area in late Cambrian timesgave rise in t he Areni epoch t o a number ofintrusive and extrude masses, among whichis t he columnar ‘felsite’ that forms t he greatcraggy wall of Cader Idris. The volcanic ashessometimes produce milder features ; but manyhave been baked into flin t y types by later int rusions of igneous rock. The S t iper Stonesof Western Shropshire are a ridge of Arenigquart zite. The LLAN DILO orLLAN DEILO SER IESoccupies a considerable area of t he hilly groundin south- central Wales

,and consists of shales

and sandy flagst ones, with some calcareousmatter. In N orth Wales these beds occur abovet he volcanic rocks of t he Arenig Series on t he

Merionethshire anticlinal,appearing thus high

on t he back of Cader Idris and at Tremadoc.The BALA SER IES corresponds in age with t heCARADOC SER IES of M urchison

,established on

t he Shropshire border. A limestone band isa conspicuous feature near Bala. Otherwise

,

slates and sandstones prevail ; but among theseare interca lated enormous masses of igneousrock

,mostly t ufl'

s and lavas of a highly sil iceous nature. These have weathered ou t , largelyunder t he influence of frost in glacial times

, t o

form t he precipitous crags of t he Snowdon groupand t he associated hil ls. Farming can here becarried on only in t he valley - floors, and t he

ground is much cumbered by angular blocksthat have fallen from t he heights. N odularphosphorite

,forming a bed at times 1 8 in . thick,

occurs in t he up er part of t he Bala Series int he Berwyn H ill; and has been worked commercially . This fact bears ou t the conclusionscome t o in regard t o still earlier strata (see art .

CAMBR IAN ) , and shows that S ilurian soils neednot suffer from a paucity of ca lcium phosphate.

In t he Lake District, t he Skid S la tes passdown into t he Cambrian, but are mainly ofArenig age. The most mountainous and barrenground is formed by a mass of highly siliceoust ufl

‘

s and lavas, t he BORROWDALE SER IES , eruptedin Llandilo times. Most of t he gentler groundis left for shee and much is occupied by private arks. T e CON ISTON LIMESTONE SER IESis of ala age, and includes t he A skgill Shales.

This series lies mostly on t he south of t he mountain region .

R epresentatives of t he Lower S ilurian systemoccur as a broad band on t he north -west edgeof t he southern uplands of Scotland

, and as ihliers throughout that hil ly area. In Ireland

,

Lower S ilurian shales and slates occur as inl iersin t he broad area from Belfast Lough t o Longford. S imilar rocks, often altered by the graniteinto mica schists, flank both sides of t he Leinster Chain . The rivers from t he central axis

Silurian

cut ravines when they enter these beds,and

a broken wooded country results,descending

into a drift- covered hummocky lowland in t heeast ofWicklow. N umerous igneous rocks

, d iorites and ‘felsites ’

,provide prominent features

,

and these are especially abundant in t he southof Co. Waterford. Bala Limes t one occurs ont he Chair of Kildare and at Port rane in Co.

st rict ed ) is typically developed in sou t h Shropshire

,where t he Llandovery beds rest uncon

formably on Caradoc sandstone. The LLANDOVERY SER IES is formed in Wales and En

gland

of sandstones and grits, and t he upper eds,appearing as an inl ier a t May H ill, north - eastof t he Forest of Dean , have been marked off ast he May H ill Sandstone. The WENLOCK SER IESis finely seen on t he scarped face of WenlockEdge in Shropshire, where t he Wenlock S/iales

System 1 1

Dublin. In t he Killary H arbour area of SouthMayo and N orth Galway, great masses of slate,sandstone, and conglomerate rest unconformably ou t he Connemara metamorphic series, andare in part of Lower and in part of UpperS ilurian age. Arenig, Llandilo, and Bala rocksare recognized in this mountainous region .

The Upper Silurian (or Silurian system as re~

below, producinggentler slopes and stiff clayey

ground,are cappe by t he mass of t he Wenloc/c

Limestone. The LUDLOW SER IES comes in above,containing some limestone

,but consisting mainly

of flaggy sandstones, and shales which producew et muddy ground. Its highest beds form t hemicaceous flaggy Down ton Sandstone.

In N orth Wales,t he Upper S ilurian strata

are on t he whole sandy,and form high moor

land country in t he Berwyn H ills. The Ta.

1 2

m nnon Shales at the base are a thick series,often slaty, which extend far into South Wales,where they overlie Upper Llandovery beds.The Denbi lzslzire Grits represent t he WenlockSeries

, an can be traced from Conway t oRadnorshire. They are sometimes more ar

gillaceous at t he base.

In t he Lake District, t he Upper S iluriansystem is re resented by slates and sandstonesproducing hi ly country in t he south of t he area.

The southern u lands of Scotland, a picturesqueregion largely evot ed t o sheep - farming, consis tmainly of Upper S ilurian rocks. Some cultivation is carried on in t he long alluvial val leys,but much of t he country , even at a low level, isp ure moorland, and t he few roads that traverseit have t he character ofmountain passes. Granitebosses have penet rated these S ilurian beds, andadd importan t features t o t he southern landsea es. A large part is played by t he shalesan grits of t he B IRKH ILL SER IES , which are of

L landovery age. Tarannon , Wenlock, and Ludlow rocks succeed one another in this area.

In Ireland, t he areas of Upper S ilurian rock

are much more extensive than was formerly supposed. In t he region from Longford t o t he northof Co. Down , representatives of t he Birkhill

S eries occur, revealing inliers of Lower S ilurian rocks beneath them. The country is hummocky and irregular, and t he ground, formedof slates and hard sandstones, has been diffi cultt o cultivate. The N ewry granite forms a ridgein t he centre, and t he Cainoz oic granite of t he

M ourne Mountain s also breaks through thisarea. In t he Killary H arbour area, UpperS ilurian rocks appear in a mountainous country,which is contrasted wit h t he Carboniferous lowland t o t he east . Several of t he inliers amongt he Old R ed Sandstone domes of t he centre and

south of Ireland reveal shales and sandstonesof Llandovery age. These weather down moreeasily than t he surrounding Old R ed Sandstone,and form broad u land basins, occupied as

farm lands, shu t in by more forbidding hills.[0. A. J. c .]

S ILUR IAN SO ILS .—A not inconsiderable por

tion of the S ilurian area of t he British Isles isan unenclosed waste, or at best only suitablefor rough pasturage, while, on t he other hand,much of t he land on this formation has beensuccessfully cultivated, and in fact includes someof t he best- farmed district s in t he kingdom.

The southern uplands of Scotland, which arecomposed of Upper and Lower S ilurian rocks,but mainly of t he former, do not furnish soilsof very great fertili t y. At t he greater ele

vat ions they are cold and poor, but at lowerlevels

,although abounding in coarse, stony ma

t erial, land of a better descri tion may be found.In Wales t he S ilurian lan is on t he whole of

an inferior type ; w hile t he same may be saidof t he Cumberland distric t ; but t he SkiddawS lates produce a deep soil which bears a bettervegetation than is found on t he soils of t heother Arenig rocks.The Llandilo Series, as developed in Shro

shire and round Caermarthen, forms a lig tfree - working loam well adapted for barley,t urnips, and potatoes, while t he soils of t he

S ilurian System— Silvanus surinamensis

Caradoc sandstones of Shropshire are .of an inferior type, except where l ime is present naturally or has been ap lied t o t he soil under cultivation (Journ. R .A . .E. , 1 85 8, p . The non

calcareous Caradoc lands are frequently coveredwith heaths.Phosphatic mat erial occurs in abundance in

the limestones of Bala age, so that where theserocks outcrop, their influence on t he fertilityof a. district is at once manifest ; for example,t he narrow rich belt of land in Westmorlandext end in from Windermere t o Shap Fell coincides wit t he outcrop of t heConiston limestone(M

‘Connell, A r. Geol., p.Tw o of t he est - farmed coun t ies of Ireland,viz. Down and Wexford, are main ly Silurianareas. The soil of t he former county is a stonyloam of only moderate fertility, but it is farmedso well that it produ ces excellent crops of oats,turnips

,potatoes

,&c. The Wexford soils, hav

ing been enriched by accessions of boulder clayand other superficial deposit s, are of average na

tural fertil ity, and furni sh in places wel l - known

barley soils. The S ilurian rocks of Monaghanand Cavan are very thickly covered with driftderived from t he loca l fine- grained sandstonesand shales ; t he soils on this drift are Strongretentive loams of rather poor qualitExcept where t he rocks include imest one

beds, t he Upper S ilurian strata, as a rule, formcold tenacious clays. Some sandy beds at t het op of t he Ludlow Series form lighter and moreopen soils

,which become fertile loams when

they possess sufiicient lime. In Shropshire t heWenlock Limestone makes very useful tillageland (Journ . 1 85 8, p. [T. E ]S ilva n u s s u rin am e n s is (Linn ) is a

minute beetle which inhabits granaries, feeding

Silvanus surinamensis1 , Beetle. 2, Larva.

upon t he grain. I t is of frequent occurrence instores , where it feeds upon groceries, meal, andalmost all edibles. The larva is a six - legged

,

whitish worm, u wards of a l ine long,w ith

a large head an two longish antennae. Thepupa is smal ler. The beetle is Ii line long,very flat and narrow, of a rusty - brown colour,

Silver Fir

thickly and coarsely punctured,and sparingly

clothed with short, yellow, depressed hairs ; t hehead is large, sub trigonat e ; t he antennae are

stout, straight, and clubbed ; eyes small andblack ; thorax oval, with three ridges down t heback ely t ra long and el liptical

,with eight

elevated lines, having alternate double rows ofpunctures and little shining bristles ; beneaththem are t wo ample w ings ; legs short and

stout ; feet five- jointed.

The female lays her eggs amongst meal,&c.

,

and in t he same place pupation takes place ; t hepupa may lie in a cocoon of meal or may benaked. In this country

,reproduction ceases in

winter,t he beetles hibernating in stores and

granaries. The whole life - cycle varies fromfive t o t en weeks in Britain

,but in America it

may pass through them in twenty- four days.Infested substances are best treated by beingbaked or heated through

,or they may be sub~

ject ed t o t he fumes of bisulphide of carbon witht he exception of flour. [J . c .] [F . v. at ]S ilve r F ir (Abies) is a genus of t he Abletineas tribe of t he nat . ord . Coniferae, t o whichalso belong P ine

,Spruce

,H emlock

,Douglas Fir,

Larch,and Cedar. Like all of these except t he

P ine,it has thin broad cone - scales, becoming

thinner at t he edges. It is an evergreen tree,with single leaves ranged spiral ly around t hetw igs and persistent for several years, and withcones ripening in t he year of flowering. The

Douglas Fir is t he genus having t he closestafiinit y and resemblance t o t he S ilver Fir. Inboth t he leaves are t w o - sided and have t w o

resin - ducts along t he lower surface ; but in Silver Fir t he leaves are sessile and indented at

t he tip (except in A . P insap o), and t he conesare larger and erect

,and shed t he sca les along

with t he seed in autumn ; whereas in DouglasFir t he leaves are petiolat ed and pointed , andt he cones are smaller, pendulous, and with persistent scales, while t he three - pointed flow erbracts are longer than in t he Silver Fir. Andafter the pole- stage of growth has been passed,t he bark of t he S ilver Fir remains whitish and

little fissured , whereas that of Douglas Fir becomes dark and much fissured , though bothexhibit pustules of resin before fissuring takeslace. Over thirty species of S ilver Fir are

nown , of which only four are indigenous t oEurope—t he Common Silver Fir (A . p ect ina ta),t he Crimean (A . N ordmann iana ), t he Grecian(A . cep ha lonica), and t he Spanish (A . P insap o) .N umerous other species have been introducedinto Britain for ornament, of which t he chiefare t he A . grand is, A . concolor, and A . nobilis

(with incurved silvery foliage) from California,and A . P indrow and A . Webbiana from t he

H imalayas. But t he Common S ilver Fir is t heonly s ceies likely t o be grown extensively as

a w oo land crop in Britain. Introduced as an

ornamental tree in 1 603 , it attains over l 2o.

ft .

in height and over 1 7 ft. in girth when growmgisolated ; and these dimensions seem likely t o beexceeded by t he Great S ilver Fir (A . grand is)introduced in 1 83 1 , with longer and less pect inat e feliage, but softer wood. The CommonS ilver Fir is t he largest of European trees, andproduces t he largest crop per acre. As I t has

1 3

a heart - shaped root - system, it needs a fairlydee soil , and thrives best on deep sandy or

fres stiffish loam. It does not do well on w et

land . Its lustrous whitish timber is soft and

l i ht,and much resembles Spruce, along with

w ich it is often sold as‘White Deal ’ from

R otterdam,or else specially as White P ine ’ or

‘Swiss P ine ’. Thou h whiter and softer thanSpruce, it is slightly cavier (Sp . gr. 097 green ,04 7 seasoned) ; but they fetch about t he sameprice, and are equally clean in t he stem whengrown in close canopy, as they both endure sideshade. It is also less resinous, though producing

‘Strassburg turpentine ’. In Bri tain itgrows wel l up t o about 70 years of age, thenfalls off in growth

,and at about 90 t o 100years

becomes overmature and subject t o insect attacks (S irex , Chermes), t he l ice especially beingthen ap t t o infest younger trees, and often t okill them in large numbers. Grown closely itproduces seed from 60 t o 70 years of age cmwards

,good seed years occurring at intervals

of 3 t o 8 years. The seedlings need rot ect ion

from early frosts,and also against rought in

a dry summer. In nurseries this has t o be provided artificially (by branches , screens, butin t he Central European woods natural prot ection is given by regenerating it in groups undert he parent trees

,which are gradually removed

when t he saplings are over 5 t o 6 ft. high and

above fros t level . But as t he young trees standShade well on good soil

,t he removal of t he paren t

trees is often extended over 20 t o 40years,in

order t o gain t he advantage of t he large increment that takes place in t he free exposure t o

l ight and sunshine. In t he mountain forests ofCentral Europe S ilver Fir is thus worked witha rotation of 1 50 t o 1 80years

,with natural re~

generation extending t o about 30years ormore.

In Britain, however, a rotation of about 70years seems l ikely t o offer t he largest profit.It answers better than Spruce for underplanting thin crops of Oak or Larch on good soil

,as

it endures more shade and its leaves persistlonger (5 t o 7 years) . The seedlings are of slowgrowth for t he first 4 or 5 years

,and planting

with 2—year- 3 transplants is therefore betterthan u sing 2- year - 2 plants. Afterwards , how ~

ever,they grow rapidly, and if mixed with

Spruce will usually catch this up and shootahead between 1 5 and 20 years of age. As awoodland crop it is best planted pure in groupson good deep soil in a fairly sheltered position,in parts having a soi l perhaps t oo stiff forDouglas Fir (which is t he only other tree likelyt o furnish a larger and more valuable crop peracre). If young plantations are made, t he plantsshould be pitted at 4 by 4 ft .

,and interplanted

here and there with quick growing nurses t oprotect them (R obinia, Larch , P ine, and Birch),which should be cut ou t when they have suffi

cien t ly fulfilled this task, even if not yet of

fairly marketable S ize. S ilver Fir suffers lessthan Scots P ine, Spruce, or Larch from insectattacks and fungous diseases. Am ong insectst he Bark Louse (Ckermes piceae), t he P ineWeevil(Hy lobius abiet is), and t he large yellow WoodWasp (Sirex gigas) are t he chief pests ; whileamong fungi, Agarions mellens and Fomes anno

1 4 Silver Fir Sinclair

w e attack t he roots, Trametes pini and P esta

lozz ia H art igii, P homa Maya , and E cidiumela tinum t he stem and ranches

,and Tricko

sp kceri ca p arasit ica and Lop lzodermium nervise

%uium t he leaves. I t is a tree that will proably wel l repay planting on a much largerscale than has yet been done in Britain ; and

especially in t he warmer parts . [J . N .]S ilve r Fin—Pa ra s it ic Fu n g i. LEAF

Cu l t—P remature loss of leaves may be a sympt om of frost or smoke damage, but in some casesparasitic fungi play a part. In crowded nurseries and lantat ions one often sees numerousbrown nee les hanging loosely from t he twigs,attached merely by a few fungus filaments.The distinguishing of t he particular fungus atwork requires some skill, but t he action in cansing loss of leaves is a drain on t he tree. N o

successful treatment is known except t o thin ou td iseased trees and t o plant hardwoods .W ITCHES’BROOMS .

—These conspicuousbunchesof erect twigs are frequently seen on S ilver Fir.

The needles are small and last only one year ;they also become coated with yel low aecidiosporesof t he rust- fungus E cid ium elat inum almost assoon as they unfold in sprin These broomsshould be cu t off if sound tim er is desired, because the branch becomes ermeat ed with fungusfi laments and a cankere resinous swelling resu lt s. This fungus has also a teleutospore stage,which lives on Chickweeds and S titchwortsoccurring in t he undergrowth round plantations.STEM R on—Several fungi belonging t o t he

P olypore group effect an entrance throughwounds in stems and roots, and cause decay(see T IMBER - DESTR OY IN G FUN GI) . [w . G. s.]S ilve r M o t h . See PLUS IA GAMMA.

S ilve r We e d . See art . P OTEN TILLA.

S im u l id a , a family of fl ies popularly calledSandflies, Brulots, Turkey and Chicken gnats.

Simulidae—Sandfiies1 , Larva; 2, pupa—bot h magnified. 3, Male; 4. female

- both magnified. 6 , Insect , nat ural siz e

The females torment cattle, birds, and man byentering t he ears and nostrils and alighting ont he eyel ids ; they then bite and suck those parts,creating an insufferable irritation. They swarmin damp places in spring, summer, and autumn.In H ungary, on t he banks of t he Danube, a

species named Simulium columbacscliense is so

great a pest that hundreds of horses and cattleare suffocated by t he fl ies getting into theirwindpipe. The Sandflies are equally annoying

in Africa and South America. In N orth Americathey also swarm, and do a deal of harm t o stock .

In this country, although they are present, they

are not very annoying. The eggs are laid uponwater- plants and rocks

,and t he curious larvae

and pupae (figs. 1 and 2,magnified) live there.

The larvae prefer running water, taking up theirabode, often in dense masses, near cascades andrapids. The pupa (2) l ies in a cocoon of variousshapes with t he head and fi laments prot ruding. The following are t he most troublesome

Tpecies in this country

, and they are all one lineong z

S . rep tans—The male is black ; head

whitish in front ; thorax with gilded tomentum,

sides white, and an int errupted white band infront. Legs dark ; wings l impid. Female blackwith ashy tomentum ; sides of t horax silvery,and a white spot on each side in front.S . macula tum —Deep - black ; thorax

w ith short hairs,a cinereous tomentum over

thorax and part of abdomen . H ead black , whitebeneath. Legs entirely brown. H alteres darkin t he male, yellow in t he female.

S . la tip es (Meig.) is black, clothed with goldenhairs ; t he legs are reddish ; t he fore shanks white.

N o others occur in Britain (S . orna tum and S .

nanum). [J . c.] [F. v. T.]S in c la ir, Georg e ( 1 786 agricu l

tural writer, w as born at Mellerstain ,in Ber

w ickshire. H e came from a long line of gar

demers, many of whom were noted men in theirday . When comparatively young he w as appointed gardener t o t he Duke of Bedford at

Woburn Abbey, and it was here that t he greatwork of his life w as originated and carried ou t .

By instruction from t he Duke, and under t heguidance of that master of science, _

SirH umphryDavy, S inclair conducted an extensive series ofexperiments, t heresul t s of which were publishedin a costly fol io entitled H ort us Gramineus W0

burnensis,oran Account of t he results of experi

ments in t he P roduce and N utritive Quali t ies ofdifferent Grasses and other P lants used as t heFood of t he more valuable Domestic Animals ;London, 1 8 1 6. A large part of t he work istaken up in giving a description of t he grassesand other plants experimented on, and in t hefirst edition t he illustrations were dried specimens of t he grasses themselves. The resultsof t he experiments were useful for purposes ofcomparison ; bu t as they were not actual feed ingexperiments, but analyses of t he hot -water extract of t he differen t plants, they cannot betaken as giving t he actual feeding value of t hepastures. After serving t he Duke for seventeenyears, S inclair entered into part nership with a

firm of seedsmen at N ew Cross,Deptford

,where

he died in his forty- eighth year,in 1 834. H is

fol io attracted world-wide attention and gainedhim many honours. H e was

,before his death ,

made a Fellow of both t he Linnean Society andof t he R oyal H orticultural Society, as well asof other botanica l organiz ations. H e ublishedand edit ed a number of other works ; u t whilet he fame of these has been dimmed

, yet t he fameof t he historic H ort us Gramineus still remainsverdant. [A , M ]S in c la ir, S ir J o h n (175 4 founder

S ingling R oot Crops—S iphonophora granariaand first President of t he Board of Agriculture,w as born at Thurso Castle, in Caithness. Educat ed for t he Bar, he early entered t he politicalarena and soon forged his w ay t o t he frontrank as a olit ician . H is greatest work wast he est ablis ing of t he Board of Agriculture, ofwhich he was twice P resident ( 1 793—8 , 1 806H is interests were not wholly centred at Westminster

,however

,for he did much t o improve

methods of farming not only on his own estatesbut all over Scotland. Worthy of Special men

tion also is his work as President of t he SpecialCommittee of t he H ighland Society for investi

gating t he comparative merits of t he wool ofifferen t breeds of sheep. H e w as made a

baronet in 1 786. S inclair w as a voluminouswriter, and published many works on legal

,

financial, and agricultural subjects ; and it wasthrough his efforts that t he great StatisticalAccount of Scotland ( in 21 vols.) w as compiled.

[A . M .

S in g l in g Roo t C rone —Certain faimroot crops, such as turnips, carrots, and mangolds

,have an excess of seed sown , and then by

hoe or by hand t he plants are reduced til l theystand sufii cien t ly far apart t o permit of theirmaximum growth . All crops require a certainspace fortheir ful l development

,and any increase

or decrease of t he plants above or below whatis required tends t o reduce t he crop. Turnips,swedes, mangold, beet, and cabbages are usual lysingled when t he young plants are from 2 t o

3 in . high,and t he work is not only better but

more expeditiously erformed if t he plants arethin but uniform. t t he proper stage

,one per

son can usually single an acre in from thirty t ofifty hours

,much naturally depending on t he

expertness of t he workman , t he stage in whicht he plants are, t he cleanness of t he land, t heclass of soil , and t he care with which t he workis done. When singling turnips, &c ., t he workman uses a light hoe set at right angles t o t hehandl e

,which should be from 5 5 t o 6 ft. long.

With such a hoe he strikes ou t t he superfluousplants and weeds both by thrusting and drawing

,and thereby not only saves time, but does

su erior work, as he leaves t he excess on bothsi es of t he drill . Dril ls have t o be varied inwidth according t o crop, soil, and cl imate, butwith mangolds in 26 t o 27 - in . drills t he plantsdo very wel l about 12 in. apart. Turnips areusually in drills 27 t o 28 in . wide, and accordingt o variety the plants may be from 1 2 t o 1 4 in .apart. Some crops, such as carrots, do not singlewell with t he hoe, and they are in consequencegenerally done by hand. In Scotland, wherethis cr0p is extensively grown, it is usually sownwith t wo rows on each drill, t he rows beingabout 5 in . apart. Under such circumstances,singling with t he hoe is quite impossible. The

singling is therefore done by hand, t he plantsbeing left from 3 t o 5 in . a art , according t o t hestage at which it is intendedthat t he crop shouldbe marketed. Wh en carrots are sown In singlerows on t he flat , and not ridged up as with turnips or mangolds, they are usually left a littlecloser than where there are double rows on a

raised drill . [J . s .S ip h oc ory n e c a p rese (t he Small Willow

1 5

Aphis), a very abundant aphis on willows andosiers of all kinds. It is found swarming on t heleaves and even shoots, s

ploiling t he young rods

by causing distortion . T e W ingless viviparousfemale is oblong and green , and coarsely punct ured . The winged viviparous female is green ,with dark - brown head, a band on t he prothoraxand another behind, t he rest of t he thorax blackish ; t he abdomen has olive- green bars ; t he cor

nicles longand deep - olive green apex ofabdomenattenuated ; antennae thin and black ; legs palegreen with brown tibiae and tarsi ; t he rostrumreaches t o the second coxae. Little can be donefor t he destruction of this pest in osier beds, bu ton ornamental willows itmay be easily destroyedby washing t he trees with soft soap and quassia.

I t s life- history is unknown. [F. v. T.]S ip h o n o p h ora (Long- S iphon Aphides), alarge and very important genus of P lan t lice or

Aphididae with a long rostrum,very long anten

nae,at least as long as t he whole body, seated

on distinct frontal tubercles. The cornicles arealways long or very long, and t he legs long andslender. The males are winged, and t he ovi

parous females appear t o be mainly apterous.The males can be told from t he winged femalesby having smal ler abdomens, longer antennae,and larger wings. Many are very harmful t ocrops and flowers. Some of t he more importantare mentioned here. [E v. in]S ip h o n o p h o ra g ra n a ria ( the CornAphis).—This green fly or dolphin is found on

Siphonophora granaria—Corn Aphis

1 , 2, Male, magnified and nat ural siz e. 3 , 4, Female,magnified and nat ural siz e. 5 , 6, 7 , 8 , Flies (magnifiedand nat ural siz e) destructive of aphides by puncturingand deposit ing eggs.

all cereals and on many wild grasses, and alsoon Polygonum. In some seasons it is most harmful

,and lessens t he yield of corn t o a very con

siderable extent. The injury is twofold : first,t he plan t lice suck away the sap from t he blades,and later they swarm in t he ears and draw ou t

t hemoisture from t he developing kernels. Whenon t he cars they insert their rostra j ust at t hebase of t he grains. Sometimes they occur in

1 6

such numbers that t he ear becomes one mass oflice. Some damage also seems t o be done by t heactual unct ures of their beaks. They go on

doing amage until the grain gets t oo hard forthem t o puncture. A curious sickly yellow colourresults in t he attacked ears.The apterous viviparous female is somewhat

oval, wholly green or brownish - green, withbrownish antennae ; t he cornicles are lon and

shiny,brown in colour ; t he eyes are re t he

legs stout, femora and tibiae ochreous, t he latterblack at t he tips, also t he tarsi.These go on producing living young until wellinto July

,when t he l ice turn into pupae. As

t he corn hardens, winged viviparous femalesoccur and go on until t he corn is ripe. The

winged female is pale- greenish - brown t o rustyyellow ; t he thorax brown with darker areas ;t he oval abdomen shining- green with four wellmarked black dots, and there are three largeblack dot s on each side. Cornicles long, black,thickest at t he base ; legs ochreous, with blackknees and t arsi ; t he transparent wings are greenat t he base, and t he veins are brown . Theymainly attack t he late wheats. The female laysits eggs on various wild grasses, and is thoughtalso t o live at t he roots of winter wheat in t hewingless stage. All that can be done for thispest is t o keep down all wild rasses near, as faras possible, and t o scarify t e fields after anattack . [F. v. r.]S ip h o n op h ora p is i ( t he Pea Aphis), one

of t he commonest field green fly, and frequentlyvery harmful t o field and garden peas. Itclusters in thousands on t he blossom stalks andcauses t he death of t he blossom,

and even whent he peas are in young pod does enormous damage. These insects also feed on various wildLat hyri, and on Spiraea and Capsella. Theyare large green aphides. The only trea tmen t isknocking them off on t o t he ground and de

stroying them,or spraying with soft soap and

quassia, or jarrin them off garden peas intojars of paraffin an soap.

Various others do damage, such as t he Ger

aniumAphis (S . pelargonii) on geraniums, calceolarias, malvas, and chrysanthemums, &c. , and

,

both under glass, t he S t rawberry Aphides (S .

fragarice and S . fi'

agariella). Those that occurunder glass , as the t wo latter, may be destroyedby fumigation wi t h tobacco. [F . v. T. ]S ip h o n o p h o ra rosae ( t he R ose Aphis).—This is t he commonest of t he three roseaphides,which are an incessant plague t o t he rose grower.It occurs on t he teazle as well as t he rose, a

migration taking place between t he tw o plants.They damage t he rose by sucking ou t t he sapof t he shoots, leaves, and unopened blossoms,frequently kil lin t he shoots, and at other timescausing deforme blossoms. This species clustersin dense masses, and is special ly noticeable fromM ay t o July, and again in t he autumn and on

into t he winter in sheltered places, t he in t ervening time being spent on t he teazle. This aphisvaries in colour, some being green, a few dirtyred or ferruginous. It is quite possible thatthese t wo forms are distinct but closely alliedspecies. The apterous female is normally green ,bu t may be ferruginous-red , smooth, with long

Siphonophora p isi—Sirex gigas

GiantWoodWasp (Sirea: gig as)—Femalelength in t he female

,often l é in .

, rather less int he male ; t he head is black, with a large yellowspot behind t he eyes ; t he abdomen in t he maleis reddish - yellow, with t he first and last segmentsblack, in t he female t he second and third posteriorsegments are yellow, t he rest deep - black ; t helegs are black, with yellow knees. The abdomenin t he female ends in a strong blunt point

, andbeneath it is an ovipositor which is long anddark, lying in a yel lowish sheath. The antennaeare yellow in both sexes

,in t he female a little

more than half t he length of t he body,in t he

male nearly as long as t he body. The four largemembranous wings have a brownish tinge. The

cornicles, somewhat curved, expanded at t he

base and black at t he tips ; legs long, yellowishgreen

,with black knees and t arsi eyes red . The

pupal stage has brown wing -buds, and is often

ferruginous on t he dorsum, with four spots oneach side. The winged females arising fromthese have t he head and thorax blackish ; eyesred ; cornicles black and shiny. Legs yel low,with black knees and t arsi. The oviparousfemale is long

, oval, and redd ish. The male iswinged and very rare.

The eggs are laid at t he base of t he leaf - buds,and are glued on t o t he twigs ; each female maylay as many as five ova

,which occur in winter.

At t he same time,living viviparous females may

go on producing young in warm Spells ofweather,especially on roses against wall s. This speciesis found on wil d as well as cultivated roses.Tw o other Species of S iphonophora occur on

t he rose. One is S . d irl wda , which migratest o grasses and wheat

,and is found on young

rose shoots. Th is is a yellowish - green aphis.The other is S . rosarum, which can be to ld at

once by being hairy in t he apterous viviparousfemale.

Trea tment of rose aphides is simply sprayingwi th soft soap and quassia or nicotine. Paraffinemulsion should never be used

,as t he caustic

effects of t he paraffin are often as harmful ast he aphis. [F v. 'r.]S irex g ig as (t he Giant Wood Wasp)This large hymenopteron reaches over 1 in. In

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1 8

t o tares. The next species is t he chief pea and

bean pest—F. v . T.]S it o n es l in e a t u s , Linn. ( t he Striped Peaweevil) (fig. 3 shows natural size of large female ;4, one magnified). Being much more abundant,this is a more formidable enemy in t he pea fieldthan t he foregoing species. In form it is similart o S . crinitus

,but it is covered with scales of

a clay - ochre colour,oft en tinted with copper

or green . As t he weevils grow old these scaleswear off

,and their backs are then black and

shining. The eyes are black and prominent ;t he antennae slender

,of a tawny colour, brownish

at t he extremity ; thorax dee ly punctured withthree pale l ines down t he bac wing cases withtwenty punctured furrows ; t w o ample wingsbeneath ; they have six short strong legs, of

a tawny or rust colour.The weevil s come forth w ith t he warm andsunny days of March

,having hibernated in all

manner of places ; and in A pril their ravagesare daily, often hourly apparent, clearing ofl

'

,

foot after foot, t he finest plants from 2 t o 4 in.high

,repeated sowings suffering t he same fate ;

and when t he peas, and t he beans also, are moreadvanced, they notch t he leaves, as shown inil lust ration (fig. They prefer t he white t ot he grey peas. They feed all day , but are onlyfound on still dry days. On dull, cold, and

windy days they shelter under clods of earth,

stones,&c . If approached with great caution,

they may be seen feasting upon t he tender budsand edges of t he leaves ; on t he slightest alarm,

however,down they fall and lie as if dead

amongst t he clods, which are so nearly of theirown colour that t o detect them is very d iflicult ,until they stretch ou t their legs t o recover theirfeet. They usually fall on their backs and feigndeath.Their ravages seem t o be confined t o what aretermed papilionaceous plants ; for t he weevilscommence wi th t he peas, then they attack t hebeans

,and finally resort t o t he lucerne and

young clover crops, where they congregate inmyriads

,notching and ridd l ing t he leaves until

t he a proach of winter ; and they are oftenabun an t on t he furze and broom.

The beetles lay their e gs either upon or j ustunder t he soil close t o tie roots of their foodplants. The eggs hatch into small white footless maggots which feed upon t he roots of peas,beans

,clover, and lucerne, also sainfoin. The

larvae when ful l - grown measure about i in . inlength, and then pupate in an earthen cell .The adults also hibernate in numbers in barleystacks and in stubble, but chiefly in hedgerowsand amongst rubbish. It is these hibernatorsthat attack t he early peas and bean s and deposit their eggs near their roots. From theseeggs larvae appear which mature by t he end

of May and in June, and they give rise t o t hesummer brood of beetles. A large number ofthese lay eggs upon t he roots of clovers andl ucerne, upon which they live all t he winter.These winter larvae often do much harm t o

clover,and may give rise t o beetles in March

or not until May or June. Thus this beetlewinters in t w o ways. The maggots bore channels along t he main roots, and are also said t o

S it ones lineatus Skim M ilk

feed upon t he nodular growths found on the

roots of leguminous plan t s .Two other species are often harmful , namely

Sitones kisp t'

du lus,Fab .

,which is common on

clover in sandy districts, a black weevil covered

with fuscous- brown scales, the eyes flat and not

rominen t as in S . crinitus. S itones humera lz’

s,

t e h . , is also abundant in t he south of Englan on trefoils. I t is like t he receding, buthas a pale patch on each side of t e wing cases.P revention and R emed z

'

es.—In field cultivation

t he only things that can be done are first t oprepare a fine tilth, and secondly t o rol l t heyoun plant with a light wooden rol ler, followe by a good dressing of soot. In t he garden

, rows of attacked peas may with advantagebe covered with fine earth such as is discardedfrom hothouses

,or with sand. Spraying t he

rows wi t h arsenical washes has also been foundt o be beneficial . Great numbers of beetles areoften noticed in t he carts when barley is harvested and when it is being threshed ; theseshould be col lected and destroyed. Infestedclover leys should be deeply ploughed with a

skim coulter on t he lough and wel l pressed .

Summer fal lowing ofpland after an attack is

desirable. [J . c .] [r. v .

'r.]S it o t rog a. ( S c a rd ia ) g ra n e l la ( t he

Grain M oth).—This small moth, one of t he

Tineinae,is often harmful t o stored cereals in

Europe and America. In this country it attacks stored grain

,but it is also sa id t o attack

grain in t he field. The damage is done byt he small caterpillar

,which goes from grain t o

grain, and these it spins together with its silkenwebbing. It is said as many as twenty or thirtygrains are ruined by one caterpillar, but muchmore is really harmed

,as they move all over

t he grain when nearing maturity and covermasses with their silk . The moth is a l ittleless than Q in . in wing expanse ; t he fore wingsare creamy-white, and have deep - rich - brownspots

,six on t he costa

,and on t he inner margin

a brown oblong spot. When at rest t he wingsclose like a roof over t he body, with t he fringecurved upwards. Besides corn they are said t oattack timber, books, woollen stuff, &c. Staint on records t he moth in September and October ; it also occurs in April and May . In warmgranaries it has been found all t he winter.

Preven t ion and trea tmen t consists first of allin thoroughly cleansing t he granaries by sweeping ou t all refuse

,not only on t he floor

, bu t onwalls

,roof

,&c.

In dark granaries t he moth may be killed inenormous numbers by placing a bright light inthem in May , or again in September orOctober.The moths fly t o t he light and are burnt. Otherplans adopted are kiln ~drying t he affected grainat about 89° F.

, and fumigating with disulph ideof carbon as for grain weevils. The main thingis cleanliness. [r. v . r ]S k im M ilk—The term ‘skim milk ’ is applied t o milk from which t he bulk of t he creamas been removed ; so that skim milk differsfrom whole milk practically only in t he percentage of fat . Skim milk is t he by - product int he preparation of market cream or in buttermaking where only t he cream is churned. Two

Skim M ilk—Skim -milk Cheese

distinct methods of removing t he cream are prac

t ised : ( 1 ) by taking t he milk warm from t he

cow and setting it in pans, allowing t he fatglobules t o rise t o t he surface under t he actionof gravity ; (2) by subjecting t he milk t o centrifugal force in t he cream separator. The skimmilk obtained by t he gravity method is termedskimmed milk ’, and that obtained by t he cent rifugal method ‘separated milk The d ist inction is chiefly one of degree. In skimmed milk

,

w ide variations are found in t he percentageof fat,

which may vary from '

4 t o over 2 per cent, according t o t he temperature and other conditionsunder which t he milk is set

,t he size of t he fat

globules in t he milk,and t he care or skill in t he

removal of t he cream . M uch lower percentagesare found in separated milk : with modern ma

chines there need not be more than 1 per cent,and t he limits ‘05 t o '

3 per cent are very rarelyoverstepped. By t he gravity method t he milkstands for twenty- four hours or longer

,and t he

solids not fat become partially changed by t heaction of micro- organisms. In t he centrifugalmethod t he milk is separated in a perfectlyfresh condition

,so that t he solids in t he sepa

rated milk are practically unchanged. By t hecentrifugal method many of t he germs and fi lthparticles are driven against t he wall of t he separator bow l and removed in t he separator slime,but in t he gravity method most of t he solidimpurities remain in t he skim milk .

By removal of most of t he fat , t he percentagesof t he other solid constituents in milk are

slightly raised in amount. The following maybe given as t he average composi t ion of skimmilk and separated milk respectively

SkimM ilk.

Wat er 898 5 percen t

Fat 0‘

75

A lbuminoid mat t erMilk sugar

A sh

The specific gravity at 1 5°C. of skim milk is

1034,and of separated milk

Skim milk contains all t he nutritive qualitiesof t he milk except t he fat ; an average of 96

per cent of dry matter, practically t he whole ofwhich is digestible. The Board of Agriculturein 1 901 made a regulation t o t he effect that‘where a sample of skimmed or separated milkother than condensed milk contains less than9 per cen t of milk solids it shal l be presumedfor t he purposes of t he Sale of Food and DrugsAct, until t he contrary is proved, that t he milkis not genuine ’. On account of its high nutritive qualities skim milk is a valuable foodstuffeither forhuman consumption or for animals.The market value varies very widely. Being

a dilute and heavy commodity , t he cost of transport t o any distance is comparatively great, andt he best returns are obtained where it can beretailed locally. Skim milk is used also in t hemanufacture of margarine, but t he manufac

t urers prefer t o purchase t he whole milk and se

parate t he cream for themselves. Casein of milkin t he dried or in other forms is used very extensivcly in t he arts and manufactures, and is most

1 9

readily and cheaply obtained from fresh separated milk . Condensed skim milk is also prepared and put on t he market on an extensivescale

,large quantities being imported into this

country annually . Skim or separated milk supplemen t ed with suitable meals is a capital dietfor calves after a few weeks old , and for growing and fattening pigs. There is a popularfavour for skim milk as against separated milkfor this purpose, on account of its higher contentsin solids. But t he separated milk is t he sweeterand more wholesome article

,having undergone

less fermentation in its preparation . [W. S t ]S k im -m ilk C h eese , as its name implies,is cheese made w ith milk from which t he fathas previously been abstracted. The product

,

though poor in fat and lacking that mellowflavour and meatiness characteristic of cheesemade fromwho lemilk

,is nevertheless

,when pro

perly made,a wholesome and nutritious article

of diet. In many parts of America t he makingof sk im -milk cheese is largely practised

,espe

cially among cotta ers,where it is known by

t he names of Du t ci cheese, cottage cheese, or

Schmierka’

se. The American method is as follows : t he milk is allowed t o sour

,but if desired

this can be hastened by keeping at a temperature of about 80° F. until coagulated. It mustnot be allowed t o stand t oo long

,or t he curd

will become soft and mushy in consistency andsour in flavour. After coagulation

,gradual ly

raise t he temperature and stir t he curd,thus

breaking it into smal l ieces,so that t he mois

ture is more easily and)

rapidly expel led . Thetemperature should be raised t o 120° F .

,while

t he stirring is continued until t he curd is suflicien t ly firm, after which it is allowed t o settle.

The whey is then run off,and t he curd laced

in a cloth strainer, w hich may be sus en ed,so

that t he excess of whey is allowed t o rain fromt he curd. This may be assisted by occasionalstirring. When sufficiently dry t he curd issalted, and put up in various forms for t hemarket. Cheeses so made are acid in character.In this country t he process of manufacture

resembles very closely that of t he Scotch Cheddar. There are

,however, several important and

essential points of difference,which must be

carefully studied in order t o obtain cheese of

good quality. The quality of skim -milk cheesedepends largely on t he amount of moisture ret ained . Th ere should be about 75 per cent inthe curd, and this produces a smooth cheese ofgood texture. Above this amoun t it is ap t t obe soft and sticky, while with less moisture itis harsh

,dry

, and gritty.In making

,allow t he milk t o stand at a t em

perat ure of from 80°t o 85

°F. until sufficient

acid has developed,then add enough rennet t o

coagulate in from twenty - five t o thirty minutes.When firm enough t o cut

,use t he perpendicular

and horizontal knives as in t he Cheddar,but do

not cut so fine, t he object being t o retain a largeamount of moisture. For t he same reason

,also

,

lower t he temperature of t he scald

,which should

not exceed 90 F .

The amount of acidity in t he curd at t he timeof drawing t he whey is also an important point,and like spring-made cheese

,considerably less

20

should be al lowed than with ordinary summermade Cheddars. This may increase t he lengthof time required t o mature before milling, butt he extra moisture retained very materially assists t he ripening process . Do not remove t hecurd when t he whey has been drawn, but pileit up on each side of t he vat

,t o begin with.

Afterwards t ie it into a cloth and al low it t o lieuntil ready for milling. After milling, leave itt o mature well before salting, in order t o obviateits tendency t o Openness and toughness. M ixsalt uniformly and stir un t il ful ly dissolved.

As t he curd contains little or no fat , less saltwil l be required. Instead of from 2 t o 2§ lb.

salt t o 100lb. curd,as in t he Cheddar, use from

1 t o 1 ; per 100 lb. After adding salt, keep upt he t em erat ure at 80

°F. until placed in t he

hoops. f t oo cold, more especially in t he ab

sence of fat , it is diffi cult t o get t he particles t oadhere. When put into press, allow ressure t o

be light for t he first few hours, an gradual lyincrease. This gives a better separation of t hesurplus moisture. The temperature of t he curing room should be higher than forwhole-milkcheese

,and should range from 65 ° t o 75 ° F.

K. R .]S k in Disea se s .

—A number of eruptiveskin diseases which are called exanthemata,blossom ou t from specific cons t itutional mala~

dies such as smal lpox,cow pox, foot- and -mouth

disease,or from local irritations, or, as in urti

caria, from quite evanescent disturbances of t hedigest ion or circulation. Of t he primary exanthema w e find examples on t he nude skin of

t he dog and cat,and with more difficulty upon

larger animals ; t he marks being due either t oanomalous conditions of t he bloodvessels, or t owhite

,yel low, brown , or black pigmentation .

A simple redness either in circumscribed areasor generally over t he hairless skin , as whena dog is picked up ou t of t he snow

,is known

as erythema, and may quickly pass or resultlater in some vesicular eruption which wouldbe called eczema. R ecognition of patches ofdiscoloration and their significance is of reat er

importance than t he student, impatient ofscient ific verbiage, is at first willing t o concede ; as,for instance, t he haemorrhagic patches under t heskin may be diagnostic of that frequently fataldisease purpura haemorrhagica, or of sympt omatic anthrax (see BLACK QUARTER ). Petechialspots or ecchymoses (diffuse haemorrhagic) aresymptoms of blood diseases

,as scarlatina, and

must be distinguished from pigmentation, so

frequently seen in t he dog, and for some unex

plained reason most commonly in dogs withany blueness in their coats. N odules or papulesare elevations of t he skin of varying size andpropinquity

,and are d ue either t o local inflam

mation and new tissue formation,or t o retained

secretions. Common examples are found undert he col lar and harness of horses where t he sweatglands are interfered with by pressure

,while

inflamed by retained salts and debris ; finally,

t he papule or nodule, which might be called apimple but for t he confusion in t he lay mind, isdistinguished from t he vesicle by containing nofree fluid . T he so- called blind boils which nevercome t o a head, and , if not worried, slowly dis

Skin Diseases

appear,are true pimples orpapules. The vesicle

is a blister in miniature, or, putting it t he otherway about

,a blister is a large vesicle. It may

be of any size, and has some sort of relation t ot he size of t he species of animal . The vesiclesof simple eczema will be very much larger ont he thighs of t he ox than on those of t he littledog or cat . They are, however, constitutedalike. The pustule is an accumulation of pusu nder the epithelium in like manner t o that ofa vesicle, but caused by suppurative infection.It may be first observed as a pustule, or havepassed through t he vesicular stage, as in t hevarious forms of variola ( see PUSTULATION ).The s ecific eruptions, l ike cow pox, have certainwel l efined periods

,beginning with an elevation

of t he skin and then cons t ituting papules, nextvesicles, then pustules, and finally undergoingresolution and desquamation of t he cuticularcovering. The presence of any skin elevations,when infectious diseases are rife, wil l call forspecial observation on t he part of t he stockowner

,who will be in a fair w ay t o diagnosis

if he keeps in mind t he distinction s w e haveabove attempted. If t he papulations come t onot hing after t he lapse of a given time

,he wil l

know that he has not dealt with cow pox, or

that terrible malady in t he fold , sheep pox.

N ettle rash or blotch (see N ETTLE B A SH ) differsfrom those distensions already mentioned, inbeing a simple serous exudation under t he

surface layers ; and its rapid absorption and

disappearance distinguish it from t he papule,t he vesicle

,and t he pustule.

Eczema under its more common forms hasbeen described (see ECZEMA), but t he bran - and

scale eruption sometimes cal led ‘hunger mangemay here be considered. Although dirt andpoverty, and that absence of fat under t he skinthat denotes health and is recognized as ‘bloom’

by horsemen,are associated with it so much as

t o give t he name of hunger mange, it is notconfined t o t he poor and ill - kempt. There is apersistent accumulation of scales

,having some

thing of t he appearance of bran,bu t more trans

parent and lighter in colour and weight, witht he skin underneath discoloured, hardened, andthickened

, bu t with no more than a slightirri tability

,as evinced by occasional rubbing.

Around t he eyes,inside t he ears

,upon t he neck

,

shoulders, t he elbows,and root of tail

, and int he bends of t he knee and pastern joints it ismost observed, and frequently associated withthat form of eczema known as mal lenders andsal lenders (which see). The disposition is t obecome chronic

,but natural healing or recovery

takes place sometimes in altered circumstancesof life. P ityriasis, or branlike excess of cuticleor scurf, is not necessarily associated with t hedisease above described, bu t seems only like t heexcessive dand ruff of human subjects. Trea tment is either palliative

,by supplying unctuous

materials, as lanoline, and washing with alkaline soaps, which for a time clean t he surfaceby lifting t he partly desquamated cuticle ; or

provocative, by which we mean stimulated intoan acute form, after which repair takes place insome but not all cases. Creolin and t ar havethis effect , as do chrysarobin and ichthyol oint

Skin Diseases—Skye Terrierment. The loss of hair from t he tail, commonlycal led rat - tail , is attributed t o a disease of t he

skin known as chronic impetiginous eczema, andpeculiar t o t he long - haired parts

,including

therefore t he mane. It is frequent in easternEurope, where superstitious objections are heldt o proper hygiene. Too much grooming and

irritation from mane comb and dandy brush,

and frequent washings with soft soa are alsosaid t o ive rise t o this skin trou le whichends in t e loss of hair. The writer is inclinedt o think there is some other reason for rat - tail

,

as no history of disease attaches t o t he manyaffected tails we meet. It may have someassociation with temperament. Certainly i t

occurs in horses with no disposition t o rub ; andthose which do so have usually thick bushytails, merely made ugly by t hehabit

, not bald. The coal - t arpreparat ions are recommended as

a llaying the irritation. A 3 er

cen t carbolic lotion , with a ike

proport ion of glycerine in water,as been found comfort ing t o

it chy subjects. The skin diseasesaffecting t he fiexures will befound under MALLENDERS . The

multiplication of epithelial scalesint o pyramidal and other formsmight be considered here, butw ill bemore conveniently treatedunder t he headin of WAR 'I‘S .

Alopecia, or t he alling- ou t of

hair without any apparent diseaseof t he skin , occurs t o animals ast o men

,and the explanation is

yet t o seek. Bloody sweat isment ioned in some veterinary works,but t he blood does not comethrough t he secretion of the sweatg lands, and it is therefore a misnomer. Some skin bleedings ared ue t o parasites (Filaria. heemorrlzagica), some t osepticaemia,anthrax ,and acute exanthema. Blood8 ot s in single drops upon t he neck, breast, andsiioulders suddenly appear. Ergot, sugar of

lead,and tannic acid internally are advised, and

antiseptic and soothing lotions t o t he skin . Aeu purat ive inflammation of t he skin follicleswi l be found under ACNE. The ringwormscaused by vegetable parasites are describedunder R IN GWORM ,

and suitable treatment advocat ed . There is a contagious form of acnecalled horse ox

,with t he prefix Canadian, as

it w as first 0 served in England on horses import ed from t he Dominion . The filaria and t he

contagious acne, ringworm of different kinds,mange in horses, cattle, and sheep (scab), neednot be considered here, as they are fully dealtwith under their respective headings as infectious parasitic diseases. A gangrenous dermatitis

, or local death of skin, is due t o t he actionof ext ernal irritants. Solar heat and hot drywinds cause gangrene of t he skin of white ani

mals unprotected by saddlery orother coverings.P igmentation afl

'

ords resistance t o other irritants besides t he thermal red rays, and white orlight- coloured horses should not be chosen forcountries within t he tropica l belt. [H . L.]

21

S k y e Te rrier.—Of late years t he popularit y of this ancient Caledonian breed of terrierhas rather diminished, owing t o t he support thathas been accorded t o t he Dandie Dinmont andt he H ard - haired Scottish Terrier. The fact

,

t oo,that t he exhibitors of Skyes have unwisely

encouraged a type of dog that is practicallyunfit t ed for vermin hunting and have neglectedt he working type, has no doubt caused t he

variety t o be regarded more as a lapdog thanas a real terrier, which is much t o be regretted,as t he true Skye is a plucky, useful little dog.

The great difference between t he t w o types ist he coat

,which in t he case of show specimens

is cultivated t o an exten t that renders it asprofuse as that of a Yorkshire Terrier, and

causes t he dog t o be quite unfi t t ed for work

Skye Terrier

underground or above it. On t he other hand,

t he jacket of t he working type of Skye isshort and hard. Consequently it is capable ofkeeping it s owner’s skin rot ect ed from t heeffects of cold and damp, instead of acting asa sponge for t he accumulation of moisture and

impeding t he dog’s movements as t he long onedoes. The skull of t he Skye Terrier is of goodlength , a peculiarity of it being that it isbroader in front than it is at t he back ; t hejaws are powerful , t he teeth large and regular

,

and t he eyes dark and not t oo large. Tw o

shapes of ear are found in t he breed, namely,t he drop, which lie flat t o t he sides of t he

head, and t he prick, which stand up erect andare adorned by a l iberal patch of hair. The

neck is of a nice length , t he body extremelylong, and t he legs very short

, t he front onesbeing straight ; wh ile t he tail, which is nevercut, should be carried rather low . The coat, ifa long one, should be profuse all over t he headand body and quite free from our)

,whilst that

of t he working type is much shorter and veryclose and dense. Steel - grey is themost favouredcolour for show purposes, but some very goodfawns have been exhibited. The averagewei h tis about 1 8 t o 20lb. [v. 55

22

S k y la rk . See LAR K.S la t e , a highly compressed and fissile form

of clay rock. Shale may pass into slate throught he pressure exerted by strata piled upon it .But in most slates t he characteristic partingtakes place along planes that have no connection with those of bedding, and t he latt er mayeven become completely obscured. The particlesof a clay are mostly of a minu tely platy form ,

and are so small that they lie lightly againstone another in all manner of positions, much asthey fell during t he deposition of t he rock as

a sediment. But,when pressure is brought t o

bear upon t he mass in the interior of t he earth,t he particles become squeezed together, the

interstitial spaces are reduced or done awaywith

,and t he tiny platy forms become turned

round until they come t o rest with their broadersurfaces perpendicular t o t he direction alongwhich t he compressing forces act . Any new

minerals, moreover, such as mica, which developduring this process, tend t o grow most easily indirections perpendicular t o that from which t hepressure comes ; and t he rock finally receives anew structure, a cleavage, along which it splitswith more or less regularity. F ine - grainedclays may thus pass into excel lent hard slates

,

like those of N orth Wales. Fossils becomeobliterated , and t he only traces of t he originalbedding may be t he colour- bands crossing t hecleavage

,which are known t o quarrymen as

strip e. Wel l - cleaved slates are of special valuefor roofing

,owing t o t he possibil ity of employ

ing lighter timbering than is required t o carryt he coarser types of tiles. S lates con tainingiron pyrites are t o be avoided, since t he decayof t he minera l may leave a hole right throught he slate. Some well - bedded limestones splitinto layers which can be used for roofing, andare loca lly known as slates. The Cot swoldvillages are largely roofed with picturesque butheavy material of this kind.The soil on slates is similar t o that on shales,though t he material disintegrates more slowly,and yields numerous sharply edged flakes int he subsoil. Commonly a yellow clay soil resu lt s, whatever t he colour of t he originatingslate below . [0. A. J. c.]S la u g h t er—h o u se s .

—The impor tance of

roperly conducted slaughter - houses is now

happily recognized by loca l authorities, butthere are still in t he country many very un

satisfactory buildings in which t he business isconduct ed. The public abattoir has practical lydone away with t he need of private slaughterhouses in our great centres of population ; andthose w ho have seen them must agree that t heplanning and arrangements are excellent, andt he charges so moderate as t o compare advan

tageously with t he rent or maintenance of anyordinary private house for kil l ing animals. For

those w ho would erect ormust maintain slaught er- houses there are a few essentials which mayhere be mentioned. The floor should be hardand unabsorbent, highest in t he middle, withopen gutters. A meta l ring fixed in t he floorat t he time of laying it, is referable t o one int he wall , for pulling down easts, and a catchpit for blood may be inside or out side of t he

Sky lark Slaughter- houses

killing chamber. If it runs through a 6- in .

drain pipe in to a 5 - gallon bucket placed in t hepit or wel l

,it can be better dealt with than if

free in t he wel l itself. The walls should be of

glazed brick for 5 or 6 ft. from t he ground, andt he roof should be 1 5 ft. or more in height, inorder t o afford t he headroom so necessary t ohaul up a heavy carcass and skin it in t he bestposition for t he operator. L igh t should be ad

mit t ed only from t he roof,and that from t he

north - east ; t he building having a south - wes tand north - east aspect

,so that direct sunshine

will not enter. A proper slaughter - house willbe fitted with overhead trolley, on which t hecarcass is simply run along into t he hangingshed, which in public abatto irs is on t he fart herside of a paved court wide enough t o adm ithorses and cart s. A brief description of a model

gublic abattoir

,such as that provided by t he

righ t on Corporation,may be worth while.

There are railway sidings looping up t he wholera ilway system of t he country

,where t he tail

boards of t he trucks come ou t on t he level, andas many as t en can be unloaded at once

,and

t he animals driven into pens opposite,and from

thence into fasting lairs,where they are al lowed

t o remain for forty - eight hours before a lairagecharge is made. Aft er this time a charge of

6d . per day is made for a bullock,3d . for a

ca lf, and 2d . for a sheep or lamb. So - ca lledprivate slaughter - houses can be ren t ed by t helarge butchers ; and public ones are providedwhere everything but t he sticking and skinningknife is lent at t he low charge of 1 3 . for a beast

,

6d . for a ca lf,and 2d . for sheep or lamb. Th is

building is 5 4 ft . by 1 8 ft .

,with eight bays ; t he

crotches for sheep are zinc- lined, and thereforeeasily cleaned . Separate buildings exist forsw ine, with comfortable pens . ‘P i keeping ’is discouraged, but a sensible cou si erat ion is

shown for owners w ho are not forced to glut aful l market, and enjoy much t he same privilegesas they would in their own private slaughterhouses. At Islington and Dept ford, cold storage has been added ; and this, w e think, shouldbe provided in every public abattoir. In t hekilling- house, sticking- down places are made int he floor

,and on a. slope

,so that t he blood runs

in t o a bucket in t he same w ay as described inconnection with cattle and sheep

, and t he car

cas s is run along on rails t o scalding tanks heatedby steam, and a re ulated heat is afforded

, so

that fine-haired breeds can be submitted t o a temperat ure of 1 65

°F .

, or thick coarse-haired onest o 1 75

°F . or 1 80

°F.—a great advantage over t he

uncert ain copper of t he cott ager. From thencet he finished carcass is run on rails t o t he hanging room, where a con le of hundred make no

great show. A tripe ouse with spare boilersis also provided, and t he users pay less thanfuel would cost them at home. There is also a

hide house, Where numbered hooks prevent confusion. Th e large and small intestines are soldwith t he oesophagus

,and a farmer contract s

for t he blood and contents of t he stomach andbowels, wh ich are carted away several miles andutilized as manure. S laughter is permitted at

all hours during t he week at the Brigh ton abatt oir

, and un til t en on Sunday mornings. There

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24

The skin of slugs contains glands which secretea copious mass of slime ; this slime varies somewhat in different species . This slime protectsthem

, and i t can be discharged in quite largequantities at least twice in succession , and thisis done if an irritant is put on their skin . The

most general and destructive slug in Britain ist he Common Grey F ield S lug (Ag7iolimaa: agrest is). It is most prolific, and occurs alike ingarden and field. A single slug may lay as

many as 500 ova during t he year. The eggsare white and opaque and oval

,and are laid in

batches of from six t o fifteen. They hatch infrom three t o four weeks into smal l slugs liket he parent

,but paler in hue. When first hatched

they are no more than in. long. The eggsare laid from May on t o N ovember in t he soiland under stones

,tiles, boards, &c.

,on t he soil.

The adults live through t he winter, taking shelt er under stones, pieces of wood, in t he soil, &c.

If t he weather becomes warm in winter theysoon crawl forth and ea t what they can .

Several other slugs occur and are inj urious,as t he R oot- eating S lug or Bulb S lug (Milan:sowerbii) , which comes ou t only at night. Itfeeds off t he underground parts of plants , andoften attacks bulbs t o a serious extent duringt he day . I t pulls leaves in to t he soil like a

worm. It will also attack insects, earthworms,and smal ler slugs. It is keeled along t he back.

Large Black S lugs (Arion a ter) often reaching4 t o 45 in. in length also occur ; this kind ischiefly seen along dykes and dit ches

,but also

invades gardens and does much harm if it getsamongst seedling plants .The Yellow orH ousehold S lug (Limaxflavus),

a large species,is often found indoors, in cellars,

scul leries,&c . It wil l feed on cream , meat, and

flour. It has a bluish head and ten tacles, andt he body is often speckled .

Th e length of life of slugs is very varied.

Some,such as t he Black S lug, may live for four

or five years.S lugs with a smal l external shell, known as

Testacelles, are beneficial t o some extent, forthey feed on underground insects, bu t at t he

same time destroy t he very useful earthworms.Trea tmen t is very difficult in t he field ; perhaps t he best that can be found is dusting withhot lime on t w o occasions at a few hours’ interval ou a w et day . Vaporit e, a patent preparation , has been found most fatal t o these pes t sif well broadcast and worked into t he soil .On a small scale in gardens slugs may be

trapped by placing hollowed tubers or evenhol lowed oranges near t he aflect ed plants orborders. S lugs may be kept off rows of peasand beans by spreading barley awns over them.

They may also be poisoned by lacing here and

there masses of bran mixed wit arsenic in anyform, such as paris green, or arsenate of lead.

[F . v.S m a l l H o ld in g s . A smal l holding is e

fined by statute t o be ‘an agricultural holdin

gwhich exceeds 1 ao.

, and either does not excee50ac.

,or if exceeding 50ac. is at t he date of sale

or let ting of an annual value for t he purpose ofincome t ax not exceedingSmall holdings have existed in Great Britain

Small Ho ldings

in considerable numbers from t he earl iest times.P rior t o t he be inning of t he 19t h century t heywere undoubt egly more numerous in most partsof t he country than they are at t he present time ;but various causes

,partly legislative and partly

economic, have been responsible for t he absorption of a large number of them. The most recent return of t he d istribution of agricul t uralland in holdings of various sizes (Cd . 8243 of

1 896) shows that, in 1 895 , ac. in GreatBritain consisted of hold ings between 1 and 50ao.

,and that this represented 1 5 er cent of t he

total quantity of agricultural lan If,however,

w e examine t he returns of t he number of agricultural holdings, w e find that about t w o- thirdsof t he total number of holdin s are less than50ac. in extent, t he actual num erof such holdings in 1908 being or 67 per cent of t hetotal number of separate occupations of agricultura l land. It must not

,however, be assumed

that there are nearly smal lholders, int he strict sense of t he term

,in Great Bri ta in.

The returns are swelled by t he inclusion of a

considerable number of smal l residential propert ies which have a few acres attached, butwhich are not farmed for profit

, and t he occu

piers of which are not smallholders in t he ordinary acceptation of that term. The returns received by t he Board of Agriculture show that

,

in 1 907, 94 per cent of t he total number of holdings were farmed for business ’

,and this would

re uce t he number of smal l holdings proper t oOf this number, 88 per cent, or

were rented by their occupiers, leavingas t he number of casant proprietors. Thenumber of smallhol ers is further reduced byt he fact that in some parts of t he country it isno t uncommon for one man t o occupy a numberof different holdings

,which are included as sepa

rate occupations in t he returns.The principal cause of t he diminution in t henumber of small holdings w as t he enclosure of

t he commons, which took place on so large a

scale in t he latter half of t he 1 8th and t he firsthalf of t he 1 9t h centuries. Over ac.

were enclosed between 1 760 and 1 867, or one

third of t he total area under cultivation in t helatter year. While it is no doubt true that t heenclosure of t he commons tended t owards improved methods of agriculture

,it was done at

t he cost of t he small man ,who in most cases

lost his right of turning ou t stock on t he commons and of obtaining free fuel and litter. Inspite of the fact that in t he General EnclosureAct of 1 845 certain safeguards were inserted t oprotect t he rights of peasants and t he small commoners

,w e find that, ou t of ac. which

were enclosed between 1 845 and 1 869, only 2223ac. , or one- third per cent, were allotted t o t helabouring poor. As w as pointed ou t by t heSelect Committee on Small H oldings in 1 890,t he compensation received in t he form of a smal lfreehol could be parted with

,and might pass

ou t of t he smallholding class,whereas t he con

t inuous existence of common rights w as a con

t inuous stimulus t o t he creation and maint enance of small holdings in the neighbourhood ’.Evidence of t he truth of this is afforded by t hefact that where common rights still exist

, as for

Small Holdings

example in t he N ew Forest,a considerable num

ber of small holdings are still t o be found . Adiminution in t he number of smal l holdings

,

especially in t he case of those whose occupierswere also t he owners, w as fostered by the boomin agriculture which occurred in t he 1 9t h cen

tury owing t o t he high prices which were oh

tained for a ricu lt ural produce during t he Cont inen t al an American wars. The result wasa considerable appreciation in t he value of land

,

and many of t hepeasantproprietors were temptedby prices which gave them an income in excessof what they could obtain as cultivators

,and

their holdings were bought by t he adjoininglandl ords . In addition

,t he rage for farming

on a large scale led many landowners t o ado ta policy of consolidation of holdings

,and t e

higher wages obtainable in t he towns attractedt he pick of t he agricultural population t o joint he rural exodus and forsake t he country.

In spite,however

,of all these causes

,there

still remain in certain par t s of t he country a

considerable number of ancient smal l holdingswhich have survived till t he present day . Thisis notably t he case in t he Isle of A xholme inLincolnshire, where t he land is almost entirelyheld by peasant proprietors. In t he parish of

Epworth, ou t of 25 4 holders of land,226, or 89

per cent, hold under 50 ao.,and most of them

are freeholders. The success of these smallholdings is mainly due t o t he fertility of t he

soil, which is especially suitable for growingpotatoes

,and a large number of t he holders

obt ain their whole living from holdings of from10 t o 20ac. In this district exceptional facilities have always existed for small men t o ac

quire land ; there are no large landowners , andthere has been practically no consolidation of

holdings. A man without capital can readilyrent a smal l plot of land, and after a few yearshe is usually able t o save enough t o purchasea holding. Land sells at from £60 t o £70an

acre, and it is estimated that a net profit ofabout £60a year can be' made on a holding of

10ac . There is a strong desire in this districtfor t he ownership of t he land, and tenancy islooked upon as only a stepping- stone towardsacquiring t he freehold.

In recent years there has been in certain partsof t he country a natural development of smal lholdings unaided by legislation. These holdingshave in most cases been a result of t he greatdevelopment of fruit growing and market gardening

,which has been adopted in consequence

of t he low prices of corn . The production of

fruit and vegetables involves closer and moreintensive cultivation than wheat growing, andthis fact makes these industries s ecially sui table t o smallholders ; while t he fai ure of manyof t he large farmers who adhered t o t he tradit ional methods of agriculture placed on t hemarket a quantity of land which t he owners wereonly t oo ready t o let t o small men , w ho couldafford t o pay at least as much and usually morerent t han t he large farmers had done. Typicalexamples of small boldin s which have been so

established may be foun in t he Evesham dist rict in Worcestershire, in t he neighbourhoodof Wisbech in Lincolnshire, at Tiptree in Essex ,

25

at Cals t ock in Cornwall , and at Blairgowrie inScotland. In t he Evesham district more than

ac . are held in holdings of from 1 t o 8 ac .

R ents range from £3 t o £6 an acre, and as muchas £10an acre is paid for good grass orchards.The smallholders mostly rent their holdings

,

and under t he Evesham custom an outgoingtenant obtains from t he incoming tenant fullcom ensat ion for all his improvements. H un

dredsof families in this district are obtainingtheir whole living on holdings of 5 or 6 ac.

,an

it is said that t he various fruit and vegetablecrops grown will yield from £20t o £50an acreper annum. The success of t he holders in thisdistrict is mainly d ue t o t he good soil and t heearly climate

,coupled with t he facilities for t he

disposal of produce,and t he security which t he

Evesham custom ives t o t he expendi t ure of

capital on t he land.The district round Wisbech w as formerly

almost entirely devoted t o wheat growing,but

there are now nearly 5000ac . under fruit withinseven miles of t he town . M ost of this land is int he hands of smallholders

,t he majority of whom

ow n their holdings. N early tons of fruitare dispatched every year fromWisbech station

,

most of which goes t oManchester and t he north ;and t he princi al crops grown are apples

,plums

,

bush fruit,an asparagus.

The smal l holdings at Tiptree, in Essex , whichnumber over 200

,are mostly devoted t o seed

growing, and a man can entirely support himself on 6 ac. About £20an acre is an averagereturn per annum. The success of these holdings has been largely due t o t he presence of a

jam factory, which affords a great deal of workin t he picking season , over a year beingpaid in wages. It is therefore possible fora mant o start with an allotment of 1 rood

,and gradu

ally increase his holding till he is in a osit ion

t o give up working for someone else an devoteall his time t o his ow n holding.At Calstock, in Cornwall, there are a number

of small holdings on which fruit and flowersare grown for t he London market. H ere t he

climate and t he sheltered osit ion result in earlyripening of t he fruit

,and

)

5 ac . is suffi cien t t osupport a family. There are a large number ofsmall freeholds, but much of the land is tenantedat rents varying from £2 t o £5 an acre. The

average price of the best fruit land is from £80t o £100per acre.

At Blairgowrie, in Perthshire, there are some800 ac. under fruit, most of it being in smal lholdings. The climate and soil are speciallysuitable t o the growth of raspberries

,and from

3 t o 5 tons can be grown on 1 ac. One ras

berry grower is said t o have made a total pro tof£492 from 1 ac. of land in nine years. Althought he average rent of agricultural land is not morethan 303 . an acre, as much as £10an acre is paidfor land leased for fruit growing.It may be asked why it is that

,in view of

these and other instances of successful smal lholdings, t he system has not been much morewidely extended, and what is t he need for anylegislative interference in t he matter. It must,however, be remembered that t he causes whichhave led t o t he destruction of so many small

26

holdings in t he past have no connection witht he question of their economic success, and thatwhere they have been re- established in recentyears it has been mainly on account of t he factthat in those districts it has been possible t oacquire smal l plot s of land in t he open market.The diffi culty of obtaining land has been at t heroot of t he question, for there is no

‘ doubt of

t he existence of t he demand, and no reason whysmal l holdings should not be successful in manydistricts where they are at present practica llynon - existent.In recent years there has been an increasingtendency among pol iticians t o take whatevermeasures may be necessary t o associate a largernumber of persons with t he cultivation of land,and t o make it ossib le for any man with t henecessary capital

)

and experience t o obtain a

small holding if he desires t o do so. By thismeans it is hoped t o arrest t he rural d epopulation

,and t o afford a career in this country t o

those members of t he agricultural opulat ion

w ho in t he past have t oo often been riven intot he towns or emigra ted t o t he Colonies. The

Smal l H oldings and Allotments Act, 1 908 , hastherefore been passed with t he object of facilitating t he acquisition of land by County Councils,t o be sold or let in small holdings at such a priceor rent as will merely recoup t he outlay of t heCouncil ; and under this Act over ac.

have already been acquired for some 5000smallholders.The question w hether a large extension of

small holdings wi ll result in a more economicu se of t he land and in a greater productivityof t he soil is one of t he first import ance. It isa matter on which it is unwise t o generalize ;but a st udy of t he smal l holdings which havesurvived from t he past, and of those which havebeen established in recen t years, j ustifies t hebel ief that smal l holdings not only resul t inmore intensive cultivation and larger production

,but that they also involve a greater amount

of labour and t he application of a largeramountof capital t o t he land. Further, there is evidence that where smal l holdings are common ,not only is t he rural exodus arrested, but anactual increase of population takes place. Inaddition , t he value of land shows a considerableappreciation , and smal l men can afford t o payrents double or treble t he amount formerly paidby t he large farmers. This wil l have been apparent by t he instances mentioned above ; bu t itmay be interesting t o give an i llustration fromsome smal l holdings recently established on poorland, and on which no special form of cultivation

,such as fruit growing ormarket gardening,

is adopted .

In 1 906 a farm of 91 7 ac. at Burwell, in Cambridgeshire, which had been for t wo years farmedby t he Crown , was cut up into 83 small holdings.23 7 ac. are let in quite small holdings t o 71 t enants, who use their holdings as adj uncts t o theirother occupation ; and t he remaining 680ac . are

let t o 1 2 tenants, all of whom are resident ontheir holdings and obtain their whole l ivingfrom them. The following figures have beenobtained from these 1 2 residen t tenants. The

number of horses they owned increased from

Small Holdings

33 in 1 906 t o 48 in 1 909. Cattle increased from66 t o 206, pigs from 122 t o 249, and poultry from267 t o 63 7 . The amoun t expended on purchasedfeedingst ufi

'

s was £75 3 in 1 908 and £1 1 41 in1 909

, £777 has been spent on new implementsand machinery, and t he amount paid for hiredlabour increased from £846 in 1 908 t o £1 1 1 5 in1909. The turnover of t he loca l co- operativestores has increased by over £1000 in t he lastt wo years, 50 new cottages have been built int he village, and it is estimated that t he popu lation has increased by at least 200since t he lastcensus. At t he rent audit of t he small holdingsin 1 909 every penny of rent d ue was punctuallypaid, and there were no arrears.That there are certain diffi culties in t he w ay

of t he successful creation of smal l holdings wil lbe denied by no impart ial student of t he question . Any at tempt t o transplant on a largesca le town dwellers t o the country, and t o ex

ect them, without previous experience or careu l training, t o make a l iving in so technica l aprofession as agriculture, would be foredoomedt o failure, though it is permissible t o hope thatt he offer of land in small holdings will succeedin bringing back t o t he land some pro ort ion of

t he rural population who have alrea y driftedinto t he towns. It is certain, however, that a

j udicious extension of small holdings w ill domuch t o keep in t he country a number of men

who might otherwise be tempted to leave it, byoffering them a career of independence and a

prospect of rising above t he position of a mereay labourer.

I t might have been expected,in view of t he

higher rents usually paid by smallholders as

compared with large farmers, that private landowners would have been more active in cutting up their farms and dividing them intosmall holdings. In many cases, however, t hecost of equipmen t has been a serious diffi culty,at least so far as smal l farm holdings are con

cerned which are t o be used for growing ordinary agricultural crops, and from which t he

holders wil l obtain their w hole livelihood. I t

is often t he case that considerable sums havebeen ex ended in erecting buildings suitable t oa large arm

,but which would be rendered use

less if t he farm were divided into smal l holdings ;while in addition t he cost of erecting new housesand buildings for each small holding would result in making t he ren t which would have t o becharged a prohibitive one. Existing buildingscan

, however, often be adapted and divided fort w o ormore smallholders

,and experience shows

that t he expense of erecting new equipment isoften exaggerated . TheCommissioners ofWoodsand Forests have found it possible t o equip smallholdings of from 30 t o 40ac. with good housesand buildings at a cost which represents an

additional rent of from 5 3 . t o 63 . an acre, and

t he holdings could have been let many timesover at such rents t o thoroughly suitable t en

ants . Moreover, it must be remembered thatt he principal part of t he demand for smal l holdings at t he present time comes from men whohave al ready somework

, bu t who have sufficientspare time t o undertake t he cultivat ion of a fewacres as an adj unct t o their ot her employmen t .

Small Holdings

To such men a smal l holding often makes j ustt he difference between bare subsistence and comparat ive prosperity ; and as they have alreadytheir houses in t he villages

,practically no equip

ment is required for their holdings. Further,

in t he case of holdings devoted t o fruit growingor market gardening, no farm buildings are necessary , such as would be required foran ordinaryfarm building or one devoted t o dairying.It is commonly supposed that smal l holdings

can only succeed in certain localities w here t hesoil is particularly good and there are specialfacilities for t he profitable marketing of pro

duce. But, as a matter of experience, it has beenfound that t he conditions which make for successare more widespread and various than might atfirst be imagined. I t is no doubt true that, oncertain classes of land, large farming is t he moreeconomic use of t he land ; but, even so

,that is

only t he case if t he large farmer has sufficientcapit al at his command . It is notorious thatthere are many cases where farmers are attempting t o farm a large area on whol ly insufficientcapital, and that in many cases they would bemuch better off if they concentrated their energies on a smal ler acreage.

The most important factor in t he success ofsmal l holdings is t he personal equation . Givent he right man

,he wil l succeed in circumstances

which might seem hopeless ; but at t he same timethere are other important considerations whichshould be borne in mind in endeavouring t o ex

tend t he system of small holdings in any part icu lar locality. The principal favourable con

d it ions are good soil , favourable climate, t heproximity of markets, t he existence of commonrights and surrounding agricultural or industrial conditions affording piece work by whicht he smallholders may sup lement their incomes.It is not at all necessary t at all these conditionsshould be present, for it is found that the exis

tence of any one of them is sufficient t o enablea smal lholder who knows his business t o succeed.

For instance, one of t he most successful smallholdings colonies is that on t he estate of MajorPoore at Winterslow

,in Wiltshire. There t he

soil is not good, t he climate is not favourable,and t he holdings are remote from markets andstations ; but there is a considerable amount ofwinter work in t he woods in making sheep cribsand hurdles, and in t he summer t he smal lholdersreadily obtain work on t he large farms. The

result has been that a farm of 1 95 ao. , whichfo rmerly employed 3 men

,has been sold t o 49

smallholders,who were enabled t o spread pay

ment of t he purchase money over a period of

fift een years. H ouses have been built on theirholdings by 33 of t he purchasers. The villagewas t he only one in t he neighbourhood at t he

last census which showed an increase in population

, and t he presence of t he smallholders hasafforded a constant supply of extra labour ont he large farms at busy times. Winterslow isa good illustration of t he fact that it is notnecessarily favourable agricultural conditionswhich determine t he success of small holdings.The question whether small holdings can best

be established on a basis of ownership or of

tenancy is one on which much difference of

27

opinion exists. The advocates of peasant propriet orship maintain that ownership is t he onlymethod which gives suflicien t securi ty t o t he

smallholder t o ensure that he will expend t hemaximum amount of labour and capital on t he

cultivation of his holding, and they point t o t heexperience of t he Continent, where t he smal lholders almost universally ow n t heir holdings.The dictum of Arthur Young that t he magicof roperty will turn sand into gold is quoted ,an it is contended that under a system of t en ~

ancy t he smallholder has no security that hewill obtain t he fruit of his expenditure on t he

improvement of t he land. On t he other hand,

t he system of ownership has many palpable andundeniable disadvantages. I t mus t be remembered that it is t he use of t he land which t hesmal lholder wants

,and that capital employed

in t he cultivation of land returns a much h igherrate of in t erest than capital employed in itsownership . With t he same amount of capital

,

a man can take as a tenant four or five times t hequantity of land he could acquire as an owner.Further, peasan t proprietorship offers a directincentive t o mortgaging and subdivision , andit is an actual impedimen t in t he w ay of a manwho desires t o rise. Under a system of tenancyt he utmost mobility is obtained

,and a man can

move from one holding t o another with t he leas tpossible inconvenience and expense. Under t heownership system he must find a purchaser forhis holding, and he may only be able t o move bysacrificing a considerable part of t he capital hehas sunk in it.In a country likeGreat Britain

,where so much

of t he land has a value in excess of what it isworth as t he raw material of agriculture

,peasan t

propriet orship is a system which con tains initself t he seeds of decay. There will be a con

stan t temptation t o sell t he holdings t o personst o whom land is more of a luxury than a meansof l ivelihood, and t he system offers therefore no

hOpe of permanency. It must also be pointedou t that t he success of smal l holdings in Denmark, France, and other Continental countriesis d ue more t o their admirable systems of co

operation and agricultural education than t o thefact that t he smallholders are t he owners of theirland . The evidence of excessive mortgaging andsubdivision is overwhelming. M . Lavergne saysof t he French peasant that he does not l ive as

wel l as t he English farm labourer, and that heis not so wel l fed

,not so wel l clothed

,and less

comfortably lodged. M . Lecont eux says that ingetting rid of one order of landlords and theirrents they have subjected themselves t o anotherthough invisible order, t he mortgagees and theirheavier and more rigid rents. In H olland

,sub

division has been carried on t o such an extentthat scarcely any holdings now remain whichare large enough t o occupy a man’s whole time

,

and t he smal lholders have t o acquire a numberof isolated strips wherever they can be obtained.Mr. E. A. P ratt mentions t he case of a Dutchfarmer whose holding of 90 ac. consists of no

fewer than 78 different parcels of land situatedall over t he commune. In Denmark

,though

t he smallholders are in theory owners of t heland

,practical ly they are saddled by a mortgage

28 Small Holdings“

Act

debt of representing 5 5 per cent oft he value of their farms with buildings, stock,and improvements. It seems clear, therefore,that t enanc which is moreover t he traditionalmethod in British agriculture

,is t he bes t basis

for an extension of t he system of smal l holdingsin this country, provided always tha t this beassociated with adequate security of tenure

,

with protection against rack - renting,and with

a right of ownership t o t he tenant in improvements executed by his own labour or at hisexpense.

In conclusion , one word of warning should beuttered. The success of small holdings dependsso much on t he profitable market ing of t he produce

,that it wil l be most unwise t o multiply

largely t he number of smallholders without att he same time building up a system of co- operative distribution . Isolated units w ho competewi t h one another are bound t o fail , but givena proper system of co - operation there is no

reason whatever why smal l holdings should notbe almost indefinitely increased

,with t he result

that a very considerable amount of t he poultry,

eggs , fruit, and vegetables which now have t o

be imported from abroad could be produced athome. See also arts.CR OFTER LEGISLATION ,LAN D,LA N D TENURE, PEASAN T P R OPR IETARY, TEN AN TR IGHT, and t he following article. [c . ]S m a l l H o ld ing s A c t ( En g la n d ) .—The

Smal l H oldings and Allotments Act, 1 908 (8Edw . VI I

,c. consolidates t he provisions of

various previous enactments relating t o t he

powers and duties of local authorities in respectof t he provision of smal l holdings and allotments. The Act defines a smal l holding as ‘

an

agricultural holding which exceeds 1 ac.

,and

either does not exceed 50 ac .,or if exceeding

5 0 ac . is at t he date of sale or letting of an

annual value for t he purposes of income t ax

not exceed in £50’

(sect. County Councils(which inclu e t he councils of county boroughs)have t he power and , if so required by a schemeunder t he Act, t he duty, by purchase or leaseof suitable land, of providing small holdings forpersons w ho desire t o buy or lease and will themselves cultivate t he land. Every County Councilis bound t o establish a small holdings and allotments committee, t o whom are t o stand referredt he exercise and performance of t he powers andduties of t he council under t he Act (except t heower of raising a rate or borrowing money){sect For t he purpose of providing smal lholdings a County Council may purchase or leaseland by agreement w hether situate within or

without their county ; and if unable t o acquireby agreement suitable land for providing smal lholdings for persons desiring t o rent t he same

,

they may acquire land by compulsion (sect.The power of compulsory acquisition , it is t o benoticed, is only exercisable for t he purpose of

letting land, not for sale of land.

Before t he sale or letting of land acquired bythem

,the County Council may adapt it for small

holdings by dividing, fencing, making occupation roads, orworks for t he provision of drainageor water supp ly. They may erect buildings oradapt existing buildings for t he d ue ocen ationof t he holding, when such buildings or a apta

tion cannot be made by t he purchaser or tenant(sect. They may sel l or let t he smal l holdings t o individuals who will themselves cultivatet he same, or t o persons working on a co- operative system

,or

,with t he consen t of t he Board

of Agriculture and Fisheries,t o associations

formed for t he purpose of creating orpromotingt he creation of sma ll holdings

,and so constituted

that t he division of profits amongst t he membersof t he association is prohibited or restricted(sect. If t he small holding is sold, t he purchaser must pay not less than one- fift h of t he

purchase money on completion ; not more thanone- fourthmay , if t he council think fit

,be secured

by a per et ual rent charge on t he property, andt he resi ue is t o be secured by a charge on t he

holdin g in favour of t he council,t o be repaid by

half- yearly in stalments of principal and interestwithin such term not exceeding fifty years fromt he date of t he sale as may be a reed upon , orby a terminable annuity payable y equal halfyearly instalments ( sect. The holding,whether it is sold or let

,will for twenty years

,

and thereafter, in case of sale,so long as any

part of t he purchase money remains unpaid, beeld subject t o certain conditions

,which pro

vide (amongst other things) that it shal l not bedivided, assigned, or let without t he consent oft he County Council , and that it shal l be cultivat ed by t he owner or occupier as t he case maybe

,and not used for any purpose other than

‘agriculture’

,which includes hort iculture, and

t he use of land for any purpose of husbandry,inclusive of t he keeping or breeding of l ive stock,poultry, or bees, and t he growth of fruit

,vege

tables, and t he l ike. N ot more than one dwelling house may be erected on t he holding

,and

no dwel ling house or building shall be used fort he sa le of intoxicating liquors (sect. Inaddition t o their power of themselves purchasing, a County Council may advance not morethan four - fift hs of t he purchase money t o a t en

ant of an existing smal l hold ing t o enable himt o purchase from his landlord (sect. Inorder t o romot e and extend t he provision of

small hol ings,Smal l H oldings Commissioners

are appointed by t he Board of Agriculture andFisheries (sect. If land is hired compulsorilyforsmal l holdings by aCountyCouncil

,t he period

of compulsory hiring wil l be from fourteen t othirty - five years (sect. At t he expirationof t he lease of land hired compulsorily t he councilhas power t o renew t he tenancy (sect. Acouncil proposing t o purchase or hire land compulsorily must obtain an order for that purposefrom t he Board of Agriculture and F isheries(sect. The question of compensation payable t o those whose land is taken compulsorilyis referred t o a S ingle arbitrator a pointed byt he Board (Sebed. I , Part N oEnid may beacquired compulsorily which forms part of anypark, garden , or leasure ground, or home farm ,

orwhich is wood and not wholly surrounded byoradjacent t o land acquired by t he -council undert he Act, or which is t he property of a localauthority , or has been acquired by any corporation or company for t he purpose of a railway

,

dock, canal , water or other public undertaking,or is t he site of an ancient monument or other

Smearing Sheep Smith

object of archaeological interest. N o holding of50ac. or less in extent or any part of such holding may be acquired compulsorily forsmall holdings or allotments (sect. [A . J. s.]S m ea rin g S h ee p . See art . SHEEP

, SMEARING OF .

S m e rin t h u s o c e l la t u s ( t heEyed H awkmot h).—The Eyed H awk -moth is a beautifulinsect measuring from 2$ in. t o over 35 in. inexpanse of wings. The front wings are a richrose - grey and brown

,variegated with pale- ol ive

or chocolate- brown , t he outer corner is brownand t he tip pale on its upper half ; t he hindwings are rosy - red

,shading off t o grey on t he

margin , with a large bluish eye spot encircling

Eyed H awk -mot h (Smem'

n thus ocella tus)

a black pupil and surrounded by a broad blackrim ; t he thorax is dark in t he centre. It isw idely distributed over England, and is verycommon in some places , but is rare in Scotland .

The moth is t o be found in May, June, and earlyJuly. They deposit their large eggs on t he

leaves of willows, poplars, osiers,apple

,sloe

,

peach,almond, and hops. The larvae are a beauti

ful green minutely dotted with white and withseven or eight slanting white bars on each side,bordered above with dark - green t he head hasyellowish tin t s

,and t he curious tail seen in most

hawk -moths is blue,tipped with dull - green or

black. They may be found feeding freely on

t he foliage from June t o September. The larvalstage lasts about six weeks, and when full grownupat ion takes place in t he soil, and there t heark -b rown pupa remains over t he winter andspring. H and - picking alone is necessary. Owingt o their large size t he caterpillars are readilyseen . Two other al lied moths occur in thiscountry

,t he Poplar H awk (Smerin t/ms p op u li)

and t he Lime H awk (S . t a'

liar). [F . v. T.]S m it h , J a m e s ( 1 789 of Deanst on

,

agricultural engineer, was t he son of a Glasgowmerchant

,and w as born in that city in 1 789.

H e studied at Glasgow University, and at t he

early age of eighteen he w as put in charge of

cotton works at Deanst on . In 1 823 he cameinto possession of t he farm at Deanst on , and

immediately set t o work t o experiment on a

deep and thorough system of land drainage.

H e drained t he whole farm by parallel trenches1 6 t o 21 ft . apart, and 2 ft. 6 in . deep, filled upwith broken stones t o a depth of 1 ft .,

and abovethat turf, and then levelled up with earth. H e

was thus t he originator of t he paral lel systemof drainage, which work alone would find hima place in t he annals of fame

'

in t he agriculturalworld . But he went fur ther. H e invented t hesubsoil plough . The result of these two inven

29“

tions on his ow n farm was t he transformationof what had been a wilderness of rushes, furze,and broom into a well - til led garden . The re

sult s of his work he published in 1 83 1 , whichfocused on Deanst on widespread attention bothfrom home and abroad . The improvement hasbeen aptly described by a contemporary as ‘

t he

most extraordinary agricultural improvement ofmodern times ’. Many other inventions camefrom his fertile brain

,such as one and t w o- horse

reaping machines, a turn - wrest plough,a w eb

chain harrow, &c. In 1 842 he established him

self in London as an agricultural engineer, andwas largely employed as a land valuer duringt he boom in railway construction . H e advo

cat ed strongly t he utilization of town sewage foragricultural purposes, bu t his efforts were fruitless. At t he time of his death he had manymore improvements and inventions on handwhich others have since perfected and brough tou t . H e died unmarried in 1 8 50 at Kingencleuch

,Ayrshire. [A . M .

S m it h , Wil l iam ( 1 769 geologistand civil engineer, t he founder of strat igra

phical geology , w as born at Churchill,Oxford

shire. H e early showed t he bent of his mindtowards geology, and even w hen at school w as

a col lector of fossils. This dominating influenceno doubt determined his choice of a profession ;and his early train ing

,first as an assistant sur

veyor, and later as a consulting civil engineer,

gave him t he opportunity t o "make t he observations and gather t he data which he w as afterwards t o use in building up his historic system .

H e quickly got t o t he t op of his profession as

a civil engineer,and for long had a monopoly

of t he work for drainage and irrigation . Wereit only for this, his name would not be handeddown t o posterity with such reverence. H is

real lifework , his real ambition all through , wasa systematic foundation for t he stratigraphyof his country. As early as 1 796 he w as con

vinced he had found a key t o stratigraphy,

namely,identification of t he strata by means of

their fossil con t ents. This opened up a greatfield of research

,and it w as only in 1 81 5 that

,

after many failures and disappointments, he w asable t o publish his map of t he strata in Englandand Wales. Smith’s fame w as at once assured

,

and he received t he £50 premium from t he

Society of Arts . H e w as now in straitenedcircumstances

,but stil l he devoted more and

more of his time t o geology. Many of his friendstried t o persuade him t o publish t he records ofhis many researches

,but he seemed t o have an

antipat hy t o arranging and publishing his w ork .

M uch of his labours,nevertheless

,bore fruit at

t he hands of others,for he w as always ready

and willing t o impart his knowledge verbally t oany enquirer. Many honours fel l t o his share.

H e w as t he first recipient of t he Wollastonmedal from t he Council of t he Geological Societ y In 1 832 he was granted a pensionof £100from t he Government. Trinity College,Dublin , made him an LL.D. of that universityin 1 83 5 . Death robbed him of further honours,for in 1 839

,at t he special invitation of t he

British Association,he was on his way t o their

Meeting at Birmingham when he caught a chill

30 Smoke Damage

and quickly passed away at N orthampton . M uchbrilliant work has been , and still is being, donein this department of geology

,but t o William

Smith,t he founder

,all honour is due, and none

will dispute his position as t he father of Britishgeology. A. M .]S m o k e Dam a g e t o Trees . The smokefrom towns and manufacturing centres has an

inj urious effect on trees in t he neighbourhood,giving t he leaves a shrivelled appearance and

causing ‘stag - headedness ’ in t he trees. The

smoke cloud not only cuts off direct sunlight fromvegetation—and thereby reduces t he manufac

ture of those plant foods which depend on lightfortheir production—but it carries soot, dust, anda variety of inj urious gases which result fromt he combustion of fuels. The effect of black sootand other dusty products on vegetation is comparat ively smal l ; it is t he invisible gases of thesmoke which do t he greatest damage. Thesegaseous vapours w ill vary with t he nature of

t he fuel employed. Wood smoke and coal smokefrom a village or smal l town without factoriesis comparatively harmless. The damage reachesits maximum in a neighbourhood of large centreswhere smelting furnaces

,coke ovens

,and various

kinds of factories and chemical works abound.The greatest havoc is wrought by those invisiblegases which contain sulphur and chlorine, because they are widespread, and operate thoughpresent only in smal l quantities. M uch inj urya lso results from certain tarl ike product s (pyridin

,phenol

,&c . ) w hich are deposited in t he

dark scum left by smoky fog.

The action of these gases is almost entirelyconfined t o t he green foliage of plants. Whatgeneral ly occurs is that t he cel ls of t he leafare inj ured and an abnormal quantity of watervapour escapes

,hence t he leaf tissue dries up

and loses its green colour. Evergreen trees andshrubs are more inj ured than deciduous species,because they retain their foliage during winterWhen more coal is burned, and foggy conditionskeep t he smoke cloud nearer t he earth. Wheresulphurous gases are present, Spruce, Scot s P ine,and other conifers soon show injury ; Cherry,Beech

,Lime, and Birch are also sensitive,whereas

Ash,Elm

,Oak , Poplars, Maples, and London

P lane are more resistant. With hydrochloricacid or other gases t he order of resistance issomewhat different. The amount of damage canbe roughly est imated by t he appearance of t hetrees. Conifers at first show reddish - brown tipson t he needles, which have also a sickly dirtygreen appearance and fall off prematurely

,thus

giving t he tree a bare appearance. Starvationthrough loss of foliage is soon evident in thinyear - rings in t he wood, and this is regardedas a good indication of chronic smoke damage.

When t he damage is more acute t he needles fal lOH" in t he first or second year, so that bare twigsand t o s appear. The ground vegetation is lessafi

‘

ect e but with long - continued acute damage,

trees,grasses, and heather (one of t he mos t re

sist an t plants) disappear, leaving a bare, barrensoil . The course of damage t o deciduous treesis much t he same: t he leaves are pale and coatedwith de osit , and withered reddish- brown patchesappear et w een t he veins or round t he margins.

t o Trees Smut

Continuous damage resul t s in death of branches,and so the wel l - known ‘stag- headed ’ condi tionis reached . It must not be assumed, however,that all discoloration of foliage is evidence of

smoke damage ; considerable experience is neededbeforeanyone can attempt t o distinguish betweendiscoloration resulting from parasitic fungi andinsects, and that produced by smoke.

Agricultural crops are less liable t o smokedamage, probably because exposed only for a

short period during t he least smoky time of t he

year. As a rule,root crops are least affected,

while oat s and rye are more resistant than wheator barley. Clovers

,meadow grasses, vetches,

and beans are most damaged, especially whenyoung. This different degree of resistanceamongst lants has led t o an ingenious suggestion for et ect ing traces of smoke damage ; thisconsist s in usin ‘indica t or plants’, such as beans,buckwheat

,an rhubarb

,whose leaves show d is

t inc t ive spots due t o smoke damage.

The direction of t he wind in a locality has a

great influence on t he degree of smoke damage,

and this must be considered in establishing newplantations. Smoke is carried farthest on t he leeside of t he prevail ing winds. As a rule, severedamage t o trees cannot be traced beyond t hefirst mile or t w o from t he source of t he smoke.

Lichens on wal ls and trees are,however

,very

sensitive t o smoke,and their absence has been

observed over t en miles from any large town (seeLICHEN S).The legal side of smoke damage is extremelycomplex

,because it is difficult t o estimate t he

amount of damage. Tw o kinds of evidence are

generally brought forward—chemica l and bo

tanical . The latter is of prime importance,but

it is still difficult t o prove that any definite kindof damage is directly due t o smoke alone. The

chemical evidence is more valuable if due precautions are taken in carrying ou t t he test s.M uch of t he extensive literature on smoke damage owes it s origin t o legal disputes. A usefulsummary of a notable lawsuit, t he Glencorse,Loganburn , or Shotts case, w as given recently(Transactions R oy . Scot. Arboricultural Society

,

vol. xxii,pp. 1 5—28 and 221 The German

forest s have also furnished many disputes ; a.

convenient summary of numerous investigat ionswill be found in Rauchbescha’digung, by H aselhoff and Lindau (Leipzig, 1 903 , 400pages), whichalso gives titles of all important works on smokedamage. [W. G. s.]Sm oo t h - s t a lk ed M ea d ow Gra ss . See

art . MEADOW GRASSES .

Sm u t , a popular name applied t o dark sootycoatings of mould on plants. Within recenttimes t he name has become limited t o attacksby the Smut fungi or Ustilagineae (see art .

FUN GI). The best - known Smut diseases arethose on t he ears of barley

, oats, and other

cereals ; these may be very destructive not

merely in producing bad grains,but because

t he dispersa l of t he black Smut spores throughou t t he bulk gives it a faulty colour. (See arts.BARLEY - PARAS ITIC FUNGI

, and OA T—PARAS ITIO FUN GI . ) Grasses are subject t o severalforms of Smut—some in t he ear

,others on the

leaf or leaf- sheath . Fodder and hay is thus

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32

darker t ransverse streaks. This snail does muchdamage t o strawberries

,and attacks many gar

d en plants. I t lays eggs between August andN ovember in or on t he soil. The Banded Snailsare especially prevalen t in fields and gardensnear t he sea

,and on downs and hillsides. H elix

virga ta. has a whi t e shel l with a single purplishbrown band

,but

,l ike all others

,is very vari

able. H elix cap era ta differs in being smaller,and in having marked riblike striae on eachwhorl. These t wo latter attack wheat, mustard,clovers

,and many other plants.

Snails are preyed upon by many birds—perhaps t he thrush is most useful in this respect.Snails are best destroyed by heavy dressings

of soot or application of vaporit e around t heattacked plants. They cannot be destroyed aseasily as slugs owing t o their protecting shells,and hand - picking is frequently necess

gry .

F . v. T.

S n a k e s Ophidia an order of reptiles.Among their salient characteristics t he following may be noted. The skin is covered withscales

,and t he horny layer of t he epidermis ou t

side of these is periodica lly shed in a coherent‘slough ’ there are no traces of fore limbs orpectoral girdles, and only a few snakes show minutevestiges of a pelvic ird le and hind limbs ; thereare numerous verte rae, sometimes nearly threehundred

,and all

,except the first and those of

t he short t ail , bear ribs which are fastened vent rally t o large transverse scales and are used inlocomot ion ; t he mouth is very expansible

,in

adaptation t o swallowing large prey, thus manyof t he skul l bones are movable, and t he t w o

halves of t he lower jaw are united in.

front byelastic l igament ; t he bifid , mobile, retractiletongue is an organ of touch ; t he eyes are not

movable and there are no movable eyelids ;there is no external ear- opening, nor drum, butsnakes hear well, and t he sense of smell is oftenwel l developed ; in poisonous snakes one of t he

salivary glands is special ized as a poison gland,and t he venom trickles dow n a grooved or chanmelled tooth ; most snakes are oviparous, butvipers and aquatic species and some others areviviparous. Snakes are divided into numerousfamilies , such as t he archaic burrowing Typhloidea, t he usually large Boidae, t he numerousolubridae, t he deadly Viperidae. There are

only three British species—t he poisonous adderor viper ( Vip e mberus), t he non oisonous grasssnake Tropid onotus na trix), an t he rare non

poisonous smooth snake (Coronella lcem'

s).The practica l importance of snakes is in t hemain connected with t he poisonous bite of manyof them. In opening t he jaws and erect in t he

fangs, t he poison glands are compressed an t he

venomous secretion is injected down t he toothinto t he deepest part of t he wound . Severalmammals are immune—t he pig, t he hedgehog,t he mungoose, and perhaps also a kind of dor

mouse known as t he lerot. S imilarly, t he secretary bird, t he stork, and t he honey buzzard areimmune. Though venomous snakes are dangerons t o man and t o his non - immune stock, itmust be carefully noted that snake- killing maybe carried t oo far, for they destroy large numbersof rats, mice, and other vermin. Some of t he

Snakes—Snares and Snaring

large boas and pythons, which are non - poisonous,and kill their prey by crushing it, levy toll onkids

,lambs

,poultry

, and the like. A very in teresting African snake, Dasyp elt is scabra , feedschiefly on eggs. P igs deal effectively with t hedeadly rattlesnake of t he United S tates, and

sheep are said t o j ump deftly with their forefeet on t he European adder. J. A. at ]S n a k ew ee d , also called Easter Giant and

Patience Dock and Bistort,is a perennial herb

belonging t o t he nat . ord . Polygonaceae. See

B i s'ron'r.

S h a nd ra g o n , t he popular name for A n t ir

rhinum,a genus of plants which belongs t o t he

nat . ord . Scrophulariaceae. See AN TIR RH IN UM.

S n a re s a n d S n a rin g . The name snareis usually applied t o a contrivance for capturing

Snare forRabbit

animd s that is simpler in constru ction than t hesteel gin and cage trap

,which are more cor

rect ly described as traps. The snaring of ani

mals is a more ancien t w ay of capturing themthan trapping ; and although at t he presen tday it has been t o a great extent supersededby trapping

, yet snares are still widely used inthe country

,and often quite as effectively as t he

more modern trap. The usual mode of pro

cedure is very simple. A supple twig is driveninto t he ground ; t he upper end is bent overand has attached t o it a wire which is twistedinto t he form of a loop so as t o form a runningnoose. The apparatus is set up in such a position that t he open noose hangs exactly over arun ’of hares or rabbits. As t he animal comesunsuspiciously along it runs its head into t henoose, which closes tightly round it s neck ; andt he more violen t the animal’s efl'

ort s t o esca e

t he more firmly does t he wire clasp its necMany varieties of this simple contrivance are

employed . When it is desired t o catch rabbit sin a wood, t he wire noose is often attached t o a

young tree, which is bent right over, so that itst op comes close t o t he ground . The wire isfastened very insecurely t o t he ground

, so thatat t he least disturbance t he fastening givesw ay, and t he tree, swinging upwards by virtueof its elasticity t o its natural position

,suspends

t he snare in mid- air. An imals which are caugh tin this variety of snare are thus l iterally hanged.

Snipe—Snow Damage to Trees

Snares w ere in general use in former times fort he purpose of catching moles. The ordinarywire noose and bent stick were fixed in a sortof wooden tunnel

,which w as set inside t he

animal’s burrow ; so that when it came along,

t he little creature set free t he fastening andwas drawn up and strangled. This device hasnow been supplanted by t he modern mole- trap.For t he recent ‘stop- ring ’ wire noose, see art .

TRAPS roa VERM IN . A general advantage os

sessed by snares over steel traps is that t eyinflict far less pain on t he captive animal . Theyare liable, however, t o t he objection that t heanimal is not so securely held, and is more liablet o make its escape after it has been caught.For capturing such birds as owls

,snares with

delicate horse- hair nooses are often employed,

these being set inposition over t he holes in

w hich t he birds are nown t o be sit ting,so that

on their exit they are caught.N ets were at one time very extensively employed for catching birds such as part ridges orpheasants. Their manipulation is usually a verysimple matter

,nothing more being required

than t o set t he nets,and then slowly drive t he

birds by making them run in advance into t henets

,or else leave them t o find their w ay in of

their ow n accord. The method is little usedexcept by

poachers. The legitimate form of

netting bir s with clap -nets is dealt with int he article B IRD- CATCH IN G. [H . s. R . E.]S n ip e .

—There are three species of snipefound in Great Britain

,of which t he Common

Snipe (Gallinago coelest is) is one of t he commonest of British wading birds

, and is found inal l parts of t he United Kingdom. The generalcolour of t he back is mottled black

,with t w o

longitudinal bands of sandy buff. The rumpand upper tail coverts are tawny rufous

,t he

throat and chest sandy brown , mottled withblackish spots and bars, and t he breast andabdomen are ure-white. The sexes are alikein colour

,andPt he total length of t he bird is

about 10 in . The Common Snipe may be dist inguished from its ally t he Great Snipe byt he absence of white tips t o its wing coverts

,

and by t he possession of on ly fourteen, insteadof sixteen

,tail feathers. The snipe frequents

swampy and marshy districts either along t hesea coasts or inland, but it is a diffi cult bird t osee while on t he round

,and does not generally

rise unless flushedby t he sportsman . Even thenit is not easy t o hit, for its fl ight is extremelyswift

,and it twists and turns in a zigzag man

ner until it has reached a safe distance. A t

night,however

,t he birds expose themselves

more readily. The snipe is not usually a gregarions species ; for t he most part t he birdshunt their food separat ely.

One of t he most curious characteristics of t hesnipe is t he ‘drumming ’ of t he males duringt he breeding season

,a noise quite distinct from

t he ordinar call of t he bird. The manner inwhich this rumming sound is produced w as fora long time a subject of much discussion . I t

was known that it w as not produced vocally ;and while some naturalists asserted that it wascaused by t he rapid vibration of t he wings,others alleged that it was due t o t he air rush

VOL. XI .

3 3

ing swiftly through t he tail feathers. R ecentresearches appear t o indicate that t he latter ist he true theory. Certain of t he snipe’s tailfeathers are curiously formed, and when tied toa stick and swung rapidly through t he air

,give

rise t o t he drumming sound . The sound is onlygiven ou t by t he bird when on t he wing, usual lyhigh in t he air, and only when descending. Asimilar sound is roduced by lapwings, alsoonly when deseen ing ; bu t in their case it isobviously caused by t he wings. The snipebreeds in all parts of t he British Isles, and laysfour eggs. Its numbers are augmented everyautumn by t he immigration of foreign birds.The Great Snipe (Gallinago maj or) is a not

infrequen t visitor t o these islands. It occursmostly on t he east and south coasts in earlyautumn. The Jack Snipe (Gallinago gallinula ),which is mottled brown and black above and

white below,and is decidedl y smaller than t he

Common Snipe, is a winter visitor t o this country , but does not breed here. [H . s. R . E.]S n ow . When dust articles in t he atmos

phere are being attraete together below freezing- point snow is formed. The size of flakesvaries from about 1 in . down t o 3

33 in . in dia

meter. Fresh - fallen snow is very light,as t he

particles are not dense, and 1 ft. of it gives only1 in. of water when melted ; bu t its densityincreases when it lies, partly by compression,due t o its ow n weight

,greatly by thawing and

re- freezing. Snow in t he shade on a brigh t dayat noon is 7 deg. F. colder than t he air that floatsupon it, whereas a black surface at t he sameis only 4 deg. colder. This difference diminishes as t he sun gets lower, and at night bothradiate almost equally well . The t em erat ure

of lands when covered with snow must e muchlower than when free from it. Besides beinga bad absorber of heat from t he sky

,snow is

also a very poor conductor of heat. The snowline is t he height above which snow perpetuallylies. In Greenland it is 2350ft .

,in t he H ima

layas ft. The protection aflorded bysnow is of great importance in t he economyof N ature. [J . G. M

‘P .]

S n ow Dam a g e t o Trees .—Snow only

damages trees if falling in large quantities,by

causing their branches t o bebent down orbrokenoff. Of our common coniferous woodland treest he brittle Scots P ine is most liable t o damagefrom snowbreak while among broad - leavedtrees

,Beech

,Alder, Crack Willow, and Robinia

have t he most brittle branches. In CentralEurope, where snow falls heavily and lies long,young Spruce, Oak, and Beech woods are sometimes laid by snow pressure, but this is seldomlikely t o occur in Britain . Damage from snowbreak may occur anywhere or all over in ScotsP ine woods ; bu t in other kinds of tree crops itis chiefly confined t o t he edges of compartments,or t o small atchee here and there. H eavy snowcan be shaken off young ornamental

,trees in

parks, avenues, or smal l plantations, by shakingt he poles or t ap

‘pin

glt hem with a padded mal let ;

bu t in w oodlan s t is is impracticable, and t heonly way of preventing damage is t o tend t hewoods carefully, especially with regard t o moderate thinning. [J . N .]

1 60

34 Snow drop Soft Cheese

S n ow d rop , species of Galanthus, a genusof Amaryllideae, natives of Europe and AsiaM inor. They are great favourites by reason oftheir beauty, and t he early season at whichthey appear. Bulbs of t he common kinds areinexpensive, and should be planted in largequantities for naturaliz ing in short grass inart ial shade

,as by t he sides of carriage d rives.

hen once planted they will take care of themselves and usually increase. G. nivalis, t he

Common Snowdrop, of which there is a doublevariety

,is found in some parts of England.

G. Imp era ti is a very large form of nivalis. Inaddition t o plantin outdoors

,G. Elwesei, Asia

M inor, Gian t Snow op , is an excellent subjectfor flowering in pans in a cool greenhouse, butit is not everywhere easy of cultivation . G. p li

ca tus, Crimea, is somewhat similar t o G. nivalis,

but t he flowers are more often of a greenish hue.

There are also some autumnal- flow ering Snowdrops, which are natives of t he mountains ofGreece ; t he so- called Yellow Snowdrops, whichhave rich - yellow ovaries, and yellowish flow erstalks ; and Green Snowdrops

,whose outer

petals are more or less green. [W. W.]S n ow F l ies . See A LEYR ODES .

S n ow P lo u g h s usually employed are

simple constructions of wood, sometimes shodwith iron

,made heavy t o keep t he ed es on

t he ground. Stout baulks of timber are racedt ogether t o form an angle at t he centre, so thatas t he plough is d rawn forward t he snow isshoved aside as by an ordinary double - breast

plough. Sometimes a steerage handle is attached,u t t he draught of t he horses practical ly decidesits course. Where t he snow has congealed below

, a series of steel studs set along t he wingsof t he plough are sometimes employed ; butneed for these is exceptional. [W. J. M .]S o d a S a lt s are extensively used in t he arts

and industries . Some occur natural ly, whilstothers are prepared by chemica l methods. Amongt he principal naturally occurring salts may be

mentioned common salt or sodium chloride, andnitrate of soda or Chile saltpetre. The formeroccurs as t he mineral rock sal t in various partsof t he world (see SALT). The latter is found inlarge quantities in Chile (see N ITRATE OF SODA).Until latterly, t he Chile deposits formed practica lly t he sole source of supply of nitrate.

Sod ium carbona te, better known as‘washing

soda ’or

‘soda ’,w as first imported from Spain

under t he name of barilla,t he ash of t he sea

weed Salsola Soda. Th e ash contained aboutone- quarter of its weight of soda. A t t he pre

sent time it is manufactured in enormous quantities from common salt by chemical methods.The crystals of this salt contain water of crystalliz at ion , which is part ly lost when t he salt isexposed, causing t he crystal t o crumble. It isused for domestic and medicinal urposes ; int he preparation of glass, caustic so a, and manyother substances . The acid carbonate is an important constituent of many beverages. Sodiumsu lp hate, or Glauber sal t , occurs in t he nativestate in large quantities in Germany. It isvaluable because of its medicinal properties.Borax, sodium pyroborate, is another importantcompound of soda. I t occurs naturally in some

lakes in Tibet,and as t he mineral tincal. It is

now prepared in large quantities by heatingsodium carbonate and boracic acid together.It possesses valuable antiseptic properties, andis largely used as a preservative. Sodium bromid e and hyp osuhikite are indi spensable in phot ography . Sod ium arsenite is a constituent ofsome sheep dips

, &c. Sodium sal t s are foundin soils, t he ash of all plants

,and in t he j uices

of t he body. [a A. B .]S of t B rom e Gras s , a common hairy

annual or biennia l weed grass found by roadsides and on waste places. See BR OME GRAS SES .

S oft C h ee se . A soft cheese is a cheesewhich is made without pressure. The curd isproduced very much in t he same w ay as t he

curd which is required for a pressed cheese, butt he whey is removed in a different w ay . The

curd is not cut, as is t he case in t he manufacture of pressed cheese, in which it is divided inso many instances in t o smal l cubes, but is usually removed in large slices into the moulds inwhich t he cheese is t o take its form—and whichare somet imes perforated to assist t he whey inescaping—and allowed t o drain , as they doperfectly when

-

t he conditions are correct. The

chief of these conditions is t he t em erat ure,

which should not be t oo high t o in uce t he

whey t o escape t oo extensively, or t oo low ,and

so t o prevent t he escape Of a suffi cient quantity.A soft cheese contains a larger quantity of wheythan a pressed cheese, and is of necessity smal lin size. In almost all varieties t he ri eningprocess is conducted from t he outside y t heaid of fungi which grow upon t he surface, andwhich play an important part in t he removalof t he acid. As a rule

,a soft cheese seldom

exceeds an inch in thickness.There are certain qualities which are common

t o all varieties of soft cheese, and especially t othose which are made from full milk. As t hemycelium of t he fungus penetrates into t he curdand neutralizes t he acid

,so t he bacteria are able

t o commence their work of converting t he insoluble curd into t he soluble cheese, and t o communica t e its flavour. Thus there is a closeresemblance between t he Brie, t he Camembert,t he Coulommiers, t he Bondon, and t heGournay.The first mould t o appear is white, which, int he case of a cheese w hich is not turned

,grows

until it becomes very like a velvet pile. Thisis followed by a blue mould

, and in t he case ofone or t w o varieties

,t he Brie included—bu t

only in t he hands of certain makers—withbou tons of vermilion mould ; in each case t hemould is crushed by daily turning

,and in con

sequence the appearance of t he crust of t hecheese is a dirty grey, which is by no meansinviting except t o those who know what l iesbeneath . Wh ere soft cheese becomes overripet he crust is apt t o burst, and t he curd, whichhas become almost fluid, runs ou t . It shouldbe needless t o say that in this condition t hecheese has lost its normal value

,although among

t he workmen of t he Continent cheese in thiscondition is very often preferred

, owing t o it smore pungent flavour. The following figuresmay prove useful t o those w ho are interested insoft - cheese manufacture

Soft Soap Soil 5

Time ofN ame of Variety.

Coagulat ion ,

2—4 hr.

The following is a list of t he principal varieties Of soft cheese made in d ifl'

eren t countries

t

England : York, Godmanchest er, N ew Forest , S lip00 e.

France : Brie, Camembert , Coulommiers, N eufchat el,Bondon , Livarot , Géromé , Mon t d’Or, Pont l’Evéque,Void, Gournay .

Germany and Belgium : Limbourg.

I taly : S t racchino.

J . Lo.]S of t S oa p is t he potash salt of some fatty

acids,and is pre ared principally from whale

and seal oil by eating with caustic potash.Soft soap is used extensively as a constituentof washes employed for eradicating insect pests.The soft soap is dissolved in water and mixedwith various destructive subs tances t he natureof which depends upon t he kind of pest. The

following is a list of some of t he substancesused : mineral oils, quassia, sulphur, gas lime,lime water, tobacco, bitter aloes, &c. The objectof using soft soap is t o make t he wash adheremore firmly t o t he tree or insect t o which it isapplied. Some leaves have a very smooth surface

,and t he skins of some insects would al low

t he wash t o run off readily unless it containedsome substance of a sticky nature. Anotheruse of t he soft soap is t o block up t he breathingpores of t he insect. This is best done by applying a concentrated solution of the soap. See

arts. IN SECTICIDES ; PARAFFIN , USE OF IN A smCULTURE ; QUASS IA. a. A. B

a]

S of t w oo d s are those which , in contra istinction t o hardwoods (see H ARDWOODS), offerlittle resistance t o t he penetration of anotherbody

, (eg. nails, screws , axes, &c.) into theirsubstance. Some of t he softwoods are, however,among t he most d iflicult t o saw (eg. Willowand Poplar), owing t o t he strong resistanceoffered t o t he teeth of t he saw tearing theirfibres apart. The softwoods commonly grownin British woodlands are, among broad - leavedtrees

,Poplars

,Willows, Lime, H orse- chestnut,

Alder, and Birch (though Birch is sometimesclassed as a hardwood) ; and though none of t heconifers have a really hard wood, t he typicallysoft kinds are Sequoia, Cryptomeria,WeymouthP ine

,Spruce

, Silver Fir, H emlock, and Thuj a

gigantea , while those having a distinctly col

oured heartwood (see HEARTWOOD), such as

Larch,P ines

, and Douglas Fir, are somewhatharder. As a rule

,most kinds of wood bavin

a low specific gravity (below 06 5 when seasoned§are soft

, although in conifers hardness increasesw ith t he degree of resinousness, and green wood

Wat er.

Analysis.R emarks.

R ipening st ages, 50°F.

1 1 t o 12 oz . in weigh t , milk

per cheese.

1 gal . milk per cheese : ripeningstages, 5 6

°

F .

1 lb . milk per cheese.

12 lb. milk per 1 lb . cheese.

Cream ismixed wit h milk.

is usually softer than seasoned. Coniferoustimber is t he easiest or softest of all t o saw

,

though Larch is harder than P ines and otherk inds of Firs ; while among broad - leaved treest he softwoods Poplars,Willows, Lime, and Birchare harder t o convert than Alder, Beech, Maple,Sycamore

,or Oak

,owing t o their soft tough

fibres and t he more clogging action of t he woollysawdust. J. N .]S o il.—In this article an outline of t he generalproperties of soil , of their relationships one t ot he other

,and of their hearing on fertility is

iven . N o attempt is made t o go into full det ails ; this has been done in other articles

, t o

which t he reader is referred. The subjects aretaken in t he following order :

The substances present in t he soil.The living organisms Of t he soil.The changes taking place.

The soil in its relation t o t he plant.Inherent fertility and condition.Soil exhaustion or deterioration.Soil amelioration.N

T

OB

Cfl

bwJ

H

The Substan ces Present in t he Soil

5 1 . The great bulk of what is now t he soil wasat some remote period solid rock, and before thatagain had been a molten mass. By t he variousagencies which have been described elsewhere(see SO IL,GEOLOGYor), t he rock w as splintered upinto fragments and subjected t o chemica l actionswhereby new ma terials were formed. Manysubsequent changes took place ; often t he part icles were washed down river courses into lakesor seas and lay under water for long ages, mixedup with the remains of decomposing plants andanimals which largely disappeared but alwaysleft some residue. In some cases t he residueshells and so ou—formed a considerable part oft he deposit

,and always it added something. The

deposit s increased in thickness and consolidatedunder t he pressure of t he superincumbent layers ;usually some substance was present which actedas cement. Other changes in t he earth’s surfacecaused t he sea t o d isap ear and t he bottom t o

become dry land or soli rock. Once again t heprocess of breaking down set in ; t he cemen t inmaterial dissolved, t he particles were carriedaway by water and went through t he same process as before. This action of water, t he ‘denudation ’ of t he geologist, is always going on .

Valleys are scooped ou t and t he smal ler soil part icles wash downhil l into them. R iver courses

3 6

are perpetually changing, and“making t he great

alluvial flats.2. The important fact s for us t o bear in mind

are: ( 1 ) t he particles of t he soil have been formedin t w o ways from t he original rock—(a) by disintegration

,in which case they retain t he chemi

cal characteristics of the rock ; (b) by decomposit ion

,when their properties are different ; (2)

t he particles are very old and have been subject ed for ages t o t he action of w ater

,carbonic

acid, &c . ; (3) t he plant and animal matter, in

decomposing,leaves behind a residue of mineral

and organic matter intermingled with t he soi l.Only t he most resist ant of t he original rock part icles have survived, and these do not suffer anyappreciable change in t he course of a few years ;for agricultural purposes indeed they may beregarded as un changeable.

§ 3 . The original rock particles are complexcompounds con taining iron

,aluminium, sil icon ,

calcium, magnesium, potassium,sodium, and

others . As they retain t he properties of t he original minerals, they can be identified, if they arelarge enough

,by t he methods of mineralogist

analysis. It is from t he physica l rather thant he chemica l point of view that these particlesare important ; their size and not their compositiou coun t s . The coarse

,gritty particles vary

in mean diameter from 3 t o 02 mm. ,and are

mainly silica, whilst t he finest clay articlesare less than '002 mm. in diameter

,an con tain

larger amoun t s of iron and aluminium oxides.The composition of t he several fra ctions of t heR ot hamst ed soil is as in table on next column .Wh en a part icle is broken up

,t he separate pieces

have a greater tota l surface than t he originalparticle, and t he further t he breakin g up hasgone t he greater is t he increase in surface. The

Soil

Oxide Alu

Fraction.

8

8

1

1

133 of Iron mina

(Fees). (AlgonFine san d (02 t o '04 mm 946Silt t o

'

01 mm. ) 9201 Fine sil t t o

‘005 mm. ) 88 3h ec t ion bet ween

‘

005 and l‘

002mm. I61 7 7 0 23 4

Clay (below “002 45 9 122 309

of t he coarser material . Clay stands ou t inmarked contrast from t he other soil constituents.It . is coherent, and resists t he movement of t hetillage implements ; it is therefore ca l led heavy ,although in reality it is somewhat lighter thansand. It will remain suspended for long periodsin water. Lime, alum,

and other sa lts,acids, &c.

,

cause t he particles t o aggregate orfloccu lat e, andtemporarily t o behave lik e coarser ones ; on t he

other hand,ammonia and alkalis, such as soda ,

potash,or their carbonates, cause t he particles

t o d eflocculat e and assume their most stickyand t enacious form. Clay, or rather some of

it s constituent s, withdraws organic matt er andvarious mineral substances from their solutions(see art . CLAY). The S ilt is valuable t o formt he body of t he soil , since it possesses manydesirable characteristics in relation t o water andtemperature. Sand keeps the soil open and workable. There is no sharp distinction betweenthese fractions ; they shade ofl

'

one into t he other,and are distinguished only for t he sake Of con

venience. It is therefore quite wrong t o say ,as is sometimes done, that soil is a mixture of

t w o earths, sand and clay.The specific gravity of t he soil constituen t s in

t he state of separate grains is about 25 , but int he porous mass present in t he soil it is much

finest constituen t s of t he soil therefore present a less because of t he air present. Some of t he

much larger total surface than an equal weight weight relationships are as follow sz~

H eavy'Arable ‘

L'

bt’Arable

Land , Rot hamsted . Lan Woburn .

H umus. Clay.

Top 9 in .

1 2 t o 1 5 25 t o2’

8

894 1023

The soil at the fourth depth is heavier and morecompact than at t he surface, but t he consol idation does not increase at grea ter depths. I t willbe observed that t he ‘light ’ sandy soil at WO

burn is real ly heavier than t he ‘heavy ’ loam at

R ot hamst ed.

The decomposition products of t he originalrock particles are of more chemical interest,inasmuch as they enter into reaction with ammonium or potassium salts added as manure(see§ 4. Among t he minerals of organi c origin1 I t is now usual in Great Brit ain to regard fine sil t as

lying bet ween'01 and

‘002mm.

calcium carbonate is by far t he most abundant,especially in t he great chalk and l imestone deposi t s , where it formed, in pas t ages, t he shel lsand other parts of animals. I t occurs in manybut not in all soils

,and has t he distinction of

being t he only common soil constituen t that issometimes total ly absent.Equal ly wi despread, but less abundant, iscalcium phos hate, part of which also arisesfrom t he resi ues of a past l ife. But there are

othermineral phosphorus compounds

,commonly

regarded as phosp ates, that are not extractedeven by strong acids and are clearly of mineralorigin. N o sharp classification of soil phosphates

Soil

is possible : some are soluble even in t he solutionof carbonic acid occurring in t he soil

,others are

highly insoluble : between these t w o extremeslie other compounds

,so that any particular sol

vent will go ou indefinitely extracting phosphoricacid from t he soil.§ 5 . The organic matter of t he soil

,i.a. t he

part which can be burned away, forms about3 t o 6 percent of arable soils, 5 t o 10percent ofpasture soils, and a considerably larger proportion Of peat soils. It has been only incompletelystudied. It arises from t he activity of t he livingplants or organisms that find their habitation int he soil

,and has been accumulating and chang

in ever since t he soi l began t o be formed. The

Oldes t portion dates back t o t he time when t hesoil w as deposited

, and can be found unmixedwit h recent material in soil samples taken somedepth below t he surface ; t he newest part arisesfrom t he roots or leaves and stems of plantsrecen t ly drawn into t he soi l by earthworms

,&c .

Generally w e may say that t he Oldest organicmatter is very resistant, having already undergone most of t he change of which it is susceptible, while t he recent organic matter is readilydecomposed. The decomposition products playan important part in t he soil . Among them ist he black body called humus (see art . H UMUS),which gives t o soil those properties associatedwith mould

,and is in part responsible for t he

great distinction between a mere sand heap anda soil . Three of its important properties are :( 1 ) it increases t he water - bolding capacity of t hesoil ; (2) it facilitates t he production of tilth ;(3 ) it absorbs t he dissolved organic matter fromsolutions, a property which it shares with clay,and which accounts for t he purity of many deepwel l waters.There are probably a number of nitrogencompounds in t he soil , but only t w o have beenexamined in their relationship t o plant growth—ammonia and nitrates. Of ammonia onlytraces are ever found under normal conditions.N itrates occur in very varying amounts : arablesoils will commonly contain from 3 t o 1 2 partsof nitrogen in this combination in every mill ionparts of soil—t he lower amount in w et weatherorwhen a ful l crop is on t he ground ; the higherin warm ,

dry weather when t he ground -is notdensely covered with crop (see N ITROGEN COMPOUN DS IN SOIL).

6. The soil is,in our regions

,always moist

,

but t he water is not pure. It is a solution containing a certain amount of every soluble soil const it uen t—carbonates, nitrates, sulphates, chlorides and silicates of sodium

,calcium

,magnesium

,

potassium,and so on . It is more or less satu

rated with carbonic acid,which dissolves calcium

carbonate and other mineral matter, and it playsa highly important part in plant nutrition . Itscomposition is not readily investigated, becauset he clay and some of t he or anic matter

,eg . t he

humus,react with it and withdraw sundry

constituents. Whitney (Bureau of Soils, US .

Department of Agriculture,Bulletins 22 and

23 ) supposes that this solution is of t he samestrength in all soils

,and therefore that all soils

contain t he same amount of plant food, buthis theory is not commonly accepted (see FER

37

TILITY). R ussian investigations are recorded inthe J ahresberich t iiberAgrikulturchemie ( 1 906,5 1pWe may now sum up our account of t he

constituents of t he soil . It is largely composedof fragments of rock varying in S ize from 3 mm.

downwards. These were detached ages ago, andhave ever since been subjected t o t he action ofwater

,air, &c.

,so that they may be regarded

as unalterable in agricultural time. But in geological time some of them are decomposed ; t heresulting roduct s also occur in t he soil and are

distinguished by being more reactive ; thusthey react with potash salts

,ammonium salts ,

&c.,and also yield some alkaline material t o

water. All throu h t he existence of t he soilit has perpet uallyfimen mingled with living ordead plants, animals, and minute organismswhich have contributed organic matter, buthave also eflect ed decomposition of some of t he

organic matter already present. This endlesscycle is still going on . The soil thus containscombined nitrogen and certain minerals like caloium carbonate

,calcium phosphate, &c.

,which

at various times have formed part of t he livingorganisms and may do so again . It also con

tains t he stable organic residues marking t helimit beyond which decomposition has not gone,and representing t he organic matter added inbygone ages ; these are t he end products of

t he change. P roducts representing t he in itialstages arise from organic matter recently addedt o t he soil , and include humus and t he nitrates.Between these tw o stages are doubtless manyothers, of which little or nothing is known .

Bathing t he soil particles is a solution con

taining some Of every soluble substance in t hesoil. Its principal constituen t is carbonic acidif calcium carbonate is absent

,or calcium bicar

bonate if it is present. In addition it containsnitrates

,salts of calcium ,

magnesium, &c .

,and

plays a great part in t he nutrition of t he plant .The differences between t he surface and subsoil are set ou t in art . SUBSO IL, where also are

described t he attempts t o u tilize t he subsoil asplant food in the Lois Weedon system .

g8 . We must not look upon t he soil as a mereinert mass of material. P rior t o t he days whenagricultural chemistry was first studied

,t he soi l

w as regarded as being endowed in some myst erious w ay with life—a survival Of t he ancientGreek idea that t he Earth w as t he commonmother Of all . Even so late a chemical writeras Boerhaave in 1 727 speaks of a vegetable as‘a body generated of t he earth, or of someth ing arising of t he earth ’; and of t he soil ,itself as ‘in some measure organical ’

,contain

ing pores ‘something analogous t o vessels bywhich j uices may be convey

’d , prepared, di

gested,circulated

,and at length excern

’d,and

thrown off into t he roots of plants But moreexact ideas were introduced when agricul t uralchemistry arose at t he end Of t he 1 8 t h century .

The early agricultural chemists make no reference t o a living soil

,but regard it simply as a

mass of dead mineral and organ ic mat -t er. The

mineral matter w as decomposed by chemicalagencies under t he influence of air and water ;t he organic matter decomposed spontaneously

,

3 8 Soil

giving rise t o humus, carbonic acid, and simplenitrogen compounds which served t o nourisht he plant. These are t he ideas developed byBoussingaul as late as 1 85 1 in t he second edition of his conomie R urale ; and they were incomplete harmony with t he theory of putrefaction and fermentation advanced by Liebig,which supposed these changes were purely chemica l. Even when Pasteur had demonstratedt he presence of disease and other organisms, andBoussingault in 1 85 8 (Agronomie, vol . i, 301 )had recogniz ed t he exist ence of a ‘myco ermiovegetation ’not always visible to t he naked eye,t he progress Of which must be followed by t heaid of t he microscope, there w as no suspicionthat this ‘vegetation ’ w as in any w ay con

cerned in soil fertility. Later on , t he truenature of pu t refaction w as cleared up : t he

minute organisms found in enormous numbersin decaying organic matter

,and which t he

older writers thought were engendered by t hedecaying organic matter , were shown t o be t hecause of putrefaction . and t o arise from somegerm previously present. It seems strange t ous t o find even in 1 877 Tyndal l writing a longpaper controverting t he idea of spon taneou sgeneration Of what w e now know are t he putrefaction organisms. In 1 878 Schloesing and

M untz showed that ammonia is converted int he soil t o nitrates by bac teria, and this discovery marks t he beginning of soil bacteriology.

The stages in t he decomposition Of or anicmatter whereby plant food is produce bybacterial agency were clearly set ou t by War

ingt on in 1 883 . A notable advance w as madein 1 885 by Berthelot, w ho showed that atmos~pheric nitrogen is fixed in soil by microorganisms. In t he following year H el lriegeland Wilfarth showed that leguminous plantswere dependent on certain bacteria for theirn itrogen supply. Details of much of t he recentw ork will be found elsewhere under t he properheadings (N ITR IF ICATION , DEN ITR IFICATION , N I

TR OGEN F IXATION ,

The Living Organisms of t he Soil

§ 9. The t op 6 in. of t he soil is tenanted bya teeming population of t he most varied kind,from large earthworms down t o minute organisms only visible under a powerful microscope.

Several hundred millions may be present in eachounce of soil. They show great diversi ty in theirfood , their mode of l ife

,and t he w ay they are

influenced by external conditions. Some l iveon dead organic matter, others attack plants,others again devour living organisms. All arecompeting in t he struggle for existence, multiplying with enormous rapidity whenever t heconditions are favourable, disappearing equal lyquickly when they are unfavourable, or takingon a curious state of suspended animation, inwhich they may lie dormant for long periodsand yet revive as soon as t he conditions are

once more suitable. In t he struggle no one

species exterminates t he rest ; instead, t he differen t forms seem t o settle down t o a rough kindof equilibrium,

each being hampered by others,but all surviving in some degree ; t he equilib

rium does not vary very much so long as t he

soil conditions remain fairly constant.10. We should get a very incomplete picture

of t he soil if w e confined our attention t o thoseorganisms which are directly beneficial t o t he

plant. It is true that t he plant gains by t hepresence of cert ain of t he organisms, and equallytrue that some of t he organisms benefit by t hepresence of t he plant. But t he organisms oft he soil are l iving their ow n l ives, and theirimmediate functions are t o feed, t o grow, andt o multiply. H owever

,as it is necessary t o set

some lim its t o t he subject,w e shall not attempt

t he com lete picture.

§ 1 1 . A RTHWORMS .—Of all t he larger organ

isms none are more im ortan t than ear thworms.They feed on vegeta le matter

,dead leaves,

s t ems,&c.,

and do a good deal of cultivation asthey work their w ay throu h t he soil , passingquantities of it into their odies

,and throw

ing it ou t on t he surface in t he form of casts.Into t he burrows they draw vegetable matter,which thus becomes distributed in t he soil.The burrows also aerate and drain t he soil,while t he casts ac t as a mulch.

IN SECTS,CEN TIPEDES

, &c.—Some of these, like

worms,l ive on dead vegetable matter

,others on

l iving animal matter,on slugs

,snails

,grubs

,&c.

—e.g . centipedes (Chilopoda ) , ground beetles(Carabidze) ; while ot hers again feed on livingplants—e.g. some millipedes (Ju lidae), wireworms

,leather- jackets (Tipula). P robably all

have in some degree t he same kind of cultivat ing effect as earthworms ; but those attacking plants do more harm than good in arableland, and are therefore regarded as pests. The

others, however, are on t he whole. beneficial.N EMATODES.

—Eelworms (Anguil lul idae), al

though microscopic in siz e, are similar in st ructure t o t he other worms. Some are parasiticon plants, attacking corn , clover, sugar beets,&c. ; others are saprophytic, and live on decaying organic matter ; while others again are parasit ic on animals—lung worms of sheep. It is notknown what action ' they have in t he soil.§ 12. ALGE .

—Wh en t he surface of t he soil iskept damp and undisturbed

,a green growth of

algae will sometimes develop . They live liket he hi her plants

,assimilating carbonic acid

from t e air and taking plant food from t hesoil ; they therefore compete with plan t s forfood. It is not , however, known t o what exten t they are operative in ordinary cultivatedsoils.

1 3 . P ROTOZOA.—These have not yet been

studied in any det ail from t he soil point‘

ofView, but several of them,

ag . various Amoebae,

certain Monads, and Colp oda cucul lus,have been

found in soils, and i t is certain that others arepresent. The chief food of those found so farconsists of smaller organisms and bacteria ; theyare in consequence detrimen tal

,in that they

keep down t he useful bact eria which prepareplant food.

14. M OULDS A N D FUNGI .—Moulds prefer anacid medium ,

and are said t o predominat e overbacteria in acid soils , but proof is lacking, as now ay of counting them is known. Two clas sesmay be distinguished : (a) those feeding on l iv

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40 Soil

calcium nit rate, and sil icates of t he z eolitic type.

These changes are in part due t o natural agencies and in part t o t he mineral manures addedt o t he soil .

1 7. The calcium carbona te in t he soil suffersa greater number of changes than any othermineral constituent : (a) It reacts with carbondioxide t o form ca lcium bicarbonate, whichwashes down into t he subsoil and is lost. (6) Itreacts with ammonium salts added as manurethus : ammonium sulphate calcium carbonat e ammonium carbonate calcium sulphate.

The calcium sulphate being soluble, washes ou tand appears in t he drainage w ater. (0) It isutilized by t he nitrifying bacteria and convertedinto calcium nitrate. These changes cause at

Rot hamst ed a loss of about 800 lb. of ca lciumcarbona t e per acre each year, or more if ammonium sulphate is added. Calcium carbonatedoes not sink in arable soil , but washes rightaway.

1 8 . Calcium nitra te is perhaps t he most fluct uat ing of all t he mineral substances in t he soil.It is formed during n itrification , but readilywashes ou t of t he soil ; t he amount resent atany time depends largely on t he rain all of t hepreceding days. It is taken up by plants, butsuffers decomposition during the process, so thatcalcium carbonate is left behind in t he soil .There is thus a cycle of changes : calcium car

bonate is converted into nitrate by t he nitrifying bacteria ; calcium n itrate is converted int ocarbonate by t he plant. A similar change takesplace when sodium nitrate is added as manure :t he nitrate radicle is absorbed by t he plant, andsodium carbonate is left behind in t he soil . Itis important t o notice that neither ammoniumsalts nor nitrates permanently remain in t hesoil ; t hus they do not increase t he percen tageof soil n itrogen.§ 19. Silica t es of the Zeolit ic Typ e.

—These are

supposed t o liberate some soluble potash com

pound by a change not understood, and t o reactwi t h salts of ammonia, sodium, calcium,

magnesium, &c .

,that may be added as manure :

Complex silicat e of lime, &c. Sulphat e of pot ash

(insoluble) (soluble)2 Comp lex silicat e of potash, &c. Sulphat e of lime.

(insoluble) (solub le)

(See MAN URES, EFFECT or ON SO IL.) Solublepotash manures added t o t he soil are not

washed ou t,but are converted into insoluble

substances, which , however, are not t oo in

soluble for lant nu t rition . Addition of limeaccelerates the rate of solution by actually displacing some of t he potash. The insoluble combination formed from sulphate of ammonia addedt o t he soil does not appear t o be an ammoniumcompound.

Important changes in t he mechanical condition of t he soil take place as a result of some oft he reactions. The calcium bicarbonate as itw ashes down fioccu lat es t he clay and improvest he texture. On t he other hand , t he sodium car

bonate formed from sodium nitrate deflocculat est he clay, and produces unkindly conditions anda glazed appearance on soils deficient in coarsesand.

FREE N ITROGEN

PROTEIN

N ITRIC ACID

The changes result in in the formation of

alkal i soils are discusse in art . ALKALI SOILs.

20. THE ORGAN IC MATER IALS.—In normal

healthy cond itions t he roots of living plants arenot attacked by t he inhabitants of t he soil, butwhen t he plant dies it is attacked by a greatvariety of organisms and rapidly disintegrated.The details of t he change are not known, andare doubtless highly complex. The final products are water

,carbonic acid, black col loida l

substances known as humus,

robably someresidues which will not further ecompose, ammonia

,some free nitrogen which escapes and is

lost. The changes of t he nitrogen compoundsare of great importance. We may supposethat t he protein is resolved into amino acids ,diaminoacids

,and purin bases

,as in t he ordinary

hydrolysis, and these are Changed into ammonia

by bacteria. H owever,t he ammonia does not

persist,but is either absorbed by some of t he

clay constituents or is att acked by t henitrifying organisms t o form nitrites and thennitrates. N itrification takes place so quicklythat w e never find either ammonia or nitritesin t he soil ; it is apparently t he quickest of allsoi l changes, and is only limit ed by t he speed atwhich t he ammonia- producing organisms work.The whole process would be entirely beneficialt o t he plant were it not for t he evolution of a

certain amount of free nitrogen. At t he sametime t he nitrogen - fixing organisms

,azot obacter

and'

ot hers,absorb a certain amount of free

nitrogen,making it into protein. A consider

able amount of ener y is required for thischange

,and is derive from t he oxidation of

organic matter. We may represent t he cycle of

nitrogen changes in t he soil diagrammatical lyas follows :

These processes are special ly act ive in moist,

wel l - aerated soils ; the production of nitratesduring a well -worked fallow is one of t he chiefeffects produced . There may be a loss of nitrat eor ammonia under certain condit ions throughtheir assimilation by lower organisms.

21 . The cases arising in practice may besummed up as fol lows :( 1 ) Decomposition becomes very active when

Soil

land rich in organic compounds of nitrogen issubjected t o arable cultivation : t he land losesorganic matter and nitrogen rapidly. H eavilydunged land or newly broken rich prairie soils

41

illustrations. The changes inof some of t he R ot hamst ed soilsof twenty - eight years are as

Added in R emoved Unaccount edManure. by Crop . for.

l b . lb . lb .

P lot 3—N O manure 2437 285 1 677—Minerals and am

monium salt s 2971 63 1 67

2—Dung 4976 633 (gain ) 167

It Wi ll be observed that t he ammonium saltshave not increased t he percen ta e of nitrogenin t he soil. Any that have not een taken upby t he plant have been washed ou t as nitrates.On t he dunged plot only one~quarter of t he

added n itrogen is recovered in t he crop,and

more than half is lost.Shutt found t he following changes in nitrogencontent of cultivated prairie soils :

IN DIAN H EAD, SASK.

N itrogeu .

To a dep t h of 4 in.

Only about one- third of this loss is t o be ac

counted for by removal in grain and straw of

t he crops grown,t he remaining t w o- thirds being

dissipated as a result of cultural operations.Something similar has happened in England :ordinary arable soils now contain about 01 5per cent of n itrogen, but t he woodland or grasssoils from which they originated usually containabout '

25 per cent.(2) In t he case of arable land continuallycarrying cereal crops, t he nitrogen content declines when t he produce is entirely removedand no nitrogen compounds are added as manure or through the cultivation of leguminouscrops. The decline is at first greater than t heamount of n itrogen in t he crop, but finallybecomes approximately equal t o it.(3 ) Where a leguminous crop is introduced

N itrogen in Soil.

H ad t he roots, straw, and clover been convertedinto manure and returned t o t he land, as wouldbe t he case in ordinary farming, there is littledoubt but that t he production would be raisedt o a higher level.(4) When land is carrying a vegetation that

into t he rotation t he nitrogen content of t hesoil may be. main tained, or even increased, withou t t he addition of any nitrogenous manure.

Thus under t he old four - course rotation,in

which clover comes in once every four years,

t he percentage of n itrogen in t he soil does notfall indefinitely, but reaches a level at which itremains tolerably constant. By altering t he

frequency with which leguminous cr0ps are

taken, it becomes possible t o keep t he nitrogenat any level within certain limits. This conclusion may be i llustrated from t he resultsgiven by t he A gdell rotation field at B othamsted, where clover or beans are grown once ineach four years. The nitrogen statistics for t heplot that receives no n itrogen but only phosphoric acid and potash are

Average Product ion.

is not removed there is a gain of nitrogen ,which

,however

,does not 0 on indefinitely,

but is final ly balanced by t e losses.Land al lowed t o run wild and go back t o

prairie state at R ot hamst ed showed t he fol

lowing nitrogen changes :

42

N ITROGEN , LB . PER A CRE, Tor 9 IN .

Land laid dow n t o grass stead ily gains uit rogen for many years '

Arable land “

124 per cent of ni trogen.

Grassland laid d own1 1 years

1 5 1

Grassland laid down20years

Grassland laid down .

19545 years

Very old past ure‘247

The extent t o which accumulation will go on

depends on t he rainfall ; thus it is found thatprairie soils in arid regions contain less nitrogenthan those in humid regions. In this

,as in

several other directions, climate is an importantfactor in soil formation .

Both fixation and loss of nitrogen probablygo on in most soils, and preven t either an

indefinite accumulation or an absolute removalof all of this consti t uent. Finally

, a state ofequil ibrium is reached, and t he soil does notalter until t he conditions are changed. See alsoarts. N ITR IFICA

’I‘ION

,N ITROGEN FIxA TION

, &c.

§ 22. ABSOR PTION or SUBSTA N CES BY SO IL.

I t has already been pointed out that certainsoluble substances react with soil const ituents

bonate t o form insoluble carbonates, cg . copper

sul hate, &c.

he fol lowing are not absorbed : ( 1 ) nitrates,(2) ca lcium bicarbonate, (3) sodium sal t s.5 23. ACTION OF R AIN ON Sow—Ra in washes

ou t nitrates from t he soil and thus effects at emporary diminution in productiveness. Aw et wint er is known to be bad for t he wheatcrop. At Rothamst ed , fal lowing leads to a

marked increase in t he yield of wheat onlyw hen t he rainfal l has not been t oo high.

Wheat grown aft erfallow,

t ot al produce in lb.

Wheat grown aft erwheatt otal produce in lb .

Increase due t o fallowing,in lb.

Percent age, increase due

t o fallowing

(Hall , Book of t he Ro thamsted Experiments, p .

Catch cropping or bastard fallowing afi'

ords

an excellent means of saving these nitrates.Ra in has a mechanica l effect in beating down

Soi l

t he soil and ‘ving a glazed appearance. It

causes clay and1

strong loams t o swell, but thiseffect is noticed much less than t he converseeffect of drought

,which causes t he same soils

t o shrink and therefore to crack. Further, itwashes some of t he fine clay material from t hesurface into t he subsoil ; this process has beengoing on ever since t he soil was formed, andhas led t o t he following order of d ifi'erences

PEROENTAGE or CLAY

Irrigation accelerates this movement, and t he

clay washed down forms in time an‘irrigation

hard 11 which has t o be broken. This changeintro uces a disturbing factor into experimentswith lysimeters or d rain gauges (R ussell , J our.

of Agricultural Science, 1 907, vol. ii, p.24. FR OST.

—The chief effect is t o breakdow n hard clods of earth by causing t he waterinside t he clod t o freeze and expand. The forceof t he expansion is enormously greater thananything else at t he farmer’s disposal, and , acting as it does on every particle of t he soil

,it

is remarkably effective in mellowing down un

kindly soil. Any mineral like chalk that admit st he entrance of water in to it s pores may in likemanner he shatt ered . Fragments of rock are

splintered off and disintegrated ; this action isonly very slow, but it has great results in t helong ages of geologica l time.

25 . THE M OVEMEN T or A IR IN THE SO IL.

L'

e in t he soil is only possible in so far as air

is able to get in. The mineral particles ofvarious siz es forming t he bulk of t he soil havenot set t led down into t he most compact osit ion .

The air passages thus left form about alf t hesoil , and are stil l further increased by cultivation in arable land, by t he movements of worms,&c.

, in pasture land, and by frost.A ir gets in to t he soil by diffusion, but t heprocess is retarded by t he smallness of t he porespaces and t he friction. Carbonic acid

,nitrogen

,

and water vapour difi‘use out of t he soil , but atunequal rates ; water vapour goes quickest andcarbonic acid slowest. In consequence of t heslow rate of diffusion there is always a. markeddifference in composition between t he gases oft he soil and of t he air, especial ly in t he proportions of carbonic acid. The atmosphere con tain s003 per cent of carbonic acid and 2097 per centof oxygen ; t he air of t he soil may contain ‘

3 ofcarbonic acid and 206 of oxygen. As the car

bonioacid is produced partly by micro- organismsand partly by plant roots

,its amount varies with

t he temperature, being highest in summer andlowest in winter. (SeeWollny , Die ZersetzungderOrganischen S t ofi'

e, p. 145 ; and Lau , Biedermann’s Zentralblatt, 1908, vol. xxxvii , p.

Difi'

usion is not t he only w ay in which t heair of t he soi l is changed. An actual flow ofair from t he soil is induced by a strong wind orby changes in barometric pressure. Air is also

Soi l

displaced by t he water of a sharp shower sinking into t he ground ; indeed t he bubbling of

t he air through t he water can often be heardafter t he shower has stopped. As t he waterruns away into t he subsoil, air again enters t otake its place.

26. THE M OVEMENT OF WATER IN THE SOIL .—The factors regulating t he movements of

water in t he soil are more complex than thoseregulating t he movement of air; not only aret he pore spaces involved

,but also t he surfaces

of t he soil particles and t he amount of organicmatter present. The surface of a l iquid possesses certain special properties, in consequenceof which t he liquid wetting a dry clean solidtends t o s read over as large an area as possible.

This t en ency is checked, or may even be putou t of action , if anything such as grease is present which hinders or prevents t he wetting oft he solid. Water moves freely over t he surfaceof clean , but not of greasy sand, while it willonly with diffi culty moisten dry peat or drygarden soil. Dry arable soils are more readilyist ened , bu t t he water does not Spread far

Fig. 1 .—Diagram showing wat er films round soli

part icles. Water t ends to pass from A , where t he filmis t hick and t he curvature flat , to B

unless it is in considerable excess ; amoist layerof soil may remain for a long time in contactwith a dry layer without any even distributionof water taking lace. But t he case is altogetherdifferent when t e particles are already moist.One of t he results of t he surface tension of l iquidsis that t he liquid on wet particles in contactwith one anot her passes from places as at A(fig. where t he capillary films are thick and

consequen t ly t he curvature flat , t o places as at

B , where t he films are thin and consequentlyt he curvature is sharp. The forces involved aremuch greater than that of gravity ; t he wateris held up and does not sink. Thus throughouta moist soil that is quite uniform in texture t hewater tends t o distribute itself evenly. It maytake a long time about this process because of

t he resistance t o its movement, and in pra cticet he even dist ribution may never be realized ;but t he tendency is always there. Unfort u

nat ely no experimental demonstration has yetshown how far it is an importan t factor in t hedistribution of water. In any case, once waterreaches a particle it remains there. There is ,however, a limit, depending on t he extent oft he soil surface

, t o t he amount of water that canbe held in this way . When this l imit is reachedany further quantity of water soaks throughand is said t o percolate. We may therefore dist inguish three condi t ions in which water mayoccur in t he soil : ( 1 ) water held in quasi- chemical combination , t _he so- called hygroscopic moisture, of no value t o t he plan t (2) t hewater adhering t o the surfaces of t he particles

43

By using large amounts of dung, market gardeners are able t o utiliz e t o advantage lightsandy soils. But it has been ointed out thatorganic matter increases t he ifficult y of w et

ting t he soil ; and in Old garden soils this

by surface tension, which tends t o distributeitself in t he soil in all directions ; (3) t he freewater, which , not being held, S inks in t he soiland passes into t he drains or t he subsoil. Threecases commonly arise in prac t ice z(a) Coarse Sandy Soil.

—Rain readily percolates by reason of t he large spaces. The amountadhering t o t he surface is not very great becauseof t he small total soil surface (see The

films surrounding t he particles are only thin ,t oo thin indeed t o move readily. Evaporationis also taking place, and makes t he films stillthinner. Only where there is enough free waterfor t he films t o be fairly thick will there bemuch water movement of t he kind w e have j ustbeen describing. Soils of this nature, therefore,do not remain moist long after a shower, unlesst he water- level happens t o be near t he surface.

Their productiveness depends very much on howfar t he rainfall is uniformly distributed over t hegrowing season.(b) Clay Soil—In a clay soil, on the otherhand

,t he particles are ver much smaller, bu t

there is a largely increase surface. In conse

quence, the amount of water that can be held isincreased ; indeed a clay soil will often be foundt o contain twice as much water as a sandy soilclose by. But t he particles are so closely packedthat t he movement of t he water fi lms Is seriously impeded. Thus a clay soil may be saturated with water at a short distance down andyet on its surface Show every sign of drought.Matters are improved by flocculating t he clayby lime or skilful cultivation ; or, on t he otherhand, they become much worse when t he soi l isbadly managed so that t he clay becomes defloccu lat ed One of t he advantages of autumnploughing is that t he rainwater has a betterchance of soakin into t he soil , instead of lyingabout in pools all through t he winter.(c) The third case is presented by t he intermediate types of soil, where t he total surface,and therefore also t he water held by t he surface, is greater than in sand but less than inclay. The pore spaces are large, and there ist herefore more chance for water t o distributeitself both by percolation and by t he transference of water from particle t o particle. The

wat er su ply is therefore better than in eitherof t he ot er types of soil.5 27. The amount of water retained b t he

soil is considerably increased by t he ad it ion

of organic matter. The water held by t hedunged plot on H oos field, R ot hamst ed , and

t he neighbouring plots receiving no dung, w asfound t o be z

44 Soil

culty sometimes becomes so marked that t heplant fails t o get a proper water su ply. Suchsoils are said t o be ‘worn ou t

’

; t lliey may be

renovated by heavy dressings of virgin loam.

We have seen that when rain falls on t he

soil it distributes itself throughout t he soil ;every particle holds a certain amount, and t hew hole quantity held in every inch of soil depends ou t he surface of t he particles and t he

amount of organic matter. As t he surface soilcontains far more organic matter than t he subsoil

,there is a t endency for t he water t o remain

near t he surface ; but during t he autumn andwinter months more rain fal ls than can be heldthere

,and a certain amount percolates, reaching

t he drains and finally t he rivers. The wholeprocess is slow. The rainfal l in t he Thamesvalley is at a maximum in October, but t heriver is only at a maximum flow five monthsafter ; t he rainfal l is at a minimum in April

,

while t he river does not reach its minimumflow till September. Even at t he surface it isnot rapid ; drains will often not start runnintil l some time after a heavy rain ; if t he lanreceives much dung they may not run at all.§ 28 . The water held by surface tension con

st it u t es t he supply for t he plant, and has therefore t o be carefully conserved. Evaporationfrom t he surface of t he soil and from t he in

t erior causes serious loss, amounting at B othamsted t o about 1 8 in . each year. The evaporationfrom t he surface, which is by far t he greatestamount

,can be reduced by windbreaks

,by a

covering ofvegetablematter, shade - givin plants,or even a layer of dry soil . H igh he ges act

as windbreaks and keep t he roads from drying :they are therefore discouraged by t he authorities.The protecting effect of a layer of dry soil (madeby hoeing or by surface cultivat ion) is util izedin temperate cl imates, both in regions of moderate and of low rainfall, for keeping t he soilmoist enough t o produce a crop. In t he Tropicst he best method for keeping down evaporationis t o shield t he soil by means of shade- givingcrops ; whilst in ordinary garden prac t ice, mulching with dung

,straw, &c .,

may be suitable. On

t he other hand, anything which opens up t hesoil increases t he amount of evaporation. The

use of long dung on l ight land in a dry seasonis known t o be inj urious (see art . CULTIVATION ,EFFECT ON SO IL). Thus w e can t o a certainextent control t he fate of t he water in t he soi l.The water—holding capacity of t he soil can be increased by adding organic matter, eg . by addingdung

,plou hing- in green crops, or feeding crops

on t he lan A larger proportion of t he rain isnow held near t he surface, and a smaller amountlos t by percolat ion. Loss by evaporation is red uced by surface cultivation or by mulching.Further, water is held below t he surface layerby keeping t he lower depth compact. Theseare t he principles underlying ‘dry farming ’,which has been practised from time immemorialin arid regions . In Syria, where no rain fallsfrom April t o October, t he peasants lough t oa depth of 4 in . only

,and then put seedin t o t he

firm layer below, which is always moist. The

same principles can be traced in t he methodsin vogue amongst t he natives of t he dry parts

of India. Dry farming is being much developedin t he United S tates and Canada, where specialinstruments are in use forcompact in t he lowersoil and making a loose layer on t e surface.

Often t he land is only crop ed once in t w o years,and is kept well cul t ivate during the intervalt o preserve for t he crop as much as possible of

t he t w o years’water supply .

29. It would be interesting t o ascertainwhether t he permanen t water - level affects t hefertility of t he soil if it is wel l below t he rootrange of t he lant. There are many instancesof l ight soils cing productive when t he waterlevel is some 50 ft. or more below t he surface,whilst on some of t he heavier soils t he waterlevel may be 1 50 ft. down or even lower. The

pumping operations going on all round Londonare lowering t he water- level in t he chalk from12 t o 1 8 in. each year. Will this in time affectt he productiveness of t he soil above" It cannotbe said that w e know sufficient t o answer thisquestion. The amount of water held by t hesurface Of t he soil is considerable

,and t he per

colation of t he rest is so slow that a saturatedzone easily forms near t he surface. Possiblythis is all t he plant ever gets. It is this saturated zone that sets t he drains running

,even

though t he water - level in t he wel ls may bemanyfeet down . We must again repeat that thereis no direct ex erimen t al evidence t o Show howfar t he undoubted tendency t o move upwardsfrom t he permanent water - level is a factor indetermining soil fertility.

30. The percolation through t he soil is downwards ; there is not much movement sideways.On Dungeness

,a low - lying sandy and pebbly

level stretching ou t into t he sea,t he water from

t he cottagers’wells sunk quite close t o t he sea

is practically pure rain water,showing no signs

of admixture with sea water. Further,it is a

common experience that one can see‘t o an inch ’

where a soluble fert ilizer l ike nitrate of sodahas gone. But t he direction of percolation mayalways be altered by a bed of impermeable rock ;t he water may be thrown ou t t o form a Springor may drift underground. In any case thereis always an underground drift along slopingground, so that t he val ley is moister than t hehi her ground.

3 1 . There is a certain amount of distillationof water from t he lower t o t he upper layers ofsoil whenever t he lower soil is warmer than t heupper. This happens frequently

,but it s effects

are very noticeable in dry regions during t hecold nights fol lowing after warm days. N ot

all t he water condenses in t he surface soil ; somepasses as vapour into t he cold air and condensesthere. Thus is formed t he night mist so muchextolled by t he old Eastern writers : ‘

t he mistthat went up from t he ground and watered t hewhole face of t he earth ’.§ 32. THE TEMPERATURE OF THE SO IL—Thetemperature of t he soil depends on t he amountof heat it receives

,and on t he w ay t he heat is

used. The heat comes of course from t he sun,

but some is absorbed on t he w ay by t he air

and t he moisture in t he air,so that t he amount

finally reaching t he earth’s surface depends ont he cl imate. The amount received on any given

Soil

area of ground depends on its slope with respectt o t he sun’s rays ; a square yard of level groundat t he Equator receives more than a square yard

,

also level, in a northern latitude. III t he lattercase an alteration in t he slope increases t heamount received up t o t he point where t hesun’s rays strike vertically ; but even then t heamount is far less than at t he Equator by reasonof t he grea t er thickness of air traversed. Ift he S lope is t he other way , t

'

.e. t o t he northinstead of t he south

,there is a still further

decrease in t he heat received per square yard(see fig. t he difference in temperature becomes very important in districts where earlyproduce is raised. In some cases, as in Jersey ,a south S lope fetches a higher rental than a

nort h slope. R idging land also increases t hesurface exposed t o t he sun and therefore warmsit. On t he other hand

,soil shielded from t he

sun’s rays is cooled during Spring and summer ;

Fig. 2.—Diagram indicat ing , by t he t h ickness of t he lines, t he relat ive amount s

of heat received per square yard at t he Equat or (A B) ; in N ort hern lat it udes onlevel ground (0D,DE) ; on ground sloping t o t he Sou t h (0F) and t o t he N ort h

CF receives less heat t han A B because of the greater t hickness of t he(F E).atmospheric layer wh ich has t o be t raversed

thus forest soils are t he coolest, pasture soilscome next

,whilst arable soils not covered with

a crop are warmest. In winter, however, t hereverse Obtains, as w e shall see later on .

33 . Th e heat falling on t o a surface of soilis not all absorbed ; part is reflected back intospace. Black surfaces absorb mos t heat ; t hepractice of dressing fields with soot in springtherefore tends t o increase t he temperaturebesides sup lying nitrogenous manure. Whitesurfaces re ect most heat, however, and therefore a white soil is cooler during hot summerweather than a black one.

$ 34. The soi l is always giving ou t heat byradiation , even on t he hottest day . During a

warm,sunny day it receives more than it gives

ou t,but on a cool n igh t or in winter it gives

ou t more than it receives, and so its temperature falls. S t il l more serious is t he loss of heatarising from t he contact of cold air particles ;as t he air touches t he warm surface of t he soilit takes away some of t he soil heat and rises,giving place t o more air

,which robs a further

ort ion of t he soil heat. This is called loss ofcat by convection . Both sources of loss arediminished if t he soil is covered with a crop,or a mulch

,or a loose snow layer. Thus, in t he

winter time, mulched land is warmer than Openland

,and grass land is warmer than arable. But

45

a mulch reduces t he temperature inspring by

keeping off t he sun’s rays, and in gar en praotice where autumn mulching is adopted it mustbe removed or dug in before t he sunny weatherstarts . Loss by convection is greatest when a

cold wind is blowing. Shelter from cold windsis therefore an important factor in determiningsoil temperature.

35 . So far w e have only been dealing witht he temperature changes at t he surface of t he

soil . It is necessary, however, t o fol low t he

changes in t he soil itself, or at any rate in t het op 6 in . where the plant roots develop. H eatpenetrates into t he soi l in t w o or three ways.A certain amount is conducted, j ust as heat isconducted along a poker one end of which isin t he fire. This process is only possible wheret he particles are in contact, hence a compactedsoil conducts heat better than a loose one. Thusrolling land in spring warms it , while hoeing

in summer cools it ; further,compact land is colder inwinter than loose land. Amoist soil is a better conduct or than a dry one

,because

water makes a better conductin layer than air.

Con uct ion takes so longthat t he temperature of t hesoil never equalizes itself atdifferent depths. There isalways a difference betweensurface and subsoil . FromSe tember t o March t he

su soil is warmer than t hesurface soil

,and thus t he

soil is being warmed frombelow.

The heat reaching t he soilis utilized partly in raising

its temperature and partly in causing evaporation of t he soil water. The quantity requiredfor raising temperature de ends partly on the

specific heat of t he soil, u t mainly on t he

amount of water, Since 1 lb. of water requiresas much heat t o warm it one degree as 6 or 8 lb.

of soil . But t he heat required t o evaporatewater is far in excess of that required t o warmit : t he evaporation of 1 lb. of water takes asmuch heat as would warm 1 lb. of dry soil 90°F. Thus t he evaporation of water from t he soilnot only leads t o a loss of water, but t o a muchmore serious loss of heat ; it is a wasteful process

,without any com ensat ing advantages as

far as is known. A ry soil may warm lessquickly

,but it warms t o a greater extent than

a w et soil ; draining a soil will therefore alwayswarm it.

36. We may sum up t he factors concernedas follows( l ) The heat all comes from t he sun and strikes

t he surface of t he earth . The slope of t he surfaceis therefore import ant.(2) Part is reflected and part absorbed, t he

amount absorbed depending on t he colour of

t he soil .(3 ) Some is lost by radiation , and more by t hepassage of cold air over t he surfac

(4) H eat travels into t he soil by conduction ,

46

which is greater the more perfect t he contactbetween t he particles, ale. t he more compact t he

s01

(5 ) The effect of t he heat depends on t he

amount of water present ; a w et soil requiresconsiderable heat t o raise its temperature, anduses up stil l more heat in bringing about evaporat ion .

The effect of these various factors may be

A irTumsem tureSoil Tempera t ure a t I foot deepSoil Tempera ture a t 4feet d eep

Fi 3 .—Curves showing t emperat ures of sandy soil, clay ,

and chalk soil (Mawley) (5 Observe t hat (a) t he clayl i t . is colder t han t he airunt il June , bu t from t hen onwardsit has t he same temperat ure ; (b) t he clay at 4 ft . is warmert han t he airand t he surface soil from Sep t ember t o March ;

( 6 ) t he sandy soil at 1 ft . is w armer t han t he airexcept fromDecember t o March ; in summer it is much warmer; (d ) thechalk soil at 1 i t . is somewhat coolert han t he air up t o June ,and somewhat warmer aft erwards ; (e) at 4 ft . sand andchalk t emperat ures behave like c lay t emperat ures.

very w ell seen by watching t he melting of t hesnow . Even on an apparently uniform fieldt he snow melt s very irregularly in consequenceof smal l differences of slope or shelter. If t hefal l of snow has come late so that t he groundhas been cooled beforehand, t he snow lastslonger on t he arable than on t he warmer grassland ; it lasts stil l longer on a footpath acrosst he fields

,which

,being compact, has lost much

of its heat by its superior conducting power.The reverse often holds, as one

,

might expect,

Soil

The Soil in it s Relation t o t he Plant

1 Cereals take about 50lh. ; mangolds (22 tons) about 100int he roo t s.

2 22 t ons ofmangolds cont ain 222 lb . of potash in theroots.

for an early fal l of snow. Snow melts first alongt he l ines of drainage and on t he ridges, thesebeing t he warmest parts of t he field. It oftenmelts close t o the ground, and while t he uppersurface remains intact

,because of t he heat con

ducted u from t he subsoil.A san y soil being drier

,is warmer than a

clay soi l in spring and summer,but not during

winter. Mr. Maw ley has drawn up t he curvesiven in fig. 3 expressing these relationships.ther results are quoted in art . FERTIL ITY.

There is obviously no possibility of increasingt he total supply of heat

,bu t t he following

methods are in use in various circumst ancesfor making t he most of t he available supply :( 1 ) The amount of heat received er squareyard is increased by ridging ; (2) t e amountabsorbed is increased by dressing with soot ;(3) t he loss is reduced by (a) drainage, (6) making windbreaks. The temperature of t he soilis raised in spring by roll ing

,and is kept down

in summer by surface cultivation,by a growing

crop or a mulch.

§ 37. THE FUN CTION S or THE Som—In relation t o t he plant t he soil serves several functions.Among others “ ( 1 ) it affords anchorage for t heroots ; (2) it supplies many of t he elements ofplant food ; (3) it affords a continuous supply ofwater t o the root ; (4) it serves t o keep t he rootcool during summer and warm during Winter.In order that firm roothold should be provided

for t he plant it is necessary that t he soil shouldbe sufficiently compact. We can thus explainpart of t he beneficial effect of rolling wheat orgrass in spring

,especially after frost has loosened

t he ground.The plan t derives its n itrogen and it s mineralmatter from t he soil. The amount it takes upis not great—ordinary farm crops take 50 t o100 lb. of nitrogen

,1 20 t o 30 lb. of phosphoric

acid, 30t o 100 lb. of potash2 per acre, quantitiesfar smaller than actually exist in t he soil . Fewsoils will contain less than 2500 lb. of nitrogenon t he t op 9 in .

—this is t he amount present ont he R ot hamst ed plot cropped every year withoutany manure since 1 839—and yet in most casesaddition of t he 1 8 lb. of nitrogen contained inl cwt. of nitrate of soda will lead t o an increasedcrop. We are thus led t o conclude that a largepart of t he combined nitrogen of t he soil is ofno use t o t he plant. In like manner t he amountsof phosphates and of potash in t he soil are muchin excess of anything t he plant can ever require ;yet it will often happen that a few additionalounds in t he form of some artificial manureead t o an increased plant growth . The amountsof these substances in t he soil actually serviceableto the p lan t are clearly nothing like as great ast he total amount, and a distinct ion is thereforemade between t he ‘

available’and t he ‘unavailable’plant food in t he soil .The distinction is not a very sharp one. At

R ot hamst ed , where wheat and barley are grown

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48

conditioned by the amount of water usually present. The same factor largely determines t heheat supply in relation t o t he plant, or, in otherwords, t he ‘

earliness’or ‘lateness’of a soil. Anearly soil is dry, and therefore warms up morein spring and summer than a moister soil ; itis almost invariably a sand

,which in any case

warms more quickly than a loam or a clay . The

tendency for cold air t o drift down slopes or t ocol lect in hollows causes vegetation in low - lying

20percent of wat erpresent

Soil

1 2 percent of wat erpresent

Fig. 4.—Effect of wat eron t he development of wheat . In A t he p lants were green, w ith large well-developed leaves,

but no corn .

without calcium carbonat e may produce nothingbut grass, wheat, and beans. After addition Ofca lcium carbonate a much larger range of cropsbecomes possible.

(3 ) Unlike t he other soil constit uents , it maybe ent irely absen t from t he soil, and in fact largeareas all over t he world are entirely destituteof it.Certain lants cannot tolerate calcium car

bonate ; ot ers, including practically all agricultural crops, require it. Some will toleratelarge quantities. Thus w e find a chalk soil hasa very distinc t flora of its own , characterized bylarge numbers of flowering plants, by beeches,yews, &c. The amoun t necessary depends ont he type of soil : very little suffices on a sandy

In B t he p lants were yellow and in full ear. (June, 1 908) l§ 38 ]

soil per cent in some cases), but more isnecessary on a clay per cen t ormore).

41 . THE ACTION OF THE PLANT ON THE SO IL.

-The plant acts in t w o ways on t he soil :( 1 ) Its roots give off carbonic acid

,which is

capable Of dissolving various minerals,eg . it

etches a slab of marble placed in soil in con

tact with t he plant roots. Czapek’s numerousobservations furnish no evidence that any otheracid is excreted.(2) As already pointed ou t it decom

poses t he nitrates t o form carbonates, and thust ends t o conserve t he ca lcium carbonate andprevent t he soil becoming acid.

42. SO IL BACTER IA IN THEIR RELATION To

PLA N Ts.—Bacterial action is on the whole bene

places t o suffer from frost, and is probably oneof t he reasons why animals prefer to lie on t he

hi best parts of t he field.% 40. CALCIUM CAR BONATE.

—This substanceoccupies a special position among soil const it uen t s for three reasons : ( 1 ) I t determines t hereaction of t he soil ; in its absence t he soil maybe acid, and therefore unsuitable formany agricultural crops and bacteria

,but suitable for cer

tain moulds and fungi,such as t he fungus

causing finger- and - t oe, which do not flourish inneutral soils.(2) It modifies t he texture of t he soil, and thusimproves t he airand water supply. A clay soil

Soil

ficial t o plants in removing t he useless dead remains and converting them into humus and plantfood. P lants in turn are beneficial t o bacteriabecause they tend t o maintain t he faintly alkaline reaction wel l suited t o bacteria. There arealso special cases of plants being associated withparticularmicro- organisms. TheLeguminosaegettheir nitrogenous supply more readily throught he activity of t he nodule organisms than in anyother w ay . Many trees have been shown byStahl t o have mycorrhiza on t he roots

,by means

N /200.

Strengt h of H ydroch loric AcidUsed. N /100.

Phosphoric acid found at be}ginn ing of experimen t

A ft er t wo weeks’growt ht hree

four

five

(Journ. of American Chem

Inherent Fert ilit y and Condition

44. It is diffi cult t o give any exact definitionOf fertility beyond t he general statement thata fertile soil is one in which plants grow well.When moreprecise descri tion is attempted, d iflicul t ies arise because of iflerences in lant requ iremen t s ; t he soil may be wel l suite for one

plant but not for another. It is quite possiblethat every soil is fertile for some crop, althought he particular crop may not ha

ppen t o be sale

able. This fact is recognized y t he practicalman , w ho will distinguish soils as good Wheatsoils, good barley soils , and so on .

The difference in plant requirements is, however, only one of degree and not of kind. Allplants require ( 1 ) food, (2) water, (3 ) air, (4)warmth, (5 ) absence of inj urious substances

,

generally secured by t he presence of sufficientcalcium carbonate. A ll these re uire-men ts are

equally imp ortan t ; if any one of t em is u nsa t is

fied , the soil is to tha t extent infert ile. Excess inany one direction does not entirely compensatefor deficiency in any other. N o matter howmuch plant food t he soil contains, it may be lnfertile if its water supply is deficient or if someharmful substance is present. A good watersupply wil l enable t he plant t o make t he most oft he foodstuff present

,but it becomes a hindrance

if t he air supply is deficien t or t he temperature t oo low . N itrate of soda is an exceedinglyvaluable manure in moist climates, but in dryregions it is often without effect ; t he productiveness being limited by t he deficient water supply.

At Indian H ead, Sask . ,where t he rainfal l is

only 1 66 in . per annum ,dressings of 100 lb.

and 200 lb. per acre gave no increased crop ;similar results are also obtained in some of t he

dry regions of South Australia. In all soils w emust expect t o find one ormore limiting factors,which must be u t ou t of action before increasesin fertility can e looked for.

§ 45 . The quan t ity of plant food in t he soildepends partly on its origin and partly on t he

temperature,water and air supply. The mineral

substances,potash

,phosphoric acid, and calcium

VOL. XI .

49

of which they obtain their food. It has beenshown that seedling orchids will not grow unlessa special organism is present in t he soil ; forsome reason not understood, t he young root cannot do without t he stimulus of t he symbiot icor anism.

43 . There is some evidence that t he amountof soluble mineral food in t he soil increasesunder t he influence of vegetation . Moore ex

tracted t he following amounts of phosphoric acidfrom pot soils in which maize was growing :

Part s of P205 permillion of soil.

Soc. 1 902, vol . xxiv, p .

carbonate form part of t he original soil . Theorganic matter and nitrogen compounds

,on t he

other hand,are mainly recent roduct s of l iving

organisms. The more t he conditions are favourable t o bacterial activity t he more rapid w il lbe t he decomposition of organic matter and theproduction of valuable nitrates

,humus

, &c.

The water supply depends on t w o factors : ( 1 )on t he behaviour of t he soil t o t he rain that fallson it ; (2) on t he underground flow of water ifthere is any . We have already shown that t hefirst of these factors is regulated by t he textureof t he soil . The ideal condition is for t he soil t obe uniformly moist

,not t oo w et nor t oo dry

,nor

liable t o qu ick changes in water content,which

plants wil l not tolerate. The subsoil is equallyimportant. A soil which might in itself be ex

pect ed t o be fertile may prove poor because itlies on an impervious bed of rock or clay

,or be

cause it is overdrained by a pebbly subsoil . Thebest result s are obtained when t he subsoil issimilar in type t o t he surface soils but a littlefiner grained . The underground drift of wateris usually only an important factor in soils situated at t he foot of a long slope, or in valleyswhich receive t he underground water from t hehigher land in addition t o their ow n propershare of rainfall . The water is not ure

,but

contains dissolved mineral matter,calcium bi

carbonate,ni t rates

, &c.,of distinc t value as

plant food. Land thus situated is therefore ata double advantage in comparison with highlying land.

In soils of sufficien tly open texture t he air

supply is usually good ; and , as w e have alreadyseen

,if t he air and water supply are sat isfac

tory,t he temperature is also.

g46. The texture of t he soil thus constitutesa highly important factor in fertility. It isregulated by t he roport ions of sand

,silt, fine

silt,clay

,&c.

,and

)

by t he condition in whicht he clay exists. Different cro s require different condit ions ; a type of soi best suited t oone crop does not necessarily prove best foranother. Certain crops, like wheat and oat s , arevery adaptable, and mav flourish on most types

1 6 1

50

of soil ; others, l ike barley, turni s, potatoes,&c. , are much more specializ ed in t eir requirements

,and therefore restricted t o a particular

type of soil . Table I shows t he mechanica lanalysis of a number of soils in Kent, Surrey,

TABLE I.—SOILS IN KENT, Susssx, A ND

Soil

and Sussex known t o be specially appropriatet o certain cro s. Of course t he results have t obe considere in relation t o other factors, suchas elevation , rainfal l, &c. Many good soils mayremain in woodland because their elevation

SURREY WELL surrED To CERTAIN Caors(From The Soils of Kent, Sussex, and Surrey, by A . D. H all and E. J . Russell )

WHEAT SOILS

Clay w it h Clay with LondonFORMAT

Flints. Flints. Clay.

“ Imm

Chislet. Bentley . Loytert on. Coulsdon. Tolworth. Sheppey .

’

This last analysis represents a soil on wh ich good wheat used t o be grown, but which has now beenlaid down to grass formany years.

BARLEY SOILS

Chalk.

LOCALITY Rep ton.

Fine sil t

Though th is soil contains a rat herh igh proportion of clay forbarley , it is kept open and easy-working by thelarge amount (203 per cen t ) of carbonat e of lime t hat is present .POTATO SOILS

Eonu i rmfl Thanet . maxilla.

Bagshot . Thanet . Bagshot . Thanet . Chalk .

LOCALITY{Swanley. N u t fleld . Bisley. Teynham. Claygate. Minst er.

Fine silt

Heavy forpotatoes, bu t ligh t ened by good drainage, lime and dung.

FRUIT SOILS

Bagshot ThanetFORMATlouf Sands. Sands. Beds.

LOCAL ITY{Wisley . Swanley. Wickham.

Farleigh .

Molash. Ro lvenden.

Mixed Cherries,fruit . App les.

This soil is really too heavy forfruit, though apple orchards are found upon it.

5 011 5 1

H OP SOILS

Lower Clay UpperTs‘lt’

a“ Exit Green w it h Green t it

“hi"

“

sand. Flin t s. sand.Teyn East Loy t er R olven Wood

Barton.

ham. Farleigh . t on.

Bent ley .

d en .

"church .

"

These soils only grow t he coarservariet ies of hops successfully.

makes them w et and cold. Soils which in EastKent (ey . Loy t ert on and Aldington in t he

Table) with a rainfall of 24 in . grow excellentbarley, prove t oo heavy in West Sussex with arainfal l of 3 5 in . or more. On t he other hand

,

t he Shalford barley soil would probably bebarren waste under a smaller rainfall . A lightsoil under a heavy rainfal l resembles a heavierone under a lighter rainfall. N o amount ofmanuring or of management will secure goodcrops if t he type of soil is not suited t o t he

plant. Thus t he R ot hamst ed wheat plots,even

those receiving abnormally large dressings of

manure,have only on tw o occasion s ( 1 864 and

1 894) given 50bus. , which on a good brick earthwould be by no means an exceptional crop

,even

when grown,as usual in England

,with but

little manure. To each type of soil there is alimiting yield

,beyond which t he crop wil l not

go. Attempts t o make it by excessive manuring only result in ‘laid ’ crops

,While crops of

equal or greater size are standing well on t he

better soils. But t he limit is not t he same forall varieties ; and it is not unusual t o find thatone variety may do better than another underone set of conditions

,but not so well under

others. H ence t he necessity for t he plantbreeder’s work .

We are now in a position t o describe morefully what cons t itutes a fertile soil. It mustcontain sufficient amounts of organic matter

,of

fairly soluble potassium compounds, phosphates,and calcium carbonate. There must be enough

,

but not t oo much,of t he finest clay particles

,

as well as certain proport ions of t hecoarser part icles. Exactly what these proportions shouldbe depends on t he cro and t he rainfall. Somecrops

,like wheat

,can 0well on widely different

soils ; others, like barley, require rather a specialtype, which, however, varies somewhat witht he climate. In estimating t he effect of rainfall one general rule holds. The structure of

t he soil should be such that superfluous wateris removed quickly

,while a suffi cient supply

always remains for t he plant. In regions ofheavy rainfal l much less of t he finest materialis necessary than in re ions of moderate rainfall . The position of t e soil and t he natureof t he subsoil are of great im ort ance. Thesevarious points are illustrated y t he series oftypical soils brought together in Table II on

p . 5 2.

47. INDICATION S or FERTIL ITY .—I t is pos

sible by mere inspec t ion of t he land t o form an

opinion of its fertility. The native vegetationusually affords a safe index t o t he character oft he soil : preponderance of narrow- leaved plantsadapted t o small transpiration , such as Spurry,heather

,conifers, &c.,

suggest drought conditions ; whilst strong growing, broad leavedplants

,such as burdock and nettles, indicate

more favourable water conditions. Spurry, cornmarigolds

,or foxgloves are a sign that calcium

carbonate is absent. Ground ivy is often foundon poor rabbit land, silver weed on chalk land.Certain trees

,like elms

,are found on fertile

soils,oak on clays

,conifers on sands, alder on

w et marshy ground,beech and yew on dry

chalk . The local value of t he land affordsanother w ay of j udging its fertility. It maybe safely inferred that t he land is poor Wheret he roads and lanes are wide, with wide rasss t rips at t he side and high straggling he ges,and where there are a number of commons.On t he other hand, narrow roads and lanes andclosely kept hedges are found on fertile land.Other indications may hold locally, but are not

generally true. In many districts t he presenceof round

,black pebbles would be taken t o indi

cate fertile soil. What they really indicate,

however,is a particular geological formation

which happens t o give rise in those districts t oa fert ile soil . Elsewhere the same formationmay prove much less fertile in Spite of its blackstones. Under OX IDATION IN SO ILS is describeda. laboratory method of gauging fertili ty basedon t he similarity in requirements of plants andOf bacteria. Soils suited t o t he develo ment ofbacteria, and therefore showing high act erial

activity, are also well suited t o plants.48 . CONDITION .

—We have seen that t hetexture of t he soil is largely regulat ed by itscomposition

,but it is susceptible of a certain

amount of change, especially in regard t o t he

condition of t he clay. A heavy soil can be

made more like a light soil by treatment withlime

,by j udicious dunging, and by skilful cul

t ivat ion,all of which processes floccu lat e t he

clay ; a light soil can be made more retentiveby dung

,folding

, or green manuring. The

amount of lant food can also be increased. Allsoils indeed

)

can be improved by manuring androper cultivation , or can be deteriorated bybad management. We thus have t o distinguishthat part of t he fertility of t he soil which is d uet o its structure, chemical composition , position ,&c. ,from that which is due t o human efiort .

The former is spoken of as t he inherent fertility,

5 2 Soil

TABLE II .—MECHAN ICAL AND CHEMICAL ANALYS IS or TYP ICAL SOILS WITH THEIR SUBSOILS(h om

'

The Soils of Kent , Surrey , and Sussex, by A . D. H all and E. J . Russell)

LOCALITY

GEOLOGICAL FORMATION

MECHANI CAL COMPOS ITION .

Surface Soils (0ih .

—9 in . )Fine gravel , above 1 mm.

Coarse sand, 1 mm.

Fine sand , mmSilt , 004—001 mm.

Fine silt , mm.

Clay , below 0002mm.

Subsoils (9 ih .- 1 8 in .

Fine gravel, above 1 mm.

Coarse sand, 1 mm.

Fine sand, 02 - 004 mmSilt , 004—001 mm.

Fine silt , mm.

Clay , below 0002mm.

CHEMICAL COMPOS ITION .

Surface Soils (Oin .—9 in.

Moist ure

Loss on ignit ion

N it rogen

A lumin a (A 1203Oxide of iron (Fe203Oxide of manganese (Mn304)Magnesia (MgO)Lime (CaO )Carbonat es, reckoned as car

bonat e of lime (CaCO3 )Pot ash (KQO)

solub le in l -

per-cen t

citri c acidPhosphori c acid (P205 )

soluble in L ]sr- cen t cit ric

Su phuric acid (803 )Subsoils (9 in .

—1 8 in .

Moist ure

Loss on ignit ion

N it rogen

Carbonat es, reckoned as car

bonat e of lime (CaCO3)Pot ash (KQO )Phosphoric acid (P205 )

Fertile Soils.

Loam. Strong Loams, Fert ile vate.

Much ferrous iron.

t he latter as t he condition of t he soil. Inherentfert ility is that for which t he farmer pays rent ;condition, on t he other hand, is t he result ofhis ow n efforts, and is a matter for compensation when he leaves. N o hard- and - fast d i st inction can be drawn between t he t wo. Instancesare numerous where an improvement in con

dition has led t o a permanent increase in fer:t ility . Several of t he R ot hamst ed plots receiveddung for several years in succession, and werethen cropped without manure. There is evennow a difference in yield between these and t hecontinuously unmanured plots, as shown by t he

Table on p . 5 3 . A further illustration isafforded by t he heavy chalking of certain clayspractised in t he 1 8 t h century

,which effected

an improvement not on ly in condition bu t alsoin fertility, still visible at R ot hamst ed andother places. The varying customs of landvaluers in different parts of t he country showhow impossible it is t o draw a sharp line andsay where ‘condi tion ’due t o t he tenant’s effortends, and ‘inherent ’ fertility due t o the soilbegins. The question is best studied by discussing what is meant by soil exhaustion andsoil amel ioration .

Soil 5 3

GRASSLAND—YIELDS or HAY, FIRST AND SECOND CUTS

P lot 2—Farmyard manure 1 856lb .

t o 1 863 , but no manure since4800

P lot 3—Unmanured cont inuously 2660

Difference

BARLEY RESULTS—TOTAL PR ODUCE IN LB . PER A CRE

P lot 7—2.—Dun g

every y ear 5 930

P lot 7- 1 .—Dung

1 852- 1871 , un

manured sinceP lot 1—0.

—Unmanured con

t inuously

Soil Exhaustion or Soil Deteriorat ion

49. Broadly speaking, there are four wa sin which soil may be caused t o deteriorate : 1 )it may be cropped without being supplied with

18 5 2- 1861

TEN YEARPERIODS

5 330 6480

2660 3100

1380 1 5 10

proper .01‘ sufficient mineral and organic sub

stances ; (2) t he cultivation may be so bad thatt he texture Of t he soil is injured ; (3 ) weedsmay be left unchecked ; (4) various physica land mechanical causes may do inj ury.

Fig. 5 .- Curves showing the fall in the yield of barley and of wheat grown formany years withou t manure atRot hamst ed . The yields on t he p lo t s receiving comp let e art ificial manures are also set ou t

§ 50. Cropp ing with no Manure or Improper

Manure—Both at R ot hamst ed and at Wo‘burn

plot s have been cropped without manure fora long number of years, and have furnishedvaluable data for studying soil exhaustion . For

t he first few years t he crop falls considerably,but then it ceases t o fall : this resul t is shownin t he following figures

,plotted in fig. 5 . Ex

haust ion on t he heavy Rot hamst ed soil is now

very slow, and is indeed practically imperceptible. There is no evidence that t he crop wil lfal l any further : 1 2 bus. probably representst he permanent productiveness of t he soil underpresent conditions of cultivation , climat e, &c.

Weeds, insects, fungi, &c.,may kill t he crop

altogether, but not soil exhaustion . The R othamst ed soil still contains wel l over 2000 lb. Of

nitrogen on t he t op 9 in .,whilst each crop takes

5 4

ou t 1 5 lh. , of wh ich 5 lb. are supplied by rainand seed

,leaving only 10 lb. t o come from t he

S oil

soil each year ; probably some of t h is is fixedby bacteria from t he air.

Rot hamst ed Yield in Bushels.

1 Plot 3 , no manure since 1839.

Exhaustion also goes on when incompletemanures are added, but at a slower rate. The

R othamst ed wheat and barley plots receivingonly one kind of manure always give hi

gher

crops than t he unmanured land. Secon aryeffects may of course set in : nitrate of sodamay inj ure t he texture of t he soil or sulphateOf ammonia may deplete t he lime, and then t hecrop begins t o fall more rapidly.

2P lot 7. 8P lot 4A .

The deterioration in grassland mow n withou t addition of manure is shown not only int he yield bu t in t he character of t he herbage.The number of species increases ; on t he un

manured plot at R ot hamst ed no fewer thanfifty species occur, agains t about forty on t he

manured plots. The character of t he herbageis shown in t he following table

PERCENTAGE COMPOS ITION OF THE H ERBAGE

Pasture soils deteriorate more slowly, es e

cially if they in itial ly contain much solu lemineral matter. The fatting fields of R omneyM arsh have fatt ed sheep for many years pastwithout any manure and with little or no

artificial food. The chalk ast ures of t he SouthDowns are sa id t o last in efinit ely , even whenbreeding flocks are kept on them. The de

t eriorat ion of pasture or meadow land due t o

bad grazing or other mismana ement arisesfrom t he effect on t he grasses an not t he soil.In natural prairie or wood conditions there is

no exhaustion,but an equilibrium. Themineral

matters are all returned t o t he soil, t he calciumcarbonate is preserved t o a considerable ex t ent,and t he organic matter and nitrogen u ndergolittle or no change since t he gains approxi

mately balance t he losses. This equilibrium is,however, disturbed as soon as t he conditionsare changed.Continuous cultivation without eriod ical

‘rests ’ in seeds mixtures tends t o ex aust t heorganic matterof t he soil. The vegetation is annually disturbed, and therefore never forms t hegreat root system characteristic of Old pastures.The supply of organic matter is cut ofi“, and t hestock already present in t he soil is oxidiz ed ;nitrogen is simultaneously lost (S In thisway prairie soils become exhausted, and t he process is accelerated by t he custom common amongpioneers of burnin t he straw instead of making it into dung. he losses part ly arise frombacterial decomposition and partly from drainage, both of whi ch causes are much acceleratedby cultivation . Drainage losses may be reduced

by catch cro ping or by using wel l - balancedmanures, but act erial losses cannot be avoidedby any known means. SO long as nitrogencompounds remain in t he soil they are liablet o loss. There can be no doubt whatever thatt he sound practice is not t o leave t he nit rogencompounds in t he soil, but t o crop them ou t as

completely as possible,and t o make t he added

manure ‘exhausting ’ in this sense. N itrogen

compounds must be replaced,bu t they should

be kept circulating.§ 5 1 . Sp oiling the Texture of the Soil—Aproper til th depends on t he maintenance of t heclay particles in a fioccu lat ed condition

,and is

therefore damaged by such operations as ploughing t he soil when w et , or bringing up unflocculated material Of bad tex t ure from below. M uchOf t he ill effect Of steam loughing in early dayswas brought about in t is way . This is perha s t he most serious of all soi l inj uries, and ison y overcome by persistent good management.5 5 2. Physical or Mechanical Inj ury to Land

wit/rou t Crop .—Trouble from this source is

not common in t he British Islands,where t he

chief source of loss is t he washing ou t of nitrates 23 ) and of calcium carbonate. Bu t insubtropical countries, or in newly settled countries , where natural vegetation is being interfered with, serious trouble may arise. Theburning of t he bush and rass on t he SouthAfrican veldt has destroye veget ation whichused t o hold back storm water. It now rushesalong t he tracks made by cattle orwagons

,and

causes considerable erosion. The small channels or ‘sluit s’ increase rapidly , and in time

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5 6 Soil

cient ly deep t o prevent the subsoil water risingt oo high

,another source Of damage in irriga

tion . Terracing is an ancient method of irrigat ion a

ppl ied where springs break ou t on t he

sides of ills well up above t he val leys.R EMOVAL OF IN JUR IOUS SUBSTAN CES .

—In the

absence Of calcium carbonate it happens thatdeleterious substances are formed, part icularlyif t he air su ply is l imited. They are oftenacid

,and can be neutralized by addition of l ime

and by improved cultivation.L IM IN G is beneficial fora great number of soils,

and is usually t he first step in improving derelictland. It improves t he texture, removes acidsor other injurious materials, facilitates t he production of plant food by bacteria, displaces potassium from some of t he z eol itic - like combinations

,and is useful in other ways. In t heUnited

States it is Often said with truth, ‘a lime countryis a rich country ’. Liming w as in the past ext ensively ract ised , and t he present generationin many ist rict s is still benefiting by t he olddressings. It i s often found rather costly nowadays, and has therefore not been as common asis desirable. TO some exten t

,dressings of bas ic

slag have supplied t he necessary lime.

5 4. H ow FA R CA N SO IL AMELIORATION Go 13We have already seen that there is a limit belowwhich t he crop does not fal l , if it is given a.

chance against weeds, pest s, &c .,and w e con

clude that soil exhaustion wil l not go on indefinitely

,but soon comes t o a stop. In like

manner there is an upper limit beyond whichsoil amelioration is no longer possible. Th e

l imit may be fixed by t he rainfal l,t he tempera

ture,or t he type of soil, none Of which can be

altered very much ; finally by t he plant itself,which is only capable of a certain amount ofgrowth. The t w o limits vary for different soils ;but between t he limits for a particular soil it ispossible for a farmer t o reach any level he likes,if he considers it worth his while. [E. .I . R .]S o i l, B a c t e rio log y oil—I t is now a wel lrecognized fact that t he fertil ity of a soil dependsvery much upon t he number and character of

its bacterial population. The reason of this isthat bacteria, on account Of their physiologicalactivities, bring about t he formation of variouskinds of soluble nutritive salts that are of im

mediate use t o growin crops. One of t he com

monest types Of soil ermen tat ion is that produced by t he numerous forms of decay bacteriaacting upon t he stores of organic matter presentin all fertile soils. As a result of their action,t he complex organic molecules are broken upand reduced t o simpler compounds. Then thereare t he characteristic changes due t o t he ac t ivi

ties Of n it rifying bacteria and t o t he free nitrogen

- fixing groups of bacteria, t he sulphur andi ron bacteria, and others. I t is only possible inthis article t o describe very briefly t he changesbrought about by t he more predominant anddirectly useful races of bacteria.

AMMON IF ICATION .—All ordinary soils con tain

a smal l percentage of organic n itrogen (protein)which is subject t o t he attacks of putrefactiveordecay bacteria. There are several well- knownforms

,apparently common t o all soil s, of which

Bacillusmycoioles is perhaps t he most prominent.

This organism is in t ensely aerobic, and thrivesbest at a t ern erat ure of 30

°C.

,but grows quite

actively at t e ordinary summer temperatureOf soils. Under favouring external cond itions(moisture content being an importan t factor)Bacillus mycoides first liquefies and then breaksup t he protein compounds into carbonic acid gasand ammonia, together with relatively minutequantities of other bodies ( including certainorganic acids). A t t he same time t he mineralconstituent s are released in a form more or lessreadily available t o crops. Acidity of soil tendsto check t he work Of this and other desirableputrefactive germs

,so that t he presence Of lime

t o est ablish even a slight alkalinity is helpful .Furthermore

,in t he presence of an available

base t he oxidiz ed sulphur of t he decomposedprotein body gets transformed into a sulphate.

In addition to B . mycoides there is quite a

number of other more or less well -know n bacteria present in t he soil

,each taking an active

part in t he work of ammonifica t ion. Amongthese are Proteus vulgaris, Bacil lus mesent ericusvulga tus, and Bacillus subt ilie or t he hay bacil lus.The supply of air t o t he soil regulates t he intensity of t he ammonificat ion process. Lightsoils are often ‘hungry ’ones ; that is, they contain , naturally, a low percent age of organicmatter, and any application of farmyard manuregets used up very rapidly because of t he favouring conditions for aerobic fermentation . The

other extreme is a very close- grained soil or an

undrained soil permanently water - logged. Inthese cases there is a lack of oxygen, so that t hework of fermentation must be carried on b yaerobic bacteria. This means that t he actionwill be slower and t he end product s different.Ammonificat ion indeed is only reached af ter aseries of complicated step- by

- ste p analyses oft he complex protein molecules. Peptonizationset s in , followed by t he breaking up of t he molecules into compounds varying very much in character and complexity of composition. Some oft he intermediate product s are represented bysuch bodies as peptones

,amides, and fatty acids ;

bu t t he final or end products that are of agricu ltural interest are ammonia

,carbonic acid gas,

compounds Of sulphur,marsh gas, and free hy

drogen and nitrogen . The mineral constituent sare left in an insoluble form and are thereforeunavailable for crops. Comparing aerobic withanaerobic fermentation , t he former is by far t hemost favourable for cultivated cro s. The ammonifying power of a soil is undon t edly an important factor in it s fertility. It depends directlyupon t he number and vitality of it s decay bacteria, and this in turn depends upon t he physica land chemica l character of t he soil. Organicmatter must be present in suflicient abundance ;there must be moisture, and , for t he best kindof fermentation , there must be a suffi ciency ofair. Applications of lime, farmyard manure,‘art ificials

’

, drainage, tillage, system of cropping,and even t he micro- fauna—all have their partion lar influence upon t he character and extent oft he ammonifying micro-flora.

N ITR IF ICATION .—The ammonium sa lts formed

in t he soil as a result of bacterial act ion , or t hesulphate of ammonia d irectly applied as a ferti

Soil

lizer, are easily soluble in water, and are there

fore readily removed in t he drainage. But it iswel l known that ammonium salts do not exis t forlong as such in most fertile soils. They readilychange into nitrates. The drainage water fromland manured with sulphate of ammonia willshow this salt for a few days

,but after that it

will disappear and n itrates be found instead.

The change, as suggested by Pasteur in 1 862,and experimentally proved at a later dat e bySchloesing and Muntz

,is brought about by spe

cific soi l organisms that are strongly aerobic,

hence they require a well—aerated soil for theirdevelopment. They differ

,however

,from t he

ammonifying bacteria, inasmuch as they not onlydo

’

not require organic compounds as food, but t hepresence of t he smallest quantity of soluble or

ganiematter in t he soil checks oreven altogetherstops their growth . N itrification is a t w o- act

process carried on by t wo distinct kinds of bacteria. The first st e is t he oxidation of ammoniainto ni t rous acid

,w ich in t he presence of a suit

able base (such as l ime,magnesia

, or potash)immediately forms a n itrite

,and this in turn is

oxidized stil l further by another s ecies into a

nitra te. In t he absence of a suit agle base, t hepresence of free nitrous acid at t he seat of actionfirst checks and then wholly stops t he action .

These nitro- bacteria obtain their carbon fromcarbonic acid gas as green plants do, but unlikegreen plants they can assimilate t he carbon incomplete darkness . Soils appear t o d iffer verymuch in their nitrifying power, and such variations influence t o no small degree t he fertilityof our fields and gardens. It has been shown ,for example

,that soils classed by farmers as

‘poor ’ invariably Show a weaker nitrificationpotential than soils classed as

‘good’. Variations in this respect de

pend upon t he physica l

and chemical character 0 t he soil as well as u on

t he character of t he bacteria themselves, w ile

climate,especia lly in rela tion t o soil temperature,

has considerable influence. The chief soi l cond it ions that influence are, first, t hewater content.If t he soil contains so much that it is approaching a water- logged condition , then air is excluded,and this is obviously fatal t o a process that isessentially one of oxidation. On t he other hand,if moisture falls below a certain minimum, nitrifica t ion stops , and if t he soil becomes actually dryt he nitrifying organisms quickly d ie. Acidityof soil is fatal t o nitrification. With regard t ot he bacteria themselves, some strains are morevirulent than others, while in all races a certainperiodicity of activity is manifested. That is t osay , there are periods of intense nitrification preceded and followed by periods Of comparativeinactivity

,t he crest of each wave ( in all cases

where t he henomenon has been followed) beingse arat edEy a four or five weeks’ interval.

EN ITR IFICATION .—In soils containing a poor

supply Of air,nitrates are liable t o be destroyed

through t he fermen t ative action of a large number of anaerobic bacteria and moulds. Theyfind in t he highly oxidized ni trates a source of

energy,and as a result of their vital action t he

n itrates are first reduced t o nitrites, and thent he nitrites are decomposed with t he l iberationof elementary nitrogen. The action is called

5 7

denitrificat ion , and under certain soil conditionst he loss of nitrogen in this way may be considerable

,but it is nevertheless pretty safe t o assume

that under good systems Of farming there islittle chance of much loss arising from th is part icular cause. The mere disappearance of nitratefrom t he soil may possibly involve little or no

loss of nitrogen . For example,t he nitrate may

be reduced t o n itrite only or t o ammon ia, or itmay be used up by certain bacteria as a foodand converted into organic nitrogen (orprot ein) .The application of nitrate of soda t o soils directlyencourages t he rowth and rapid development ofcertain races of act eria, in which case, of course,t he nitrate is shared between t he bacteria and

t he standing crop .

N ITROGEN F IXATION .- There are quite a num

ber of soil organisms now known t o have t hepower of assimilating free or elementary ni t rogen from t he air. The first of these t o be described w as a certain butyric fermen t isolatedby Winogradsky in 1 895 and named by himClostrid ium P astorianum. It is an anaerobicform

,but can work in ordinary til lage soils in

association with aerobes, as these sufficiently

reduce t he oxygen pressure t o a point favourablet o t he Clostridium. If there is no readily available combined nitrogen present, this organismcan utilize t he simple nitrogen gas of t he air

t o build up its ow n complex protein molecules.Later ( 1 901 - 2) Beyerinck discovered t w o other‘nitrogen fixers’ which he named A zotobacter.

They,however

,are aerobic

,and can be artificially

cultivated in fluids containing very little or evenno compounds of nitro en . Then Lipman in1 903 discovered a thir t o which in 1 904 headded t w o others, and so a varied and widelydistributed A z otobacter flora is being gradual lymade known t o science. They all require a

soluble carbohydrate and t he usual inorganicfood basis. They are very sensitive t o even a

slight acidity , hence t he presence of lime inthe soil is an important factor in their development. There is little doubt that under favourable conditions these organisms considerablyenrich t he soil with nitrogen compounds.

There are other organisms in t he soil that cannot only fix t he free n itrogen , but can , as opport unit y offers, en ter into a physiological partnership with specific host lants. The formationof root nodules in t he eguminosee is t he ou t

come of such symbiotic relations. Discoveredfirst by _

H ellriegel and Wilfart h in 1 886,a soil

bact erium,aft erwards named byBeyerinck Bueil

lus radicicola, has this important power. The

bacillus attacks t he younger parts of t he roots,

gaining an entrance by way of t he delicate tubular root - hairs, and, a parent ly , t he poorer t hesoil in available comgined nitrogen t he easiert he task of en t erin The resistance of t he lantt o t he invading awgi then mul t iplying haeil us ismanifested by t he loca l inflammatory swelling.While actively developing in t he nodule theyextract from t he host lant sugar and mineralsalts

,w hile t he host- p ant a paren t ly extracts

from them in return valuagle nitrogen compounds. As growth proceeds

, t he cells of t henodule get filled with t he characteristic short

,

rodlike (or normal) bacteria ; but these after

5 8

wards alter in shape in various ways, until event ually t he vast majority of them d ie, and finallyget digested and distributed t o different partsof t he plant as a rich nitrogenous food. The

survivors remain in t he art ially depleted cellsuntil on t he deat h and ecay of t he roots theyget released and start a fresh life in t he soil.All known varieties of this bacterium are verysensitive t o even a slight acidity of soil, and

until this is corrected no developmental progresscan be made. N or will they thrive in a soildeficient in phosphorus or potash. Soils thatdo not naturally contain any particular varietymay be inoculated with artificial cultures of t hesame, but it is useless t o attempt t he inoculationof a soil that is either physical ly or chemicallyunfit for t he growth of these organisms. Furthermore, it is waste of time and trouble t o inoculatesoil that already con tains t he germs. For ex

ample,it has been demonstrated that so far as

ordinary garden soils in these islands are con

cerned,it is unnecessary t o inoculate for peas.

CELLULOSE FERMEN TATION . The research of

Omelianski has show n t he existence of tw o typesof anaerobic bacteria that reduce cellulose compounds in t he soil . In t he one case

,free hydro

gen is one of t he end products, and in t he othermarsh gas. The process of humificat ion appearst o be associated with t he action of these organisms. The formation Of humic substances in t hesoil is said t o hasten t he work of t he breakingdown of mineral matter in t he soil.EFFECT OF TILLAGE A ND MAN UR IN G.

—Theactual number of bacteria presen t in any soildepends upon many factors

,and will vary with

t he class of soil. For example,in woodlands,

in gravelly soil , and in stiff clay pastures t henumber is com arat ively low , while in cultivat ed loams an in garden soils t he n umbersrise Often t o several millions per dry grammeof soil . The first 6 in . of soil support a vasterpopulation than t he underlying layers, whilet he subsoil gets poorer and poorer in life t hedee er w e go. Tillage (under proper conditionsof rainage), by breaking up

‘

t he clod and ad

mitting more air, increases enormously t he number of bacteria, while manuring often bringsabout potent changes in t he character and ex

tent Of t he fermentations. Farmyard manurenot only increases t he stock of bacteria food,but introduces a vast alien population of activemicro - organisms. Lime, as w e have alreadySeen , increases ammonificat ion and nitrification ,more especial ly if there is a sufficiency of available phosphorus in t he soil ; but if lime is usedin excess it reduces these actions, and ratherfavours t he process of denit rificat ion . N itrateof soda , being not only a direct food of manyammonifying bacteria, but of crop plants aswell

,is extremely helpful all round, especially if

applied early in t he season before nitrificationbegins . The application of small dressmgs of

nitrate of soda when reen crops are ‘plou hedin ’has been eu gestedbecause of its imme iateavailability t o ecay bacteria. Sulphate Of

'

ammonia gets changed to carbonate of ammonia int he soi l ; and as its extensive u se causes acidity,this fertilizer tends therefore t o retard t he workof decay bact eria and encourage t he develop

Soil

ment of moulds. Superphosphate alone seemst o somewhat encourage ammonificat ion , but ifanything it rather discourages nitrification andnitrogen fixation ; while on t he other hand basicslag distinctly increases ammon ificat ion, apparent ly because of its contained lime. P ure potash sal t s a pear t o have no effect on ammonifi

cation , a epressing effect upon denit rificat ionand nitrogen fixation

,while t o a limited exten t

they encourage nitrification.STER ILIz A TION or SO ILS—The partial steri

liz at ion of soils either by heat or vola t ile antiseptics has been shown t o bring about veryinteresting results

,t he most obvious Of all

being a remarkable increase in t he crop. The

soil flora is made up of a considerable number ofcompeting races

,and when a volatile bacterial

poison such as carbon bisulphide is introducedinto t he soil

,t he immediate effect is t o pract i

cally sup ress all bacterial activity ; but as t hebisulphi e slowly disappears

, t he ammonifyin

bacteria are among t he first t o recover ; an

having for a time no serious competitors, theyfeed, grow, and multiply at an abnormally highrate

,hence t he rapid accumulation of ammonium

compounds in t he soil and a more l iberal supplyof nitrogen t o t he crop. But a still more int erest ing reason for t he increased ammonification in partially sterilized soils has been recentlydiscovered by Drs. R ussell and H utchinson.These t w o workers find that t he soil containsa vast number of protozoa—minute unicel lularanimals—that ingest bacteria as their naturalfood. In untreat ed soil these organisms therefore keep down t he number of bacteria, and so

control t he extent of bact erial fermen t ation ;but t he volatile antiseptic not merely inhibitsbut actually kills t he protozoons

,so that when

t he ammonifying bacteria recover they multiplyat an amazing rate

,seein that their natural

enemies are now destroye [D . H .

S o il, C h a n g es t a k in g p la c e in .

arts. SO IL ; SOIL, GEOLOGY OP ; FERTIL ITY.

S o il, Geo log y of .—The soil is a frag

mental rock,derived from t he breaking down

of ot her rocks on t he earth’s surface. Wheret he materials worn off by disintegrating agentshave accumulated in their place of origin

,or

where they have been drifted t o some otherand more sheltered spot, they form a depositof loose structure, into which t he roots of plantscan make their w ay . This is t he soil known t ot he primeval agriculturist, w ho broke it up andturned it over, and raised crops on it for hisow n use. H e thus supplemented t he processesof nature, and provided more and more surfaceon which t he agents of decay could act . Theplants raised in successive years not only re

moved certain food su plies from t he loose earth,but materially alt eregits character by addingin due course their ow n decaying vegetable matt er. The salts in t he soil

,moreover

,became

changed by t he attack of acids, and by oxida

tion through repeated contact with t he atmosphere ; t he action Of variOus micro - organismsw as facil itated ; and t he soil , after a few yearsof cultivat ion , proved t o be someth ing morecomplex and distinctly different from that whichfirst gathered on the surface, before t he settle

Soil

ment of man. To the geologist, however, t heVirgin soil is t he first consideration, and it fallst o him t o trace its various constituents back t otheir parent rocks.All rocks, whether sedimentary or igneous

,

have cracks in them,techn ically cal led joints

,

which may have been produced by shrinkage ast he mass consolidated , orby stresses during subsequent earth movements. The subtle agents ofdisintegration work along these joints ; brownoxide of iron forms crusts upon them,

showinghow iron si licates or carbonates are beginningt o give w ay ; in mixed masses, t he chemicalbreaking down of one mineral constituent leavest he rock friable, and a powder gathers in t hewidening crack. Whole blocks of rock thusbecome surrounded by crumbling products of

their ow n decay. If t he mass ossesses goodlamination , or a slaty cleavage, t e piecesthus worn from it retain a certain flakiness.In such rocks as basalt, on t he other hand,where a sca ling or exfoliation oes on overt he surface of t he blocks

,sprea ing inward

from t he main joints, great unweatheredspheroids may appear, set in a powder thatappears at first Sight t o be of an entirelydifferent nature. The roots of plants,reaching far down into this decomposingzone, not only assist decay by wedgingapart portions of t he rock, but also exerta chemical action. Earthworms

,assing

t he finer material through their odies,

reduce it t o a still finer grade, and transferit in their movements t o t he upper surface,thus contributing t o t he growth of soil.Limestone masses dissolve slowly overtheir joint - surfaces

,and thus become sepa

rated into blocks t o an extent unknownamon other rocks. The detached blocks

,

rough y rect angular, are found lying in aneart h that is partly fine ca lcareous matter,and partly t he insoluble residue from t he limestone. In layers nearer t he surface, even t hel imestone blocks may have disappeared ; t he

more impure ones, however, remain representedby porous clayey residues, retain ing t he originalform of t he lumps of rock.In t he uppermost zone, t he material has hecome more obviously broken down and morefragmental than in those below. The colouris no longer that of t he altered rock, but isdarkened by admixture of vegetable matt er.Sometimes t he brown iron staining, which isso common a S ign of alteration, has been lostin t he highest z one through t he leaching actionof waters containing organic acids. This upperzone is t he true soil. What lies below is subsoil ;below this again is t he parent rock.But t he thickness of t he upper z one may varygreatly. The passage from it downward intot he subsoil type may , moreover, be absolutely

gradual, especially where plants have struckeep roots in search of nourishment. To definet he soil

,it is convenient t o limit t he term t o t he

portion reached by ordinary agricultural Operations, that is, t o t he uppermos t 8 or 9 in. (say ,1 decimetre) of our sect ion, under t he vegetablesod that has probably formed upon t he surface.

What fol lows as we sink lower, whether of t he

same nature or no, is regarded as subsoil, downt o t he unaltered rock.In regions where frosts are frequent, these

play a great part in t he formation of soil

,by

reaking up lum s of rock which have absorbedwater. The sur ace stones thus become brokendown

,even where no crumbling through chemi

cal action has been ossible.

Sometimes t he su soil is not a true seden tarysoil, that is, one derived from t he underlyingrock. The whole mass may be a transport edsoil, or, more accurately

, a transported subsoil,which gives rise t o a surface soil different fromthat which otherwise migh t have gathered int he district. The alluvial infi-lling of valleys int he British Isles may thus rest on a foundationof rock scoured clear Of its proper soil by glacia laction . Glacial deposits furnish transported sub

Diagram illust rat ing relat ion of a soil t o the subsoil, and oft he lat ter to the underlying rock

soils,t he soils on which may be a distinct gain

t o t he area in which they arise. Such depositsmay be hundreds of feet in thickness, in whichcase their lower layers may be regarded as t heparent rock of t he subsoil and t he soil.In some cases, t he soil and subsoil may be a

thin residue of some deposit that once lay as a

mantle over t he country,and through it some

older bed is likely t o appear at intervals. The‘clay with flint s ’ of our chalk downs is nowheld to be deri ved from Eocene deposits

, andnot from t he solution of t he chalk below it.H ere w e have a soil and subsoil

,sedentary and

not transported ; but w e find nothing left of

t he more coherent mass from which they werederived by weathering.The gradual development of a soil may beinterestingly studied in regions that have onlyrecently escaped from glacial conditions. InF in land, for exam le, one may see t he ice

rounded surfaces 0 hard gneiss or granite beginning t o pass into something not absolutelysmooth, on which lichens can j ust spread and

cling. A little dust from t he slowly decayingsurface is blown orwashed in among t he lichens.Through t he action of moisture, it becomes com~

pact ed in to a sort of mould among t he recessesof t he vegetation, and mosses soon rise over t he

60 Soil—Soil Analysisl ichens and form a rich carpet across t he rock .

Then come t he seeds of trees, birch or pine,caught among t he mosses , and tiny shoots springup

,clinging with roots that spread l ike fingers

over t he stone. The next step forward t o a

true forest is a fairly quick one, and a thickvegetable soi l accumulates under t he trees. Butt he absence of free evaporation promotes t heg rowth of peat mosses among t he underwood,and peat may ultimately develop t o a degreeinimical t o t he forest. The trees, now wellgrown and even aged

,decay, and their trunks

are added t o t he veget able soil. All this acc umulation has gone on with t he minimum of

expenditure of rock material, on a land almostdevoid of sedentary soil . In such a country,a l luvial val leys, Often fi lled by glacial detritus,provide t he only arable land. Large parts ofnorthern Canada, traversed by rushing rivers,have not yet reached a stage when even alluVium can col lect. The forest soils may be all

there is t o deal with , and timber industries taket he place of ordinary farming. The variety ofsoils

,of mineral or vegetable origin

,is of course

enormous ; but t he blowing of t he wind,t he

d ow nw ash ing of rain,and t he continual spread

ing action of rivers, tend t o produce in a givenarea a greater uniformity than at first si htmight have been expec t ed. [C . A . J. c .S o il, In o c u la t io n of . See art . IN OCULA

T ION OF SO IL .

S o il, R ea c t io n s t a k in g p la c e in .

See arts. SO IL ; _

N ITR IF ICATION ; DEN ITR IF ICAT ION ; SO IL, BA CTER IOLOCY OF ; FERTILITY.

S o il , Tem p e ra t u re R e la t io n s h ip s

o f . See art . SO IL .

S o i l , Wa t e r R e la t io n s h ip s o f‘

. See

arts . SO IL ; DRAIN AGE.

S o il A n a ly s is . On arrival at t he laboratory t he soil is spread ou t t o dry, and is thenpounded up with a wooden pestle and assedthrough a 3

_

-mm. sieve. The stones that 0 not

p ass through , and t he fine earth that does, areseparately weighed, and t he proportion of stonest o 100of fine earth is ca lculated. Subsequentanalytical operations are made on t he fine earth.

Det ermina t ion of Moist ure—Four or five grm.

of t he soil are dried at 100° C. till there is nofurther change in weight ; t he loss is calledhygroscopic moisture.

Organ ic Mat ter.—N O accurate method of esti

mation has yet been devised. It is usual t oignite at low redness t he sample dried as above.

The loss includes organic matter, water not givenoff at 100

°C. ,

and carbon dioxide from t he car

bonat es ; al lowance may be made for t he latter,bu t not for t he combined water. In more elaborate investigations t he carbon may be determined either by t he ordinary combustion methodOr by some ‘

net combustion method. Methodshave also been devised for determining humus( see H UMUS). For ordinary purposes it is suffic ient t o determine t he loss on ignition , and t ospeak of this as being largely organic matter.Tota l N itrogen.

—Kjeldahl’s method is almostinvariably adopted. Abou t 25—30 grm . Of soilare ground up finely in an iron mortar ; 101 5 grm. are then heated in a Kjeldahl flask with20—25 of strong sulphuric acid for2hr. ; then

5 grm . of potassium sulphate are added, andshortly after a crystal of copper sulphate. The

heating is continued till all t he black colour hasgone. Then cool and dilute t he mixture, transfer t he fluid part t o a distillation flask, but leaveas much as possible of t he sand behind , washingwell t o remove all t he adhering liquid. Thenadd saturated soda sol ution til l t he l iqu id isstrongly alkaline, distil, and collec t t he ammoniain standard acid.N itra tes must be determined in a sampletaken direct from t he field and dried withoutany delay at 5 5 ° C. 200—500grm. Of t he driedsoil are pressed firmly on t o a Buchner funnelfitted t o a filter flask

,and distilled water is

poured on . The first 100 c c . of water passingcontains prac t ica lly all t he nitrat es, but it issafer t o wash more fully. The solution is concen t rat ed , acidified with acetic acid, and re

duced by a zinc- copper couple at 25°C. for

30 hr. The ammonia formed is estimated int he usual w ay .

Ammonia is estimated by distil ling with magnesia and water under reduced pressure (seeR ussell

, J ourn. Agric. Science, 1 910, vol. III).Carbona tes. See CALCIUM COMPOUNDS IN SO IL.

M INERAL SuBSTA N CEs.

—Complete analysis ofa soil is only possible after t he silicates havebeen decomposed and t he silica volatilized bytreatment with hydrofluoric acid. This methodis only rarely applied, and details must be lookedfor in treatises In mineralogical analysis. For

agricultural purposes it is suffi cient t o extractt he soil with strong acids. The British method,adopted by t he Agricultural Education Association

,is thus given by H al l : ‘

20 grm. of t he

powdered soil are placed in a flask of Jena glass,

covered with about 70c c. of strong hydrochloricacid, and boiled for a short time over a nakedflame t o bring it t o constant strength. The ac idwill now con tain about 202 per cen t of purehydrogen chloride. The flask is loosely stoppered, placed on t he water bath

,and t he con

tents allowed t o digest for about 48 hr. Thesolution is then cooled, diluted, and filtered.The washed residue is dried and weighed as t hematerial insoluble in acids.

‘The solution is made up t o 250 a c., and

aliquot portions are taken for t he various determinat ions. The analytical operations are carriedou t in t he usual manner

,but special care must

be taken t o free t he solution from silica or or

ganie matter ’ (The Soil, p.

To determine P otash—50 c c. of t he solutionare evaporated t o dryness, gen t ly ignit ed t o

remove organic matter and render t he silicainsoluble

,taken up with hydrochloric acid

,

filtered, evaporated, and heated for a time t o105

°C.

,then a ain dissolved in hydroch loric

acid and t reat e by Tat lock’s method. 5 c c.

of a solution of platinum chloride con tainin'005 grm. of platinum per are added

,and

the mixture slowly concentrated on t he waterbath t o a very small bulk. The potassium la

tinum chloride is filtered off in a Gooch cruci le,

washed with more platinum chloride and thenalcohol, dried, and weighed.

Phosphoric acid is usually determined byH ebner’s method, which has also been checked

Soil Analysis

by Dyer. Starting with 50c c. of t he solution,

exactly the same procedure is followed as forpotash , but t he final residue is dissolved in nitricinstead of hydrochloric acid. After filtering

,

t he solution is treated in the cold with excess ofammonium molybdate

,t he precipitate filtered

oti'

, dissolved in ammonia, evaporated,dried

,

and weighed . It is found most convenient t omake t he original nitric acid solution up t o

50a c.

,t o add 5 grm. of ammonium n itrate and

50 c c . of ammonium molybdate solution con

taining 60grm . of molybdic acid per litre, andkeep in a warm place for 24 hr. ; t he precipitateis then filtered off

,washed with ammon ium

nitrate solution , dissolved by ammonia into a

weighed basin , evaporated, and gen t ly ignited.The residue contains per cent Of P205 . A

rapid and accurate volumetric method is givenin U.S . Division of Chemistry

,Bull. 46 (revised),

1 898 . The molybdate precipitate is dissolvedin standard potash

,and t he excess of potash is

titrated with acid.

The iron,aluminium

,manganese

,calcium

,and

magnesium are determined in another 50c c . byt he usual methods ; and sulphuric acid is determined in a fourth 50 c c . Chlorides are bestwashed ou t by water ; they come ou t j ust asreadily as nitrates

,and t he procedure described

above under t he heading ‘N itrates ’ is followed .

The solution is titrated w ith silver nitrate,using

potassium chromate as indicator.A va ilableP otash and Phosp horic Acid .

—Dyer’sdirections are as follows : 200grm. of dry soilare placed in a Winchester quart bottle with2 litres of dis t illed water in which are dissolved 20grm. of pure citric acid. The soil isallowed t o remain in contact with t he solutionat ordinary temperatures for seven days, and isshaken a number Of times each day . The solution is then filtered

,and 500c c . taken for each

determination ; this is evaporated t o dryness,and gen tly incinerated at a low temperature.

The residue is dissolved in hydrochloric acid,

evaporated t o dryness,redissolved

,and filtered ;

in t he fil t rate t he potash is determined. For

t he phosphoric acid determination t he last solution is made

,as before

,w ith nitric acid .

Mechanical A na lysis—The Object is t o obtain

information about t he size of t he particles ofwhich t he soil is composed . The temporaryfloccu les by calcium carbonate or humus arebroken down by treatment with hydrochloricacid, and after with ammonia. Direct measurement of t he ultimate particles is found t o beimpracticable ; indirect methods have t o be

adopted,depending on t he time taken t o fal l

through a column Of water of given height.When a body falls through a vacuum t he time

falling particle, 0 its density, 0. its radius (assum

ing it t o be a s here), and p t he density and 1;

t he coeffi cient ofpviscosity of t he medium (Trans.

Camb. Phil. Soc. 1 85 1 , vol. ix , p.

The numerica l values at 1 6° C. are : 9 981 ,

fore reduces t o 1)

value of v

6 1

a2 x 29430 or at

cm. per sec and the mini

0' 25

, p 1,77

‘01 1 , and t he equation therex/v

1 7 1

The calculated and Observed values are foundt o agree fairly well, d ifierences being due t o t hefact that t he particles are not in reali ty spheres

,

and also t o changes of temperature producingconvec t ion curren t s.The method adopted by t he A gricultural

Education Association (seeJourn . Agric . Science,1 906

,i,470) is as fol lows

1 . Ten grm. of t he air—dry earth w hich haspassed a 3 -mm. sieve are weighed ou t into a

orcelain basin and worked up with 100 c c . of

/5 hydrochloric acid, t he acid being renewed ifmuch calcium carbonate is present. After standing in contact with t he acid for one hour

,t he

whole is thrown upon a dried, tared filter andwashed until free of acid. The filter and itscontents are dried and weighed. The loss represents hygroscopic moisture and material dissolved by t he acid.2. The soil is now washed oil t he fi lter withdilute ammoniacal water on t o a small sieve of100meshes t o t he linear inch

, t he portion passing through being collected in a beaker markedat 10, and 7 5 cm. respectively from t he

bottom. The portion which remain s upon t hesieve is dried and weighed. It is then dividedinto ‘fine gravel ’ and ‘coarse sand ’ by meansof a sieve with round holes of 1 mm. diameter.The portion which does not pass this sieve ist he ‘fine gravel ’. This should be dried andweighed. The difference gives t he coarse sandIf required, both these fractions can also beweighed after ignition .

3 . The portion which passed t he sieve of 100meshes per linear inch is wel l worked up witha rubber pestle (made by inserting a glass rodas handle into an inverted rubber stopper), andthe beaker filled up t o t he - cm. mark andallowed t o stand 24 hr. The ammoniacal liquidwhich contains t he ‘clay ’ is then decanted offinto a Winchester quart. This Operation is repeat ed as long as any matter remains in suspension for 24 hr. The liquid containing t he clayis either evaporated in bulk or measured

,and

,

after being wel l shaken,an aliquot portion taken

and evaporated. In either case t he dried residueconsists of ‘clay ’ and ‘soluble humus ’. Afterignition t he residue gives t he ‘clay ’

, and t he losson ignition t he ‘soluble humus ’. H ereminimum

1

mum diameter of the particles works ou t t o

001 3 mm .

4. The sedimen t from which t he ‘clay ’ hasbeen removed is worked up as before in t he

beaker,which is filled t o t he 10- cm . mark and

allowed t o stand for 100 sec. The operation isrepeated til l t he fine sand ’ settled in 100 sec .

is clean,when it is col lected

,dried

,and weighed.

Co ,

H ere minimum value of o per see ; t he

calculated minimum diameter 037 mm .

5 . The turbid liquid poured off from t he‘fine sand ’ is collected in a Winchester quart

,

or other suitable vessel , allowed t o settle, and

62 Soil Analysis Soiling System

t he clear l iquid syphoned or decanted off. The

sediment is then washed into t he marked beakerand made up t o t he - cm . mark. After stirring

,it is allowed t o settle for 12g min. , and

t he liquid decanted off. The operation is then

and weighed as usual . The l iquid contains t he‘fine silt ’, which , when it has settled down , canbe separated by decanting off t he clear liquid,and dried and weighed.

For silt,minimum value of v

i

1

36cm. per

sec .,minimum diameter of particle ‘012 mm.

Forfine silt t he diameter obviously l ies betweenthis value and t he one found for clay .

6. Determinations are made of t he ‘moist ure’and ‘loss on ignition ’of another 10grm. of t he

air- dry earth . The sum of t he weights of t hefractions after ignition loss on ignitionmoist ure material dissolved in weak acidshould approximate t o 10 grm.

7 . It is advisable t o make a control determination of t he ‘fine gravel ’ in a port ion of

50 grm. of t he air- dry earth. The soil shouldbe treated with acid , as in and after that isremoved by decantation, may be at once treatedwith dilute ammonia and washed on t he sievewi t h l -mm. round holes. The ‘fine gravel ’ lefton t he sieve is then dried and weighed.The ca lculated result obviously only holds forthose particles which take t he ful l time t o fallthrough t he column . There are always somefal ling in a shorter time, and having, therefore,a larger diameter. The l imiting diameters areas fol lows

N ame. Diamet er in mm.

Separated by sif t ingS t ones

Smal l st onesGravelFin e gravelCoarse sand

Separated by subsid ence

Fin e san dSiltFine siltClay

It is unfortunate that no simple w ay of ex

pressing t he resul t s has yet been devised.The American method is somewhat different.

The breaking down of t he aggregates is broughtabout by physical means—eg. violent shakingand sedimentation is sometimes hastened by acentrifugal apparatus. H ilgard does not adopta sedimentation method, but proceeds on t he

Converse manner : he col lects and weighs t hepar t icles carried off by successive streams ofwater of varying velocity. Full details are

given in Bull. 24, Bureau of Soils, 1 904, and

in Wiley’s Agricultural Analysis, vol . i, wheret he Continental methods are also described.

I n terpreta t ion of Soil A nalysis. See FERTILITYand Son s. [E. J. s .]

S o il ing S y s t em .—The soilin system may

be regarded as one which is adaptedt o t he feeding of cattle

,and es ecially of dairy cattle, on

a farm which is under arable cul t ivation and

where there is little or no grass. It is desirablet o have some pasture, but there are instanceswhere there is practica lly no grassland at all,where t he cows are kept in t he whole of t he

year, except when they are turned ou t for

exercise and drink, and fed upon food which is

placed for their consumption in their mangers.This food from spring t o autumn consists ofgreen crops usually cut t he day before they areemployed, in order that a portion of t he moisturemay be removed by drying in t he sun and air.

There is no more dangerous plan in feeding cowsthan t o give them a large supply of w et orhighlysucculent food of t he type of vet ches

,lucerne,

sainfoin, or clover, hence t he importance Of cutting at least twenty - four hours before they arerequired

,and allowing them t o wilt.

There is a variety of plants suited t o Britishfarms which may be employed with advan tagein t he soiling system

,which is now conducted

entirely in cowsheds in t he suburbs of largetowns. We refer in chief t o lucerne

,sainfoin,

a mixture of clover and ryegrass,ryegrass alone,

meadow grass,vetches

,Trifolium incarna tum

(crimson clover), trefoil , maize, green rye, cabbage, ensilage, and rape. All these crops cannotbe grown in every part of t he British Islands,but a selection should be made suitable t o t he

loca lit y. Feeding stock on t he soiling systemdemands great care and forethought on t he art

of t he grower. I t is essential for him t o ook

wel l ahead and t o provide unfailing crops, wi thou t which t he feeding wou ld prove a costly process

,between sprin

gand autumn in every year.

Rye is one Of t he rst crops t o come into use.

This may be fol lowed in t he south of Englandby crimson clover. Vetches follow almost immediately after, while cabbage may be almostcontinuously planted during Open weather, so

that it may be held, as it were, as a crop on

which t o fal l back in case of t he failure Of otherlants. Cows thrive wel l upon t he best whitecar t cabbage, but when receiving this in largequantities they should be provided with a foodsuch as cotton - seed meal or cake

,bean or pea

meal , with t he object of checking t he t oo freeaction of t he cabbage. We have not referred toparsnips and carrots

,both ofwhich

,like mangels

and swedes, are better adapted for winter use,chiefly owing to t he fact that they are moredifficult t o keep, or rather t o depend u on keeping through t he summer season. Bot carrotsand parsnips are highly relished by stock

, owingt o their sweetness and their appetizing flavour.

In conducting t he soiling system it is absolately essential , if t he best results are t o beObtained, t o add something in the form of grainormeal t o t he green ration of t he cow or whatever stock is fed upon it. For example

,foods

like lucerne, clover, sainfoin , or vetches, all ofwhich are of a highly nutritious character,should be su plemen t ed by meal which is richin carbon, suc asmaizemeal

,ricemeal

, or locustbean meal . Barley meal, rye meal , or wheatmeal may also be employed with great advan

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64

ture ’. Such ma s appear t o be nearly akin t o

t he drift maps 0 geological surveyors.The maps of t he P russian and Japanese Geologica l Surveys are virtually drift maps withnumerous soi l indications marked upon them .

The P russian work (fig. 2) is done on t he Gov

ernmen t map on a scale of 1 t o (close on

25 in . t o 1 mile), and t he information scatteredover t he surface and in t he margins seems t orender t he map suitable for t he agri culturist ,

Scale of Kilomet re sz 3

san yloam A

Clay—Pod unk

Meadow Pf‘

s l fi n. Ssandymm

E wamp

Fig . 1 ,—Port ion of soil-map by t he Unit ed St at es Bureau

of Soils ; t he original is colour-print ed, t he colours being hererepresent ed in b lack and white (Hart ford Sheet , Conn . andMass , Contour- lines are shown in t he original.

sca le of 1 in. t o 1 mile ; but its soil maps, witht he drift also Shown

,are prepared only in re

sponse t o special requirements, and on t he sca leOf 1 2 in. t o 1 mile (Close on 1 t o

[a A. J. c .]S o il S am p l in g .

—I t is obviously of t he

first importance that a soil sample should besecured which is thoroughly re resen t at ive of

t he type of land t o be examine whether thatexamination is t o be conducted on chemical ,physical, or biological l ines. The selection of

t he points on t he ground at which t o collect t hesamples is often a matter of some diflicu lt y , anddepends a good deal on t he purpose for whicht he latter are required.

For exam le,if it is proposed t o make a soil

map of a district, t he surveyor must, in his

Soil Samp ling

though t he boundaries defined are those of thesubsoils rather than of precise types of soil.It is, indeed, stil l an Open question whethergeneral soil maps are required over large areasof country already occupied. In such cases, itwould seem more desirable t o work at t he problems Of special districts

, and t o map t he soilsin question on a really large scale. The Geo

logical Survey of Ireland now adds soi l i ndications at selected spot s on it s drift maps on t he

Sca le of Kilomet res

a l ley

F'ig. 2.—Port ion of map by t he Prussian Geological

Survey (Grundab t eilung 1 3 , B lat t 5 5 , The originalis colour-

print ed. w it h t he soil - indicat ions in red . Thelet t ering indicat es t he nat ure of soil and subsoil , wi t hdepth of t he former in decimetres ; ful l exp lanat ionsare given in t he margins of t he map .

selection,be guided by such considerations as

t he surface features of t he ground,and by any

striking differences in t he character of it s veget at ion. If a good drift map Of t he district

, on

a large scale, is available, it wil l be found t o beof t he greatest assistance in obviating t he un

necessary multiplication of samples drawn from

one and t he same kind of drift and t he subse

quent loss of time on t he analysis Of what wouldbe practical ly duplicate earths. Even when on]t he soils Of a small area have t o be examinea knowledge of t he geology of its su erficial

deposits wil l help the observer considera ly . I t

is important t o remember that in t he select ionof a point for t he collect ion of a Soi l sample,t he neighbourhood of trees

,fences

,paths

, anddit ches should be avoided ; and it is likewise

Soil Sampling

desirable, when there is a choice, t o take t he

sample from pasture rather than from tillageland. When t he Object is merely t o ascertaint he chemical characteristics of a small plot ofland, as a guide t o its cu ltural value, it is usualt o take a composite sample by selecting, at

intervals all over t he plot, several points whichdo not apparently differ from t he surroundingground ; after shaving ofi

’

t he turf and remov

ing dead leaves and other debris not properlybelonging t o t he soil itself

, a uniform sectionconsisting of several pounds of earth is dugfrom each of t he Chosen points. Then thesesoil masses are thoroughly mixed together, andfrom t he mixture a quantity of earth is takenwhich Should represent t he average soil of t hearea under consideration.The collection of an

‘individual ’,that is a

Single sample from one spot,rather than a com

posito one representing t he average soil of a

large area,possesses t he advantage that a d efi

ni t e volume of t he soil under field condit ions canbe obtained. This method of sampling readilyprovides one of t he data requisite for calculatingt he actual pore space of t he natural earth .

At R ot hamst ed , soil samples are collected bymeans of a steel box without t op or bottom,

9 in. deep, and measuring 6 in. by 6 in . in crosssection ; t he lower open end possesses sharpcutting edges

,and t he upper end is blunted t o

receive t he blows of a wooden rammer. The

box is driven into t he soil un t il its t op rim islevel with t he surface of t he ground ; t he surrounding soil is then dug away, and t he earthin t he box is carefully transferred t o a bag, inwhich it is taken t o t he laboratory. Tw o or

three samples from t he same field,collected in

a similar w ay , are mixed together in order t oobtain a fair average soil of t he area t o be

examined. The subsoils t o any'

desired depthare sampled in an exactly S imilar manner.The following sampler has been adopted at

t he Royal College of Science for Ireland and

also by t he Geologica l Survey of Ireland . Arigid steel box (fig. having an internal

capacity of 2 l itres and measuring internally20 x 10 x 10 cm .

,is used for taking t he

samples. This box is Open at t w o opposite 20x 10 cm . Sides

,but is provided with t w o suit

able lids,and t he rims at one open side are made

Chisel - shaped, so that t he box may be easilydriven into the soil

,while t he Opposite rims are

blunt t o receive t he blows of a hammer ormaul .A hole is dug into t he ground at t he spot atwhich t he soil is t o be collected, and one of itswalls is cu t and smoothed so as t o presen t a

plane perpend icular face. A large block of t heVOL. XI .

65

unbroken soil behind t he latter surface is thenloosened and l ifted bodily ou t Of t he hole witha spade, and laid flat on t he ground so that t hesmooth surface is upwards . The box frame isnow driven, with a maul, into t he soil mass,a short side of t he box being laced arallel

t o t he original soil surface j ust elow t e turf,

and in this way a sample representative of t he

upper 2 decimetres (nearly 8 in . ) of t he soil issecured . The material projecting over t he rimof t he box is cut away and a l id is put on ; t hesoil and box are then turned over, t he soil pro

Fig. 2.—~ American 3 .

—Soi1 Auger,Earth - borer spoon pat t ern

ject ing from t he second rim is treated in a

similar manner,and t he second lid replaced.

The soil is subsequently transferred t o a cleanlinen bag, in which it is conveyed t o t he laboratory for examination . Samples of t he subsoilmay be collected by means of a soil auger (fig. 2)t o any depth up t o 1 metre.

As t he stones in a soil are not uniformly distributed throughout t he entire mass of t he

latter,there is obviously great danger of intro

d ucing a serious error into any calculationsw hich are based on t he results obtained fromt he examination of a single sample

,especially

when that sample is small . H ence some soilphysicists determine t he proportion of stonesin larger quantities of earth than are usuallycollected for analytical purposes .For rapid soil - traverses, samples may be con

venien t ly and expeditiously collected by meansof any of t he different forms of soil auger thathave been devised for that purpose. The one

already referred t o, known as t he American1 62

66 Solidago virgaurea Soot

earth - borer, is very useful for sampling at

dep t hs up t o 1 metre. Another form Of soilauger, t he spoon pattern, is shown in fig. 3 .

Unfortunately these tool s cannot be employedon soils contain ing a large proportion of stones.Fraenkel’s earth -borer, shown in fig. 4, ismuch used in collecting soil samples for bact eriological investigation ; it possesses t he ad

vantage that it enables one t o collect a soilsample at anygiven depth ,unmixed w it hany of t he

earth of t he

overlying layers.This form of

auger consistsessentially of a

ointed steel rodollow ed near itslower extremityinto a cylindrica lChamber, 0 en

at t he side, u t

capable of beincomplet ely closeby a sliding lidattached t o a

projecting flangeand operated byt he latter. Incollecting a sam

p le, t he apertureof t he cylinder iscovered by t he

lid,t he auger

then driven intot he soil t o t he

desired depth, Fig. 4.—Fraenkel'sEart h -borer

and when t he

latter is reached t he instrument is rotatedtowards t he right ; this movement first un

covers t he opening of t he cylinder, and as t he

auger is further rotated in t he same directiont he flange scoops into t he cylindrica l hol lowof t he rod a sample of t he surrounding earth.F inally, after having turned it a little in t heOpposite direction to replace t he lid, t he augercon taining t he sample is withdrawn. An ex

cellen t sampling tool has also been devised byN owackiand Borchardt (seeN owacki,Prakt ischeBodenkunde, 4t h cd., p. [T. s .]S o l id a g o v irg a u rea (Golden Rod ) is a.yel low - flow ered com osito plant common inBritain in thickets an on sea- cliffs. The shoot sspring up from a stout perennial rootstock ;they are erect and rodlike, sometimes 2 ft. high,but on sea - Cliffs they become dwarfed and are

then only a few inches high. The leaves arenarrow and lanceolate, from 1 t o 4 in. long. Theplant is in floWer from July t o September. Theolden - yellow flow er- heads are small, i in. inamster

,and are crowded on t he ends of t he

shoots. Each head is composed of 10t o 1 2 rayflorets and 10t o 20disk florets. The fruit is aribbed downy cylinder crowned with white rigidhairs ( p a pus). Many species of Solidago are

cultivate in Shrubberies. [A . N . M‘A .]

S o l id - h oofe d P ig s , an American breed

of swine which within recent years has beenregistered as a pure breed. It is said t o beprolific

,quick in growth

,strongly pre ot ent ,

and suitable either for pork - packing or aconcuring. It is also claimed that this breed is ingreat measure immune from swine fever ; and ifthis Claim can be substantiated, it should renderit specially valuable in t he United S t ates, wherehog Cholera is so rampant. The name is derivedfrom t he peculiar form of t he hoof, a charact erist ic t ch is transmitted by all boars of thisbreed t o their progeny when mated with sowsof other breeds. [s s.]S o lom o n

's S ea l. See art . POLYGON ATUM.

S om b rerit e , a concretionary guano con

taining fra ments of bone,which is associated

with phosp at iz ed coral limestone in t he islandof Sombrero in t he Windward Islands. It isexcavated as a mineral phosphate, t he nitrogenous matter having been washed ou t of it.It contains about 3 1 per cent of phosphoricanhydride (P205 ). [G. A. J. c .]S o ng Th ru sh (Turdus musicus).—Thisresident songster, with its brown back and

Speckled breast, is t oo well known t o need detailed description. The bulk of t he food con

sists of insects, worms, snails, and S lugs , dil igent search being made under plan t s as well asin open spaces. When a snail is secured it isheld firmly in t he beak and battered on a stoneuntil its soft content s can be extracted . Wildand cultivated fruits also form a part of thediet. The bird is of great benefit t o agricu l

ture,and destroys innumerable pests, bu t t he

fruit grower is j ustified in keeping its numbersdown. The cup - shaped nest is commonly foun din a tree, 4 t o 6 ft. from t he ground, but is alsoOften built in a hedge, or among evergreens,and at times

,though rarely, on t he ground . It

is constructed of vegetable fibre and moss,plas

t ered inside with rotten wood,cow dung

, andclay. The four or five eg s are greenish- bluein colour, w ith dark spots. 0 or three broodsare reared during t he season , t he first beinghatched out late in March. [J . R . A. D.]S oo t has long been used and is highly

esteemed as a manure. I t is composed principal ly of charcoal, but it derives its fertiliz ingproperties mostly from t he small quantities ofammonium salts it contains. It is obtained int he combustion of coal and wood

,t he compo

nent s of which are largely made up Of carbon,

along with small amounts of nitrogen , sulphur,and other substances. Wh en coal is burnt ina fireplace t he greater part of t he carbon burnsaway t o carbonic acid gas ; some, however, remains unburnt and passes up t he chimney int he form of minute particles, as smoke. Thesoot accumulating in chimneys is formed byt he deposition of these microscopic specks ofCharcoal. Lampblack is t he purest form of charcoal, soot being impure charcoal . The nitrogenin t he coal is evolved most ly as ammonia, t hesulphur as sulphurous acid ; this latter substance fixes t he ammonia as a salt. Part of t heammonium salts are retained in t he soot alonwith some phosphates, potash, and othermineraSubstances, which in a fine state of divisionhave been conveyed along with the smoke. Soot

Sorgho—Souming and R ouming

contains about 3 per cent of nitrogen ; t heamount, however, is variable, and depends a

good deal upon t he proport ion of dirt and cinderadmixed with t he soot. Cinder contains no

nitrogen ; if, therefore, much of this substanceis present, t he percen tage of nitrogen presentin t he soot w ould be considerably reduced

,and

its value lowered. When it can be purchasedat a reasonable price

,farmers would do well t o

avail themselves of its u se ; but, in purchasing,care should be taken that t he article is genuineand does not contain excessive amounts of mineral matter. The most satisfactory way t o purchase would be upon its Chemical analysis

,when

it s manurial constituents would be paid for ac

cording t o their current market values. It isused on grassland, as topdressings for strawcrops, and as a manure for green crops. It ishighly valued as a manure for market gardencrops, where it is also of value as a Slug destroyer. It makes t he soi l darker

,and thus

may assist in warming light - coloured soils byabsorbing more of t he sun’s heat. [R . A. B .]S o rg h o (Sorghum vu lgare, Pers , order

Gramineae), Imphee, Broom Corn , Chinese Sugarcane, &c .

, are t he names most often used t o denote particular races of Kaffi r Corn , when theseare specially grown in order that t he stems maybe utilized as sources of sugar

,or t he strong,

much branched, and rigid panicles sold as na~

tural brooms. It would seem likely that theseapproximate most Closely t o t he wild plant Sorghum ha lep ense. Popularly t he sugar - sorghosbelong t o t he form Often Spoken of as S . saccha

ra t um by many writers. It is largely cultivatedin t he N orth—western States of America as a

source of molasses and syrup. After t he grainshave fallen or been removed t he panicles harden ,and are S ecially traded in all over t he world,being use as whisks orworked up into variousforms of brushes. It cannot be said that t hedegree of success has been attained, with t hesugar - sorghos

,that w as at one time confidently

entertained. This result is,however , perhaps

more a consequence of t he great prosperity of

t he beet- sugar industry (in modern times) thandue t o any failure t o produce sugar, of considerable merit, from t he plants in question. See

art . KAFF IR CORN , also M ILLE'rS . [G. W.]S orre l is t he name applied t o certain plantsbelonging

,like a Dock, t o t he genus R umex, and

t o t he nat . ord . Polygonaceae. The leaves ofSorrel are smaller than those of Dock and havea strong acid taste

,d ue t o t he presence of acid

oxalates. The construction of t he flower is alsodifferent. In Dock only one kind of flower isproduced

,but in Sorrel t w o kinds ; a Dock

flower is perfect with stamen and pistil, whereasa Sorrel makes one kind of flower with stamensonly, and a second kind with pistil only. Thispis t il - containing flower is entirely devoted t ot he production of seed.

Two s ecies are common weeds, namely, Sheep’s

Sorrel{Ru /mete A cetosella) and Common Sorrelor Sourock (Rumex A cet osa).Sheep’s Sorrel thrives best on poor sandy orgravel ly soils deficien t in lime. Underground,t he plant forms a stem which creeps horizontally and branches extensively. From this per

67

enn ial structure t he air shoots arise. In poorland these shoots are quite diminutive, only3 in . high

,but as t he land becomes richer t he

shoots also lengthen and become 1 ft . high .

The leaf - blades are very characteristic,for at

t he base Of each blade there is a pair of pointedears sp read ou tward s, and t o mark this featuret he special term hasta te is applied t o t he Sorrelleaf. The shoots are in flower from May t o

July,and at this stage it is easy t o distinguish

t he male plant,with t he stamens conspicuous,

and t he female plant,with three crimson - col

oured feather- like stigmas projecting from t he

apex of each flower. From July onwards, t he‘Seeds ’mature ; t he ovary of t he pistil becomesa glossy reddish - brown three—faced nut

,pointed

at both ends,blunt alon t he edges, scarcely

Q]" in. long and almost asTread, not across t hemiddle, but near one end . This nut, called‘Seed is Closely invested by a husk of persisting flower leaves.The seed of Sheep’s Sorrel is a common impurity in commercial grass and Clover seeds

,

accordingly t he sowing of such impure seedshould be carefully avoided . Liming at t he

rate of 1 or 2 tons per acre, or judicious manuring t o enrich t he land

,miti ates t he nuisance.

Sheep browse t he plant,an depasturing with

sheep for t w o or three years prevents somewhatt he spread by seed.Common Sorrel or Sourock is no creeper ; instead , it produces tufts of shoots from t he apexof a taproot

,and thus becomes a tufted per

ennial. The shoots are 1 t o 2 ft . high,and

flower at t he same time as Sheep’s Sorrel . The

leaf- blades are 3 t o 6 in . long, and cared like

Sheep’s Sorrel,but in this case t he ears slop e

d ownwards,and t o mark this feature of t he leaf

blade t he term ‘arrow- shaped ’ or sagit ta te is

applied. There are usually male and femaleplants, t he males making pollen , and t he femalesproducing seed. This three- faced seed is glossyand dark- brown , 112 in . long

, 516 in . broad

, andSharp on t he edges ; it is accordingly easy t odistinguish from that of Sheep’s Sorrel.In pastures and meadows

,on moist

,rich soils

containing iron,Common Sorrel is a prevalen t

weed. For extermination , t he plant should becut down early

,S ince flowerin g begins in May .

Lime applications tend t o check its growth .

Combine cutting, liming, and judicious manuring t o encourage useful plants, will ultimatelylead t o extermination. [A . N . M

‘A .]

S o u m in g a n d Roam ing is, in ScotsLaw

, t he name for an action whereby partiesentitled t o a servitude right t o pasturage overa common are entitled t o have t he right settledrateably. amongst them. The word ‘

Soum ’de

notes a quantity of grass which would pasture,according t o some authorities, t en Sheep or one

cow,according t o others five Sheep or one cow

,

and in one case the Court held it t o be equ iva

lent t o what would pasture one cow with a calfuntil a year Old . The cus t om of t he locality t oa large extent regulates t he standard, which wil lvary with t he quality of t he land in d ifierentdistricts. ‘R oum ' is an old word denoting a

piece of land. The effect of t he action is t oascertain t he amoun t of stock which t he servi

68

en t tenement (i.e. t he common) can pasture, andthereafter t o determine t he proportion thereofbelonging t o each of t he dominant tenements(i.e. t he pro

perties owned by t he respective

commoners), xed according t o their respectivecapacity for winter foddering ; t he number ofbeasts t o be admitted t o t he pasture being proport ionat e t o t he number which t he variousproper t ies can fodder in t he winter. [D. B . ]S o u n d n e s s in A n im a ls . See arts.

SALE ; UN SOUN DNESS .

S o u rn e s s in La n d . The decom osit ion

of organic matter in normal soils eu '

cien t lyprovi ed with calcium carbonate does not tendt o make t he soi l acid. It is true that some acidsmay be formed which react with t he calciumcarbonate, bu t t he compounds readily decom

Eose with re- formation of ca lcium carbonat e.

u t if calcium carbonate is entirely absent fromt he soil, some acid is formed which in t he absenceof a base is not neutralized, and which doesnot readily wash ou t Of the soil by rain . The

ordinary bacterial flora does not survive,and a

n ew flora, in which moulds lay a distinct part ,comes in. Such land is said

pt o be sour.

Soils may also become acid through long- con

t inued use of sulphate of ammonia as manurewithout any dressing of lime. The d isadvan

t ages of acid are numerous : ( 1 ) bacteria workless effi ciently in an acid soil

, and consequentlyproduce less humus and nitrates than mi ht beexpected ; (2) many agricultural crops andgoodgrasses wil l not tolerate acid surroundings ; (3 )certain plan t disease germs flourish in acid soils.For all these reasons it is desirable t o get rid ofacid. The method of treatment is

,apply lime

at t he rate of 10cwt. ormore per acre, or chalkat four times t he above rate. Where nei therchalk nor l ime is available it has been found thatdressingsof finely ground mineral phosphates areuseful

,not so much t o neutralize t he acid as t o

enable t he plant t o resist its effect. Basic S lagis even more suitable

,since it contains free l ime

,

and is therefore capable of neutralizing acids.Some plants, eg . barley, swedes, sainfoin , andmost Leguminosae, are very intolerant of acids ;some

,l ike oats, alsike, rhubarb, wil l stand more.

Others wil l tolerate a good deal,eg. sorrel

,

broom, cotton grass. These latter are a safeindication of t he presence of acid in t he soil.The term ‘

Sour land ’ is sometimes, but in~

Correctly,used f or land contain in

gexcess of

soluble matter ; this is discussed u n er ALKALISO ILS . [E. J. R .]S o u t h A f ric a , A g ric u lt u re o il—Theterm British Sou th Africa is one which is somewhat loosely applied ; it is usually understoodt o mean t he British possessions in Africa southof t he Zambesi

,bu t sometimes t he whole of

R hodesia,portions of which extend consider

ably north of t he river,are included.

According t o t he latter definition,which is

t he one adopted in this article, South Africaconsists of four self- governing colonies, i.e. CapeColony

,Transvaal

, Orange R iver Colony, andN atal—now under a central governmen t and

forming t heUnion of South Africa—ofR hodesia,

and of t he P rotectorates Bechuanaland,Basuto

land, N yasaland , and Swaz iland.

Soundness in An imals—South AfricaThe total area

,which is still very sparsely

populated , is about one- third t he size of t he

Continent of Europe. The to tal population of

white persons of European descent amounts t oabou t and Of native and coloured persons underOwing t o t he extent of country and t he com

plexit y of t he subject,it will not be possible

t o do more within t he scope of this article thant o give a brief and very general description of

the agriculture of t he sub - continent,and of t he

system of farming now in vogue.

Though there are naturally many, and sometimes striking

,variations Of scenery, soil, and

climate t o be found in South Africa, yet on t hewhole it is a country of vast

,uniform areas, and

its l ive stock,and crops

,and methods of agri

culture are also similar.Further, though certain portions of t he Cape

Colony and N atal have been settled for sometime

,and specialized forms of farming, such as

grape- growing and fruit- farming in t he westernprovince

, ostrich - farming in t he south and eas t

of Cape Colony, and tropical farmin and wattlegrowing in N atal, have arisen ; an though t hestyle of farming practised in t he Karoo naturally d ifiers from that in vogue in t he H ighVeld, and yet other methods are followed int he subtropica l and more northerly parts ; still ,t he people have moved about SO freely and con

st ant ly , that t he variations of soil and climategenerally have not had t he same Opportuni t y ofinfluencing and mou ld in

glt hem

,and ofmod ify in

their practice,that they ave had in more settle

countries ; consequently t he farmers themselves,and their live stock and methods of farming

,

are much alike throughout t he whole of t he

sub- continent.P HYS ICAL FEATURES . The physical geography of South Africa is comparatively simple

,

for t he sub- continent fal ls naturally into threewel l - defined areas. The first

,or coastal

,com

prises a strip of land running round t he coastfrom the Cape t o t he Zambesi

,and varying in

width from a few miles at t he south t o 60 or

70miles farther north. On t he landward S ideof this piece of low - lying ground

,and also

,of

course,running roughly parallel t o t he ocean

,

is a series of ranges of mountains of which t heloftiest is known as t he Drakensberg ; and thesemoun tains, together with their foothills on t heone side and sundry subsidiary ranges andbroken ground on t he other side

,constitute

t he second ; whilst a vast plateau ocon yingt he whole of t he interior forms t he third

)

.

The Drakensberg mountains vary in altitudefrom 7000 ft. t o ft .

,while t he central

plateau varies in altitude from 2500 ft. t o

6000 ft . ; it is highest along its eastern side,from whence it slopes ently towards t he west.On some arts of t he plateau there are series ofridges an mountains

,and on others depressions

like t he Karoo ; but in t he main t he countryconsist s of a series of plains

,i n some places

almost flat , in ot hers gently undulat inCL IMATE, R AIN FALL, &c .

—A not eworgiy andregrettable feature of South African geographyis t he scarcity of water ; beyond a few ans

’

there are no lakes or sheets of water, an t he

South Africa

rivers and streams are few in number , and so

rapid in flow and varying in volume that theyare useless for navigation .

As a rule t he Climate of South Africa is dry,

rather windy, and exceedingly exh ilarating ; itis also remarkable for its large amount Of sunshine and cloudless Skies. Along t he southcoast from Cape Agulhas

,t he most southerly

point of t he continen t,eastwards t o East Lon

don, a narrow strip of country has a rainfall

fairly distributed over t he twelve months oft he year, and sufficient in quantity for t hegeneral purposes of agriculture. The southwest corner of t he continent

,which includes

t he district around Cape Town,has a winter

rainfall ; that is, during May t o September,as

t he seasons are Chan ed in t he southern hemisphere. Going nort wards from Ca e Townalongt he coast

,t he rainfall d iminis

lhes veryrapi ly From Port N olloth northwards t oWalfisch Bay t he Climate is one of t he mostrainless in t he world. Leaving this arid regionand travel ling inwards brings us t o t he westward limi t of t he summer rains.Over t he rest of t he sub - continent

,and there

fore over by far t he larger part of it, t he greater

part of t he rainfall occurs during t he summermonths

, October t o April , with January as t heaverage wettest month ; t he winter monthsbeing practically rainless.The summer rains are heaviest along t he east

and south - eas t coasts,and decrease both in

quantity and number of rainy days as one

travels inwards t o t he west ; but even on t he

western border of t he Transvaal t he averagerainfall amounts t o 22 t o 26 in . (equal t o t he

average mean of London) .The summer rains usually occur durinthunderstorms

,and are sometimes accompaniec

gl

by hail,which at times is very destructive ;

cyclonic rainstorms also take place in summer,and are often accompanied by heavy rainfall .Unfortunately, in some seasons these cyclonicrains fail , and when they do there is apt t o bea drought or a partial d rought

,as t he only pre

cipit at ion which then takes place is that d ue t othunderstorms, which are notoriously uncertain.As previously stated, t he tota l rainfall isusual ly good

,and would be ample for a ricu l

tural purposes were it suitably distribute butthat is not always t he case, for sometimes t herains are late in commencing, t o t he seriousembarrassment of owners of live stock, who areanxious for fresh grass for their animals, andt o t he curtailment of t he growing period of thecrops. Again

,instead of t he steady soaking

rains and t he frequent wet days met with insome coun tries

,a certain amount Of t he rain is

apt t o fal l in a succession of l ight showers, onlyt o be immediately evaporated ; and a still greaterproportion of it in torrential downpours, alsounsatisfactory

,since much of t he water runs

off t he ground instead of entering it. Further,and more trying still

,it Often happens, even in

t he most rain - favoured parts of South Africa,that long periods—perhaps two or threemonths—elapse without any useful rains.The annual average temperature is about 60°

t o 65°F . These figures cover an enormous area,

69

as t he altitude of t he interior above sea levelmoderates t he temperature otherwise d ue t o itslat itude. The range of temperatures is smallalong t he coasts, and frosts are unknown ; butover t he interior night frosts during t he drywinter months are very frequent, especial ly invalleys over t he Cape peninsula and on t he

lowlands. In other parts of South Africa t he

summer temperatures sometimes reach butwhen this occurs t he air is so dry that little discomfort is caused . As a rule

,no matter how

hot t he day , t he nights are cool and refreshing ;and though in t he warmer portions of t he country t he summers may be a l ittle trying, yet t hewinters are delightful.GEOLOGY

,SO ILS , &c .

—The geological history ofSouth Africa

,as far as it relates t o agriculture

,

is very differen t from that of N orthern Europeand America.

South Africa is geolo ically old , and it lackst he newer deposits

,an it has had no recent

glacial period. As a general rule its soils varystrictly in accordance with t he nature of t he

underlying formations, for they are deriveddirectly from them ; soils of alluvial originoccur locally

,but t he association of certain

soils with particular rocks and formations ist he rule in South Africa.

Speaking generally,and of course with many

and sometimes noteworthy exceptions,t he soils

of South Africa are thin rather than deep ; andas a rule there is not such a marked differencebetween soil and subsoil as is found in manyparts Of Europe and America, nor are they sost ifl

'

or retentive as many of t he Clays andloams of those countries.The prevailing soils are sandy loams of varying shades of red or Chocolate

,but there are

also large tracts Of a darker and heavier soilknown locally as black turf (resembling t he‘adobe ’ of California), and in some of t he val

leys and certain other places there are alluvialsoils of great depth and richness

,whilst in

depression s upon t he surface are t o be founddark ‘peaty ’ or ‘vlei ’ soils.When w et but not t oo w et

,in t he case of

turf and vlei ground,t he soils are not difficult

t o work ; they are open in texture and fairlyfriable

, and a seedbed is easily prepared ; but,curiously enough

,when dry

,all

,except t he

l ightest of them,become exceedingly firm—so

hard,in fact

,that a traction engine passing

over them would make scarcely any impression .

With t he exception of black turf and vleisoils

,humus does not accumulate in t he soils

t o t he exten t it does in t he more temperateregions. Judged by European standards, t hesoils are not rich ; but ow in t o t he amount oflight and warmth, and t o t eir Open texture,what plant food there is in them is readilyavailable, and given a sufficiency of water t hegrowth of crops is rapid and abundant. Theyare

‘grateful ’ soils, and respond readily t o

manures.FARM IN G PAST A ND PRESEN T.

—FOI‘ variousreasons Of Climate and history, agricultural progress in South Africa has been very S low, andfarming was for long carried on in a very primitive manner.

70

There being no sale for agricultural produceexcept in t he vicinity Of t he ports, and t he

kee ing of l ive stock being easier and more incon ormit y with t he inclination of t he farmersas well as more rofi t able than t he cultivationof t he ground, t eir attention w as main ly devoted t o it. In t he first instance they weresimply nomadic pastoralists and graz iers incommon ; but as t he interior became more ful lyoccupied

,it was gradually apportioned into

farms. The farms were large, and more likeranches than farms, t he average size beingabou t 7000 ac ., and in some arts

,such as t he

Karoo,considerably more. It w as customary

for a farmer t o have t w o farms—one situatedin t he H igh Veld, which w as part icularly goodfor stock in summer, and t he other in the LowVeld , where grazing and shelter could be oh

t ained in t he winter.When selecting a farm t he chief considerations were an adequate supply of water, freedom from diseases and poisonous plants, goodgrazing, shelter, and

,if possible

,a piece of

ground capable and worthy of being irrigated.

Because of its scarcity and of t he marvellousresults obtained from irrigated ground, waterwas, and still is, greatly prized. The wat ersupply and t he land that can be irrigated arethe features of t he farm,

and water rights haveever formed one of t he chief sources of disputeamongst farmers.As a rule t he farms were demarcated bylandmarks or beacons, and as a rule entirelyunfenced. The buildings consisted of a dwel ling- house, a rough stable, and t he inevitablekraals

,i.e. yards, commonly made of stone walls

some 6 or 7 ft. high , or of stout thorn bushes,and withou t any covering of any kind for proteet ing t he cattle at night from beasts of prey.

Failing a perennial stream, there was usuallya dam or reservoir fed by an intermittentstream

,or a spring t o provide water for t he

stock and , where possible, t o irrigate a piece of

arable ground. Agricultural implements weresimple, and consisted of l ittle more than a

wagon and trek ear, a plough and barrow ,

together wit h Ka r hoes, sickles, and a few

tools like axes and so fort h, and perhaps a Capecart. The labour was all performed by natives,w ho, in return for t he rivilege of living upont he farm and having a little ground t o cultivate,and grazing for a few head of stock, had t o

work a certain number of days each year fort he farmer ; if wages were paid at all

, theywere very small and mostly in kind.The cul t ivation of t he crops w as conductedin t he simplest and easiest manner possible.

The crops were sown broadcast ; there were no

subsequent cultivat ions ; t he crops on dry landwere left alone until ripe, and those on irrigable ground were watered as required. The

meal ies and Kaffir corn were harvested by removing t he ears or heads, which were shelledor threshed by hand, and t he wheat and S imi larcrops were cut with a sickle ; t he grain w as

threshed on a threshing floor by oxen and Winnowed by t he wind, j ust as in Biblica l times.This w as t he state of affairs prior t o t he dis

covery of gold ; but since that period t he whole

South Africa

aspect of affairs has altered, and a great changehas come over agriculture in common with ot herthings. At first progress w as slow

,but in recent

years it has proceeded more rapidly,and marked

advances have been made in every direction .

In addition to hail and d rought and otherclimatic troubles, insect and fungoid diseases arecommon. Locusts are perhaps t he worst peststhat vex t he South African farmer, but, thankst o t he action of t he Governments of t he variouscolonies in taking concerted action t o destroythem, it seems likely t he danger from them willbe greatly minimized in t he future

,if not eu

t irely overcome. Other pests are yielding t otreatment also

,and owing t o t he action of t he

Governments t he outlook as regards t he cont rolof all and t he extirpation of some is hopeful .THE VELD.

—In its natural state,practica lly

t he whole of South Africa, with t he exceptionof some rocky and mountainous portions

,is

covered with veget ation—sometimes thickly,and

at other times but scantily. In t he higher andbetter -watered parts of t he country t he grass isfairly close. and comparatively short ; in t he

Bush country it is usually thick , and sometimeshigh and coarse. In t he more arid and sandyor rocky regions t he grass gives w ay t o dwarfbushes called Karoo bush , edible by stock, andvarious succulent plants. The grasses aremostly‘bunch ’ or

‘tuft ’ rasses,and d o not form a

turf such as one fin s in Europe. According ast he grasses are coarse and strong or thin andwiry, resinous and bitter or sweet, or short andsucculent, t he veld is distinguished as

‘sour ’or

‘sweet ’. In order t o get rid of t he longcoarse grass and t o provide green food for t hestock, t he practice of burning t he veld at certain seasons of t he year has arisen ; and t he

making of fire- lines in autumn round t he bordersof a farm is essential t o its safety.

CH IEF CROPs.—Most European grasses and

clovers do not do well in South Africa ; bu tcuriously enough t he veld does not suffer frombreaking up in t he same way as old pasturesdo in Europe

,and when left alone it soon re

establishes itself ; immediately af ter ploughin g,and for a few years longer

, t he land is remarkably free from weeds, bu t after that they rapidlyaccumulate. When t he grass becomes thoroughly dry, as it does in t he H igh Veld duringwinter, it seems t o lose t he whole of its feedingvalue and t o become quite innutritious. Of lateyears t he practice of cutting t he veld for hay ,and of growing special crops for that urpose,has become more common. An um esirablefeature of t he veld is t he presence of poisonousplants in certain districts at certain seasons oft he year, and frequently heavy losses are occasioned by stock grazing thereon.Maize

,or

‘mealies’as it is commonly cal led inSouth Africa, is t he staple crop of t he country.It is easier and cheaper t o cultivate than anyot her crop, and is hardy and rust - resis tant, andtherefore capable of being grown during t hesummer—t he natural growing season. I t ist he chief food used by t he natives

, and is alsolargely consumed by white peo ls, particularlyt he older residents. Maize can e grown wherever t he rainfall exceeds 20 in ., and it thrives

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72

bacteria. The Ch ick -

pea or ram (Cicer ariet i

num) and P igeon Peas orDhol (Caj anus ind icus)are satisfactory as summer crops in t he warmerparts of t he country.Rye, N epaul Barley (Barley - wheat or Hor

deum. tmfurcat um), Buckwheat, and Linseed arealso grown t o a l imited exten t for grain or forforage as t he case may be.

Lucerne is, par excellence, t he perennial haycrop where irrigation can be practised ; it canalso be grown with a fair amount of success ondry land

,provided the rainfall is good ; in either

case t he soi l should be deep, rich, and welldrained

,and such areas are l imited in number

and extent. On good land under water an average of 2000 lb. of dry hay per cutting is usual,and six cuttings per season are frequently oh

t ained . In recent years prime Lucerne hay hasbeen selling for from £5 t o £8 er t on of 2000lb.Lucerne is greatly prized in ape Colony as a

food for ostriches both for grazing and feedingas hay , and in favoured districts

,l ike Oud t s

hoorn , enormous sums of money are paid forland sui table for growing it for that purpose.

A variety of grass introduced by t he Transvaal Depart ment of Agriculture from Abyssiniaand known as Tefi

'

(Eragrost is A byssinica) has

proved most useful as a hay crop, and is noweing largely cultivated in t he Transvaal .In addition t o t he crops already mentioned,

Cow Pea ( Vigna, caqjang), Kafiir Beans Vignaca tj ang var. Velvet Beans (Mucuna mills), Teosinte (Eucizlama mexicana var. luxurians), andseveral other crops are being experimented withfor t he making of ensilage.

R OOT CROPS .—Of t he root crops, mangel

wurzel is t he most satisfact ory. Swedes,white

turnips, and kohlrabi do not do particularly

well except in t he cooler, moister parts of t hecountry. Cabbages of various kind s can be

grown,and prove very useful at times. Sugar

beet does wel l in various parts of t he country,but for several reasons

,mostly economic

,it has

not yet been found possible t o establish factoriesfor t he conversion of it into sugar.Potatoes are grown extensively, especially for

t he Johannesburg market , where they usuallycommand a good price. With skilful management and water it is possible t o grow tw o cropsa year ; without water only one crop can be

obtained . Most of t he European varieties succeed in South Africa, but, owing perhaps t o t herapidity with which they grow, and t o theirnot ripening very thoroughly, t he potatoes donot keep so wel l as they do in Europe. The cropwhich ripens durin t he summer keeps for a

very short time, w ether raised or not ; t he

crop which ripens in t he autumn,j ust as t he

dry weather set s in , will keep sound and freshfor much longer if allowed t o remain in t heground

,but not otherwise. Probably

,for t he

same reason , i.e. imperfect ripening,or it may

be from t he varieties not being rea ly suited t ot he country, or because t he plant itself is notreally at home

,it is said t o be difficult t o obtain

good seed locally ; and t he bulk of t he potatoesgrown in South Africa are from seed importedfrom Europe

,which naturally adds enormously

t o t he expense of t he crop, and ac t s as a heavy

South Africa.

drain upon t he country. As regards siz e and

quality, t he tubers compare very favourablywith those produced elsewhere.

In t he warmer arts of t he country t he SweetPotato (lp omaea ga ta ta) and on tropica l areast he Cassava (Mani/wt p almata. var. A i

'

p i) thriveadmirably.

Pumpkins, another favouri t e South Africanvegetable, grow freely and t o an enormous size,and if thoroughly ri

pe, kee for a long time.

TOBACCO, SUGAR ( .A NE,

EA , A ND COFFEE.

Tobacco has always been a popular crop witht he Boers, and a smal l patch of it is grown on

most farms in t he warmer parts of t he country .

The northern slopes of t he Magaliesberg rangein t he Transvaal

,part icularly in t he R usten

burg district,produce a pipe tobacco which has

become widely famed. Until lately tobacco hasonly been grown for local consumption and for

pipe smoking. The ordinary ‘Boer ’ or ‘Transvaal ’ tobacco is described as a coarse bastardvariety, ori inally of Sumatran origin, but nowmuch mixe with other varieties that have beenintroduced from time t o time and allowed t ocross with local tobacco. Its n icotine contentis lower than in most tobaccos, and it burnsreadily ; its aroma is not pleasant, and it possesses a peculiar flavour

,but it is light, and can

be smoked all day without affecting t he heador burning t he tongue. People often do not

like t he tobacco at first,but aft er they have got

accustomed t o it they become as fond of it ast he older residents are, and

,l ike them, will

smoke no other.S ince t he w ar, efforts have been made byprivate individuals and by t he Governmentsof t he various colonies t o improve and ext endt he tobacco indust ry and t o establish an exporttrade, and there is good round for hoping thata sound and profitable t o acco industry may be

established in South Africa before long.

Sugar cane is t he princi al product of t he

coastal region of N atal,an is also cultivated

in Zululand ; though it does well in“ those dist rict s

,it is somewhat exacting as t o its require

ments,and outside certain areas it is not likely

that it will be much grown in South Africa.

Tea is also successfully grown in t he lowerand warmer parts of N atal

,but as w ith sugar

cane,and for the same reasons

,its cultivation

is not likely t o become very extensive.

Coflee w as formerly grown in N atal and in t hetropica l and subtropica l parts of t he Transvaa l,but unfort unately t he coffee disease (Hemil lz

'

a

vastatrix) broke ou t and rendered t he cultivation of t he crop impossible.

FIBRE PLA N Ts.- Cotton , Ramie (Boelnnem

'

a

nivea ), Sisal (Agave rigida var. sisalana), Phormium (Phormz

'

um tenax), H emp,Jute

,Broom

Corn (Sorghum tecknicum), as well as variousnative fibre plants, are being experimentedwith in different parts of t he count ry. Excellent samples of cotton have been produced, andit is quite probable that in t he warmer regionst he growing of it and of some of t he other fibresmay be considerably extended. Both oil seedsand nitrogenous food for cat tle are required inAfrica

,and t he cotton seed should prove useful

for these purposes.

South

OILsBEA s IN o PLANTS .—Peanuts (Arachis 11g

pogaea ) grow well in t he M iddle and Low Veld.Like cotton seed they yield a valuable oil

,and

t he residue makes an excel lent cattle food. Asat present cultivated they are expensive t o

harvest, but if t he cost of this operation can

be reduced by t he use of machinery, as seemsprobable, t he crop should be ex t ensively grown .

The alternation of peanuts with maize is saidt o form a good rotation .

Castor Oil (R icinus communis) roduces one oft he best lubricating oils known. he plant growswild in abundance in t he subtropica l parts oft he country ; but t he expense of picking is aheavy item, and so far it has been found moreprofitable t o produce other crops than it, thoughit is quite possible that some day it may begrown on a considerable scale in districts freefrom frost and well supplied wit h native labour.In addition t o the above

,several other oil

and fibre plants,and lants for miscellaneous

purposes,such as ca la ashes for pipes (Lage

narz’

a vulgaris van ), loofas or vegetable sponges(Lufia wggp t iaca), bird seeds (Panicum millaceum), everlasting flowers (Helickrgsum vest i

tum), and many other plan t s are being testedor grown on a small scale ; in fact, Sou t h Africapossesses such a variety of soil and climate thatthere are bu t few crops that cannot be grownin one part oranother of it.FRUITS

, &c.—Owing t o t he diversity of soil

and climate, almost every kind of fruit can begrown .

V iticulture and t he making of wine and

brandy was established in t he western districtsof Ca e Colony, which have a winter rainfalland d

lfy summer, in t he early days of settlement

, and forms t he main industry of that dist rict . The grapes flourish exceedingly

,and a

well - ke t Cape wine farm is a beautiful sight .

In a dition t o grapes, t he w estern province,through t he foresight and enterprise of t he lateMr. Cecil Rhodes, has become an importantcentre for t he growth of apples, pears, plums,eaches, and nectarines, as well as oranges andemons ; and that district now exports largequantities of fruit t o Europe which find a

ready sale there.

In N atal t he growth of tropical and subtropical fruits, such as bananas

,pineapples,

papaws, Avocado pears, mangoes, and citrusruit s, is carried on t o a considerable extent

,

and citrus fruits and pineapples are exportedin large quantities.The orange is t he ch ief South African fruit ;it requires a fairly deep and wel l - drained soil

,

with water and a frostless climate. The easternprovince of Cape Colony is wel l advanced int he culture Of citrus fruits and produces t hegreatest quanti ty

,but its culture, as indeed t he

culture of all kinds of fruits, is increasing all

over t he sub- continent. During t he last fewyears citrus fruit has been sent t o London ,where it has been reat ly appreciated.

As with other kinds of farming,fruit- growing

has its drawbacks, t he chief being t he liability

of t he fruit t o be dama ed by excessive rainsj ust as it is ripening, 3.11cby hailstorms, whichin some districts are very persistent and de

73

structive. Insect and fungoid diseases are alsobad at times.TIMBER .

—Africa south of t he Zambesi is avery poorly wooded country . Large s t retchesof it

,like t he Karoo, t he Orange R iver Colony,

and t he H igh Veld of t he Transvaal and N atal ,are treeless, except along t he rivers and watercourses. There are tw o main types of forestt he dense evergreen forests and t he open scrubforests. The former are confined t o t he regionsof t he highest rainfall, viz . t he coastal belt fromCape Town t o N atal and Zululand, and t he seaward slopes of inland mountain chains, such ast he A mat olas and t he Drakensberg. The number of species of trees found in t he forests islarge

,but t he timber of only about a doz en

kind s is general ly worked. Some species liket he Yellowwood reach lofty proportions, treesof over 100 ft. in height being not uncommon .

Most do not , however, reach much more thanfrom 60 to 80 ft.S tinkwood (Ocotea bulla ta) is t he most valu

able timber produced,and t he demand much

exceeds t he supply. It is highly prized for t hemanufacture of furn iture and wagons.Yellowwood ( Podocaqnus elonga ta and P .

thunbergii) forms t he bulk of t he wood turnedou t from t he forests, and is, after being creosot ed , u t ilized for rai lway sleepers.The other principal s ecies are chiefly wagonwoods. The only w oo exported is Boxwood(Gom

’

oma Kamassi) . The total area of theseforests is not much more than 1000 sq. miles.The scrub forests are more extensive, and

occupy large areas in Cape Colony, N atal, t heTransvaal

,and R hodesia. The trees composing

them do not reach a great hei ht, any thingfrom 1 5 t o 40ft . , according t o soi and climaticconditions. They do not form close canopy, andgrass grows freely in between them. Farms onwhich this class of forest is found are highlyesteemed by stock- breeders for grazing.Various species of acacias are t he largest

element in these forests, which , generally speaking

,produce but little timber of any technical

value. Fuel , fencing poles, and pit props comprise the bulk of t he output.From t he above it will be seen South Africa ‘

is practica lly dependent for it s wood on imported timber. During t he year 1 907- 8 t he

value of manufactured and unmanufacturedtimber brought into t he country reached t helarge t otal of and as t he countrydevelops this total will natural ly increase.

In view of this,and of t he fact that many

exotic trees grow well , each South AfricanGovernment has undertaken some afforestation .

The Cape Colony acted as ioneer,and more

recently N atal, t he Orange iver Colony, and

t he Transvaal have vigorously followed its goodexample. At t he Cape there are now over

ac. of plantations, and in t he Transvaalabout 3000. Eucalypts from Australia and pinesfrom South Europe and California are t he kindsmost extensively planted.It would not do t o conclude this note withoutreferring t o t he wonderful forest industry thathas been built up in N atal by private enterprise. Twenty- five years ago a small start w as

Africa

74

made in planting t he exotic Tan Bark Watt le(A cacia d ecurrens var. mollis) ; now there are

nearly ac . under this crop,and t he

value of bark exported in 1 907 w as

This striking result is unique,and unparalleled

in the history of forestry.W ILD A N IMALs.

—The quantity and varietyof great game which originally inhabited SouthAfrica

,and t he number of cattle possessed by

t he natives, furnishes t he best possible proofof t he suitabil ity of t he country for l ive stock.

Within t he memory of men now l iving, t hecountry w as tenanted by vast numbers of ele

phan t s, rhinoceroses, hippopotami , buffaloes,W ildebeest, hart ebeest, elands, and other antelopes t oo numerous t o mention

,as wel l as

girafl'

es,quaggas

,zebras

,wart hogs

,bush pigs

,

and ostriches ; t he amount of smaller animall ife was equally large

, and amon st and upont he mass lived beasts

,birds

,an reptiles of

grey—lions

,leopards

,jackals

,wild dogs

,croco

iles, and eagles .L IVE STOCK—Of domestic breeds of catt le t henative breeds were active

,hardy

,and thrifty,

and,what is very important, were resistant t o

or tolerant of t he majority of t he enzootic diseas es with which t he country abounds, but inmany particulars they fell short of modern ideasof what domestic animals should be, and in someapproximated very nearly t o their wild relativesin t he veld.

The problem that confronts stock farmers inSouth Africa—and it is a reat and pressinone—is how t o produce breeds of stock adaptet o t he country

,reasonably hardy and economica l

t o keep,and such as will satisfy t he require

ments of t he public t o whom they or their products will be disposed of that is t o say , horsessuit able for draught purposes, or remounts fort he army ; cattle that will provide as large a

proportion of prime beef t o their l ive weight atas early an age as possible, or a large supply ofrich milk sheep which wil l yield neat joints ofmu t ton or heavy fleeces of fine wool ; pigs thatwil l supply prime bacon and hams ; and so forth .

The necessity for improving t he quality of

t he stock has been recognized by t he moreenlightened farmers for some time, and a t en

deney t o obtain better animals is increasinglymanifest

,and in Merino sheep and ostriches,

particularly, great strides have been made.

B ut South Africa is at a serious disadvantageat present, as com ared with t he United Statesof America , Cana a

,Australia, t he Argentine,

and other great stock countries , in t he dangerand d iflicul ty that is incurred in acclimatizingim ort ed animals.n regard t o many of t he diseases, animals

bred in t he country, or in t he parts of t he country where they exist, either become tolerant ofthem or immunized against them (or, in t hewords of t he country, ‘salted through havingmild attacks of them when quite young ; butimported animals often suffer severely.

The H igh Veld is fairly healthy for all kindsof stock, and animals can be acclimatiz ed therewith greater

_

safety than in any other part oft he country ; but t he introduction of animalsfrom oversea into t he warmer localities and t he

South Africa

Bush country is a hazardous business,and I O

though t o a lesser exten t—is t he movement ofstock from t he H igh Veld into these areas. Theexist ence in cer tain loca lities of plants poisonoust o l ive stock has already been mentioned.

The different diseases,and other obstacles t o

t he importation of l ive stock,are now being

thoroughly investigated by t he various Departmen t s of Agriculture (see section at end of

article). Light has already been shed on someof them, and it is hoped will soon be forthcoming on others. Private individuals are alsostriving t o improve t he breeds of live stock bydevoting more attention t o them

,and by t he

introduction of pure- bred sires. As a matterof fact

,there have been occasional introductions

of pure- bred s tock since t he days of t he firstoccupation of t he country by Europeans, and t heinfluence of animals so imported is visible t o - day ;though t he work w as performed in such a spasmodic

,unsystematic, unscientific manner that

t he result s were not as great as they might havebeen

,nor commensurate with the expenditure.

The prevalence of insect ests is a seriousnuisance t o stock farmers. ot only do theyact as carriers of disease

,and as t he actual

cause of t he disease in t he case of internalparasites, but t he ticks more especially

,wh ich

abound in t he Bush Veld, cause great loss simplyby sucking t he blood of animals. All animals

,

even poultry, are liable t o be infected withthem. The remedy is constantly spraying or

dipping t he animals with an insecticide,or

st arvin t he ticks out by completely clearingt he velgof stock for a year or more.

H orses—The ‘Boer horse’ and t he‘Basut o

pony ’ are t he native types of t he country . Bothare comparat ively small, 1 32 t o about 1 4 hands

,

stout in build and rounded in frame. The pre

dominant colours are browns and bays . Theyare very hardy, possess much ‘staying

(po

we

r’

,

are capable of performing much sad le and‘ligh t cart’work on coarse fodder, and in comparison t o their size carry ‘heavy weights ’.The type of horse in greatest demand is a hardycomfortable hack , and at t he same time a horsecapable of doing ‘Cape cart’or l ight ‘trap ’workat a steady pace over a long distance. For thispurpose t he Arab and t he Thoroughbred havet o t he greatest ext ent been used for improvingt he size

,fleet ness, and quality of t he offspring

from country- bred mares, and for supplying t hedemand for a better - bred horse for remoun t s.The Governments of t he Transvaal and the

Orange R iver Colony main tain stud farms,from

which are leased t o horse - breeders a goodlynumber of Thoroughbred stallions, with ohviously beneficial results. Tw o endemic diseases, horse sickness’and ‘biliary fever ’

,which

occur over a great part of South Africa, part icu larly in t he northern territories, preventhorse- breeding from being carried out on a moreextensive sca le. Much of this land is su itablefor raising horses cheaply, and with suitableshelter and winter feeding good serviceablehorses for military and private purposes canbe bred.Mules and Donkeys.

—M ule- breeding is car

ried on, but the output is insufficien t t o supply

South Africa

t he demand, consequently mu les are importedchiefly from t he Argentine.

The Cape Colony Government has renderedconsiderable assistance t o mule- breeding by importing Catalonian Jack donkeys . R ecently t heTransvaal Government has given some attention t o t he matter by importing donkey siresof t he same kind

, and also a few Catalonianmares. The donkeys of t he coun t ry

,though

small , are in some districts, particularly thosein which disease regulat ions prevent cattle beingused for transport

,and again in ‘horse- sickness ’

loca li t ies, largely used for transport.Ca t t le—Tw o fairly distinct indigenous types

are found, i.e. t he ‘Afrikander ' and N ativecattle—Matabele, Mashonaland, Angoni, and

Zulu. The‘Afrikander ’ is essentially a trek

ox’. Active, intelligent, and docilewhen trained,

and built on suitable lines,it is eminently suit

able for draught work . Its history is wraptin mystery, but it is generally believed thatt he cattle Of Portugal had

,several generations

ago, some influence upon its development. .The

pure- bred Afrikander is recognized t o be red incolour, with a rather long, narrow head ; elegant,long, and sweeping horns ; heavy muscular neckand shoulders ( indicative of draught power) ;a rounded body wi th sloping hind quarters

,a

long thin tail,and fine bones throughout. In

its general characteristics and expression thisbreed is somewhat deerlike. It possesses greatnatural hardihood , and maintains its conditionwel l under adverse circumstances ; but its growthand maturity are very slow

, and as slaughtercattle Of good qual ity t he breed is t oo thin of

flesh in t he best parts, and t he fore quarters aret oo heavy in proportion t o t he hind quarters.The full - grown ox

,at six t o eight years

,weighs

about 650 lb. dressed carcass. As foundationstock , t he breed is of t he greatest value forgrading up with sires of improved breeds.The native cattlementioned derive their namesfrom t he territories in which they are t o be

found,mostly in t he possession of t he native

races. They are less definite in type than t heAfrikander, and are of mixed colours

,smal l

,

much rounded in outline, and of good quality.

Their dressed carcass weight at full growth isfrom 3 50 t o 450lb . ; t he Angoni and Mashona~land cattle being t he smal lest.Among imported breeds

,t he black - and -white

Dutch cattle, i.e. t he ‘Friesch’

(Friesian) breedfrom H olland, have t o t he greatest extent beenused for improving t he stock of t he country.

This cross produces an animal large in size,coarse in frame, thin of flesh , but of improvedmilking qualities. A large number of gradecattle, chiefly black and black - and -white, of thisdescription are t o be found in t he country, andmake useful general—purpose cattle.

British breeds of l ive stock are gaining inpopularity

, and are being introduced t o an

increasing extent. The Shorthorn,bu t more

largely t he South Devon ’breed, are t he breedsat present most in favour on large stock farms.In theCape Peninsula a number ofAyrshire andJersey herds are kept. These t w o breeds have,t ogether with t he ‘Friesch ’ and t he ‘Kerry ’,played an important part in t he creation of

7 5

t he famous ‘Cape Dairy Cow ’. The H ereford,

Aberdeen - Angus, and Sussex breeds have of

recent years given most romising results.It is yet t oo early t o ceide what improvedbreeds are t he most suited t o t he country, bu tbriefly stated , t he position at present is as follows. The ‘Friesch

’

,South Devons

,and Short

horns ( including R ed Lincoln) appear t o be

adapted only t o t he best grazing land and t o

farms where winter fodder, either in t he sha e

of green pasture or artificial feeding, can e

supplied. Among beef breeds, H ereford,Aber

deen -Angus, and Sussex prove hardier and more

thrifty under less favourable conditions. Of

t he dairy breeds, t he Ayrshire appears t o bemore hardy than either t he Jersey or ‘Friesch

’

under similar conditions. R ed Polls and N orthDevons have been tried with varied success,but do not appear t o be increasing in favour.The conditions of t he country at t he presen ttime aremore adapted t o t hemaintenance of beefthan of dairy breeds

,on account of their greater

hardihood and better constitution . N evert he

less dairying is making headway, and with moreknowledge and enterprise in connection w itht he provision of winter feeding and shelter, t heindustry will advance.

The breeding of cattle for draught p urposes,or

‘trek cattle’as they are termed , is now generally regarded as being of secondary importancet o cattle for slaughter and dairying purposes.The appreciation of t he fact that improvemen tin t he class of stock reared must go hand inhand with better methods of management inorder t o obtain t he best results

,is being recog

niz ed more and more by t he South Africanstock - breeders.R ealizing t he importance of establishing purebred herds in t he country

,and t he difficulty

for private enterprise t o carry it out,t he Trans

vaal Government, and t o a lesser extent t heGovernment of t he Oran e R iver Colony , haveestablished pedigree herds of different breedsupon their stud and experimental farms. P urebred bulls from this stock are sold t o stockbreeders throughout t he country .

S/zeep .—The sheep native t o t he country are

commonly cal led ‘Afrikander ’ or ‘Fat - tailed’.The head

'

is brown or black,often with white

marks, and t he body is white covered only withhair. It stands on rather long legs

,and is long

and narrow, t he shoulders and quarters are

small,and t he tail is, when in good condition,

very large and fatty , often weighing 7 lb . The

average weight of t he carcass is about 45 lb. I t

is considered t hat this fatty tail is a provision ofN ature, in order t o maintain t he vitality of t hesheep during prolonged

geriods of drought .

These sheep are undoub t e ly very hardy , and

thrive in districts t o which woolled sheep are

not suited . One lamb only is born at each part urit ion, and these sheep will ‘take t he ram

’

when still suckling their lambs. In this w ay ,t wo cro s of lambs are often reared during t heyear. ndeed , if this breed is al lowed t o havea long resting period, t he t ails become so largewith t he improvement in condition that it isa physical impossibility for sexual intercourset o take place.

76

The smal l, short- t ailed and thick - set blackheaded ‘Persian ’ sheep

,native t o t he southern

parts of Egypt and Somaliland, is very largelyused for crossing with t he Afrikander. The

Persians ’are equal ly hardy and more compactsheep

,possessing mutton of fine flavour and fine

in fibre. Furthermore, t he lambs of t he Persian cross mature early. When t he time arrivesfor an export trade t o be undertaken—and itdoes not a pear t o be far distant—there is some

prospect that t he carcasses of these sheep willnd a satisfactory European market. The joints

and cuts are small,b u t t he qual ity is good, and

there is reason t o suppose they would be popular with t he small householder. The sheep ind ust ry of South Africa, however, depends uponits export of wool . Large areas of country

,

stil l insufficiently stocked, are almost ideal forgrowing M erino sheep and wool of t he highestqual ity. H istory relates that Merino sheep wereexported t o Australia from t he Cape Colony fort he purpose of improving t he sheep of that cont inen t . To- day t he position is reversed. SouthAfrica is buying Merino sheep from Australiafor t he same purpose. Rapid strides are beingmade in improving t he quality of t he wool prod uced

,and improved methods of classification

,

pack ing, and so forth,are enhancing t he value

of South African wool in t he European mar

kets . The Ca e Colony is the chief exporter ofM erino wool

, bu t t he Orange R iver Colony andTransvaal are making rapid progress in thisdirection . Parts of t he country where sheecannot at the present time be successfully rearegwill

,when it has become grazed down by large

stock,become suited for this purpose, and t he

area of sheep land wil l be extended.

A few British breeds of sheep , in smal l numbers

,have been introduced for crossing pur

poses,but t he mat ter is stil l more or less in an

experimental s tage. On t he whole, t he shortwoolled Down breeds appear t o be likely t orove t he most suitable. Crossed on t he Afriander or Afrikander - Persian , a good and

heavy mutton sheep is produced, which at t he

same time grows a fleece of coarse wool.Goa t s—A type of goat common t o t he country is t he ‘Boer ’ oat , whose chief value lies inits hardihood

,andpower t o thrive in districts

unsuitable for sheep. In such places its flesh isused formeat, and t he hides exported.Large flocks of Angora goats are kept in t he

Cape Colony, from which is exported some of

t he finest mohair t he world produces. Greatattention has been paid t o their breeding and

improvement, and t he export of these goatsfrom t he country is jealously guarded by regulat ions. The large area Of Karoo land in t heCape Colony, where small and nutritious ‘bush’of many kinds grow, is ideal for raising goats.Ostric/zes.

—The Cape Colony is even morefamous for its ostrich feathers, in which it hasrac t ically a monopoly of t he world’s trade.

ere t he African ostrich has been domesticated ,and several hundreds of birds are often kept oneach farm. See article OSTR ICH FARM IN G.

P igs—In t he northern and less inhabited

areas t he wart - hog or wild pig is stil l found ina wild state. Then a type of pig , black in

South Africa

colour, wi th narrow, straight head, short thickbody, very fat and coarse, is practica lly nativet o t he country. At full growth t he carcassweight of this pig is about 120 lb.

On t he whole,pig - keeping does not receive

t he attention it deserves ; t he pigs are generallyallowed t o roam about t he farm and shift forthemselves. Several breeders are, however, nowgiving increased attention t o t he managementof pigs

,and a great improvement in t he class

of pig bred in t he country is taking place.

This is particularly noticeable in t he vicinityof mining areas

,where large quantities of waste

food from t he ‘native compounds ’are obtainedcheaply. A few bacon factories have been es

t ablished in different parts of t he country ; andwith t he extension of t he dairy industry, t hepork and bacon production in t he country iscertain t o increase.

The Berkshire, Large Black, Tamworth, andYorkshire (especial ly t he Large White) are all

bred in t he country, and crossed with t he com

mon native and cross- bred pigs. Of these breeds,t he Berkshire and Large Black are likely t oprove t he most suitable for t he conditions of t hecountry. The Large Wh ite Yorkshire sufl

’

ers

from ‘sunburn ’,and t he Tamworth is often

unthrifty,particularly in cold districts, and

takes longer t o come t o maturity.

P OULTRY .—All t he ordinary breeds of poultry

are kept,but

,as a rule, t he lighter breeds thrive

better than t he heavier and more clumsy ones.Judging from t he number of wild game birds,poultry should do particularly well in SouthAfrica

,but

,like l ive stock

,they are affl icted

with a good many mysterious ailments. The

investigation of these diseases, and t he discoveryof remedies or preventives for them,

will confer a great boon on poultry keepers and on t he

country at large.

DISEASES OF DOMESTICATED STOCK IN SOUTHAFR ICA.

—For many years South Africa had

more than it s share of stock diseases,since

many of t he European plagues obtained a holdin South Africa

,in addition t o those which be

longed t o t he class of tropica l diseases.Thus at one time pleuropneumonia and rin

derpest in cattle, glanders and epizootic lymphangit is in equines were very prevalent, but,thanks t o proper legislation and precautions byt he various agricultural departments

,these dis

eases have been effectively dealt with . R inderest and foot -and -mouth disease have completelyisappeared ; glanders and epizootic lymphangitis are under proper control

, and there i severy reason t o believe that under t he presentsystem

,and wi th t he assist-a nce of the Govern

men t s,these latter diseases wil l also disappear.

Of t he tropical diseases introduced into SouthAfrica t he most formidable one is East Coastfever

,which kills about 95 per cent of cattle

affected. I t is d ue t o t he presence of a bloodparasite cal led P iroplasma parvum,

and is carried by ticks of t he Rhipicephalidae. This d isease is still known in a few parts of Rhodesia,some parts of t he Transvaal

, and is very pre~valent in N atal . Successful legislation has beenbased on ( 1 ) a thorough knowledge of t he w ayin which it is spread ; (2) the fact that only a

South Africa—South Devon SheepSick animal carries t he infection ; and (3 ) thataft er a certain time an infected area becomesclean if t he cattle are removed. In t he t wo

former coun tries it has gradually been drivenback, and every reason exists t o believe thatit will be finally stamped ou t .

R edwater in _cat t le is known t o have been

introduced into South Africa,but it has so

established i t self throughout t he various partsthat it has become endemic. The disease is d uet o t he presence of P irop lasma bigeminum in t heblood. The immune animal retains t he infection in t he blood, and since t he disease is carried by ticks (t he blue tick) it is easily understood that wherever immune animals and ticksare present t he disease will remain. Portumately animals born in t he country do not

suffer so much from it,and , as a rule

,recover

,

so t hat a herd can be reared immune againstthis disease. It follows therefore that importedanimals from countries where no redwater existsare t he principal sufferers. P revention of thedisease in imported animals lies in stabling

,and

only t he progeny should be exposed t o infect-ion .

P reventive inoculat ion with blood of immuneanimals is effective for Sou t h African cattleborn in areas free of redwater

,but is dangerous

for im ort ed cattle.

Und)

er t he name gall - sickness of cattle a numberof diseases are included

,d ue t o various causes .

One is t he dry condition of t he veld at certainseasons of t he year. Another is specific vegetable poisonings ; but t he majority are specificblood diseases , either due t o a Tryp anosome, t oa Sp irillum, or t o a P iroplasm ; and in a greatmany cases t he sequel of ordinary redwater rangesunder this name. Gall—sickness has been spokenof by farmers as the most prevalent disease, yetscientifica l ly in every instance a Special dia nosiswill have t o be made

,as t he term inclu es so

many affections.The most formidable sheep disease is bluetongue. It comes as an epidemic in certainseasons of t he year, principally after t he rainyseason

,and it may then be seen throughout t he

country,although t he higher and drier a locality

t he less it is noted. It is d ue t o an ultra - visiblemicro- organism which is present in t he blood.

The disease seems t o be insect- carried, sincein sect - proof seclusion means prevention . Asuccessful preventive consists of a protectivevaccination which renders t he animal immune.

In cattle, sheep, and goats of t he Bushvelda disease occurs known as heartwater, also duet o an ultra—visible micro- organism

,and carried

by a species of tick known as bont orTortoiseshell ticks. It is frequently included under t heterm Bush - sickness ’ of cattle. Its preventionlies in t he clearing of an infected farm until t heticks have been starved ou t .

The specific diseases of horses and mules ofthis country are ( 1 ) t he devastating horse- sickness , and (2) biliary fever. The former ravageswi th varying virulency in t he different years.The bad years are known t o be those of heavyand continuous rains

,when t he mortali t y reaches

a very high percen tage. I t is caused by an

ultra - visible micro - organism, and is probablycarried by mosquitoes ; anyway, t he mosquito

77

theory explains all t he facts not ed by farmers,in t he best way . There are t wo forms distinguished : t he dun - horse - sickness and t he dikkop . They are t w o expressions indicating a

certain symptom which is present in t he one

and not present in t he other, namely , t he swollenhead (dik - kop). The main lesions of dun - kopare found in t he lungs. A nimals which recoverfrom t he disease are called ‘salted and are con

sidered t o be immune ; but t he immunity is no tcomplete, although salted animals do not succumb t o t he same extent as non - salted animals.P revention lies in mosquito- proof seclusion during t he mosquito season . M ules can be renderedimmune by an inoculation , and are then prot ec t ed t o t he extent of about 98 per cent.Biliary fever is due t o a P iroplasm (Piro

p lasma egu i), and attacks all equines. As inredwater, young animals do not suffer fromit so much

,and easily recover. These, together

with imported animals which have recoveredfrom t he disease

,retain t he infection in t he

blood, and as t he disease is carried by ticks

,

t he veld is permanently infected. Countrybred animals do not suffer much from it

,and

it is t he imported animal which is t he most suscep t ible. The prevention is based on t he sameprinciples as in redwater.The so- called tsetse- fly diseases (Trypanoso

miasis) have, with t he exception of a small areain Zululand and in some parts of Rhodesia

,com

plet ely disappeared .

In addition t o these tropical diseases, anthraxis known in South Africa amongst all stock

,but

is limited t o certain parts. Quarter- evil in cattleis unequallydistributed throughoutSouthAfrica,but can be successfully dealt with by a preventive inoculation . Tuberculosis is not knownamongst t he Afrikander cattle, but in importedstock and their rogeny . Scab is commonamongst sheep and

3

goats,and notwithstanding

t he many efforts of the various Governments,

has not yet been successfully dealt with . Energetic farmers can easily manage t o keep theirstock free from it.One of t he greatest troubles of sheep - breedingis t he presence of intestinal parasites

,principally

round worm, the wireworms (Strongylus), and

also tapeworms. There are successful treatments

,and many of these troubles could be

overcome once sheep - rearing and pasturing isadapted t o t he life—history of these parasites.There are some diseases t he causes of which

are not quite clear, viz. osteoporosis in horses,

t he so - called ‘lam - z iek t e ’ and ‘st ijfz iekt e

’ incattle, and t he ‘

gauw z iek t e’ in sheep. Others

are due t o specific vegetable poisonings of whichw e have not yet sufficient knowledge. Amongstswine

,only swine fever has hitherto been seen

in some outbreaks ; measles (Cysticercus) , however, is very revalent, principally owing t o t heinsanitary ha its of t he natives. [F. B . s.]S o u t h Devon Ca t t le . See DEVON

CATTLE.

S o u t h Devo n S h ee p .—This is a long

woolled breed which has become established inSouth Devon and in part of Cornwall.P robably if records were available one would

find that it traces its origin t o much t he same

7 8 South Devon Sheep—Southdow n Sheepsource as Devon Long - wool. The introduc t ioninto t he south of England of t he Leicester hadno doubt a great deal t o do with t he evolutionof both this and t he Devon Long- wool led breed.

But t he South Devon Sheep has been bred init s purity so long

,that it has, withou t question ,

become a breed of undoubted purity and pre

potency—a breed that is able t o transmit t o itsprogeny its merit s and characteris t ics. We haveno better or higher authority t o refer t o for a

d etailed account of its merits than t he prefacepublished in t he first volume of t he South DevonFlock Book . It is therein stated that t he SouthDevon sheep is one with great robustness of cons t it u t ion , a large, symmetrica l , and well - grownsheep

,with plenty of bone and muscle

,a vigor

o us and thrifty Sheep equal ly ada t ed either t ot he fold or t o grazing land, a rapi feeder, coming early t o maturity

,and a breed that read i ly

responds t o liberal treatment, being able also t othrive and do well upon hard fare and exposure.

The fleece is of t he best quality , for it has a longs taple of very lustrous wool , curly and dense on

t he pelt .

The flesh,unlike many of t he whit efaced long

woolled varieties of sheep,is ful l of lean meat

,

whilst t he carcass of a typical specimen has all

t he more valuable parts fully developed. A S

t he saying is,t he sheep ‘cut well ’.

It is noted that in t he year 1 902 t he averaged aily gain of a pen of wether lambs exhibitedat Smit hfield , and first in their class

,worked

o u t at 1 1 4 6 oz .,or almost 2 lb. per d iem. .F ew

breeds can give such a large daily gain. A t

t he same show a pen of wethers gave an average daily gain of 7 oz . ; another clear indicat ion of t he ap t it u e of this breed for rapidd evelopmen t .F locks of South Devons have been in existence

for prac t ica l ly a hundred years ; but t he breedis not so general ly known as others

,because t he

c ountry in which it is pre- eminent is far removedfrom most of t he centres of live- stock activity,and

,owing t o this, a large proportion of its

breeders have hitherto failed t o real ize t he needof making it known farther afield. Indeed itw as not until t he year 1 903 that any definitesteps were taken t o bring the breed ou t of itsseclusion , and t o make an effort t o secure forit a position amongst t he leading breeds of thiscountry. M uch yet remains t o be done ; bu t t heenergetic work ofMr. E. H . H oskin

,of Liskeard,

Cornwall , t o whom t he successful formation of

t he Breed Association is due, has been continued .

At t he commencement of t he year 1 903 it w asd ecided t o establish a F lock Book Society, andno efforts have been spared by t he more progressive breeders t o boom t he breed. Latelyt he South Devon has been exported t o N ewZealand

,t o South Africa, and t he Argentine,

a nd in all these countries has proved a valuableaddition t o their Sheep stocks.One of t he great drawbacks t o t he more rapid

d evelopment of t he breed is that a large proportion of t he flockmast ers ow n very small flocks,and consequently are not able t o employ thosemethods of advertising and popularizing t hebreed which large flock - owners in other breedshave undertaken . It is satisfactory t o note,

however, that t he combination of these smal lflock - owners, as represented by their BreedSociety

,stil l continues firm and strong, and it

is upon this sound basis that t he whole hope oft he future depends.The breed, w e may remark in conclusion, is

one that has a very marked uniformity ; and ifseen in its natural condition

,upon t he various

farms in t he district, there are few,if any , of

t he long - woolled breeds that excel it in thisrespect. Fortunately, t he Association has now

adopted a method of colouring that will preven tt he excess of colouring t o which exception hasbeen taken . The former excess of colouring w ascert ainly much t o t he detriment of t he breed,and t he alteration now adopted is one of t he

best things that could happen for t he advance~ment of t he interests of this breed

,for it enables

t he South Devon Sheep t o be exhibited as nearunder their natural condition as any other breed.Thus t he writer is of t he opinion that, under t henew system

,t he marvellous quality and great

depth of t he flesh,t he lustrous character and ex

cellen t staple of t he wool,will secure for them

a far larger share of t he export trade, and alsohome demand

,than they enjoy at t he present

time. [W. w. c .]S ou t h d ow n S h ee p .

—Like most of our

British breeds of sheep and cattle, t he origin oft he Southdown breed of Sheep is unknown . Asa recognized breed it has been in existence fora long time, and appears t o have been alwaysassociated with the hill range known as t he

South Downs.Perhaps t he first reliable description of t he

Southdown sheep before improvement is t heone written by Arthur Young about t he endof t he 1 8th cen tury. In this article t he Southdown is described as being ‘very narrow

,light

in forequarters, standing 2 in . higher behindthan in front ; legs and faces varied in colour,and might be light in colour or dark (almostblack), sandy or speckled according t o t he tasteof t he individual breeder ; there seems, however, t o have been a general dislike t o whitefaces and legs, as it was thought lightness incolour indicated tenderness of constitution andsome breeders bred t o produce faces and legs asdark as ossible, but mos t preferred speckledfaces and

plegs The first successful attempt t o

improve t he breed w as made by John Ellman,

w ho succeeded his father at t he Glynde Farm,near Lewes, in 1 780, and some few years latercommenced a systematic method of breedingwhich worked such a marvellous improvementin t he breed as t o bring it into t he first ranka position which the Southdow n stil l maintains,not only as regards beauty of form and hard iness of constitution , but also with respect t ofine qual ity of wool and mutton .

In carryingou t t he early improvements Ell

man always aid very great stress on kee ingup t he quality of t he fleece t o t he b ig est

possible state of perfection ; arguing that t heest -woolled Sheep were also t he best feedingsheep, yielding t he best mutton, and moreoverwere hardier in constitution and much betterable t o withstand t he bleak downs in winter ;and as they dropped lambs much better covered

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Southdow n Sheep

with wool , there were fewer losses both of lambsand ewes at lambing time.

The principle adopted by Ellman in breedingrams w as t o select about 60of his best-wool ledand best -made sheep ; these were mated withhis best ram

,and t he best rams selected from

t he progeny. H e reat ly disapproved of closeor in - breeding ; answhen it became necessaryt o bring fresh blood into t he flock, be selected50 of t he best ewes from a neighbour’s flock .

These weregu t t o his best ram

,and stock rams

were select e from t he lambs. Ellman was alsostrongly opposed t o crossing t he Southdownwit h any other breed .

In t he selection of Sheep for mating,Ellman

emphasized t he importance of each breedermaking a complete and careful examination of

all t he chief points,and warned them against

making a selection for one or t wo points only .

H e said : ‘One man will look for a good headand colour of face, another may observe t he

neck,and t he attention of most is directed t o

one particular point,and Should it please their

fancy they conclude t he Sheep t o be good,though in other points it may be strikinglydefective ’. At t he same time Ellman stronglyenforced t he now well - recognized principle

,that

by careful selection and j udicious mating it isquite possible t o breed ou t inferior points andbreed in good points.Ellman

’s system very quickly brought about

a great improvement in t he quality of t he

Southdown, and created a wider demand forthem

,as is shown by t he record of sales. In

1 787 LordWaldegrave purchased t wo rams fromGlynde flock for 10 gs. apiece, a price whichhad never hitherto been Obtained ; t he previous year Arthur Young bought 80ewes for 1 8s.

each and sent them into Suffolk . From 1 790

onwards Southdowns were rapidly introducedinto N orfolk . In 1 793 that noted agriculturistCoke of H olkham bought 80 ewes

,for which

he paid 3 5 3 . each. In 1 796 t he first 50- guinearam w as sold by Ellman t o a Mr. Goodenough,of Dorset ; and from this time for many yearsonwards there w as a regular demand for all t hespare rams from Glynde, some being hired ou tfor t he season at prices varying from 20 t o

100gs. In t he year 1 800 the Duke of Bedfordbought 200 ewes for 500gs.

,and in 1 802 and

1 803 hired a ram for t he two seasons for300gs. ,

this being t he highest price El lman ever received for t he letting of a ram. About thistime also t he Southdowns were introduced intoIreland by Lord S ligo.

The following is a list of t he more importantbreeders and flocks of Southdown SheepThe old - established flock owned by t he Duke

of Bedford, and probably descended from 50

Southdowns bought from El lman in 1 807 : fromits foundation t he flock has been carefully bredt o maintain purity and t he true Southdowntype ; t he famous Goodwood flock

,t he property

of t he Duke of R ichmond,and mentioned by

Arthur Youn in his Annals of Agriculturewhich ias produced many noted prize

winners ; t he Kingston flock,founded in 1 787

by W. Gorringe,and presently owned by Col.

and Mr. L. Gorringe ; t he Duke flock,insti

79

t u t ed about t he beginning of last century byThomas Duke

,and now owned by his grandson ,

C. G. S . Chapman Duke : this flock is notablefor t he good form and hardy constitution of t heSheep, and for t he high quality of its wool ; t hecelebrated Thorney flock

,descended from t he

famous H art strain of Southdowns, founded in1 820, and now owned by Mr. H . Padw ick ; t he

Babraham flock, presently owned by Mr. C. R .

W. Adeane,founded early last century by

Jonas Webb : it has produced many notedprizewinners

,and individual rams have com

manded high prices both at home and abroad.

Among other noted flocks are t he splendid flockof A . H easman

,and t he flocks of H is Majesty

t heKing, t he flocks of F . N . H obgen , E. H obgen ,SirJeremiah Colman, Admiral H on. T. S . Brand,G. H ampton , Pagham H arbour Company, Dukeof H amilton

,Jockey Club

,A . Cooper, W. M .

Caz elet,J. Ellis, SirT. Gooch, Executors of Col .

M ‘Calmon t,SirJulius Wernher, Duke of N or t h

umberland , J. Tompkins, Col. W . W. H ammond,

Earl Cadogan, J . H . R obinson, H . J . Stacey,SirWilliam Throckmorton , H . Willet.MANAGEMEN T

,P O IN TS

,A N D CHARACTER ISTICS .—On a typical Southdown farm during autumn

and winter, t he ewes have a limited supply of

roots,but have a plentiful supply of oat straw

or hay , with a good grass run on t he downs.Some little time before lambing commences

,

they are brought into t he lambing yards andgiven a liberal allowance of sainfoin or clover.hay or wel l - harvested pea haulm, bu t u suallyvery little if any concentrated food. Lambingis usually arranged t o take place in Februaryor t he beginning of March, and t he ewes areexpected t o average 1 t o 1 2

1; lambs per head.

When lambs are four or five days old theyare turned ou t with t he ewes into a dry early

gast ure ; t he ewes are now allowed a liberaliet consisting of roots (usually mangels), sainfoin or clover hay , and concentrated food.Gradually they are drafted off on t o a fold ofThousand - headed Kale, which keeps t he flockuntil spring catch crops are ready. These con

sist of,

first,winter rye, barley, and oats

,and ,

later, trifolium and winter vetches, with springvetches t o follow. The above crops are sownin succession so as t o obtain a regular supply ofsucculent food throughout t he early spring andsummer down t o about t he end of July.

About this time (or a little before) t he lambsare separated from the ewes and turned on t o

young aftermath of seeds or sainfoin , t he ewesbeing transferred t o a bare pasture on somedistant part of t he farm, and kept on low dietuntil their milk is dried up and lambs are

thoroughly weaned.Towards t he end of July or at t he beginning

of August, ra e ormustard sown after feedingoff spring cato crOps will be ready t o fold ; andthese crops, together with aftermath seeds andsainfoin

,drumhead cabbages and early turnips

,

will provide a plentiful sup ly of nourishingand healthy food through at e summer and

early autumn , thus bringing t he ewes into a

s t rong, healthy , and fit condition for taking t heram in September or early October. P revioust o bringing in t he ram

,t he broken -mouthed

80

and aged ewes and those having bad uddersare drafted ofl

"

for sale or t o fatten off beforewinter. The wether and inferior ew e lambsare also drawn , and sold away or kept to fattenoff during fol lowing spring and summer ; t heew e lambs which will eventually be broughtinto t he flock are kept in a good thriving condition but not al lowed t o get t oo fat , so thatthey may be in a strong, healthy condition t otake t he ram in t he next autumn .

P oin ts—The colour of t he face and legsShould be a uniform mousy- brown

,not t oo dark

or t oo l ight,and not speckled ; a light shade of

brown is usually preferred t o a dark shade.

Some breeders think a light colour indicatestender constitu t ion others say : this is not so,though a very li h t shade is not desirable’. The

t op of t he hea should be well covered withshort wool

,which Should extend round t he ears

and also a little on t he back of t he ears, andthere should be complete absence of horn scurs ;t he jaw should be nea t and light, and wel lcovered with wool, which is an indication thatt he sheep wi ll be wel l woolled on t he belly ;t he head wel l set on

,and neck not t oo short

,

but strong and muscular,and Spreading ou t

wel l t o meet t he shoulders,which should be

wide,and chest broad and deep ; t he line of

back from t he setting on of t he head t o hindquarters should be perfectly level

,with a strong

loin and good dock ; t he thighs should be welllet down and wel l covered with flesh, t he twistbeing wel l rounded and fil led in with mea treaching down t o t he hock, thus producing a

short,thick

,round leg of mutton—a noted

feature of t he Southdown sheep. A delicatepink skin is absolutely essential ; a skin havinga dark or bluish tinge is highly objectionable ;a good Skin indicates quality both as regardstendency t o fatten , q uality of wool, and goodbreeding. The character of t he fleece is of t hehighest importance. There Should be no blackfibres present, and the fibres forming t he fleeceshould be uniform in lengt h at t he ends

,and

densely but evenly packed together so as t o

form a thick,close covering almost impenetrable

t o driving rain , snow, or even t he maggot fly.

It is largely owing t o the close character of t hefleece that t he Southdown sheep is able t o withstand t he strong gales and storms of rain andsnow which sweep over t he bleak downs fromt he Channel . The somewhat low price of woolduring past years has caused some flockmast erst o pay more attention t o S ize of carcass thanquality of wool, with t he result that in someflocks t he fleece has deteriorated ; it has becomemore open in character, and t he wool fibresbeing less densely packed, it forms an inferiorrot ect ion . In summer t he sheep are moreliable t o be struck by maggot fl ies, and in

winter are much less able t o withs tand t he coldon t he bleak downs, and so are much more subj cet t o chil ls ; t he result being a much greatermortal ity in both ewes and lambs. The bestflockmast ers

,and especially those w ho occupy

high - lying downs, are very careful t o main tain

t he high quality of t he fleece,and rigidly weed

ou t those animals which do not in this respectcome up t o a high s tandard.

Southdow n Sheep

It is on such farms that t he true type andhardy characteristics of t he Southdown are bestseen ; and for this reason t he best rams fromthese hil l flocks are in demand by breeders invarious part s of this country and abroad w hoare anxious t o retain t he true Southdown character in their flocks.As regards size

,t he Southdow n is classed as

a smal l sheep, t he average weight being usuallytaken at from 8 to 10st .

,but these weights are

frequently greatly exceeded. At t he Smit hfieldClub fat - stock Show in 1906 t he pen of threewethers which w on t he breed on

“

for KingEdward averaged over 1 5 st. per sad at 21

months old , and t he fol lowing year t he breedcup w as w on byMr. Adeane with a pen of threelambs which at 10 months old weighed on an

average over 10 st. per head. These 'recordsshow that with well - bred st ock and propermanagement

good weigh t s may be obtained at

a comparative y early age.

Considered as a Sheep for t he t enant farmert he Sou t hdown has many poin t s of recommen

dation. Southdowns are rt icularly wel ladapt ed for close folding ; cing quiet and

docile they are easily kept in boundS ,- a high orstrong fence not being essential. Though so

well suit ed for t he fold,they are also very

active sheep,and, if occasion requires, are able

t o travel long distances and adapt themselvest o open grazing on t he downs

,or in enclosed

pastures in t he lower part s of t he country .

M oreover,they are very hardy

,produce excel

lent wool,and keep in good condition on a

moderate diet ; and when close folded and fedliberally they give a good return for extra food ,

as they fatten rapidl y and produce mutton of

first - rate quality.A S an example of what ordinary Southdownswill do when thickly stocked on a poor pasture,w e may quote from an experiment conduct edby t he writer under t he auspices of t he EastSussex County Council in t he summer of 1 906 .

For t he purpose of this experiment 1 5 tegswere grazed on 13 ac . of poor pasture. Duringa period of five weeks t he sheep had an averageof 5 4 lb. per head per day of equal parts ofdecorticated and undecortica ted cot t on . cake ;t he average l ive-w ei ht in crease per head perday during t he perio w as

‘

5 6 lh . ; this increase,for sheep which weighed about 8 st. per headand fed under the above cond itions, may beregarded as highly satisfactory.A S a butcher’s sheep t he quality of t he Southdown mutton is well known ; t he flesh containsa greater proportion of lean t o fat than t he

larger breeds, and not only is t he proportion of

fat smaller, t he flavour is of such a high orderthat many persons unable t o eat fat muttonfrom other breeds can relish that from a Southdown ; t he lean flesh also is a much darker redthan other breeds

,and t he join t s

,bein c smal l

and compact, are in great favour wit mostbutchers and housekeepers. It is on accoun t oft he high quality of mutton that t he breed is solargely kept and so well liked in fi ance andit is t he Southdown, or t he Southdown crossedwith t he native French breeds

,from which are

produced t he best mutton sheep, known t o t he

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Southdow n Sheep Sow ens

Parisian butchers as pres sales. M . L. Pau t et ,a French writer on Southdown sheep

,says :

‘The Sheep known as p res sales are those bornand kept near t he sea- coast mostly on t he coastof N ormandy and Brittany. They are not anyone particular breed

,but usual ly crosses of

various breeds. The effects of t he sea air and

salt on t he food and t he constitution of t he

sheep in general is t o produce mutton of t he

finest quality , both in colour and flavour,which

is greatly appreciated by t he French gourmets ;and as t he legs of mutton are best liked whenshort

,thick

,and well - rounded

,t he Southdown

is t he breed which,above all others, produces

joints and quality of mutton most in demand,

and for which t he highest prices are paid.’M . Pau t et goes on t o say :

‘For t he followingreasons is t he Southdown most sought after : itmatures early ; conformation is perfect ; bone isfine ; fleece excellent ; flesh exquisite ; it is initself apres salé, it carries t he name of its habitat,as t he word Southdown signifies dunes of t hesouth

,i.e. hills bordering on t he sea - coast known

by t he English as t he ChannelFrench breeds used for crossing with Southdowns include the Tronnier, t he Cauchoise,Caennaise

,Cot en t ine

,and Cretonne.

In Australia and t he United States t he valueof t he Southdown ram for crossing with M erinoewes t o produce butcher’s animals has beenmade t he subject of comparative tests. In Aust ralia

,where a test was made with most of t he

leading Brit ish breeds of sheep, t he Southdowncross came ou t first class. It has been notedin these tests that t he lambs from this crosscome away strong and robust

,with plenty of

vital ity ; hence they develop rapidly and are

ready for t he butcher early, thus giving a goodreturn for food consumed.That t he Southdowns have a remarkablepower of adapting themselves t o varied climatesand situations may be inferred from t he factthat they have been exported t o many partsof t he civilized world. Amongst t he principalcountries may be named France, Spain , Portugal

,Switzerland, Germany, R ussia, Sweden ,

N orway, Finland, Australia, Tasmania, N ew

Zealand, Canada, United States, Mexico,South

America,West Indies, Japan .

In our own country t he good influence thatt he Southdown has had on our short -woolledbreeds can hardly be overestimated ; and practically all t he short -wools have been improvedat one time or another by t he introduction of

Southdown blood. For crossing t o producemutton

,rams are largely used on Kent ewes

,

and another cross which is held in high favourby men w ho fatten for t he butcher is Southdown and Suffolk ; here again t he cross - bred islarger than the Southdown , and t he quality of

t he mutton is excellent.“

The numerous successes gained by t he Southdown at t he principal fat - stock shows stampit as being a favourite mutton sheep. At t heSmit hfield Show

,from 1 832 t o 1 873 , a period

of 42 years,t he prize for t he best pen of Short

woolled sheep went t o Southdowns every yearexcepting 1 872. During a period of 21 years(1 869 t o when a champion prize was

VOL. XI.

8 1

given for t he best pen of sheep in t he Show, itwas w on eleven times by t he Southdown noneof t he other breeds succeeded in winning morethan three times. From 1 890 t o 1908 inclusive,t he prize for t he best pen of short-wool led sheephas been w on on nine occasions by Southdowns.M ARKETS A ND P R ICES—With reference t o t heprices realized for Southdowns at importantsales durin 1 908, w e may quote from t he

returns matIe at t he dispersal of the Compton

flock, owned by t he late Duke of Devons ire,and t he p rices realized at t he Chichester Showand sale. A t t he sale of t he Compton flock t hehighest price obtained for a t wo- shear ram w as

80 gs. , t he average for 5 being £3 1 , 5 8 . For

yearling rams,highest price 3 5 gs.

, and averagefor 24, £16, 73 . Average price for 6 ram lambs,£1 8 , and highest price 44 gs. Yearlingewes

,highes t price 1 9 gs. , average £8, 1 93 . Two

year- old ewes,highest price 1 65 gs., average

£6, 78 . Full -mou th ewes,highest price 10 gs.

,

average £5 , 73 . Ew e lambs sold as high asand averaged 5 78 . These prices may be takent o represent t he value of pure- bred Southdownsfrom a flock which has been brought t o a highstate of excellence.

The following particulars give t he highestand average prices obtained by t he variousclasses of sheep in 1 908 at t he Ch ichester annualShow and sale

,which is probably t he most im

portant public sale of Southdown sheep held inGreat Britain . In t he class of yearling ramst he total number sold w as 265 , and t he averageprice obtained w as £7, 1 6s. 9d . ; t he average of

t he six best lots ( 5 4 in all) w as £1 3, 5 3 . 6d .,and

t he record price was 50gs. Of ram lambs therewere sold 209 at an average price of £4, 1 2s. 1 1 d . ;t he average of t he six best lots ( 5 7 in all) was£6, 1 68 . 8d .

, and t he highest price for a singleram lamb w as 21 gs. In t he class of yearlingewes t he total number sold w as 1 5 22, and t he

average price was 5 23 . l l d . For t he six bestlots (338 in all t he average w as 623 . 2d . ,

andt he highest in ividual price w as 7 1 3 . 8d . Infour - tooth and Six- tooth classes

,average price

realized for 1 46, 43s. 6d . Draft ewes : averageprice for 3000

,438 . 8d .

It is only within recent years that auctionsales for Southdowns have been introduced intoSussex , and even now t he bulk of th e sheep areoffered at about twenty fairs held in variouspart s of t he county, some of t he most im or

tant being Lewes,Lindfield , H eat hfield , Fin on ,

Ch iddingly,Burgess H ill

,Battle

,H ailsham

,Eas t

Grinstead, Eastbourne. The method of disposing by auction is rapidly gaining ground, and inconnection with some of t he leading fairs auctionsales are now held . [W. Sou .]S o u t h e rnw oo d , a fragrant shrub oftengrown in gardens. See ARTEM IS IA.

S o u t h H a m s , a local appellation for t heSouth Devon cattle (see art . DEVON CATTLE).S ow e n s , or S ow a n s , called in England

fl ummerg, are a dish prepared by fermentingt he husks and siftings of oatmeal in w ater.The preparation of sowens still l ingers in remote country districts near local mills. The

husks and siftings of oatmeal,ca lled sowon

1 63

82

‘seeds ’, are stee ed in tepid water in a tub,called variously t lie sow en tub, sow en kit, sow enboat

,&c.

,and t he mixture, with or without t he

addition of some oatmeal, is allowed t o fermentfor t wo or three days at a moderate temperature. When t he whole is quite acid t he l iquoris decanted

,fresh water added and stirred up,

then allowed t o settle overn ight and decantedagain

,and so on till t he washings are no longer

acid. The solid residue is now transferred t ot he sow en - bowie or sieve, t o drain off t he remaining liquid

,and t he mass is cooked like thin por

ridge with water and served wit h sweet milk.

The dish is very apt t o burn , and needs cont inuous s t irring : hence t he numerous allusionst o

‘singit ’ (singed) sowens. The dish when pre

pared is not unlike a preparation of oat flour,u t with a pleasant acid taste, very refreshingin hot weather. The fermentation process abovedescribed is sometimes applied t o t he siftingsof barley and wheat instead of oats ; it pract ically involves t he conversion of some of t he

starch into lactic acid,an anticipation of t he

natural process of di est ion , so that sowens aremore readily digeste than oatmeal porr

[idge.

]J. K.

S ow e rs . See BROADCAST SOWER S ; DR ILLS.

S ow in g . The bulk of farm and gardenseeds are sown by one or other of t he three following methods : (a ) by hand distribution , broadcast or in rows ; (6) by machine where t he seedis sown broadca st ; (c) by machine where t he

seed is deposited in rows. In Scotland probably three- fourths of t he total area under grainis stil l sown by hand, owing principally t o t hedampness of t he climate and t he firmness of t hesoil . H and sowing permits of t he sowing beingdone at t he quickest rate, with t he least expendit ure of power. Where t he land is firm

,

or if from lea, most ploughs leave a good seedbed , and if t he grain is sown broadcast by hand,there is rarely any diffi culty in covering it, noris much lost. A good sower with one carriercan easily do from 1 t o 15 ac. per hour whensowing with one hand , and when using bothhands , and supplied by t w o carriers

,he can get

over double that area. In uncertain weatherthat is a great advantage, as t he harrows oftenwork quite cleanly when t he drill would clog

,

hence t he reason there is stil l so much handsowing of grain .

Broadcast sowing machines for grain havenever been in great favour, as t he speed is nogreater than by hand ; and although t he uniformity of sowing is somewhat superior, t he useof an extra horse and t he outlay on t he machinehas generally been considered t o outweigh anyadvantage gained. With grass and clover seedsit is

,however

,different

,as it is somewhat d iffi

cult and rather slow t o sow these by hand,whereas with t he ordinary machines t he dist ribu t ion of t he seed is both speedy and uniform.

For this - purpose t he broadcast distributor hasbecome very popular

,and is t o be found on

almost every farm.

The greatly extended use,during t he latter

part of last century,of ploughs of t he SO- called

American or concave pattern of mouldboard,which break up and pulverize t he furrow, caused

Sow ers Sow ing Fiddle

an increased demand for grain drills of t he

lighter pattern . These made considerable headw ay in many districts, as they saved at least abushel of seed per acre compared with handsowing. With t he lighter drills, on firm yet

free- working land in Spring,a pair of horses

can do about 1 ac. per hour, with only one mant o drive, and a boy or a woman t o carry seedand keep the coult ers clear . In autumn

,in sow

ing wheat, when t he land is often damp and

t he drau ht heavier, about 2ac. is as much as

a pair of orses can drill in an hour.O t her seeds, such as mangold, turni carrot,

&c. , which are usually sown or. raised drills, arealmost invariably sown by a special machineadapted for t he work. Market garden seedssuch as onions, parsley, carrots, &c . are usuallysown eitherby a hand machine special ly adaptedt o t he work

,or by hand. See arts. BR OADCAS T

SOWERS,BR OADCAST SOWIN G, DR ILL H USBAN DRY,

DISTR IBUTOR, and DR ILLS. [J . s.]S ow in g Ba s ke t s , t o hold corn for sow

ing, take various forms. In some cases a circular basket is preferred ; in others a longer

Sowing Basket

and narrow basket or skep, holding about a

bushel,and sus ended by a strap from t he

Shoulders,is uses. M etal seed - lips of a some

what figure- of—eight sha e are used in the placeof t he basket. A w oo en stud laced on t he

side farthest from t he man’s body , is used t osteady the basket when he is sowing. [W. .I . M .]S ow in g Fid d le , a portable mechanicalbroadcaster for sowing seeds, taking its descriptive name from t he fidd le- like action which t heoperator uses t o effect dis t ribution . It is d ecided ly useful, as it does good work, and a novicecan use it effectively. A light, canvas - coveredbox frame is suspended by a strap from t he

right shoulder,and is carried under t he left

arm. At t he base of t he box is a neck with acontrolling slide through which t he corn passes,its flow being made continuous by a j iggeraction from an eccentric from a spindle

,which

carries at its bottom a distributing disk. The

disk,which has four radiating ribs, is actuated

by means of a thong which forms t he string oft he bow

,and which is passed once round t he

spindle,like t he cord of a jeweller’s dri ll. When

reciprocated,as in fiddling, the bow causes t he

disk t o revolve rapidly in alternate directions ,giving a throw t o ordinary cereals of 30 ft.

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84 Soya Bean Cake—Spanielby a short temperate but rather w et summer.In India it is grown in t he upper provincesmain ly

,t he seed being sown in June t o Au ust

and harvested from N ovember t o Decem er.

A soil rich in organic matter is preferred, andnitrate of soda is regarded as its best manure.

The chemical composition of t he bean places itabove most other pulses as an albuminous food,and t he cake (after expression of t he Oil) is, asalready stated

,an extremely rich cattle food.

See next art . [0. w.)S oy a B ea n Ca k e .

—This is a materialwhich has recently come very largely into use

in Great Britain. It is made from t he bean oft he Soya plant (Saga Iiisp ida), a leguminousplant which has long been cultivated in Chinaand Japan

,and is there used largely as a vege

table and for making t he wel l - known Soyasauce. The bean is now princi ally exportedt o t he United Kin dom from anchuria. Itsadvent has marks an important addition t oour l ist of feeding materials

,and one which

,by

reason of t he higher price of linseed cake and

t he diflicu lt y of getting good decortica ted cottoncake

,bids fair t o increase rapidly. Being highly

ni trogenous in character,t he cake is wel l fitted

t o take t he place of decorticated cotton cake.

The beans are not very frequently used by them~

selves as cattle food,and are somewhat richer

than ordinary English beans . They are, however, more generally employed after beingpressed into cake. Soya Bean cake would seemt o be well adapted as food for milch cows inparticular. At t he same time it requires t o beused with care

,and should not be given freely

at first. As a rule, it is found t o be pure and

in good condition,but cases are known of t he

inclusion,with t he Soya Bean

,of t he poisonous

Ra ngoon and Java beans. The manurial value,

owing t o t he richness of t he bean in nitrogen,is very high

,and is much about t he same as

that of decorticated cot ton cake. A Soya Beanmeal is also sold which has had t he oil almostentirely removed by chemical means . The fol

lowing are analyses of t he Soya Beans and of

Soya Bean cake :Soya Beans.

Moist ure

Oil1 A lbuminous compoundsS t arch , digest ib le fibre &cWoody fibreMineral mat t er (ash )

1 Cont aining nitrogen

Included in t he ash constituents of t he SoyaBean cake are 1 3 per cent of phosphoric acidand 2 2 per cent of potash, so that t he manurialvalue is very S imilar t o t hat of decorticatedcotton cake. [J . A. V.]S p a d e H u s b a n d ry .

—~ I t is curious t oreflect that t he oldest, t he simplest, and t he

cheapest form of cultivating instrument is alsot he nearest t o perfection . The plough is t heonly implement

,except t he spade, which sys

temat ically inverts t he soil ; but t he advantageof t he latter is that it not only inverts , but att he same time pulverizes. A mechanical digger

has long been t he dream of t he inventor, andt o some degree it has been realized in certaintypes of tillage implements. N othing has, however, yet appeared which can rival t he spade inthoroughness, and ada t abi

‘

lity for small plotsof ground. The gar ener seeks for nothingbetter ; and if w e are right in surmising thatAdam delved, then t he spade is t he primitiveand original cultivating implement. Just ast he plough has never been beaten in t he field,so t he spade is unrivalled in t he garden , andmany treatises have been written on t he advantages of this form of husbandry over everyother. Digging yields results superior t o anyother method of tillage. It involves no poaching or treading of t he seedbed

,but presents it

at once ready for sowing or planting. I t maybe shallow, as when t he pressure of t he foot isdispensed with , but it may be easily carried t oa depth of 1 ft .

,and by deep

,double

,or trench

digging,ground may be dug 3 ft. deep. The

only objection t o spade husbandry in t he fieldis its expense

, and this objection is insuperable.

It is t he province of t he horse, or of power insome form

,t o cultivate large areas ; but spade

husbandry is t he best system in t he garden,t he

smal l plot, or in circumstances when labour ischeap and work scarce. [J . Wr.]S p a in , A g ric u lt u re o f . See art . EURO

PEAN AGR ICULTURE.

S p a n ie Ir—H eld Spaniels are of many varieties

,t he larger of which are known as Springers

and t he smaller ones as Cookers ; but beyond adoubt they have all sprung

,as t he term Spaniel

suggests, from a Spanish source. The most conspicuous members of t he Springer family are t heClumbers, Sussex, and t he Welsh. These FieldSpaniels are of many different colours

,t he most

common of'which are black, roan , liver- and

white,and black - and - t an . The Cookers are

mostly black, but numerous excellent roans aret o be found, and t he other Field Spaniel coloursare also met with amongst them. Clumbers aret h e heaviest of all t he Springers

,and no doubt

t he most seldom seen, as they are in comparat ively few hands , though belonging t o a mostvaluable breed for field purposes

,their peculi

arit y being that they hunt mute. The head oft he Cl umber is long and massive

,t he occipital

protuberance being strongly developed, t he noselarge and light in colour

,and t he eyes hazel and

deeply sunken,showing t he red haw in t he

corners. The body is very long and ow erfu l,

t he loins being strong ; t he legs are s ort andextremely heavy in bone, whilst t he coat is profuse

,and t he colour white with olden - brown

markings,wh ich should not be t oo ark in Shade.

The Sussex Spaniel is smaller in size than t heClumber, and its ears are set on higher, whilstt he colour is t he uniform rich liver unrelievedby any white markings. In days gone by , t hemost famous strain of these Spaniels was t o befound at R osehil l in Sussex

,and a few speci

mens of these are still t o be met with,but they

are very rare,as the old breed has been much

crossed with t he F ield Spaniel . The lattervariety, by far t he most popular of all in t hepresent day , is a smal ler dog than t he Clumber,and not so heavy about t he head. The body of

ClumberSpaniel

a Field Spaniel is extremely long,and t he legs very short

,t he coat

being long and flat , and thickenough t o keep ou t t he cold andw et , though somewhat fine in t exture. The Cooker facing is bothlarge and popular, t he workingabil ities of these charming lit t ledogs being deservedly appreciatedby sportsmen . A S regards theirshape and make

,t he Cookers

closely resemble t he larger FieldSpaniels, though their muzzlesby comparison are finer. Thereis, however, t he same expressionabout t he eyes, t he low - set ears,lengthybodies, and short legs ; but,as may be expected

,t he Cooker is

not so valuable for retrieving puroses as t he larger dogs, simplyecause he has not t he size and

strength t o bring in a hare. On

winged game,however,he isamostexcellent little animal. [V. s.]

King Charles Spaniel

Spaniel

B lack CockerSpaniel

8 5

TOY SPAN IEL.—Ih spite of t he

attention that is being paid t osome of t he foreign varietieswhich have been introduced intot he country of late years, t he

King Charles and BlenheimSpaniels have maintained theirpopularity. In general appearance t he t wo breeds are verymuch t he same, but t he Blenheimis a rather lighter - built dog thant he King Charles. The mainoin t of dist inction between them ,

however, is one of colour, as t heBlenheims are white dogs withrich lemon - red markings of not

t oo dark a. shade ; a. spot of whiteshould always be situated on t hecentre of t he forehead ; whilst t heKing Charles are either blackand - t an

,black, white, and t an ,

or

ruby -red . A few years ago t he

attempt was made t o distinguisht he tricolour variety as t he P rinceCharles, but happily the cod

sense of the public prevent e t he

alteration from being made permanent. The

skulls of Toy Spaniels are large and round,t he

effect being increased by t he long low - set ears,t he muzzle being short, though this w as not

always t he case, as in t he old days t he muzzlew as long. The eyes are large and round, t heback short

,t he body deep at t he chest

,t he loins

of t he Blenheim being a little more inclined t obe tucked up than those of t he King Charles.The fore legs are of fair length and should bequite straight, t he feet fbeing large and wellpadded, with hair between t he t oes, whilst t hetail is always ou t , and should be carried straightou t . In t he case of both breeds t he coat on t hebody should be long, free from curl and silkenin texture, t he ears and tail carrying a longfringe of hair, whilst the feathering on t he legsshould be profuse. If properly reared and not

pampered, Toy Spaniels are fairly hardy little

86 Spanish Chestnut Spearmint

dogs, and form most excellent companions bothindoors and ou t ; but it is t o be feared that t heconstitutions of some strains have been weakenedby inbreeding and t oo much coddling. [V. s.]S p a n is h C h es t n u t . See art . CHESTNUT.

S p a n is h Fow l hasforcenturies been knownin t he United Kingdom and t he N etherlands.In appearance it follows t heM editerranean type,that is

,light in body

,which is smal l , on legs of

medium length , with a flow ing tail in t he male,and t he head surmounted by long wattles anda large single comb, which fal ls over t o one

side in t he hens. The plumage is dull - black,and rather scanty ; t he wings are short, thusgiving a close appearance t o t he body . The legsand feet are very dark slate, almost black . The

face,instead of being red as in nearly every

other breed, is white. At first this w as normal ,that is

,of t he usual size, but breeders first de

veloped it coarse and then long. Everythingw as sacrificed t o that one point

,perfection of

which demanded breeding and keeping underconditions artificial in t he extreme. As a con

sequence,these birds became very delicate

,t he

chickens were difficult t o rear ; and althought he breed has retained a large measure of it s

fecundity, it is practically useless and unpro

fitable even as a fancy fowl . [E. B .]S p a rro w . See arts. H EDGE SPAR R OW ;

H OUSE SPAR ROW.

S p a rrow - h a w k (A ccip iter nisus) .—This,t he commonest British bird of prey, is about

Sparrow - hawk

12 in. long (t he female rather larger). The

long legs, short wings, and cross- barred tail arecharacteristic. The upper side of t he body isbluish - grey (brownish in t he female), while t hebreast, buff in t he male and white in t he female,is markedwith numerous dark transverse streaks.Sparrow - hawks feed on smal l birds and mammals

,being very destructive t o young game and

poultry. They also destroy large numbers ofuseful singing birds

,and though their prey

partly consists of harmful birds and mammals,

t he mischief done faroutweighs t he benefits conferred. They therefore form t he only exception

t o t he general rule that British birds of preyshould be protected from persecution . The largestick - nest

,scantily lined with fibre and moss,

is usually built high up in t he main fork of a

tree,or in an inaccessible position among rocks.

The three t o six grey eggs are blotched withreddish - brown . [J . R . A. D.]S p a rt iu m j u n c e u m ( Spanish Broom )is a broomlike plan t spread over t he M ed it er

ranean region,somet imes cultivated in Brit ish

gardens. The stems are glossy cylinders, not

angular as in British Broom,and t he yellow

flowers are highly erfumed . The stems yieldfibre useful for making thread and cordage.

[A . N . M‘A .]

S p a v i n . See arts. BOG SpA v1 N ; BON ESPAVIN .

S p a w n , t he underground vegetative part offungi

,being principally of importance to gar

demers and arboriculturists in connection w ithmushrooms and t he great variety of fungus pestswhich are propagated by it. It consists of numerous much - branched threads originating from t he minute dustlike spores, anddoes not correspond t o seed as is often supposed. The manufacture of mushroom spawnis an industry of some importance. See art .

MUSH ROOM . [W. W.]S p a y in g , t he operation by which female

animals are deprived of t he sexual desire,is

performed chiefly upon pigs with a view t o

their greater increase in flesh. Sows that havenot been operated upon, and are kil led duringoestrum , prove resistant t o salt, and t he meatis sa id t o go bad near t he bone. The practicefavours indiscriminate herding

, and is thereforeconvenient. The operation is deemed unneces

sary by many,but a H igh Court decision (Lewis

v. Fermor) protects those who do it from t he

charge of cruelty. Cows are spayed for t hepurpose of prolonging lactation and favouringt he laying on of flesh ; but in their case theoperation certainly seems cruel , both at t he time,and on account of t he subsequent suffering

,which

pigs apparently do not feel . V icious mares aresometimes s

payed with a View t o reforming their

tempers, an in t he majority of cases with success. Bitches and cats undergo t he Operationfor t he convenience of their owners

, w ho neitherwish t o breed or be troubled w ith frequentlyrecurring periods Of (estrum in their pets. TheOperat ion is one requiring considerable skill

,

although commonly practised by an illiterateclass Of cas t rators. In t he sow

,bitch

, and cat,

t he u t erus, back t o its bifurcation , is removed ,together with both ovaries, but in t he mare andcow t he ovaria only are taken . If bitches arenot pregnant at t he time of Operation a recurrence of oestrum is sometimes noted . H . L.]S p ea rm in t (Men tha viridis) is the wellknown plant which is used for making min tsauce t o accompany lamb and green peas. I tbelongs t o t he mat . ord . Labiatae. The plantcultivated in gardens is derived from t he wildform which grows in marshes. This

,like other

M int species, is a perennial under round creeper.Its leaves are characteristic—bal bright - green

,

lanceolate, coarsely toothed, and dest itute of a

petiole. The odour, d ue to t he presence of an

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88

in t he direction of increased fitness t o t he con

d it ions of life survive,while t he others are

quickly or slowly eliminated. The directivefactors—Selection and Isolation—work on t he

raw material afforded by Variations, and this ist he mode of origin of new species. [J . A. T.]S p ec ifi c Gra v it y is t he ratio of t he mass

of a given substance t o t he mass of an equalvolume of a standard substance at a definitetemperature

,water—that is

,pure distilled water

—being general ly taken as t he standard. Gasesare, however, generally referred t o dry air or t ohydrogen as a standard. The specific gravity ofsome farm products is an important criterion Oftheir value.

In t he case of milk,t he specific gravity

,taken

alone,is no guide whatever t o quality or t o

genuineness. M ilk contains, in addition t o wateritself

,fats that are l ighter and other solids that

are heavier than water. Taking t he mean specific gravi ty as 1030

,not only is this diminished

by t he addi tion of water,but if t he milk is

allowed t o stand, t he upper layers, becomingricher in fat , have a lower specific gravity. On

t he other hand, t he specific gravity is increasedby t he removal of t he cream.

The specific gravity of roots gives a usefulindication of their content of dry substance.

Suppose a potato t o weigh 2 oz . in air, and t oweigh é oz . when suspende in water

,i.a. t o

lose Qi oz . when weighed in water,t he specific

gravity will be t he ratio of 2§ t o Qi , that is,1 1 1 1 . N ow if the three figures that follow t hedecimal point are taken and multipl ied by 2

,

then 43 added,and t he result divided by 10

,w e

get an approximate value for t he percentageof t he dry substance. In t he case supposed

,

1 1 1 x 2= 222 ;that is

,t he potato contains about 265 per cent

dry matter. S imilar formulae can be workedou t for t he other roots.In t he case of t he cereal grains, t he a parentspecific gravity in bulk gives a useful in icat ionof quality

,though t he matter is not so simple

as in t he case of roots. The weight of grain perbushel is often given as an expression of t he

character of t he grain harvested.Soil particles vary in their s ecific gravity

according t o their nature, as san clay, humus,&c . But t he real specific gravity of soils

,as

it is cal led, that is, t he specific gravity of soilparticles supposed t o be packed together withou t interspaces, varies within rather narrowlimits

,say from 2400t o 27 00for ordinary soils.

The soil as it occurs in t he field is packed loosely,

and,in t he case of t he st ifl

'

er soils, t he loosert he packing t he better t he tilth . The apparentspecific gravity, as it is called, that is t he weightof

, say , a cubic foot of dry soil compared witht he weight of a cubic foot of water, gives therefore an indication of t he porosity Of t he soilas it exists in t he field. This may vary muchmore

,say from '

850 t o 1 5 00 according as t he

porosity of t he soil varies from 420t o 650partsper thousand. [c . M . L.]S p ee d y C u t t in g . See art . BRUSH IN G, IN

TERFER IN G,OR CUTTIN G.

S p e ir, J o h n , one of t he most noted agriculturists of his day , w as born in t he parish of

Specific Gravity Spergula arvensis

Dalry, Ayrshire, in 1 850, and died in 1 910. In1 876 he became tenan t of N ewton Farm, aboutseven miles fromGlasgow

,where he spent t he re

mainderof his life. From 1 885 he w as a directorof t he H ighland and Agricultural Society ; in1 897 he w as appointed a member Of t he R oyalCommission on Tuberculosis ; in 1 898 he was

elected P resident of t he Scottish Chamber ofAgriculture ; and he was a governor Of t heWest of Scotland Agricultural Col lege from itsformation in 1 899. H e travelled very extensively throughout Europe and America

,and a

few yearstpri

o

rt o his death received from King

H aakon 0 N orway t he Knighthood Of S t . Olaf.H e was a prolific writer on agricultural subjects

,

and for many years w as a regular contributort o t he annual Transactions of t he H ighlandand Agricultural Society. H e also contributedlar ely t o t he Book of t he Farm, and t o Greenan Young’s Cyclopedia of Agricul t ure ; andhe wrote about thirty - five articles for t heS tandard Cyclopedia of Modern Agriculture

,

among which reference may be specially madet o his original and valuable account of t he Ayrshire breed Of cattle

, and his articles on M ilk ,t he Construction of Byres

, t he Management ofDairy Cows, and his Calendar of Farm Operations for N orth Brita in .H e was a man of remarkable vitality

,energy

,

and capacity for work, and his knowledge of

t he details of agricultural practice both at homeand abroad was unrivalled both in its rangeand minuteness. H e w as warmly interested ina ricult ural education

,and for many years was

i en t ified with every public movement in Sootland for t he advancement of agriculture. Butperhaps t he institu t ion of t he Ayrshire M ilkR ecord Society

,which w as largely due t o his

efforts, may be regarded as t he most valuableamong his numerous ac t s Of public service.

[R . P . W.]S p e lt (Trit icum sa ti'vum spelta), an old - estab

lished and popular variety of wheat which,

w hile still important,has largely been replaced

by other types of wheat. See WHEAT.

S p e rg u la a rve n s is (Spurrey or Yaw r)is one of t he commonest annual weeds of lightsandy land

,in corn and root cro s. It is closely

allied t o t he common chickweed)

,but is readily

distinguished by t he narrow awl - shaped leavesarranged in Opposite tufts. The plant branchesfrom t he root, producing numerous straggling,clammy shoots . Spurrey flowers from June t oAugust, and produces globe- shaped capsule fruitscontaining flat seeds with a winged margin .Wh en this weed is plentiful in the corn

, t heyield Of crop may be much reduced, but cornafter lea is seldom injured by Spurrey. Theroot crop also may be seriously inj ured by thispestilent weed.For eradicating, lime dressings are often efii

caoious, also spraying with a 5 -

per- cent solution

of sulphate of copper applied at t he rate of50gal. per acre. H oeing and hand - pulling mayat times be resorted t o with advantage. Assheep readily eat Spurrey, t he weed may befed off with sheep, t o prevent seeding in caseswhere t he cr0p has been smothered by t he weed.A species Of Spergula, namely S. p il

-

afora, has

Spermatoz oon—Sp ices and Condiments

been recommended for forming lawns on veryhigh sandy soils. This species retains its verdure during t he hottest and driest seasons.

[A . N . M‘A . ]

S p erm a t o z oon , t he male sexual element.Just as t he female organism produces ova from

Various Forms of Spermat ozoa1 , Diagrammat ic. a , Apex; h , head w ith nucleus: m,

middle piece w it h centrosome c ; t , t ail. 2, Eart hworm.

3 , Horse. 4, Pigeon. 5 , N ewt . 6, Crayfish . 7 , Threadworm of horse.

t he multiplication of germ cells in t he ovary,

so t he male organism produces Spermatozoafrom t he multiplication of germ cells in t hetes t is. But there is a great contrast betweent he typical ovum and t he typical spermatozoonin size and structure. The spermatozoon is veryminute, a hundred or more may be borne on

a pin’s head. In many cases t he spermatozoonis only Techno“) of the size of the ovum

,and if

t he ovum is swollen with yolk, which does notcount as living matter

,t he spermatozoon may

be less t han a millionth of its volume. M oreover, while t he mature ovum is quiescent, t he

89

mature sperm is usually adapted for vigorouslocomotion . Much of its minute quantity of

living matter forms a locomotor flagel lum or

tail ’,often of intricate structure

,which drives

t he ‘head ’or nucleus before it, and at t he j unction Of head and tail ’there is a short middleieoe ’or neck in which there is often a minutebody ca lled t he ‘centrosome ’ or central corpuscle. The tail is altogether locomotor

,driv

ing t he spermatozoon towards t he ovum ; t hehead contains t he hereditary contributions fromt he male parent and probably some substancewhich stimulates t he fertilized ovum t o divide ;t he centrosome plays an important part in t hedivision or cleavage of t he fertilized ovum. Itis a notable fact that although t he ripe spermat oz oon and t he ripe ovum are very different

,

each has usually t he same number of stainablebodies (chromosomes) in its nucleus, and thatnumber is half that which occurs in t he bodycells of t he animal in question . Thus whens ermat oz oon and ovum unite in fertilizationt e normal number of chromosomes is restored.

Spermatozoa have very little reserve material,but they can l ive for days after emission fromt he male

,whether in t he oviduct of t he female

or when kept artificially in a weak salt solution.They always move against a current if there isone

,and they are attracted t o t he ovum from

a short distance. J. A. T.]S p h a g n u m (Bog Moss) is t he botanicalname for a genus of mosses common on everybog. The species are distinguished from othermosses by t he brilliant yel lowish - green colourwhen w et

,and by t he excessive whiteness when

dry. They form w et sponge beds. The body oft he plant is composed of a slender stem clothedwith leaves. There are no root equivalents asin other mosses

,t he leaves having taken on

t he duty of absorbing t he water. The leaf is ofpeculiar construction . It has no veins (vascularbund les) ; cells alone enter into its structure.

These cells are of t w o kinds, t he green and t he

colourless. The reen cells are for manufacturing organic foodstuffs ou t of minerals

,water

,

and air. The colourless cells are dead,and have

spirally thickened walls and circular pores : theirduty is t o act as absorbing organs. Like theirallies, these Bog mosses are endowed with powersof propagating extensively. But they can alsoreproduce sexually and form spores. The sporecase is a globular body which O

pens by a l id t o

allow t he spores t o be scat t ere and give riset o new generations of plants. Gardeners Oftenuse these Bog mosses for protecting t he rootsof flowering plants, and preventing them fromdrying : in t he orchid house particularly

,they

are much in use. [A . N . M‘A .]

S p ic e s a n d Co n d im e n t s—These termsare applied t o a large class of substances whichpossess aromatic and pungent properties. Someare entirely used in cooking

,others as flavour

ing ingredients in medicine,while a third group

—t he essential oil- yielding seeds—have a placein perfumery as well as among t he spices.Very little Of a definite nature can be learned

,

from official statistics,regarding t he British sup

ply of spices. The imports into t heUnited Kingom of cinnamon

,ginger, pepper, and unenume

90

rated spices’came, in 1 908 , to 30million pounds,valued at sterling. Of these quantities and values about half represent pepper,derived from t he Straits Settlements, Madras,and French Indo-China, by far t he most important being t he supply from t he S traits.The following are t he chief spices and condiments

,arranged in t he sequence of their better

known English names :1 . AN ISE (Pimp inella A nisum, Linn , Umbellif

era ) ; cultivated in Euro e,Asia, and America .

The seeds (fruits) are use in confectionery, in t hepreparation of cordials and in distillation , in t heproduction of anise Oil and anethol. The supplycomes mainly from R ussia, and in a less certainquantity from Germany, France, t he N etherlands

,S ain

,Persia

,India, &c. The distilled

seed is ried and sold as fodder for cat tle, forwhich it is valued on account of its high proteinand fat content. The fruit of t he ‘S tar Anise’(I llicium anisa tum

, Linn ,Magnoliaceoe), a plan t

met with in China, also yields , on distillation ,anethol. I t is in great demand in t he East asa condiment, and is used in Europe t o flavourspirits

, especiall y for medicinal urposes.

2. BETEL - NUT (Areca Ca techu , inn., P almea ),a cultivated palm met with throughout t he hotdamp regions ofAsia, more especially t he Malayaand India. It fringes t he coast, and rarely extends more than 200miles inland, nor ascendst he hil ls t o a greater height than 3000ft. abovet he sea. Usually ( in Southern and WesternIndia and Burma) it is seen as a garden lant,t w o or three or perhaps as many as a ozen

,

mixed it may be with as many cocoanuts,sur

round t he cot tage or l ine t he pathway that leadst o t he village tank . In Eastern and N orthernBengal, however, it assumes a position Of greaterimportance. In certain districts of these provinces

,regular plantations of 5 t o 100 ac . in

extent occur (exclusively of betel - nuts), and at

such frequent intervals that they might almostbe said t o constitute a distinct agricultural feature

,scarcely less important than t he combined

crops raised on t he intervening tracts. In starting such plantations it is customary t o plantthem

,in t he first instance, with Ery thrina indica

( t he mand ar), a leguminous tree that doubtlessenriches t he soil. As time goes on t he mandaris elim inated and t he palms transplanted fromt he nursery t o their final positions, until all thatremains of t he mandar is a hedge around t helan tat ion . At this sta e t he palms may now

be standing from 6 t o 8 t. apart each w ay , andas time goes on may be as much as 3 t o 4 ft .,

many having by then been self- sown . I t takes30years before such a plantation comes into fullbearing, but it will continue t o give a highlyremunerative crop for 30 t o 50 years subse

quently,and necessitate practical ly little or no

trouble or expense forall these years, other thant o keep down weeds and supply a surface dressing now and again . The palms flower and fruitpractical ly throughout t he year, but t he bestresults are from t he flowers formed in January,which give their fruit in October, and from thosein March

,which fruit in December. Each palm

wil l give t w o,oras many as four bunches a year ;

and if well cared for, and grown in suitable

Sp ices and Condiments

loca lities,especially with suflioient humidity in

soil and atmosphere,each bunch may

‘con tainfrom 200 t o 400 nut s. The nuts met with intrade vary ex tremely in quality

,according to

locality of production and method of preparationfor t he market. Usually they are simply col

lect ed, dried by exposure t o t he sun, shelled,

and in that cond ition sold. In other instancest he nuts are boiled whole or after being ou t upinto various - sized portions

, and t he fluid preserved and used again and again, thus colouringand imparting a uniform flavour t o good and

bad qualities alike,t he boiling having t he effectof destroying t he obnoxious if not poisonous property Of inferior orwild nuts.The chief use of t he betel - nut is as an ast rin

gent and stimulating masticatory. It is chewedalong with t he green leaf of t he betel - pepper, alittle l ime

,and flavouring spices—t he mixture

being known as pan. The importance Of thisnut in t he Tropics may be inferred from t he

estimate of t he amount annually paid by Indiaalone for its supply

,which has been returned as

one - and - a - half million pounds sterling. Inaddition t o India

, Ceylon , t he Straits Settlement s

,Sumatra, China, &c .

,are each largely

interested in t he production of betel - nuts.3 . B ISH OP’S WEED (Carum cop ticum,

Benth .,

Umbelliferce). See CARAWAY.

4. CARAWAY (Cm-um Cam i

,Linn ). See CARA

WA Y.

5 . CARDAMOM (Elet taria Cardamomum,Maton

and White, Scitaminea). See CARDAM OM .

6. CH ILLIES (Cap sicum app ,Solanacece). See

CH ILLIES .

7 . CiN N AMON .—There are some twenty - four

s ecies of trees and shrubs placed in t he genusinnamomum (of t he Lauraceae) , and most ofthese yield barks which are sold as grades oft he spice cinnamon or as adulterants for it. A t

least four are important,viz . : C. Tama la

,N ees

(Indian Cassia lignea, or Cassia cinnamon) ; C.

Cassia , Bl. ( t he true or Chinese Cassia lignea),

and C. zeylanicum, Breyn ( the cinnamon properLastly

,referencemay be made t o another species

of great interest, C. Camp/20m ,N ees, from t he

wood Of which Japan camphor is obtained. C.

Tamala affords t he leaves known in India as

tejp a t , which are used almost universal ly as a

flavouring ingredient with meat, but are neverapparently distilled for their aromatic Oil.The bark Of C. Tamala and of C. zey lanicum

(col lected from t he wild trees in t he forests ont he west coast of India) are sold as false or

Indian Cassia lignea. They may be describedas a coarse or low - grade cinnamon which is usedas a spice and as a flavouring material in medicine, but it is t he only cinnamon eaten by t henatives of India, t he true bark being alone soldt o meet t he demands of t he Europeans.The bark traded in in Europe as

‘Cassialignea’ is Obtained from Ch ina, very largelythrough Canton, and is derived from C. Cassia .

The leaves and twigs are extensively distilledin t he production of ‘Oil of Cassia’. That oil isextensively employed as a perfume

,especially

in t he manufacture of soap.C. zeg/lanicum affords t he true cinnamon of

European shops. I t is only in Ceylon that it is

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92 Sp ices and

allowing plots of poor stony soils t o lie fallowand get overrun with bush. A large percentageof t he self- sown plants that thus appear is almostcertain t o be P imento. In time t he useless j ungleplants are removed and t he P imento t hinned ou tt o

,say , 20 t o 30ft. each w ay . P imento succeeds

on all poor soils,provided they are wel l drained,

and exposed t o a hot dry atmosphere. In aboutseven years t he trees begin t o give crops, t heyield increasing for a few years thereafter ast he plantation assumes maturity. The fruitsare collected in a green state

,in fact immed i

ately t he blossom falls. The ripe berries contain a sweet jel ly

,but have no aromatic property

,

and are in consequence valueless. The greenberries are dried in t he sun on trays

,t he drying

process occupying from three t o twelve days,

according t o climate. The proper degree of drying is recognized by t he wrinkling of t he surface

,t he dark colour assumed, and t he rattling

of t he seeds within. In drying, t he berries loseone- third of their weight

,and t he yield per tree

may vary from a few pounds t o a hundredweight.The name ‘

allspice’ is suggestive of t he aromaof these berries when carefully cured

,namely

t he cinnamon , clove, and nutmeg all in one. The

berries are largely used as spice in culinarypurposes, and in medicine as a stimulating andflavouring ingredient. By distillation they yield‘Oil of P imento’

,which in many respects re

sembles Oil of Cloves’and is similarly utilized.

The leaves of P imen ta acris,Kostel . , are dis

tilled in t he production of ‘Oil of Bay’

, a substance specially in demand in t he manufactureof bay rum ’

, which is used largely in t heUnitedS tates as a refreshing perfume in faintness. The

dried unripe berries of that Species also yield aninferior grade of P imento. In Dominica t he

leaves both of P . ofi cinalis and P . acris are col

lec t ed,dried

,and exported t o t he United S tates

t o be distilled. In Trinidad,oil Of P imento

leaves is distilled and exported.

23 . TURMER IC (Curcuma longa , Linn , Scita

an interesting and valuable plant, whichnot only belongs t o t he family of t he ginger

,

but in many respects closely resembles gingeri tself. It is grown on account of its tuberousroots (or rhizomes), of which there may be saidt o be t w omain kinds, those used as a condimentand those as a dye. It is grown throughout t hetropica l regions of t he globe. But as it got dispersed from its indigenous area t he dye w as confused with safi

'

ron . Cochin - china root is softand globular, and usual ly comes into t he European markets sliced. The Indian is hard

,rich

in dye, elongated, and comes entire. H ence t hethree grades, ‘finger’, ‘bulb’

, and‘cut bulb ’.

The softer Indian ‘fingers’ are eaten as well ast he ‘bulb’ forms. Turmeric may in fact beviewed as one of t he most important of all cond iment s

,being an indispensable ingredient in

curry powders,im art ing their most character

ist ic flavour as w e] as their colour.Turmeric requires a rich friable soil

,and one

above inundation level . It is frequently madet o follow sugar cane

,so as t o participate in t he

l iberal manuring that had been pursued. AboutApril or May t he land is raised into furrows,and t he sets (root cuttings) planted on t he t op

Condiments

so as t o be 1 8 in . or 2 ft. apart each w ay. AboutDecember orJanuary t he crop may be obtained,namely about 2000 lb. of fresh tubers t o t heacre. If left in t he ground for a second yeart he yield will be both heavier and better. The

tubers are cleansed,stripped of their fibrous

roots, and stewed gradually in earthen pots.Then they are dried in t he sun

,t he while being

carefully protected from t he dews of night. Insome localities t he tubers are boiled in waterand dried, Often by artificial heat. When intended t o be used as a dye t he tubers are boileda second time

,and while still w et are reduced

t o a paste and dried into t he powder in whichform they are usually sold. The dye is employedt o give colour t o varnishes

,and in t he production

Of certain compound shades oft en desired in silkand wool. Th e colour has a special affi nity forcotton

,but is fuo it ive. In European commerce

,

Formosan and Chinese turmeric take t he firstplace, next come t he Bengal, then that fromPegu, Madras

, and Bombay. The price variesfrom 1 23 . t o 263 . per cwt.24. VAN ILLA Vanilla p lanifolia, And., Orchi

dacece) , a cl imbing orchid,t he fruits Of which

(beans as they are ca lled in trade) are employedas a flavouring ingredient in confectionery, icecreams, liqueurs, medicines, &c. On t he conquestof M exico t he Aztecs were found t o flavour theirchocolate w ith vanilla, and in consequence t het wo

products found their w ay t o Europe almost

simu taneously . A large demand soon thereafter arose for both , and cultivation of vanillaextended t o Brazil

,H onduras, t he West Indies

,

Guadeloupe,Madagascar

,Mauritius

,Seychel les,

Java, F ij i, Tahiti, Ceylon , and India. In itsindigenous habitat (South - eastM exico) it is alsonow extensively cultivated

,especially in Vera

Cruz. H ence supplemen ting t he wild sup ly ,cultivat ion has reat ly extended production, u t

has not low ere t he rice sufficiently t o bringit into t he universal emand that would otherwise be t he case. The plant is grown againstwalls or on t rellis work under broken shade. Itrequires a rich vegetable mould situate withint he Tropics ; but while it thus demands a hotdamp atmosphere, t he soil must be wel l drained,and even heaped up around t he plants

,t o prevent

surface accumulation of water. I t is raised froni '

cuttings several feet long, set at once in theirfinal positions. It is a climber, and t he fencingon which it is trained must be strong

,for as t he

plants grow, it has t o be l inked up with transverse bamboos, from support t o support, in everydirection . In most Of t he larger plantations t hemain supports are live trees. In dry weathert he soil should be mulched , so as t o protect t hesurface roots ; in fact t he best dressing is freshvegetable mould. Animal manures in any formshould not be used. The plants commence t oflower in their second year

, and by t he fourtht he plantations should be in ful l bearing. Inmost of t he countries of special cultivation

,t he

insect orbird thataccomplishes fertilization beingabsent, t he planter has t o instruct his servantsin t heprocess of fertilizing the fruits

, and th ishas t o e done in t he morning of each day unti lflowering ceases . The fertilized fruit takes fivemonths t o attain maturity. If unfertil iz ed

,t he

Sp iders

fruit turns yellow and drops off almost as soonas t he flower. The flow ers appear in Februaryor March , in clusters of which less than halfneed be fertilized. The fruits are ripe whenthey begin t o turn yellow ; they should then befrom 8 t o 1 2 in. long and about 1 in. in circumference, and filled throughout their leng t h withminute, black, oily seeds. The fruits must bepicked by hand separately . If left until overripe they will split during t he process of curing

,

and become next t o useless ; while if underripethey do not attain their proper aroma. On beinbrou ht t o t he curing house they are dippedinto oilin water for a few seconds

,

then Spree ou t on mats t o al low t he.

water t o drain away,and aft erwards

are carried on mats t o a place wherethey can be exposed t o t he sun. Atnight they are rolled 11 within theirmat s and placed withinToxes t o allowof fermentation taking place. Thisprocess of alternate sunning and fermen t ing is continued for a week or so,and

, as it proceeds, t he pods turn of abrown colour. They are t he while careful ly rubbed and squeezed between t hefingers, and in some localities a l ittlesweet oil is ap lied t o them . If theyshow any t en ency t o split they are

carefully tied up with string. Ultimately t he drying is completed in t heshade, this stage often taking weeks.The pods are then assorted accordiot o length ( the longer t he better), tiedup into bundles of twenty- five t o fifty

,

acked into boxes,and often even sol

ered down so as t o exclude t he airandreserve t he aroma. The fragrance isue t o t he presence of ‘vanillic acid ’,which is often seen crystalliz ed on t heoutside of successfully cured pods. Incommerce, vanilla is t he highest- pricedvegetable, for its weight, that appears,but its characteristic active principleis closely imitated by a preparation ofpine-wood Oil and clove oil. It is moreover found in other species of orchids,though of a lower quality than thatof t he true vanilla plan t . The inferiorgrades may be at once recognized byt he shortness of t he pods and their poor aroma.

G. w.

S p id ers belong t o t he section or order Aianeidae of the class Arachnida

,which includes

also scorpions and mites. They collect insectsin various ways—some by hunting

,others by

watching in dark corners and holes and dartingon their prey

,very many by .forming traps of

webbing of various kinds. Spiders have all

eight legs, and their head and thorax are unitedinto one piece

, t he abdomen being distinct andbaglike. They have simple eyes

,in t w o

,six

,

or ci ht arran ement . The mouth consists ofmodi ed mandi les with which t he spider seizesits prey ; t he last joint Of t he falx or fang iscurved, and fits into a toothed de ression whenin repose. This fang has a smail aperture at

t he apex through which passes out a colourless,more or less venomous fluid secreted by t he

of w eb .

93

poison gland. At the momen t of t he bite t hesecret ion of t he gland flows into the wound

,

and in t he case of smal l flies, &c.

,causes almost

instant death. At the tail end of t he spiderare placed four or six wartl ike structures

,t he

spinnerets, through which t he l iquid that is t oform t he webbing is passed ou t , t he variousstrands uniting into one piece of silk . The gluethat forms t he silk is secreted by glands in t heabdomen ; these open by fine pores on t he surface of t he papil lae. This silk is most elastic.Spiders are divided into t wo sections : ( 1 ) t helarge, mostly tropica l species, which have four

1 , H ouse Spider. a , Abdomen ; b. cephalothorax; c, maxillary palp i.2, Front of head.a , True jaw ; b. lower lip ; c, sub -mentum.

5 , Spinnerets.

st uck toget her w ith globules of glue which entrap insect s; c, anchor

a , Ocelli; b, mandibles. 3 , Under side of head.4. One of t he airchambers.

a , Minute web t hreads in moist st icky glue ; 5 , t hreads

air sacs and four spinnerets ; t he otherswith which w e are familiar in Britain

,have

only t wo breathing sacs and six Spinnerets.The first are t he Crab Spiders, or Mygalidae,one of which , A typus sulzeri, is found in Britain ,a large spider which excavates a subterraneangallery with a silken tube. Amongst this groupw e also find t he huge Bird Spiders (Mygale) andt he Trapdoor Spiders. The Epeiridae or

‘Orb

weavers ’are those w e are most acquainted within this country. They are humpbacked and globose

,and form radiating, geometrical webs. The

w eb consists of an elastic spiral l ine, thicklystudded with minute globules of gum, and acrossthis are drawn radiating fibres converging t o t hecentre, which are devoid of t he gummy d rops.These sticky drops do not harden in t he air

,but

t he spiral thread is said t o be renewed everytwenty - four hours.

94

The majority of spiders lay their ova inmasses surrounded with silk l ike a cocoon andin cases. Some carry t he egg masses about withthem. The young are l ike t he adults , but areunable at first t o catch their prey, and remainin colonies amongst t he silk of t he egg massesunti l after their first moult. The fine threadsw e find floating in t he air in autumn

,called

gossamer, are t he work of young spiders, whichraise themselves in t he air by this means. Theypass t he winter in sheltered positions. M ostspiders hunt at night, but some Of t he wandering species do so during t he day . The sexesare distinct

,t hemales having a smaller abdomen

than t he females. The females often kill t hemales during or after copulation. [F . v. T.]S p ilo n o t a ro b o ra n a ( t he R ose Shoot

M oth).—This small Tortrix moth measures about

iin . in wing expanse. The fore wings have a

rown basa l patch, a brown streak running alongt he costa t o t he middle

,then white speckled with

g rey, tip reddish - brown,t he 3 c t or ocellus

leaden - grey, edged in t ernally wit dark - brown .

The moth appears in June and July. It laysits eggs on t he rose Shoots, and t he larvae feedin them ; they are dull - brown with a dark head,and are found in April and May . It is verycommon

,and harmful t o roses. N othing can

be done for this rose pest save hand - picking t heattacked shoots and burning them. [F . v. T.]S p in a c h (Sp inacia oleracea , nat . ord . Cheno

pod iaceae), an annual cultivated for its leaves.

Spinach—Lettuce- leaved

Spinach is best suited by a deep, rich loam,

which should be deeply worked and wel l manured . A somewhat moist and Shady situationis t o be preferred for summer crops, but inwinter a dry position is advantageous. It isusual t o make t he first sowing in mid - February,t o be followed by successional sow ings everythree weeks till May , and afterwards even morefrequently ti ll August

,when t he Flanders and

Lettuce - leaved varieties are sown for winteruse. Time is gained by soaking t he seeds fora few hours before sowing ; but if this is donethey must not afterwards be allowed t o becomedry. The summer oro is sown in shal low drillsabout 1 ft. apart

,an that for w inter supply

in dril ls 1 5 in . t o 1 8 in . apart, or broadcast.The seedlings are first thinned t o 2 in . apart,and afterwards t o 6 in . or 9 in . P lenty of wateris required in dry weather. The largest leavesshould be picked off for use in preference t o

S pilonot a robot ana Sp irit- level

indiscriminate cutting. It is well t o protecta portion of t he winter crop by such means asputting up hurdles

,or a row of stakes inter

woven with fern or furze. Spinach may profi tably be grown between rows of peas and beansor cau liflow ers

,and winter spinach t o fol low

potatoes, or onions, or under fruit trees. The

principal varieties are the round - seeded forsummer, and Flanders

, Lettuce - leaved,and

P rickly- seeded for winter use. The Late- seeding or Long- standing variety may be sown forwinter or summer use. w. W.]S p in a c h .

—Pa ra s it ic Fu n g i.—The foliage may become blotched and discoloured. The

fungus most commonly present is a whitishDowny M ildew (P eronospora ef usa), which isalso very frequent on WhiteGoosefoot and otherweeds of this order (see CHEN OPODIACEAE) ; fromthese weeds t he Spinach becomes infected.Treatmen t—Damage may be restricted by re

moving discoloured leaves,but plants badly

attacked are best removed alt ogether. N eitherSpinach nor Beet should be grown on t he infect ed soil for some years

,and a dressing of

l ime should be given. Diseased plants shouldnot be used for seed production

, as t he fungusspores are carried in the seed husks. If Spinachis being raised under glass

,ventilation is meces

sary, and wetting the foliage is t o be avoided.

[w . G. s.]S p irit - leve l, an instrument for obtaining

an exact horiz on tal line by means of a glass tube

(usually) con taining some very limpid liquid anda bubble of air. The l iquid most commonlyused is alcohol, ora mixture of ether and alcohol,and the tube

,which is hermetically sealed at

both ends,is nearly but not quite cylindrical ;

t he interior being ground so that a longitudinalsection is slightly curved, convex upwards, asindicated in fig. 1 . The air bubble

,A , places

Fig. 2.—Pocket Spirit - level

itself at t he highest point of t he tube ; and t hetangent

,A T

,t o t he internal surface of t he tube

at t he point is horizontal . The glass tube isusually fixed in a brass case

, as shown in fig. 2,

for convenience of handl ing and as a prot ectionagainst fracture.

The horizontality of a line, t o wh ich a spiritlevel is ap lied, is indicated by t he air bubblebeing at t e centre of its run ; and when t hebubble deviates from that position, t he greater

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96

part which sport appears t o play in t he nationalife ; for w hat is now a mere recreation was

often in earlier days a serious ursu it . Whena man’s life might at any time epend upon hisskil l with t he sword

,he was natural assiduous

in his study of t he art of fencing. An d w e can

easily believe that all t he s orts which partakeof t he nature of preparation orwarawoke in t hebreasts of our bellicose ancestors an enthusiasmonly inferior t o that caused by t he prospect ofan invasion of France. When every man was

a soldier,such an event as t he historic figh t

between t he Clan Quhele and t he Clan Chat t anat Perth on Palm Sunday, 1 346, must have givenrise t o as much excitemen t as a modern ‘cupt ie

’

,or as t he famous boxing championship be

tween Corbett and F itz- S immons. H ence,t oo

,

t he pomp and splendour of t he great tournaments in mediaeval times. And if t he defensiveand Offensive Sport s have undergone this gradualdecl ine into mere pastimes, t he same must besa id of hunting and shooting, and all those sport sin which it is t he Sport sman’s object to slay somequarry . For

,apart al together from t he pre

historic age, there can be l ittle doubt that inancien t Britain , sparsely inhabited as it was

,

hunting w as Often t he means of providing a

welcome addition t o a sometimes recarious foodsupply. H unting (see H UN TIN G ‘

w as then not

a recreation but a serious business. The transition was of course not sudden . For many cent uries t he chief Objects Of pursuit—t he wild boarand t he stag—were animals fit for t he table ;t he final stage in t he transformation of t he sportmay be said t o have occurred when t he inediblefox supplanted wild sw ine and deer in t he affections of huntsmen—an event which took placeonly about 1 50years ago. H istory relates t hehunting feat s of many of our early sovereigns

,

notably of Alfred t heGreat. Indeed, so ent husiastio and so selfish did t he monarchs become,that hunting gradually became restrict ed t o

R oyalty and t o t he greater nobles ; cruel gamelaws were passed ; and t he barbarous measureswhich Will iam t he Conqueror adopted in ordert o create t he N ew Forest are t oo well known t oneed description . All through t he M iddleAgeshunting never went ou t of fashion

,and from

quite early times—certain ly since t he 1 4th century—ladies appear t o have played a prominentpart in t he sport . Q ueen Elizabeth, for instance,w as a great huntress. It was not

, however,until t he middle of t he 1 8 t h century that foxhunting began t o come t o t he fore. Up t o thattime ‘R eynard ’ seems t o have been regarded,l ike his more formidable relative t he wolf, asa verminly beas t whom it was legitimate t o

destroy in any possible manner. It used t o beheld

,moreover

,that the pursuit of t he hare

(a sport which dates from much earlier times)affords a greater variety of interest than foxhunting. But after t he wild boar had becomeextinct

,which it did about 1 620, and t he op

port unit ies for staghunting more and more rest ric t ed , t he virtues Of t he vulpine tribe camet o be better understood. Of course, in earlydays t he mode of procedure w as much morehappy -

gO- lucky than now ; t he hounds were not

always kept for hunting foxes only, and they

Sport

were, indeed, oft en mere mongrels. There is nodoubt, t oo, that both horses and hounds wereslower than at t he present day , and there wasless hard riding. But t he energy displayed byt he hunt smen w as great. The fox used t o berouted ou t at an inordinately early hour

,and it

w as actually t he cust om t o breakfas t at midnight. (See FOXHUNTIN G.) Except in t heWestcountry—with t he famous Exmoor pack—andonce or twice in Windsor Forest in George II I’sday , t he wild stag has not been hunted in t heBritish Isles since t he 1 8t h century. The peopleof Devonshire are not only favoured by t he

unique opport unity of hunting wild stag,bu t

are also exceptionally well situated for enjoyingt he rare sport of ot t erhun t ing .

It may seem strange that t he t wo reat est ofour rural sport s—foxhunting and s cot ingshould be qui te modern innovations

,but such

is undoubtedl y t he case. Shooting came in at

much t he same time as foxhunting,namely

,in

t he middle of t he 1 8 t h century. I t w as onlythen that guns became suflicient ly accurate to

make it possible t o hit birds whilst on t he wing,and until that point of erfect ion w as reachedthere could, of course

, e no shooting in t hemodern sense Of t he word. There is no doubtthat countrymen used t o stalk game occasionallyin much earlier times, as far back, indeed, as t he1 5 th century , but t he sport in those days musthave been arduous in t he extreme

,for it was

necessary for t he hunter t o creep up t o withina very close range, and then take careful aim at

t he motionless and unsuspecting bird or quadruped . Although shooting became a regular andrecognized pastime in t he 18 t h century

,t he days

of big bags did not begin until about 1 840. The

sportsman of t he Georgian era would oft en goou t for a whole day and tramp t he coun t ry farand wide, perhaps getting a shot only about oncean hour, and returning home in t he evening withonly tw o or three brace of partridges . Different

,

indeed, from t he conditions prevailin g at t hepresent day " See SH OOTIN G.

Before firearms were of any use for bringingdown flying birds

,some other met hod fi and a

method more expeditious than t he laborious andusually fruitless process of stalking t he gamehad t o be found. And j ust as among quadrupedst he ingenuity of man util ized t he natural ihst inct s of t he wolf tribe in order t o secure venison and pork, so did he harness t he powers ofraptorial birds when he desired t o stock hislarder with feathered game. There are fewsports more ancient than falconry. In Englandit has been practised from t he earliest Saxontimes, and abroad it seems t o have been carriedon in Babylonia as long ago as 1200B .C.

, and inChina in 2000 Although with t he introduction and improvement of firearms t he practica l utility of falconry necessarily di sappeared

,

t he sport is still carried on in those parts of t heBritish Isles where t he country is suffi cientlyopen t o permit of it. Abroad

, t oo, hawking isstill in vogue, and perhaps t he most remarkableOf foreign achievements is t he u se which is madeof t he Golden Eagle in Central Asia. In thatcountry t he people train their eagles t o huntwolves ; a quarry which, onewould suppose, even

Sport Sprains

these great bird s must find pretty formidable.

The nearest approach t o this in ourow n countryis hare- hunting with the oshawk

, t he femalesof which s ceies are power 11 1 enough t o hold t hequadrupe s. The peregrine, t he gyrfalcon , t hemerlin , t he s arrow - hawk

, &c. , are also trainedin Britain. ee FALCON RY.

If mankind has succeeded in finding usefulassistants in hunting terrestrial and aerial bein s,in t he case of fishes he has had t o rely for t emost part upon his own skil l. fi shing is

, of

course, a much more ancient occupation thanhawking, and may even date back nearly as farin prehistoric time as hunting. N ets have alwaysbeen, and still remain, t he most effective meansof securing fish, but angling—that is, fishingwith rod

,l ine, or hook—has roved more attrae

tive t o amateur fishermen. ot that a considerable number of fishes may not sometimes betaken with a hook—especially in t he case of

sea -fishing. There are many parts of our coastswhere bottom - fishing gives excellent sport, andt he plenit ude of game is often so great that t heonly diffi culty is t o haul in t he lines fast enough.

Freshwater fishing is of course a higher,if usu

al ly less fruitful,art . And again

,angling with

t he fly is generally considered t o take precedenceof float - fishing. Angling under conditions essent ially similar t o those revailing at t he presentday has been practised for centuries. As ‘

far

back as t he 1st h century w e read not only ofrods

,hooks

,leads

,floats

, &c.,but also of arti

ficial fl ies. We may suppose, however, that ourancestors had lesser difficulties t o contend with .

There is no doubt that fishes inhabiting riverswhich have been long frequented by anglers arenot only less len t iful but much more wary.In many non -

[European lands t he fish are so

simple - minded that angling becomes almostchild’s play, and even in Britain t he fishes int he Thames (which has been worked over morethan any other river) are decidedly more cautiousthan their less persecut ed congeners in otherwaters. See F ISH IN G.

There is perhaps no British sport which ismore wholesome and health -

giving than sealstalking. This can be enjoyed on many partsof our coast—which are frequented by both t heGrey and Common Seal—bu t t he best localityis t heOrkney and Shetland Isles. Seal - shootingwill appeal especially t o t he true sportsman,whose pleasure is enhanced by t he presence of

diflicult ies ; for seals are remarkably wary creatures and are difiicult t o approach. They havet o be shot whilst on shore, for they usually sinkwhen killed out at sea. Another uncommonsport is badger- hunting. Themode of procedureis as fol lows : A number of men and dogs—anybreed of cur wil l do, provided only they wil lgive tongue—col lect around t he badger’s holeat nightfall and watch until t he creature issuesforth from its lair. Then sacks with runningnooses are placed in all t he holes leading intot he animal’s subterranean dwelling, and whenit has been iven a good start t he dogs are set

upon its trai An exhilarating chase then commences, and t he

‘brock rushes back in hot hastet o it s home, .only t o find itself completely en

veloped in a sack. The animal may be thenVOL. XI .

97

turned loose once more in order t o rovide eu

other run- indeed, t he process may 0 repeatedthree or four times in one night—or it may betransported t o another district t o extend t herange of t he species. This method of huntingis most exciting, and since it has t he additionalmerit

_of scarcely ever ending in a tragedy

,it

should certainly be more widely known and

carried on than it now is. The fun that canbe derived from a sport is not necessarily dependent upon t he siz e and dign ity of t he quarry ,and few pastimes are more full of perpetualexcitement than ratting. I t is

,t oo

,much t he

most effective way of getting rid of these vermin ,for traps (see TRAPS FOR VERMIN and TRAPP IN G)and poison are not of much use—of less use inreal ity than t he rat’s natural enemies. Lesscare need be taken of t he dogs than of t he ferrets ; almost any kind of terrier will serve, forthey all have an ardent inborn love of t he sport.For ratting

,bit ch ferrets are much better than

t he males, because owing t o their small siz e theycan fol low their prey anywhere. They shouldon no account be muzz led, nor should they berun with a line. It is advisable t o take a con

siderable number of ferrets and t o let themhun t in turn ; they almost always get woundedin t he fray

,and as a rat’s bite is poisonous their

sores should be dressed with sweet oil at t he endof t he day’s work . White ferrets should beused ; t he brown ones are l iable t o be pouncedupon by an over- hasty terrier, mistaking themfor rats. [H . s . R . a

}S p o t t e d F ly c a t c h e r (Muscicapa griso a) .—This inconspicuous migrant bird is fairly common in parts of Britain ( less so in Scotland)from May t o September. I t is a l ittle morethan 5 in . in length, with fairly pointed wingsand a very long hind t oe. The rather stoutbeak is laterally flattened and ver slightlybent down at t he tip, while t he broa flattenedbase is fringed by bristles, as in some otherinsect- eating birds. The male ( in summer dress)is chestnut- brown above, with darker wings andtail, and grey below, while t he throat is streakedor spotted. The plumage of t he female is greyabove and whitish below, like t he win ter dressof t he male. The food consists entirely of

insect s of t he most various kind, and t he bird

captures these on the wing, making short jerkyfl ight s from points of van tage. The SpottedFlycatcher is extremely beneficial t o agricultureand allied industries, and it should be rigidlyrot ec t ed , and as far as possible encouraged.

be five eggs are spotted with rusty or purplishspots on a greenish or bluish ground. Thereare two broods in t he season . See FLYCATCHER

,

where a figure of this bird is given . [J . R . A. D.]S p ra in s . When more force is exertedupon a tendon , ligament, or muscle than it canbear without injury, it is said t o be strained orsprained . Tendons and ligaments are not elastic

,

and only become elongated by continuous force.

Strains vary from a slight extension t o partialrupture or breaking away of fibres. Completerupture passes ou t of t he category of sprains

,

although accomplished in t he same manner.

The soft swelling which follows on a strain isdue t o t he presence of extravasated blood or

1 64

98

exuded lymph ; and th is prevents t he immediatereunion of ruptured fibres, although ultimatelycontributing t o repair. To hinder t he accumulation of these matters and provoke their absorption is ourprimary object in treatment. Eitherhot or cold water checks t he circulation of t he

blood,and so hinders effusion into t he tissues.

Purgatives and diuretics carry 03 more or lessof t he efi

'

used flu ids. Fluidity of t he blood bycopious draughts of water should be maintained.Laxative foods favour t he subject of sprain.Whether t o rest or use a sprained structure isstil l a moot question. The generality of vet

erinary practitioners prescribe rest , and specialappliances

,such as high - heeled shoes

,t o relieve

sprain of legs ; also cold or evaporating lotions,and , later, warm liniments or stronger agentsas blisters, and a turn ou t at grass. Manysprains are cured by a thick layer of cottonwool compressed by bandages.S p ra y e rs .

—Sprayers distribute l iquids int he form of finely divided sprays » over fruittrees and farm and garden crops t o prevent ordestroy injurious insects and fungi. In almostall instances an air- tight vessel containing t hel iquid is supplied with an air chamber in whichair is compressed by a pump

,so tha t as it passes

ou t of t he nozzle t he l iquid is formed into a fine

spray. Occasionally,as in t he S t rawsoniz er, t he

l iquid is broken up by means of a strong blast

Sprayers Spray ing

which impinges upon it as it is fed out . Thefinest spra is made in this way, 2gal. of paraffinbeing e t o form a complete film over

mg. 1 .—Four Oaks Knapsack Sprayer

acre. In this, rubber, which is quickly destroyedby paraffin when used in other forms of machine,is not required. Sprayers may be classified as

Fig. 2.—FourOaks Angle- joint ed Spraying Syringe

hand syringes, knapsack , portable or wheeledwit h hand - pump attachment ; horse- drawn cartwi t h hand pump ; horse- drawn machine with

geared pump ; horse- drawn machine with pet rolriven pump and air blast .Syringes are squirt s wit h variously shapednozzles, suitable only where smal l areas are

treated. The knapsack is suitable where a

moderate area is t o be treat ed. Until recentyears a diaphragm pum was exclusively used ;but recently machines aving a small pumpfitted t o t he outside of t he container, with an

outside airchamber, as in t he FourOaks Sprayer,have been introduced, and though rather moreexpensive, are more effective and in all waysbetter than t he diaphragm. N o stirrer is needed

,

as at each stroke a jet is forced from t he bott om ,

so there is no inside attachment.The recognition of t he value of s raying with

a solution of sulphate of copper t oIdest roy char

lock,and wit h t he Bordeaux mixture or its

equivalent t o revent ot at o disease,called for

machines capa le of ealing with a big area.

This w as met by Swanson’s machine, whichworked a series of nozzles connected by rubbertubing, through which t he solution is forced, a

pump being worked either by hand , as when t hearrel or container is placed in a cart

,or from

gearing where a self- contained machine is used.Charlock spraying and potato spraying can beperformed by t he same outfit ; but where t helatter is done, t he noz z les are fitted t o faucessuitably contrived t o allow t he spray t o bedriven upwards between t he rows of potatoes.In working these machines a pace from 2 to

2§ miles an hour is most suitable, and unevenpaces should be avoided. Fruit - spraying ma

chines are required t o be able t o dea l withthicker solutions as well as with thin solutions.The same machines are used for lime-washingbuildings

,&c. (see LIME- WASH IN G MACH INE).

For hops, specially long tubing is necessary (seeH OP - GR OWING M ACH IN ERY). [W. J. M . ]S p ra y in g .

—Although t he spraying of hopsfor t he destruction of t he aphis has been carriedon more or less extensively for a great numberof years, that of potatoes, Charlock, and fruitis of comparatively recent introduc t ion in thiscountry . Even in t he case of hops t he operation has increased greatly in prevalence andpersistency. Quassia extract and soft soap arestill t he ingredients of the wash most commonlyapplied t o hops, although there are numerousproprietary mixtures which are used t o a con

siderab le extent. Powerful machines,worked

by horse or steam power, are commonly used

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Spray ing

in t he spraying of hops. Sulphuring for t heprevention of mould is equally necessary inmost seasons.The spraying of potatoes with Bordeaux mixture, consisting of copper sulphate and lime

,is

a modern practice. The mixture was first usedfor vines in France

,and it w as not t ill 1 888 that

M . Girard began t o experiment with it for t heprevention of t he common potato disease

,Phy

t op ht/aom infestans, while it was about twelveyears later before t he remedy was in t roducedin England. For pota toes t he cons t ituents are20 lb. of copper sulphate and 10 lb. t o 20 lb . of

quicklime t o 100gal. of water. Special machinesfor dis t ributing t he mixture were brought ou tsome years ago by Mr.G. F . S t raw son

,of Queen

Victoria Street,London

,one as an attachment

t o a farm cart,and another as an independen t

machine. At least t w o sprayings are desirable,

and t he first should be applied as soon as t heCrop has gone off blossom, while t he second maytake place t w o or three weeks later. The mixture is not a complet e preventive, but it reducest he extent of t he disease.

The value of copper sulphate for t he dest ruction of charlock w as discovered by accident inFrance. Some spare solution of it or of Bor

d eaux mixture used for vines, w as thrown on

t he ground where some charlock and otherweeds happened t o be growing. These, or someof them ,

were turned black and killed by t hesolution

,and it w as then suggested that , if it

proved harmless t o corn crops, charlock growing among them might be destroyed. In 1 898a public t rial of spraying charlock with a solution of copper sulphate alone w as conducted byM r. S t raw son near Chelmsford. It proved successful

,as also did subsequent trials

,and t he

practice of spraying fields of corn infested witht he troublesome weed speedily became common .

A 3—per- cent solution , that is, 30 lb . of coppersulphate t o 100gal. of water, has been generallyused, but some prefer a 4 or even a 5 -

per- cent ;

and it w as found that when properly sprayedin t he form of a fine mist, so as t o cover everyleaf of t he weed

,50gal. per acre are sufficient.

See art . MUSTARD WEEDS .

Even more remarkable than t he progress ofspraying against potato disease and charlock ist e application of t he operation t o fruit crops.It w as systematically practised in t he UnitedS tates long before it w as tried t o any considerable extent in this country. The work of t he

late M iss Ormerod, by call ing attention t o

remedies for t he great damage done t o fruittrees and bushes by certain insects

,was largely

instrumental in extending t he operation of

Spraying in our frui t plantations . More recentlyt he publication of t he results of experimentscarried ou t at Woburn by t he Duke of Bed

ford and Mr. Spencer P ickering has furtherextended it. As evidence of t he rapid progressmade in this direction

,it is enough t o state that

for one firm ofiering various kinds of sprayingmaterials in 1905

,there were at least a dozen

candidates for t he custom of fruit growers in1 910. S imilarly there has been a great increasein t he production of spraying machines in different forms.

99

A descri tion of a season’s spraying campaignas pursued

)

by an up- t o- date fruit grower will

be t he most conven ient method of noticing t heoperations carried on for various purposes. Except when t he p lan of spraying apple trees forthe destruction of egg

- laying aphides is carriedou t in t he autumn , t he firs t operation may be

said t o be that of spraying gooseberry bushesand possibly plum trees with a lime~and - sulphurwash

,t o prevent birds from eating t he buds. If

rain washes t he st ufi"

off,t he operation may have

t o be done a second time. N ext there is spraying apple trees with some caustic w ash , eitherin February or later, t o destroy moss and lichen,t o kill woolly aphis and various hibernatinginsects

, and if possible t o destroy eggs . The

possibility of destroying t he eggs of insects byany wash known at present is denied by someauthorities ; but some fruit growers claim thatthey have prevented infestation by t he applesucker (Psylla mali) and t he aphis by means ofa lime- and - salt mixture. A wash t o be appliedwhen trees are dormant, in February for choice,is one composed of lime

,sulphur

,and caustic

soda,which is effective for all t he purposes j ust

named,wi t h t he possible exception of t he de

struction of eggs,while it has t he further ad van

tage of acting t o some extent as a preventive t oscab. For t he last—named pest alone, however,a weak solution of copper sulphate

,4 lb . t o 100

gal. , applied shortly before t he buds burst, ismore certain t o prove effective. Caustic washesare not commonly applied t o plum trees ; but ift he lime—and - sulphur wash

,without caustic soda

,

should not be needed t o prevent birds from eat

ing t he buds, it may still be valuable for plumtrees as a preventive t o certain fungus diseases.As soon as any aphides are noticed on apples

or plums,one of t he numerous washes for their

destruction should be romp t ly used ; forwhent he leaves have curledpover t he pests

,they are

protected from any application t o a great extent.Various nicotine or paraffin preparations are

now sold for this purpose,but it is questionable

whether any of them are superior t o t he oldmixture of quassia and soft soap. When there isa bad infestation, spraying for aphis has t o berepeated t wo or three times. The same operation is destructive t o t he apple sucker

,which

,

like t he aphis,can be killed only by contact

,as

no poison affects t he food of a sucking insect,

which is t he sap of t he infested tree.

When t he blossom of apples has fallen,spray

ing with a poison, lead arsenate for choice,is

im ort an t , t o kill t he larvae of the codlin mothan various leaf- eating caterpillars. With thiswash it is now usual t o combine Bordeaux mixture

,as a preven t ive t o scab. For fruit it is

important t o avoid a strong Bordeaux mixture,as t he foliage is liable t o be scorched thereby.

N ot more than 8 lb. of copper sulphate,with

lime t o neutralize t he acidity , should be used,at least when t he foliage is tender, and 6 lb.would be safer. Usually t he application has t obe repeated about a fortnight later, or, if caterpillars are not then troublesome

,Bordeaux mix

ture will be needed for scab, w here that highlydestructive disease is prevalent. Indeed

,where

it is bad among apples or pears , a third spray

100 Springbuck Spring Cultivation

ing is t o be recommended. Brown rot (Sclerot inia fruct ige

-

na) and powdery mildew (Sp /i t eratkeca mali) among apples will be encounteredalso by these sprayin S against scab. Forbrownrot among plums andcherries a similarly weakBordeaux mixture should be used. For aphison currants

,t he Spraying referred t o in connec

t ion with apples and plums will serve equally.

It is importan t t o bear in mind that in s raying Bordeaux mixture and poisonous was es a

very fine mist should be aimed at,avoiding such

a drenching as would make t he trees drip. Intreatmen t for aphis or apple sucker, on t he

other hand,a thorough drench ing is desirable,

and in t he applica t ion of a winter wash everypart of a tree or bush should be wel l wetted .

[W. E. s .]S p rin g b u c k , or S p rin g b o k (A nt idorcas

marsupialis), a genus of South African antelopes closely rela t ed t o t he gazelles

,but dis

t inguished from them by t he suppression of t heanterior lower premolar, so that there are onlyt wo instead of three of these teeth in t he mandible

,by t he reduction in size of t he correspond

ing upper premolar, and by t he presence on t he

hinder part of t he back of a cons icuous whiteblaze susceptible of being displayedor concealedat will. H orns are present in both sexes, andare much smaller in t he female than in t he

male,being lyrate w ith incurved points in t he

latter,and averaging about 1 5 in . in length .

The general colour is brow n or sandy - fawn on

t he neck,body

,and outsides of t he limbs ; t he

belly,rump

,and tail

,with t he exception of t he

black tuft,being white. The white of t he rump

,

which is continuous over t he cron with t hedorsa l blaze

,is margined with dark rown

,and

a conspicuous broad dark - brown st ri e S imilarlyborders t he white pervading t he belly . The

face also is mostly white in t he adult,but a

brown stripe ex t ends on each side from t he

horn across t he eye t o t he corner of t he mouth,and there is a larger or smaller brown band ont he forehead and nose, which becomes reducedin exten t with advance of age. The height is ali t tle over 30 in. The period of gestation isnearly six months , and t he young

,one or t wo

in number,are born in N ovember. The Spring

buck is t he only member of the gazelline groupwhich occurs in Africa south of t he Zambesi,where it is still met with in t he arid districtsof t he Transvaa l , t he Orange R iver Colony, Bechuanaland

, German South—west Africa, thencenorthwards t o M ossamedes, and in Cape Colonyfrom N amaqualand in t he west t o Queenstownin t he east

,and as far south as t he Zwartberg

ranges forming t he sou t hern boundary of t he

Karoo. The scien t ific name marsup ialis w as

given t o this species in allusion t o t he presenceof t he dilatable fold or pouch of skin which,when spread

,consti t utes t he dorsal ‘blaze ’

so

characteris t ic of this animal ; and t he popularname Springbuck is derived from its habit,when playful or disturbed, of leaping high intot he air

,as it moves away

,with head bent down ,

back curved,and legs held extended, stiff and

close together,bounding from t he ground t o

a height of 10 or 1 2 ft . , as if its legs wereresilient steel springs, and covering without

t he least appearance of effort a distance of 7or more yards. In former years these buckoccurred in herds consisting literally of hundreds of thousands of individuals ; but althoughtheir numbers have been greatly reduced sincet he introduc t ion of firearms into South Africa,they still exist in vast multitudes. A portionof a migrat ing herd was computed in 1 896 t o becomposed of at least animals. It is fortheir remarkable migratory habits that Springbuck are most notorious. Vast hordes of t heseantelopes, or tre/c bole/fen as they are then called,periodically pour down into t he fertile districtsof Cape Colony, destroying every blade of grassor growin

gcorn in their onward march, devas

tating w i e tracts of country and inflictinginca lculable loss upon farmers. [R . I . R ]S p rin g O u lt iva t io n .

—This expression isoften employed in contradistinction t o autumncultivation , and in such cases refers t o t he preparat ion of land for roots. This

,indeed

,seems

t o be t he sense in which it is generally understood ; but it has also a wider significance

,and

may include t he cultivation of spring corn,or

of clover and grass seeds. In t he followingremarks t he former aspect is chosen

,and it

alone will be discussed pro and con . Springcultivation has always been general , but mostwri t ers exhibit a preference for autumn cultivation t o t he partial exclusion of spring tillages.Much depends upon t he class of land t o be

operated upon,and all medium soils may be

cultivated in Spring without incurring t he risksof either depriving them of moisture or of pro

d ucing a hard and intractable surface. The

objec t ions t o t he system are most evident uponvery heavy and very light land

,and on such

soils a more thorough pulverizat ion in t he one

case,and a better conservation of moisture in

t he other,are effected by autumnal cultivations.

M uch also depends upon t he period at whicht he work is performed, for winter ploughingmay be carried on up t o t he end of February

,

without producing any ill effec t s ; and Marchfrosts are often relied upon t o produce a tilth .

The objections t o spring cultivation are chieflyconfined t o late ploughing, after which drough tmay rob t he land of its moisture, or producea cloddy surface

,d ifli cu lt t o reduce t o t he

necessary fine condition for root sowing. The

system of deep ploughing in autumn has beenhighly recommended, t o avoid t he above evils ;and spring cultivation for roots should, it i sthough t

,as far as possible

,be confined t o t he

use of cultivators,rubbers

,rollers

,and bar

rows . This is no doubt sound teaching,bu t

most farmers,in spite of all that has been

advanced on t he subject,cl ing t o t he plough

as t he most thorough form of cultivating implement

, even in spring. The wri t er wil l neverforget t he dictum of a Merse farmer in Berw ickshire. Some ’

,he said

,use t he cultivator

and grow thistles "’ Again,an Essex agricu l

turist once remarked : ‘If you don’t lough ,you lose mould’. A via med ia is probably t hebest, and may be summed up as follows. Latespring ploughing is often inj urious t o t he futureroot crop, both on heavy and light soils ; andfrequent ploughings in spring are bad . On t he

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102

( like Scots P ine) is liable t o attack by manynoxious insects and fungous diseases . In common with other conifers

,young plan tations of

Spruce are ap t t o be attacked by t he P ineweevil (Hg/lobius abiet is) and t he smal l brownweevil (P issodes nota t us). [J . N

i]

S p ru c e . Pa ra s it ic Fu n g i. The 01

lowing are t he more destructive fungi occurringon N orway Spruce and other species of P icea.

SEEDL IN G D ISEASE. Considerable damagemay be done amongst seedlings, especially ift he plants are crowded orovergrownwith weeds,and so kept in a moist condition favourable t othose fungi which attack seedlings of conifers .See P IN E—PA RA S ITIO FUN GI .LEAF CASE—P lants, after t he seedling stage,frequently show premature shedding of leavesaccompanied by one or other of t he followingfungi. Sep toria parasit ica attacks t he base of

young shoots so tha t they hang down and t heleaves wi ther. Yellow blot ches on t he needlesare caused by Ascomycete fungi (e.g. Lopko

d ermium macrosp orum). Several of t he R ustfungi also attack t he foliage of Spruce

,and t he

cluster—cups of other species appear as rustpatches on t he cone- scales, so that noseed isproduced.

STEM R or.- Agam

’

ous melleus and Trametesrad icip erda , both of which effect an entrancethrough t he roots

,are as destructive t o Spruce

as t o other conifers . (See P INE—PARAS ITICFUN OI .) Th e timber may also Show white or redrot resulting from t he activity of wound fungi,especially various Polypores. In some loca litiesmuch destruction is caused by stem canker d uet o N ectri a cucurbitu la , nearly allied t o applecanker (see art . T IMBER - DESTROYING I‘

EUN GI).w . G. s.

S p ru n g H o c k —This malady, which occasional ly occurs in horses

,is treated fully in t he

art . H OOK, SPRUN G .

S p u rg e (Euphorbia) is t he common namefor a genus of annual or perennial weeds belonging t o t he nat . ord. Euphorbiaceae. Allt he species are poisonous, containing abundanceof acrid milky j uice. The other characteristicfeature is t he three- cornered and three - lobedseedvessel rising on a stalk from t he middle of

a green cup in which t he stamens are almosthidden. The Sun Spurge (Eup lzorbia lzeliosc ia)is a common annual species on light land . t iserect and diminutive, only 6 t o 12 in. high , withserrated leaves 1 t o 2 in . long, broad and obtuseat t he apex and narrow at t he base. For ex

t irpat ion , clean cultivation and

preven t ion of

seeding are effective. The seed 0 Sun Spurgesomet imes occurs as an impurity in farm seeds.It is recognized by its oval outline, by roll ingon a smooth surface, by t he netted skin , an

by t he white,kidney - shaped

,very conspicuous

scar at its base. [A . N . M‘A .]

S p u rrey .—This troublesome weed, so com

mon among cereals and root crops, is describedunder its botanical designation SPERGULA.

S q u a s h . This name is given (as alsoGourdand P umpkin) t o a number of species and varieties of plants belonging t o t he Cucumber family.Being natives of warm climates they cannot besown outdoors in this country till May , and

Spruce Squirrel

they are killed by t he first frosts in autumn .The Vegetable Marrow is t he only Squash generally grown in England

,but a number of them

are much esteemed in America,and t o a lesser

degree in France, and they deserve more attention from gardeners here. They should be grownin holes fi lled with manure

,with 6 in . of soi l

on t op. Extra large fruits are obtained byallowing only t wo or three on each plant t odevelop ; and it is a good plan t o regulate t hegrowth by runing, and t o throw soi l over t hestem joints ere and there, when they will sendou t roots. Some varieties are eaten raw l ikecucumbers, others are cooked in a number ofways, notably in t he American form of p ics,and they have t he good quality of kee ing fora. considerable time after being cut. he fol

lowing are some of t he sort s most deserving ofcultivation : Canada Crook - neck—excellent fort he late crop ; t he fruits may be preserved tillt he following summer. Egg, Apple, and OrangeGourds—these are very ornamental plants whengrown on poles ; t he fruits are ea ten in a

young s tate. Green - striped Bergen—veryhardy ,and used both in t he green and ripe state.

H arrison’s P umpkin—said t o be capable of

pyro

ducinglb. of fruit per acre. I talian

egetab le Marrow—of compact bushl ike form ;best when eaten in t he young green s tate.

Mammoth P umpkin—t he fruits of which keepwell , and have been known t o weigh more than200 lb. H ubbard Squash—a favourite American kind ; and Winter Crook - neck—very prolific

,and largely grown for autumn and winter

use. w . w.

S q u irre l (Sciurus), arborea l rodents istributed all over the world except in t he Aust ralian region . The Common Squirrel (S. vu l

garis) is an active animal with a slender bodyabou t 85 in . in length , and a very bushy tailwhich measures nearly as much as t he body.

The fore limbs are short er than t he hind limbst he feet are adapted for cl imbing ; t he eyes arelarge and prominent ; t he ears are pointed, andare usually tufted

,t he tufts growing very long

in winter and di sappearing for a time in earlysummer. The general colour is reddish - brownslightly intermingled with grey on t he upperparts

,and white underneath . The squirrel is

now fairly common in wooded districts through~ou t t he greater part of Brit ain, but towardst he end of t he 1 8 t h century it had apparentlybecome extinct over a large part of Scotland .

Towards t he middle of t he 1 9t h century itreappeared in Sutherlandshire, and with t heplanting of young timber soon spread t o theneighbouring counties and multiplied rapidly.

The squirrel makes ‘t he best nest of any mammal

’. It has a foundation of sticks, on which

is placed t he nest proper, made of moss,grasses,

leaves, curiously interwoven . A sloping roofafi

‘

ords protection from rain, and t he main en

trance Is u sually directed downwards. Threet o seven young ones about t he size of mice are

born early in April . They are blind and helpless at birth , but are able t o leave t he nestwithin a fortnight . A second litter may beborn in June, and t he whole family is said t okeep together throughout t he summer.

Squirrels Stable

The food of t he squirrel consists mainly of

nuts, acorns, beech mast, and unfortunately alsot he bark of young branches and tree- tops. Itis, however, not exclusively vegetarian , for iteats beetles and grubs

,and lunders birds’

nests, devouring both eggs and young birds.Though it becomes drowsy in cold weather

,it

does not hibernate com let ely , but comes ou tfrequently t o feed on t e stores of nuts andt he like which it has hidden in different laces.The squirrel is very destructive t o w oo lands(see succeeding article). On t he other hand,t he squirrels are a most effective check t o t heexcessive multiplication of wood pigeons. The

fur of t he squirrel is used for lining cloaks,for

making camel’s—hair ’ brushes, &c . [J . A. T.]S q u irre ls—Dam a g e t o Wood la n d s .—Squirrels may do very serious damage, and

especially in coniferous woods . They feed on

most kinds of tree seeds,but are particularly

fond of acorns,and beech and hazel nuts ; they

eat t he flowering buds of Oak,Beech

,Ma le

,

Sycamore,and Conifers in late winter ; an in

summer and autumn pick cones t o pieces,even

before these are ripe,t o suck t he juice and eat

t he seeds. H ence seed production is poor wherever squirrels are numerous . But t he greatestdamage they d o is when , during spring and

summer,they seat themselves on t he branch

whorls of conifer poles or trees and gnaw t he

soft bark, often completely ird ling t he stem,

which then dies,rots, and u t imat ely falls off.

In t he N orth of Scotland so much damage of

this sort has been done, especially in Scots P ineand Larch woods, that t he landowners in R oss,Cromarty, and neighbourhood had t o form squ ir

rel clubs for shooting and trying t o exterminatethis pretty

,but excessively destructive pest ;

and over were shot within five or sixyears. They are very destructive in some partsof Ireland, where they are said t o have beenintroduced about fifty years ago by t w o boysletting loose a pair given t o them as pets. Trapping is less efi’ect ive than shooting

,and t he best

time for this is during t he nesting time in May ,when a charge of small shot wil l kill both motherand brood. Where squ irrel raids are not per

mit t ed during t he nes t ing season , t he best timefor shooting them is in February , before t hegame birds begin t o lay . [J . N .]S t a b le .

—The position of the stable shouldbe carefully considered with relation t o t he

cart shed,t he straw barn , and immediate access

t o t he main roads . The height of t he wallsshould in no case be less than 8 ft .

,and 9 ft .

is preferable in order t o give sufficient headroom at doors and windows. The width of

stable should in no case be less than 1 8 ft. inside

,and each stal l should be not less than 6 ft.

wide. The inside walls should be smoothlyplastered with cement. The roof is usually constructed of t he ordinary rafter and t ie couples,set at 1 8 - in. centres

,and covered with 7 in . by

2 in. unchecked sarking, and slated with slates,which should all be of t he same size, colour,thickness

,and quality. The roof should always

have rhones or eaves gutters t o conduct t heroof water by means of iron conductors t o t hedrains . Instead of t he usual style of couple

103

roof, one may be formed with main or principalrafters set about 8 or 9 ft. apart, and measuring 9 in. by 25» in. for t he ordinary width of

stable, with 5 in . by 25 in . purlins. The sarkinis then put vertically on t he purlins, and shoulmeasure not less than Ii in . thick. This thickness is a great advantage, because t he galvanizedslate nails do not project through t he sarking,and do not therefore rust owing t o t he foul airfrom t he stable below.

If t he ventilation t o be put in t he ridge isof t he nature of a ventilator opening t he wholelength of stable

,t he t op purlin on each side

of the roof will be kept down a l ittle from t he

apex,and t he sarking w ill also be stopped short

of t he apex .All t he woodwork of t he roof where seen in

t he stable should be clean dressed and thenvarnished, and t he ironwork should be painted.This greatly increases t he ‘life of t he roof.The roof should have a sufficient number ofroof- lights. These roof—lights should all be madet o raise or lower at will .As regard s t he floor

,t he old system of cause

waying wi t h stones is now ou t of date. Cementfloors will not stand t he heavy tread and t he

kicking of farm horses . The back part or passage behind t he horses may be laid with con

crete 45 in . thick, finished with If in. thick of

cemen t on t o all having a 6 - in . layer of brokenstones beneatfii . This cement floor might also beput below t he manger for about 2 ft. wide. For

t he stall proper,where t he horse stands

,t he

ground should be excavated t o a depth of about1 8 in .

,and then have t he t w o layers of stones

and of concrete as above,without t he lg- in .

cement layer. The layer of concrete is laid t ot he proper levels and then receives a coating offine sand about “2 in. deep . Stone setts ’of hardgranite or whinstone

,measuring 9 in . by 4 in .

by 6 in . deep,Should then be laid on this bed of

sand. The joints must be fully grouted withcement mortar. The urine channel is laid int he same w ay , but with a slight hollow

, about2 in . t o 3 in. deep , and not less than 12 in . wide.

The oldfashioned under - floor drains are now

being dispensed with,and all urine is run t o an

outside drain wherever possible.

As t o ven tilating a stable, fresh - air inletsshould be provided both in t he front and in

t he back wall,formed with fireclay pipes cut t o

t he exact thickness of t he walls. In t he wall att he horses’ heads, these must be placed abovet he level of t he horses’heads ; but they may be

placed at t he floor level in t he other wal l,if

it is desired t o bring in fresh air where it

should, theoretically, be admitted. To exhaustt he vitiated air

,ventilators must be placed in

t he ridge. N o perfect ridge ventilator has yetbeen discovered. If servants could be rel iedon t o attend t o t he ventilation in a regularmanner, those ventilators that can be openedand Shut as and when required are certain ly t obe preferred . But until w e can secure that attention

,then it seems necessary t o have a venti

lator that is always 0 en and acting,and at t he

same time does not a mit any draughts or snowor rain .

Travises may be made entirely of wood,viz .

O4

wooden heelposts,forepost s, and planking ; or

t he heelposts and the t op and bottom ramp - railsmay be of iron

,with t he planking only of wood.

The mangers are sometimes made with openspars for whole hay , with a fireclay feedingtrough . Very often t he manger is made close,l ike a box

,in order t o hold chaffed food, now

so commonly given t o horses. The height ineither case from floor should be not less than3 ft . t o 3 ft. 3 in. Water pots should also beincluded. These are fed from a small cistern

placed at t he same level as t he pots

,with a

all - cock t o regulate t he flow of water.H ay racks above t he horses’ heads Shouldnever be allowed. They destroy t he eyesightof t he horses by t he dust and dirt dro pinginto their eyes. A hay loft above a st a le isalso t o be very much deprecated. I t interfereswith t he stable ventilation , and hay as a rulewill not keep so well in a loft above a stable.

Doors t o stables should always be wide and

lofty—say 4 ft . 6 in. wide by 8 ft . high. The

sliding door is preferable t o t he hinged door.The former works very easily if fitted up withCoburn patent pulleys and iron S liding rails.Besides t he roof- Ii hts, a stable should have asmany side-wal l win ow s as possible. A stablecannot be t oo well lighted. The lower part oft he windows may be made t o act as ventilators.A few recesses with Shelves might also be pu tin a stable or in t he harness room. The har

ness should not be hung in t he stable, exceptperba s at t he midday meal, but should beplace in a properly constructed harness room,

well aired, l ighted, and heated by a fire lace.

All harness fittings are best of wood an not

of iron . The latter rusts and destroys t heleather. Corn chest s should be also placed int he harness room ,

ou t of reach of any horse thatmay happen t o break loose. These chests canbe obtained in great variety , of galvanized iron .

A chest should be provided for every pair ofhorses

,and have a lock and key attach

[ed t o ii

.

c . w . s .S t a c k - b u ild in g .

—In t he midland andsouthern counties of England, very wide stacks,either round or oblong, are usually built, because there t he straw is generally more fullyripened and much drier at stacking time thanin t he north. Farther north , with a damperclimate and softer straw, t he size is limited byt he condition of t he crop at stacking time, andt he stacks are usually made as large as they canbe, short of causing heating.Whether in t he regular stackyard or in t he

field,stack bottoms should be slightly raised

above t he ordinary level of t he ground by t heearth from t he intervening spaces being thrownon t o them,

after which t he site of t he stackshould be further raised by placing on it oldwood

,branches of trees, old bricks, tiles, stones,

&c. On t he t op of these, any old dry strawwhich may be available should be placed, so

as t o prevent as far as possible t he damp fromrising t o t he grain. Stack- stands made of ironor wood are also frequently employed (seeart . STADDLES ) . Whether t he stack is largeor smal l

,square, oblong, or round, it should

always be begun by setting up a stook in t he

Stack- building Stack Covers

midd le. Around this t he sheaves should bebuilt, keeping t he heads wel l up at first

,and

al lowing t he sheaves to become flatter as t heoutside is reached. The sheaves near t he centre,though placed in an almost upright positionwhen building begins

,gradually get crushed

down as the weight above increases,until they

ultimately become quite flat . In building t hebase, care should therefore be taken t o keep t heheads of each succeeding row of sheaves wel labove t he bands of t he preceding one. If thisis done there will usually be sufficient strawbelow t he head of each sheaf to prevent damaget o t he grain.As soon as the bottom of t he stack has beenquite covered with sheaves

, one or more rowsShould be put in t he centre

,according t o t he

size of t he stack . These are cal led ‘hearting ’sheaves, and are put in for tw o purposes : first

,

t o keep u t he centre of t he stack ; and second,t o hold t e stack together and prevent t heouter row of sheaves from slipping ou t . Unlesst he centre of t he stack is kept well up whenbeing built, it wil l be lower than t he outsidewhen consolidated. When this happens, rainwhich falls on t he ends of t he ou t side row ofsheaves runs right int o t he stack instead of offit, as it should do if t he heads of t he sheavesand t he centre of t he stack are kept suffi cientlyw ell fil led u After every outside row of

sheaves has een built,t he centre Should be

wel l filled up before another row is begun.In buildin s tacks in t he southern counties

of England t ree or four sheaves in depth areusual ly placed in position at one time

,but in

Scotland every course of one sheaf thick is comlet ed and hearted before a second one is begun.n t he nort h t he Sides of t he stack project verylittle beyond t he perpendicular, whereas in t hesouth t he eaves often project 1 or 2 ft. overt he base. In t he south t he t op or roof of t hestack is usually made very much steeper than itis in t he north , t he reason being, that althought he annual rainfall is less

,more rain usually falls

in a shorter time. By keeping t he roof steep,t he

rain runs off very much quicker, whereas witht he same thatch on a flat roof, a portion of it

might run through and cause dama e.

W'here grain contains a considera le propor

tion of clover or ryegrass, or in districts that

are late or sheltered,it is often very difficult

t o get t he crop sufficiently dry t o keep in evena small stack . In such circumstances three poles10 t o 1 2 ft. long may be set up in t he centreof t he stack in t he shape of a triangle

,and t he

sheaves built round about these. This in someplaces is cal led a bossing

, and assist s very mat erially in preventing overheating w ith grainin indifi'

eren t condition . J. s.S t a c k Cove rs are used t o protect stacksfrom rain whilst in t he course of construction .The essential part of a cover is a big sheet

,

which may be used with or without pole su

ports . I t is preferable, not only for t he e

ciency of t he covering, but for t he preservationof t he cover, that it be carried on poles. Forthis purpose t w o tall poles or masts are setup, one at either end of t he stack

, previouslyt o commencing building. The poles should be

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Stacking Mach inery Staggers

firmly let into t he ground, and must then beeffectively stayed by guy ropes. A swingingbeam is laid between t he poles

, and t he clothi s suspended over it. The beam is secured ateither end by ropes which pass over pulleys

,

which al low t he beam and cloth t o be raisedand lowered at will. A rick cover should berather larger than t he stack it has t o protect

,

and should be kept free from holes .[W. J. M .]

S t a c k in g M a c h in e ry . See H A YMA K

IN G MACH IN ERY ; ELEVATOR .

S t a c k - s t a n d s . See STACKYARDS andSTADDLESS t a c k y a rd . N o modern homestead iscomplete without a suitable stackyard. Tosecure this, several conditions are essential.The site should be as convenient as possible t ot he farm buildings, although it need not beimmediately adjacent t o them . Wet

,low - lying

situations should be avoided : t he wetness renders t he surface easily cut up by cart or bywagon wheels, and perhaps impassable by portable threshing machines ; while, if low - lying

,

t he ventilation is ap t t o be insufificien t for t hecompletion of t he drying of t he crops after theyhave been stacked. N either must t he sitechosen be t oo much exposed

,otherwise t he

various operations of stack - building,thatching

,

threshing,&c .

,are likely t o be frequently

carried on under very unfavourable and exacting conditions. As a rule

,t he best exposure is

t o t he north -west, north , or north - east wind ;and this has t he incidental advantage of pro

vid ing some shelter t o t he farm buildings.The ground select ed should be level , dry , andthoroughly underdrained. It is also necessaryt o have a good

,firm

,dry foundation , not so

much for t he stacks themselves as for t he heavytraffic it wil l have t o carry. The surface layersof soil should be removed t o get down t o t he

harder subsoil , a 2 t o 3 - ft . layer of large brokenstones laid down , then a thin layer of smallerstones

,and lastly a covering of gravel. Such

a foundation not only ensures good drainage,but also a good firm surface even in w et weather.The best means of enclosing a stackyard is asubstantial 45 t o 5 - ft . stone-and - lime wal l. Athorn hedge makes an effective fence, but ifvermin happen t o get a footing amongst itsroots they are difficult t o exterminate. A gateat least 12 ft. wide should be provided at t he

most convenient place for entrance and exit.The size of t he stackyard required depends

main ly upon t he rotation adopted and upon t hesize of stacks t o be built. Generally a rect an

gular shape will be most convenient, with one

of t he narrower ends at right angles t o t he

direc t ion of t he most prevalent wind.The arrangement of t he stacks wi thin theyard will be conditioned by t he method of

threshing t o be adopted. If threshing is t o bedone by t he farmer’s stationary machine, therows of stacks can be placed contiguous t o one

another without any roadways between ; wh ileif a portable threshing machine is t o be em

ployed , t he rows must be so arranged as t o

allow t he threshing mill t o be brought W ith ineasy reach for forking t he sheaves from t he

105

stacks on t o t hemill and in t he latter case, spacemust always be reserved for t he beginning of

t he straw stack at threshing. The stacks maybe placed about 3 ft. apart, with roadways about1 8 ft. wide, if such are required.The foundation or ‘bottom ’

of the stack is ofgreat importance. R ick stands

,wooden or iron

,

are now in common use, and these act partlyas ventilators and

partly as protection against

vermin . Failing t ese, a 1—ft . layer of larges t ones proves an effective substitute, w hile fortemporary foundations nothing suits better thana layer of large branches overlaid w ith somedry, second -rate straw or cuttings from hed crerows. [J . w.

S t a d d le s , or S t e d d le s , are raised frameworks on which corn is

_stacked . The object is

t o raise t he stacks from t he ground on pillarsup which rats and mice cannot climb ; and t o

provide all round ventilation t o t he stacks.They may have any Shape

,but are usually

round or parallelograms. The pillars are madeof iron or stone, and are provided with capsor heads somewhat mushroom - shaped

, so thatvermin climbing t he pillars are unable t o getinto t he stacks. The framework is sometimesof iron and sometimes of wood . [W. J . M .]S t a g B ee t le . This ferocious - looking insect

,commonly found in woodlands

,is described

under LUCA N IUM CERVUS .

S t a g g e rs .—The imperfect co- ordination of

t he voluntary muscles commonly spoken of as

staggers in horses and in Sheep has its origin inseveral causes. Staggering or trembling is oneof t he prominent symptoms of louping ill (whichsee), and from this wel l- recognized sign is inmany districts bet t er known as sheep stag ers.

The presence of hydatids or t he in t erme iateform of tapeworm in t he brain of shee pro

duces s t aggers,and a spinning round en ing in

a fall,and speedy restoration t o consciousness

(see GID) . More frequent in sheep,it is never

t heless t he cause of staggers in cattle and

horses, hill ponies sharing t he same conditionsas sheep being most often t he subjects. Diseases affecting t he brain and spinal cord whereby undue pressure is exerted on a certain portion

,or t he normal pressure of t he fluid is

absent, result in a staggering gait or in varying degrees of paralysis ; t he inability t o walkstraight

,or t o turn short, or t he swaying t o

one side being generally described as staggers.Disturbances of t he cerebral functions due t o

su pressed sexual desire, t o constipation and

indigestion , t o heart failure, diseased bloodvessels, tumours in t he brain , injuries t o t he

vertebrae causing pressure upon t he spinal cord—any of these derangements may cause staggering ; and it is important t o ascertain t he cause,and not attribute staggers t o any one specialmalady which may be known t o be prevalentin a district. The staggers caused by ressure

of hydatids w e have already described ; bu t thatmore generally known as shee staggers is dist ingu ished from gid or stur y by t he earlysymptom of erecting t he head, wild vacantstaring of the eyes, and t he jerky uncertaingait which in man would be attributed t o alcoholism. The animal falls

,is convulsed

,para

106

lysed, and dies ; or lingers a few days and

slowly recovers. This form of staggers is nowbelieved t o be transmitted through t he agencyof ticks ; and on such land a dressing of half at on of crushed rock salt t o t he acre has provedmost effective in eradicating t he disease fromseveral districts. The coarse grass is cut inautumn and al lowed t o rot—a prac t ice whichappears t o destroy nymphs and has manurialvalue for t he following season. S t aggeringshould always be regarded as a grave sympt omin horses, as they may be attacked while in harness and become uncontrollable (see MEGR IMS),or t he loss of control over himself may be d uet o brain tumour or other incurable lesions. Somehorses stagger and fall over backwards whent he head is elevated in order t o administer adraught of medicine

,and this has been traced

t o anchylosis of t he neck bones and lesions tot he spinal membranes. P lethoric horses

,t oo

ful l of blood and having insufficient exercise,appear t o suffer from determination of bloodt o t he head, and this causes st aggerin j ust ast he opposite condition of sudden with rawal ofblood in lar e quantity does. H eart fail ure or

syncope an certain narcotic poisons inducestaggering. See STOMACH STA ooERs. [H . L . ]S t a l l Fee d in g .

—The primary reason forfattening cat t le in s t al ls is t o economize spaceand reduce t he capital expenditure on farmbuildings ; bu t t he advocates of stal l feedinghave several additional arguments in favour oft he practice

,t he chief of which are, t he possi

b ilit y of feeding each animal accordin t o itsappeti t e and constitution , and t he avoi nce of

bullying and horning which may occur in boxesand courts. On the other hand, stall feeding iswasteful of litter

,produces inferior manure, and

necessitates periodical grooming if irritation andconsequen t restlessness is t o be avoided. N ever~t heless, some of t he best bred and most perfectlyfinished cattle are stall- fed . Some feeders haveboth courts and sta lls, using t he latter for themost forward animals, and as they are draftedou t , filling t he stalls with t he best cattle fromt he courts. This is an excellent practice, as itadmits of t he use of a finishing ration suitablet o each bullock. Store and young cattle are

better in courts than in stalls. The stalls forful l rown cattle are of t he same siz e as thosefor airy cows, but it is not usual t o providea travis or partition as in cow stalls. In somedistricts t he floor of t he stall is a movablewooden grid laid on concrete, t o save litter, andallow t he free outflow of urine while maintaining a dry bed . [R . B . c .]S t a l l io n .

—In t he breeding of horses of allkinds

,t he selection of t he stal lion is of t he

utmost importance. Some breeders assert thatt he sta llion transmits his characteristics t o t heoffspring in a far great er de ree than does t hemare ; but while this is un oubt ed ly t he casein many instances, we must not overlook t hefundamen t al principle that t ransmission of formation or temperamen t depends largely upont he prepotency of t he S ire or t he dam. Givena stallion or mare endowed with this ift t o a

marked degree,it is easy t o recognize t e effec t

in t he offspring, and t he value of t he parent for

Stall Feeding Stallion

breeding as a result becomes much enhanced.It need hardl y he remarked that t he aim inbreeding is t o select a stallion particu larly strongin some poin t wherein t he mare is deficient

,in

expectation that he may transmit this specialfeature ; but here again there can be no guaran tee of success, as prepotency in t he dam maydefeat t he object in view. In t he choice of t he

stallion it is not j udicious to be guided altogether by t he conformation ; w e must investigate t he pedigree and make sure that forseveral generations back t he breeding is correct.Many stallions of mixed parentage are endowedwith good looks, bu t rove unsatisfactory as

sires because of t he t en ency such animals commou ly possess of breeding back t o previousancestors, this bein t he natural result of t hedifferent strains of Iilood in their constitut ion ;t he purer t he breeding of t he sire t he lesschance there is of such reversion.The chief characteristics of a stallion irre

spect ive of breeding are size and substance ; abold, strong, masculine head and well - archedneck (those possessing efi

'

eminat e, gelding—likeheads and necks are frequently unreliable as

breeders, and have diffi culty in settling theirmares) ; t he chest should be deep and t he bodycompact

,with a short, straight, and powerful

back ; forearms and thighs muscular, plen t y offlat bone below the knees and hocks, and t he

joints strong and well - developed. The pasternsshould have sumcient length and slope

,and t he

feet should be large and well - formed. H is walkshould be free and jaunty, and t he stride longand level

,while at both t he walk and t he trot

t he limbs should be kept wel l under t he bodyand t he hocks close together, any tendency t orotate t he limbs or spread t he hooks being ohject ionable.

The popular colours undoubted ly are brown,

bay , and black, and at t he present time t he

flash appearance of plenty of whit e about t helimbs is adm ired

,es ecially in t he heavy breeds ;

still, it is questiona le if this attribut e is alt ogether t o be commended on economic grounds.Soundness of body, limbs, and consti t ut ion

,

and t he possession of a well - balanced nervoussystem are most essential. V ice, nervousness,and liability t o such objectionable diseases asstringhalt

,roaring, shivering, &c .

,are in many

instances markedly hereditary, and animals soafi

'

ect ed should on no account be encouraged forstud purposes.It would undoubtedly be of advan tage wereit mad e compulsory that no stallions should beallowed t o beget progeny unless they themselves were free from hereditary disease. Undersuch conditions, it would only be a question oftime until t he standard of soundness of t hevarious breeds would be raised t o a much moresatisfactory position than it at present unfort unat ely occupies.An unsound mare is bad enough

,but the

results of such transmissible defect s are con

fined to her limited number of progeny whereasin t he case of an unsound stallion serving a largenumber of mares every season , t he perpetuationof hereditary defects assumes a much moreserious aspect . [J . R. M

‘C.]

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108

contain ing 345 er cent digestible albuminoid,er cent of igest ible oil

,and 26 1 per cent

of igest ible carbohydrates ( including fibre)w as found t o give t he same fattening increaseas 77 lb. of starch ; i.e. t he ‘st arch value ’

of

100 lb. of this l inseed cake was 77 lb. On t he

basis of his investigations Kellner has deviseda method for t he calculation of t he starch valuesof foods from their percentage composition and

digestibility. This method res t s primarily upont he results obtained in experiments in whichhe compared t he values for fattening purposesof pure albuminoids

,oils, carbohydrates, and

fibre,when added separately t o a maintenance

ration . Expressed in terms of starch as unity ,these values were as fol lows

R elat iveStarch Values.

S tarch

Fibre (pu lped) 1 02Sugar

Al buminoid 09 4Oil (in oil seeds and t heirOil (in ot herseeds and t heirproduct s) 2

Oil (in coarse fodders,

chafi , and‘root s

I t will be seen that under t he ideal conditionsof these experiments

,where each nutrient

even t he fibre—w as supplied in highly digestible form, t he starch and fibre prove t o be of

equal value,t he sugar decidedly inferior, and

t he albuminoid slightly inferior t o t he starch,

whilst t he relative value of t he oil ranged from

Bean

Meal.

lb

65 7

An explanation of t he discrepancy betweent he calculated and observed val ues is not d iffic ult t o find. It must be borne in mind thatt he nutrients digested from any food have t oprovide not only for t he productive purposesof t he animal , but also for unproductive purposes , such as t he labour involved in t he mastication oi t he food and its di est ion . The greatert he demands upon t he foo for t he latter purposes , t he less wil l be t he surplus of nutritivematter available for roduct ive purposes ; or, t ouse a term employe in a similar sense in connect ion with soils and manures, t he lower mustb e t he ‘

availabil ity ’ for productive purposes oft he digested matter. N ow t he labour involvedin t he mastication

,&c.

,of a foodstuff wil l be

largely determined by t he amount and character of t he crude fibre contained in it. H encew e may expect t o find that t he ‘

availability ’of t he digestible matter of different foodstuffs

Starch Value

1 9 in t he case of the impure ‘oil

’of coarse

fodders t o 2 4 in t he case of t he pure oils,such

as those of t he oil - bearing seeds, nuts , &c . The

low value of sugar as compared with starch isattributable t o t he wasteful activity of ferment at ive organ isms in t he digestive tract, thesefind in in t he soluble sugar more easily acquirednouris ment than in t he more insoluble starchand fibre.

If now w e may assume that t he digestiblealbuminoids, &c.

, will exercise t he same relativeincrease-

producin powers when mixed toget herin t he form of ordinary foods t uffs as they werefound t o possess when supplied separately, t hestarch value of a foodstuff ( 100 lb. ) may be ar

rived at by means of t he fol lowing expressionS t arch value per 100 lb . (digest ible albuminoid

per cen t x 094) (digest ib le oil per cen t x or

21 2 or 1 9 1 ) digest ible carbohydrat es per cent -'

r

digest ible fibre per cen t .

Wheat Pot at oes MangelsWh eat Meadow Oatdry (dryBran. H ay . Straw . St raw . mat t er) . mat t er) .

will steadily dimin ish as w e pass from foodstuffs con taining very little fibre t o t he foodstuffs rich in fibre of a hard character. The

examples quoted above show very clearly thatthis is t he case. Thus, whereas in t he case of

t he easily masticated and digested oil- seed andgrain foods t he ‘

availabil ity ’ of t he digestiblematter is 94 t o 98 per cent, in t he more fibrouswheat bran it is 77 per cent, in t he stil l morefibrous hay it is 70per cent, whilst in t he caseof t he straws

,most fibrous of all foods

,it is

61 per cent for the relatively soft oat straw,and only 29 per cent for t he hard wheat strawused in this experiment.“To return now t o our expression for t he cal

culation of starch values,in order t o bring our

results into accord with actual fact it is obviously necessary that t he ‘

availabil ity ’ of t he

digestible matter of t he foodstuff t o which thecalculation refers shal l be taken into account.

Kellner found,however, that almost without

exception t he starch values thus ca lculated fordifferent foodstuffs were higher than t he valuesobtained by direct experiment with t he foodstuffs. The discrepancies were only slight int he case of t he highly digestible foodstuffs, bu tvery great in t he case of t he highly indigestibleand bulky foodstuffs. The fol lowing examplesselected from Kellner’s resul t s are typical of t hedifferences found between t he calculated and

actual values

Starch Value Starters

Kel lner has rendered th is possible by t abulating t he percentage ‘

availabilities ’ (German‘Wertigkeit ’) of a large number of foodstuffs(see Kellner’s Scientific Feeding of Animals

,

trans . by Goodwin,pp. 379

A few examples will best illustrate t he cal

culation of starch values by t he method hereoutlined :Examp le I .

—Linseed Cake containing 25 per cen t

digest ible albuminoid , 9§ per cent digest ible ‘oil

’

, and32 per cen t digest ible carbohydrat e fibre)Availabilit y (Kellner) 97 per cen t .

S t arch value per 100lb. x 09 4) (9é x97

_

+ 32] xITO

_ 76 1b .

Example 1 1 .

—Oa ts con t aining 9 er cen t digest iblealbuminoids, 5 per cen t digest ible oi and 45 per centdigest ible carbohydrat e fibre).

Availabilit y (Kellner) 95 per cen t .S t arch value per 100 lb . 2 x 09 4) (5 x

t 954 608 1b

In t he case of coarse fodders (hay and straw),chafl

”

and green foods,Kellner recommends that

instead of correcting t he calculated starch valuesby means of t he ‘

coefi cien t s of availability ’ asin t he above examples, t he correction should bebased upon t he percentage of crude fibre ( t ota l,not merely digestible) in t he food, in accordancewith t he following scheduleFor each 1 '

er cent of crude fibre present,t he uncorrectedcalculated starch value of hays

,

straws, and green foods con t ainin 1 6 per centcrude fibre or more Should be re uced by 05 8(sayCh affs and green foods con t ainin not morethan 4 per cent crude fibre shouldTie reducedby 02 9 (sayIn t he case of green foods whose fibre contentfalls between t he l imits of 4 per cent and 1 6

per cent, a proport ional correction should bemade ; for 6 per cent of crude fibre t he cor

rection per 1 per cent wil l be for 8 per

cent 03 8,for 10per cent 043 , for 12 per cent

and for 1 4 per cent starch value.

The following exam les will illustrate t heapplication of this method :Example 1 1 1 .

—R ed CloverH ay con t aining 5 5 per cent

d igest ible albuminoid , percen t digest ible ‘oil 38 per

cen t digest ible carbohydrat e fibre), and 25 per cen ttota l crude fibre.

Starch value per 100lb . 2 x (1§ x38] (25 x 2 46 1 5 31 lb .

Example I V.—Lucerne (green ) con t aining 2 per cent

digest ib le albuminoid , 5 per cen t digest ible ‘oil

’

, 9 percen t digest ible carbohydrat e fibre), and 7 per cen t

tota l crude fibre.

S t arch value per 100 lb . x 09 4) (5 x 1 9 )9] (7 x lb .

The experiments upon which t he foregoin

methods of calculating starch values are basewere confined t o t he fattening of oxen

,and

hence, strictly speaking, t he starch values thusarrived at apply only t o this particular class offeeding. There is every reason t o believe

,how

ever, so far as available information can give usany guidance, that, for t he more concentratedfoods at any rate

,these starch values may be

taken as fairly representing t he relative values

109

St arling

has a beautiful green or purple sheen,and is

spotted with buff,especially in t he female. The

beak is long and curved. Starlings chiefly feedon snails

,slugs

,worms

, and insects, catchingmany of t he last on t he wing. They also dogood service by ridding sheep from various parasites. On t he other hand, these birds undoubted ly attack grain

,and fruits such as cherries

,

apples,and pears . In some districts their habits

are undergoing change. The benefits conferredfar outweigh t he damage done t o agriculturepure and S imple, but fruit growers are j ustifiedin keeping t he species in check, though evenhere a pol icy of extermination is not t o be

recommended. Breeding takes place in t he

early spring,and t he untidy nest, made of t he

most varied materials, is built in all sorts ofplaces. The four t o seven eggs are pale- bluewith a tinge of green . There are often t w obroods in t he season . [J . R . A . D.]S t a rt ers .

—Starters have been employed formany years t o hasten t he souring of milk or

cream in cheesemaking and but t ermaking, butit is only recently that thei r nature and effectshave been understood. N atural starters wereobtained by allowing milk or cream t o sourunder natural conditions . Buttermilk and wheystarters were also used.

In 1 890Dr. Storch conceived t he idea of mak

of t he differen t foodstuffs for all ‘productive ’purposes, and all t he common classes of farmstock, whether fattening oxen

,sheep or pigs

,

working horses or milch cows. In all cases,

p rovided tha t t ile total ra t ion contains a sufi ciencyof d igestible albuminoids for t/ze needs of t ile

animal,t he relative ‘produc t ive ’ values of dif

feren t foodstuffs or rat ions appear t o correspond closely t o their relative starch values ascalculated by t he methods explained above .

There is some reason t o believe that in t he caseof milk - producing animals a certain minimumamount of digestible oil must also be suppliedin t he ration before t he d ifieren t foodstuffs wil lproduce ’ in proportion t o their starch

Talues.

c . c .S t a rl in g (S turnus vu lgaris).—This comnilongregarious bird is on t he increase in Britainand is familiar t o everyone. The black plumage

1 10

ing use of pure cultures of bacteria for startersin cream ripening

, and t he system has now beenadopted extensively both in bu t termaking andin cheesemaking in all t he principal dairy in o

coun t ries. The first culture starters containedonly one Species of bacteria

,but t he commercial

start ers of t o- day include more than one species.These bacterial cultures are prepared in t he

laboratory, and put on t he market in t he formof a dry powder

,or as a l iquid .

The principles of cream ripening by t he use ofculture starters are : first

,t he keeping of t he

milk as free from germs as is ract icable,and

t he elimination,as far as possi le

,of t he bac

teria present in t hemilk by past euriz ing second,t he addi t ion of a starter t o give impetus t o t hedesirable organisms

,and t o enable them t o gain

and maintain t he ascendancy over other and lessdesirable species. Cul t ure s t arters are also addedt o raw or unpasteurized cream ,

but t he resultcannot be so thoroughly relied upon . In butt ermaking, and almos t equally in cheesemaking

,

great improvemen t in quality has resulted fromt he general use of culture starters in t he ripening processes.A useful home- made starter may be prepared

in t he dairy as follows : Select a cow givingsound normal milk which sours without t he produc t ion of gas or other taint. H ave some of t hemilk drawn

,with special care as t o cleanliness

,

and keep this near 70° F . until partially curdledfrom acidity. Inoculate with some of this souredmilk a fresh lot of pasteurized milk, and maintainit abou t 70° F . until this in turn is part iallycurdled . R epeat this treatment daily for severaldays. In this way a fairly pure starter may beprepared from ordinary milk

,though culture

s tart ers pre ared in t he laboratory by bacteriologica l met liods are t o be preferred as beingmore reliable.

A commercial culture starter when receivedshould be fresh

,with t he seal unbroken

,and

should be kept in a cool,dark place til l t he time

of using. It should be pure t o begin with , t .e.

contain only t he germ or germs specified,and

these germs should be able t o grow vigorouslyin milk at ordinary ripenin temperatures, andproduce lactic acid. It must e remembered thata starter is a l iving thing

,and its vigour orvitality

must be maintained. For this, great care in propagat ion is necessary. H eat some fresh

,whole

or separated milk t o 1 80° F . for thirty minutes.Cool t o 90° F . and inoculate with t he culturepreparation according t o directions with t he

package. Keep in an enamel led vessel , coveredlightly with a clean cheese cloth , at from 75 ° F.

t o 65°F. until partially curdled. The starter

should at no time become t oo thoroughly curdled,but well soured t o taste, and only partial lycurdled

,with acidit y not more than from °

74 t o“

8 5 per cent as determined by the acidimeter.The vigour of a starter is impaired by strongacidity ; lactic germs are checked and undesir

able germs allowed t o multiply in t he starter.To preven t over- development at any time, dilutewith some freshly pasteurized skim milk. Pro

pagate t he starter from day t o day by addinga smal l quantity t o a new lot of freshly pasteuriz ed skim milk. The percentage of starter for

Starters Statistics

inoculation and t he t emperat ure of setting varyaccording t o requirements. A new starter requires t o be ‘built up ’ for a few days beforeusing, and during this time its vitality will beincreasing dail But after a starter has beenfully develope good results wil l be obtainedwhen t he time allowed for ripening is fromeighteen t o twenty hours

,t he inoculation from

1 t o 2 per cent , and t he temperature of settingabout 68° F.

The quantity of starter added t o cream for

buttermaking varies from 25 t o about 8 percent,according t o t he temperature and time of ripening. The starter is introduced into t he ripeninvat before t he cream. The t op layer is skimmedofl“

,t he bot tom portion also discarded

,and t he

starter t o be used st rained free from curdymatter through a cream cloth. In cheddarcheesemaking, star ter is employed at t he rate of

i t o 5 or even 1 per cent of t he milk, and addedt o t he evening’s milk first thing in t he morning.In t he making of many of t he soft varieties ofcheese, a very few drops of starter may be usedwith good effects.The germs in a starter are t he seed and qual ityin t he crop, and it is impossible t o over- emphasize t he importance that should be attached t ot he purity of t he starter. A good start er whenstirred up will be of a smooth consistency withou t t he tendency t o se arate into curds and whey ;free from gassiness

, flit t erness, and stringiness,and have a desirable sharp acid flavour and a

pleasing aroma. Unless a starter is in a reasonably pure condition its use is likely t o do muchmore harm than good ; but a suitable starterintel ligently used should result in an improvedquality of butter or cheese. [W. St ]S t a t is t ic s , A g ric u lt a ra l. —P robably t he

earliest agricultural stat istics were returns of

t he numbers of live stock. Biblical history, atany rate, familiarizes us with enumerations oft he flocks and herds at a very early eriod . Sofar as our own country is concerne probablyt he first systematic att empt by t he State t o

record statistics of agriculture w as that made byWilliam t heConqueror in t he Domesday Inquestor Survey. This was extraordinarily detailedand precise for a large part of England

,but of

course it did not deal with Scotland and Wales.From time t o time other partial attempts weremade

,main ly by t he enterprise of individuals

,

as, for instance, Gregory King, SirJohn S inclair,and Arthur Young, t o collect data of t he agricultural resources of Great Britain , but it wasnot until 1 866 that t he present regular systemof annual agricultural returns was institu ted.Certain European countries had previously takent he lead by establishing periodical enquiries inconnection with t he census of t he people or in

dependently, both of t he area under differentcrops and of t he numbers of live stock .

Statistics of t he agriculture of any countrynatural ly divide themselves into three maingroups, viz . : ( 1 ) t he persons engaged, (2) t hecrops produced, and (3 ) t he animals kept. These

particulars may be collected in greater or lesset ail

, but unless t he main facts under theseheadings are obtained t he position and progressof t he agriculture of a country cannot be asoer

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1 1 2

Steam cultivation is most esteemed (1 ) on

heavy clay land,where horse ti llage is not only

expensive, but limited by t he time available forperforming it. I t is an enormous advan t age t ot he occupier of such land t o get it cultivated atseasonable times, and also t o t he required dep t hfor its thorough pulverization . (2) On light soils,where wide implements can be used in order t oget over a large area in one day . (3) On farmswhere special cultivations are necessary at cer

tain times of the year, such as in continuouscorn - growing, where it is important t o preparestubbles immediately after harvest, for autumnsowmg.

On many farms steam is called in upon specialoccasions

,either after harvest or in t he sprin in

order t o forward t he cleaning of land for fo der

or for root crops ; and this points t o t he advan

t age of contracting for t he work at a specifiedprice per acre. The question of cost is of vitalimportance, but is affected by that of efliciency .

There are some l ight soils which are better til ledby horses

,as steam is t oo rough

,and sometimes

t oo deep in it s action,for them

,and t he treading

of horses may also be distinctly beneficial t osuch soils. The cardinal points in favour of

steam cul t ivation,such as unlimited depth

,and

t he freeing of t he land from t he tread of horses,

cease t o be of impor tance on these soils,and t he

question of costmay be discussed w ithout takingefficiency into account. Time also is a less important consideration in t he case of land whichcan be ploughed whenever it is dry overhead

,or

harrowed without long delay,even after heavy

mm .

In considering t he relative costs of steam and

horse cultivation there is reason for believingthat t he horse is very difficul t t o replace, so faras actual cost is concerned . Th e estimated costof steam cultivation is liable t o be placed t oolow

,as sufficient al lowance is often not made

for deterioration in t he value of tackle after ithas been used for a few years.As an adjunct t o horse cultivation, steam is

extremely valuable, and in many cases it maypartially displace horses. I t is, however, noteworthy that after a trial of at least sixty years

,

i t has hitherto failed t o ous t t he horse from itsposition as t he most general ly employed poweron farms. It is no small advantage that horsescan be used singly, or t w o, three, or four t ogether ; that they can travel over bad roadsand soft land ; and that they can be called u

pon

or dispensed with at a moment’s notice ; t atthey require no repairs, except rest, and thatthey may be so managed as to be a source of

actual profit.The question of efficiency requires a few further words of explanation . S t eam cultivationis said t o be so much bet ter than horse cultivation

,that t he question of cost ceases t o be

all - important. The effi ciency of steam cultivation does not

,however

,appear t o be in all

cases greater than that of horse tillage. H orseploughing is quite as good as steam ploughing,and

,as t o ordinary harrowing, it is one of its

greates t recommendations on many soils thatt he horses tread t he ground and render it firmafter sowing. This is especially true of lea

Steam Cult ivat lon—Steamed Boneslands sown with wheat

,or on t he same land

sown with oats,in t he spring ; and in fact in

all cases where t he land lies hollow,after t he

seed has been de osit ed . See also arts. LABOUR.

on THE FARM ; TEAM PLOUGH . [J . Wr.]S t eam Dig g e rs are large cultivatorswhich break u t he ground, not through tinesbeing drawn t rough it as in ordinary steamor horse cultivating

,but by breaking or stir

ring motions im art ed t o t he forks or other attachment s provided for t he urpose. In almostall cases t he digging part s have been placed att he rear of t he traction engine

,though in t he

ea rly form of t he Darby digger,which in 1 880

w as t he firs t t o demonstrate practica l ly t hepossibil ity of digging

,t he engine w as made t o

travel sideways,t he digging forks bein placed

broadside t o t he engine, and presenteda dig

ging breadth of 21 ft. Al though it attainedsome popularity it was not suflicien t t o command permanent success. The P rocter diggerwas in reality a traction engine geared into a

crank shaft which worked three forks at t herear

,turning t he ground as t he engine travelled

forward. Mr. Darby at t he end of t he 1 9t h

century brought ou t a decidedly novel digger,

in which t he digging action d iflered reat lyfrom t he ‘kicker ’ mot ion imparted t o diggersin use at that time. The effect in working was,that a rotary cutting and st irrin action w asset up as t he engine moved forwar The landwas undoubtedly wel l stirred

,but there was no

provision t o effect thorough inversion,conse

quently it failed as a cleaner of t he land, and

failed commercial ly. The Cooper digger broughtou t in 1 896 is t he only one made in this country, and it has obtained sufl'icien t popularity tomake it successful. It is a thorough til ler andland cleaner

,doing in one operation more actual

cultivation than any cultivating machine yetbrought ou t . The Procter digger crudely foreshadowed t he Cooper digger, but t he design oft he latter throughout is markedly superior

,and

there are many features not present in t he

Procter. The attachment has a working widthof 9 ft . 6 in . covered by a double row of forks,four in each row . The front row has prongswhich are flat , chisel - shaped, and sharp, t o enterhard ground ; t he back row has curved ones, tobreak up t he ground turned

, and t o work ou t

weeds. The forks have continuous motion in a.vertical plane

,and are driven at a speed which

most thoroughly works t he land. Despite t hesize of t he machine all parts are under easycontrol, and work with great nicety.

[W. J. M .]S t eam e d Bo n e s , or degelat iniz ed bones,

are bones which have been treated under pressure with superheated steam t o alter and rendersoluble a part of t he nitrogenous matter whichis removed as glue or gelatin . The bones arefirst cleaned and degreased and then steamed.The steaming removes from one- third t o t w othirds of t he organic matter of t he degreasedbones, and t he remaining bone is much morebrittle and easily ground than t he original.The more thoroughly t he bones are steamedthe smaller t he amount of organic matt er leftin them . As t he organic matter of bones is

Steam Engine

h ighly nitrogenous, and t he glue or gelatinwhich is removed is a very nitrogenous substance, t he st eamin removes a large part oft he nitrogen of t heTone. On t he ot her hand

,

t he removal of t he organic matter leaves t he

phosphate unaltered

,and therefore steamed

ones have a larger ercent age of phosphatethan t he unsteamed bones. Clean raw bonecon tains about 4 per cent of nitrogen and 50

per cen t of phosphate,whereas t he steamed

bone contains about from 32 t o 15 per cent ofnitrogen and from 60 t o 70 per cent of phosphate (see BONE MAN URES) .S teamed - bone flour consists of steamed or

degelat iniz ed bones ground t o a fine powder.A s steamed bones are brittle and easily ground

,

they are usually more finely ground than bonemeals and bone dusts which are made fromunsteamed bones. This causes steamed boneflour t o form a very active and useful manure.

In fact, numerous experiments have shown thatweight for weight of phosphate it is generallymore active than bone meal . A t t he marketprices which have prevailed for bone manuresfor many years past

,it is cheaper per t on , and

also per unit of phosphate, than bone meal ; itis therefore an economical bone manure for

general u se. It is frequently mixed with superphosphate, as it dries t he superphosphate withou t reverting t he soluble phosphate t o t he

in soluble dicalcium - phosphate t o any great extent. For analyses of steamed bone flours andfurther information

,see t he article on BONE

M AN URES . [J . PL]S t e am En g in e .

—Steam engines may bedivided into t w o great classes—reciprocating

engines and rotary engines. Many of t he formsin which engines of t he former class have beenmade have now become obsolete, the only formof this class of engine which is now in commonuse being t he direct - ac ting form. In t he samew ay there have been many forms of rotaryengines

,but of these only certain forms, known

as steam turbines,are now made. The direct

acting, reciprocating steam engine,which

,with

t he exception of turbines,is now used exclusively

of all others,consists

,in its simplest possible

form,of t he following essen t ial parts : (a) a

cylinder,

fig. 1, cont ain in a piston P

,which is

caused t o reciprocate bac wards and forwardsfrom end t o end of t he cylinder by t he pressureof steam acting upon it ; and (b) a mechanism,

consisting of a piston rod PR , a slide block B,

and guides G, a connecting-rod CR,a crank, and

a crank shaft 8,working in bearings carried

by the frame or bed plate F . The object oft he mechanism is t o communicate t he recipro

VOL. XI.

1 1 3

cating mot ion of the piston t o, and convertit into t he rotatory motion of t he crank shaft .The cylinder of an ordinary steam engine isusual ly provided with .tw o Openings in the

barrel,one at each end

,called steam ports

,

through which t he steam, controlled by a slidevalve

,usually

,passes alternately t o and from

t he cylinder. A longitudinal section of t he

cylinder of a direct- acting steam engine, showing t he steam ports SP1 and SF

2,t he exhaust

port EP,and t he slide valve sv, is given in fig. 2.

The slide valve is driven from an eccentric ont he crank shaft. This eccentric is merely a

form of crank , t he rotatory motion of which ,by means of an eccentric rod and valve rod VR

,

is communicated t o t he slide valve, cau sing t helatter t o reciprocate backwards and forwardsmuch in t he same way as does t he piston , buton a smaller scale. In fig. 2 t he valve is show nadmitting live steam from t he valve box VB t o

t he end 01 of t he cylinder through t he steam

port SP 1 , and allow ing steam t o exhaust from t heother end , 02, of t he cylinder, through t he portsSFZ and EP

,into t he atmosphere or condenser.

As t he slide valve reciprocates backwards andforwards it alternately admits l ive or boilersteam t o, and allows t he escape of exhaust steamfrom

,each end of t he cylinder as fol lows : When

t he piston P , fig. 2,is j ust, oralmost, on t he point

of commencing its outward stroke, as shown at P ,fig. 3 , t he edge e of t he valve—which wil l thenbe moving towards t he left—will be opposite

1 65

1 1 4 Steam Engine

t he outer edge f of t he port SP 1 , as shown infig. 3

,and admission of steam t o t he right - hand

end of t he cylinderwill commence. Af ter a shor tinterval t he valve, having arrived at its extremeposition on t he left, will begin t o return , and ,when t he edge e of t he valve comes opposite t o

t he outer edge, f,of t he steam - port again , admis

sion of st eam will be cut off and expansion willcommence ; t he relative positions of piston andvalve now being as shown in fig. 4. Then

,t he

va lve stil l moving towards t he right,when t he

inner edge e’of t he valve comes opposite t o t he

inner edge f’

of t he right- hand steam - port, as

shown in fig. 5,t he steam will be released from

t he end 01 of t he cylinder, and will escape intot he atmosphere, or condenser, through t he ex

haust port. After t he valve has reached its extreme position on t he righ t it begins t o move

towards t he left, and when e’ comes Opposite t o

I”again , t he piston will be approaching t he end

of its inward stroke, as shown at P4, fig. 6, t heescape of steam from t he cylinder wil l be stopped,and compression wil l commence.

The variations of pressure which take placeon t he back of t he piston are indicated in t heindicator diagram shown in fig. 7, where A C

'

represents t he stroke Of t he pis t on . During

A t mos . Lln

admission or while t he iston is moving fromA t o B

,t he pressure will e constant, and almost

equal t o t he boiler pressure,as represented by

t he line ab. At B cut - off takes place, and as t he

piston advances to C t he steam expands and t hepressure falls, as indicated by t he line be. Whent he pist on arrives at c release takes place, t he

pressure rapidly falls stil l further t o cc

”—t heack pressure—and then remains constan t , as

indicated by c d , until t he piston has returnedt o D. At this point compression commences and

t he pressure begins t o rise again ,graduall y at

first, t o E, and then suddenly, t o a , as admissiontakes place.

In a similar w ay t he outer and inner edgeson t he left- hand side of t he valve control t headmission, cut- ofl

'

, release, and compression withrespect t o t he left - hand end of t he cylinder

,t he

indicator diagram forwhich wil l be somewhat oft he form shown in fig. 8 . These diagrams areautoma t ically drawn on paper by an instrumentca lled an ‘indicatorIn t he case of double- acting engines, indicatordiagrams are taken from both ends of t he engine

cylinder, or cylinders, and from these t he ‘indicat ed horse power ’of t he engine is determined .

A small portion , from about 5 per cent t o1 5 er cent, of t he i.h .p. of an engine is expen ed in overcoming frictional resistances int he engine it self, and t he remainder

,which is

available for doing useful work,is called t he

‘effective’or ‘brake horse power of t he en ine.

A simple direct -acting steam engine is i lust rat ed in fig. 9. In addition t o t he essential part salready referred t o, such engines are usuallyprovided with : ( 1 ) a heavy flywheel t o

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1 1 6

t wo- cylinder compound engines are usual. Andfor engines using steam at pressures between1 50 lb. and 220 lh.

,triple expansion is chiefly

adopted,though quadruple expansion is not un

common when t he in itial pressure of t he steamexceeds 200 lb. er sq. in.The classes 0 engines chiefly used upon or

about t he farm are simple, double- acting,

non - condensing, and either stationary or

locomotive traction. Tw o- cylinder compoundengines of both t he condensing and non - con

densing types are, however, sometimes used.

A quick - revolution, t w o

- cylinder compoundengine

,particularly wel l adapted for driving

dynamos, is i ll ustrated in fig. 10. In this engine t he steam

,after acting upon t he piston

in t he right- hand cylinder—ca lled t he highpressure cylinder—passes into t he largercylinder on t he left—t he low - pressure cy linder—and t he admission , release, &c .

,of t he

steam for both cylinders is control led by asl ide valve having t he form of a ist on

,cal led

a piston valve, which is placed etw een t he

t w o cylinders, as shown.Of steam turbines there are several types ,

t he simplest being t he De Laval steam turbine,shown in fig. 1 1 . This turbine

,which is often

used for driving cream separators, &c.,in dairy

farms,works very much like a water - jet wheel—that is

,jets of steam impinge on vanes, t he

resulting impact driving t he wheel round.

Fig. 1 1 .

—De Laval Steam- t urbineWheel

In t he il lustration t wo pairs of nozzles areshown

,t he nozzles in each pair bein parallel,

but on opposite sides of t he shaft,an ointing

in opposite directions. EH . B . ]S t e am in g A p p a ra t u s .

—The apparatusfor steaming t o suit all classes of food

,includ

ing “ corn , mus t be designed for loose fodder,and heavier substances such as roots

,corn

, &c.

M essrs. Barford Perkins have long beenidentified with this class of food - preparingthrough their dual - purpose plant

,where a port

able boiler suppl ies suitable steamers through

steam pipes lea ing t o each. If a boiler existson t he farm

,t he special boiler need not be pro

vided . A cheaper form,however

,is made in

Steaming Apparatus—Steaming of Food

which t he whole heating and steaming apparatus is combined, and this answers w el l. Whenlarge quantities of material have t o be used

,

closely tongued wooden bins or vats are desirable. Ordinarily these are made t o hold 200bus .

Barford Perkins’

s Steam Food-preparing Apparatus

u ward s and as t he best effects of steaming are0 t ained after t he material has been treated forthree days, it is a decided advantage t o use tw o

bins. The steam is led into t he bins by pipeslaid underneath, with perforations so that t hesteam may attack t he whole of t he bottom layer,and then permeate through t he mass.

[W. J. M . ]S t eam in g o f Foo d .

—The effectiveness ofmany foodstuffs can be appreciably increased byboiling with water

, or stil l better, by steaming.In some cases (eg. potatoes intended for pi 8)this treatment is commonly recogniz ed t o e

absolutely necessary, wh ilst it is t he only pract icable method of rendering foodstuffs that havebecome mouldy or infested with animal parasites, serviceable as food. In t he latt er case t hes t eaming wil l not only destroy t he organisms

,

bu t will also remove the unpleasant - smellinproducts of their action. The benefits derivefrom steaming do not arise from any increase ofdigestibility—t he tendency indeed being ratherin t he opposite direction—but rather from improved palatability, and , in t he case of hardfoods, t he softening of t he fibre and t he conse

quent lower drain upon t he digested nutrientst o provide for t he labour of mastication . Littlegain is therefore t o be expected from t he steaming of sound foods that are readily consumedin t he ordinary condition, unless, as in t he caseabove-mentioned of potatoes, there be risks ihvolved in t he consumption of t he raw food (seePOTATO, P RODUCTS or). A further exceptionmay also be made in t he case of animals fed on

scanty rations and exposed t o low temperatures.The requirements of t he body for heat form insuch cases a serious drain upon t he food supply

,

and t he direct su ply of heat in t he form ofsteamed food may iience result in an appreciableeconomy of food.Boiled and steamed foods are better adapted

for fattening animals (notably pigs) or milchcows than foranimals of more active disposition

,

such as young stock. They are least suited“ for

STEAM PLOUCH

STAN DARD TYPE OF COMPOUN D PLOUGH IN G FOR USE WITH DOUBLE- EN GIN E, svsrsm

TURN - ROUN D PLOUGH AT WOR K {DOUBLE-EN GIN E SYSTEM )

[Engineers : John Fowler CO . (Leeds) , Limited }

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1 1 8 S tells Sterility

Grand N ational was started in 1 839. I t was at

first a sweepstake of 20 sovereigns each , 100added ; 12 st. each ; gentlemen riders ; 4 milesacross country. The N ational H unt Steeplechase was started in 1 860. There are very fewhorses w ho take readily t o j umping, and t he

training of a ‘chaser ’ought t o be very gradual.Good shoulders are an essent ial characteristic

, as

without them a horse is ap t t o pit ch on landing.[H . s . n. E.]

S t e l ls are artificial shelters built on t he b illsfor t he protection of t he sheep in time of storm.

They are generally of dry stone walls ; but incases where building stones are scarce, 12 t o

1 8 in . of turf may be put on t he t op of stonesbuilt t o t he hei ht of 35 t o 4 ft. The configura

tion of t he hill et ermines t he best place t o erecta stel l. S tells are either for t he protection of

sheep in time of snowfal l,or snowdrift

, or t o act

as wind - breaks . The former class of stells aregenerally erected at or near some good feedingground

,where t he sheep can easi ly obtain a bite

without going far from their shelter. The latterclass

,or black—weather stells

,are for t he most

part put on exposed or prominent parts of t heil l

, and their effect can be appreciated for a

long distance. S tells are built of various shapesand sizes. The most common t y e is t he circularstell

,which does not fi ll with rifting snow so

easily as a square building would ; but whethert he stell is round or square it is provided with awin which helps t he shepherd t o guide t he sheept o t e entrance, and at t he same time provides

At stells there is usually placed a small stackof hay , which is fed t o t he sheep in time of heavysnow. Black -weather stells are of various shapes—t he most common being T or but sometimes there are three legs like an Isle of Man

almost every stell

t he shepherd has a smal l enclosure in which hecan shut a ew e with a lamb, and this often saveshim driving an odd sheep a long way duringt he lambing season . w. B .]S t e p h e n s , H e n ry ( 1 795 agricul

t ural writer, was born at Keer oy , in Bengal .H e w as educated in Scotland, rst at a schoolin Dundee, and then at Edinburgh university.

Leaving t he university, he had a thorough training in practica l farming under one of t he bestfarmers in Berwickshire, and then went on an

agricul t ural tour to t he Continent. On returning

,he came into possession of a farm at Balma

dies,Forfarshire

,which he managed wit h con

spicuous success, introducing many improvedmethods both in land cultivation and in t hefeeding of cattle and sheep. H e afterwards retired t o Bonnington

,near Edinburgh, where he

died in 1 874. It was durin~this last period

of his life that he pub lishe his agriculturalworks. Of these t he Book of t he Farm is t hebest known , and is

,in its subsequen t and re

vised editions, still proving a lasting memorial of

t he fame of its originat or. H is other works are :A Manual of Practical Draining, The YesterDeep Land Cul t ure, and A Catechism of F ractical Agriculture. In conj unction with R obertScott Burn, James S li ht, and Dr. Wm. Sellar,he published books an pain blets on such subjects as Implements and Mac ines

,Farm Build

ings, Physiology and N on - nitrogenized Foods,&c. H e was editor of t he Quarterly Journalof Agriculture, and up till 1 85 2 he edited t heTransactions of t he H ighland and AgriculturalSociety of Scotland. H e was also a member ofseveral foreign agricultural societies, and priort o his death received a gold medal from t he

Emperor of R ussia. [A . M .]S t e ri l it y .

—This subject is dealt wi t h undert he heading BAR REN NESS

,but it may be con

venien t in t he present article t o refer t o cer

tain causes of sterility not treated of elsewhere.

Apart from t he more special forms of sterilityd ue t o various kinds of disease

,this condition

may resul t from lack of sufficient nourishment(or of t he right k ind of nourishment) for t hedeveloping germ cells in t he essential organs ofreproduction . Even under normal conditionsmany of t he ova in t he ovary

,instead of becom

ing mature,undergo degeneration in situ

,and

this process may take place at all stages of developmen t . It is most liable t o occur in underfed animals, or in animals which for one reasonor another are unsuited t o their environment.When it is very frequent it leads t o a reductionin t he fertility, and sometimes to complete barrenness (at least temporari ly). This result isdue t o t he great scarcity or even absence of ri

pe

ova available for fertiliz ation by t he male. T e

effect of ‘flushing’ sheep (or of bringing theminto a good thriving condition) at t he approachof tupping time is t o increase t he number of ripeova at this season , and so t o improve t he fertility(see art . FECUN DITY) . The additional feedingwhen not overdone has t he effect of hast enint he development of t he ova in t he ovary

,an

preventing them from lapsing into t he degenerate condition .Infertilitymay also result from excessive overfeeding. In this case t he animals come on heat’irregularly and sometimes not at all . This isd ue t o a disturbance of t he ovarian metabolism

,

since it has been shown that ‘heat’ is broughtabout through t he functional activity of t heovaries, and probably by an internal secretionelaborated in these organs.

(See (ESTRUS.) In

cows and heifers which have een fattened it iscommon t o find deposited in t he ovaries a brightorange oryel low pigment

,known as lipochrome,

and it is interesting t o note that t he presenceof this substance is often associated with degeneration of ova.

Barrenness due t o excessive fat on t he onehand,or insuffi ciency of nourishment on t he other

,may

u sually be remedied by a return t o normal condit ions of feeding, since t he degenerative processes do not usually extend t o t he more immature ova (at any rate not t o all of them), andcertain of these are usually able in course of

time t o become fu lly developed and so ready forfertilizat ion.Certain veterinarians now stat e that t he drug

Steriliz ation

Yohimbine is a useful remedy for certain con

dit ions of sterility. H owever this may be, therecan be no doubt that it has a specific action upont he reproductive system, both in t he male andin t he female, since it causes a marked congestionof t he reproductive organs

,and more particularly

t he uterus and female generative tract. It is ext remely probable, therefore, that this drug tendst o promote t he ripening of ova and t o arrest degeneration by providing t he ovaries with a richsupply of blood and consequently of nourishment. It is usual t o administer Yohimbine byt he mouth in t he form of tabloids

, 005 graingiven twice daily for a fortnight being sufficientt o causemarked congestion of t he external generat ive organs in a bitch terrier.Sterility , either partial or complete, may ap

paren t ly result from long- continued inbreeding,though more evidence is wanted relating t o thisquestion . It is an ascertained fact

,however, that

many inbred animals (eg. Dorset H orn sheep)that are sterile when crossed with rams of theirow n breed

,are nevertheless fertile when crossed

with individuals belonging t o another breed (eg.

Dorset H orn ewes when crossed with H ampshire Down rams). I t would appear as if t hegerm cells (ova and spermatozoa) in such inbredanimals may in some cases be possessed of in

suffi cient vitality t o admit of their uniting withone another in fertilization

,or of their undergo

ing subsequent development if they do so unite.

Close confinemen t or change of environmentmay also lead t o infertility, for the reproductiveorgans are peculiarly susceptible t o external ihfluences. In such cases t he sterility is often onlytemporary

, t he organs recovering themselvesin a short space of time by responding t o t henew conditions. On t he other hand, change of

surroundings is sometimes a remedy for t he det eriorat ing effects of inbreeding. This is saidt o be t he case with Thoroughbred horses imported t o Australia, t he change of climate having a rej uvenating influence. [F. H . A. M .]S t eriliz a t io n means simply t he act of

making st eri le any substance which containsmicrobic life, or

,in short

,t he destruction of

microbic life. It has anot her meaning, namely ,t o render incapable of propagating life. The

methods by which steriliz ation is effected inorganic or inorganic substances vary with relation t o t he substance t o be sterilized or t o be

rendered sterile. The agencies employed are :

(a) dry heat, (6) moist heat or steam, and (0)chemica l germicides.Steriliz ation is one of t he most importantrocesses t o be carried ou t in t he bacteriologicalhoratory, because without sterile material sure

results would be impossible. Laboratory me

thode for this end may be carried ou t on t he

large scale.

(a) By Dry H ea t—P lat inum needles, pointsof force s

, and other metallic instruments aresteriliz e by heating t o dull redness in t he

Bunsen flame ; cover- glasses, microscope sl ides,and all empty glass vessels, by exposure t o likeheat

,but in less degree. All glass apparatus

ought t o be placed in t he oven when it is cold,and t he temperature gradually raised t o 1 70° F. ,

and maintained at that poin t for at least one

1 1 9

hour,t he apparatus being left in t he oven until

t he oven is cool .(b) By Moist H eat—Steel instruments, t hetemper of which would be inj ured or des t royedby exposure t o l ive flame

,are bes t sterilized by

being boiled in water forat least twenty minutesafter t he water has commenced t o boil. F iveminutes’boiling will destroy most microbes

,bu t

may fail t o kill spores ; but if t he boiling bemaintained forone hour, all microbes and sporesare completely destroyed . Steam at 100

°C.

, or

212°F. ,sterilizes as effectively as boiling water.

Most media in which microbes are cultivated ,other than those containing gelatin, are so steriliz ed

,t he time allowed being one and a half

hour. Gelatin media are best steril ized byTyndall’s intermittent method—by exposure t osteam at 100

°C. for fifteen minutes at one time

on each of three successive days. This processis carried ou t in a Koch or other sterilizer, t heprocess being completed at t he end of one and

a half hour. Steam generated at 120° C.

, und era pressure Of t w o atmospheres

,kills all micro

organic life after an exposure of fifteen minutes.This operation is carried ou t in t he autoclave,w hich consists of a stron steel cylinder

,t he

cover of which is clamped by binding screwst o t he body when in Operation . The requiredtemperature of t he steam t o be generated isdetermined by t he pressure

,which is obtained

by weighting t he valve, t he pressure beingindicated by a manometer or pressure gauge.

The heating is supplied by gas or oil or spirit.For materials other than those composed of

gelatin , an exposure at 1 20°C. for t wo hours is

given,and for gelatin media t he temperature

should never be raised above 105 ° C., and t he

time of exposure should not exceed three minutes

,else t he ‘setting ’ property of t he gelatin

wil l be impaired or destroyed.

(0) By Chemical Germicides.—These are uti

liz ed forpreparing t he skin of an animal about t obe inoculated or dissected

,and t he hands of t he

Operator, and for destroying cultures and preparat ions of microbes when no longer required.Sterilization is also t he objective point aimed

at in disinfection (see DIS IN FECTANTS). H eat isa valuable bactericide when applied as dry hotair, moist heated air

,boiling water, or steam.

The only practicable mode of disinfecting cer

tain fabrics or ar t icles containing feathers, hair,&c.

,such as cushions and mattresses

,is by steam

under pressure. Dry heated air, even under

pressure, has been found by experiment t o beineffi cient, un less at such high temperatures asare bound t o scorch. To kill organisms andspores

,a temperature between 212° and 220° F.

is necessary, but it has been found impossibleby dry heated air t o obtain this temperaturein t he interior of a mattress even aft er longexposures. Steam under pressure, therefore, ist he most effective method of sterilizing infectivematerials. For this purpose disinfecting apparatus , called disinfectors, are employed. A gooddisinfecting apparatus should possess t he following essential qual ifications : ( 1 ) its mechanismshould permit t he steam under pressure t o penetrate and permeate thoroughly t he articles t obe disinfected ; (2) t he temperature of t he steam

1 20

should be between 221° F. and 270°F . (3) t he

apparatus should be so provided with valvesthat, alternately, hot dry air and moist st eamwithin t he foregoing range of temperature maybe pas sed in to t he chamber con taining t he

articles t o be d isinfected or st eril iz ed.Steril iza tion is produced in t he reparation

of ‘canned ’ foods and bottled goods In t heprocess of canning mea t of various kinds, fish

,

shellfish , and others,t w o objects are desired :

( 1 ) t he effective cookin g of t he con tents of t hecans, and, thereby, t he steril ization of t he same ;and (2) t he preservation of t he content s fromt he intrusion of micro- organic life. The methodadopted is t o boi l or otherwise cook t he food t obe laced in t he cans

,thereafter t o place t he

food)

therein,and then t o solder t he lid on t he

can,leaving a pinhole opening in t he t op of

t he lid. The cans are now nearly completelyimmersed in a boiling fluid until st eam freelyissues from t he interior of t he can

,at which

s tage a drop of solder is allowed t o fal l upon.t he pinhole opening

,thus closing it and sealing

t he contents from t he air. A s t he can and con

tents cool and t he conta ined steam condenses,t he top and bottom of t he can assume a concaveform

, d ue to t he crea tion of a partial vac uuminside t he can and t he o erat ion of atmosphericpres s ure. A can is said t o be ‘blown ’ whenfrom any cause t he entrance of air

,and with it

microbes,takes place. The contents of such

cans are liable t o give rise t o acute poisoningfrom ptomain es or toxins. Most t oxins are

destroyed by boiling for some time,but there

is at leas t one toxin,due t o a bacill us which is

sometimes found in flesh meat, which is not

destroyed at t he end of one hour’s boiling.In surgical work t he st eril iz ation of t he hands

of t he operator, of instruments, and of t he partabout t o be operated upon

,is absolut e ly essen

tia l before operation if t he best resul ts are to beexpect ed. J. GL]S t e ril iz a t ion o f M ilk—By steriliz ationis un derstood t he freeing of milk from all livingmicro- organisms , which in ordinary practice getin t o it from t he moment it leaves t he udder oft he cow

,and in cases of d iseased udders some

times before t he milk is d rawn. Even with t hegreatest care, t he exposure t o air, t he pas singthrough wel l - cleaned milk vessels, and all t he

other operations of t he farm and dairy whicht he milk undergoes , as wel l as t he subsequentdistribution t o t he consumer, add their share of

fresh microbes t o this highly nourishing liquid,in which a very large number of them find a

most suitable medi um for their rapid development. Fortunately t he d iseas e- producing or

ganisms are few in number and comparativelyrare

,but there are many organisms which pro

duce changes in t he milk which spoil it s flavourand soon turn it sour.S t eri liz ation aims at t he complete destruction

of all these organisms, and such a result is mostsatisfactorily brought about by t he agency of

heat,either alone or

,as has sometimes been

suggested,with t he help of certain gases or

chemica l substances.This object can only be realiz ed by heating

t he milk t o a very high temperature, and where

Steriliz ation of M ilk

perfect steriliz at ion has t o be ensured it is necessary t o heat t he milk for t w o hours at a t em

perat ure of 120°C. (248

°orforthirt y min utes

at a temperature of 1 30°C. (266

°S uch a.

t emperature would be necessary t o kil l resistantspores in dirty milk and to prepare it for u se

in a bac t eriologica l laboratory. Provided t hemilk is clean t o start with

,a lower temperature

may safely be used, 120° C. for fift een minut esin t he autoclave usua lly suffi cing to make cleannew or separat ed milk quit e fit for bac teriological use. Milk heat ed t o su ch a high temperat ure is discoloured, and is quite unfit forcommercial purposes on account of it s burn ttas te . The opposit e extremes of temperaturebelong t o t he subjec t of pas teuriz ation (see art .

PASTEUR IZATION ), but it is importan t t o not ethat many bac teria without 3 res can be ki lledat temperatures between 1 40 and 1 5 8

°F .

,while

t he death of t he tubercle and other pathogenicorganisms will take place in mi lk if it is hea tedt o 80

°C. ( 1 76

° provided that all t he milk ishea ted to this temperature, including t he frothformed during heating. This is by no means aneasy matt er

,and so with milk which is believed

t o conta in any disease germs st eriliz ation is tobe preferred t o pasteuriza tion . In practice, milkwhich has been heated as h igh as or higherthan t he boiling- poin t of water, 100°C. (212

°

is sa id t o have been st eril iz ed ; and although, asmentioned above, it will not as a. rule be freefrom all living spores of micro - organisms unlessthis temperat ure has been much exceeded , itwill as a rule keep a considerable length of time

w ithout undergoing any changes in composition,more especially if the operation has been con

ducted in bottles whi ch have been sea led upwhile t he milk is sti ll at t he boilin - poin t .M ost germs require some air for theirdevelopment, and t he spores which are usual ly presentin t he milk w ill not grow in t he closed bottle.

Milk prepared in this way will keep, even formonths, and if t he fat globules have been brokendown

,that is, if t hemilk has been ‘homogeniz ed ’,

to prevent t he cream rising,a very useful and

lasting product can be obtainedThere is

,however, little doubt that as a food

steril ized milk compares unfavourably withfresh milk ; it has a tendency, if used largely asan article of diet, t o prod uce scurvy and al sorickets in children ; it also has a. cooked tast ewhich is objected t o by many

, and is more or

less of a brownish colour.The fol lowing chemical chan es take placein t he milk on steril iza tion. T e albumen isrendered insoluble

,precipitation beginn in at

70°C.

, while no soluble albumen is foun inmi lk which has been heated t o 80

°C. The

estimation of t he albumen , which shoul d bepresent to t he extent of 03 5 per cent in t hesoluble form

,serves as a means of estimatin g

t he presence of steriliz ed milk in new milk .

The enzymes are destroyed at a t emperatureof 80

°C.,

and so are absent from steril iz ed milk .

The catalases evolve oxygen when 10 c c . offresh milk are shaken with 10c c. of hydrogenperoxide ; this is rt ly caused by t he naturalenzyme of t he milk and partly by those produced by bact eria.

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1 22

farm buildings, and is at all t imes the most import ant farm servan t , and often capable of givingvaluable advice on diffi cult quest ions of mana e

ment. [J . M .

S t ifl " J o in t . See AN CHYLOS IS .

S t ifl e J o in t —This joint corresponds tot he knee of t he human subject. In front oft he lower end of t he femur, and upper one of

t he tibia, an irregular - shaped bone ca lled t hepatella is found, having a close resemblance t oour kneecap, and like it ca able of being movedfrom side t o side more or ess when t he l imb isnot flexed. The lateral ligaments are very liablet o strain, and partial luxation of t he patella isof frequent occurrence. Many weakly and overgrown colts are defective in this joint, and whenwalking t he bone slips ou t and returns with apeculiar clicking noise. P laced in a small levelpaddock and wel l fed , t he majority outgrow t hetrouble without treatment. B . L.

S t ilo p y g a orien t a l is ( the Cockroach) .This insect

,improperly called t he black beetle,

is t oo w el l known t o require any description .

It swarms in kitchens, bake oflices, &c.

,where

it eats t he bread, and will nibble shoes, harness,and a great variety of household articles. The

males are winged, but t he females are apterous ;they lay a pursel ike bag of sixteen eggs, fromwhich t he young hatch, and immediately runabout in search of food. S irit s of turpentine

,

orwafers compounded of re lead and flour, will

varieties of blue- veined cheeses which are madein this coun t ry. It may be said t o be t he finestof all t he varieties of British cheeses. The Stilt on -making industry originated over 1 30 yearsago. About that time S tilton cheese could onlybe purchased at t he high price of 2s. 6d . per lb.

at t he famous Bell Inn , S tilton , H untingdonshire, on t he Great N orth Road from London t oEdinburgh . In those days it w as sold in t heform of a rectangular cheese of small d imensions

,and it w as somet imes called cream cheese

and also brick- bat cheese. Cooper Thornhill, t hepro rietor of this famous Bel l Inn , had relationsin eicest ershire, and one of them—aMrs. Paulet—took up t he business of Stilton -making at a

vil lage ca lled Wymondham ,near M elton Mow

bray,in Leicestershire. The Stilton industry

grew and centred round Melton , and now thistown is t he centre of a great Stilton - makingbusiness.From t he dimensions of a cream cheese t he

S tilton has by degrees grown in t o one whichnow usually weighs from 1 2 t o 1 5 lb. A fullsized cheese is made from 1 6 gal . of milk. Sucha quan t ity of milk would make 1 4 lb. of ripeStilton. The Stil t on is a tal l narrow cheese of9 t o 10in . height

,and 7 t o 75 in. diameter, and

it is not made in any other shape. Its crust isof a drab colour and presents a crinkled appearance. The crinkled surface is soft, and is liablet o fracture during transit ; and this is no doubtone important reason why t he importation of

Stil t ons has not as yet been at t em t ed .

The interior of t he cheese shoul d s ow a luxu

Stiff Joint Stilton Cheese

riant growth of blue mould from the centre tot he crust. The blue mould P enicz'llium and cccasionally A sp ergil lus will be found to spreadthrough t he cheese in veins. The part s not

blue- veined should a pear as white as possible.

The Stilton has undergone a series of changesin its methods of manufacture. In t he firstplace it wasmade from milk enriched with handskimmed cream

,while in later methods it w as

made from mixed milk composed of morning’smilk and that of t he previous evening. H erew e have ripe milk. The milk of t he previousevening w as put into leads provided with plugholes for drawing off t he skim milk f rom undert he cream. Some of this skim milk was drawnoff and withheld from t hemilk forcheesemaking ;thus t he evening’s milk was enriched.In present- day methods added cream is not

now used for enriching t he milk, and Stil tonsare most successfully made from whole milkcontaining only it s ow n cream: Makers haveproved that t he experiment of adding freshlyseparated cream t o t he milk for Stilton cheesemaking does not produce such good results as

those obtained from normal new milk.

Formany generations Stil tons have been madeon t he t w o- curd process

,viz . a process in which

a curd of 36 hours is mixed with one 8 hoursold . This method is practised to some extent atpresent, but it is bein partially re laced by t hesingle- curd process

,w ere t he cur is all of t he

same age when put into t he moulds.This latter process occupies from 24 t o 30hours, and t he evening’s milk contributes t owards a bat ch of cheeses distinct from thosemade from t he morning’s milk. The lat est introduct ion in to Stilt on -making methods is t hemaking of cheese from ripe milk. The termripe milk ’may here be described as a mixtureof morning’s milk and milk of t he previousevening. Such a mixture would contain an

appreciable trace of acidity. In th is practiceit wil l be found necessary t o adopt a 1 2- hourprocess, and t o facil it ate whey separation bycutting t he newly coagulated curd.The present met hods of manufacture wi ll befound t o vary considerably even in t he Stil tond istrict proper. Difl

'

erent soils ca ll fordifferentprocesses, and variations have t o be made accord‘ing t o t he influence of local conditions.Whatever may be t he nature of t he soil and

other loca l conditions, t he maker must strive tohave these qualities in his curd at t he time of

vatting :1 . A curd possessing good flavour, and freefrom flavours which are unnatural t o milk whichhas been produced and handled under strictlycleanly and hygienic conditions.2. A curd con taining a defini t e amount of

acid ity.

3 . A curd possessing a suitable amount ofmoisture.

4. A curd of loose texture.

In short,there must be present right propor

tions of acidity and moisture, and t he curd mustbe in such a condition that it will not blendclosely together. These are conditions necessaryfor t he successful propagation of blue mould ina cheese.

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1 24 Stimu lant Stoat

The handling and turning must be done byt he help of boards placed on each end of t he

cheese.

A well -made cheese,kept at a temperature

of 60°F .

,will occupy five months in maturing.

It is turned daily during its history. UnshapelyS tiltons are usually termed ‘weak ’. They are

rich and moist, and frequently develop t he

growth of mould. They ripen early, but rapidlyecay. Stiltons which are very shapely and

straigh t in their l ines are frequently dry and‘chalky ’. The ‘weak ’ condition is d ue t o insu ffi cien t acidity in manufacture, while t he

chalky condition is due t o an excess of acidi t y.In striving t o arrive at t he medium condition

of acidity t he maker frequently has a considerable percentage of cheeses in his storeroom whichare under or over t he mark. This all meansloss t o t he maker, and this is one of t he reasonswhy t he high prices for good Stilton are maint ained .

From t he foregoing i t will be seen that throughou t t he process t he temperature of t he curdw as not raised above renneting temperature.

The curd has lain about in a w et condition fora period of over twenty - four hours, and at vat

ting it is somewhat of a sloppy creamy textureand distinctly acid . During this eriod of ex

posure t he curd wil l have collecte much germife from t he air

,including mould spores ; b ut

whether t he spores introduced at this periodholdgood for germination in t he later ripening

perio remains yet t o be proved.Stilton makers hold the View that t he sporeswhich originate in t he main

,t he growth of P eni

cillium in t he cheese, are those introduced t o thecheese in t he cheese room in t he early ripeningstage when t he cheese contains an abundance of

moisture. [M . R . ]S t im u la n t —Anything which excites or

gamic action or cal ls forth latent energy withoutsubsequent corresponding depression or reactionis ca lled a stimulant. Some things, l ike alcohol,stimulate in small doses but act as narcotics inlarge ones. H eart s t imulant s , or vascular st imu

lants as they are ca lled, accelerate t he circulationof t he blood : alcohol

,ammonia, and camphor,

for example. Stomachic stimulants are moreoften termed carminatives, but are true st imu

lants : ginger, mustard, capsicum ,are among

those employed by veterinarians. Spinal ornerve stimulants are represented by such drugsas nux vomica and its alkaloids. Cold is as timulant t o t he skin, and t he new born are

exposed t o it in order t o set t he heart and lungsin operation by reflex action . H eat under ot herc ircumstances may be employed as a stimulant,as may electricity. M ercurial reparations arecounted as l iver st imulants, and

)

nitre as a kidney stimulant. [R . L.]S t in k in g M a yw eed , or S t in k in g

C h a m om ile , t he po ular names for a com

posit e weed with a foeti odour,commonly found

on cultivated land and in waste places. See

CHAMOM ILE.

S t ip a t e n a c iss im a , L. ( t he Esparto,Alfa or H alfa Grass ; nat . ord . Gramineae).This is a native of S ain, Italy, and N orthAfrica

,between 3 2° an 41

°N . latitude. It

, or

perhaps rather the al lied grass n eum Spartum,

w as used in ancient times by t he R omans forcordage, but t o an Englishman—t he late Mr.

Thomas R outledge of Sunderland—is main lydue t he honour of having discovered its greatmerit as a paper-making material. In 1 839 t hefirst effort w as made t o work it up

,and in 1 8 5 1

paper made of it was shown at t he Exhibition of that year. Up t o 1 861 R outledge w as

t he only paper-maker w ho used Es arto,and

even t o- day it is mainly utilized y Britishmanufacturers, and chiefly for t he paper required for printing, its excellent surface takingprinter’s ink in fine lines and half- tones. Ai

though longer than straw, Espar t o is classed asone of t he shortest paper fibres (as comparedwith cotton and linen), bu t owing t o its verysmall cen t ral canal it is non - collapsible—a

feature of great value. The ends of Espartofibre are moreover solid

, and get compressedinto a hexagonal form

,so that in transverse

section, as seen under t he microscope, they resemble a honeycomb. Esparto is shipped fromSpain, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli , and formerlyfrom Morocco, with smaller amounts from othercountries where t he plant is now cultivated. Itgrows in great clumps and requires little cultivation, at altitudes ranging from t he sea levelup t o 3000ft. I t flourishes on sandy and rockysoils, and can do with remarkably little rain.During harvest t he dry ripe leaf is simplyu lled from t he sheath by t he hand

,and t he

lade then curls around t he midrib into slenderreedlike structures

,thus carrying t he character

ist ic minute hairs of t he margin to the interior.If properly treated t he clumps may yield an

annual harvest for thirty t o fifty years ; butunless t he grass be gathered at t he exact stageof maturity

,Esparto yields an inferior pulp

,

and if shipped with a mixture of roots or

other dirt it is greatly depreciated. If looselybaled it occupies from four t o five ‘tons mea

sure’ t o every t on in weight,but when properly

baled with iron hoops it may be compressedinto half that space. The reader wil l find a

long and highly instructive article on this fibre(written by Mr. Clayton Beadle) in TechnicsforMay , 1 904, while M essrs. Ide and C hristie’smonthly Circulars will be seen t o give ful l part icu lars of t he trade. The import s into GreatBritain have fluctuated since 1 903 between

and tons in 1908. During 1 909they stood at tons, with t he price raning from £4, 108 . t o £4, 1 5 s. for t he best Spanish

,

and £2, 12s. 6d . to £2, 1 5 s. for fair Tri oli er

t on. Pa w .

S t oa t , or Erm ine (Mustela erminea), a

member of t he weasel tribe, fairly commonthroughout t he British Isles, and especiallyabundant in Scotland. It is larger than t heweasel , and has a relatively longer tail. A fullgrown male measures 10 t o 1 1 in ., t he tail 5 t o6 in . The female is considerably smaller. Thecolour is reddish - brown on t he upper parts

,

white with a tinge of yel low except on t he

throat on t he under parts. The tip of t he tailis black. In at least t he northern parts of itsrange, t he stoat’s fur changes t o white in winter,t he tai l tip remain ing black. In this cond ition it

Stock Stocking of Farms

forms t he wel l -known ermine of commerce ; bu tt he fur of t he short-haired British ermine is notnearly so valuable as that of some of t he longerhaired races of N orthern Europe and America

,

and large numbers of these are imported an

nually . In t he south of England and in Ireland t he colour change rarely takes place

,and

even in Scotland it may be delayed greatly bya spell of mild weather. The change is due,according t o Macgillivray

’s observations

, t o t he

sprouting of new white hairs,and not

,as in

t he mountain hare,t o a change in t he exist

ing fur. The new growth of hair may be redif t he weather be unusually mild

, and‘if there

are alternations of severe cold and temperateweather, t he animal may become mottled ’. Allstages of transition between winter and summercolouring are found.The s t oat frequents thickets

,stony places

,

old walls, or any locality which afi'

ords it suitable cover. It is extremely active and coura~

geons, taking readily t o t he water and climbingtrees aft er its prey. It tires ou t its victims byt he relentless persistence of its pursuit, and evenanimals much larger than itself become paralysed apparently from terror and exhaustionwhen pursued by a stoat . It feeds largely on

voles,of which it destroys enormous numbers ;

but it also eats young hares,rabbits

, and gamebirds

,and may occasionally raid poultry yards

,

destroying or carrying off both chickens andeggs. Of late years t he stoat has been introd uced into Australia in t he hope that it mayprove a check t o t he excessive multiplicationof t he rabbits. [J . A. T.]S t o c k (Matthiola).—A enus of Cruciferaecomprising hardy

,half - bar y, and tender an

nual , biennial , and perennial herbs or subshrubs. Stocks are cultivated in '

almost everygarden. There are several sections and manyvarieties. The flowers are variously coloured anddeliciously scented. The summer- flow ering Ten

week Stocks are derived from M. annua , and

these plants have lately been greatly improved.The Wallflower Stocks

,which have shining

,

smooth green leaves, are forms of M. incana .

Other popular winter - flow erin sections are

t he Large- flow ered,t he Pyrami al

,the Inter

mediate,and t he East Lothian Intermediate.

In order t o become big, floriferous plants, Stocksrequire rich soil . The seeds

,which germinate

best when they are new,should be sown thinly

in pans or boxes containing sandy soil , t he Tenweek Stocks in March or April , and t he othersnot later than early in July. Over - wateringcauses t he seedlings t o damp off

,and they re

quire plenty of light and air from t he first.They may be pricked ofi

” into a bed preparedin a cold frame

,and t he transference t o t he

open borders should take lace during showeryweather. Intermediate and

)

East Lothian Stocksare particularly well adapted for cultivat ing inpots. Old mortar should be mixed with t hecompost

,and manure water given when t he

flow er - buds are developing. Stocks kept inframes through t he winter should be plantedou t in March. The so- called Virginian Stockis Malcolmia marit ima

,one of t he prettiest and

most popular of hardy animals, which will flower,

1 25

sow itself,come up, and bloom again in t he same

season . [W. W.]S t oc k . See LIVE STOCK.

S t o c k b ree d in g . See arts. BREEDIN G,LAWS OF ; CATTLE- BREEDIN G ; H ORSES—FEEDIN G,REAR IN G, A N D MAN AGEMENT ; P IGS , BREEDIN Gor ; POULTRY BREEDIN G, and articles on variousbreeds of live s t ock .

S t o c k Dove (Columba amas).—This bird isabout 1 3 in . in length

,and its plumage is bluish

grey,with an imperfect bar on each w ing. The

legs are pink, and t he bill white at t he tip andred at t he base. The food consists of seeds

,

partly those of weeds such as Charlock, but alsot o a large extent of cultivated plants. It mustbe regarded as mainly harmful . N o nest isbuilt

,but t he t w o buff - coloured eggs are laid

in a hole in a tree or cliff,t he old nest of some

other bird, or even in a rabbit burrow.

[J . n . A. D .]S t o c k in g o f Fa rm s .

—Although t he ex

pression ‘stocking a farm ’ is closely related t othat of capital , there are many questions connect ed with t he descri tion and quantity of bothlive and dead stock w ich require serious attention . In t he article on CAP ITAL a typica l case isgiven , and t he reader is advised t o consult it, andt omake such modifications in numbers and pricesas may be applicable t o his ow n case. The farmthere chosen for illustration is of moderate size,and t he arable land is supposed t o be worked ont he four- cou rse system. The 400ac. of ploughland includes 200 ac. of corn

,100 ac . of roots

,

and 100ac. of clover ; but it is eviden t that thisdivision need not be follow ed , and that a verydifferent rotation and a port ionment betweencorn and live stock may e contemplated. Thiswould affect t he number of horses, t he quantityof seed and of artificial manures required

, t he

labour bill , and many other items connected withcapital . It therefore appears necessary t o add

an article on t he stocking of farms. It wil l beseen that under t he heading CAP ITAL t he case ofa Scotch hill farm is given

,and also a market

garden ; and these three examples give an ideaof t he varying amounts peracre required underdifferent circumstances.At present it is intended t o enlarge upon t hemiddle case

,as representing t hemajority of bold

ings in Great Britain . So far as t he pecuniaryaspect is concerned, it will be suffi cient t o adaptt he figures given under CAP ITAL t o any partionlar farm,

according t o its size, its capabilities,its situation

,and t he objects of t he prospective

tenant.Th e stocking of a farm includes a large num

ber of items, as is indicated by t he expression‘live and dead stock ’, and it would be unpardonable t o omit t he latter in t he resent connection .Dead stock migh t be regarde as referring onlyt o implements of husbandry and machinery, withappliances such as tools and utensils, enumer

ated under CAP ITAL . It, however, includes muchmore, because no one should enter on a farmwithout setting aside a sufficient sum for labourand other expenses that must be incurred beforeany considerable return can be expected . Thereare also t he acts of husbandry performed by t heoutgoing tenant for t he benefit of his successor

1 26 Stocking

which must be met,as wel l as compensation

for t he foods consumed by his stock during t heprevious year or t w o. The payments t o t he

waygoing tenant must appear as a portion of

farm equipmen t , whether regarded as dead stockor as invested capita l, and for this reason cons t it u t e important items in stocking any farm.

Another class of liabilities or of outlay includes t he first year’s

,or half- year’s rent

,rates

,

and taxes ; and , what is often forgotten , household furniture and expenses, which vary witht he posi t ion and habi t s of t he tenant. If t hefarm were viewed as a business, like a manufac

tory or a sh0p,it might be thought unnecessary

t o mix up private expenditure with capital . Bu t

in t he case of t he ordinary farmer it would bea mistake t o forget that a not inconsiderableamount of h is capital must be expended uponfurnishing his house and defraying his personalexpenses. It seems

,therefore

,evident that t he

stocking of a farm involves a sufficient fundt o provide all t he objects summarized under t hehead of CAP ITAL (vol. iii, p. 96) and indica tedin t he above remarks.Live S tock

,N umber of —Overstocking is a

grave mistake. The head of stock should beadapted to t he capability of t he farm . Overstocking entails perpetual anxiety as to keep,and a certain sacrifice

,if,owing t o failure of

roots,grass

,or hay , t he owner is obliged t o sell.

In such cases stock is sure t o sel l badly,because

keep is generally dearer. On t he other hand, ifa farm is moderately stocked

,t he farmer can buy

cattle or sheep when an opportunity offers ; ashe can hold his stock over periods of scarcity

,

which are oft en followed by a rebound t o higherprices at no distant date. The overstocked farmer may , it is true, sel l ou t when prices arehigh

,but this he probably will not do if he has

plenty of keep and prefers t o main ta in his stock .

It behoves every good farmer t o stock his farmaccording t o its area and character

,and t o see

that his animals are supported for t he most partupon t he natural roduce of t he land.

Select ion of S toc —N o greater mist ake can bemade by a beginner than keeping t he wrongsort of live s tock. This matter requires t o bevery carefully cons idered, but a safe guide isfound in t he practice of t he neighbourhood. The

established farmers of a district have graduallycome t o a conclusion as t o t he best class of stockfor their particular land, and he is a bold manw ho ventures t o introduce a new system. Aman may have views as t o horse- breeding

,bu t

would be ill - advised t o take land in any part oft he country unless fi t for his purpose. The mistakes usually made are of a less glaring nature.

They do not so much consist in stocking withcattle when sheep ought t o be supreme, or insisting on breeding colts on land unfit t ed for

developing bone. They are committed withinnarrower l imits

,and often without changing t he

species of t he animal . In stocking a farm it isof t he utmost im ortance that fattening shouldnot be at t empt e on breeding land, or t he re

verse. The greates t j udgment may be displayedin selecting and buying stock , and t he highestscience may be lavished upon feeding and management ; but if it is t he w rong sort of stock

,

of Farms

all these effort s wil l come t o naught. This is apractica l fact

, and also involves a common error.The neighbours know ; but t he person most concerned may not find ou t his mistake until it ist oo late. The fact is

,that he has made a wron

choice as t o the stock fit for t he land . H e shou lhave ke t a flock instead of attempting t o fattent egs. r, he should have main tained cow stockinst ead of steers. Or, he should have laid in ahardier class of both cattle and shee and not

indulged his fancy for highly bre animals.Classes of live stock are much more numerousthan might at first sight appear. It is not merelya matter of horses

,cattle

,or sheep, nor yet of

breeding versus fattening. Cattle and sheepought always t o be brought from oorer intoricher land, or off high and expose situationsinto lower and more sheltered ones. Th e j udicions buyer select s animals which have beenraised on poor land

,feeling confident that they

wil l improve in t he situation t o which he is taking them. Pampered animals should be avoided,and lambs that have lived hard and been keptwithout cake and corn should be preferred t othose which have been caked for t he butcherrather than for t he graz ier.A l l animals appreciate an im rovement inherbage and climat e, and this fact s ould be keptsteadily in view in stocking a farm. One of t he

commonest experiences is, that st ock often dobadly t he first year. The writer has seen it frequently in t he case of beginners. A man buys,say , ewes, and encounters an unfortunate lambingtime ; or cows, and meets with disappointmentin t he yield of milk, or it may be in t he form of

premature births and dead ca lves. This is d uet o several causes, t he first of which is a changeof loca lity, which frequently afl

‘

ect s animals. Thesecond is

,that t he best animals are not always

those sent t o market. Animals exposed for sa lemay be dra fted stock, sold because they are not

entirely approved . They may appear cheap, butare not so in rea lity. The third cause is t henewness of t he master and his men

,w ho have

not as yet quite mastered t he peculiarities of t hefarm . It is for these reasons wise t o buy at displenishing sales

,where t he entire stock is sold

off at once, rather than at fairs, markets, ordraftsales. A newcomer t o a neighbourhood is part icu larly l iable t o misfortunes, because he is notquite conversant with the district and it s markets.Choice of Imp lements—The amount of capitalwhich may be expended in purchasing implements is prodigious

,and might easily absorb t he

whole sum. Implement s,however

, ought nott o represent more than about one- tenth of t hefarmer’s capital

,and

,in order t o keep t he outlay

within bounds,t he be inner ought t o frequent

sales. It is considere by many good businessmen that new implements are cheapest in t heend , and this is robably true. When

,however

,

capital is l imite in amount,it is necessary t o

husband it ; and if good serviceable ploughs canbe bought at a sale for £1 each , it seems foolisht o give £5 for them new . It is t he same withcarts and wagons , and all other implements ; andat a good sale

,where the stock and implements

are of a high order, purchases should be made.

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1 28

t o quitting ; work done for which t he incomerwil l receive benefit ; and all improvements whichare of distinct value to t he land lord or t he new

tenant. See alsoart s. on CAP ITAL ; AGR ICULTURALH OLDIN GS ACTS ; &c. [J . Wi n]S t om a c h S t a g g e rs . Both horses andcattle are liable t o this disease

,t he symptoms

of w hich differ very much from those describedunder t he heading STAGGER S . A eneral t en

deney towards coma or sleepiness an a profoundlethargy, rather than excitement or fal lingdown in fits

,mark stomach staggers. The horse

swings his head outdoors and walks with a

staggering gait. Some lower t he head almostbetween t he knees

,and seem unable t o go for

ward . In t he stable t he animal is more oftenfound with his head pressed against t he mangeror -a wall

,with slow and laboured breathing

,

and corresponding pulse. Cows suddenly gooff their milk

,stop feeding and cudding

,respi

ra t ion is slow, pupil dilated, and a dispositiont o knuckle over on t he fetlocks is observed.

There may be some diarrhoea at first,but this

is invariably followed by constipation—a sympt om common also t o equines. As t he symptoms advance

,snoring is noticed

,and t he animal

appear s t o be blind ; if at liberty, walking intocol lision with solid objects and seeming bewildered. That this form Of staggers is d ue t o

overloading and acute indigestion having a

special influence on t he brain there is no doubt,

but certain kinds Of food give rise to it withoutperhaps being indulged in t o excess. R ye grasswhich seeds prematurely in dry seasons

,or ex

cessive amounts of green rye corn , wil l produceit. H ot weather and scorched pastures andabsence of suffi cient wat er contribute t o stomachstaggers

,but stabled animals sometimes sufl‘er.

Trea tmen t—Almost immediate rel ief fol lows ont he abstraction of a few quarts of blood fromt he j ugular vein. P urgatives are advised, butt he bowels do not always respond at first, andcare must be exercised not t o excite superpurga

~

tion when t he nervous energy has been restoredand t he peristaltic action resumed. [PL L .]S t om oxy s c a lc it ra n s , L inn. (fig. 1 , t hefemale ; 2, magnified), is a t w o -winged fly, whichis abundant in summer and autumn, tormenting cattle in hot and showery weather by pieroing their legs and occasioning their continualkicking. It is also very annoying in houses,and exceedingly like t he house fly (Musca domest z

'

ca), being principally distinguished by its longand horny proboscis. It is grey or Olive- brown

,

with black bristles ; a glossy, whitish face, anda black stripe on t he forehead ; t he drooping ant ennee have feathered bristles (fig. 3 , magnified),and t he palpi are short ; t he eyes remote in t hefemale

,and brown t he proboscis projects nearly

horizontally (fig. 4, t he head in profile,magni

fied ) ; t he thorax has four black stripes, and t hebody is apparently four - join ted ; t he second andthird segments with three brown spots , t hefourt h with only one ; wings transparent, secondcell Open at t he apex, third with a transversenervure ; balancers, ochreous ; legs, slate- colour ;knees, ochreous ; ex anse, seven lines.This fly

, also cal ed t he Storm Fly , entershouses mainly before and during rainy and

Stomach Staggers Stones

stormy weather. The female lays her eggs inhorse droppings and manure heaps, especiallyaccording t o N ew st ead in heaps of grass mow

ings. The maggot s are creamy -white and footless, l ike those of t he house fly

, and measurenot quite 5 in . when mature. The larval stagela sts fourteen t o twenty- one days

,but may be

retarded. The process of pupation takes abo

S tomoxys calci trans—Storm Fly

tw o hours, and then t he puparium hardens int oa barrel - shaped brown body

,length about in .

F. v. T.

S t on e s , B u ild in g .—The requir[ements] of

a good building stone are resistance t o atmospheric weathering, a low power of absorbingmoisture, and a structure that allows of equabletrimming in any desired direction . Extremehardness, as in some quartz i t es, blunts t he toolsused t o such an extent as t o render t he workingof t he stone uneconomic. Where granite liesnear at han d, it forms a first - class build ingstone. Limestone and sands t one are favouritematerials, owing to their uniform texture inconsiderable masses, and t he comparative easewith which they can be worked. In selectinga building stone it is always wel l t o examinet he surfaces of old quarries where t he rock hasbeen long exposed t o wea t hering

,or

,stil l better

,

the cut stones of old buildings orof dated t ombs.[G. A. J. c .]

S t on es , B u ild in g , Pre se rva t io n of .—The susceptibility of stones t o weatheringbecomes an important consideration when stoneis employed for structural purposes. For ord inary stone walls dividing fields

,all that is

required is that t he blocks shall remain in placeone upon another ; bu t t he same stones, whenused forwalls fronting main roads and for farmbuildings, require selection with far greatercare. The smoot h face and rectangular formimparted t o stones used in building reduces t heamount of surface ex

pgosed , and is in itself an

aid t o preservation . ut even a wel l - trimmedstone betrays weakness after a time

, especiallyby scaling of t he surface ; while limestones areespecially subject t o decay through irregularsolution. Scaling is sometimes set up throught he dressing Of t he face with unduly heavytools, which jar some of t he constituents into a

loosened state. P reservation of t he stone is thenusually impossible. But frequent painting oft he surface of sandstones that tend t o scale, ort o Show irregularities due t o in ternal structures, is often effective in t he case of build ings

Stones in Soil— Stooks and Stooking

outside t he atmosphere of towns. Oil and paraffin have been applied t o various stones. Sy lvest er

’s solution , which is made by mixing 7} lb.

of soft soap in a gal lon of boiling water,and

adding t lb. of alum dissolved in 4 gal. of water,has been successfully employed

,but

,like paint,

should be renewed. A highly scientific methodis that of Ransome

,in which calcium silicate,

insoluble in water, is formed on t he stone and inits interstices by soaking t he surfacewith solublesodium sil icate (water - glass), and then addingcalcium chloride. Sodium silicate or potassiumsil icate may be used alone, where there are cal

cium salts in t he rock ready t o combine witht he silica thus supplied in a soluble condition .

[G. A. J. c .]S t o n e s in S o il.—The coarser more or lessunweathered rock - fragments or stones whichexist in most soils have an important influenceon t he fertility of t he land in which they appear.By tending t o diminish evapor

ation from t he surface of t he

ground, s t ones economize t he

supply of soil moisture, and thus

help t o increase t he capacity oft he soil for crop production.Wollny showed that their presence in t he soil also effectuallyraised its mean temperature

,but

that t he same cause operated unfavourably bywidening t he rangeof varia t ion of t he soil temperature. On t he whole

,according

t o t he same authority,t he crop

ping capabilities of t he land increase with t he proportion of

s t ones up t o an optimum whichcorresponds with a stone- contentOf 10 t o 20 per cent by volumeof t he soil , but beyond this pro

gort ion t he fertility of t he landiminishes. A S stones possess but a small surface compared with their mass, they contributevery little lant food t o t he soil. They are likew ise a hind

prance in all arable lands t o t he pas

sage Of tillage implements ; in clays, however,when they occur at depths ou t of reach of t heplough , they can be of considerable advantagefor t he romot ion of drainage. Stones increasein numbers at t he surface of t he ground fromt he washing away by t he rains of t he finer earthinto t he subsoil or ditches. [T. H .]S t o n es in t h e B la d d er. See BLADDER ,

DISEASES OF ; CALCUL I .S t o n e s in t h e Kid n ey .

DISEASES or.

S t oc k s a n d S t oo k in g .- A stook is a

collection of sheaves of grain or other crop, setup in t he field for t he purpose of drying t he

grain and straw. The word mainly belongs t ocotland and N orthern England , t he corresponding word general ly used elsewhere in Englandand in America being shoole. Grain of all kinds,and grass seeds

,when harvested in most coun~

tries,are seldom sufficiently dry t o be threshed

or stored. In order, therefore, t o promote drying, by exposure t o t he sun and air, t he sheavesare set up on end , generally in lots of from sixt o twelve

,each lot being ca lled a stook or Shock,

VOL. XI .

See KIDNEY,

129

and t he work of setting up, st ocking or shockIngI‘he sheaves are set up on end by placing tw o

Opposite each other, with their butt ends about18 in .

-apart for short straw and 2 ft. where itis longer. The heads of t he t w o sheaves arethen brought together, each sheaf being firmlypressed a ainst t he other at t he bands, so as t o

securely fgix them , yet leave them in an uprigh t

position,but with sufficient slope at t he S ides

t o resist being blown over by moderate wind.

The first pair or tw o pairs of sheaves which areset up

,should always form t he centre of t he

stook,and looked at from t he side, they should

stand perpendicular. Other pairs of sheavesshould afterwards be placed at each end of thosefirst set up, care being taken t o set up an equalnumber of pairs on each side of t he central pair.Each of these pairs should lean only a very littletowards t he central pair. The end of the stook

Stack orShock ofWheat

should always face t he prevailing wind of t hedistrict, in order that t he current of air passingthrough t he stook may more or less dry everysheaf in it

,and also because a well- built stook

withstands wind pressure very successful ly fromthat direction . In Scotland t he direction shouldbe south -west and north - east

,or t o where t he

sun is about one o’clock . S t ocks so set up get

the sun on t he one side during the forenoon , andon t he ot her in t he afternoon , which in a dullor late season is a great aid t o uniform dryingof t he crop.

Seeded grasses, or very short grain , part icularly if it contains grass or clover, Should notbe put up in stooks containing more than four orsix sheaves, but long grain , and especially wheat,should have from t en t o fourt een sheaves ineach stook. In w et districts or in late seasons,hood Sheaves are often put on t he t op of eachst ock . If of wheat, t he sheaves are bound somewhat near t he butt end , and placed on t he t opof t he stook in such a position that t he buttends meet in t he middle, where they are slightlypressed into each other and form t he apex of

t he roof of t he st ock. Before being laid inposition , t he sheaves are slightly opened on t heunder side, so as t o lie better on t he t op of t he

stook. Where oat stooks are hooded, t he heads1 66

1 30

of t he sheaves are generally put t o t he centreof t he stook. [J . s. ]S t ore Bee t le , a small , brightly colouredbeetle destructive t o dried s t ore goods

,such as

hair, feathers, wool, &c. See AN TH REN US .

S t o re Ca t t le are lean animals intended forfattening

,and are usually of any age from six

months t o t w o and a half years or three yearsold , and of either sex. A t from n ine monthst o a year old they are ca lled ‘stirks ’

,and at

eighteen months they are often known as‘six

quarters ’. Store cattle are, as a rule, bredon t he higher and poorer farms of Englandand Scotland

,and in t he dairy district s of Ire

land. In Scotland they come from t he croftingdistricts and from t he H ighland glens

,from

which they are picked up by dea lers in twosand threes. A small proportion come fromOrkney and Shetland , and t he best sorts ofthese islanders are highly esteemed by feeders.A considerable number of Ayrshire and Ayrshire cross bullocks are obtained in t he southw est

,along with some Galloways and Galloway

crosses. In England t he cheese and butterproducing districts of t he Pennine chain raisemany fine stores of nearly pure Shorthorn blood,while t he Border counties supply t he incomparable blue- greys. From Wales come t he blackhorned Welsh ‘runt s ’ so popular in t he M idlands and round London . The great reservoirof store cattle, however, is Ireland, from whichthere flows a constant stream of all ages andqualities t o be sold privately or by auction int he larger market towns of Great Britain . Asa rule, store cattle are relatively higher in pricethan fat cattle, and t he difference in recentyears has generally been t oo smal l t o leavemuch rofit t o t he feeder. In many cases storeshave een bought at a price per cwt. littleif at all less than that Of finished animals

,

thus rendering a profit practical ly unattainable.

The management of store cat t le depends on t heage at purchase. Calves are kept in a t hrivincondition for a year or eighteen months

, an

six quarters’,if home bred

,may be finished Off

in six months,but are usual ly kept for a year

ormore if Irish. All Older cattle are generallyfed off as soon as possible. During t he past fiveyears the importation of Irish cattle into Britainamounted t o in 1 904 ; in 1 905 ;

in 1 906 ; in 1 907 ; andin 1 908. Of those imported in 1908 ,were stores for fat tening

,were milch

cows , and were springers ; but in addition t o t he stores there werecalves. The average price for first - quality storestock of Shorthorn type in August

,1 909, were :

Yearlings, £9, 1 8s. ; t w o - year - Olds, £1 3 , 1 5 s. ;

and three- year - olds, £1 7, 103 . [R . B . c .]S t o rm Fly , a t w o- winged fly

,very like t he

ordinary house fly,which torments cattle in

hot and showery weather. See STOMOXYS .

S t ra ig h t e n in g o f M a rc h es . See art .MARCH FENCE.

S t ra in e rs , M ilk . See DAIRY APPLIAN CES .

S t ra n g le s , an infectious d isease of equineswith catarrhal symptoms at first indist ingu ishable from common colds

,but usually associated

with more depression and lassitude—a sign

Store Beetle Straw

which increases w ith the formation of abscess int he glands , most commonly t he submaxillary.

A rise of temperature and general febrile con

d it ions are noted. Colts at grass and betweent w o and five years of age are t he most frequentsubjects

,but horses of any age may have it.

When stabled animals of mature years develogstrangles it is usually in a less acute form, an

has received t he name of bas tard strangles.There are periods in which t he disease is s ecially active and more acut e than others, an itis sup osed that aerial infection is a commonmetho of communication . The d isease is of

greater severity and increased infectivity inclose quarters

,as on shipboard and in dealers’

stables. Th e period of incubation is from fourt o eight days

,but conditions leading t o ordi

nary ca tarrh may develop t he malad y in a dayor t wo. The swel ling under t he jaw

'

ves riset o sympt oms of sore throat and diflgibult y ofdeglutition. At first t he animal may be oh

served t o nod t he head towards t he breast ;later, he pokes ou t t he nose as t he space between t he lower jawbones fi lls up with pus andbecomes painful. During this period appetit eis in abeyance, and temperature highest. In asimple uncomplicated case t he abscess ripens ina few days

,t he skin is tense and painful t o t he

touch,a soft lace or

‘point ’ (see ABSCESS) isdiscovered

,and some measure of ain may be

prevented and recovery hastened y t he j udicions insertion of t he lancet and evacuation oft he contained pus. SO much inj ury results from

premature incision of t he swel ling that it isetter t o leave it t o break spontaneously if t heOperator is in doubt as t o it s ripeness. Althoughhorses fal l away in flesh and show evident signsof weakness during an attack of strangles

,their

recovery is usual ly rapid ; and it is observed thatthey thrive so wel l upon a generous diet thatmany breeders do not regard strangles as an

unmixed evil,but credi t t he abscess with elimi

natingsome morbid material from t he body, to

its a vantage. Good hygienic conditions are

importan t,and colts should not be allowed to

bunch 11 together in a dirty shed upon stalel itter

,w ere perhaps t he matt er has already

fallen from a previous subject. Poulticing andt he application of mild linimen t s promote su

urat ion and curtail t he il lness. Scalded foo s,ran and l inseed mashes

,sl iced carrots, and

other easily prehended and masticated foodshould be provided. Iron and gentian as tonicsare recommended in t he convalescent stages.

H . L.

S t ra t h .- Th is term is used in Scot land for

a broad valley, and with special reference t o itsfloor, in which al luvial deposits will general lybe conspicuous. In t he mount ainous districts

,

t he strath forms t he natural highway and meansof communica tion, and supports, by its agricu ltural possibilities, almost t he entire population .S trathearn is a typical example of a rich alluvialvalley in t he foothills of t he H ighland border.

G . A. J. c .S t ra t ig ra p h y . See art . GEOL

[OGr.

S t raw .—Crops that are primarily grown for

t he seed they produce are commonly referredt o as

‘straw crops ’, t he term ‘straw ’ being

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1 32

remove it , this should be done careful ly so as

not t o inj ure t he new crop of leaves. We

favour t he practice of mulching in s ring withlong stable litt er, first applying a ressing of

lime t o check insect pest. The litter will bewashed clean by t he time t he fruits swell , andwill then serve t he purpose of that dressing withclean straw which is essential t o preserve themfrom being spoilt by heavy rains. Weeds mustbe constan t ly kept down , and it is labour wellrepaid t o water copiously and repeatedly shouldt he weatherbe dry when t he plants are swellingtheir fruit. Do not dig deeply among s t rawberries

,but surface stirring of t he soil is bene

ficial. Should a very large number of blossomssuccessfully set , it is a good plan t o remove someof them so as t o encourage t he bearing of finelarge berries only ; t he lowest blossoms producet he earliest and finest fruit. We recommend t hecu lture of early, mid~season, and late varieties t orovide fruit over as long a season as is possible.

here strawberries are grown on a smal l scaleit is Often necessary t o net them t o keep off t hebirds.Variet ies—These are very numerous

,a great

number of them being inferior and obsolete,

and there is rarely occasion t o go beyond t hefollowing small selection : R oyal Sovereign , anexcellent all- round variety ; King of the Earlies ;N oble

,early and a good crop er, but inferior in

colour and in flavour ; SirToseph Paxton , anold sort

,but firm of flesh

,of fine flavour

,and

splendid for travell ing ; The Laxton , consideredby its raisers t o be superior t o Royal Sovereign ; Bedford Champion ; British Queen , u nsurpassed for flavour

,but does not do wel l in

all loca lities ; Givon’s Late P rolific ; and Latest

of All .S trawberry Forcing

—This is a considerableindustry

,particularly so on t he South coast

,

though prices have declined somewhat of lateyears ; and in private gardens containing a fairamount of glass a few strawberries should cert ainly be forced. The finest and earliest runnersare selected from plan t s which have not beenallowed t o fruit, and are rooted in good soil in3 - in . pots, being subsequently transferred singlyinto 5 - in . or6 - in . pots

,in a compost of good turfy

loam with some leaf mould or well - rotted cow

manure. They are kept growing vigorouslythroughout t he summer, and on t he approachof winter are turned on their sides t o keep ou texcessive moisture, or else placed in a frame.

They are taken into a heated greenhouse fromDecember onwards as required, being placed asnear t he glass as possible, and stood in saucersor on turves , t he fines t plants being picked ou tfor t he earliest batches. The temperature shouldnot exceed 45 ° t o 50° F . at firs t

,and it must be

moderate until t he berries are set,when it may

reach 75 ° wi t h sun heat. It is wel l t o keep t heplants a little drier at t he roots than usual whenthey are flowering, and they should be fed whent he berries commence t o swel l. An extra earlycrop is t he most profitable, bu t in private gardens a succession of fruit until that from outsidecomes in is more t o be desired. R oyal Sovereignis an excel len t variety for forcing. V icomtesseH . de Thury and Keens’Seedling are also forced.

Straw berry

M ildew and R ed Spider may prove troublesomeunder glass.A lp ineS trawberries.

—These are of good flavour,

but are as yet but l ittle grown in Great Britain.Continen tal growers usually raise them fromseeds

,treating them as annuals and biennials .

Belle de M eaux,Bergen , Janus, Blanc, and

R ouge Amél ioré are t he most opular varieties.P erp etual S trawberries. hese, which are

crosses between t he English and t he AlpineStrawberry

,also have but little vogue in this

coun t r but this is largely because wrongmetho s of cultivation have been adopted

,and

they are now increasing somewhat in popularity.

It requires t o be understood that t he best successional crops of fruit are not produced upont he old stools, but on the first and second runnersof t he current season . Thus runners should beencouraged as much as possible

, and plenty ofroom left for their egging down . Some runners may be layered

pin pots and taken indoorsfor autumn fruiting. Jeanne D’

A rc,S . A n

t honie de Padoue,S t . Jose h

,Oregon

, and LouisGauthier are t he best kin [W. W.]

F IELD CULTIVATION .—Of late years t he field

cultivation of strawberries has become an important industry in many part s of t he country

,

more especially in t he counties of Kent andH ampshire, and on t he banks of t he Clyde inScotland ; t he soil and climate of these dist rict s appear t o be naturally favourable to t hecrop. Strawberries as cultivated in t he Openfields are an uncertain crop : in some seasons itmay prove t o be highly remunerative, in otherst he margin of profi t may be very slight. The

finest blooms may be completely destroyed bylate spring frost s

,or a w et fruiting season wi ll

in j ure t he quality and keeping power,and con.

siderably reduce t he market value of t he fruit .Cost of Cu lt iva t ion—The cost of renting sui t

able land for strawberry growing may amountt o anything from £2 up t o £5 per acre ; t hebreaking up and planting of new ground wi llcost from £20 t o £30 per acre3 while bastardtrenching old plan tations will often cost morethan £10 per acre. M uch of t he land understrawberry cultivation is ploughed t o a depthof from 1 2 t o 1 5 in . at a cost of from 1 5 s. to 303 .

per acre.

The strawberry grower’s year of preparationcommences in October, when he has t o preparet he ground for t he runners

, t he soil havingbeen first summer- fallowed. In garden cultivation it is customary t o plant s ecially layeredrunners in July

,bu t with tiie majority of

growers lit tle planting is done before October,when t he work is often continued into May .

A heavy coating of manure is t he first essential,and anything from 30 t o 40 tons of dung or

manure Is ap lied per acre ; the average cost ofth is manure elivered on t he farm and appliedt o t he field may be from 7s. 601. t o 83 . 6d . pert on , while t he cost of spreading may be estimated at from 23 . t o 23 . 6d . per acre. The priceof runners varies according t o variety

,and

whether they are specially layered plants ormerely self- rooted runners which have receivedno special preparation before lifting : t he former

Straw berry

will cost from 103 . t o 1 5 s. per 1000, while t helatter are plentiful at 5 3 . per 1000. The numberof runners required t o plant an acre can be estimated at from t o t o t he acre, whichnumbers allow forweaklings being planted t w o

together. If planted 2 ft. apart, close uponare required ; but t he d istances between t herows vary considerably

, and,in some cases,

rows 30 in . apart and 1 2 t o 1 5 in . from plantt o lant are common . Varieties l ike ‘Paxtons ’an

‘N obles’are Often planted 2 ft. from row t o

row and 1 ft . from lant t o plant ; thus nearlyplants w ould

pbe required t o plant 1 ac .

P lanting is usually performed by piece work,

and may cost from 1 5 3 . t o £1 per acre for dibbling in t he runners.After Cul t iva t ion—A considerable amount oflabour is necessary from t he time of plantinuntil t he fruit is ready for gathering

,hand an

horse hoeing being much in evidence. The plantsmust also be gone over four orfive times for t hepurpose of removing runners

,which work will

add about 123 . t o t he expenses of cultivation . Thetotal cost of hoeing on average land , includingthree hand hoeings

,each of which will cost about

£3 , would be ap roximat ely £12, estimatingt he period covere as twenty months from t he

time of planting to t he gathering of t he firstbatch of marketable fruit. Steam - baled barleystraw has now almost superseded t he Older andless hygienic method of bedding down t he plantsprevious t o flowering with short manure ; t heamount Of straw required varies from 1 5 cwt.t o 1 t on per acre, and will cost from 8s. t o 103 ,

per acre for laying or bedding between t heplants. On heavy soils

,plantations may con

tinne t o give profitable returns for five years,while on lighter soils they cannot prove profi table beyond t he third year.Ga thering and Market ing

—A n average yieldper acre Of strawberries may be estimated at

1000baskets, each con taining from 4 t o 5 lb. offruit ; in exceptional seasons as many as 2000baskets have been secured from 1 ac. of ground.

The very early consignments bring fancy prices,

but t he general price in a good season does notaverage more than 1 8 . 3d . for a 5 - lb . basket

,

while in a bad season it may be nearer 10d . (or2d . per The cost of gathering t he fruitvaries from id . t o 5d . per lh. , or an average of

1 5d . per gal , t o which must be added t he costof baskets and haulage t o rail

,ra ilway freights

,

salesmen’s fees, &c.,t he total cost of which may

amount t o anything between £1 2 and £20peracre. The ‘chip ’ baskets are now almost exelusively used instead of t he wicker basket ; t hegreat advantage possessed by t he former is theircomparative cheapness—they can be purchasedat 1 d . each in 50- gross lots—and they are non

returnable.

In ood seasons, as much as £50may repre

sent t e return from 1 ac.,and in exceptional

seasons £100 i s reached, while in bad seasonsit may fall as low a s £20.

The principal varieties of strawberries formarket are : R oyal Sovereign

, SirJoseph Paxton ,P resident

,N oble, Bedford Cham ion

,Kentish

Favourite, and Givon’s Late P roli c . There are

other varieties,each suited for certain classes of

1 3 3

soils and districts, and these several character

ist ics mu st be taken notice of when a selectionis being made. [J . c. N .]S t raw b e rry . Pa ra s it ic Fu n g i.

Damage t o foliage general ly takes t he form of

yellowish Spots with a reddish - purple margin(fig. when t he spots are numerous and runtogether

,t he leaves wither completely . The

fungus present is Sp hcerella fragarice, which,after producing numerous summer spores

,

passes t he winter either in t he form of winterascus—fruits or as fungus - filamen t s in t he deadleaves. As t he disease begins to inj ure t he

plants early and continues active t ill lateautumn, serious damage may be done as re

gards cropping next season . Some varietiesare more l iable t o attack than others.

Strawberry - leaf Spot

Trea tment . —Weak Bordeaux mixture (seeFUN GICIDES) should be sprayed as soon as t he

disease is seen ; another spraying may be givenlater, but not after t he fruit has set . To de

stroy t he dead leaves, after collecting t he crop,scatter a thin layer of straw over t he bed and

set it on fire, care being taken not t o use muchstraw

,as excessive heat injures t he crowns.

Powdery M ildew first occurs on t he leaves,

but is easily overlooked till t he white mouldycoating appears on t he fruit, where much damage may result. The fungus (Sp hcerotheca cas

tagnei) also produces mildew on hops,and t he

disease may pass from one crop t o t he other.Trea tmen t—M ildew will be checked by t hemethods recommended above for leaf - Spot.Flowers of sulphur alone or mixed with halfits weight of quicklime, and dusted careful lybeneath t he leaves, is also a useful remedy

,but

must not be applied t o fruit.Fruit rot accompanied by a greyish fungus

(B otry t is) is sometimes destructive, especial lyin w et seasons when t he fruit ripens S lowly ;nothing except sunshine is likely t o do muchgood. [W. G. s .]S t raw b erry , In sec t En em ies o f .

The following is a list of t he chief insect pestsof t he strawberry : H ep ia lus lup u linus (GardenSwift Moth), Agrot is exclama t ionis (H eart- andDart Moth), Melolon tha vu lgaris (Cockchafer),Ga lerucella tenella (Strawberry - leaf Beetle ),Ot iorhynchus sulca tus ( Strawberry Weevil ),A n thonomus rubi ( Strawberry Anthonomus ),A drastus limbatas (Strawberry Click Beetle) .

1 34

These various insects are described under theirtechnica l designations.S t raw son iz er, a machine ext ensivel used

for Spraying of chemicals t o destroy w ee s andt o prevent insect and fungoid attacks. See

SPRAYERS .

S t re n g t h o f M a t eria ls . See art .

TER IA LS,STRENGTH A N D ELASTICITY or.

S t rin g h a lt .—A n ill - defined affection of t he

nervous system characterized by a spasmodicclicking up of one or both hind legs. Thisdefect is classed among t he nervous affections,and has t he appearance of being d ue t o exal tedfunction of t he nerves which govern t he fiexorsof t he hind limb

,but t he most careful post

mortem examinations have failed t o discoverany lesions or anything abnormal whatever.Many theories have been advanced and a

variety of treatments adopted,but with very

l ittle success . The malady may suddenly declare it self in a pronoun ced form

,ormay slow ly

and insidiously increase. The heavy breeds areno more exem t than t he light ones, but horseswhose work oes not ca ll for trotting or fastpaces are less able t o throw off t he jerkingmovement with exercise. As t he disease invariably increases as time goes on, it is importan t t o recognize early sympt oms and avoidpurchasing, as sound

,an animal with any in

clinat ion t o stringhalt. We have said that itinvariably increases

,but this must be qualified

by t he statement that there are periods of

partial remission, and even of ap arent temporary cure

,when horses are turned

)

ou t t o grass ;bu t when t aken in again

,it reappears. A dvan

tage is often taken of this diminution of t he

symptoms outdoors t o sel l t o t he unwary whilein t he field. When t he Spasmodic action of t hel imb increases t o a very great extent

,t he sub

ject of it loses condition and becomes more or

less tucked up in t he flank, as horses do withany kind of lameness or cause of pain in a hindlimb. An imals are t o be seen occasionally w ithsuch an exaggerated form of stringhalt thatthey actually strike t he belly with t he foot.One or both legs may be involved, but seldomin equal degree

,so that t he subject often ap

pears t o have bu t one limb affect ed when bothare influenced. Stringhalt should teach us t headvisabil ity of seeing a horse in t he stable and

cooled down before committing ourselves t oa purchase. I t is one of severa l maladies thatdisplay themselves when t he animal is madet o stand over across t he stall. If t he subjectof this defect he will snatch up the affectedlimb

,and should certainly be made t o pass t o

both sides of t he stal l. Spavin and naviculardisease (which see) are best looked for whena horse has been stabled long enough t o cooldown. This disease is hereditary, and horsesaffected with it should not be used for studpurposes. [R . L .]S t rip p in g s consist of t he last- drawn milkfrom a cow at any milking. They are charact eriz ed by being much richer in fat than t heaverage milk yielded by t he cow , often containing over 10 per cent of this ingredient. The

first - d rawn milk or‘fore milk ’ is very poor in

fat, t he quantity of this constituent rising as

S t raw soniz er Strongy losis

The strippings are found to be richer in fatafter a longer period has elapsed between milkings than after a shorter period. The otherconstituent s of t he milk do not vary t o anything like t he same extent.It is of t he greatest practica l importancethat t he cows should be wel l milked and wel lstripped. It may even happen that an inefficient milker may not only get less milk, butthat t he milk so obta ined may fal l below t he

standard required by law , while t he few extrapounds obta ined by a skil led milker will bringt he milk above t he st andard.

In taking samples of milk from individualcows

,all t he milk from t he cow must be milked

into a pail and then well mixed before t hebottles are filled. [J . Go.]

A , Strongylus tetracant hus, male, magnified. B ,Anterior

extremit y , dorsal View . 0, End view of anteriorextremit y.

S t ro ng y los is .—This term is applied t o

disease caused by worms belonging t o t he genus

t he process of milking proceeds, and being muchricher in t he last 1 pt. which can be strippedfrom t he cow . The follow ing example is typica lof t he result s obtained in hundreds of cases witht he milk of Shorthorn cows at t heM idland Agricultural and Dairy Co l lege.

Three 6v oz . bottles were taken t o t he cow

shed at 7 a m. N o 1 w as fi lled direct from t he

cow with t he first - drawn or fore milk. The

milking w as then proceeded with, and whent he cow had yielded about half t he quantitywhich was expected , bottle N o. 2 w as filled.

Bottle N o. 3 was filled with t he st rippin s.The same cow’s milk was again sampled in t eevening at 5 p m. in t he same manner. The

percen t age of fat w as det ermined in t he milkin each bottle, and gave t he following results

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1 36 Stump Extractors -b Subsoil

S t u m p Ext ra c t ors are machines of various sort s , which all work upon t he principle of

gaining great force by leverage. If t he sideroots have been cut through all round, t he stumpcan often be raised by t he leverage of a longand stout pole passing through an iron rinattached t o a strong hook, that can be insertebelow one of t he main side- roots. Or a long

Fig. 1 .-Grubb ing St ump w ith Monkey

' Jack

pole can be fixed with one end resting on the

ground and t he other on t he t o of a jack, withan iron chain binding this en of t he pole t oone of t he stump - root s ; and as t he jack iswound up, t he stump is partially tilted over.The Australian monkey jack is another methodof applying strong leverage. One of t he mos tpowerful stump extractors is t he American‘H awkeye ’ machine, worked by horse- power,

Fig. 2.—Grubbing St ump wit h Monkey Jack

t he machine itself being firmly moored t o one

or more stumps,as necessary for stabil i ty

,and

t he extracting force being provided by strongleverage. Large stumps are also often blas t e

with gunpowder or dynamite,but this is not

always cheaper than t he use of mechanical a pliances. Stump extraction is only profitable wherethere is a good market for fuel, but it is t he bestsafeguard against t he P ine Weevil. [J . N .]S t y p t ic s , substances which arrest haemor

rhage when loca lly applied. They are nearlyakin t o astringents

,which cause constriction or

contraction of t he tissues either by topical application or through t he circulation of t he blood .

A constringing drug given by t he mouth, andintended to act local ly upon t he inj ured mucousmembrane of the bowel , would be consideredan astringent, although operating in

' much t hesame manner as a styptic immediately a

pplied.

N u t galls in powder,tannic and gall ic aci oak

and elm barks, catechu, kino, alum, iron , copper,zinc

,silver

,chalk and bismuth, are subst ances

employed both as styptics and astringents.Gallic acid is given as an in ternal styptic orastringen t t o arrest hamorrhage where me

chanical means cannot be employed ; so also islead acetate ; and for ulcerating surfaces, disposed t o bleed, in stomach and bowels, t he sa ltsof silver and copper and iron are rescribed . For

t he general means of arresting b eed ing, and t hepractical ap licat ion of styptics, t he reader isreferred to t e art . BLEEDIN G. n . L.]S u b co c c in e l la. 24 - p u n

'

c t a t a (t eLeaffeeding Ladybird).—Mos t Ladybird beetles arebeneficial on account of their carnivorous habit s,but t he present species is inj urious on accountof its ve etarian proclivities. The plant- feedingLadyb ir s can at once he told by t he wing casesbeing pubescent ; many of them are very harmful abroad (Epilachnas) , but this is t he onlyone found in Britain . In size it is about Ain.long ; it is almost hemispherica l, clothed withthick greyish pubescence, of a reddish or ferruginous colour, with black spots on t he thoraxand elyt ra ; t he legs and an t enna are reddish.The beetles and larva feed upon clovers, tares,lucerne, vetches, &c.,

eating away t he paren~chyma of t he leaves. The larvae are yellowish,of somewhat el liptical shape, and more or lessSpinose

,with a few dark markings, t he last seg

ment having a n ipple- like anal process. Theyfeed with t he adu lts on t he same plants andpupate on t he leaves. [F. v. T. ]S u b s o il.—This term is applied t o t he soillying below t he t op 6 or 9 in. It represent smore nearly the original soil , since it is unaffected by cultivation or manuring of the surface soil . Some of t he plots at R ot hamst edhave for over fifty years received 35 cwt . of

superphosphates each year—a tota l now of

nearly 8 tons ; yet t he subsoil below 9 in . is

no richer in available phosphoric acid than thatof t he plot unmanured since 1 839. The dungedplots have been receiving 1 4 tons annually, i.e.

700 tons during t he whole period, but t he subsoil is little

,if any , richer in nitrogen or organ ic

matter. The explanation is, that soil has an ex

t raordinary power of precipitating soluble substances from their solutions : organic matter,ammonia

,phosphoric acid, and potash are all

held by t he articles near t he surface,and get

no further t an t he cultivation operations willtake them.

But during t he long period that has elapsedsince t he soil w as formed

, t he rain has been

perpetually washing some of t he clay particlesownwards. Thus w e always find more clay int he second 9 in . than in t he surface soil. Fur

ther, t he clay in t he subsoil has not been subjec t ed t o the floccu lat ing influence of cultivation, organic matter, lime, &c .

,and is therefore

in a much less workable condit ion than thatof the surface. H ence t he sticky, unkindly

Subsoil Succession

nature of t he subsoil. Chemically, t he subsoil

contains less organic matter (hence its difference in colour), less nitrogen, but more potashthan t he surface soil ; both con tain about t hesame amounts of phosphoric acid. The subsoilcompounds, however, are much less soluble and‘available ’ than those in t he surface soil . It isnow known that t he old idea is wrong whichsup osed t he subsoil t o be t he reservoir of plantfoo from which t he surface soil drew its supply.

The subsoi l is much p oorer in plant food thant he surface

,and there is no advantage

,but dis

tinct disadvantages,in bringing it t o t he sur

face. The micro- organic flora of t he subsoil issimpler than that of t he surface. The numberof organisms is smal ler

,and only those survive

that are capable of doing without much air.

These differences are,however

,much less

marked in dry regions, and thus it happens thatin levelling land for irrigation a scoo can be

sent over it t o pick up the soil in t e raisedparts and transfer it t o t he hol lows. The laying bare of t he subsoil leads t o no long periodof sterili ty as would be t he case here.

While t he subsoil is heavier than t he surfaceif t he t w o have t he same geological origin, itmay be

“ much lighter if they are geologicallydistinct. Thus clay may wash on t o sand and

give rise t o a heavy surface soil lying on a lightsubsoil . It may wash or be deposited on t o

chalk,as in t he belt of country round London ,

in which case it is a distinct advantage t o bringup some of t he chalk subsoil t o t he surface an

use it as a manure. This indeed was untilabou t a hundred years ago the recognized treatment of these soils.In Spite of its general unkindliness t he subsoil is penetrated by t he roots of certain plants—wheat

,mangolds

,R ed Clover, Lucerne, Sain

foin among ordinary crops, and by many pasture plants ; and this tendency is

,in pasture

land, fostered by t he use of manures like nitrateof soda

,that wash down into t he soil. The only

practicable method of improving t he subsoil onfarms

,apart from drainage

,is t o grow deep

rooting crops,which open t he subsoil, increase

its stores of organic matter, and effect a certaintransference of plan t food t o t he surface. Various systems of land improvement have beenbased on this plan . Sainfoin and Lucerne havet he advantage of being leguminous plants andtherefore increasing t he nitrogen supply of thesoil , but Chicory and other plants have beenfound useful.One great advantage of improving t he subsoilis that t he root range of t he plant, and consaquently t he water supply

,is increased. Indeed

it is largely in relation t o t he wat er supply thatt he subsoil is im ort an t . The best resul t s areobtained when tiie subsoil is sufficiently compact t o hold back enough water

,without, how

ever, allowing it t o accumulate and stagnate.

On t he other hand,very porous subsoil leads t o

overdrainage and consequently infertility, whichcannot be altoget her remedied. When t he surface soil is underlain by solid rock, t he conditions may be favourable both t o root development and water supply if t he rock is vertical,especially if it is soft enough t o be split by t he

1 37

1 . ENGLAND

(a) R eal Property—The order of descen t of

real estate on t he death of t he owner intestateis governed by Stat ute, t he main rules whereofare as follows, viz. : The descent is in every caset o be traced from t he purchaser, t .e. t he personwho last succeeded otherwise than by descent.The estate descends lineal ly t o t he issue of t he

purchaser so long as there is any , males beingpreferred t o females, and an elder male t o a

younger. In t he case of females, however, theytake jointly and are known as coparceners

,so

roots ; but they are usually unfavourable. if t herock is horizontal. [E. J. R .]S u b so il in g , or S u b so il P lo u g h in g , is

actually a scarifying orknifing of t he subsoil bya tine or coulter let down from t he frame of a

strong plough constructed specially for t he purpose. Or t he subsoiler may be at tached t o t heframe of a steam lough . If it takes t he formof a separate im lement it is furnished with a

beam,frame, an stilts like an ordinary plough ,

but is destitute of mould - board or true landside ; and t he coulter is produced downwardsand terminates in a strong tine which is drawnthrough t he ground at t he bottom of a newlyturned furrow. In this case it is preceded bya strong plough

,drawn by four horses, which

turns ou t a deep 9 - in . furrow . The subsoi lplough

,also drawn by four horses, follows, and

t he work performed at each turn is covered upby t he next furrow. The principle of subsoiling is pulverization without bringing t he subsoil t o t he surface

,and in this respect it differs

from trench ploughing (see TREN CH PLOUGHIN G). Subsoiling is especially suitable for steampower

,and all that is necessary is a coulter or

knife so fixed behind each turn - furrow as t o

enter and pulverize t he subsoil t o a depth of

7 t o 9 in . below t he bottom of t he furrow. I t

is not adapted for solid and retentive clays , asmight naturally have been expected. Such soilsclose in a short time through their naturalplas t icit y, so that all traces of t he operation aresoon obli t erated. The best results have beenobtained upon subsoils of a shel ly or calcareousnature, which offer a barrier t o t he downward

passage of water

,

‘

and form a definite or indenite ‘

pan’

,a few inches below t he surface. It

is also t he best means of dealing with muirband pan , an ochreous ferruginous deposit

, oftenfound under heaths. These pans, when oncebroken up, never form again

, and hence t he

operation of subsoiling is a permanent improvement followed with excel lent results.Subsoiling has often been regarded as a crit i

cal operation involving possible injury t o t he

ground, and t o t he productive powers of t hesoil . In this respect, however, it is not so

fraught with danger as is trench ploughing,

because there is no mixing of poor or sour subsoil with a wel l aerated and manured surfacesoil ; but only a breaking up of t he pan whetherof muir- band, calcareous deposit, or a mere ind urat ed pan ,

produced by t he continuous treading of horses for a long series of years. [J . Wr.]S u b so il P lo u g h . See PLOUGH .

S u c c es s io n , In t e st a t e .

1 38 Succession

called because they are entitled to demand a {son and his issue, male and female, until t hepartition by the Court , failing a voluntary agreement. In t he event of no partition , however,t he interest of a coparcener descends to herchildren

,if any . The issue of children of t he

purchaser represent their parent s ; thus, if t heeldest son of t he purchaser redeceased leavingchildren, male or female, t ey would take inpreference t o t he second son of t he purchaser.On failure of lineal descendants t he propertypasses t o t he nearest living ancestor ; thus t hefather of t he purchaser wil l succeed before t hebrothers or sisters. In t he case of ascendan tst he male l ine is preferred t o t he female l ine.

On t he failure of a lineal ascendant his issue,if any , succeed ; thus, on t he predecease of t he

father of t he purchaser leaving a family t heproperty will 0 t o them

,as in t he first instance

t o a younger rother of t he purchaser and hisfamily

, or in t he case of sisters t o t hem as co

parceners. The full blood excludes t he half ;that is t o say , a ful l brother will succeed beforeany of t he issue of t he father’s marriage witht he second wife can succeed. After t he aseendants in t he paternal line and their issue are

exhausted,t he property passes into t he ma

ternal line. Lastly, if there is a total fai lureof heirs of t he purchaser, t he descent is tracedfrom t he person last entitled to t he lands as ifhe had been t he urchaser thereof.(b) P ersona l sta te—Th e dist ribution of t hepersonal estate of an in testate after aymen t ofdebts is regulated by t he S tatute o Distribu

tions,which provides as follows, viz. : The hus

band of t he deceased is entitled t o t he wholeestate left by his deceased wife, while a widowis entitled t o one- third if there be a family or

other lineal descendants, otherwise t o one- half.If

,however, a man die wi t hout issue and his

whole estate, real or personal , does not exceed£500 net , t he widow is entitled t o t he wholeof it ; and if it exceed £500, then she is entitledt o a sum of £500 in addition t o her share of

t he personal estate. The children are entitledt o t w o- thirds of their fat her’s estat e if he is survived by a widow, otherwise to t he whole. The

re resentat ives of a child who has redeceased

take t he share which he or she w oul have beenentitled t o on survivance. Failing issue, t henext of kin take one- half if a widow survive,and t he whole if there is none. N o representation—t .e. t he taking of children in place of theirparents—is admitt ed among collaterals beyondt he children of brothers and sisters of t he intestate. The next of kin are ascertained by counting from t he intestate back t o t he common ancest or, and thereafter down to t he parties claiming t o succeed, each step counting a degree ; butbrothers and sisters of t he deceased are entitledto take in preference t o the randfat her, althoughthey are both in t he same egree of relationship.

The father of t he deceased excludes t he mother.On failure of t he father, t he mother succeedsalong with thebrothersand sistersof t hedeceased,and t he issue of any deceased brother or sister.

2. SCOTLAN D(a) H eritage

—On t he death of a person intestate, t he heritable estate descends to t he eldest

l ine is exhausted,males succeedingbefore females.

On failure of t he eldest son and his issue if any ,t he second son and his issue take, and so on tillall t he male issue are exhausted. Thereaftert he daughters, if more than one, take t he property between them pro ind iviso as heirs port ioners, t he issue of a daughter who has predeceased t aking their mother’s share

,t he male

issue having a preference. The eldest heir port ioner has a right t o t he mansion house of an

estate in t he country, but has no such right t oa town house or t o a villa t hough in the country.

She is also entitled t o such dignities and titlesof honour as are not otherwise limited

,without

makin any compensation to her sisters therefor. S e is also entit led t o t he property of thingsindivisible, but subject t o compensation t o hersisters. On the failure of descendan t s

,t he suc

cession t o t he heritable estate goes ou t t o t hecollateral l ine. The next younger brother andhis issue succeeding t o t he immediately elderbrother, and so on from elder t o younger tillall t he younger brothers and their issue are

exhausted. Thereafter t he elder brothers andtheir issue succeed in t he inverse order

,i.a. t he

immediately elder first,and thereafter upward

t o t he eldest. After t he failure of brothers andtheir issue, t he sisters succeed as heir portioners .In t he succession of collaterals t he full bloodexcludes t he half ; but on t he failure of t he ful lblood t he half blood consanguinean (i.e. deseendants of t he same fatherbut not t he same motheras t he full blood) wi ll succeed, males taking t hereference as in t he case of t he full blood. Thealf blood u terine (t .e. descendan t s of t he samemotherbut not t he same father as t he ful l blood)is entirely excluded. Af ter failure of collaterals,t he heritage ascends t o the father and his relations t o t he exclusion of t he mother and herrelations, t o Whom it never ascends .H usband and wife never succeed t o each other,but they have t he following rights in t he estateof an intesta te. The husband

,if t he father of

t he heir at law , is entitled t o a liferent of t heheritage, known as his court esy . If no child hasbeen born of t he marriage

,t he husband is not

entitled t o t he right of court esy. The wife,un

less barred by provision,is enti t led t o a liferent

of one - third of t he heritage,known as terce

,

whether there be children of t hemarriage ornot .

(b) Moveables.—In t he case of a husband dying

intestate, t he deceased’s moveable estate,if he

left a widow and family,is divisible into three

parts : one part whereof,known as t hej us relictce,

goes t o t he widow ; one part, known as legit im,

goes t o t he children equally among them ; andt he third art

, known as t he dead ’sp art , will got o t he chifdren as t he next of kin . If he leavea widow but no children

, t he j us relict ce willamount t o one- half of t he moveable est ate ; andif he leave a child or children but no widow

,t he

legit im will amount t o one- half, t he remainder

in each case being the dead’s p art . On t he deathof a woman survived by a husband

,he is entit led

t o t he same rights in her estate as a wife is inthat of her deceased husband . On t he deathof a person predeceased by husband or wife, asthe case may be, and without issue, t he whole

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1 40

which covers t he intestines of animals u sed asfood

,more especial ly t he ox and sheep . In beef

suet,and still more in mutton suet

,there is an

excess of stearin , amounting t o as much as threefourths of t he whole

,so that these suets are hard

and white. H ealthy suet should be quite hardafter t he carcass has stiffened, containing neitherjelly nor watery serum. When t he abdominalfat of mutton is melted and strained so as t o getrid of crude connective tissue, t he result is t heserumprepara tum of t he B R

,melting at 103°F.,

a white,soft, homogeneous fat , almost odourless,

greatly in use for making plasters, ointment s,and cerates. Owing t o its facilities for resistingdecomposition

,melted suet is often sprayed over

a carcass so as t o ive it a thin but imperviouscoating of fat . enerally speaking, suet andbody fat are constant in composition , whatevert he source of food, as fat is partly derived fromt he carbohydrates in t he foodstuffs and partlyfrom proteid matters . The effects of food are

most marked in affecting t he colour, odour, andflavour

,as is seen after oilcake feeding. [J . K.]

S u ffo lk H o rse .—The Suffolk horse is

undoubtedly one of t he oldest breeds of Britishhorses

,but his origin is still conjectural , and

t he record of his early descent meagre and

unilluminating. We learn from t he writingsof Arthur Young that t he Suffolk P unch w asknown t o his generation as an old - es tablishedbreed in East Anglia, and that rior t o the

latter half of t he 1 8 th century t e most uns ightly points of t he earl ier type had beenmodified and t he breed materially im roved.Youat t

,a succeeding writer, describes t e ori

ginal breed as‘s tanding from 1 5 t o 1 6 hands

h igh,of a sorrel colour

,large headed, low shoul

dered and thick on t he t op , deep and roundchested

,long backed, high in t he croup, large

and strong in t he quarters, full in t he flanks,

round in t he legs,and short in t he pasterns ’.

‘The present breed ’,says t he same authority,

‘possesses many of t he peculiarities and goodq ual ities of its ancestors. It is more or les sincl ined t o a sorrel colour ; it is a taller horse,higher and finer in t he shoulders, and it is across with t he Yorkshire

,half or three-parts

bred.’ Youat t’

s reference t o t he Yorkshire crossis probably a guess on his part ; so far as isknown t o t he writer, t he recise nature of t he

cross or t he probable perio when it w as effectedhas never been definitely stated.

But whatever its origin , t he original stock t owhich Young refers and which Youat t describesw as undoubtedly improved by t he infusion of

extraneous blood,which served t o impart t o t he

Suffolk that lighter, more active,and smarter

element which distinguishes t he breed of t he

present day . The introduction of this alien bloodtook

(pla

ce for t he most part previous t o any

recor s

of t he breed being kept ; its source andnature are unknown

,though its impress remains.

In later times there have been four horses ofhistorical importance which have had a powerful effec t in stamping t he type of t he modernSuffolk. The first and most notable of these isCrisp’s H orse

,a Lincolnshire trotting s tallion ,

foaled in 1 768 , and t he property of ThomasCrisp of Ufford, advertised in 1 773 as

‘a five

Suffolk Horse

year old , t o get good stock for coach or road,

a fine bright chestnut,full 1 5 5 hands, noted for

getting remarkably fine colts ’. Most of t he

present- day Suffolk horses have a strain of t helood of Crisp’s H orse in their composition.N ext in im ortance is Blake’s Farmer

,foaled

in 1 760, an the sire of a noted family whichhas left its stamp on t he breed. The last directmale descendant from t he l ine passed from Britain in 1 890. There w as advertised in 1 802 a

beautiful chestnut horse, Farmer’s Glory ; thishorse is also said t o have come from Lincolnshire ; a heavier horse than Blake’s Farmer, hew as t he sire of many noted prizewinners. H is

stock were of exceptional siz e,though according

t o R iddel l his stamp was not t he style of t he

best Sufl‘olk horse. This strain became ext inctin t he male line about 1 870. Then comes Barber’s Proctor, t he pioneer of t he Shad ingfieldstock ; this horse, foaled in 1 793 , w as t he off

spring of a chestnut mare and t he son of a trotting horse of great substance. The descendantsof Barber’s P roct or were for t he first few generations of a bay colour. Finally w e have t heSamsons, a strain of more modern date and ofrelatively small importance compared with thosealready mentioned. As with t he other breeds

,

no direct descendants of t he Samsons now exist,

and t he Suffolk horses of t o- day all trace theirpedigree through a l ine of some eighteen ancestors t o Crisp’s H orse of Uf

'

ford.P O INTS A ND CHARACTER ISTICS .

—The Councilof t he Suffolk H orse Society have authorizedt he following sca le of points for j udging Suffolks :

Points.

Colour.—Bright -red or dark- chest nu t are t hefavourit e colours ; a st ar, lit t le whit e on

face, or few silver hairs is no detrimen tH ead big, with broad foreheadN eck deep in collar, t apering gracefu lly

t owards t he set t ing of t he headShoulders long and muscu lar well t hrown

back at t he wit hersCarcass deep, round ribbed from shou lder

t o flank, wit h gracefu l ou t line in back,loin , and hind quart ers; wide in front and

behind (t he tail wel l up , with good secondt highs)

Legs shou ld be st raight , wit h fair slopingpasterns, big knees, and long c lean hookson short cannon bones free from coarse

hair. Elbows t urned in regarded as a

serious defectFeet having p len t y of size, with good circu

lar form prot ect ing t he frogWalla smart and t rueTrot wel l balanced all round, wit h good

Tot al

The Suffolk horse varies in height from 1 52t o 1 7 hands. In comparison with t he generallymassive body t he legs are short, but they arehard and clean . The pasterns are short andstrong, and free from much long hair. The boneshould be of a flat , compact, flint y quality ; largesoft- boned legs are an undesirable feature. Theshoulders are very long

,lying rather forward

t o suit draught urposes. The hind quartersare also lon an heavy

,wel l knit

, and closelycoupled t o t e loin and back. The legs shouldbe well set under t he body ; the girth should

Pho to. Chas. R eld .

SUFFOLK STA LLION—" BAWDSEY LADDIE"

F IR ST A T snow , 1 9 10

l ’uo lo . Chas. R eid .

SUFFOLK MA RE—“ SUDBOURN E SUR PR ISE"

FIR ST l’ii l l E WIN N ER ,SH OW,

1 907

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1 42

eldings. One of t he stud horses, SudbourneCount has sired many notable prizewinners. Sir Cuthbert Quilter, Bart., who hasfor many years been president of t he SuffolkH orse Society, is t he owner of t he BawdseyS tud. The leading sire of this notable stud isH arvester thrice champion at t he Suf

folk County Show. The R endelsham Stud,owned by Mr. Alfred J. Smith

,has a reputa

tion which extend s over t he seas, as being t hehome of famous Suffolks. Wedgewoodt he winner of t he Q ueen’s Gold M edal at Windsor, brought many trophies t o his owner, andas a sire effected a marked improvement in t hebreed, especial ly in regard t o feet. Saturn

an offspring of this famous horse, securedno less than forty - nine prizes, and w as t he winnerof many championships. This stud enjoys a largeand increasing export demand. Other notablestuds are t he Morston Stud at Trimley , ownedby Mr. Arthur J . P ratt ; t he Dennin t on Stud,t he property of Mr. E. A. Cook ; t e BoulgeH all Stud, belonging t o Mr. E. Eaton White ;t he Cockfield Stud

,near Bury S t . Edmunds

,

owned by Mr. R obert Edgar ; t he LavenhamH all Stud, which has lately come into t he handsof Mr. Cordy S. Wolt on . Mr. A. Carlyle Smithand t he Marquis of Graham are also owners ofSuffolks whose reputation is in t he making.

The Suffolk H orse~Societ y publishes periodica lly a stud book, of which seventeen volumeshave now been issued. In a recently publishedvolume t he entries recorded for 1 908 and 1 909

embrace 1 95 horses and 497 mares, animalsmostly entered as foals. During t he same periodof tw o years t he Society has granted 1 30exportcertificates. H ence

,according t o these figures

,

it would a pear that 20per cent of t he animalsannual ly red are exported. Doubtless also

,

some horses are exported for which no cert ifi

cate is applied.

Sales are, as a rule, effected by private con

tract. The Suffolk H orse Society, however,holds an annual sale towards t he end of July.

At this sale t he Society foals and surplus stockfrom other studs are disposed of. In 1 909 t heaverage price for foals w as £22, 1 5 3 . In

private

sales it is difficul t t o give any precise gures.Useful stal lions are sold for export from 100t o250 gs.

,whilst first - class animals make up t o

5 00 gs. There appears t o be a fast- increasingd emand for young mares suitable for breeding,these ranging in price from 60gs . upward.

This article would be incomplete withoutsome reference t o t he admirable work carriedou t by t he Breeding Scheme Committee of t he

Suffolk H orse Society. The object of this schemeis t o encourage t he breeding of Suffolks amongstt he smal ler class of farmers by means of a hirepurchase agreement. Briefly , t he scheme ope

rates as follows : The Society provides eachapproved applicant with a brood mare costinnot more than 60gs.

,a quarter of which is paid

by t he farmer at t he time of urchase. The

farmer,in return for t he use of t e mare

,agrees

t o pay interes t at t he rate of 4 per cent on t hebalance of all moneys spent by t he Society on

t he mare. All Society mares are entitled t o t heSociety’s free nominations, and must be served

Suffo lk Horse—S ufi'

olk Sheep

only by a stallion ap roved of by t he Society.

The farmer must nu ert ake t o take good careof t he mare and not t o work her unfairly

, andt o deliver t he foals free of all cost and unweanedat Ipswich (or other a pointed place), on t heday appoin ted by t he Society for delivery ofsuch foals. Provided that t he foal is in goodhealth and sired by a stall ion approved of byt he Society, t he farmer shal l receive in respectthereof £ 1 6, such a sum being placed tot he farmer’s account in t he Society’s book. The

farmer also receives an equal share of any sumabove 20 gs. which t he foal may realize at t heSociety’s sale. These Society foals are sold umreservedly, breeders being al lowed t o bid andpurchase on t he same terms as t he generalpublic. Such a scheme as t he foregoing cannotfail t o have a marked efiect in pro agat ingamong t enant farmers a high- class gra e of Suffolk horses. F . s.]S u ffo lk P ig s have changed much of lateyears. Thirty or forty years ago they weremainly of a black colour

,though some were

quite white ; they were neat, compact, andcomparatively small , weighing when fat about1 70 lb .

, and possessing a somewhat large proportion of fat t o lean meat. Some were longin side, snout, and legs, and of a slat e colour

,

and having comparatively little fine hair. Att he present time t he neat compact pigs of thewhite or of t he black colour have no place inSuffolk

,whilst t he long- sided, slow- feeding

,but

prol ific black has been crossed by a thicker andeavier type of black pig commonly bred in t hewest of England, and has found an opening t oappear as a pure- bred pig. Large numbers oft he pigs fattened in t he county of Suffolk at

t he present time are from these black sowsand sired by a Large or a M iddle White boar.These prove to be very profit able animals fort he feeders

,and very suitable for conversion

into t he famous Wiltshire bacon. [s. s.]S u ffo lk S h ee p . In a pamphlet descriptive of this breed and written by t he lateMr. Ernest P rentice

,it is clearly shown that

t he Suffolk sheep is t he result of crossing t heold horned N orfolk—of which a few flocks stil lexist—with t he Improved Sou t hdown . For thisreason t he Suffolk combines in its elf t he hardiness and fecundity of t he N orfolk ew e with t hesuperior form and fattening properties of t hewel l- bred and strong constitution of t he Southdown , and has been recogniz ed as a pure breedsince 1 8 10.

The rise of Suffolk sheep in ublic estimationhas synchroniz ed closely with t e rapid d eveloment of t he trade in chilled carcasses from t eAntipodes , and live sheep from t he vast graz inglands of N orth and South America ; t he severecompetition created by these imports renderingit necessary for t he breeder and grazier at homet o seek a sheep which w ould yield them a goodreturn and at the same time rove profi t ablet o t he butcher. The Suffolk sheep w as foundt o meet t he requirements of both arties

,and

its advance in favour has been spee y and sure,its merits resting upon t he firm foundation ofgeneral utility, and t he fact that t he Suffolkis essentially a tenant farmer’s sheep—by far

Suffolk Sheep

t he majority of breeders representing a bodyof men who are seeking t he means t o ensure a

profitable return upon their capital and skillaffords t he surest indicat ion of a still greaterextension in t he future.

In t he early ’eighties a keen interest was

aroused for pure- bred stock, and in 1 886 t he

R oyal Agricultural Society of England heldtheir show at N orwich. To prepare for thisand push t he in terests of Suffolk sheep

,a large

and influential meeting of breeders was helda t Stowmarket on January 8

,1 886, t o consider

t he advisability of forming a society with thisobject. It was unanimously decided t o formt he Suffolk Sheep Society. A Council waselected, with t he late Marquess of Bristol aspresident, and t he late Mr. Ernest Prentice as

h on. secretary. Classes were first added t o t heR oyal ’Schedule in this year.The first volume of t he flock book appeared

in 1 887 and others have since been issued an

nually . Later on , t he Editing and General P ur

poses, and Veterinary Committees were electedrom t he Council ; a veterinary inspector appointed, w ho from time t o time issues a report.At an early date t he Council decided on t he

following points

SCALE or POINTSH ead hornl ess. Face b lack and long, andmu z z le moderat ely fine—especially in

ew es. (A small quan t it y of c lean whit ew ool on t he forehead not object ed t o. )Ears a medium lengt h , black, and finet ext ure. Eyes brigh t and fu ll

N eck moderat e lengt h and w el l set . (Inrams st ronger, w it h a good crest . )

Shou lder broad and ob liqueChest dee and wideB ack an loin long, level, and well coveredwit h mea t and muscle. Tail broad andwel l set up . The ribs long and wel lsprung, wit h a fu l l flank

Legs and feet straigh t and black , w it h fineand flat bone. Wooll ed t o knees andhooks, c lean below . Fore legs set wel lapart . Hind legswell filled wit h mu t t on

B elly (a lso scrotum of rams) well coveredwit h wool

F leece moderat ely short ; close fine fibrewit hou t t endency t omat orfelt t oget her,and wel l defined, i.e. not shading off in t odark wool or hair

Skin fine, soft , and pink colourTot al

The distinctive feature of Suffolk sheep is thejet blackness of its head and of its legs below t heknee and hocks

,which should be covered with

fine glossy hair,not mossy. A dark - faced sheep

is undoubtedly a more marketable commodityas a first - class mutton producer than a whitefaced one

,and t he pre ot ency of t he Suffolks

makes t he rams of this reed valuable for crossing pur oses, as t he cross - bred progeny alwaysbears t e facial tin t of their sire. The faceshould be fairly long with a fine muzzle, espe

1 43

cially in t he ewes, t o ensure a good breeder andmilker ; t he earthin and silky and of fair length ;t he eyes full and bright, indicating a vigorousdisposition, stamina, and fine quali ty.

One of t he first and erhaps most unique stepstaken t o bring about t e improvement of flocksof Suffolk sheep was t he institution of flock competitions

,challenge cups being offered from time

t o time by various donors. The cups have beengiven for various- sized flocks

,that is, flocks of

3 50 ewes and upwards,

flocks of not less than250 ewes, and flocks of not less than 100 ewes .The flocks have t o be shown uncoloured and‘untrimmed ’

,and 10 ewe lambs per 100 ewes

must be shown as a sample of t he flock, withall rams used. A challenge cup is also given fort he best lot of ew e lambs. The j udging takesplace in October, t he j udges visiting t he farmsof t he competitors. These competitions havedone much t o raise t he standard of excellence.

In 1 899 a gold cup, t he Bristol Champion Challenge Cup ’, was offered by t he Society for t hebest lot of ewes of not less than 1 20. Beforethis competition w as started

,a competitor could

only say that he had t he best flock in t he class.This w as given t o see w ho in t he opinion of

expert jud es had the best flock of t he breed .

This gol cup has been held by t he fol lowingflockmast ers : 1 899—S . R . Sherwood, P layford,Ipswich ; 1 900—H . E. Smith, Walton

,Ipswich ;

1 901 ~ Thos. Keeble,Bentley

,Ipswich ; 1 902

Col. Baird, Exning,N ewmarket ; 1 903 R .

Barclay, H igham , Bury St . Edmunds ; 1 904H . E. Smith, Walton , Ipsw ich ; 1 905—P . Eagle

,

R isby, Bury St . Edmunds ; 1 906—P . Eagle,R isby, Bury S t . Edmunds 1 907—D. A. Green,F ingringhoe

,Colchester ; 1 908—D. A . Green

,

F ingringhoe, Colchester ; 1 909—J . R . Keeble,Brantham

,Manningtree.

All flocks are inspected prior t o first regist rat ion

, and in order t o maintain a high standard of quality all registered flocks are re

inspected every fourth year. This periodicalinspection has done much t o raise t he generalstandard and keep flock - owners up t o t he mark.All sheep must bear t he registered mark of

t he Society and t he breeder’s flock numbertattooed inside t he left ear

,and rams t he indi

vidual registered number inside t he right. Ifcarefully done these tattoo marks wil l last t hel ifetime of t he sheep

,and afford a great pro

t ect ion t o purchasers.Early maturity is one of t he best tests of t hevalue of a sheep

,and Sufi

’

olks are well t o t hefore in th is respect

,as t he following particulars

will show. Well - grazed hoggets at t he age of

8 t o 10months wil l yield 78 t o 84 lb . of dressedcarcass ; when exceptionally well finished, somewhat more.

According t o t he statistics of t he Smit hfieldClub

,t he average weight of pure- bred Suffolk

sheep entered in t he carcass competitions at thatshow for t he five years 1 905—9 is as follows

1 44

Therecords for l ive weight s for Suffolks exhibit ed at t he Smit hfield Club Show are as

underWet hers not exceeding 22monthsLambs not exceeding 10mon t hs

294 t o 33 1 lb .

200t o 225 lb.

These fi ures compare favourably with anyother bree t he Suffolk section having on morethan one occasion furnished t he heaviest en of

short -woolled shee in t he show. Ram ambsare so wel l forwar at t he age of 7 t o 8 monthsthat they are largely used forbreed in purposes.The annual ret urns collected by t e Suffolk

Sheep Society show the average number of

lambs reared in registered flocks t o have been1 3 3 7 6 per 100 ewes for t he past twenty years,and t he average loss of ewes t o be about 3 8 3per cent.Truly remarkable evidence of t he qual ity ofmutton is given in t he Smithfield Club ShowCarcass competitions, instituted 1 895 . From t hefirst

, Suffolks have given proof of their superiorit y . In 1 895 one- third of t he awards in t heclass for short- wool wether shee not exceeding24 months were gained by Su olks. In 1 896one- third of t he awards in t he short-wool classeswere gained by Suffolk lambs under t he age of

10months. In 1 897 this success “

w as repeated.

In 1 898 a Suffolk lamb obtained t he CentenaryGold M edal for t he best carcass in t he yard.S ince 1 890

,competing a

gainst representatives

of nearly every pure bree Suffolks and Suffolkcrosses have been awarded t he championshipsix ou t of t en years, t he reserve for championeight ou t of t en years , and t he first prize forshort- wool lambs t he ten years in succession ; be

sides approximately one- half of t he tot al otherawards in t he short-wool and cross- bred classes.Wool has an importan t bearing upon t he con

st it u t ion of t he animal and upon t he quality ofits flesh

,for a close dense fleece of fine fibre is

needed t o protect t he shee from t he inclemency of t he weather, and t hedensity of t he fleececannot be lessened t o any great extent withou t losing t he essential fineness of rain in t hemutton. For these“

reasons Suffo k breedershave always endeavoured t o maintain a closefleece with medium length of staple. The average weight of hogget fleece on good soils isabout 8 lb. er head of washed wool . Eweswill cl i from 5 t o 7 lh . , and rams up t o 1 4 lb.

All siheep'

t o be eligible for t he flock bookmust be t he produce of a registered flock and

bear the tattoo mark of t he breeder in t he leftear. They must also pass t he inspector ; sheepnot considered up t o t he required standard are‘cul l marked ’

,having a hole punched through

t he left ear.

The principal flocks and those belonging t ot he most noted breeders are in Suffolk andEssex

,and many in Cambrid eshire and N or

folk. There are also regist ere flocks in severalother counties in England

,also pure- bred sheep

in Scotland,Ireland, and Wales . Many rams

are distributed annually over Great Britain forcrossing pur oses , as they are much in demandt o improve t e mutton quality.

R egistered flocks have also been establishedin France and Germany. There are several

Suffo lk Sheep

flocks of pure-bred shee in t he United S tatesof America, where they ve an American flockregister. A few are also t o be found in A us

tral la, N ew Zealand, Spain , and I taly. There

are t wo flocks on t he Transvaal Governmen tfarms, of high quality, where they have donewonderful ly well, rams having been bred with

great success. Sheep of both sexes have alsoeen sent to t he Argentine

, Chi le, and manyother countries.It is impossible in this article t o enumerate

all t he show-yard successes of Suffolks in op encomp et ition wi th ot lzer breeds. The following arethose of special prominence1895 - 6 .—Championship at t he N orwich Fat - stock

ow .

Cll

iQS.—Championship, Scott ish N at ional Fat - stock

u

1 899.—Prince of Wales’s Challenge Cup for t he best

S"o

fsheep or lambs in t he show (Smit hfield Club

ow

1900.—Smithfield Club Show. Prince of Wales’s

Challenge Cup , for t he second year in succession .

1901 .—Championship of t he yard at t he Scott ish

N at ional Fat - st ock Show , fora pen of cross-bred lambsby a Suffolk ram from half-bred ewes.1 902.—Scot t ish N at ional Fat - st ock Show . Cham

pionship of t he yard .1 902.—Smit hfield Club Show. Champion p lat e in t he

short -wool sect ion .

1 907 .—Championship of the yard, Scot t ish N at ional

Fat - st ock Show . Suffolk- Border Leicest er cross penof t hree under nine mon t hs old , scaling 737 lb.

CH IEF MARKETS—Ewe lambs : Great Bentley,

Sutton (Woodbridge), and Kesgrave (Ipswich),in June and Ju ly. Ewes and rams : Ipswichand N ewmarket in August and September.P R OM INEN T ‘ BREEDER S .

—The names of t he‘Gold Cup ’ holders have already been given .

The following have all first - class registeredflocks

,and have been t he most prominent

winners at the R oyal,Smit hfield

,and County

shows : H . E. Smith,Walton

,Ipswich ; D. A.

Green , F ingringhoe, Colchester ; S. R . Sherwood, P layford, Ipswich ; J . W. Eagle,Walt onou - N aze

,Essex ; R . Barclay

,H igham

,Suffolk ;

J. R . Keeble,Brantham

,Manningtree ; T. Good

child, Great Yeldham, Essex.

RECORD Pmcss1 898.

H ighest Price. Average.

48 ram lambs fromone breeder £63 0 0 £1 4 1 1 0

1 23 Shearling ewes 1 5 10 0 7 12 05 2 t wo- shear 26 0 0 10 12 0127 ewe lambs 10 10 0 4 6 0

1899.

H ighest rice forram lambN ext big est priceShearling ram40 Shearling ewes from one

breeder, perhead i

21 ram lambs from one breederaveraged per head 23 16 6

400ewe lambs from one breederaveraged per head 2 10 6

H ighest price forram lamb 60 18 0Shearling ewesmadeup t o, perhead 9 0 0

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Sugar Beet—Sugar CaneFlocks in East An lia are mostly kept on

arable land, being fol ed in hurdles at n ight,

with a run ou t during t he day on heathland,

sal t ings, clover, and mixed leys or pasture. Theram breeding flocks lamb down as early in t heyear as possible ; a plentiful supply of food beingready, such as cabbages

,kale, kohlrabi, cole

seed, mangel, turnips, &c., and early rye. Both

ewes and lambs are kept with a liberal supplyof food, t he lambs running forward throughcreeps into t he fresh fold

,having what trough

food they will clear up. This generally consistsof a mixture of linseed cake

,crushed oats

,

cracked beans or peas,with bran ormalt culms .

When t he lambs get t o eat a good lot of this,

t he trou h food of t he ew es is propor t ionallydecrease Early rye grass, trifol ium,

red and

white clover, and later on kale and tares, formt he main staple for feeding ; plenty of mangelis always kept for late spring and summer u se.

Lambs are docked and castrated when aboutthree weeks old

,and marked t o show how bred.

M ost flocks lamb down t he latter part of February or early in March. [s. R . s.]S u g a r B e e t . See art . BEET.

S u g a r Ca n e is t he grass Sacckafrum afi ci

narum, Linn . (nat . ord . Gramineae), t he stemsof which are highly charged with a sweet (saccharine) j uice, from which crystallized sugar ismanufactured. It seems fairly certain that t hecultivation of sugar cane originated in southernAsia

,if not in India ; at all events it w as there

known and valued for many centuries before ithad reached t he other countries in which it isnow extensively cultivated. The Venetians obt ained it from India in 1 1 48 A .D. It w as grownin S icily and carried from thence t o Madeira in1 419

,and t o Brazil, St . Domingo, and Barbados

a century later. It reached Morocco and Egyptabout 1 492, and Sierra Leone and Gambia in1 620. In 1 782 w e read that t he Special Ot aheite cane had been conveyed t o Trinidad andMartinique. So late as 1 647 Ligon found sugarcane but l ittle understood in Barbados, buttoward t he close of t he 1 8t h century it hadbeen carried by t he French t o Louisiana. Att he present day , sugar cane is grown throughou t t he tropics and sub - tropics, and even incertain warm temperate tracts ; especially inIndia

, China, Indo-Ch ina, t he Malaya,t heWest

Indies,M auritius

,British Guiana

,&c.

, and at

Malaga in Spain .It is thus originally a tropical plant, and re

quires a hot , moist atmosphere, alternating withperiods of dry weather. R ich porous clays oralluvial soils are best suited in other words, amixture of clay and loam with plenty mineralmatter, especially lime. I t is an exhaustingcrop

,and cannot be grown on t he same soil

continuously unless l iberally manured. P roximit y t o sea breezes seems t o be advantageous,hence t he success attained in insular situations .The vicinity t o streams, so as t o secure subsoi lmoisture, is distinctly a valuable condition . Itis a gigantic grass, t he stems of which (producedin clumps) may be from 3 t o 1 2 ft. in heicrh tand 2 t o 2 in . in diameter. About Octo er

certain of t he canes produce flowering shoots( t he arrows as they are called), but these only

VOL. X1 .

1 45

very rarely become impregnated. In conse

quence t he cane rarely fruits, so that reproduction for t he most part has t o be by stem cuttingsof t wo or three joints. These should be takenfrom about t he middle of strong healthy stems ;not t he useless tops, only t oo often so utilizedin selfish and shortsighted cultivation . Un

fortunately t he planters in most countries havenot given t he selection of stock t he attentionwhich t he importance of t he subject demands.Diversity has been attained from accidentalsports and climate variations, though recentlyit has been found that almost any desired stockcan be read ily procured through crossbreedingt he existing plants

,and thus producing valu

able seedlings. I t has been affirmed that a goodcane is one that wil l yield 70per cent of j uice,which will ultimately afford 1 5 per cent of

sugar,and which contains not more than 1 7 per

cent of glucose. The following are t he chiefcanes of commerce1 . Mauritius, perhaps only a violet Javancane.

2. Otaheite,a yellow or straw- coloured cane

with broad leaves of a pale green and w hichdroop considerably, especially on nearing mat urit y .

3 . Bourbon,Reunion , orMadagascar.

4. Batavian : various kinds,such as t he yellow

violet, purple- violet Javan , and t he transparentor ribbon canes. The yellow- violet is smallerand less j uicy than t he Bourbon and Otaheite,but more hardy

,and has t he. foliage dark - green

and erect. The purple- violet is mu ch thicker,t he joints very long, and t he leaves very darkgreen ; it is rich in juice, but diffi cult t o grind.

The transparent or ribbon is bright yellow,

blotched with red ; its chief merit turns on t hefact that it will grow on light soils almost unsuited t o any other canes.5 . Ch ina : these are hardy and prolific

,not

liable t o be attacked by white ants nor jackals,

and able t o withstand t he hot weather.6 . S ingapore : t he canes of this class hardlydiffer from those of Batavia and Bourbon . Thebest known is t he Selangore, distinguished byt he large amount of white powder or blush ont he surface. The leaves are very broad anddeeply serrated on t he edges , also dark—greenin colour. It is closely allied t o t he Otaheite.

The red - purple cane of Singapore and t he redcane of Bombay are perhaps identical .Apart from t he race of plant grown

,and t he

improvements that have been and are possiblein t he stock

,there would seem a wide range in

yield of cane t o t he acre, in percentage of j uiceafforded

,and in t he amount of crystalline sugar

available, due very possibly t o cl imate,soil

, and

method of cultivation pursued. Few crops,in

fact,respond more immediately and profitably

t o liberal treatment. And what is perhapseven more curious, there are such differencesin methods and results of manufacture

,that in

some countries with a low yield of cane, su ar

is nevertheless produced at quite as reasona le

a figure, and with an even more satisfactoryresult financially

,than in others where nature

seems exceptionally bountiful . The yield of

cane t o t he acre has been thus stated : 36 tons1 67

1 46

in Java, 33 4 in t he Sandwich Islands, 30 inBritish Guiana, 22 in Egypt, 1 5 t o 20 in India,1 6 in Q ueensland, and 1 5 2 in Japan. So in t he

same w ay t he yield of sugar t o t he acre hasbeen given as follows : a l ittle under 1 t on t o

t he acre in India, in Japan , 1 6 in Queensland , in British Guiana, 22 in Egypt, 3 6 inJava, and 8 in t he Sandwich Islands. According t o some estimates t he West Indies give as

much as 3 tons of sugar t o t he acre, t o othersonly about half that quantity. But as indicative very possibly of improvements accomplishedin manufacture, it is stated that in Java sugarcosts £8 , 1 2s. 6d . and in Queensland £8 , 1 5 s.

,

notwithstand ing that in t he former t he yieldof cane is double that of t he latter.The tillage pursued depends largely on t he

intel ligence and resources of t he cultivator.Wh en grown as an occasional crop in rotationwith others , sugar cane is regarded as beneficial,since un less t he land be l iberally ploughed andgenerously manured it will not pay , and t he

crops that follow thus benefit from t he effortput forth in sugar- cane production. It is cust omary in India, for example, t o allow t he landt o lie fallow for a year before planting, and t oplough and harrow it in t he interval fromtwenty t o forty times ; oil cake, farmyard manure

,and (when indica ted as necessary) l ime are

t he manures resorted to. On t he other hand, incountries where rotation is not possible ordesirable

,such as in many part s of t he West Indies,

t he fertility of t he soi l is preserved by systematic manuring with farmyard manure, guano,gypsum

,superphosphate, and other manures.

It is customary t o preserve t he cuttings orsets in a pit from t he harvest season t o t he

ensuing planting time. In some loca lities t hecuttings are sprouted in a nursery and in othersplanted direct into their final positions, or‘plant s ’ are obtained from ‘

ratooned ’ stocks.They are usually assorted along t he crest of t heridges

,made across t he field in t he final re

parat ion of t he soil , or they are deposite inspecia l holes, in fallow land, dug t o a depth of2 ft. and separately manured. Formerly t heplants were set much closer than is commonlyt he case in larger plantations t o- day . Threefeet between t he rid es and 2 ft. from eacho t her were ordinary istances, and sometimeseven closer. But it is now preferred t o givespacings double those mentioned. On rich soilst he distances apart may be increased, and on

poor soils decreased, thus providing for t he

growth likely t o ensue. It is also customaryt o place t w o cu t tings at each place, and t o burythese in a slanting position

,5 or 6 in . below,

and l in . left above t he surface. At each of

t he joints below,a bud wil l form which will

send shoots upward s and roots downwards.These first - formed shoots are ca lled t he motherplants ’, and it is usual t o nip t he tops off as

soon as t w o or more joints have formed aboveground. This pruning causes a copious branching, which results in each stool becoming a denseclump of canes. Vacancies that become manifest are best filled up from a surplus stock int he nursery. The seasons of planting and reaping vary greatly according t o t he climatic con

Sugar Cane

dit ions of t he countries concerned. In India,for example, t he planting season varies fromN ovember 11 t o A ril, t he most general beingFebruary an Mardh. In t he West Indies t heplanting time is October t o January. The reaping season in India ranges from N ovember t oJanuary

,and in t he West Indies from January

t o May .

During t he growing season constant weedingis necessary until t he canes have elongated sufficient ly to check t he growth of weeds . Occasionally also a light ploughing is given , betweent he lines of canes, and in most loca lities watering

,from three t o twelve times during t he

growing season, may be necessary, but excessive watering is dangerous. As t he plan t s growt he lower leaves wither, but usual ly remainattached t o t he stems. In dry weather theseleaves must be left alone ; but in localities w ithheavy moisture, on t he approach of maturity

,it

may be necessary t o remove t he leaves so as t o

secure a freer circulation of air. In India it isalso a frequent practice t o bind t he t op leavesof t wo or three shoots together, thus bringingt he canes into compact clumps, and therebysaving them from bein g blown over or brokenby t he w inds ; this also checks t he ravages ofjackals. If t he leaves have begun t o chan e

colour and t he buds on t he shoots ( t he eye- bu

as they are ca l led) have been fully developed,t he canes are ripe for being cut. The skin wil lthen be seen t o have become dry , smooth, andbrittle ; t he j uice wil l be sweet, and t he innertissue dry and gritty, whereas in un ripe canesit is soft

,moist, and pulpy.

After t he canes are cut from t he field theyare tied into bundles and carried off t o the mill,where they are crushed and t he j uice thusextracted . Since t he j uice is very subject t obecome fermented and thus seriously injured,it has t o be boiled down t o a thick coarse sugaras soon as possible. In t he smal ler factoriesthat is all that is attempt ed, t he raw or muscovado sugar being consigned t o the refineries t obe crystallized. But in t he larger concerns, com

plicat ed and expensive machinery is employedy which crystalline sugar is at once produced.It would be beyond t he scope of the presentarticle t o deal with these, but briefly it may besa id t he t w o chief methods of obtain ing thesugar from t he cane are (a) crushing and (b)diffusion . By t he first t he supply of ripe canesis regulated by t he capabilities of t he factory.Various kinds of mill s are used, all more or lessdevelopments of t he crude hand -mills stil l inu se in India. The canes are passed betweenrol lers which either work horizon t ally or vertical ly. And they are so adjusted as t o give t hedesired pressure. The canes are broken up, t hej uice squeezed from them, and t he megass or

bruised residue is in t he more primitive factories used as part of t he fuel for boiling downt he j uice. But by t he crushing process t hewhole of t he j uice is not removed, and this facthas recently led t o the adoption of t he secondprocess, where a far greater roport ion of t he

saccharine fluid is removed. n place of crushing, t he canes are sliced in a slanting directioninto thin pieces 116 in. in thickness, and these

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1 48

SUOROSE (cane or beet- sugar ; saccharose) isthe most valuable commercially of all sugars.It occurs very widely distributed in plants,notably in t he sugar cane ( 1 5 t o 20 per cent)and in t he sugar beet ( 1 4 t o 1 7 per cent). It isalso present in moderate proportions in mangels

sugar cane from t he very earliest times,and

from t he sugar beet since t he later years of t he1 8th century. The processes are practicallyidentical , whether - t he cane or t he beet be usedas raw material.The cane is crushed between iron rollers t o

express t he j uice (or t he beet cut up into smallportions), and thoroughly extracted wit h water.The extract (containing besides t he sugar, smallquantit ies of albuminoids , or anic acids

,salts

,&c

is filtered, heated nearly t o oiling, and t reat e

with milk of lime in order t o neutralize acidsand precipitate albuminoids that have passedinto solution with t he sugar. The excess oflime is removed by passing carbonic acid gasthrough t he hot dark - brown liquor

,which is

then decolorized by treatment with sulphurdioxide. The fi ltered liquor is then evaporateddown under reduced pressure until t he sugarbegins t o crystalliz e ou t . The brown crystalsare separated from t he viscous dark- colouredmother- liquid (molasses) by t he ap licat ion of

centrifugal force,and are purified by washing

with pure sugar solution and recrystallization .

Further quantities of crystallized sugar can alsobe obtained from t he molasses by special processes

,but a residuary molasses always remain s

containing sugar which cannot be profitablyextracted in crystal line form. This is eitherfermented t o rum or used for feeding purposes.See M OLASSES .

Sucrose is easily soluble in water, but almostinsol uble in alcohol . On long boiling with waterit loses its property of crystallization. On heating t o 1 60°C. it melts

,and if then cooled solidi

fies ih t he trans arent, non - crystal line form of‘barley sugar’

,w ich gradually becomes crystal

l ine and loses its transparency. If more stronglyheated ( 1 90° t o 200

°C. ) it becomes coloured first

yellow, then gradually deepening t o dark- brownas t he sugar is conver t ed into caramel. At stil lhigher temperatures it decomposes

,with sepa

ration of carbon and evolution of considerablequan t ities of combustible gases.Sucrose does not reduce alkaline copper solution

,and is not directly fermentable t o alcohol ,

but must first be converted into ‘invert sugar ’.Ordinary yeast contains an enzyme (invert z

'

n)which is capable of effecting this necessary prel iminary t o t he alcohol ic fermentation . A use

ful property of sucrose is its power of combiningwith lime and similar bases

,forming easily de

composable saccharates.Sucrose is now a universal article of humandiet, and is used in immense quantities in a

great variety Of ways, eg . for sweetening foodand drink, for confectionery, and as a reservative for fruit in jam-making

,fruit - bott ing

,&c .

M ALTOSE (malt sugar) occurs in small quan

Sugars Sulphate Of Ammonia

tities in most plants, notably in germinatin gseeds. It arises, along with dextrin, from t he

action of t he enzyme diastase upon st arch. Useis made of this property in t he manufactureof alcohol and various alcohol ic liquors fromstarchy materials, t he d iastase being suppliedin t he form of germinated barley (malt) or

other cereal grain.Maltose is very similar in character t o glucose

,showing reducing properties, and being

capable of direct fermen t ation t o alcohol . It i sreadily converted t o glucose either by t he actionof dilute acid or by t he enzyme glucose.

LACTOSE is only found in milk, cow’s milkcon taining usually from 4; t o 5 per cent. It isobtained from whey by evaporating down (bestunder reduced ressure), after firs t removingalbuminoids and

pneutraliz ing acids present by

an addition of lime.

It is less soluble in water and less sweet thanordinary sugar

,and can reduce alkal ine copper

solution slowly at boiling temperature. It isnot directly fermentable t o alcohol by ordinaryyeast. On boiling with dilute acids

,or treat

ment with t he enzyme ga lactase, it gives a mixture of glucose and galactose. Cert ain bacteriawith which milk is always contaminated readilyconvert it into lactic acid. It is t he most slowlydigested of all sugars. [c . c.]S u in t is t he name given t o t he potash compounds deposited on sheep’s wool from perspiration . It is amixture Of oleate, palmitate, chloride,sulphate, and sudorat e of potassium. Beingsoluble in water

,t he greater part of t he suin t

is removed from t he fleece when t he sheep are

washed before shearing. In t he case of M erinosheep it amounts t o one- half of t he weight oft he unwashed wool, in ordinary sheep it variesfrom 30 t o 40 per cen t of t he total weight oft he fleece. The utilization of suint as a sourceof potash is practised in France, Belgium, andGermany. Instead of t he wash water escapinginto t he drains, it is either allowed t o run on

t o t he land,or it is evaporated and t he residue

incinerated. The cinder left yields its potashby treatment with water. On an average

,raw

wool yields 4 per cent of its weight of purepotash . [R . A. s .]S u lp h a t e of Am m o n ia—Ammonia is

a pungent gas remarkable for its great solubilit y in water and for its basic properties ; itcombines energetically with almost all acids.It is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogenrepresented chemica lly by t he formula N H S,

and its compound with sulphuric acid,com

mon ly called sulphate Of ammonia, is N QH SSOP

The pure sulphate of ammonia therefore con

tains 25 8 per cent of ammonia or 21 2 per centof nitrogen . The commercial material , whichshould not have more than 5 per cent of impurity, will thus contain not less than 202 percent of nitrogen or 246 per cent of ammonia.

Wh ile generally sold in a fair state of purity,containing chiefly tarry matter and moisture asharmless contaminations

, ammonium sulphocyanate is sometimes present

,which is poisonous

t o vegetation ; this can be readily detected byt he red colour it gives w ith perchloride Of iron .Sulphate Of ammonia may be readily recognized

Sulphate of Ammonia— Sulphate of Copper

by t he strong ammoniacal odour it emits onh eating with an alkali or with lime or chalk.

When heated on a shovel t o dull redness itshould leave no residue

,showing its freedom

from adulteration with fixed substances such ascommon salt. The chief source of ammonia iscoal ; this on being heated in t he process of coalgas manufacture yields part Of its nitrogen int he form of ammonia. The ammonia is con'verted into sulphate of ammonia

,and pu t on

t he market at a price which constitutes it oneof t he cheapest

,as it is also one of t he most

valuable,of t he nitrogenous manures.

When brought into t he soil,sulphate of am

monia under oes three chemical changes : ( 1 ) itreacts with t e carbonate of lime in t he soil t oproduce carbonate of ammonia and sulphate of

l ime, t he latter being then leached ou t of t he

soi l in t he drainage ; (2) t he ammonium radiclereacts with t he zeolites of t he clay and with t hel ime salts of humic acids so as t o fix the ammonia and t o liberate a corresponding quantityof sodium orcalcium ; (3 ) the ammonia is oxidizedby t he nitrifying bacilli first into nitrite theninto nitrate of lime, a supply Of oxygen and of

carbonate of lime (perhaps in some cases silicate of lime or other basic materials) beingnecessary for t he reaction . This nitrificationproceeds but slowly in cold weather, but as t hetemperature rises it progresses rapidly underfavourable conditions

,of which t he most impor

tant is t he free access of air t o the soil . So

long as t he ammonia remains unnit rified itscombination with zeolites and with t he acids ofhumus prevents its loss by drainage in all bu tt he lightest soils ; but as it becomes convertedinto nitrate there is nothing t o prevent anythat is not absorbed by t he roots of plants beinglost if and when there is sufficient rainfall t ocause the drains t o run . In t he process of nit rification

,ammonia is converted by oxidation into

nitric acid,and both this and t he sulphuric acid

with which it was combined have t o be neutraliz ed by a base. In this way 1 cwt. of sul hateof ammonia will deplete t he soil of about cwt.of carbonate Of l ime, though this effect is somewhat reduced by t he fact that, in absorbingn itrates from t he soil, plants ret urn thereto a

considerable proportion of t he base with wh icht he nitric acid w as combined. N evertheless itis not wise t o use sulphate of ammonia on soilspoor in carbonate of lime. But where t he

poverty in carbonate of l ime is not extreme,y mixing sulphate of ammonia and nitrate of

soda in equal proportions t he objection t o t heuse of t he former is obviated.It follows from what has been stated abovethat

,in cold weather especially, sulphate of am

monia is somewhat slower in action than nitrateof soda

,and also somewhat less readily washed

ou t of t he soil. But as compared with manurescontaining nitrogen in organic combination , sulphate of ammonia is a quick - acting manure. Infact it may be put thus : that organic manuresare more or less quick acting in proportion as

they are more or less quickly converted intoammonia. Sulphate of ammonia at £12 per t on

costs on ly about 1 1 3 . 9d . per unit of nitrogen ,and is as cheap as nitrate Of soda at £9 per t on

1 49

or thereabouts. I t is therefore, in all cases forwhich it is suited, one of t he most economicalof all manures. When it is required t o provide a steady supply of nitrates over t he wholeperiod of active growth, some organic manures,such as guano, for instance, have definite advan

tages but as only a part of their n itrogen becomes available even during a whole year

,it

is evident that in many cases they cost morein proportion t o t he nitrate supplied for t he

current year’s crop. For example, dissolved

bones might often be advantageously replacedby a mixture of sulphate of ammonia and super

phosphate on soils not poor in carbonate of

ime ; kainit or sulphate of potash being addedor not

,as required .

As compared with ni t rate of soda,sulphate

of ammonia is t o be preferred for maltingbarley forwheat t he choice between these t w omanures is more dependent on conditions ofsoil and season ; but nitrate Of soda gives t hegreater yield of straw. Amongst root crops,sulphate of ammonia is better for potatoes , butnitrate for mangolds and ( in smal l quantities)for swedes. For grassland n itrate has t he ad

vantage that it encourages deeper rooting and

t he deeper - rooting species,and thus makes t he

meadow more capable of resisting drought.Su l hate of ammonia should not be mixedwith asic slag nor with lime or carbonate of

lime, as these would liberate t he ammonia and

render it liable t o be lost ; but t he affinity of

t he soil for ammonia is such,that no loss will

accrue from putting either Of these materialson t he land at t he same time as sulphate of

ammonia. [c . M . L .]S u lp h a t e o f Co p p e r (Copper V itriol,Blue Vitriol

,or Bluestone), CuSO4 5H 20,

t he

most important salt of copper,occurs in t he

drainage water from copper mines, and is ob

t ained as a by- product from various met allur

gical industries. It crystallizes in large transparent blue crystals which dissolve fairly easilyin cold water

,especially if finely powdered

,but

are much more soluble in hot water.Copper sulphate is largely employed for t hedestruction Of charlock, for t he picklin Of seedwheat t o prevent smut and bunt

,an for t he

spraying of potatoes, &c. In purchasing sul

phate of copper,t he pure salt

,guaranteed t o

contain 98 per cent copper sul hate, shouldalways be specified . The so- calle ‘

agriculturalbluestone ’ is very impure, and sometimes contains as much as 20per cent sulphate of iron

,

which renders it much less effective. I t shouldalso be Obtained either ground or in t he formof small crystals , as both these forms are muchmore readily soluble than t he large crystals oft he salt. Solutions should be made up withclean soft water, always in wooden vessels, asiron and zinc are attacked by t he sulphate of

copper. Copper sulphate is poisonous, and solut ions of it, or t he vessels employed in makingthem

,should never be left in t he way Of farm

animals .P ickling of Grain —For t he prevention of

hun t and smut in cereals, tw o methods may be

adopted : t he seed may either be steeped fortwelve t o sixteen hours, with frequen t stirring,

1 50

in a é-

per- cent solution of t he cop er sulphate

,

or t he grain may be spread on t e floor andwatered with a 10-

per- cen t solution of t he salt.

For t he latter treatment 1 lb. of copper sulphatedissolved in 1 gal. of water is sufficient forabout4 bus. of seed. The seed, after treatment, shouldbe spread ou t in a thin layer t o dry . See OATSand BARLEY—PA R A SITIO FUN GI.Cliarlock Spray ing

—The usual amounts applied for this purpose are 40gal. of a 4-

per- cent

solution,or 50gal. of a 3

-

per- cent solution per

acre. 3 lb. copper sulphate in 10gal. of watergives a 3 -

per- cent solution , and 1 5 lb. dissolved

in 50gal . of water will therefore serve t o treat1 ac. See MUSTARDWEEDS ; CH ARLOCK ; SPRAYIN G.

Pota to Spraying—For t he prevention of po

tato disease t he copper sulphate is ap lied in t heform of Bordeaux mixture’, preparedby addingslaked lime t o a solution of t he sulphate, wherebyt he copper is precipitated as a basic sa lt. 95 lb.

copper sulphate, 9slb. freshly burned quicklime

,

and 100gal. water are t he proportions commonly

employe R ecently, however, a more dilutesolution has been shown t o give equally effec

tive results : copper sulphate, 2 oz .,saturated

lM e water, 1 32p t .,and water t o make up t o

al. This mixture can be had in t he formof ‘Woburn Bordeaux Paste ’, which is equal lyeffective ; 1 5 lb. paste t o 100 gal . water is t hestrengt h employedThe quicklime is first slaked

,and then t he

bulk of t he water added, and t he mixture stirredfrom time t o time forhalf an hour . Then

,after

standing a short time,t he cop er sul hate, dis

solved in a litt le water,is ad ed

,an t he mix

ture well stirred. Further stirring should beavoided.The mixture should contain no Copper in solution . A li t tle of t he mixture is placed in a

white saucer, and a few drops of a solution of

potassium ferrocyanide ( obtainable from anychemist) added. A reddish- brown colour wil lappear if co per is resent ; in such cases morel ime is addeduntil t e copper is all precipi tated.Soda Bordeaux.

—In this case 1 75 lb. car

bonate of soda (washing soda) is used in placeof t he lime. The soda is dissolved in water andt he solutions mixed as before.

Bordeaux mixture is also used in t he treatment of various fungoid diseases of trees.Footrot in Sheep

—A l o-

per- cent solution of

copper sulphate ( 1 lb . t o 1 gal. of water) is usedas a footbath for t he prevention and cure of

this disease. See Foo'rRO'r IN SHEEP . [A . L .]S u lp h a t e o f Iro n (Green Vit riol , Cop

peras, or Ferrous Sulphate), FeSO4, 7E20,is

pre ared from iron pyrites,either by roasting

or y exposing t he pyrites t o t he oxidizingaction of moist air. It is readily soluble inwater. A solution of sulphate of iron readilyundergoes oxidation on exposure t o t he air.

Sulphate of iron is largely employed as a

fungicide and as a winter wash for t he destruotion of lichens and moss on t he trunks andbranches of fruit trees. For t he latter purpose a 10 er- cent solution of t he salt ( 1 lb .

sulphate 0 iron in 1 gal. water) is commonlyemployed . See art . FUN GICIDES.

Su lphate of Iron—Sulphate of Potash

Sulphate of iron was formerly used t o a cer

tain extent in place of sulphate of copper fort he destruction of charlock . As a much strongersolution is required ( 1 5 per cent), and as t he

solution read ily undergoes oxidation and isunpleasant t o handl e

,it is now infrequently

used.The use of sulphate of iron as a manure hasbeen suggest ed from time t o time. The amountof iron required by plants , however, is execssively small , and most soils are abundantly suplied with iron compounds

,generally in a suffi

cien t ly soluble form to be readily available forplant use. There appears t o be no sufficien tevidence that sulphate of iron is of value as an

iron manure. The beneficial effects said t o follow a dressing in gardens may be t he result ofits action as a fungicide and not because it supplies iron t o t he soil . Its use has been recommended as a remedy for chlorosis when this isd ue t o a deficiency of available iron salts in t hesoil . [A . L .]S u lp h a t e o f Lim e . See GYPSUM.

S u lp h a t e o f‘

Po t a s h , or Po t a ss iumS u lp h a t e is a white crystalline saltwhich is easily soluble in water. It can be oh

t ained by acting on t he chloride or carbonat e of

pot ash with sulghuric acid

, and is, t o a certainextent

,prepare in this way . But t he largest

quantities are obtained from crude salt s foundin t he German potash mines

,which contain sul

phate of potash along with sal t s of sodium and

magnesium. Sulphate of pot ash is used ex t ensively as a manure, but there are also large quantities used for other purposes.The output from t he German potash mines,which are t he principal source of supply, hasbeen as follows

l n addition t o that obtained from Germany, a considerable amount of sulphat e of

potash is made in Scotland from t he ash ofseaweed .

The sulphate of potash used as manure is ofvarious grades of purity. The highest gradecontains about 98 per cent of potassium sulphate, corresponding t o over 5 2 per cent of purepotash , while a lower grade cont ains about 90per cent of potassium sulphate, correspondingt o about 48 percent of pure potash . The doublesulphate of potash -magnesia, which contains alarge proport ion of magnesium sulphate

,is also

usual ly called sulphate of potash in this country. I t contains about 50 per cent of pot assium sulphate, corresponding t o about 27 percent of pure potash, and is now l ittle used inBritain .

Sulphate of potash is t he least extensivelyused of t he potash manures. M uriate of ot

ash, potash manure salts, and kainite, al of

which contain their otash mainly in t he formof chloride, are all ar more extensively used.

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1 5 2

aymen t of a bil l fall s on a Sunday, t he bill isdue on t he preceding business day ; where t helast day of grace is a bank holiday, or is aSunday, and t he second day of grace is a bankholiday, t he bil l is d ue and payable on t he succeeding business day . [D. B .]S u n d ew (Drosera) is t he common name for

a genus of insect ivorous plant s of which threespecies are British. They inhabit moorland andbog. Their favourite haunt is t he bog moss(Sphagnum), into which they strike their scantyand shallow roots. F lowering occurs in Julyand August. The interest ing thing about theseSundews is that while like other green plantsthey contain ch lorophyll and manufact ure foodfrom simple inorganic substances, they also supplement this by cat ching insects and feedingon their bodies. The up er surface of each leafblade is covered with a ou t 200 hairlike ou t

growths ca lled tentacles or digestive glands .

These ten tacles are coloured red, and from theirapices round blobs of digestive j uice are exudedwhich

,when t he sun shines, look like drops of

Ten t acles on Leaf of Sundew (magnified)1 , Leaf w ith half it s t ent acles overa capt ured insec t .

d ew . Should an insect alight on such a leaf, itis en tangled in t he sticky juice, t he ten taclesbegin t o curve and move in t he direction of t heinsect so as t o envelop it completely, and t hewhole leaf is ultimately closed u The digestive process begins, t he digeste food is ab

sorbed,and then converted into t he l iving sub

stance of t he Sundew plant. After a time t heleaf opens up, and is ready t o entrap anotherinsect. On a single Sundew leaf, t he skeletonsof a dozen insects may often be counted. Com

pare art . BUTTERWORT as regards similar habitof that plan t . [A . N . M

‘A .]

S u nfl ow e r Oa ke .—This cake is manu

fact ured by pressing t he seeds of R elian t/msannuus

,a plant belonging t o t he nat . ord . Com

posit ae, a native of tropical America, but generally grown throughout Europe and Asia. The

seeds are largely used by themselves as a food forpoultry. On t he Continent t he cake is employedt o a considerable extent as a food for cattle

,

bu t does not come much t o England. It is alsomade use of as a manure. The composition of

t he seeds and t he cake is represented by t hefol lowing analysis z

2. Leaf with all itst ent ac les curved inwards. 3 , Leaf wi t h all its t en tacles ext ended.

Sundew Superphosphate

Sunflower SunflowerSeeds . Cake.

Moist ure

1 Al buminous compoundsSoluble carbohydrat es &c.

Woody fibreMineral mat t er (ash )

1 Con t aining nit rogen

head induces t he condition which passes by t hename given it here ; but heat stroke is a betterterm for it, as t he greater number of cases occurin t he sunless holds of horse shi s and t he closestables of contractors. Ou t of core t he heat ismore or less tempered by t he wind, and seldomindeed are animals struck in t he field

,although

heat apoplexy or sunstroke is common enoughin t he streets of great cities with high houses

like N ew York,but here t he con

d it ions approximate t o those w e

have already described as mostprovocative of t he malady. The

symptoms are those of alipplexy :

an intense drowsiness,in w ich t he

animal presently becomes quite unconscious and sinks to t he ground,more often falls as if struck sudd enly . Writers have Spoken of itas of ordinary apoplexy, in whichblood escapes fromrupturedvessels,or described them as so engorgedas t o produce this comatose condition . If it were so

,t he usual pro

longed paralysis so well known int he human subject would be t he

general sequel. If t hewriter assertsthat t he contrary is t he case, it isbecause he has seen something likea hundred horses down and inca

pah le from heat stroke on t he lower decks oftransports during t he Boer war

, and hardlyever failed t o recover them so long as cold seawater could be poured over them with t he hose.

Serous apoplexy, with exudation of t he wateryportion of t he blood, it probably is, in thosecases which recover in a few hours. The treatment has been disputed by those who have hadno experience of heat a oplexy ; but t he administrat ion of half- ounce oses of carbonate of ammonia, with a dram or t wo of ginger, t he colddouche, and fresh air, has proved so successfu lwith t he veterinary officers that itmay be recommended with considerable confidence. [H . L .]S u p erp h os p h a t e .

—The name superphosphate, or superphosphate of l ime, is applied t omanures obtained by treating substances containing tricalcium phosphate (Ca3P208) with sulphuric acid. The term is now almost entirelyconfined t o t he roduct obtained from naturalminerals—phOSp orites, apatites , &c.

,though a

little eu erphosphat e is still made from boneash and one black. The manure made by dissolving bone meal wit h sulphuric acid is calleddissolved or vitriolated bone. S imilarly, man

Superphosphate

ure made by dissolving guano with acid is general ly known as dissolved guano. At one timesuch substances were also known as superphos

phat es. The manufacture of dissolved manures began soon after 1 840. The great chemistLiebig suggested in that year that bones mightbe made more active as manure by breakingthem up with sulphuric acid. Lawes , then a

Very young man , had arrived at t he same con

clusion independently,and was already privately

manufacturing small quantities of dissolvedmanures , both from bones and min eral hosphat es,for experimental purposes. In 1 842 e took ou ta patent for t he manufacture of superphosphate,and began t he manufacture on a commercialscale at Deptford. At first he used bone ash

,

but in 1 845 he began t o use coprolites on a largescale. (See COPROL ITES .) This w as t he beginning of what is now t he greatest of all t he

manure industries. The manufacture of superphos hate is now carried on in all parts of t heworl and more sulphuric acid is used in itthan in any other industry. There is a greaterweight of superphosphate used than of anyother artificial manure ; t he whole annual ou tput amounts t o many millions of tons, of whichabout are made in t heUnited Kingdom.

The object of manufacturing superphosphateis t o obtain t he phosphate in a form in whichit is sol uble in water. The mineral phosphatesused contain t he insoluble tribasic phosphateof lime If this is treated withexcess of sulphuric acid it yields phosphoricacid and calcium sulphate :

Ca3 (PO4)2 311 2804 211 3ro4 3CasO4.

In this way all t he hosphoric acid can be rendered soluble, but t e product is in a liquid andvery acid condition not fit for use as a manure.

There are t wo phosphates of lime intermediate between t he tribasic phosphate and

phosphoric acid. These are t he dibasic phosphate or dicalcium phosphate, CaH PO” and

t he monobasic phosphate or monocalcium phosphate

, CaH 4(PO4) 2. Of these t he dibasic phosphate is insoluble in water and t he monobasicphosphate soluble in water. The object of t he

manufacturer is as far as possible t o preparet he monobasic phosphate. By using a suitableproportion of sulphuric acid he can turn a largeproportion of the phosphate into t he solublemonobasic form,

according t o t he equation :083 (P04)2 “i“ 2H2804 C&H 4(PO4)2

Even if pure tricalcium phosphate is used, thistheoretical reaction is never completely attained,but on t he one hand a smal l proportion of phosphate remains insoluble, and on t he other handa certain proportion of free phosphoric acidis formed. The phosphates of commerce fromwhich superphosphate is prepared are by no

means pure, and t he presence of t he impuritiesincreases t he complication of t he reaction . The

manufacturer has t o steer between tw o dangers.If t oo much acid is used t he superphosphate isobtained in moist sticky condition , while if t oolittle is used t he material is not well dissolvedand contains t oo much phos hate not soluble inwater. When a good class 0 mineral phosphate

“

1 5 3

is used, t he skilful manufact urer can obtain a

product containing not more than 2 er centof phosphate not soluble in water, an yet ingood dry condition .In manufacturing su erphosphat e t he acid is

not used pure, but is diluted with a considerable roport ion of water. This diluted acid incalcuiat ed quantity is mixed with t he finelyground phosphate. The mixture is at first ina very wet condition , like a thin mortar or

cement. On standing, it gradually dries up.

This is because t he water also enters into t he

reaction and combines with t he calcium sulphate and soluble phosphate formed, in accordance with the equation03 3 (PO4)2 2H QSO4 5H 20 ( 3q (PO4)2 EQO

203 SO4‘2H 20.

The sulphate of lime combines with water t oform gypsum

,and each molecule of soluble phos

phate also combines with a molecule of water.To carry ou t this theoretical reaction each 100

parts of tricalcium phosphate would require t oe mixed with parts of t he mixture of sulphuric acid and water, and would yield 1 92 2parts of superphosphate.

The mineral phosphates used in practice are

by no means pure tricalcium phosphate. The

coprolites used in t he early days of t he manufacture were very impure (see COPROLITES), andeven t he bet t er~grade rocks used at t he presen tday always contain various impurities

,such as

carbonate of lime, fluoride and chloride of lime,sil iceous matter, and small quantities of compounds of iron and alumina. (See M INERALPH OSPH ATES .) The chief mineral phosphatesat present in use in this country are those of

F lorida and those of N orth Africa, such as

Algerian and Tunis phosphates. These alwayscontain carbonate of lime

,sometimes

, as in N orthAfrican phosphates

,in considerable proportion.

They also always contain fluoride of lime. The

sulphuric acid acts on t he carbonate and fluorideof lime and breaks them up

,forming sulphate

of lime, and liberating carbon dioxide gas andhydrofluoric acid gas. During t he preparationof superphosphate there is always a strongefl

‘

ervescence, with a copious liberation of gases.

H ydrofluoric acid gas is a poisonous and ex

t remely corrosive gas, and therefore specialmeans have t o be adopted during t he manu facture for drawing off t he gases and absorbingt he hydrofluoric acid gas.

The presence of compounds of iron and alu

mina in t he mineral phosphate used is object ionable. They combine with acid

,and render

it d iflicul t t o get t he material well dissolvedwithou t using such an excess of acid that t hecondition of t he superphosphate is not good.

They also cause t he phosphate t o ‘revert ’, or

t o lose solubility t o a certain extent when it isstored. The phosphatic rocks now used in thiscountry contain very little iron and alumina

,

whereas those formerly used contained considerable percentages. The principal constituent ofsuperphosphate is not phosphate but gypsum

,

of which a large proportion is necessarily produced by t he reactions which take place in t hemanufacture. The greater t he proportion of car

1 5 4

bonate and fluoride of lime in t he original phosphatic rock, t he greater is t he amount of acidrequired, and t he greater will be t he roport ion

of gypsum in t he finished superphosphate. The

addition of so much acid and water, which isfound in t he finished art icle mainly in t he formof gypsum, necessarily reduces t he percentageof phosphate. Thus

,if t he mineral phosphate

used contained 80 per cent of phosphate, t heresulting superphosphate will not contain muchmore than 40 per cent, and may contain less.R oughly s eaking, t he super hosphat e containsabou t hal t he percentage ofphosphate whichw as contained in t he mineral phosphate used,and each t on of mineral phosphate yields aboutt wo tons of superphosphate.

It is t he custom in this country , and thatcustom has been recognized by law in t he Fertiliz ers and Feedingst ufl

'

s Act, t o make all st ate

ments of percentages of phosphate in manuresin terms of t he tribasic phosphate of lime,Ca3P2OB, whether t he phosphate is act ually present in this form or not . Thus

,when it is stated

that a sample of superphosphate contains 40percent of soluble

phosphate

,t he statement does

not mean that t ere is actually 40 per cent oft he soluble, monobasic phosphate of lime present. There is only about 30per cent present.It means that if t he soluble phosphate is calcu lat ed as if it were trica lcium phosphate t heresult wil l be 40 per cent. This is sometimesexplained by st ating that it is ‘t he tricalciumphosphate which has been made soluble’whichis ca lculated . That also, however, is an inaccurate statement. This method of stating solublephosphate is really an unfortunate trade customwhich has now become thoroughly established

,

and is recognized as t he legal method of statement. See art . PH OSPH ATIC MAN URES .

Th e amount of soluble phosphate presentin t he ordinary superphosphates of commercevaries from about 25 t o about 40per cent. Itis seldom that a superphosphate is met withcont ain ing less than 25 per cent of solublephosphate or more than 40 per cent, but all

grades between these t w o figures are met with.

In t he early days of t he manufacture of mineralsuperphosphates, those contain ing 25 or 26 per

cent of soluble phosphate became establishedas t he standard quality . With t he impuremineral phosphates then in use, this w as a con

ven ien t grade t o manufacture. N owadays, withhigh grade F lorida and N orth African phosphat es there is l ittle reason for t he manufactureof this grade of superphos hate, but as it stillcontinues in large deman among farmers itis still very largely made. Indeed , a certainamount of low - grade phosphate is used formixing with and diluting better - class rock merelyt o meet this demand. The high - grade superphosphates containing 30 t o 40 per cent of

soluble phosphate are,in proportion t o t he

phosphate they contain, cheaper t o manufacturethan t he 26 -

per- cent quality. It is therefore

usual t o find that t he low—grade 26 -

per- cent

superphosphates cost a little more per unit of

phosp at e than a superphosphate containing 30t o 40per cent of soluble phosphate.

In valuing superphosphate,only t he soluble

Superphosphate Support

phosphate is t aken into account. N 0 value isplaced upon t he small amount of insoluble hos

phate present. It is t o t he advantage 0 t he

manufacturer, therefore, to have as large a pro

ort ion as possible of t he phos hate soluble.

he soluble phosphate of superp osphat e cost sa great deal more per un it than insoluble phosphate in minera l phosphate

,bones

,on other

manures. This is necessarily so,as t he acid

required t o manufacture t he soluble phosphatemakes up a large part of t he cost. A unit ofinsoluble phosphate in t he form of finely groundmineral phosphate can be bought for about 9d .

,

but a unit of soluble hosphat e in t he form of

superphosphate cost s a ou t Is. 10d .

The s coial value of superphosphate as amanure is ue t o t he fact that t he phosphate issoluble in water

,and therefore when used as

manure is washed into t he soil in solution byt he rain . In this w ay it gets thoroughly distributed through t he surface soi l . This leadst o bett er distribution than can be brought aboutby mixing an insoluble powdered material wit ht he soil.The soluble phosphat e when washed in t o t hesoil is quickly reverted into t he insoluble stat eby t he carbonat e of lime and t he compounds ofiron and alumina present in t he soil . This isimportant, as it ensures that t he phosphate willnot be washed ou t of t he soil and lost in t hedrainage. The advantage of using soluble phosphat e is one of distribution only . The phosphate itself is quickly turned in t o an insolubleform , and remains in t he soi l as an insolublephosphate of lime or as a phosphate of iron or

of alumina. [J . B .]S u p p ort .—The right t o support for landfrom t he adjacent or subjacen t strata is, in itsbroadest form, a natural right as contrastedwith such conventional right s as easements (orservitudes

,as they are known in Scotland) , but

t he right t o support may be acquired as an

easement. The necessity for some such safeguard against t he indiscrimin ate use of his proert y by a neighbouring proprietor is clear.u t for this, an adjoin ing owner might so exca

vate t he adjacent or subjacen t soil as t o causehis neighbour’s land t o subside and so sufi

‘

er

great depreciation. Such subsidence may becaused either by excavat in t he round adjoining upt o or near t he boun ary , t us withdraw

ing t e adjacen t support, or, where t he owner

ship of t he surface and t he underlying mineralshas been divided

,by working t he mineral s so

as t o withdraw t he subjacent support. In eithercase t he principles of t he law applicable are t hesame, and t he same principles apply t o t herights of higher and lower mine- owners.The right may arise either ( 1 ) where t he sur

face is unencumbered w ith buildings or otherartificial structures, or (2) where t he surfaceis so encumbered.( 1 ) Wkere the surface is unencumbered wit h

build ings or other art ificial structures.

The right t o support in this case being a

natural right, depends for it s existence on no

agreement actual or implied ‘it stands on

natural justice,and is essential t o t he protection

and enjoyment of property in t he soil ’.

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1 5 6

shining. Those produced from t he eggs of theH eart - and - Dart M oth (Agrat is exclama t ionis)and of t he Common Dart Moth (A . segetum)both figured in art . A GRorl s—sometimes commitsad devastation in turnip and young mangoldfields

,and even potatoes

,when j us t appearing

above- ground, do not escape them ; they are alsovery destructive in t he cornfield and in t he gard en. They are in existence most of t he year, andin some seasons are abun dant and full - grownfrom t he beginning of June til l t he approach ofw inter. In summer they wil l often ea t off t he

crowns of t he turnips,and in autumn groups

of them are found eating holes in t he bulbs j usta t t he surface. In t he garden they clear off t hecabbage tribes and lettuces with astonishingrapidity

,by eating through t he taproot a little

below t he surface,and at night they come forth

and draw t he detached leaves into their burrows.A s soon as a lan t droops, if t he eart h be carefully removed

)

,t he surface grub will be found

j ust beneath t he surface, and close t o t he root ;but if left for a night

, t he culprit comes forth ,travels with great Speed t o a neighbouring plan tt o accomplish t he same mischief, and thus, ina short period

,one

caterpillar wil l killseveral youngplants

,and a

d ozen of them willd estroy an entireb ed .

1 , Caterp illar of A gratis segetum. 2, Cat erpillar of A grot isexclama t imu

‘

s. 3 , Cat erp ill arof Triphwm pronuba

The larvae of t he Great Yel low UnderwingM oth (Trip/la nai pronuba) often accompany t heforegoing

,and are S imilar in their economy

,but

they are larger and less numerous ; they l ivethrough t he winter, and can withstand verysevere weather.Preven t ion and trea tmen t depend on t he cro

attacked. Turnips and swedes that are attackeshould be fed off early by sheep. Frequents tirring with hoes of land in drills (turnips,swedes

,mangolds

,&c .) does much good, as many

larvae are killed. Applications of soot are mostbeneficial

,so also is kain it. Potatoes should be

well earthed up early in t he season if attack isfeared. The use of oisoned baits is wel l worthwhile. These may e made by di ping cloveror l ucerne in a strong arsen ical washand layingpatches about near t he infested crops . Thelarvm feed “

on this readily and are poisoned,

care being taken,of course

,that l ive stock do

not get at t he baits which must be protected.

Surface Grubs Survey ing

H and- picking is t he most successful mode of

diminishing these ests,and t he numbers that

have been col lecte by women and children insome seasons is astonishing . But this

,owing t o

t he cost, can only be done in gardens and marketgardens. R ooks

,starlings

,plovers

,gulls

,&c .

,

do good service ; and it is most essential t o keept he land clean at all times

,as many of these

surface grubs will feed also on Groundsel,Shep

herd’s - purse, t he roots of grasses,and other

weeds

Fig. l .—Surveying Chain

66 ft. in length , divided into 100 equal partscalled links. I t s great advan tages are its relations t o t he standard unit s of length and area.

Length of chain 66 ft.N ow 1 mile 8 fur. 1 760yd . 5 280ft.number of chains t o 1 mile 80

,

and number of chains t o 1 fur. 10.

Again , 1 ac . 4840sq . yd .,

1 ac. 10sq. chains .

These relations simplify very much t he numerica l work involved in t he reduction of t hefield measurements.The chain is made of either steel or iron wire

,

and is provided with brass handles with swivelattachments. The details of t he chain are shownin fig. 2. It will be noted that each tenth linkis denoted by a brass marker or ‘teller ’ indicating its position from either end of t he chain.Fig. 3 is a general outline of t he chain showingt he brass markers im posit ion . It wil l be observed that a marker with four points indicateseither 40or 60l inks

,one with three oin t s indi

cates either 30or 70 links,t he mi or 50- link

S u rvey ing . The

present themselves in agricultural and estatesurveying are : ( 1 ) The production of a plan ofsome given piece of land on which must becorrectly delineated its boundaries and it svarious subd ivis ions ; (2) t he determination oft he area of t he piece of land dea lt with

,and t he

areas of its subd ivisions under various crops,pasture, &c. ; (3) t he laying out of the land t omeet given conditions and in sections of givenarea.

S IMPLE CHAIN SURVEYS—In a large numberof t he cases in ordinary agricultural practicet he work may be carried ou t with t he aid ofa few simple instruments

,viz. a surveyor’s chain

and arrows,a measuring tape

,ranging rods or

poles,a cross st afl", or an optica l square. Before

giving an exam ls of an actual survey it willbe advisable t o '

scuss these simple instrumentsand their particular uses.The Chain—The chain used in land surveying in this country is t he Gunter chain (fig.

Survey ing

point being indicated by a circular marker. The

markers are arranged in this manner in orderthat t he chain may be read from either end ,and every care must therefore be taken in reading t he chain in t he field not t o confuse t he 40with t he 60- link marker or t he 30with t he 70.

If t he position of t he 50- link marker is firstobserved, t he risk of mistakes wil l practically

Fig. z—Detail of Chainbe elim inated. In all work where accuracy isrequired t he chain should be tested at leastonce every day , as with constant u se t he chainbecomes inaccurate ; some of t he long linksmay become bent, or t he smal l rings may be

elongated by constan t pulling. A steel tape(made of a nickel - steel al loy , invar) should bekept exclusively for t he purpose of testing t he

80 700 10 20 30 40 50

70 60 50 40 30

chain. The errors which may arise from t he

use of chains of incorrect length are often eut irely neglected in ordinary practice. But int he case of comparatively lar e areas t he errorsare t oo serious t o be neglect e as will be shown .

Correct ion for Error in Chain Leng th—Supose t he chain t o be t oo long and the error t obe 1 link , then actual length of chain 101

links. Suppose a line is measured with thischain in t he field andfound t o be 120chains. Then the truelength of this linewould be 1 20 x 1011 2 1 2 chains. In asimilar manner

,su

pose t he chain t o e

1 link t oo short,then

t he actual length of

chain 99 links ‘

99

chain and if t he

measured length int he field is found t obe 1 5 chains, say , thent he true length of t he line 1 5 x

‘99 1 48 5

chains.The lines of t he survey may be all correctedin this manner before plotting, and t he correctarea then found. Or t he survey may be plottedfrom t he readings in t he field, t he average errorof t he chain determined, and t he area finallycorrected.Thus, supposeABCD t o represent t he survey,

and let t he chain be t oo long. Let x error.

1 5 7

Therefore actual length of chain (1 x)chains.Area from field measurements : A mu sq.chains.True area A, mu ( 1 which, since at

is a small quantity,may be writt en A, mn

( lTherefore A I A ( I S imilarly, if t he

chain is t oo short, true areaA, A ( 1 2x).In a certain survey t he errorin a chain which was t oo lonw as 1 5 l ink, and t he area foundfrom t he plan plotted from t he

field book 860ac.

H ere t he error is l ink001 5 chain. Therefore true

area A I 860 ( l 2 x 001 5 )885 8 ac.

The error in area is therefore ac., a

suflicien t ly serious matter if it is a questionof t he purchase, sale, or valuation of land.Use of the Chain .

—Ih using t he chain tw omenare required, t ermed res ect ively t he

‘leader ’and t he ‘follower ’, t he u t ies of t he t wo menbeing briefly as follows :The follower takes one end of t he chain and

holds it against t he pole att he starting oint ; t he

leader, taking t e other endof t he chain and 10arrows

,

walks on towards t he polemarking t he end of t he linet o bemeasured he is placedin correct alignment by t he

fol lower. The leader holds t he end of t he chainand an arrow in his right hand as shown infig. 5

,and when finally aligned drives t he arrow

into t he ground, and again roceeds t o t he distant station point. The fol ower picks up t he

arrows as he comes t othem, and thereforeby counting t he ar

rows which he has inhis hand he can tellt he length of linechained t o t he par

t icular point. If t hel ine is not an exactnumber of chains

,t he

additional links are

read off on t he chain .

If t he t en arrows havebeen used t he leaderdrags t he chain on ,

laying down an

eleventh chain , and

marking t he end of

t he chain ; t he fol

lower then icks up the tenth arrow, walks upt o t he leadgr, and gives him again t he t en

arrows. The leader then drives an arrow intot he ground at his end of t he chain , and theyproceed as before.

Ofi'

sets are generally measurements taken at

right angles t o t he main survey line t o pointsof t he boundaries, buildings, &c. They are

most conveniently measured by means of an

ordinary linen measuring tape.

80 90

20 10 0

Fig. 5 .—Chain Leader

1 5 8 Survey ing

Ofsets to Buildings, Corner of Fields, In tersect ion of H edges

—The position of a buildingshould be fixed by means of inclined offsets toat least tw o corners ; t he corner of t he building being thus absolutely fixed by t he vertexof a triangle ; t he plan of t hebu ild in being afterwardsob taine by taping aroundits base. S imilarly t he cor

ners of fields,intersection of

hedges, &c .,may be accu

rat ely fixed by means of int ersec t ing incl ined offsets.The Field Book—The form

of field book which will befound most convenient isone having a central columnabout i in .wide. This columnrepresents t he chain , and init are entered t he chain readings. The entries are commenced from t he

bottom of t he page, and also from t he end of

t he book . The surveyor begins his work facint he distant station, and sketches in his fieldbook t he boundaries as they may occur on eitherside of t he chain line. N o attempt should be

Cha

i

n

S t at ion

S t at l

made t o draw these t o scale in the field book ;and further, t he surveyor should never cramphis lines or sketches, as this often leads t o hopeless confusion and error when t he work of plotting has t o be carried out . S ince t he central

column represents the chain it is supposed t ohave no widt h ; therefore if a l ine such as a

fence crosses t he road obliquely it cuts t he cen

tral column lines at points exactly opposite eachother. Station points may be denoted by a

circle 0.

A specimen page field book is shown whichwill elucidate some of t he points discussed.

The Cross S t afl’ and Optical Square.—These

may be used for setting out right angles in t hefield when great accuracy is not required. Asimple cross st afl' giving quite good results maybe made from a piece of hard wood 12} in . thick,cut very accurately t o a square of 1 2 in . side ;saw - cuts about 315 in. wide are made along t hediagonals, giving us t w o lines of sight at an

angle of 90 degrees. A block 1 in. thick and

3 in . wide is screwed t o t he back ; in this is

bored a hole t o receive one end of an iron- shodpole about 3 ft. high . The ole is driven intot he ground at t he oint t rough which t helines at righ t angles s all pass, these lines beingnow easily ranged by means of t he saw - cutsights.The optica l square (fig. 8 ) consists of a brass

box containing t w o mirrors,t he planes of t he

mirrors being inclined t o each other at an angleof 45 degrees. The upper half of mirror A issilvered

,t he lower half of A is plain glass ; t he

mirror B is completely silvered. In usin t he

instrument w e observe the pole C by irectvision

,and then move an assistant about with

pole D until t he reflected image of D coincideswith t he direct vision of pole c, t he lines CE andDF are now at right angles.SELECTION or STATION PoIN Ts.

—Triangu lat ion—I h all surveys, of whatever dimensions,a careful selection of the main station pointswell re ays t he additional preliminary labourinvolved. As a general rule t he main surveylines should run as close as possible t o t he

boundaries of t he property under survey,thus

keeping t he length of t he ofi'

set s within t hesmallest possible limits. Again , t he station

points Should be so chosen that t he survey linesorm a series of wel l - conditioned triangles. Int he case of chain surveying t he triangulation isabsolutely necessary t hroughout

,in order that

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1 60 Survey Maps Sussex Cattle

S u rve y M a p s . See ORDNAN CE SURVEY

M A PS .

S‘

u ssex Ca t t le . Although t he Sussexbreed of cattle is kept in various parts of Sussexand Kent, and even in Surrey, it is more generally found on South Devon farms , where fromtime immemorial t he oxen have been em loyedfordraught purposes. Oxen are now use muchless generally than they were, and it is probable that in course of time they wil l be en

t irely superseded by horses. See art . AN IMALLAB OUR .

There is reason t o bel ieve that t he Sussexbreed has a common origin with t he Devon .N ot only is this belief emphasized by t he similarit y of colour

,but by t he resemblance of t he

Sussex t o t he larger of t he Somerset Devons Offifty years ago. S ince then great im rovementhas been made in both varieties. T e Sussexhave been gradually improved by selecting stockof a more suitable type for t he production of

beef instead of,as w as formerly t he case, for

purposes of draught. A century a o,beef w as

of less importance t o t he Sussex armer thanwork upon t he land, and stock were at thattime chiefly bred for size and strength . ArthurYoung

,however

,writing at t he end of t he

1 8 t h century,claimed that the Sussex cattle

were equal t o those of any other breed .

F ifty years lat er, t he Earl of Sheffield spokeof t w o varieties of t he Sussex breed—t he smaller,w hich had been bred t o type for centuries, andw as then believed t o have been derived from t hesame stock as t he Devon ; and t he larger subvariety

,which w as slower in it s gait, taking a

longer time t o accomplish its work before t he

plough, and which displayed bu t little differencerom t he H ereford if w e except colour, whichw as then d istinctly red . The cattle of t he largertype were bel ieved t o have been derived from a

mixture of t he blood of t he old Sussex variety,which

,owing t o t he fact that it w as fed upon

richer ast ures than t he South Downs afl'

ord ,reache a larger size ; but it could not comparewith t he smaller type of Sussex ,which w as almostequal t o t he horse in speed, draw ing heavy loadsas much as fifteen miles a day for many daysin succession . Lord Shefli eld points t o t he factthat on one occasion a Sussex ox travelled overt he four - mile racecourse at Lewes in sixteenminutes. H eifers were sometimes spayed and

used for draught purposes ; and when, as was

often t he case, they were harnessed like a horse,

they responded t o t he rein . In some instancest he older class of beast, after t he completion ofits working period, reached considerable weights,frequently exceeding a t on ; and although 1 20st.w as about t he average of t he beasts exhibitedat t he earliest Smithfield Shows

,a weight of

200 st. w as occasionally exceeded. One of t he

most famous breeders of t he time, Mr. Ellman,w ho occupied a wel l - known farm near Lewes,described t he Sussex as cattle with fine hair andthin skin

,horns which were neither long nor

short,but rather turning up at t he points. H e

says they were well made in t he hind quarters,with broad hips, rump, and sirloin , but a narrowchine ; t he ribs were rather flat , while t he thighwas thin , and the bone not large. The cattle at

this period were rather heavy in t he fore quarters, and mostly worked from t he age of three,up t o seven years

,when they were fed off for

t he

lTbu t cher, reaching as much as 100 st. of

1 4 lSussex cattle as they are found t o- day may

almost be described as stil l embracin t w o types—those which are bred and fed by reeders oft he highest rank

,in large part for exhibition

and for beef,and which are fed upon t he richer

pastures of t he county and adjoining dis t ricts ;and t he larger type of Sussex

,which are found

in t he vicinity of t he South Down s,where they

are more generally employed as working oxen.Between t he Downs which commence at t he

Devil’s Dyke near Brighton and which t er

minate near Eastbourne are valleys where t hetrue workin oxen may be found ; and here theyare still usec

gl for draught purposes up t o six or

seven years of age, when they are fed ofi" for t hebutchers in t he neighbouring towns.Many describe t he Sussex

, as long exhibitedat t he great English shows

, as a large- framed,

rather tall,unbroken red

,somewhat resembling

t he Devon in t he shade of it s colour ; but it ismuch less compact in form and coarser in quality,although durin recent years it has been materially im roved, icing blockier, and more closelyresemb ing t he recognized type of a good beefproducing beast. The legs are shorter thanthey were, t he body deeper, and t he finer pointsof t he breed distinctly better. As w e shal l showlater on

,t he steers produce excellent weights at

an early age, and , when kil led at some t wo tothree years, produce beef of fine qual ity, especially on t he round and loin

,whil e t he ribs are

by no means t o be despised. The cows are not

good milkers, no pains having been taken , sofar as w e are aware, by any of t he most famousbreeders t o produce milking strains, or t o makeany serious attempt to improve t he milkingpowers of t he cows they possess. We havenever heard of a real dairy herd of Sussex cows.The milk is inferior for t he production of butt er,and equally inappropriate t o t he production ofcheese

,while t he quantity is usually not quite

sufficient to feed t he calves w hich t he cows produce

,alt hou h it is t he occasional custom t o run

t he cows an t he ca lves together.The points of t he breed are as follows : Thehead is rather wide

,both across t he nostrils and

t he forehead ; there is a dewlap of medium size ;t he breast is wide and prominent ; t he chine,l ike t he back

,straight in good specimens ; t he

loin fairly wide, although in this point t he Sussex is behind t he Shorthorn and t he H ereford ; t he barrel is wel l rounded, t he ribs beingsprung, giving

prominence t o that portion of

t e body,and p en t y of play for t he heart and

other vital organs ; t he legs are straight, of

medium len t h,and t he bone fine. We have

frequently o served,in examining leading ani

mals at t he Smit hfield and R oyal Shows, thatin this particular oint there is a definite improvement, t he bo y being nearer t he groundas it were, giving the form t o t he carcass whi chis so desirable in a butcher’s beast. The neck iswel l formed, clean , and of medium length ; t hecoat covered with hair of fairly good length and

Pho to . Chas. R eid .

SUSSEX BULL A PSLEY L IBERTY

FIRST A T snow ,1 9 1 0

l‘u u lO . L has. R eid .

SUSSEX COW—“ GA IETY G IRLFIR ST A N D CH A MPIO N , snow s, 1 903 A N D 1 904

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1 62

as Dorkings, generally 7 t o 9 lb. when fullygrown . The hens are satisfac t ory layers, butt he breed is essentially a table fowl

, and itsquickness of growth as well as it s suitability

R ed SussexFow l

for fattening makes it desirable t o select s e

cially with that object in View. E. Bi)

S w a le d a le S h ee p belong to t he H eathgroup, a t t he head of which is t he Scotch Blackface Moun tain breed. It is t he survivor of a

number of Yorkshire varieties that were classedas Dale sheep

,and were peculiarly suited t o t he

dis trict s in which they had been reared forgenerations. They are similar t o t he N eashamsheep

,named from t he market town in which

many sheep of t he H eath type are sold at t heannual September fairs.The breed is horned like t he Scotch Blackface, their legs are mo t tled, and their faces areusually dark - grey with mealie noses. Theyappear t o be longer and smaller, owing t o a

deficiency in wool under t he body, especial ly oft he fore quarters ; but they are strong- boned,big- bodied

,and weigh well. The face is weak

for a good Blackface, and t he tail is long likethat of t he Lonk. The quality of fleece isabou t that of t he Lonk, but a little coarser.The breed is increasing in numbers in Yorkshire

,and t he rams are in demand t o mate with

ewes of inferior types of t he H eath family. The

superiority,even in their home loca lities, of t he

ewes over ewes of t he Scotch Blackface for feeding and breeding purposes is doubtful. In t he

colour of t he face t he cross lambs bred by a

Wensleydale ram and Swaledale ewes are not sodark and fashionable as the similar cross witha Blackface ew e. This peculiarity puts a premium on t he darker - faced progeny of t he Blackface by t he Wensleydale ram, especially in t hecase of ew e lambs t o be employed in breedingsecond- cross lambs. An attempt t o un ite t he

Sw aledale Sheep Sw amps

ckface and Swaledale breeds , withimprove t he latter, has not provedsuccessful t o warrant it s generalThe progeny were generall y heavier

sheep,but longer in their

necks, tails, and legs thanBlackfaces. Their ungainlyappearance would militateagainst them in t he auctionring

,especially in a drag

ging market. The finerstapled and shorter woolrealized 1d . per lb. less because of t he prevalence of

kem s and greys ; and t he

y iel w as also deficient,ewes

averaging 4 lb. against 5 lb.given by Blackfaces runningon t he same mounta in pasture. The general management is similar t o tha t common t o Moun t ain breeds.

Lambing begins about themiddle of April, and ew e

hogget s are wintered in t helowlands of Yorkshire at a

cost of 63 . each . The ewesof t he running flock re

ceive no artificial feedingin winter un less during a

prolonged snowst orm. Per

sistent overfeeding of t herams exercises a baneful

influence on t he constitution of t he progeny.Stock rams graz e on t he hil ls along with t heewes during summer. [R . W.]S w a l low (Hiru ndo rustica).—Ow ing t o itsgeneral appearance and habits

,this migrant

species is often confused with t he H ouse Mart in(see MARTIN S) , but is of larger size, it s t ail ismore deeply forked

, t he throat is ches t nutbrown , not white, and t he latter colour is alsoabsent from t he legs and rum The upperside of t he body is of a steely quack

, and t heunder side white. Arriving in early April andleaving in October, t he Swallow is common inmost part s of Brita in except N . Scotland andW. Ireland. The nest is built under eaves orin similar places, and is distinguished from thatof t he H ouse Martin by being open at t he t op.

It is made of clay com t ed with horsehairand grass, and lined wit feathers. The fourt o six eggs are white s eckled with brow n (noture-white as in t he ouse Martin), and t w o

roods are reared in t he season. As t he foodconsists entirely of insect s caught on t he wing,gnat s in particular being favoured

,t he bird is

entirely beneficial, and should on no account bepersecuted. [.I . R . A. D.]S w a m p s . Swamps are marshy landswhose surfaces lie at or about t he permanentwater level, and whose soils therefore exist ina water- logged and semi - fluid condition . Theyhave been broadly classified into t w o maindivisions, namely , salt-water ormarine swamps,and fresh- water swamps. The former type ist o be found near t he sea level along t he coast

,

generally in indentations of t he shore line, orin river del tas, or in t he silt ed- up estuaries of

Sw amps Sw an

tidal rivers. (See art . SALT MARSHES .) Swampsof t he second group occur inland

, are formed infresh water, and are usually found at elevationsmuch higher than t he sea level. The pecul iarityof t he water- logged soils of these morasses is thatthey contain a very large proportion of vegetablematter which has accumulated from t he grow thand partial decay of a local vegetation . Theconditions necessary for t he formation of a freshwater swamp are a w et soil - surface and climaticconditions favourable for vegetable growth .

Dead organic matter does not accumulate on a

dry land surface, but breaks up, by bacterial

1,2, Swallows.

smal l t o form a lake but yet suffi cient t o keept he ground in a water- logged condition . Swampsare often t o be met with on t he alluvial depositsof river val leys. In these situations they ow etheir development t o alternations of flood and

low -water conditions. The soils of thesemarshesare peaty alluvial clays

,which su port only t he

coarsest grasses,reeds, sedges, an rushes. This

vegetation,like that of all other swamps, is of

no economic value,except tha t

,where t he firm

ness of t he ground permits,it may be cut and

saved for l itter and for t he production of farmyard manure. The chief agricultural interest inswamps lies in t he possibility of their drainageand conversion into arable land (see art . Boos,R ECLAMA '

I‘ION OF) . The fen lands of England ,once desolate morasses

,were reclaimed by an

extensive and elaborate system of drainage, andt he mixing together of t he different strata, con

3 , Swift (see p .

1 63

action,at as fast a rate as it is formed, whereby

all t he carbon of t he vegetable debris is oxidizedand returned t o t he atmosphere in t he form of

carbonic acid gas. On t he other hand,when a

soil - surface is w et,complete decay of t he organic

remains does not take place, and as a resulthumus matter accumulates t o a considerabledepth .

Fresh-water swamps may arise from t he infilling of shal low lakes, such as were left in t hehollows of t he glacial boulder clay (see art .

Boos), or they may occupy muddy hollows inal luvial deposits where t he water supply is t oo

4, Mart in .

sisting of peat and clay or grave],which formed

their soils and subsoils. [T. B .]S w a n . Three species of swan are found in

Great Britain , of which t he Common , or M uteSwan (Cygnus olor), is now widely distributedas a domesticated or half- domesticated bird .

Its present w ide range is,however

, d ue t o t he

agency of man,and it is more than doubtfu l if

it is a truly indigenous species in this country.

The story goes that domestic swans were firstintroduced into England by King R ichard I

,

w ho brought them home with him from Cyprus.But on t he other hand

, M ute Swans are frequently shot in winter ; and although thesespecimens are usually supposed t o be escapedbirds, it is not impossible that they are stragglers from t he Continent, where they are knownt o breed in a thoroughly wild state. The largestswannery in this country belongs t o Lord

1 64

Ilchester, and is situated at his seat at Abbotsbury, near Weymouth . At one time this flockincluded as many as 1 400birds, but latterly t henumbers have become reduced, and there are

now no more than 800 head. The M ute Swanis fairly omnivorous in it s diet. It feeds uponaquatic plants, insects, and molluscs, and is alsosaid t o devour frogs and small fishes

,though

this latter poin t has not been properly established . Swans begin t o breed in their thirdyear

,and usually lay a clutch of abou t five

eggs ; at times, however, this number is greatlyexceeded, and nes t s have occasionally been foundcontaining twelve eogs. Some swans have whitecygnets, and such birds have frequently beensupposed t o constitute a distinct species, whichhas been called t he ‘Polish Swan ’. But t hecharacters which were alleged t o distinguishadult Polish Swans from ordinary M ute Swanshave been found t o be inconstant, and t he

whiteness of t he young is now attributed t oalbinism—a phenomenon which occurs spo

radically in very many animals. Besides t heM ute Swan , there are t w o other species foundin t he British Isles, t he Whooper and Bew ick’sSwan , both of which are readily distinguishedfrom t he domestica ted bird by t he absence of

a knob at t he base of t he bill . The Wh ooperSwan (Cygnus musicus), which is about t he samesiz e as t he M ute Swan, breeds in t he high northfrom Iceland eastwards, and in t he autumn flockssouth in large numbers. These flocks arrive on

t he coast s of Scotland and nort h Ireland in N o

vember,and frequently stay until t he following

May . In England t he species is rare, but during hard weather they are sometimes t o be seeneven on t he south coast or on large sheet s ofinland water. On migration t he Whoopers arevery gregarious, and no traveller w ho has wint ered in t he Arctic regions can ever forget t hecheering ‘hoop - hooper - hoop ’ of t he swans ast he wedge- shaped flocks appear in t he southernsky

, for their musica l note is t he harbinger ofspring. Bew ick

’

s Swan (Cygnus bewz'

clci) is considerably smal ler than t he other t w o species

,

but in habits resembles t he Whooper. I t isa winter visitor to this country, and is part icu larly plentiful in Ireland. [R . s . R . s . ]S w a t h .

—A swath is t he line of grass orgrain as left cut by t he scythe or horse mower.The expression is also applied t o t he grain cutby a reaper or binder in its passage across orround a field.

S w a t h Tu rn er.

CH IN ERY.

S w e d e . See art . TURN IP.

S w ee t B a s il (Cog/mum basilz'

cum,nat . ord .

Labiatae), a tender annual, 1 ft . high, a nativeof India. The aromatic leaves are used forflavouring soup, and more rarely in salads.Seeds should be sown in gentle heat in MarchorApril , t he seedlings being eventually plantedou t 8 in . apart, with 1 ft. between t he rows, ina warm border of rich ligh t soi l in May or

June. The plants should be cut nearly t o t heground when they flower, and t he gatheringstied up in small bunches and dried for winteruse. Some of t he plants can be potted up inSeptember and placed in t he greenhouse if

See H AYMAKIN G MA

Sw ath Sw eet Pea

fresh leaves are required forwin ter use. BushBasil ( 0. minimum ) is very similar, but issmaller and rather more hardy . [W. W.]Sw ee t C ic e ly (Myrrln

’

s odora ta , nat . ord .

Umbelliferae), also known as Sweet Chervil, a

hardy perennial,a native of South Europe,

which is found growing in t he neighbourhoodof houses in this country. The leaves, whichhave a flavour of aniseed, are used in salads ;but it is not much cultivated in Britain, being,however

,more popular in Germany. It w il l

grow anywhere

,and is increased by seeds or

ivision . In Scotland this lant is popularlyknown as Myrrh

,and it s 0 our is considered

attractive t o bees,t he insides of hives being

rubbed with it in t he belief that they wil l beinduced t o enter. w . W .]S w ee t o r Kn o t t ed M a rj o ra m (Uri

ganum Maj orana , nat . ord. Labiatae), a tenderEgyptian biennial

,which will not stand our

winters outdoors , and rarely ripens seeds inthis country. The aromatic leaves are usedboth green and dried for flavouring purposes.The shoots are ou t when coming into flower inJune or July

,and dried in t he shade for winter

use. Seeds may be sown in gentle heat inMarch

,or in drills 9 in. apart on a warm border

in April,being thinned ou t t o 6 in . apart in

t he rows. Common Marjoram (0. vu lgare), a

native plant ; Pot Marjoram (0. Onites) ; and

Winter Sweet Marjoram (0. heracleot icum) arealso cultivated . [W. W.]Sw ee t Pea (La t/agrus odora tus, nat . ord .

Leguminosae) ; introduced from Sicily about 1 700.

This has long been one of t he most popularhardy annuals, but it is only within t he lastfor t y years that notably improved varietieshave been raised ; while t he extraordinary presen t - day popularity of t he Sweet Pea commencedwith t he stil l more recen t improvements effectedby Mr H . Eckford

,w ho w as remarkably suc

cessfu l in raising seedlings of new colours,which

were also greatly improved in t he size and substance of their flowers. Sweet Peas are so

beautiful , so easy t o grow ,and so floriferous,

that enthusiast s for them abound everywhere,

and are t o be found among every class of gardeners. They are grown in enormous quantitiesby trade growers, both for the production of cutflowers and seeds (although a great part of t heseed crop is raised in California), and a number ofnew varieties are brought ou t every year. Theholding of t he Sweet Pea Bi- centenary celebration in 1 900 led t o t he formation of a N ationalSweet Pea S ociety

,which is a prosperous body,

and among various other activities holds numerous shows. Sweet Peas may be grown in any

garden soil, but a deep and rather heavy loam ,

eeply dug and manured in t he au t umn,gives

t he best results. Early sowing is advan tageous.For ordinary purposes outdoor sowing in Marchwill suflice, with a further sowing at t he end of

April t o provide a succession of flowers. Butin addition t o making early sowings in t he open ,many growers utilize smal l pot s in January orearlier under glass

,planting ou t t he seedlings

in April . The Sweet Pea is quite hardy,and

outdoor sowing in autumn is becoming ext ensively practised, and in most seasons is quite

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1 66

plain so bitterly. Swine fever is an infectiousand con tagious disease caused by a specific organism

,and t he period of incubation is sa id t o be

about five day s, because that is t he time occu

pied by inoculated subjects. Possibly it may be

a little longer when t hemalady is communicatedby contact. The temperature varies from 104

°

t o 106°F . t he animal appears ill

,and in most

cases, but not always,a rash comes ou t on t he

skin . More importan t than anything else t o

the swine- keeper is an early diagnosis,t o enable

him t o instantly isolate an animal with t he

slightest suspicion , and for this reason his attent ion is invit ed t o t he fol lowing symptoms : dullness, loss of appeti t e, retiring from its fellows,seeking a dark corner, or burying it self underlitter

,an expression of dejection, hanging ears,

half closed and watery eyes, reddened and

spotted conj unctival membranes, with a morbidsecretion around t he eyelids ; t he latter beingoften preceded by red s ot s on t he ears

,or a

blushing redness about t ese organs. There ismuch heat and sensitiveness t o t he touch in t hered spots at first

,but they later on become cold

and devoid of sensation, t he animal making nosign of feeling if pricked with a pin . Grinding ofthe teeth

,or a grating sound produced by trans

verse movements of t he jaw ; trembling, con

vulsions, and contraction of t he flexor musclesof t he l imbs mark t he progress of t he disease.

(It is t he latter that causes t he animal t o standon his t oes. ) Paralysis, ei t her of t he hind limbsor of t he body generally

,is succeeded by loss of

control over t he sphincters , and t he involun t aryassage of faeces and urine. As with most acuteebrile diseases

,there is at first constipation.

This gives way t o d iarrhoea , convulsions, perhaps cough, and finally a collapsed or comatosecondition before t he animal dies. An outbreakof swine fever must be immediately notified t ot he loca l authorities . N o cure for this veryfatal malady is known . [H . L.]S y c am o re , S c o t s P la n e , or Grea t

M a p le (A cer P seudop la tanus) belongs t o t he

Maple genus of t he family Aceraceae, charact eriz ed by having opposite, stalked, simple leaveswithout stipules, palmately veined and oftenpalmately lobed ; small regular flowers, oftengreenish and generally hypogynous, with 4 t o 5sepals and se arate petals, and 4 t o 1 2 (usually 8)stamens ; an a dry 2- winged (occasional ly 3 ~ t o

5 -winged) samara fruit breaking into t wo (orthree t o five) separat e l -winged portions, whosesingle closed chamber generally contains one

seed. Th e only other species of t he Acer genuscommonly found in British woodlands are t heindigenous shrublike F ield Ma le

,common in

hedgerows and underwoods, an t he Maple, orN orway Ma le (see MAPLE), introduced, l ike t heSycamore

,rom Continental Europe, and long

naturalized in our woods . Sycamore can easilybe distinguished from Maple in winter by itsyellowish buds (and not red - brown), in Springby its flowers only appearing after t he foliageis flushed (and not along with or j ust beforet he foliage), and from spring t o autumn by itshaving 5 - lobed (not 5 t o 7) bluntly toothedleaves

,only pointed at t he tip of each lobe (and

less resembling those of t he P lane tree). I ts

Sycamore

hard and whitish wood (sp. gr. 09 3 green , 066seasoned) is only durable when used in dryplaces, but is prized for making calico- rollerswhen measuring from 9 t o 1 1 in . and upwardsin diameter. In t he vicinity of mills it is thusone of t he most profitable t rees, and especiallywhen only available in small quantities. I t

forms a deep root- system , and therefore thrivesbest on a deep soil

,or where t he subsoi l is

fissured and easily penetrable. Sandy loamssuit it wel l, but its finest growth is attainedon land con taining a fair amount of lime. I t

is more suitable than Maple for lanting on

hilly land,but ap t t o be nipped y frost in

damp hollows. I t s growth is best when mixedwith other broad- leaved trees (es ecially Beech),and it reaches maturit y at a ou t 70 yearsof age. It bears seed freely from about 30t o 3 5 years of age onwards

,and often (along

with Ash) seeds it self thickly in thin woods,though usual ly only t o be eaten by rabbit s .One pound contains about 6000 seeds , and

yields about 3200 seedlings,which germinat e

in four to six weeks’ time. The seed mayeither be sown in autumn

,or kept in dry sand

and sown in spring closely in dril ls with a

covering of about 5 in. of earth ; but in eithercase many of t he seeds may fail t o germinate,or else only come up in t he second year. Seedlings grow quickly and can be set in t he nurserylines when 1 or 2 years old

,and put out as

1 - year- 2, or 2- year-2 transplants. They speedilyestablish themselves

,and grow rapidly at first .

Like Ash, seedlings in natural woods can en

dure heavy shade, but during and after t hepole- stage of growth Sycamore needs room forlateral expansion ; for it belongs t o t he lightdemanding trees. In coppices it throws out long,straight stool - shoots

,but its reproductive power

soon weakens,and especially if t he ou t be not

made close t o t he ground. It is not , however,of much use in underwoods, as it has little valueuntil of fairly good size. But t he

(goo

dprice

obtained for wel l - grown stems, an t he easewith which it effects natural regeneration w herever t he soi l is not thickly overgrown withweeds

,indicate that in t he future it may be

found profitable t o encourage t he growth of

Sycamore t o a far greaterextent than has hithert o been t he case in British woodlands. It st andst he sea- breeze well

,and resists wind

,so that it

is often planted in wind - screens and shelterbelts, especially near t he sea - coast. [J . N .]S y c am ore . Pa ra s it ic Fu n g i. The

well - know n black blot ch on leaves of Syesmore, Maple, and other species of A cer iscaused by Rlz tisma acerinum

,an Ascomycete

fungus. Theblotches con tain masses of fungusfilaments, and are yel low at first but soon turnblack. The disease is spread chiefly by ascospores, which develop in t he rotting fallenleaves, and are dispersed about t he time new

leaves unfold next summer. Another form of

leaf- spot with yellow blotches dotted with blackoints is due t o R lzy t isma uncta tum

,bu t it is

ess common . Several ot er leaf - spot fungihave been recorded, none of them destructive.

Considerable damage may be done t o youngtrees when t he foliage becomes coated with

Syenite Sy lviculture

white powdery mildew (Uncinu la), one of t heErysipheae (see FUN GI AscomycetesTrea tment—All these fungi may be checkedby regularly collecting and burning t he fallenleaves.The art . BEECH—PA RA SI’I‘IC FUN GI should beconsulted for wood rot , stem canker, and seedling disease. [W. G. s.]S y e n it e , a completely crystalline igneousrock fairly rich in alkalis

,but with less silica

than granite,and less l ime than diorite. It

contains some 5 t o 6 per cent of potash and2 t o 4 per cent of soda. Syenite thus typicallyconsists of a potash - felspar

,with hornblende

,

dark mica, or augite ; silica is not present insuffi cient quantity t o produce any appreciableamount of quartz. Syenite is comparativelyrare, since it requires a certain balance amongt he chemical constituents. It occurs in Britainat M oun t Sorrel in Leicestershire, but in fewother places. Its soils resemble those of granite

,

but contain less coarse sand. [G. A. J. c . ]S y lv ic u lt u ra l C h a ra c t e ris t ic s o f

Tre e s . See TREES, SYLVIOULTUR A L CH ARAC

TER ISTICS or.

S y lvic u lt u re is that main branch offorestry which deals with the formation

,tend

ing,and renewal of woodland crops (see also

arts. on FORESTRY and on WOODLANDS—M A N

A GEMEN T,P R OTECTION , A ND UTILIZATION ). The

main scientific foundations of t he modern art

of sylviculture, as distinguished from t he old

national form of arboriculture in Britain en

forced from t he time of t he Statute of Woods( 1 5 43) down t o about t he end of t he 18 t h cen

tury,are chemistry, soil science, plant physio

logy,and climatology ; and its main aim is t o

grow crops of timber in t he manner most profitable t o t he landowner. With regard t o sylvi

culture,one has first of all t o consider t he

special ecu liarit ies and general characteristicsof t he ifferen t kinds of t rees, and t he differentmethods of treatment that can be given t o themas woodland crops, before dealing with t he threechief stages in t he growth and developmentfrom seedling t o mature timber : t he formationof woodlands , or sowing and planting ; tending,orweeding and thinning ; and renewal by reproduction through stool - shoots and root- suckers

,

or regeneration by means of seed shed naturallyor sown artificially.

1 . OUR WOODLAN D TREEs.- The timber cr0p

which can be grown in t he British Isles comprises

,owing t o ourmild

,equable

,damp climate

,

a very large number of different kinds of treesfor so comparatively small an area. The indigenous trees which can be profitably grown astimber crops are very limited in number, andinclude Beech

,H ornbeam

,Alder, Ash , Oak,

Scots Elm,Aspen

,Birch

,White Willow, and

among conifers only t he Scots P ine, not reckoning t he minor indigenous trees and shrubsfound casual ly in highwoods or grown in copIces and underwoods, such as Cherry, R owan ,allow, F ield Maple, H azel

,&c . Many val uable

trees now thoroughly natural iz ed were introduced by t he R omans, including English Elm,

Ch estnut, Lime, Black Poplar, White Poplar,and H orse - chestnut ; wh ile subsequent in t ro

1 67

d uct ions have been , in t he 1 5 th century, CrackWillow

,Sycamore, and Spruce ; in 16th century,

t he Maritime P ine ; in 1 7th century , S ilver Fir,N orway Maple

,and R obinia ; in 1 8 th century,

Larch , Weymouth and Corsican P ines,and

American Black Poplar ; in 1 9th century, Austrian P ine

,N ordmann

’s and Great S i lver Firs,

Douglas Fir,Menzies Spruce

,Lawson s and

Large - coned Cypresses, Thuj a gigan tea , and

Japanese Larch ; and in t he 20t h century , t heAmerican Larch. Though t he countries t o whichthese trees are indigenous exhibit marked differences in climate, yet they can all thrivehere as wood land crops worked purely on commercial principles for t he growing of marketable t imber. For poor land t he conifers are ont he whole t he most valuable

,not only because

they are in general much less exacting as re

gards t he quality of t he soil,and have usually a

greater power of accommodating themselves t oland which does not quite supply their normalrequirements

,but also because they usual ly

grow up into good marketable dimensions longbefore some of t he broad~leaved trees

,and espe

cially some of t he hardwoods (ag. Oak), can beprofitably marketed. And this has t he doubleadvantage of locking up less capital ( land plusgrowing timber crops) and giving earlier returns from what is even under t he most favourable circumstances an investment giving onlytardy returns.2. TH E DIFFEREN T FORMS OF WOODLAND

CR OPS—In t he Statutes relating t o land valna~

tion , rating, and succession duty, and also in allt he oflicial returns published by t he Board ofAgriculture, t he woodlands throughout Britainare classified either as

‘Coppices ’ or‘Woods

and P lantations ’. This is merely a continuation of ancient law and custom, for both undert he old English forest law and under t he common law applying t o woodlands not includedwi t hin any forest boundary, t he woodlandswere either c

qppices (sy lvae ce dure ), whether

simple or store with standard trees,or woods

(saltus), and important legal d ifierences havealways existed

,and still exist

,in England be

tween these t w o classes of woodland crops onentailed estates. But from a sylvicultural pointof view, woodlands may be treated according t oone orother of t he following different met hods :I . Copp ices or Cop ses. S imple ; (2) storedwith standard trees

,preferably raised from seed.

II . H ighwoods, t o be renewed by ( 1 ) clearfelling

,with artificial regulation by sowing or

planting ; (2) successive falls or partial clearances

,which may be either (a) occasional or

more or less regular falls throughout t he wholewood, with natural or artificial regulation ; or

(b) natural regeneration in groups, by fell ing inat ches ; or (c) uniform natural regeneration

,

gy means of regular partial clearances madet o stimulate seed production , u tilize good seedyears, and gradually remove t he mature arenttrees when t he young crop has est ab lishe itselfand needs more light.3 . THE FORMATION or WOODLANDS on wastelands or poor tracts thrown ou t of arable cultivation must take place artificially by sowing orplanting, unless , as is rarely t he case, t he area

1 68 Sy lviculture

can be stocked from light seed shed by a neighbouring wood, and eVen then many blanks wouldhave t o be fil led by planting . In our dam

pclimate, favourable t o t he growth of ran

weeds, sowing is impracticable and plantingalmos t un iversal . To provide t he plants needed,seed has t o be obtained of t he best quality ro

curable, and t he young plants are raise innurseries by being sow n broadcast, or in drillson seedbeds, then lined ou t into transplantbeds, usual ly as 2- year seedlings, where theygenerally stand for other t wo years, and are

ut ou t as 2- year - 2 transplants (see N UR SERY).To get seed of t he best qual ity, from wel lgrown middle—age trees, is j ust as important forsuccessful timber- growing, as getting first - classsires and dams is t o t he stock- breeder ; only t hebest is t he most rofitable in t he end. Buttrees have this a vantage over animals

,that

diseases are not inherited, though a weakly const it u t ion predisposing towards easy attack byfungous diseasesmay quite possibly be inheri ted,and may become more marked on any soil orsituation not quite suitable for t he given treecrop. The various methods of planting in use

are : ( 1 ) notching or slit- plantin g with nakedseedlings or transplants

,a method only suitable

for light,friable

,sandy soil , and even then pre

ferab le in t he form of erpend icular notchingwith a flat - faced dibb e or narrow ditchingspade ; (2) pit- planting with transplants, eitherwith naked roots orwith balls of earth attachedt o them ; and (3) mound - planting on w et land(see PLAN TIN G) . Wet land should be thoroughlydrained before planting, and soil preparationcarried out by cutting and burning weeds andrubbish . On old arable land t he planting of

Scots P ine is ap t t o induce root disease, and on

oor soil an admixture of White Alder is ofteneneficial through t he supplies of nitrogen obt ained in its root nodules, and through its owerof throwing up root - suckers plentifully. (guickgrowing hardy kinds of trees

,like Larch, P ine

and Birch,are sometimes lan t ed as

‘nursest o protect less hardy kin s, l ike S ilver Fir,from frost at first ; bu t in such cases t he nursesshould be cut ou t as soon as they have servedtheir purpose

,otherwise they su press t he main

crop,and grow up into a thin an unsatisfactory

wood.

4. THE TENDIN G OF WOODLANDS consist s in( 1 ) t he weeding and cleaning of young plantations and thickets of natural regeneration ; (2)t he thinning of pole woods and middle-agedcrops ; and (3 ) t he partial clearance of maturingwoods

,in order t o s t imulate increment on t he

stems. The object of weeding and cleaning ist o enable t he young plantations and thickets t oestablish themselves in t he form desired. Thus,besides freeing t he tops of t he plants froms t rong growth of grasses and other weedsthreatening t o overlay and suffocate them , softwoods like Aspen

,Birch

, or Willow, or anyother kind of tree not desired in t he crop

,

should be cu t ou t . The thinnings, which general ly begin at about 1 7 t o 20 years of age

in conifer,and later in broad - leaved crops

,

are made with t he object of enabling t he bestgrown young trees t o continue t o develop well,

so that t he ultimate crop obtainable may showt he largest profit on t he ca ital invested inproducing it. Under our 01 nat ional systemof arboriculture, young lant at ions and maturing woods were habitual y overthinned, and t hetrees therefore grew up much rougher and morebranching than is now desirable bu t if a rationalamount of thinning is not done, t he crops gett oo thick and t he crowns of foliage t oo smal l forhealthy growth. Ordinarily

,t he trees which

should be removed are ( 1 ) those dead or dying ;(2) those diseased, infested with insects, ormuchsuppressed ; (3) those interfering with t he growt hof trees likely t o be of greater ul t imate valuelater on and (4) forked and badly shaped treesnot likely t o have much value as timber. Thinnings may be light, moderate, or heavy, thoughthese terms are rather indefinite

,as what might

be a moderate thinning for light - demandin gtrees

,l ike Oak

,Ash

,Larch

, and P ine, migh t bea heavy thinning or an overt hinning in shadeenduring crops like S ilver or Douglas Fir,Spruce, or Beech. The percentage of t he cropremoved at each thinning may vary greatlyaccording t o t he kind of tree and t he age of t he

crop,t he quality of the soil

, and t he elevation,

aspect,and slope of t he land ; and it may vary

from below 5 t o over 10per cent of t he standing crop at different ages. Thinnings generallybegin w hen t he price obtained for t he materialcut ou t more than pays t he cost of cutting andextraction ; and , of course, t he larger this incomeor partial return from t he capital sunk in t heplantation is

,t he less t he net cost of t he young

crop j ust after a thinn ing. This tends t o inducesomewhat heavy thinning ; but if t he woods aret o be mana ed on purely business principles itis in t he en more profitable to thin moderatelyand at regular intervals of from 5 t o 10years,according t o t he

given conditions

,than t o make

heavy thinn ings efore the crop is nearing itsmaturity. Thus heavy thinnings amountingt o partial clearances generally give good increment on t he stems

,though it increases t he risk

of windfall. In conifer woods in t ended t o beworked solely for providing pitwood timber

,

heavy thinnings by cu tting ou t t he lar est polesmay , however, prove t he most profita le treatment. P runing is unnecessary in closely growncro s, and even in standards over coppice it isseldbm profitable, as it tends t o make t he treesdie off in t he t op.

5 . THE R ENEWAL or Woons may take place(as already indicated under 2) by methods varying according t o t he form of t he crop. S implecoppices are cut back t o t he stool with a cleanslan t ing stroke as close t o t he ground as possible, and reproduce themselves by throwing ou tst ool - shoots or root- suckers. In stored cop ice

orco pics with standards, along with t he um er

w oo t he standard trees grown for timber arealso removed in a more or less fixed proportion ,all t he trees of t he oldest class (say of four orfive rotations of t he coppice) being felled togetherwith an equal number of t he next -age class , andt he other younger-age classes cut in larger number

,t he object being at each rotation t o remove

those that are not well grown,and on ly t o leave

those that seem likely t o continue growing well

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1 70

S y rp h u s , a genus of t w o winged flies,whose maggot s live, during t he summer andautumn , upon aphides, devouring immense quantities. They belong t o t he family Syrphidae or

H over Fl ies.S . baltea tus (fig. 1 , slightly magnified) is bright

ochreous ; eyes chocolate colour ; thorax coppery

Syrphuia—HoverFlies

green ; body w ith one or t wo broken, two nar

row , and three broad orange bands ; larva fleshy,tapering t o the head, with orange and dark spot sdown t he back (fig. 2 shows it sucking a plantlouse) ; pupa horny, pear- shaped, dusky (fig.

Ta b a n id ae , a family of blood- sucking fl ies,including t he ‘cleggs ’or gadflies

’. The males

are inoffensive, bu t t he females pierce animal swith their lancet- formed mouths, and suck theirblood. One of t he most familiar examples is

Tabanus bmrinus (t he 0xGadfiy)

Tabanus bovinua, t he Ox Gadfly , which is conspicuous by its great size. The larvae (fig. 1 )l ive in t he earth , where they change t o pupae,and t he fl ies are abundant in June, July, andAugust. The fly is brown ; t he body is pointed,and t he sides are ochreous at t he base. The

female is larger (fig. 2 ; fig. 3 shows t he head inprofi le) ; the face is of a grey colour ; t he shortantennae are tawny at t he base. The thorax isindistinctly striped w it h grey ; t he ed es of all

t he abdominal segments are downy an whitish,w ith a similar line of triangular s ot s down t heback t he t wo wings have bright, rown, pinion

Sy rphus Taenia

S . ribesz'

i, Linn . (fig. is very abundant. I t

is ochreous ; eyes and an tenna: chocolat e ; t helatter orange beneath ; thorax bottle green ;scutel ochreous ; body with t wo lar e spots

,

tw o broad, and one narrow orange ban Larvaand pupa similar to t he las t. Figs. 4

,5, and 6

represent Catabomba pyrastri, an insect of samefamily (see art . CA TA BOMBA ).

25 t o 3 5 per cent of water, and 65 t o 70per centof sugars (sucrose, glucose, and fructose). Oneof t he cheapest of syrups is that known as‘starch - syrup ’, obtained in t he manufacture ofglucose from starch. It contains usually about30 t o 3 5 per cent of glucose and 45 t o 50 percent of dextrins, and is used t o adulterate t hesyrups obtained in the manufacture of sugar.These are t he only syrups l ikely t o be met withupon t he farm, t he fruit syrups being preparedonly for human consumption . Syrup is occasionally used for sweet enin

gfoods and render

ing them more palatable, ut this object canu sual ly be effect ed more economica l ly by meansof molasses. [c . c.]

edges and nervures,and t he shanks are buff

colour. Some of t he smaller species are equallytroublesome, e.g. t he grey ‘clegg ’

,H cemat opota

p luvialis, which attacks both men and cattle inthe summer. J. c. [c. W.]Ta b a n u s , a genus of blood- sucking dipt era.

See TABAN IDE .

Ta n ia , t he genus t o which most of t hetapeworms belong. All domesticated animals,as well as man himself, are liable t o be attackedby them. The int ernal parasites known as

blad derw orms were long considered t o be en

t irely different creatures ; but it is now knownthat all tapeworms pass through t he bladder~worm stage in t he course of their development,and requi re tw o different animals or ‘hosts ’ tol ive in if they are to complete their l ife- history.Thus t he bladderworm often present in t heliver of t he rabbit, and attaining in that animalno further development, will , if eaten by a dog,give rise t o a tapeworm , Tamia. serra ta .

The bladderworm always consist s of a bag or

cyst ’enclosin one ormore heads (scolices) provided wit h hoo s and suckers . When eaten byanother animal t he cyst is d issolved by t he digestive j uices, and t he scolices attach themselves tot he walls of t he intestine and

,by budding ofl‘

segment after segment, develop into tapeworms.Each segment (proglot t t

'

s) of t he tapeworm,when

mature, is ful l of eggs, and these are constantlypassed ou t by t he infested animal. If eaten byt he second ‘host ’ they become bladderworms.

An animal suffering from t apeworm is not curedunless t he head or scolex is detached and ejected,and strong purgatives (male- fern

, areca nu t, &c.)

Tail Docking Tamarisk

are employed t o effect this purpose. But muchmay also be done in t he w ay of prevention, andif a dog, for instance, is not allowed t o toucht he viscera of hares or rabbits it will not con

tract t he tapeworm disease due t o T. serra ta .

The disease known as gid ’ or ‘staggers ’ insheep is d ue t o t he presence of a large bladderworm in t he brain . This bladderworm

,if eaten

by t he sheep - dog, gives rise t o t he tapeworm ,

T. cwnurus. Obviously it is folly t o allow a dogsuffering from tapeworm (which may be of thisSpecies) t o run among t he sheep, and it shouldbe rigidly kept away from them until cured.

Perhaps t he commonest human tapeworm isT. solium

,of which t he bladderworm is t o be

found in t he flesh of t he pig. See art . TAPEwoams. [c. W. ]Ta il Do c k in g . See art . DOCKIN G.

Ta lc , a pale - coloured mineral of a flakynature, so soft that it can easily be scratchedby t he thumbnail. It is a hydrous magnesiumsilicate

,H eMg3 (SiO3)4. When massive, it is

styled soap stone or stea t ite, and is sold as a lubricating material . Talc forms schistose rocks

,but

is not a very common rock - forming mineral.[G. A . J. c .]

Ta l l Fe s c u e , a grass of high nutritivevalue. See AR RHEN ATHERUM and FESCUE

GRASSES .

Ta l low is t he name given t o t he fat of oxen ,cows

,ca lves (beef tallow), sheep and goats (mut

t on tallow), when separated from t he connectivetissue with which it is associated in t he animal.This separation is effected by boiling t he roughfat and adherent tissue with water, t he clearmelted fat which rises to t he surface being thendrawn off. To extract t he rest of t he fat t heanimal tissue, &c.

,is treat-cd with a little dilute

sulphuric acid in order t o ‘cut ’ t he cel l membranes

,and then again boiled up with water.

This second crop of tallow is usually inferior t ot he first melt. For some ur oses t he tallowthus obtained is further re ne and bleached.The fats from different parts of t he carcassvary considerably in value, and for t he bestvarieties of tallow, such as are used for t hemanufacture of margarine, t he more valuablekidney fat and bowel fat (‘midgerumfat

’

) are rendered separately and not mixedwith t he can] fat . The quality- especially t hehardness—of tallow varies with breed, age, andfeeding of t he animals. Foods rich in carbohydrates and poor in oil grass , hay , straw)tend t o give a hard tallow. Male animals usual ly yield a harder tallow than females. M u t t ontallow is very similar in composition t o beeftallow,

but is u sually harder than t he latter.I t is also more liable t o turn rancid, and hencecannot be used in t he manufacture of t he finestmargarine or high - class toilet soaps.The common classes of tallow are often sub

ject ed t o hydraulic pressure, whereby t he l iquidingredients are largely expressed and form a

l iquid or semi - solid product known as‘tallow

oil’. This is ch iefly used in admixture with

mineral oils as a lubricant. The solid residuein t he press is used for candle~

making, forwhich purpose also much unpressedtallow is used. ‘Stearine ’

obtained in similar

1 7 1

fashion from high - class tallows is used for ediblepurposes as an ingredient of compound lardsand suet substitutes.For t he use of tallow in t he manufacture of

margarine, see art . MARGAR INE.

The tallow industry has now reached veryconsiderable dimensions, t he home productionof t he United Kingdom alone being estimatedat well over tons , representing a valueof The products are ch iefly ab

sorbed by t he soap - making, candle - making,and margarine industries . [c . c .]Ta lu s .

—This term,meaning a projection at

t he foot of an upright object, is applied in geologyt o t he slopes of detritus that gather under mountain walls. Coarse taluses , such as are mainlyformed by frost action , are styled screes in t henorth of England. Any material worn fromt he higher summits may go t o increase t he talus.Taluses typically assume conical forms, and uniteby overlapping at their feet. As t he finer mat erial sinks t o t he base through t he intersticesbetween t he coarser stones, taluses remain ruggedon t he surface

,with holes that are dangerous for

sheep or cattle wandering on t he slopes. Sometaluses serve for t he growth of trees, but throughslips in t he talus, or t he descent of new materialfrom above, such trees are liable t o abrupt destruction. A few hours of storm w ill sometimes

visibly extend a talus in a mountain district,at

t he expense of grassy pasture- land. The decayof t he talus- blocks

,and t he washing ou t of t he

fine material,furnish, however, t he excellen t

alluvium which supports life in otherwise barrenuplands . [G. A . J. c . ]Tam a rin d (Tamarindus ind ica, Linn ,

nat .

ord . Leguminosae), a large evergreen tree cul t i~vat ed throughou t India and most tropical countries

,luxuria t ing on a deep alluvial soil . It

flowers in April and May , and affords its ripecrop in t he ensuing cold season . The youngshoots or seedlings have been a valued antiscorbutic since t he most ancient times. The

pulp of t he ripe pod is a favourite ingredient incurries, chutneys, &c.

,and valued in pickling

fish ; it is also largely utilized in t he preparation of a syrup employed in sweetmeats . The

tamarind of European commerce is preparedby carefully removing t he shell

,seed

,and other

impurities, then acking t he reddish brownpulp

,layer upon ayer, with salt or sugar be

tween,and closing in t he package with a coat

ing of boiling syrup . The sup ly of t he UnitedKingdom comes mainly from t eWest Indies.

G. w.

Tam a ris k , a genus (Tamarix, n

lat . o

]rd .

Tamariscineae) comprising about twenty speciesof ornamental greenhouse and hardy half- evergreen shrubs and smal l trees, with feathery foliage, and white or pink flow ers. They thrive insandy soil, and are particularly well adaptedfor planting by t he coast. T. anglica is a nativeplant ; T. gallica , which is a favourite forplanting

,attain s 5 t o 10 ft. in height, and flowers

from July t o September ; T. Pa llasii,a native of

Eastern Europe and Afghanistan,is a part icu

larly handsome kind, and t he var. rosea is animprovement on t he type. Other hardy kindsare clzinensis, hisp ida, and tetrandra . Propaga

1 72 Tamw orth P igs Tapew orms

tion by cuttings. The manna of Mount S inai isproduced by a variet y of T. gallica. [W. W.]Ta m w o rt h P ig s have undergone a con

siderab le change in form,colour

,and early -ma

turing qual ities during t he last few decades. I nits unimproved form t he Tamworth w as mainlykept in t he counties of S tafford and Warwick,and was of medium size

,dark grizzly in colour

with black skin spots,long in snout

,short in

ear, heavy in shoulder, short in t he back , and

light in t he hind quarters. It w as fairly prol ific,

t he young were hardy and somewhat wild,whilst neither young nor old were noted fortheir good temper. The fat pigs were slow inmaturing, bu t t he pork possessed a large shareof lean. Some years ago this breed was takenup by an enthusiast

,w ho endeavoured t o im

prove their defect s , for he recognized that t hemajority of t he pigs of that period were u n

suited for t he manufacture of bacon and hamsof t he finer qual ities. Subsequently Large and

M iddle White pigs of both sexes were used forcrossing, when some very fine cross - breds resu l t ed . A t t he presen t time t he fashionablecolour of the Tamworth pigs is a golden - colouredred . The nose is shorter

,t he ear longer

,and

pendent instead of being pricked,t he jowl is

heavier,t he shoulder is lighter, t he back longer,

and t he hind quarters and hams are better developed than in t he oldfashioned type of Tamworth. A considerable number of Tamworthboars have been exported

,but except in Canada

they have not given complete sa t isfac t ion whenmated with t he Berkshires and others of t hemore compact breeds for t he production of

bacon pigs. P resent- day breeders of Tamworthsfind grea t diffi culty in procuring a change of

blood owing t o there being so few tribes or

families whose pedigrees have been recorded int he herd book. This may be due t o t w o causes :t he small quantit y of foundation stock, or t hel imited number of breeders w ho have recordedtheir stock

,or w ho

,having been successful in

t he show yards, have gained a notoriety for t hesuperiority of their pigs for exhibition pu

[rpos

jes.

s. s .Ta n fa c e S h ee p , a name somet imes ap

p lied t o t he Welsh Mountain Sheep (see thisarticle).Ta n k ( Liq u id -m a n u re ) .—The liquid

manure tank,when placed beside t he dung

stead,serves as a receiver of t he drainings from

t he hea and t he sewage from t he specialdrains t at lead from t he various houses inwhich t he animals are accommodated. The

tank wil l also be convenient should it everbecome advisable t o sprinkle t he dungheap witht he l iquid manure. If t he tank be made longand narrow it wil l be all t he easier t o cover in.Either at a side or an end of t he d ungst ead willusual ly be found a stretch of wal l alongsidewhich t he tank may be constructed. A tank20ft. long

, 3 ft. deep , and 24, ft. wide will holdc lose on 950gal. of l iquid. Such a tank witha concrete bottom

,sides either of brick and

cement or concrete,and a cover either of flat

stones,or concrete again

,is cheap and service

able. I t may not be always practicable t o gett he inner side of t he tank put close up t o t he

outer face of t he d ungstead wall . Where thiscan be easily done

,however, t he t wo need be

no farther apart than t he breadth of a narrowledge (6 t o 9 in.) for support of t he covers onthat side. In fact, where concrete happened t obe adopted as covering medium

,t he t w o could

be flush if t he ends of angle- iron supports werelet into t he wall . I t is easier t o make t he tankwhen t he dungst ead is being constructed, because t he w all against which t he t ank is t o beformed can then be founded deep enough t o act

as t he back side of t he tank. N o drains dealingwith water from t he roofs should be in con

nect ion with t he l iquid - manure tank, eitherdirectly or by way of t he dungst ead itself ;only those from t he live- st ock houses should beconnected t o it . A pump is a necessary additiont o t he tank (see PUMPS). [R. 11 ]Ta n n in g . See art s. LEA THER IN DUSTRY

and BARKIN G.

Ta n sy (Tanacetum vu lgare, nat . ord. Com

posit es), a strong- growing aromatic herb,3 t o

4 ft . high,with finely divided leaves and bright

yel low button - like flowers,borne on terminal

corymbs. The lant is easily cultivated, andmay be increased

)

by seeds or by division of t heroot stock. Tansy is of some med icinal value

,

and is used for flavouring and colouring puddings . A crisp or deeply - cut - leaved variety isoccasionally used for garnishing. [A . B .]Ta p ew orm s (Cestoda), a class of F latWorms (P lathelminthes), including an enormousnumber of internal parasit es which occur as

adults in all kinds of vertebrates. All tapeworms (except A rch iget es) require t wo hosts .

The host of t he adult tapeworm is a vertebrate ;t he host of t he immature stage—usually knownas a bladderworm or cyst—may be a vert ebrateor an invertebrate. The bladderworm becomesa tapeworm when an appropriate second hosteats t he first host.A typical tapeworm consists of (a ) a small

‘head ’ or scolex,with suckers and often with

hooks, effecting attachment t o t he gut of t hehost ; (b) a narrow neck or growing area, fromwhich joints are marked off posteriorly ; and (c)a chain of numerous joints or proglottides. Theyoungest joints Show no reproductive organs

,

those farther back Show t he reproductive organsin ful l activity

,those farthes t bac k Show little

more than a branched uterus crowded withembryos . Tapeworms are all hermaphroditeand very prolific ; in many cases t he ova are

fertil ized by Spermatozoa from t he same tapeworm. A ripe joint—separated from t he chainby itself or along with others—is passed fromt he host ; it breaks up and l iberates t he embryoson t he soil or in water ; some of these may beeaten by an appropriate host, within which theydevelop into b ladderw orms. Each bladderworm(proscolex, cyst, or hydatid) forms a ‘head ’,which appears as a bud on t he wal l of t he

bladder,at firs t invaginated and eventually

evaginated. Sometimes several millions of embryo emerge from one tapeworm.

Some of t he practica lly im ortan t tapewormsare t he following : Tania. so ium

,tapeworm in

man,bladderworm in muscles of pig ; T. say i

na ta,tapeworm in man , bladderworm in muscles

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Tapioca Tea

of cattle ; T. coenurus, tapeworm in dog, bladderworm (sturdy) in brain of Sheep , and also in ox

,horse, &c . ; T. ec/ainococcu s, t apev

‘

vorm in dog andwolf, bladderworm in man

,ruminants

, &c . ; T.

serra ta, tapeworm in dog, bladderworm in t he

rabbit,.

hare, and mouse ; T. margina ta , tapeworm m d og, bladderworm in ruminants, &c . ;

T. crasswollzs, tapeworm in t he cat

,bladder

worm rn t he mouse ; Botkriocep halus la t us, tapeworm m man, larva (Solid, without a bladder)

Pork Tapeworm (Toenia solium), show ing head (a) andlong flat tened body , made of Segments (proglot t ides)Head of Taem'

a solium (magnified) . a , R ost ellum. b, circleof booklet s. c su ckers. d ,

hooklet great ly magnified. e,

Cyst icercus celfu losae with head protruded. f , Cysticercuscel lu losae with invaginat ed head.

in pike,turbot

,trout

,&c. In many cases t he

host of t he larva or cyst is stil l unknown , as inthree tapeworms of sheep and three tapewormsof t he grouse.

Adult tapeworms are usual ly in t he intestineof their host , bu t they sometimes occur inannexed organs such as l iver and pancreas.They have considerable powers of movement,and may cause perforation of t he wall of t heintestine. It is said that many have a verylimited length of life—about a year—t he attaching ‘head ’ often undergoing wear and tear.See BLA DDERWORMS , CESTODES , MEASLES .

[J . A . T.]Ta p ioc a . See art . Ca ssava .

Ta n—When wood is heated in a closed vessel—that is , in t he absence of air needful for its

173

combustion—t he substances present in it undergo far

- reaching chemical changes , and an extensive series of decomposition rod uct s is formed.

A number of these are foun in t he semi - liquidmass known as t ar; and similar, though by no

means identical,products are found in t he t ar

formed when coal is heated in t he manufactureof coal gas. The very valuable antiseptic propert ies of wood t arare chiefly due t o t he phenolsit contains. The best- known phenol is t he sub

stance commonly called carbolic acid , and t he

allied substances,cresols

,guaiacol , &c.

,which

accompany it in t ar have S imilar properties.The value of t ar

,however

,is d ue in lar e mea

sure t o its physical characters as a visci liquidnot readily miscible with water.Tar has been largely used for t he autumnsmearing of mountain Sheep t o protect themfrom t he cold and damp of winter. For thispurpose it is mixed with grease and appliedt o t he skin between t he parted wool. Whilstit forms an excel lent protection from severeweather, and is also valuable as a destroyer ofvermin

,it has t he disadvantage that it discolours

t he wool and thus reduces its value (see SHEEP ,SMEAR IN G or). Shepherds find tar an excellentapplica tion for footrot and S imilar troubles withsheep. It serves at once t o hinder t he growthof t he infecting organisms

,and by excluding air

and damp t o give an opportunity for naturalrecuperative rocesses. A solution of bluestoneis often mixed

)

with t he t ar,but is better applied

previously.

Tar is found very useful by fruit growers.Thus , t o prevent t he females of t he WinterMoth from climbing up t he trees a strip of

brown paper some 6 in . wide,and long enough

t o go completely round t he trunk , is first tiedround t he tree so as t o leave no space betweent he paper and t he bark

,and then this strip is

thoroughly covered with Stockholm t ar,which

forms a trap that t he insects cannot esca e. Byt he use of t ar, t he wounds in fruit trees t at arecaused in pruning thick branches can be prot ec t ed , and t he entrance orgermination of fungusspores can be prevented (see APPLE—PARAS ITICFUN GI).The principal use of t ar, however, is for thepreservation of timber. Both for wooden fencing and for t he rougher kind of wooden buildings t ar has great advantages, and it is Speciallyvaluable for coating wood that is exposed t o constant w et

,as

,for example

,t he portion of posts

that are buried in t he ground . [c . M . L .]Taw n y Ow l. See art . OWLS .

Tea is t he specially repared leaves of t heshrub Camellia T/zea , Emit , nat . ord . Ternst roemiaceae, a native very possibly of China

,

Cochin -China, and t he mountains of t he AssamBurma fron t ier. The t ea plant appears t o bementioned in t he most ancient books of China ;one of t he references t o it denotes ‘

t ea vege

table ’, and t he Shans and Burmans t o this daypickle t he t ea leaf and eat it as a flavouringvegetable. It is not , in fact , til l t he 4t h cen

tury that w e obtain mention of t he beverageprepared from t he leaves. But by t he 8 t h cen

tury A .D. it would appear t o have become so

general in China that it w as then subjected t o

1 74 Tea

an imperial duty. The first mention of t ea bya European writer occurs in Ramusio

’s edition

of Marco Polo’s work (published in The

edi t or therein states that he had only then( three centuries after P olo

’s time) come t o hearof t ea from a - Persian merchant. Bon t ius ( in

a Dutch physician resident in Batavia,published a beautiful en

graving of t he t ea plant

and gave details of t he everage. H e w as t he

first t o mention that sugar had t o be used alongwith t ea. Moreover, he made known t he factthat black and green t eas were merely due t omethods of preparation and not t o differencesof plant employed—a fact that Europe w as t w o

centuries in accepting. In 1 660 t ea drinkinghad become so general in England that it w as

taxed along with coffee, chocolate, &c.

, and soldat t he coffee houses. In 1 664 t he East IndiaCompany made a presen t of some t ea t o KingCharles II

,and by 1 677 they had taken steps

t o secure a regular supply from China. At thistime t ea sold at £5 t o £10a pound

,and in 1 689

a - direct duty w as established of 5 s. per poundon t he imports. In 1 722- 44 t he duty w as fixedat 43 . From 1 784—95 it had been graduallyremitted un t il it fel l t o 1 2; per cent. Unfor

t unat ely , however, in 1 795 t he practice of raising Special money ~by taxing t ea w as aga inresorted t o

,so that in 1 8 19 t ea sust ained a duty

of 100 per cent, and in consequence t he sa less t ood still at But by an Actof Parliament .

~in. 1833 . t he . East Ind ia Com

pany’

s monopoly w as abolished ; unrestrict edsa les thereby-st imulated competition and loweredprices: A t - t he same time t he duty was oncemore“

reduced,

.and stood at l s. 6d . t o 33 . a poundaccording t o quality. During 1 909 t he amountcol lected by t he Crown on t he t ea which passedinto home consumption w as or a

rate of 2s. 7éd . per head of population . R un

ning parallel with these progressions t o popularfavour w as t he effort t o establish t ea cultivation in India.

Lord William Bentinck in 1 834 took up thismatter warmly, and dispat ched first one and

then another expedition t o China, t o study t hemethods of cultivat ion and manufacture of t ea ,and t o secure good stock. About t he same timet he discovery was made of t he existence of indigenous t ea in Assam ; and this rapidly becameone of t he most important aspects of India’ssuccess in t ea planting, since t he Indian plantwas found superior t o t he Chinese for t he greater

part of t he Indian area. By 1 840 t he industryad been so thoroughly established that t heGovernment fel t t he time had arrived for themt o withdraw from experimental cultivation .

There has in consequence been organized inIndia an industry t he value of which may bej udged of from t he following circumstances :Indian t ea now occupies half a million acres ofland, formerly waste and unproductive ; t heindustry .gives lucrative employment t o closeon persons ; t he capital invested comest o wel l over t he annual averageexports are now over lh .

, valuedat say ( in 1 909 t he production of

India was as an offshoot of

that great Indian industry, cultivation of t ea

has been organized in Ceylon and other countries ; and lastly, India and Ceylon now give t ot he United Kingdom a regular supply of a

much purer and much cheaper tea than was

formerly obtainable from China.

But t he Indian success may be said to haveled t o the reformation of t he China industry, sothat t he methods of planting and manufact uring, perfected in India, and t he machinery invented by t he Indian planters

,have now become

universal throughout t he t ea industry of t he

world. The economics of large plan tations, andt he discovery of machinery that could do all

and more than hand labour had formerly aecomplished, cheapened production and thus createdincreased demand. The freedom from adulteration and t he admitted high qual ity enhancedt he apprecia tion of t he Indian article

,and with

a reputation for superiority thus es tablished,came t he downfal l of t he old Ch inese traffi c.This may be briefly exemplified. In 1 85 9 Chinasupplied Britain with lb. of t ea ,and in 1 880 4 wit h lb. In 1 864India commenced t o export in suffi cient quantity t o j ustify separate recogni t ion in officialreturns. In that year her export s came t o

lb. In 1 875—6 t he export s of Ceylonwere 784 lb .

,while t he Indian were

lb. In 1 900the figures were : Ceylon,lb ., valued at and India

,

lb.,valued at By way of contrast

it may now be stated that t he total export sof China in 1 900were lh .

,valued at ‘

and of Japan,

lb .

,valued

at But t he exports from India in 1 906were lb. from Ceylon

,lb.

and from China, lb. black and greenteas

,and lb. [brick teas and dust.

Lastly,t he production of India during 1 908

was lb ., and in 1 909 something like1b . In recent years t he expansion

of t he production of t ea in Java has been one of

t he most striking features of t he trade. In 1 908this came t o lh.

, and in t he followingyear t o lb. The roport ion of thatsupply drawn by t he Unite Kingdom in t heformer year was and in t he latter

lb. Turning now t o rice : duringt he later years of t he period in icat ed above

,

t he price fell for Indian teas from l 3'

33d . t o

8'

32d . per lb. in 1 900; for Ceylon , from 1 1'

63d .

t o 5'

41d . per lh . ; forCh ina, from 7 °

26d . t o 5 1 401.

per lh . ; and forJapan , from 7 °

1 7d . t o 5'

5 3d . per

lb. Thus while India has attained t he positionas leading country in supply, she has at the

same time maintained a marked supremacy inprice. But it must be admitted India andCeylon ow e their prosperous t ea industries t ot he consumption in t he mother country and hercolonies. According t oMessrs. M ‘Meekin Co.

’s

report,Tea in 1 909

,t he consumption t o popu la

tion wi thin t he United Kingdom w as 6 30 lh. ;

and in that year India supplied 5 6§ per cent. ,Ceylon 335 per cent, Java 7 per cent, and

Ch ina only 3 per cent of t he demand. By w ayof contrast, it may be added that t he con

sumption in t he Colonies , expressed t o headof opulat ion, is even higher than in t he

mot er country ; while in R ussia it was but

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1 76

some 6 t o 8 in . above t he ground. In consequence,each plant throws out from three t o four shoots,and these are allowed t o row for t wo yearsbefore being again interfere with. When threeyears old they are cut back t o 14 t o 1 8 in. Afterthis

,each year’s prunin will be at a point 1 t o

2 in . above t he previous%ligh t pruning) until t heyield begins t o decline, when it again becomesnecessary t o prune back t o from 12 t o 1 5 in . abovet he ground (heavy pruning, as this is called).At a still later stage (but only after manyyears’ cultivation), if t he bushes are found t o beonce more giving a decreasing yield, a still moresevere pruning may become necessary (collarprun ing

,as it is cal led), viz. down t o t he level of

t he ground. The age of the t ea bush is acceptedas from forty t o sixty years . B u t t he extent andnecessity for pruning depends very largely on

t he invigorating or leaf- producing property of

t he environment. With plantations in highaltitudes or in temperate countries, growth maybe so slow as t o render runing only occasion~ally necessary. A high egree of pruning, suchas that described, only prevails in t he plains ofAssam

, Cachar, t he Duars, &c.,where t he yield

may be more than twice that of t he hill plant ations, for example, of Darjeeling and Kangra.

When t he t ea has been pruned new shoot sare formed, and after t wo or t hree months theseare 9 in . long and contain at least six leaves.The bushes are then ‘tipped ’, as it is called ;that is t o say , from all t he shoots in t he centreof t he bush, t he terminal bud and t he stalkcarrying one or t wo leaves below it, are re

moved. The shoots ou t he circumference maynot be then ready for tipping

,and should not

be interfered with . Tipping is not done t o geta. first yield of leaf, bu t in order t o secure a re

quired condition of flushing. Secondary shoot sat once spring from t w o or three of t he buds

,in

t he axils of t he leaves remaining on t he Shoots.I t is a good plan t o furnish t he pluckers wi t ha stick of a certain length , and t o direct themt o pluck no shoots shorter than t he length of

t he stick from t he ground upwards t o t he tipsof t he shoots. After three weeks t he secondaryshoots wil l be ready for plucking, and t he t opmost tw o leaves and t he bud of each can now

be removed, thus leaving very possibly but t w o

leaves below. The expert plucker does not pulloff, but nips off (by the pressure of t he thumbnail against t he forefinger), t he tender tips oft he shoots. This brings about another flushing

,

when again t wo leaves and the unopened budare plucked off

,leaving but one leaf below.

This rocess of flushing and plucking is continued

)

throughout t he season , as a rule fromsix t o eight flushings being obtained, not counting t he initial tipping. At first t he flushingsand pluckings coincide, but in time t he amountof leaf produced is t oo great for this, and t he

bushes are then systematica lly plucked everyseven t o nine days

,that is t o say , each bush

may be plucked from twenty t o thirty timesduring t he season. It will thus be seen howessential it is that t he first shoot s (above t hepruning) Should be allowed t o grow till theypossess at least four perfect leaves below t he

point of first tipping,since upon t he buds left

Tea

on these shoots depends t he power of subsequent flushing. P lucking commences in March,but July , August, September, and t he first halfof October are t he month s of greatest yield.P lucking ceases by t he middl e of December.The yield at each plucking

,on healthy t ea

,may

be 1 20 lb. of green leaf t o t he acre,giving about

30 lb . of t ea . The garden comes into hearingas follows : A small yield may be secured during t he second year of growth ; by t he third ,1 50 lb. per acre can be obtained, and progressively til l t he sixth, when t he garden Shouldbe in full bearing

,and then yield from 400 t o

1000 lb . t o t he acre.

Coarse- leaf plucking does not prevail in India.

All t ea is made from t he t w o topmost leavesand t he terminal bud of t he young Shoots.As soon as possible t he leaf is carried t o t he

withering - house, where it is spread ou t on

trays,assorted within a cool place

,and in such

a w ay as t o secure a rapid withering. In coldloca lities it is found necessary t o force in heatedair

,bu t in warm districts fans, driven by

steam,cause t he ordinary air t o move freely

over t he trays. Wh en t he leaf has becomeflaccid it is ready for t he next operation , and isaccordingly carried t o t he rol ling machine, whereit is rol led under pressure. Th is breaks t hecells of t he tissue and resses ou t t he leaf juice.

When t he j uice has een brought in contactwith t he air

,t he leaf is ready for t he further

stage,viz. fermenta tion . If it is intended t o

produce black t ea this is essential ; but if greent ea be required no fermentation is necessary,and in that case t he leaf is usually subject ed toa. dry heat, suffi cient t o kil l t he germs of fermen tation before being rolled. It is then rol led,and is at once fired and dried off before anyfermentation has been set up. But with blackt ea there is no danger in protracted rolling, and ,in fact

,ferment ation has usually commenced

before t he rolling has been finished. In consequence, t he leaf changes colour t o brown and

assumes its characteristic smell . This is, infact

,t he commencement of t he fermentation ,

which in t he manufacture of black t ea must becontinued for a period of from t w o to six hoursafter roll ing has been finished. For this purpose the rol led leaf is spread ou t on tables oron a special ly prepared floor

,is covered over

with damp cloths,and kept in t he dark. I t

then turns almost black, and takes on t he charact erist ic smel l of made t ea. At this stage itmust be dried off as quickly as possible ; andfor this further process special machinery hasbeen invented

,t o take t he place of t he open

ans formerly used by t he Chinese. The rolledcaf

,spread ou t on trays

,is carried gradually

into a hotter and hotter atmosphere,through

a chamber ermeat ed by hot dry air, so that t hew et leaf (w ether green or black) goes in at oneend

,and comes out at t he other as dry t ea. It is

then S ifted, and thus graded into OrangePekoe‘Pekoe ’, ‘Souchong ’, ‘Congou ’

,

‘Broken Leaf ’,or

‘Dust’. These various grades depend on S ize ;t he unopened buds and leaf tips fal l mainly intot he fineOrange Pekoe hence high -priced teas arenot t he produce of Special plants nor of Skil l inmanufacture, so much as of t he mesh in t he sieve

Teak W ood Teats

that has se arat ed them. From t he Sifters t het ea passes irect into t he boxes laced for itsrecep t ion , and when t he desire weight hasbeen obtained t he lead lining is at once soldereddown , for it is a matter of t he greatest import ance t o preven t t he leaf getting damp and thussetting up destructive fermen tation ( like thatwhich converts wine into vinegar), and t he

soldering down retains in addition t he aromaof t he t ea—ah important result.The most S ignificant lesson of t he story of

t he progression of t ea, manufactured on t he

Indian method, may be said t o be t he victoryof quality,

purity

,and cheapness

,through ma

chinery an scientific agriculture,over anti

quat ed and obstructive methods of hand labour.G. w.

Tea k Woo d is t he timber furnishedby fiheTeak tree (Tectona grand is), a large and loftytree belonging t o t he nat . ord . Verbenaceae

,

which grows sporadically in Southern India,

Burma, S iam , and Java, but has its finest development in Burma. The largest log kn ownt o have been extracted measured 825 ft. long by10 ft. mean girth (Shweli forest, Burma). Ifprotected a ainet j ungle fires

,teak is of very

rapid grow t at first (70ft. high and 1 2 t o 1 5 in .

girth at breast- height in 1 8 t o 20 years), buttakes from 1 50 t o 1 60years in moist forest upt o 1 80 t o 200 in dry forest t o attain the maturedimension of 7 ft. girth measured at 6 ft. aboveground. Teak wood is moderately hard, and

strongly scented with an essential oil (preservative of iron and steel

,hence its special value in

shipbuilding) , dark- golden - yellow when freshlycut, bu t turning brown , then dark - brown

,and

finally almost black with age. The annual ringsare marked w ith one or more lines of regularlyarranged pores

,often set in a belt of loose tissue ;

but in t he rest of t he wood t he pores are scatt ered

, scanty, sometimes subdivided, and variable in size. Themedullary rays are fairly broadand numerous

,and give a handsome silver grain

t o boards cu t radially. When thoroughly sea

soned its average weight is 45 t o 50 lb. per

cubic foot,while its coefficient of transverse

strength varies from 600 t o 800, and its modulus of elasticity from 4000 t o 5000. Felledgreen , teak hardly floats ; hence trees markedfor extraction are kil led or girdled by cuttingentirely through t he narrow ring of white sapwood and wel l into t he brown heartwood

,and

leaving them t o season on t he stump before felling and extracting them by floating down t herivers. Each tree gives on t he average about15 log, and logs average about 60 t o 70 cu. ft.Teak wood is t he chief timber expor t from our

Indian Empire, but it is also very largely usedin India for house and shipbuilding

,bridges,

furniture, &c.

,as the essential oil contained

makes it very durable. Even with t he in t roduction and increase of iron shipbuilding, t he d emand for teak wood has been constantly rising,as also its cost per cubic foot. Timber of largesize from t he virgin forests is now becomingvery scarce ; but in Burma careful measuresare taken t o prevent t he teak forests from beingoverworked, and both in Burma and in Java t helarge plantations that have been continuously

Von. XI.

made during t he last forty years will in timeprovide ample supplies for future use.

[J. N .

Tea t s , Diseas e s o f . Small inj uries, andcomparatively mild diseases l ike cow pock

,are

of much more serious import than would appeart o any but those having practical acquain tancewith animals. N o pimple or abrasion

,no S light

chap orwound however insigpificant

,should be

neglected. Chaps and crac s are of commonoccurrence in winter, and are chiefly caused byleaving t he teat cold and w et after t he stimulation inevitable in stripping t he cow . The calf,the lamb

,and t he pigling, with sharp and early

developed nippers,bring about similar i lls t o

their mothers ; besides which t he smaller animalsand those wi t h pendulous udders receive inj uriesfrom brambles and other wounding materialspresent in rough pastures. The specific erutions are referred t o under but t egeneral treatment for eruptive or other soresmay be considered here. It is important thatthey Should be sterilized with an antiseptic, andsoftened by an emoll ient which shall prove harmless if acciden tally introduced into t he milk pailor conveyed t o t he stomach of t he suckling.Such a lotion may be made by dissolving 1 oz .

of boracic acid and 3 oz . of glycerine in 40“

oz .

of water,of which half can be poured in to a

wide-mouthed pickle bottle of 20- oz . capacity,

and this taken t o t he cow or other large animal,

at blood heat,and used as a bath. After a few

minutes’ immersion t he teat should be drainedbut not dried , so that a glycerinated fi lm formsa protective as well as softening agent. Thismethod is recommended in a general sense forap

plications t o teats . Only severe wounds shoulde sutured or stitched together, as constrictionis t he chief danger when healed, and t he longerprocess of filling up t he Space by granulation isless likely t o result in stricture. The abovebath will be suitable. Leaking teats are generally caused by injury t o t he delicate sphinctermuscle which guards t he entrance. The forcingof milk by heavy - fist ed men operating withdry hands upon heifers is a common cause ; t hemore delicate handling of a maid with moistenedfingers would not have had such a result. Overstocking is another cause. Themuscle sometimesrecovers in a cow long dried off, but where t hefibres are actually ruptured there is either t hepermanent partial paralysis which permits leakage, or a constriction due t o t he cicatrix and

necessitating t he use of t he syphon . A strong

calf wil l often overcome a stu born teat. So

ca lled blind syphons, if carefully u sed, mayserve t o prevent leaking, and w e have knownthin rubber bands successfully employed, bu tthey need t o be carefully j udged as t o t he degreeof pressure, ormischief may be done. Peas ’orlittle bodies inside t he channel of t he teat ohstruct t he flow of milk

,and are dealt with by

pushing aside by t he syphon , or excision bytwisting within t he canal an in strument calleda apillat ome

,which is very like an ordinary

milk syphon with a cutting edge—a substitutet he writer has found very useful . All that isneeded is t o file one S ide. The operator mustboil or otherwise steril ize the instrument, and

1 78 Teaz le Teeth

grasp t he ‘teat with one hand while getting t hecutting edge in to contact w ith t he pea- like body.N o outward application wil l influence thesegrow t hs

,which on examination outside are

found t o have had but a slender attachmentin most cases. Warts are a frequent teattrouble. Those which come in great numbersand have t he appearance of a black oat (or a

white one on some cows) may be individuallystrangled, or removed by t he slower process

,

namely,t he daily application of salicylate col

lodion . [R . L .]T e a z le , a biennial plant grow n for its

flow er- heads, which are used in t he manufac

ture of wool len cloth . See art . DIPSACUS .

Te d d e rs a n d Te d d in g . See art s. H AY

MAKIN G and H AYMAKIN G MACH INERY.

Tee sw a‘t e r Ca t t le . See art . SH ORTH ORN

CATTLE.

Tee t h , De fec t s a n d D isea ses o f‘

.

Diseases and irregularities of t he teeth of our

domesticated animals have not perhaps receivedso much attention as they deserve

,when it is

remembered that defective mastication has far~reaching effects upon t he health and comfort of

Fig. 1 .—Toot h -rasp

t he animals. Among t he irregularities in teething may be mentioned delayed eruption of t heteeth

,or impediments t o their appearance above

t he gums. A s with infants,this trouble gives

rise in ca lves, pigs, and dogs .t o febrile d ist urbance and t o fits

,but .col t s are rarely observed

t o have trouble with their primary teeth . The

milk teeth , as t he primaries are often cal led, arenot such frequent subjects of trouble as t he per

manent ones,and t he sucking period may be

passed through successfully with such a seriousefec t as congenital absence of all t he molars.N umerica l excess or deficiency of teeth is an

evil. Crowding and an irregular arrangementalmost certainly go together. When there are

t oo many incisors in t he colt they will generally be noticed, and t he least desirable onesshould be extracted, when it will be found thatt he others come into l ine without t he dentureor contrivances prescribed for children. Thesesupernumerary teeth sometimes appear far backfrom t he others in t he palate, or placed outsidet he ordinary row ,

and interfering with t he lipsor cheeks and inj uring t he tongue. N umerica lexcess leads t o retention of particles of food

,

which decompose and excite ain and irritation .Mastica tion is diffi cult

, an digestion suffers.M ore or less dribbling of sal iva and droppingof t he food (quidding) is a prominent symptomof this and some other disorders of t he teethand tongue, and should at all times receive at

tention. Deficiency in t he number of t he teethhinders grazing and mastication

,and if t he in

t erden tal 3 aces are abnormal there is also a t endency for t i e food particles t o get fixed betweenthem. Disparity of length is one of t he commonest troubles in horses, and is not infre

quently overlooked in aged cows. A molartooth standing up above t he level of its fellowsprecludes grind ing, and preven t s those lateralmovements essential t o thorough mastication .

The marginal irregularities are easily reducedby t he rasp, if undert aken

'

early , but an ofiend

ing tooth st anding up above t he level must needsbe cut with a special chisel and made t o matchits fellows. An overgrown tooth should not inordinary circumstances be extracted, for reasonwhich wil l be presen t ly stated in connectionwith caries. It is t he outer edge of t he uppermolars and t he inner one of t he lower that aredisposed t o grow ragged

,because they miss t he

attrition which keeps t he tables level . The

good horsemast er wil l examine t he teeth, part icularly t he molars

, at intervals throughoutt he animal’s life. As age advances

,t he lateral

movements are not so free, and marginal irregularit ies may be either cause oreffect . Periodica lrasping is of much value. In t he case of youngstock intended for food, w e have chiefly t o lookfor temporary molars caught between t he permanent ones and interfering with mastication,although frequently having no very strong at

t achment,

or not

enough t o resist t heaction of a pair ofpliers in t he handsof a stockman. Thefront teeth (incisors) of horses and

dogs are not infrequently broken by fal ls—anaccident . which rarely happens t o ruminants ort o pigs

,owing t o t he different arrangement of

t he teeth , t he thick lips, or projecting snout.The molars are occasionally fractured by foreignbodies, as nails and stones which have beenacciden tally taken with t he food. Incisors aregenerally snapped off transversely or obliquely,but molars are apt t o split downwards . The

broken incisor need not necessarily decay or

cause any lasting pain ,but t he grinder split

down into t he fang gives rise t o toothache,as

is quite evident by t he animal’s behaviour. The

food enters t he socket (alveolus), and set s upthose inflammatory conditions and fetid breathwhich accompany overcrowding and abnormalinterdental spaces. A tooth broken vert icallyshould be extracted. A transverse fracture of

an incisor may be treated by breaking it offclose t o t he gum which w il l grow over it. N ot

only does food accumulate in a fractured molar,

but t he tooth decays and emits a particularlyoffensive odour. The changed colour is evi

dence of decay,t he tooth being yellowish - black

,

and quite unlike a normal grinder.Caries.—Decayed teeth are not a common

trouble. Actual caries as seen in t he humansubject is quite rare among stock. When met

with in farm animals it is general ly d ue t o inj uries, and t he chronic inflammation of t he gumscaused by lodgment of food ormorbid conditionsof t he jawbone. The neck of t he tooth is t hecommonest seat of decay, but it may commen cefrom t he fang or t he crown . In t he horse t hefourth molar has been observed t o be t he mostfrequent subject of caries. The process of decay .

is usually slow,except where it commences at

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Teeth Telegony

t he neck of t he tooth. In t he lat ter case it soonappears dead

,and generally becomes loose. The

decayed fang is ap t t o give rise t o abscess in t hejaw and outward swell ing. Decay commencingfrom t he side is what might be expected whent he causes are remembered. If t he crown isfirst or only affec t ed, or t he side is not decayedbelow t he gum, w e are afforded an Opportunityof drilling out t he necrosed material and fillinup t he space with a good amalgam orotherhardstopping. Gutta percha has been successfullyem loyed. The quantity of gold required preclu es its use. In horses and in ruminants t heremoval of a tooth is followed by growth of itsopponent in t he opposite jaw ,

and if not checkedis liable t o pierce t he tissues (see GLEET, N ASAL).The dental troubles of dogs call for some notice.

Overcrowding in t he miniature Pomeranian issometimes t o be seen in t he exaggerated formof a complete double set of both incisors andmolars . All puppies should have their teethexamined for supernumeraries, which are easilyremoved. Before maturity is reached, tartarbegins t o accumulate upon t he tushes, and in

Fig. 2.—Wolf’s Tooth (shown at A)

most dogs incrustations of this substance increase ou all t he teeth as years go on

, until t hegums are pushed back , t he salivary fluid enterst he alveolar cavities

,and a chronic periodontitis

is established : t he teeth are loose,t he gums

inflamed and painful,and t he breath offensive.

If scaled twice a year this may be prevented.

Decayed or loose teeth should always be ex

tracted. P arrot mou th is explained in t he

P late (fig. It occurs in horses and dogs. Ith inders a horse from grazing, although it willbe remembered that he seizes his food with t helips ; and t he subjects of it are apt t o fal l awayif turned ou t t o grass . In t he stable, horseswith parrot mouth learn t o lip and tongue theirfood into a position where t he molars can dealwith it

,and , like t he subjects of fractured jaw ,

acqu ire t he art of sucking up soft food as pigsd o. In bad cases t he incisors of t he lower jawcome in contact with t he palate and inflict ihj ury. The remedy is t o file them down at recurring intervals. Crib biting results in t hewearing down of t he incisors, more particularlyon t he outer edge

,but it does not roduce any

actual disease of t he teeth. W0 ves’ teeth inhorses are t he subject of some su erst it ion ,many persons believing that they lea t o blindness and are a cause of shying. They are ves

t igial remains or imperfect reproductions of

w hat w as once t he seventh molar in equines .When t he t w o first molars are cut

,between t he

second and third year, they are commonly pushedou t . They have not proper fangs , and are easilyextracted wit h ordinary pincers if t he mouthis gagged or held open by another person . Incase of accident to t he tushes, t he general re

1 79

commendation t o extract t he split tooth mustbe accepted with reserve. If loose it wil l bepossible, but in t he usual way these teeth havevery long fangs with some little thickeningabout t he middle

,and a slight bend

,while they

are inserted into an alveolar cavity but thinlycovered by bone. This anatomical arrangementmakes it much easier t o break t he jaw than extract t he tush . In old dogs they eventuallybecome loose. In t he boar there is a modifiedtwist within

,comparable with that outside, and

this makes it advisable t o break off rather thanattempt t he extraction from a savage animalwhose tushes have grown long. A smart blowwith a hammer has t he merit of effecting t hepurpose with less risk of fracture of t he jawthan would accompany any attempt at extraction . H . L .]Te leg o n y .

—Breeders have long bel ievedthat offspring inherit traits from a previousmate of t he dam. When this happens, it issaid t he offspring have thrown back owing t otheir dam having been ‘infected ’by t he formermate. For example, it is sometimes allegedthat a Percheron foal ou t of a mare from whichmules have been bred sometimes, in one or

more points more closely resembles t he previousass sire than t he actual Percheron sire. Thisthrowing back t o an unrelated previous mateof t he dam is now known as telegony. Thoughit is extremely d iflicu lt t o imagine how a mareor other female animal can be so modified thata previous mate may count almost as much as

t he actual sire,naturalists as well as breeders

until a few years ago believed telegony t o bewell within t he bounds of possibilities. H erbertSpencer said he had evidence ‘

enough t o provethe fact of a previous sire asserting his influenceon a subsequen t progeny ’. Darwin

,Agassiz

,

Carpenter,and others were inclined t o believe

in t he ‘infection ’ doctrine, and even Weismannadmitted that t he widespread belief ‘may be

j ustifiable and founded on fact ’. Weismann,

however, added that t he tradition could only beconfirmed and telegony proved by methodicallyconducted experiments. It is assumed that‘infection ’ is due t o material from t he foetuseventually reaching and modifying t he germcells of t he dam

,or t o sperm cells of t he first

mate penetrating but not actually fertilizingunripe germ cells near t he surface of t he ovary.If

,as some say , telegony occurs in birds, it must

be due t o t he unused(ger

m- plasm of t he first

mate being incorporate in t he unripe ova. Inaddition t o assuming that female mammals andbirds are liable t o be ‘corrupted some breedersassume that a male may be

‘infected ’ and bet he means of transferring characters from one

breed t o another. Apparently no one has yet

explained how a Jersey bull might acquire t hepeculiarities of t he Galloway breed and subsequently transfer them t o members of his ow n

breed.

If there is such a thing as‘infection ’, it

follows : ( 1 ) that pure- bred females are liable t obe ‘corrupted ’when they produce offspring t omales of a different race or breed ; and (2) thatcross- bred and inferior females, if first matedwith a high - class sire

, may subsequently pro

1 80

duce superioroffspring t o inferiorsires. Breedersof dogs have adhered more firmly t o t he ‘infec

tion ’ doctrine than have breeders of horses,sheep, or cattle. Some years ago almost everydo - breeder bel ieved that he knew of severalun oub ted cases of ‘infection ’; but since SirEverett M illais assert ed that after nearly thirt yyears’ experience (during wh ich he made all

sorts of experiments) he had never seen a caseof telegony, fan ciers have not been so certainthat ‘infection ’ is common some even al legethat there is no such thing as telegony.The writer made numerous experiment s withdogs without obtain ing any evidence in supportof telegony, and he has heard of many undesigned experimen t s which , though afl

'

ordingexcellent opp

ortun ities for ‘infection ’, failed t osupport t he elief in telegony.On t he Continen t and in America manybelieved that mares used for breeding mul eswere so saturated with t he characteristics oft he ass, that they were incapable of producin ga pure foal to a. stallion of their ow n breed.Darwin mentions that farmers in South Brazil

are convinced that mares whi ch have onceborne mules, when subsequently put t o horses,are extremely l iable t o produce colts striped likea mule ’. On t he other hand, Baron de Paranaof Braz il recently wrot e : ‘I have many relat ives and friends who have large establishment sfor t he rearing of mules, where they obtainfrom four hundred t o a thousand mules in a

year. In all these establishment s, after t w o or

three crossings of t he mare and ass, t he breederscause t he mare t o be put t o a horse, yet a ure

bred foal has never been produced resem lineither an ass ora mule.

’ Thewriter failed t o finany evidence in t he West Indies or in Mexicothat mares used formule- breedin g are liable t obe ‘corrupt ed ’.Those w ho believe in the doctrine of ‘infec

tion ’ rest their case mainly on experimentsmade by Lord Mort on during t he early rt oflast century. A chestnu t mare importe fromIndia, after having a quagga hybrid, producedto a black Arabian horse a richly striped fil lywith (according t o t he stud groom) a short st ifi

'

uprigh t mane. The writer has in his possessiont w o Arab- pony crosses more richly striped thant he filly ou t of Lord Morton’s chestnut mare ;hence t he stripes on t he filly cannot be regardedas evidence of ‘infectionAs it happens, t he evidence from t he mane is

also far from convincing, for in a. drawing of

t he fi l ly in question by A gasse, a very reliableanimal aint er, t he mane is represen t ed as lyingt o one S ide of t he neck. Even an upri ht manein t he filly would not su ply irrefraga le roofof ‘infection ’, for in a ay Arab mare o t he

S iwalik ’ type bred by t he writer t he mane inspring is short and upri ht . Further, in a

Welsh—Shetland pony an in a Faroe Islandpony t he mane is only lon enough t o arch t ot he side of t he neck as in 26 ra hybrids.Some years ago t he writer repeated as accu

rat ely as possible Lord Morton’s experiment.Seventeen mares, after having hybrids by a

Burchel l z ebra, produced twenty - three foal s byAra b and otherpony stall ions. N ot one of these

Telegony Temperature

foals afforded evidence of infect ion by t herichly etri ed hog-maned previou s sire. Experiments w it sheep and cat tle, rabbit s and mice,fowls and pigeons, like those with dogs and

horses, entirely failed t o prove that t he,

firstsire has any influence on offspring obtained bysubsequent sires. Breeders may hence in futuredisregard t he in fection } doctrine. [J . c. s .]Tem p e ra t u re .

—N o bodies are said t obe at t he same t emperature when , on bringingthem int o contact

,no heat passes from one t o

t he other. Ordinary observation is apt t o givevery false ideas of temperature in many cases.For in stance, if an iron implement with a woodenhandle is left ou t all night in cold weather, t heiron part wil l seem much colder t o t he touchthan t he wood, because the hand will part withits heat more quickly t o t he good conduct or,t he iron

,than t o t he poor conductor

,t he wood.

Temperature has therefore to be determined byt he

pr

ppert ies of inanimat e substances. Tw o

stan a temperatures in common use are thatat which ice melts and that at whi ch water boilsun der a standard barometric pressure. Wh ena. quantity of finely powdered ice is allowed tomelt slowly with constant stirring, t he ice itselfand t he water surrounding it are in equi libriumas t o t em erat ure, so that this remains un

changed, t e heat absorbed from t he environment bein g used up in melting t he ice ; cousequently a thermometer immersed in t he mixtureshows a steady const an t t emperat ure, which isreckoned as 32° on t he Fahrenheit sca le and 0

°

on t he Centigrade. Wh en water is boiling in anopen vessel with t he baromet er standing at thestandard height, t he water and t he steam are

at an identica l temperature, which is reckonedas 21 2

°on t he Fahrenheit sca le and 100° on t he

Centigrade. These t wo poin ts are fixed,it wil l

be seen, entirely by t he properties of water,being t he t emperature at which solid water isin equilibrium with t he liquid phase, and thatat which t he pressure of water vapour is equalt o the standard pressure of t he atmosphere. Int he Centigrade sca le this interval is dividedinto 100equal parts or degrees, marked from 0°t o whilst in t he Fahrenheit thermometerthe interval is d ivided int o 1 80degrees, whichare numbered from 32° to It follows that0°C. 32

°F.

,and 100

°C. 21 2

°F. H ence

t he rule : t o convert Centigrade degrees intoFahrenheit, multiply by 1 8 organd add 32.

To convert Fahrenheit degrees into Centigrade,

first subtract 32, then multiply by gor divideby 1 8 . A more convenient formula is based onthe fact that 40

°C. is t he same as 40

°F.

,

therefore t o any temperature above z ero add40, then multiply by 9 and divide by 5 t o con

vert degrees C. into degrees F., or multiply by

5 and ivide by 9 t o convert degrees F. intodegrees C.

,as the case may be, and finally sub

tract 40. Thus,t o convert 20° C. into Fahren

heit, 20 40 60, 60 x 9 5 40, 5 40 5

108 , 108 40 68. The required answer is68

°F. To convert 5 9° F. into Centigrade, 5 9

99 x 5 5 5 , 5 5

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1 82 Tenancy

(6) The opening orworking of any coal , ironstone, limestone, brick earth , or other mineral, or of a stone quarry

,clay, sand, or

gravel it, or t he construction of any worksor buil ings t o be used in connection therewith ;

road, siding, canal , or basin , or any wharf,pier, or other work connected therewith ;

An d t he notice states that it is given with a

view t o any such useit shall

,by virt ue of this Act, be no objection

t o t he notice that it relates t o part only of t heholding.’The notice may be served on a Sunday, andneed not be served personally. It is sufficientif it be sent by post, or delivered at t he dwelling

- house into t he hands of a servant, whoseduty it is t o deliver it t o t he person for whomit is intended. It has even been held t o besuflicien t t o leave t he notice in a letter - box or

push it under t he door, but such methods ofservice are obviously not t o be recommended.Personal service or by registered letter obviatesall d ifficulties as t o proof of due notice.

3 . Forfeiture—A lease may be determined byentry orejectment by t he landlord on account oft he tenant’s breach of some covenant in t he lease,or implied thereunder, but only if there be a

condition in t he lease providing for such re- entry.

Thus t he tenan t ’s bankruptcy or fail ure t o makedue payment of t he rent may be made t he

grounds of forfeiture. In t he case of non -

payment of rent a formal demand for payment byt he landlord is a condition precedent, unless t helease, as is usual, provides for re- entry withoutt he necessity for a formal demand. Moreover,if half a year’s rent is in arrear, and no sufl‘icien t

distress is t o be found on t he premises, a formaldemand is rendered unnecessary by t he previsions of t he Common Law Procedure Act

,1 8 5 2

( 1 5 1 6 Vic. c. 76,sect.

Dea th, orDestruct ion of thePremises—A leaseis not terminated by t he death of either t helandlord or tenant, t he rights and obligationsthereunder vesting in their respective personalrepresen t atives.Destruction of t he premises does not of itselfdetermine t he tenancy. But in leases it is usualt o stipulate that t he destruction of t he buildingsby fire or other inevit able accident shal l absolvet he tenant from his obligation t o pay rent.H old ing Oven—Where a tenant

,at t he t er

mination of his lease, does not peaceably handover t he premises t o t he landlord

,he becomes

liable in payment of double t he yearly value of

t he premises for t he time during which he holdsthem over ; though this is not necessarily equivalent t o double rent it is general ly estimatedas such . But, in order t o incur this liabil ity

,

( 1 ) he must be holding over t he premises wilfully

,t’

.e. without ‘a fair and reasonable claimof title and (2) there must be a demand madeand notice in writing given by t he landlordfor del ivering t he possession . A notice t o quitpreviously given , if in writing, is a suflicien t

compliance with this condition .

SCOTLAND—Apart from vol untary renuncia

tion of t he contract, t he usual modes in whicha lease is terminated are : ( 1 ) by effl ux of time,or by t he occurrence of a break in t he lease infavour of either landlord or tenant or both,advantage of which is taken ; (2) by t he occurrence of an irritancy, statutory or conventional ;(3) by destruction of t he premi ses.1 . Efi ua: of Time, &c.

—The tenant is boundt o remove from t he premises at t he period fixedfor t he termination of t he tenancy in termsof t he lease. This obligation is usually madean express term of t he lease. If there is anexpress written obligation t o this effect eithercontained in t he lease or in some other document, and if t he obligation is dated within t he

year of removal, no notice t o quit is required.If, however, t he obligation is dated beyond t heyear of removal, or if there is no such obliga»

tion contained in t he lease, then notice to quitis in all cases necessary t o enable t he landlordt o eject t he tenant. Apart from stipulation

,

t he shortest notice permissible is forty daysbefore t he term of removal. Usually

,however

,

t he period of notice is expressed in t he lease,and if so t he term mentioned must be adheredt o. It is t o be noted that where t he intimationhas t o be given a certain number of days beforet he term of Whitsunday or Martinmas

,t he

date from which t he period is computed will bet he 1 5 t h of May or t he 1 1 t h of N ovember as t hecase may be, since t he provisions of t he R emovalTerms (Scotland) Act, 1 886, do not aflect t he

legal terms for t he purpose of ca lculating t hedates at which notice of removal requires t o begiven. Failing due notice having been given

,

a lease for a year or a longer period wil l berenewed by tacit relocation for one year, andthereafter from year t o year until proper noticehas been given by either arty t o t he lease. Alease for a shorter periof is prolonged for t helike period

,and so on from period t o period till

notice be given. In t he case of agriculturalholdings

,it is provided by the Agricultural

H oldings (Scotland) Act, 1 908 , sect . 1 8 , as follows : ( 1 ) N otwithst anding t he expiration of t hestipulated endurance of any lease, t he tenancyshal l not come t o an end unless written noticehas been given by eit her party t o t he other ofhis intention t o bring t he tenancy t o an end

(a) in t he case of leases for three years andupwards, not less than one year nor more thant w

gyears before t he termination of t he lease ;

an

(0) in t he case of leases from year t o year, orfor any other period less than three years

, not

less than six months before t he termination oft he lease.

(2) Fail ing such notice by either party, t he

lease shal l be held t o be renewed by tacit relocation for another year, and thereafter fromyear t o year.It is believed that in t he case of a lease

renewed by tacit relocation t he notice whichwil l be requisite t o bring it t o a termination i ssix months. In t he case of a break being st ipulated for in t he lease

,it is invariably t he case

that notice of t he intention to avail of t he breakis conditioned in t he lease

, and in such circumstances t he notice stipulated formust be given .

Tenancy Tenant Farmer

2. Imi tancies.—A n irritancy is t he deter

mination of a lease on account of t he breach ofa condition in ferring t he right t o bring t he leaset o an end

, either by virtue of the common lawor by reason of a special condition t o that effectin t he lease. Such irritan cy may be either legalor conventional.( 1 ) Lega l In i tancies.—A t common law an irritaney is incurred by t he non ayment Of rentfor t wo successive years, and t is irritancy hasbeen made statutory by t he A ct of Sederunt of1 75 6. But in t he case of agricultural holdingst he law is now regulated by t he AgriculturalH oldings (Scotland) Act, 1908, sect. 1 7, whichprovides as follows z(a) When six months’ rent of t he holding is

due and unpaid, it shall be lawful for the landlord t o raise an action of removing before t hesheriff against t he tenant

,concluding for his

removal from t he holding at the term of Whitsunday or Martinmas next ensuing after t heaction is brought ; and , unless t he arrears of rentthen d ue are paid or caution is found t o t he

satisfaction of t he sherifl'

for t he same,and for

one year’s rent further, t he sheriff may decernt he tenant t o remove, and eject him at suchterm in t he same manner as if t he lease weredet ermined, and t he tenant had been legallywarned t o remove(b) A tenant so removed shall have t he rights

of an outgoing tenant t o which he would havebeen entitled if his lease had naturally expiredat such term ofWhitsunday orMartinmas.(2) Conven tional Irritancies.

—A n irritantclause may be made a condition of t he breachof almost any obligation in a lease provided itis inserted in t he deed, but t he most usual irrit ancies are those which a

pply either t o non

payment Of rent or t o t he ankrupt cy or insolvency of a tenant. In t he case of non - paymentof ren t t he object of inserting an express irrit ancy is t o enable t he landlord t o eject histenant at an earlier period than he could apartfrom agreement. But in t he case of agricul

tural subjects, this object is t o all in tent s andpurposes attained by t he clause above quoted,although a conventional irri tancy may be of usein t he case of other subjects.It is t he usual practice in all leases t o insert

a clause entitling t he landlord t o resume possession of t he lands in t he event of t he bankruptcyor declared insolvency of the tenant.P urgation.

—In the case Of all legal irritancies,it is a rule of law that t he party in breach isentitled t o purge t he irritancy by making payment of t he arrears due and finding caution fora portion of t he rent t o become d ue, providedthis be done before extract of the decree. Afterextract has been taken, purgation comes toolat e. In t he case of conventional irritancies, ont he other hand, it is a set tled rule of law thatthey cannot be pur ed , although t he Court maystep in t o prevent t e misuse of t he power.3 . Destruct ion of the Premises.

—In the case of

total destru ction of the premises t he lease comesto an end . Where t he destruction is partialand t he landlord offers t o restore, it is a question depending upon t he circumstances of eachcase whether t he tenant is entit led t o abandon

1 83

t he lease or bound t o continue in t he tenancysubject t o an abatemen t of rent. See underLEA SEs.

Dea th—The lease is not affected by t he deathof landlord or tenant, but in t he case of agricu ltural subjects special provision is made fort he bequest of t he lease by t he tenant. See

under AGR ICULTURAL H OLDIN GS A CTs.

Violent Profi ts—Where a tenant who has

been duly warned t o quit t he premises cont inues in occupation of them without title aftert he ex iry of t he tenancy, he incurs liability t oenal damages , known as violent profits. It is,ow ever, a good defence t o a claim for violentprofits that t he defender was ossessing in goodfait h. In bur hs

,violent profits are, by custom,

estimated as ouble t he rent, but in other subject s as t he highest rofit which t he landlordcan prove he could ave made either by possessing t he lands himself or by letting them t oanother tenant. [D. B .]Te n a n t . See arts. LEASE ; AGR ICULTURAL

H OLDIN GS ACTS .

Te n a n t Fa rm er.—For t he purposes ofcultivation t he landlord lets ou t his land t ofarmers, w ho are ca lled tenants’, and t he agreement which guarantees the exclusive possessionof t he farm or holding for a limited time isca lled a

‘lease ’. The consideration for which

t he lease is granted is cal led t he ‘rent’. The

occu iers of land may be : ( 1 ) tenants for life,in w ich case they cannot be deprived of theirfarms so long as they live ; or (2) tenants onsuffrance or tenants at will , in which case t he

landl ord may resume possession of his farm at

any time. But more generally tenancies arebetween these two extremes and are either : (3 )from year t o year, or (4) for a period of years,probably 1 5 , 1 9, or 21 . The lease for 1 5 t o 21years—but commonly nowadays with rovisionfor earlier termination , say at t he en of 5 or

10years should either party wish it—is almostuniversal in Scotland and very general in t henorth of England, but t he yearly tenancy is byfar t he most common form of land tenure int he majority of t he counties in England. Theadvan tages of leases of considerable durationmust be Obvious both t o landlord and tenant,securing as they do, from t he poin t of viewof t he former, that t he places wil l be properlycultivated, and from t he point of view of t hetenan t that he will have a reasonable chancet o secure the fruits of his toil

, and a return forhis outlay. Many landlords, however, feel thatby yearly tenancies they retain more fully t hecontrol of their own land, and tenants generallysuppose that low rents accompany t he shorterand more uncertain agreements. As a generalrule, however, it may be said that short leasesdo not tend t o encourage good farming

, andthere is Often only t oo little inducement for an

outsider to covet possession of such holdings,

and hence t he occu ants are left undisturbed.

In England and cotland there is no ‘fixit yof tenure ’

of farms, that is, t he landlord hasthe undisputed right t o bring t he tenant’s occupat ion of a farm to an end when his leaseexpires. In Ireland, fixit y of tenure was securedt o tenant s by Land Acts passed in t he later

1 84

years of t he past cent ury . The AgriculturalH oldings Act of 1 908 (England and Scotland),however, has provided for compensat ion for dist urbance under certain conditions and reservations in t he event of a landlord terminatin ga. tenancy where t he t enant wished t o remainin possession (see art . AGR ICULTURAL H OLDIN GSACTS ). But some of the expressions in t he A ct—and especially this : ‘Where t he landlord of

a hold ing, without good and suflicien t cause,and for reasons inconsistent with good estatemanagement, terminates t he tenancy’—seemcapable of very different interpretations, and an

authoritative decision by a Supreme Court willsooner or later have t o be got , t o show whethert he whole clause which provides for compen

sation for disturbance is more than an illusion .

As regards t he improvement s a tenant mayhave made on his holding during t he currencyof his lease—however short—he has compensation fully secured for him. Of this compensation t he

. tenant cannot deprive himself by‘contracting ou t ’, and t he measure of all suchcompensation is t o be such a

‘sum as fairlyrepresents t he value of t he improvements t oan incoming tenant ’. [W. B .]Te n a n t R ig h t —In its broadest sense t heterm ‘tenant right’means t he right of a tenantt o t he usufruct of t he subject of t he tenancyunder various conditions

,t he chief of which is

t he payment of rent, which in ancient times, inrelation t o land, consisted of service, a portionof t he produce

,or money. It is Obvious, how

ever, that t he com lete usufruct of land involves much more t n t he mere takin g Of itsannual produce ; for some degree of security oftenure and a right t o t he tenant t o dispose of

or be paid for t he fruits of his enterprise and

labour not realized at t he termination of his

tenancy are also necessary.The earl iest example of legalized tenant right

of which there is any historical record is t o befound in t he emphyteusis of t he ancient R omanEmpire, and it is curious t o notice that thistenure embodied t he most perfect as well as theearliest example. In his Introduction to R omanLaw (Maxwel l Son

,London

,1 880) t he late Pro

fossor H unter defines emphyteusis as ‘a gran t

of land for ever,or for a long period, on t he

condition that an annual rent (canon) shall bepaid t o t he ran t or and his successors, and that,if t he rent ie not paid

, t he grant shal l be forfeited’. The same writer expresses t he opinionthat this tenure may be traced t o t he long or

perpetual leases of land taken in w ar ranted) y t he R oman S tate, and that it speefiily re

commended itself t o corporations,ecclesiast ical

and municipal,as a convenient method of re

lievin themselves of t he management of theirlande estates

,and later on to individual pro

priet ors. Maine,in his Ancient Law ,

ascribest he init iation of t he tenure t o t he R oman municipalit ies, and subsequently traces another syst em of tenant right t o a further developmentof t he transformation of servility into freedom .

H e states that t he firs t mention in R oman history of estates larger than could be farmed bya paterfamilias, with his household of sons andslaves

,occurs when w e come t o t he holdings of

Tenant R ight

t he Roman patricians. These reat proprietors’

,

he adds,

‘appear t o have had no Idea of any

system of farming by free tenants. Their lat ifundia seems t o have been universally cultivatedby slave gangs under bail iffs, who were themselves slaves Or freedmen .’ But this syst em w asespecially disadvantageous t omunicipalities, and ,accordingly

,it is recorded that these corpora

tions began t he system of leasing land for a

perpetuity t o a free tenant at a fixed rent undercertain conditions. Later on

,t he system, as has

been stated, was adopted extensively by privatelandowners, and , in course of time, t he tenant,whose relation t o t he owner had original ly beendetermined by his contract, was recognized byt he Praetor as having acquired a qualified propriet orship . The ownership Of t he grantor oft he lease, however, w as kept alive by a powerof re- entry on non - payment of rent, a right ofpre

- emption in case of t he sale of t he tenancy,and a cert ain cont rol over t he methods of cult ivat ion . Subject t o these rights, the tenantenjoyed fixit y of tenure at a fixed rent, and t hepower of free sale. The landl ord w as obligedt o accept any purchaser of t he tenant rightas a tenant, unless he chose t o exercise hisprivilege of purchasing it at t he price ofl

'

ered .

An al t ernative transformation of servile tenuret o freedom is referred t o by Maine as havinglaid t he foundation of t he M étayage systemof tenancy which stil l prevails ext ensively insouthern Europe.

It would have been a fortunate thin for thiscountry if t he R oman example had een fol

lowed when feudal servitude in relation t o landwas transformed into commercial freedom. The

only parallel t o t he R oman emphyt eusis adoptedin Great Britain during t he period of transformation consisted in t he ado t ion of the copyhold system

,which embodie many forms of

inj ustice and some abominat ions t oo shamefult o ment ion for enerat ions after its initiation .As t o t he early arm leases, it w as found necessary in t he reign of H enry VIII t o pass an A ct

(32 H enry VIII,ch. 28) t o prevent t he eviction

of holders of leases for years, or even for l ives,on t he deaths Of t he lessors, which had becomea crying abuse. This statute for t he first timemade leases good in law against t he lessors,their wives, heirs, and successors.

Inst ead of encouraging tenants t o improvetheir farms, by giving them security , the landlords for generations after farm leases becamecommon succeeded in get ting laws passed t oreduce such security ; and even up t o t he present time t he maxim, Qu icquid p lan ta tur solo

,

solo cedit , established by t he S tatute of Glou

oester (6 Edw . I), has not been annulled t o anyconsiderable extent, except in relation t o tradefixtures, including commercial hothouses, andtrees and bushes in market ardens and allotments. At one time

,indee an agricultural

tenant was actually prohibited from erectingor improving buildin gs necessary for farmint o ful l advantage, Operations absurdly includedunder t he term ‘waste’ in legal documents.A later exam le of t he short sighted policy oflandlords whi e they held t he supreme power ofmaking or suggesting the laws of the country,

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1 86

Committee, appoint ed in 1 848 , with Mr. Puseyas chairman , t o t ake evidence upon t he agricultural cust oms Of England and Wales in relation t o tenant right. A large number of wi tnesses from different counties were examined,and a great preponderance of t he evidence w asin favour, not only of legislation

,but also of

a compulsory law t o secure t o tenants t he valueof their im rovement s. Still

,t he Committee re

ported in avour of only permissive legislation ,and Mr. P usey’s Bil l was made permissive. Inthat useless form it w as passed by t he Commons,on ly t o be rejected by t he Lords ; but t he passing of a measure known as t he Emblements Act,giving t o tenants t he right of removing buildings and fixtures erected with t he consent oftheir landlords , has been attributed t o t he infl uence of Mr. P usey’s Committee. M ore important w as t he arousing of public interest int he subject, which thereafter became a topicfor discussion by farmers’ associations and int he P ress.In 1 850 the Irish Tenan t League w as estab

lished , with t he object of legalizing t he UlsterCustom and extending it all over Ireland. Bu t

no argument or agitations on this subject affect ed t he legislators of that time

,as is show n by

t he actual ly retro rade character of the Landlord and Tenant Ireland) Act of 1 860, which,for one thing

,made contract supreme, and at

tempted t o annul considerations of tenure, although t he report of t he Devon Commission of1 844 had insisted upon t he need of j ustly defining and regulating t he respective claims oflandlord and tenants t o property in t he soil.The Act w as inoperative

,except so far as it

repealed certain barbarous laws of t he past.In 1 870w as assed t he Irish Land Act of thatdate

,which le t he w ay t o a complete revolu

tion in t he land tenure of Ireland. It legalizedt heUlsterCustom and any similar custom provedt o be in existence outside Ulster, and providedfor compensation for disturbance of tenancy andt enants’ improvements, as well as for t he ur

chase by tenant s of their holdings,while ot er

wise mitigating some of t he abuses of t he landsystem in Ireland. Bu t it w as faulty and de

fect ive in many respects,and t he need of further

legislation soon became apparent.In consequence of t he eviction from theirfarms, under circumstances of great injustice,of Mr. George H ope of Fenton Barns and Mr.

Saddler of Ferrygat e, Mr. James H oward,in

1 872,gave notice of calling t he att ention of the

H ouse of Commons t o t he insecurity Of tenantfarmers’ capital and t he public disadvantagethereby occasioned. As t he ress of publicbusiness prevented Mr. H owar from bringingforward his motion

,he t ook t he advice of Mr.

C. S . R ead, and gave notice that he would introduce a Bill t o amend t he Law of Landlord andTenant in England. In conj unct ion with Mr.

R ead he prepared t he Landlord and Tenant Bil lwhich he introduced in 1 873 . I t w as an excellen t measure

,compulsory in principle

,and it

secured t he support of some important agricu ltural associations, as wel l as a great many Members Of Parliament. But Mr. H oward was il lwhen t he date for its second reading arrived

,

Tenant R igh t

and t he Bill was dro ped . If he and Mr. R eadhad agreed t o omi t 81 8 compulsory clause fromit, there would not have been any difficulty ingetting it through t he H ouse of Commons ; butt o this they unhesitatingly refused t o consent.That they were right was proved when t he Dukeof R ichmond’s permissiveAgricultural H old ingsBil l of 1 875 , ‘

a homily to landlords ’ as it w asproperly ca lled, had become law , as evidenceshowed that it w as almost entirely inoperative.

The Farmers’Al liance,founded in 1 879, gave

a

great impetus t o t he tenant- right agitation ,

an published t he draft of a Land Bill of a moreadvanced character than any measure yet passedfor England or Scotland

,though some of it s

provisions have since been embodied in Actsof Parliament. I t provided for free sa le of

improvements, with a suffi ciency of fixit y of

tenure t o prevent t he confiscation of purchasedim rovemen t s by means of an advanced rent

,

an gave freedom of cultivation and sale Of pro

duce,besides arranging for t he paymen t of tithe

compulsorily by landlords,and t he division of

rat es between landlord and tenant in England,

as in force in Scotland.In 1 88 1 t he Land Law (Ireland) Act w as

passed,securing t o tenant s fixity of tenure

,free

sale, and rents valued by a land court, and ex

tending t he provisions of t he Act of 1 870 forenabling tenants t o purchase their holdings.This measure resulted in a great reduc t ion of

rents ; but in some respects its operation was

marred by complications and compromising provisions. Further legislation , a rt from t he

Arrears of R ent A ct of 1 882 an t he R edemption of R ent Act of 1 891 , w as mainly in t hedirection Of land purchase

,provided for in t he

Acts of 1 885,1 887, 1 888 , 1 889, 1 891 , 1 896, 1 901 ,

and 1 903 . Under this legislation a tenant isenabled t o acquire t he fee Sim le of his holdingby payment of an annual sum

Iiess than his ren tfor a specified number of years.It w as not till eight years after t he abortiveAgricultural H oldings (England) Act had passedthat t he semi - compulsory Act of 1 883 w as

brought forward. I t w as only semi - compulsory,because agreemen t s providing for ‘fair and

reasonable compensation ’ were'

allowed t o besubstitut ed for compensation under t he Act.As t he measure w as framed

,this alternative

proved advan tageous, for numbers of tenantswere able t o make terms with their landlordsmore satisfact ory than t he result s of t he settlement of claims and counterclaims by arbitrators.Moreover

,apart from draining, for which only

notice was required, it w as only temporary improvemen t s which could be carried ou t withoutt he landlord’s consent. The Act mitigated t heharshness of t he Law of Distress

,and improved

tenants’ rights as t o fixtures. But it did no

thing towards securing freedom of cultivationand sale of produce. Besides

,like all tenant

right measures forGreat Britain carried up t ot he present time, t he Act provided for com

pensat ion for improvement s only by means of

arbitration , w hic will never give satisfactoryresult s. In t he reat majority of cases triedunder this and S11 sequent Acts t he tenant hasput in a claim

,and his landlord a counterclaim ,

Tenant R ight Tenebrio molitor

and t he arbitration has resulted in t he al lowanceof a portion of each, wit h small advantage toeither party after t he payment of expenses.In 1 890 a short Act w as passed t o prevent

gross inj ustice perpetrated in a few instancesy mortgagees taking ossession of farms

,and

repudiat ing t he land lorgs’l iabilities for improvements. A special Act t o protect t he improvement s of market gardeners w as carried in 1 895 .

A great part of its intended benefit w as annulledby a legal j udgment ; but this was rectified bya short amending Act.The great merit of t he Agricultural H oldings

A ct Of 1 900was t he abolition of penal rents forbreaches or non - fu lfilmen t of covenants

,except

ing those relating t o breaking - up permanentpasture, grubbing underwoods, felling, cutting,lopping, or inj uring trees

,or regulating t he

burning of heather. These exceptions,which

ought equally with other breaches of covenants

t o ave been left t o be settled by arbitration,

detracted from t he benefit of t he Act. Thismeasure, like t he A c t of 1 883

,contained t he

absurd stipulation that in estimating t he valueof a tenant’s improvements

,no account should

be t aken of what is j ustly due t o t he inherentcapabilities of t he soil ’. These capabilities areprecisely what t he tenant ays for in rent, andit is their development w ich constitutes hisimprovements

,SO far as t he soil is concerned.

The proviso, however, has not affected al lowauces for im rovemen t s

,simply because these

have always Ibeen based upon ex end it ure, in

stead of upon t he declared princip e of t heActs,which is value t o an incom ing tenant.The Agricultural H oldings Act of 1906 is notable for giving t o t he tenant a claim t o damagedone t o his crops by game which he has not

a right t o kill,for defin itely securing t o him

freedom of cropping and sale of produce, forroviding for compensation for unreasonabledisturbance, for dispensing with t he landlord’sconsent t o t he execution of certain permanentimprovements , and for giving a right t o landlord or t enant t o insist at t he commencementof a tenancy upon a record of t he condition of

t he farm and all that is upon it and its state of

cultivation. This record would be a means offacilit at in cla ims foraccumulated fertility, nowgenerally (

giisallow ed by arbitrators.

The whole of t he A ricult ural H oldings Actsand t he Market Gar eners Acts for Englandand Scotland respectively were consolidated inActs passed in 1 908 . In s it e of t he amendments of t he earlier Acts em odied in t he morerecen t measures

,they cannot be regarded as

settling t he t enant - right question . N othingshort of the right of a tenant t o sell his tenancyin t he open market, with pre- emption t o t he

landlord, will do that. Such a right wouldneed t o be safeguarded by provisions as t o

reasonable ermanence of tenure and t he pre

ven t ion of t e confiscation of t he purchase pricein a. rise of rent. This is objected t o as

‘dualownership ’; but where t he

(pro

pe

rtie

sof tw o

persons are inextricably mixe in t he soil, theremust be dual ownership or confiscation . Suchabuses of t he system as have prevailed in Ireland could be prevented by wel l- considered pro

1 87

visions. The system,which has worked wel l in

t he Evesham district under voluntary arrangements

,is t he only one which allows perfect

liberty t o t he tenant t o improve his farm t o

t he utmos t profitable extent without inj usticeor hardship t o his landlord. The former, as heshould, would take all risks of t he results of hisenterprise being unprofitable, and he would thenbe entitled t o t he fu ll advantages of successfulventures. See also arts. LA N D

,LAND TEN URE,

IR ISH LAN DACTS,and AGR ICULTURAL H OLDIN GS

ACTS . [W. E. B .]Te n d o n s , Disea ses o f a n d In j u ries

t o .—The diseases Of tendons are chiefly those

caused by overstrain orextension, tendons beingin themselves inelastic

,and any undue elon

gat ion by force resulting in t he rupture Of someof their fibres. Their attachments t o bone maybe torn away

,and themselves put ou t of action

by having no hold. Friction and in j ury t o t endons occurs from adventitious growths

,as when

splints form in a backward direction upon t hecannon bones and present rough surfaces againstwhich they must come in contact in their naturalplay. They become infiltrated by inflammationoccurring in t he tissues surrounding them

,and

undergo some degree of soften ing,but on t he

whole are remarkably resistant t o communicat ed disease, unless it takes t he character of inflammat ion of a joint or ossific deposits. Whenchronic navicular disease exists

,t he insertion

of t he tendon into t he bone is often found degenerate. Thorns and other sharp bodies entert he substance of a tendon and cause swellingand inflammation

,and it is often difficult t o

find them. Contraction of t he tendons is t hecause of bent front legs

,and inability t o place

t he heels of hind feet upon t he ground . Anoperation known as tenotomy

,by which t en

dons are divided,is sometimes performed ; bu t

having regard t o the long time occupied in repair and t he indifferent material substituted

,it

is of doubtful value, and t he diffi culty is commouly met by special shoes which enable t heanimal t o work for a length of time withoutain

,and perhaps without further contraction

Esce TEN OTOMY). [R . L .]Te n e b rio m o l it o r, Linn . ( the Meal - wormBeetle), generates in flour

,bran

, and meal - bins,

Tenebriomolitor

1 , Adul t beetle (natural siz e) ; 2, beet le flying (magnified) ;3 , larva ; 4, pupa.

and is consequently found in granaries,mills

,

and farmhouses. The beetles appear in April,

1 88

M ay , and June. They are smooth,slightly de

pressed, and of a pit chy or ches t nut colour headsomewhat orbicular, with t w o small eyes, andshort, slender, eleven - jointed antennae ; elytrae l l iptica l, with sixteen shallow furrows, and beneat h them ample wings, which are smoky on

t he costa ; legs stout ; tarsus five- jointed, hinderpair with only four join t s. The meal - worm iscylindrical , smooth, ochreous, with bright, rustybands

,and a few scattered hairs ; t wo small

horns, six pect oral legs, and t w o minute spinesat t he t ail. It much resembles a large and ratherflat wireworm. Th e pupa is pale-ochreous

,with

t he members visible, and t w o spines at t he tai l .Cleanliness is t he best preventive. The mealworm is a favouri te food of nightingales.

Ten e b ro id es m a u rit a n ic a ( t he Ca

delle).—This im orted insect is sometimes foundin granaries ansmal t - houses in England, butit requires a more southern cl imate t o renderit abundant. The larvae feed on stored corn ,bread

,almonds, rotten floors, and dead trees.

They live in this state a year and a half,and

when ful l - grown are sometimes nearly2in . long.They are flatt ened

,fleshy

,rough

,with scattered

hairs, and whitish, tapering towards t he head,formed of twelve distinct se ments besides t hehead, which is horny and lack ; t he tail ishorny

,with t wo hooks. They

pupate in t he

earth or amongst any refuse at and ; and t he

beetle which hatches from them is t he T. maurit anious of Linnaeus, and t he T. caraboides of

Fabricius. It is depressed, shining, and of a

pitchy or deep - chestnut colour, and regularlypunctured ; t he head is large, with strong jaws,t w o smal l eyes

,and t w o Short clubbed antennae ;

elytra large,el liptica l

,with eighteen del icately

punctured l ines. The t arsi are four- jointed.The beetles are longlived

,and are said t o be

carnivorous,destroying t he corn mot hs

, &c .

[J . c .]Te n o t om y .

—The division of a tendon, asa remedy for t he deformity resulting from itscontraction , is ca lled tenotomy, and is practisedin cases where t he heel cannot be put t o t heground. It has been tried as a remedy forstringha lt , but with no great advantage. N ew

tendon does not fi ll t he space between t he

divided ends, and t he fibrous substitute is lacking in strength. N evertheless there are caseswhere division of t he erforans and p erfora tnstendons have restored ti e subjects of deformi tyand lameness t o prolonged usefulness in labournot requiring fast paces. See TENDON S

,DIS

EASES OF . [H . L.]Te n t Ca t e rp illa rs , a general name applied t o those larvae which form on trees tentl ike nests of silk beneath which they shelter.By far t he commonest and most destructive ist he Lackey M oth Caterpil lar (Clim

'

ocampa neus

tria), though in some di stricts t he larvae of t he

Brown - tail Moth (Portkesia ckrgsm'

rhaea) doesconsiderable damage. Various species of H yponomeuta larvae also spin tents. See CLIS IOCAM PA,PORTHES IA , and H YPON OMEUTA . [R . H . L .]Te n t h re d in id a , a family of the H ymen

optera including most of t he insects popularlyknown as saw flies. The four wings are not

Tenebroides mauritanica Tetanus

unlike those of a bee,but t he body lacks - t he

‘waist ’ or peduncle which gives mobility t ot he abdomen of t he stinging H ymenoptera, andt he thorax is attached broadly t o t he abdomen.The female is furnished with a charact eristicapparatus in t he place of a sting. It consist s ofa pair of saws with their cutting edges on t he

outer side,and by means of it slits are cut in

leaves or stems for the insert ion of eggs. The

grubs or larvae of t he Tenthredinidae are easilyist ingu ishable on careful observation. Theybear a general resemblance t o t he caterpillarsof butterfl ies and moths

,and indeed are some

times known as ‘false caterpillars ’; bu t whilet he larvae of bot h groups, in addition t o six truelegs, have a number of ‘

prO- legs ’ or suckers,

these suckers are never more than ten in t heLepidoptera

,and never fewer than twelve in

the Tenthredinidae. A few of these sawfly grubsl ive within alls

,in which case t he legs are

much reducer"in siz e, but most are leaf- feeders,and among them are many of t he more seriousenemies of plan t life. The Pine Sawfly (seeLOPHYRUS), t he Apple Sawfly (see H OPLOCAMPA ),and t he Gooseberry Sawfly (see N EMA ’I‘US) maybe mentioned. In dealing with t he pest t heparticular l ife- history in each case must be con

sidered , but usually t he win t er is passed in t heChrysa lis state in t he soil under t he infest ed

plants

, and if the surface soil be removed and

uried deeply,or treated in such a w ay as shall

kil l t he hibernating insect s,t he attack will not

be renewed in t he follow in year. [0. W.]Te rm s , R em ova l. ee REMOVAL TERMS

and QUARTER DAYS .

Te rrier. See arts. SCOTCH TERR IER , IR ISHTER R IER

,SKYE TERR IER

,Tor TERR IER

,A IRE

DALE TERR IER,WELSH TERR IER .

Te t a n u s , ca lled ‘lockjaw ’ from a frequentsymptom consis t ing in inability t o properlyopen t he mouth, is an infective di sease causedby a specific bacillus ( B . tetani) whose resistance t o ordinary disinfectants is very great,

gart icu larly in t he Spore form. It has beenemonst rat ed that a 5 -

per- cent carbolic solu

tion had no effect u on t he spores when t helatter were subjected

)

t o its influence for t en

hours . Castrators’ clams may retain t he virusfor eigh teen months although boiled for fiveminutes (N ocard ). Al l t he recognized disinfectants destroy t he bacillus if given suflicient

time,but must be chosen according t o t he situa

tion t o be acted upon. The organism is found inmany soils

,and in greater proport ion in tropical

climates,and its common mode of entry into t he

body is by some wound or abrasion , often veryminute, and so diflicu lt t o discover that formanyyears a variety of tetanus was believed t o ariseidiopathically

,a view now discarded. The symp

toms Of tetanus are not produced by a d issemination of t he bacil li throughout t he l iving animal

, but a general int oxication is caused by t heproducts of a st ationary vegetation, as for instance in t he case of a broken knee. If t hewound is explored

,t he bacill i will be found

abundant in its lower layers only, and nonewill be present in blood drawn from the j ugularvein . This knowledge is turned t o account int he treatmen t when tetanus supervenes on

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1 90 Tetranychus Thatch

Te t ra n y c h u s , a genus of spinning mites,opu larly known as red spider and frequentlyhighly in j urious in greenhouses, hop ardens,and orchards. The larger gooseberry re spideris of a different genus (see BRYOB IA). The Tet

ranychus mit es are very minute, seldom ex

ceed ing 316in. in leng t h. They infest t he under

sides of t he leaves , covering them with extremelyfine silken threads which afford a protection t o

R ed Sp ider (Tetranychus telariua)1 , Adul t ; 2, larva ; 3 , leaf wit h mit es and eggs ; 4, foot (mag) .

t he mites and their eggs. They live on t he

j uices of t he leaves,and produce in them a char

act erist ic scorched appearance,which is some

times indicated by t he popular name of t he disease (fireblast , ku ferbrand

,There is some

confusion as t o t e species, and in most cases

t he m ite is indiscriminately alluded t o as T.

relam’

as,t he spinning mite so conspicuous for

t he dense w eb it often makes on furze bushes,though some consider t he hop red spider t o bea different species

,T. a lt/zeta.

The disease is always most severe in prolongeddry weather. Under glass it can be effectivelytreated by t obacco fum igation ; but in t he open,direct insecticide washes must be used, appliedwith force t o t he under surface of t he leaves,and repeated at intervals, for t he eggs

, alwayshard t o kill

,are doubly rot ect ed by their tough

shells and t he silk w ebging spun by t he mites.Ordinary arafi n washes should be reinforcedby t he addition of liver of sulphur

,which seems

t o have a specific action upon mites,and a wash

should be repeated after an in terval of threedays. [0. W.]

Cuckoo-sp it Insect (Tet tfgom’

a spuman’

o)

Te t t ig on ia sp um a ria ( t he Cuckoo~spitinsect) is a familiar garden pest, often causingserious inj ury t o roses, M ichaelmas daisies , &c.

It is a member of t he group of bugs (H emip

tera) known scientifically as Cercopidae, andpopularly as Frog -flies or Frog - hoppers. The

froth is exuded by t he young insect and servest o conceal and protect it

,while it extracts t he

j uices from t he tender new shoots by means Ofa long proboscis which ierces t he tissues. The

adult insect is about in . in length, greyishyel low in colour

, and a very ac t ive j umper.Paraffi n emulsion is fairly effective against thispest , but better results are obtained from t he

use of a tobacco wash , Q lb. of tobacco sufficin

for 12 gal. of water. A pound of soft soa shouldbe added t o t he wash. fa. W.]Texa s Feve r, a cattle disease found in an

acute form in summer and a chronic form inautumn ; in many respects it resembles redwater. By the more recent experimenters itis said to be identica l, and t he cause t o be a

protozoon (piroplasm) conveyed by ticks. The

piroplasms are pear- shaped bodies found in t heinterior Of t he red blood corpuscles. The biteof t he infect ed tick carries in to t he beast t heblood parasites, and these can be found in t he

blood of t he sick animal by examination of a

d rop drawn from any part of t he body and

placed under t he microscope. The symptomscommence with dullness and high temperature(from 105

°t o 107

° loss of appetite, falling Offin t he milk of cows, constipation alternated bypurging

,breathlessness, and rapid wasting. In

very acute cases death may result in four or fivedays

,but a fortnight ormore is t he usual time ;

or some improvement is noted and then a re

lapse, when t he disease will last for months.P revention is t o be aimed at by severa l means.The ticks do not live upon t he greasy skin Oft he sheep, and this afl

‘

ords us t he OpportunityOf starving ou t t he ticks by removing all cattlet o a distance and grazing t he pasture w ith otherstock. About fifteen mon ths is considered necessary for this purpose, for in that eriod t he ticksand their progeny will have d ie The nymphsare found t o inherit t he affection without themselves having sucked blood from an animal suffering from Texas fever ; hence t he importance of

t he ful l time allowance. Land worth croppingcan be brought under trea tment by t he plough,but much of t he infect ed areas consist of prairie,and on ly t he above alternative Of graz ing immune stock is practicable. Cattle which haveacquired immunity themselves may be coveredwith ticks and introduce t he disease in to dist rict s previously free ; and to prevent this, diping has been largely adopted in America, tEesubstances used being coal- t ar compounds, fishoil

, cotton - seed or other cheap Oil s. A bath consisting Of 94 lb. of sulphur mixed with 875 gal.of petroleum is specially recommended. Pro

t ect ive inoculation produces a mild form of t he

malady and confers a variable degree of immunity. [H . L.]Th a t c h , a term applied t o st raw or othermaterial used t o cover t he roofs Of buildings orhay and grain stacks t o keep out t he rain. The

materials used for thatching vary considerablyin different districts. Wheat and rye straw,when wel l laid, provide a neat and secure covering for all general purposes. The former isused ch iefly for rick that ching

,while t he latter

Thatch ing

is, when easily procurable,mostly used for t he

roofing of houses. Oat and barley straw are

sometimes used, but they are generally somewhat soft in texture and absorb water

,which

g radual ly finds its way through t he thatch.Thatch is Often used as a protective coveringfor potatoes, mangels, and other roots whichare placed in clamps ; bu t when used for thispurpose straw thatch cannot resist frost or conserve heat, it is only capable of preventingdamage from rain .

There is no form of thatch t o equal reeds(Arundo p hragmites), which growabundantly in shallow waters andditches throughout all part s of

Europe. A reed roof which hasbeen well laid will last for fiftyy ears without requiring repair,while wel l - drawn wheat st raw properly laid wil l remain secure forthirty years. A ‘hundred of reedmay cost as much as £3 , 103 . and

cover 5 squares ’ Of roof, t he costof laying usually amounting t o 5 3 .

per square. To this expendituremust be added t he cost of t ar twinefor tying t he reeds t o t he rafters,usually about 1 3 . 601. Thus a covering Of new reeds will cost as muchas £1 foreach hundred square feet,t o which must be added t he expense Of roofingor placing a cap along t he ridge, which, if wellmade

,will cost as much as -l s. 6d . per foot run .

H eather or l ing ( Calluna vu lgaris) is stilllargely used for thatching ornamental bu ildingssuch as rustic arbours, summer houses, &c. Suchroofs have been known t o last for more thana hundred years. They are considerably moreweighty than straw thatch roofs, and wherelarge areas have t o be covered t he roofs shouldeither be made sufficiently strong, or a llowed t opitch so as t o throw t he greater part of t heweight on t he walls.In recent years manysubstit ut es have beenintroduced t o take t heplace of thatching, forexample t he erectionOf Dutch barns ; butthese can never eu

t irely supersede t he

thatched ricks, al

though they are of undoubted value in rainyd istricts and seasons .Thus in t he southerncounties of Englandfarmers are compelledt o build their ricks in t he fields where t he cornor hay is grown . Waterproof cloths or metalcaps fitting closely over ricks have not yet

proved entirely satisfactory, for, unlike thatch,they do not permit t he heat and moisture fromt h e rick t o esca e freely. The latter are amongt he principal a vantages of straw thatch.

[J . c. N .]Th a t c h in g is an Operation requiring con

siderable care, observation , and practice before itcan be successfully accomplished. A thatcher

’s

.

‘rna-

rcrt

Fig.

1 91

outfit is neither expensive nor elaborate. Itconsists usually Of a billhook, a paring knife, orsheep - shears for trimming t he eaves, a largeforked stick t o contain t he drawn straw or‘yealms ’

,and a wooden hand - rake with iron

teeth for combing the straw when laid on t he

rick,together with a supply of cord or oakum ,

and maybe a wooden mallet for driving in longwooden egs or spars t o which t he cord is secured. The preparation Of t he straw is of chiefimportance

,as if used in a dry irregular mass

it would be ineffective in running off rainwater ;

1 .—General Appearance of That ched H ay R ick

therefore, in order t o secure t he best results, t hestraw is well moistened with water, after whichthe heap is turned with a fork , and finally compressed by heat ing or lightly treading ; thishas t he effect of ridding t he straw of flag and

Shack. The straw is now ‘yealmed ’ or drawnfrom t he bottom Of t he heap, t he usual methodbeing t o gras as much straw as can be grippedin both han s. The straw is then drawn ou t

by a rapid movement of t he arms towards t heright

,followed by a swing over t o the left, the

yealms ordrawn straw being laid at t he worker’s

J e ts-

rs

Fig. 2.—That ching Dwelling Houses—First Met hod

feet,t he thickest end being at t he right - hand

Side. The work of drawing t he straw is usuallyundertaken by t he thatcher’s assistant or‘server’.When a given quantity of t he partially straightstraw has been collected, it is regulated by t hefingers in order t o remove any loose portion .

The worker meanwhile draws t he bundles t owards his feet, until he has secured as much ashe can hold in the gri Of both hands. A yealmthus formed is never roken, but kept firm and

secure unt il placed on t he stack. Before thatch

1 92

ing, t he stack must be prepared by fillin upany loose hollows with loose straw, and leve lingany humps so that t he roof may present a firmeven surface. Usually t he apex of t he roof willrequire bolstering up with a tightly tied bundleof straw. The that cher commences by layingthe straw at t he bottom or eaves, packing itfirmly and securely, and in regular breadths,unti l he reaches t he t op, when t he straw is laidwel l up t o form a point. This gives a good pit ch

w OO b EN FL"

Thatch ing

for t he wat er t o run off. A med ium thicknessof straw well laid will resist water much betterthan a large quantity loosely packed together.In thatching hipped - end stacks it is customaryto commence about t he centre Of one side so as

t o ensure a good finish ; while gable- end stacksare generally commenced at one end .

To keep t he thatch in position , pegs made Of

split hazel, willows, or other tough wood are

used. These are usually cut into lengths of

J o isrs

KUN H l RS

“ SEWING ”

IV /N a

STHPLES

Fig. 3 .—That ching Dwelling Houses—Second Method

from 2 t o 3 ft .,t he ends being pointed and

ja ged. In t he sou t h of England, s lit hazelro S frequently take t he place of cor betweent he pegs ; while in other parts Of t he coun try,oakum or straw ropes are used. The finalOperation consist s Of trimming t he eaves andridge. [J . c. s .]

In Scotland t he ch ief materials used for

thatching are wheat st raw, oat straw,and

ORN M QN TA L m p

DOUQ LE. ORN N 'M

J O ISTS

RUN H CR S

SKM N C Tww e

HEA THER

Fig. 4.—'I‘hat ching SummerHouse

rushes , t he last named being in especial favourin thatching hay st acks. Various methods areemployed in reparing t he straw, bu t in everycase it must be arranged as nearly as possibleafter t he manner of a newly cut sheaf, and t helonger it is t he better. In some districts t hestraw is made up into smal l bunches ca l led‘staples ’

,and tied securely t o ether at one end

w ith a few straws,while in ot ers t he straigh t

drawn straw is used without ‘stapling ’. The

advan tage of t he former method is that t he

staples can be used several times for thatching

straw stacks, or even t he hay st acks of t hefollowing season , after they are t aken Off t hecorn stacks. Great care is necessary in puttingon t he that ch. A th in, evenly distributed layerrather than a thick, pat chy covering is wanted,for it s effectiveness as a rainproof covering deends 11 on t he strength of its weakest parts.he w or is best done when t he stacks are dry

and on a calm day . When t he stack - heads arew et they lose their elasticity, and it is then

much more diffi cult for t he that cher t oput on t he straw uniformly. Commencing at t he eaves, t he worker makes abeginning w ith a ring Of staples

,and in

t he case Of corn stacks he allows them t o

project well over

,so that t he watermay

e effectively prevented from runningdown t he sides Of t he stack. The headsof t he staples are inserted in t he stackhead securely enough t o hold them firmlyuntil t he ropes are put on . A secondring of staples is then started a l ittlehigher up and made t o careful ly overlapt he first ; and so on until t he crown isreached

,where t he heads of t he highest

staples converge. The adjacent sta les

must also carefully overlap one anot erso that a perfectly uniform covering maybe obtained. After each course is laidon

,and before shifting t he ladder for t he

next course, t he thatcher smooths it down withhis thatching- stick and removes any loose straws.In t he case of round stacks and at t he hips ’Ofrectangular stacks, there is a tendency t o layon t he straw much more thinly at t he eavesthan near t he crown

,and t he workermust guard

against this. The crown of t he stack is nowfinished off by lacing on it some short strawfor padding, and

)

then some long, straight strawwhich overlaps t he uppermost ring of staples.The next operation is t o get t he thatch securedby means of ropes

,which may be made of st raw

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1 94 Th irlage Th istle

Thirlage w as constituted usually by deed ,b u t migh t also be constituted by prescriptionor implication . When constituted

, t he oconpiers of t he lands thirled were taken bound, ont he erection of t he mill, t o bring their grain t oit t o be ground, and were prohibited from havingit ground elsewhere, even t he use of querns orhand mills being prohibited. The area thirledt o t he mill was known as t he thirl or sucken ,while t he parties liablewere called t he suckeners.Thirlage w as of three degrees, viz .1 . Of all t he rain raised on t he lands, whether

actually groun or sold um round t o dealers, ormalted. But horse and see corn

,and corn paid

as rent or feu duty , if del ivered unground, wasexcepted.

2. Of all grindable corn, i.e. all corn actuallyground orwhich required t o be ground for t heuse Of t he suckener and his family . Any surplusbeyond this might, in this case, be sold off t he

sucken without liability.3 . Of all corn brought into the thirl, whethergrown on t he lands or not

,and ground there,

or that tholes fire and water ’, i.e. undergoes anyoperation which t he mill w as fitted t o perform

,

but this does not include bak ing or brewing.

The righ t of thirlage does not give t he ownerof t he mill

,as such, any right t o interfere with

t he occupier’s mode of cultivating his lands, andconsequently t he obligation might be evaded bylaying t he lands down t o pasture.

Payment was usually made in kind, and t hequantity of grain payable t o t he mill - ownerwas known as multures. Insucken multuresw ere those paid by t he suckeners, while ou t

sucken mul t ures were those paid by persons notastricted w ho volun tarily resort ed t o t he millfor t he grinding Of their corn . Insucken multures were higher, since they represented t he‘monopoly price Of grinding ’

,while outsucken

multures would,Of course

,be based on current

rates for t he work done. Dry multures werefixed duties paid annually whether t he grainw as ground or not

,as a condition Of freedom

from t he burden . In addition,t he suckeners

were liable in certain payments in kind t o t heservants Of t he mill known as

‘sequels ’,and

variously designated as knaveship, bannock , andlook or gowpen . M oreover

,t he suckeners were

under Obligation t o render certain personal services, such as furnishing thatch and carryingmillstones and material necessary for t he repairOf the mi ll

,cleaning and repairing t he mill dam

and lade, &c.

If t he occupier t ried t o evade t he Obligation,

it w as at one time competent t o seize t he grain ,but for long t he mill - owner’s remedy has beenby action Of abstrac t ed multures, whereby t heoffending suckener is mulcted in damages whichare usually compu t ed at double t he insuckenmultures. If

,however, t he mil l w as insufficient,

t he obligations of t he suckeners were suspendedtil l t he mill w as again in a condition t o do t hework

,provided they gave t he notice and wai t ed

forty- eight hours without having the work done.

The right can be extinguished by written discharge, or may be lost by disuse for t he prescriptive period. It may also be extinguishedif t he mill becomes ruinous or is destroyed ; but

t he right wil l revive if a new mill is erected,within t he limits of t he thirl

,before t he expiry

of forty years. The right may also be ext in

gu ished by commutation in virtue Of t he pro

visions of 39 Geo. III, e

“

. 5 5 , whereby it isenacted that t he sheriff on application maycommute t he burden into an annual paymentas fixed by a j ury Of heritors or tenants w hooccupy land of an annual rental of £30.

It appears that astriction t o t he smithy of

a barony was at one time recognized in Scotland, and w as said t o be common in t he nor therncounties as late as t he middle Of t he 1 8 t h cen

tury. [D. B .]Th is t le is t he common name for a genus Ofcomposite plants with hard stems

,spiny leaves,

and heads of tubular flowers, each head prot ect ed by a spiny involucre of specially modified leaves. The s ecies luxuriate on rich land,and are considere t he worst Of all weeds

,in

festing not only t he grass,but t he corn crops

of arable land. Certain species, such as Spearand Marsh Thistles

,are specially troublesome,

since the stems bear spiny wings which descendfrom t he leaves, and thus t he whole air part of

t he plant, stem as well as leaves,is prickly.

All these thistle weeds reproduce in one w ay .

Each fertile flower in t he head produces a hardcase rot ec t ing a single seed within . To facilitate °

st ribu t ion by t he wind,each seedcase is

crowned by a tuft of ‘thistle down composedof simple hairs in t he true thistles, or Of hairsbranched like a feather in t he plume thistles.A ccord in ly , t o revent t he spread of thistlesfrom fiel t o fie] seeding must be preven t ed.

In t he case of thistles which creep underground(Creeping Thistles) it is necessary also t o get

rid of t he underground creeping parts.The troublesome species of Thistle are

A . Biennial . ~—1 . Spear Thistle (Onions lanceola tus) . 2. Marsh Thistle (Cm

'

cus palustris). 3 .

Cotton Thistle (Onop ordon A can thium).B. P erenn ial Underground Creep ers.

—4. Dwarfor Stemless Thistle (Unions acau lz

'

s). 5 . Creeping Thistle (Cn icus arvensis).l . SPEAR TH ISTLE affect s all good soils

,and

is found in pastures,meadows, on roadsides, &c .

It is a taprooted biennial which , in t he firstyear of its life

,produces a rosette Of ground

leaves with a central bud . During t he secondyear t he bud develops in t o a stout st em 3 or

4 ft. high , bearing spiny wings, large spinyleaves, and large flow er- heads over 1 in . indiameter and It in. long when in flower.Flowering occurs from July on t o October.Later, ‘seeds ’ are produced in abundance

,and

scattered freely, since each seed ’bears a crownof feathery hairs which t he wind readily catches.After seeding, t he plant dies. TO preven t Spread,t he plant should be cut in June and July. The

seedlings with t he rosette of leaves should bespudded ou t in autumn and early spring.2. MARSH TH ISTLE is a biennial

,4 or 5 ft.

high , frequenting damp ast ures and meadows.Its habit of growth is l i e S ear Thistle

,with

a rosette of ground leaves an a s iny stem,bu t

t he flow er- heads are smal l and in ense clusters.M arsh Thistle is eradicated by cutting

,exactly

as for Spear Thistle.

Th istle Thoroughbred Horses

3 . COTTON TH ISTLE, or Scotch Thistle

,fre

quent s dry ground. It is a stout, branched, veryprick ly biennial covered with a loose cottonywool, and

‘ sometimes 6 ft. high. The flowerheads are large globes 1 1; t o 2 in . in diameter

,

containingpale- purpleflowers. Flowering occursfrom July t o Se tember. The plant is reproducedfrom seeds ’

, w ich are crowned by simple, notfeathery, hairs. This species is eradicated liket he other biennial thistles.4. DWARF or STEMLESS TH ISTLE grows inpastures on dry, ca lcareous, and gravelly soils,when it is Often troublesome. Undergroundthere is an extensive horizontal stem whichconfers perennial character and gives rise t o t heair shoots, each shoot composed of a rosette of

spiny ground leaves , in t he midst of which sitone or a few rather large egg

- shaped flow erheads from which t he crimsonflowers protrude. Floweringoccurs from July t o September. This thistle is reprod uced from ‘seeds’ providedwith a crown of featheryhairs

,and propagated by t he

underground stem. For era

d ica t ion , t he plant should bespudded out as soon as t he

flow er- heads appear, and a

pinch of sulphate of ammoniaorOf sulphate Of copper (bluestone) applied t o t he cut surface.

5 . CREEP IN G TH IS’I‘LE isone of t he most common andmost troublesome pests Of

agriculture, infesting botharable and grass land. The

power of this plant dependsmainly on t he possession Of

an ex t ensive branched and

deep seated undergroundstem

,not thicker than a smal l quill, which

extends through t he ground, confers perennialcharacter, and propagates in all directions

,

sending up air shoots 3 t o 4 ft. high . The stemOf t he air shoot is almost destitute Of spinywings

, and towards t he a ex bears a flat - toppedcluster of stalked flow er eads, each head fromi t o l in . in diameter. F lowering occurs fromJuly t o September. On some plants t he headsare barren and never make seed, but on t he

others t he heads bear ‘seeds ’which germinateand reproduce t he plant. The ‘seed ’ has a

crown of feathery hairs,so that it is readily

carried by t he wind and sown at a distance.

For eradication in t he corn crop , t he hoeshould be used freely early and late in spring ;and when t he corn gets up, as many plants aspossible should be hand - pulled. In pastures,repeat ed systematic cutting continued throughou t t w o seasons will exhaust t he food suppliesof t he underground creeping stem and exterminate this pest . In root crops, t he hoe Shouldbe kept constantly at work t o prevent the new

shoots from supplying food t o t he undergroundcreeping stems. Tw o root crops in succession ,

systematically cleaned, suffice t o destroy F ieldThistle. Sow Thistles (see Sow TH ISTLE) are

1 9 5

readily distinguished from t he true th istlesabove described by t he milky juice and t he

succulent stem. See il lustration under articleWEEDS . [A . N . M

‘A .]

Th is t le C u t t e rs general ly take t he formOf a travelling frame geared t o actuate a rotarydrum which

,instead of having heavy heat ers,

is fitted with sharp steel edges, which in rapidrevolution cut Off t he thistles. The machinesare designed t o allow t he cu t t in t o be adjustedt o requirements . It is rather doubtful if it isworth while t o spend money on a special cutter,as t he ordinary mowing machine is quite ca

pahle Of cutting t he thistles and now throughperfection of construction and easy control oflevers t o raise and lower t he cutter bar, it iseasy t o re nlat e t he cutting so as t o cut‘thethistles an leave t he grass uninjured . Thistle

Thist le Cu t t er

cutters have been made in which t he cutting iseffected by horizontal blades on radial metalarms attached t o a vertical spindle made t o

revolve quickly. These will cut thistles,which

after all is not a difficult matter, as a blunt

edge brought sharply against a thistle wil l dothis ; but in this form Of cutter there seemsspecial liabil ity t o trouble on rough groundwhere there are high an t heaps orother obstacles.

[W. J . M .]Th om a s P h os p h a t e . See art . BAS IC

SLAG.

Th oro u g h b red H o rse s . The term‘Thoroughbred ’ is used throughout t he fol lowing pages as a matter of convenience, thought he word is of comparatively recent coinage.

In early days,t he racer w as termed a ‘running

horse or‘plate horse’; in t he latter art of t he

1 7th and t he earlier half of t he 1 8 t century,

t he term ‘blood horse’came into use,t o describe

animals which owed their parentage t o Easternsire ormare. The word ‘Thoroughbred ’ seemst o have been coined during t he first decade Of

t he last century , occurring as it does in t heSporting Magazine of 1806 ; but not for manyyears after that date did it Obtain general currency ; as late as 1 83 1 William Youat t ( in his

1 96 Thoroughbred Horses

book The H orse) though t it necessary to writeof ‘t he Thoroughbred or Turf ’ horse.

H ISTORY.

—Eas t ern horses have been brough tinto this country from a very early period.

H enry I ( 1 100—35 ) received t wo Arabs as a gift ;and w e might trace such occasional importationsfrom t he East down t o t he Stewart period , whenthey becamemuch more frequent. King James I( 1 603—25 ) acquired many Eastern horses by giftor purchase. On one occasion he received as a

present twenty - seven ‘N eapol itan coursers ’, ofwhich eleven were stallions ; this breed had a

strong s t rain of Barb or Arab blood. In t heyear 1 61 7 he received half a dozen Barbs, whichwere sent direct t o t he R oyal stud at N ew

market. The Markham Arabian for which he

paid £1 5 4 on 20t h December

,1 616 , is t he best

nown of James I’s importations, but this horseproved a fai lure at t he stud. The H elmsleyTurk imported in Charles I’s reign ( 1 625—45 ) ist he first Eastern sire known t o have made hismark upon ourEnglish breed. H e became t hesire of B us t ier and H utton’s R oyal Colt, whosenames occur in t he pedigree of Eclipse.

‘H is

blood has been chiefly transmit ted t o our timethrough Old Merlin

,Blunderbuss

,t he Bolton

Starling, t he Bolton Sweepstakes, and t he Blacklegs mare ’ (Osborne). The Blacklegs mare w ast he dam of Marske, sire of Eclipse.

While w e trace t he descen t of our Thoroughbreds from Eclipse

,H erod

,and Mat chem

,more

especially t o t he first,there are, in t he pedi

grees of these three horses, blanks which can

not now be filled. The dams’ names are farmore frequen t ly w an t ing than t he sires ; and

in regard to this w e must bear in mind thatbreeders in those days were careless in recording particulars of their st ud work. This is notsurprising ; even at t he presen t day , compilersof stud records find difficulty in Obtaining accurate pedigrees. A contribu t ing factor t o t he

mistiness of t he Old pedigrees w as t he frequentomission t o name horses and mares—an omissionnot uncommon within our own time

,during

which great races have been w on by horses uponwhich t heir owners had bestowed no names.Though s t ud books did not exist in t he earlydays

,breeders were well informed concerning

t he merits Of horses on t he turf. R ichard Blomesays : By having P lates run for at severaltimes and in several counties w e have come t oknow exactly t he sp eed , wind , force and lzeart ofevery horse that runs, which directs us infal liblyin our choice when w e have t o furnish ourselvesfor t he War, H unt ing , Breed ing , t he Road and

t he l ike ’

(Gen t lemen’s R ecreation , Thispassage has important bearing on t he presentsubject

,as it shows that racehorses at this time

were used t o breed stock for all saddle purposes. N evertheless there were studs maint ained solely for racing before B lome

’s time.

King Charles had a large one at Tutbury inStaffordshire

,which in July

,1 649, numbered

1 39,all mares and foals

,many of w hich were

undoubtedly descended from t he Digby and Villiers Arabians, t he latt er imported by James I .(N O stall ions are mentioned in t he l is t of t he

s t ud made by Cromwell’s Commissioners w hovisited Tutbury in July, 1 649 ; it is supposed

that t he sires were removed in antici ation of

t he Prot ector’s confiscation of t he st u

Cromwel l continued t he Tutbury s t ud as a

national institution , recognizing t he import anceof improving English horses ; and though hediscou 'ntenanced racing, he es tablished a studof his ow n and sent his stud master, P lace,abroad t o buy horses. P lace is said t o havebeen an excellent j udge of horseflesh and a

successful breeder ; among other horses broughtt o England by him w as P lace’s White Turk, asire which wrought great influence. Mat chem

and Snap trace their descen t t o mares got byhim.

There can be lit tle doubt but that up t o t hetime of t he R estoration ( 1660) t he breed of

ligh t horses for general use consisted of mixedblood. The vast majority of importa t ions werestallions ; and these crossed on English mares

,

and t he progeny of such crosses being matedamong themselves orwith other Eastern import at ions

,a strong strain of Eas t ern blood existed

in the 1 7 t h century, before the arrival of t he‘Royal Mares with whose advent in Englandt he rea l history of t he modern Thoroughbredbegins. Charles II ( 1660—85 ) was extremelyfond of racing ; he was a constant visit or t oN ewmarket, where he had a residence (TheKing’s H ouse) and ran horses in his own name.

Taking keen , in te lligent interes t in t he improvement of t he breed, he sent his Master oft he H orse, Sir John Fenwick, abroad to purchase st al lions and brood mares.The mares so purchased were Easte rn blood

only, Arabs, Barbs, or Turks,and described

simply as R oyal M ares The improvemen t inour racehorses which quickly followed t he import at ion of these mares proves t he j udgmen texercised by Sir John Fenwick in his .selection.The greatness of t he debt owing t o these maresby t he Thoroughbred is shown by t he frequencywith which ‘

a royal mare ’ occurs in t he old

pedigrees.

When Charles II died, t he Royal Mares appear t o have been sold . They found their w ayinto t he hands of owners in various parts of

the country,and

,thanks t o t he custom of cal l

ing imported horses by t he names of theirowners

,t he his tory of t he breed is placed on

a more definite basis. A considerable numberof mares became t he propert y of Lord D’

A rcy ,w ho laid with them the foundation of t he fameof t he Sedbury stud. Lord D'

A rcy had foundedhis breeding es tablishmen t soon after t he R est orat ion and owned t wo sires

,t heWh ite D’A rcy

Turk and t he D’A rcy Yellow Turk, imported

by himself. These sires and t he R oyal Mares,with ot hers of Eastern descent

,

‘contributedmost materially t o t he improvement of our

breed of horses ’ ( H orse- breeders’ H andbook,Joseph Osborne).The union of t he White D’

A rcy Turk anda R oyal Mare produced Wilkes’s Old H autboy,

perhaps t he best sire of his day ; t he dam of

nake by t he Lister Turk,t he dam of A lmanz or

t o t he Darley Arabian,and of Terror t o t he

A kast erTurk. The D’A rcy Yellow Turk, mated

with another R oyal Mare, got Brimmer, and ,

with Lord Fairfax’s M orocco Barb Mare,

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1 98 Thoroughbred Horses

Oaks winners in Tormentor,H ippia

,and H an had twenty- three strains of H erod blood against

nah ; Foxhal l was also a representative of this fifteen of Eclipse blood .

family, which ‘is now l ittle known in this coun The fourth family,that usually known as t he

try, though it has done wel l bot h in Australia l ine of Tramp ,is as under :

and America ’

(R ichardson). Tramp ( 1 8 10) begat Lot tery who begatThe first of t he four lines sketched above is

Sheet Anchor (1 832)that of Sir H ercules (or Birdcatcher). S ir H er

cules begat Birdcatcher in 1 838 ; and Birdcatcher’s bes t sons were t he Baron and Oxford .

The line of t he Baron followsRosicruc

Doncast er

Bend Of ‘Eclipse mares t he fol lowing must beI

mentioned : Penelope (Trumpat orMart agon Orviet o Cyellene Pewet (Tandem—Termagen t ) ; Evel l na (n h

( 1 883 ) 0384) ( 1 887) ( 1 883 ) 0395 ) flyer—Termagen t ) ; and Pocahontas,w ho

,how

ever, has many strains of H erod in herped igree.

The Ma t e/Lem (or Godolphin Arabian) lineneed not detain us long. The fame of t he ori

Stockwel l also sired Lord R onald,Blair Athol, ginal sire is perp etuated t o our own day by

and S t . Albans among other horses which a single line as follow s ; _

achieved less distinction at t he stud than DonMat chem (1 748)caster through Bend Or.

Oxford , foaled 1 8 5 7 , sired Sterling w hosired

lGall inul e J anissary Isinglass Comus

H umphrey Clinker( 1 822)We have next t o t race what i s known as t heN ewmirzst er—Touc/zstone line from Whalebone.

M elbourne ( 1 834)H is son

,Camel

,foaled 1 822

,begat West Aust ralian

Touchstone

The H erod (orByerley Turk) family has beenperpetuated by four branches

,which may beconveniently set ou t t hus :

Hermi

I lPetrach Hampton

H erodH ermi t was t he sire of many good sons anddaughters : among t he former

,Friars’ Balsam

,

M elanion , Ascetic, H eaume, and S t . Blaise ;

B ummil (1 787)among t he latter, Penitent and Moorhen (dam

of Gal linule). H ermit’s descendants have beenremarkably successful as steeplechasers as wellas on t he flat . H ampton was one of t he mostsuccessful of modern sires. H e begat

,among Pantaloon Su l t an

ot hers, Merry H ampton , Ayrshire, Ladas, R oyal “elm"

H ampton , and Sheen . Windbound Bay Middlet onh

The third orB laze/clock l ine may be sketched ( 1 8l47).

t usB lacklock ( 1 814)

Charibert .

The Buccaneer branch is t he only one t oTh is, i n Mr. R ichardson’s opin ion, is probably which importance attaches at t he present time.

t he best staying family of t he day , its greatest It does not seem necessary t o trace t he doingsrival in respect of stamina being t he Isonomy of scions of these families beyond t he o

intsat

line of Birdcatcher. Voltigeur, it may be not ed, which they have been left . Space for ids the

IWalton( 1 799)I

Parfi san

(1 81 1 )I

Gladiat or

Sweetmeat Ton

(1 83 5 )I

Macaroni Wild Dayrell( 1860)

BuccaneerMacgregor.

Kisber

Thoroughbred Horses

writer t o do more than bring thus baldly t hepast history of t he breed into touch with t hehorses of t he present day , leaving t he readert o follow up t he breeding of animals in w hichhe may be interested.

THOR OUGH BREDS A BROA n .—TheAmericanTrot

ting H orse is of mixed descent. The horsesabandoned by de Soto in 1 5 42 on t he confinesof Texas, half a dozen in number, are held t obe t he ancestors of t he wild horses of N orthAmerica. Thus nearly eighty years before English horses were introduced by t he early settlersin V irginia, there w as a large stock of Spanishblood ; which blood is closely allied t o

,if not

identical with,t he Barb blood.

There were ‘several shipments of horses atdifferen t times by t he proprietors [of t he colonyof V irginia] down till about 1 820’

(The H orseof America

,by John H .Wallace) ; and as it w as

t he cust om in Virginia and t he ot her Americancolonies t o brand t he young stock and turnthem loose

,w e may safely assume that these

English horses interbred with t he wild descendants of t he Spanish horses. The Dutch and

Swedish settlers obt ained horses from H ollandand Sweden in their turn ; and in t he latterhalf of t he 1 7th century races were establishedon H ampstead P lains

,Long Island. The first

horses imported into N ew England reachedBoston in 1 826

,and other shipments from this

coun t ry followed. The first English racehorseis said t o have been imported into Virginiaabout 1 750, but no particulars of this animalare recorded. Certain English racehorses wereimported about t he year 1 750. Of these

,one

named Traveller w as t he most importan t arrival ; another named Janus did good service.

M odern American Trotters trace their descentt o M essenger

,son of Mambrino, imported in

1 788 when eight years old . Mambrino had beenremarkable in England for his success in getting road and coach horses, and M essenger ihherit ed t he trotting powers his sire bestowedupon his progeny.

M essenger stood at various places, Philadelphia

,in N ew York State, and in N ew Jersey

,

for twenty years, and got many good horses.Those that made t he greatest impression on t hebreed were : ( 1 ) Bishop’s H ambletonian (foaled

ou t of Pheasant ( t he V irginia Mare), saidt o be by imported Shark ; (2) Mambrino (foaled

ou t of a mare by imported Sour Crout ;(3 )Wint hro orMaine

,M essenger (foaled about

ou t 0 an unknown dam ; (4) Grey Mambrino (foaled about dam by Pulaski ; (5 )Mount H olly

,dam by Bajaz et . Abdallah

,by

M ambrino ou t of Amazonia,one of t he most dis

t inguished trotters of her day , has been ca lledt he King of Trotting S ires ’ of his generation ;he w as foaled in 1 823 . Mr. Wallace gives alist of forty—one English stallions which wereimported about t he same time as Messenger.Among them are eight sons or grandsons of

H erod,six son'sorgrandsons ofEclipse, four sons

or grandsons of H ighflyer ; but as not one of t heforty - one

‘founded a trotting family,and no one

of them ever got a trotter ou t of a mare of hisow n kind’, they need not be further considered .

M essenger descends in direct tai l male from

1 99

t he Darley Arabian ; but there are blanks in t hepedigree (dam’s side) of his great- great - grandsire Blaze ; and his trotting powers indicatea s t rain of H ackney blood .

A ustralasia .

—The earliest exportation traceable is that of S t eelt rap, sent t o N ew SouthWales in 1 823 . N 0 regular record of Thoroughbreds exported was attempted unti l vol. iv of

t he General S tud Book w as published in 1 840.

In that year Calendar and Vagabond were sen tt o Australia

,and in course of t he decade follow

ing half a dozen more. Vol. ix contain s a listof fift y

- five stallions and forty - six mares whichhad been sent t oAustralia during t he year 1 860and earlier. Toxophilite (foaled sold t oN ew Zealand by the Earl of Glasgow

,was one

of t he most valuable sires ever sent t o t he

Colonies. As t he sire of Musket,who go t many

good horses,including Carbine, w ho w as pur

chased in 1 896 by t he Duke of Portland, Toxophilit e must

.hold a high place in t he history

of Australian horse- breeding. F isherman,sent

t o Adelaide in 1 860,is another horse deserving

of special mention .

Cape Colony .—Squirrel, by Cain (exported

is t he first Thoroughbred mentioned as

having been sent t o South A frica . Severalmore were sent ou t during t he ensuing twentyyears

,including Turpin , by H etman P latofl

,

Bramble, by Bay M iddleton , in 1 845 H ol loway,

by Emilius,in 1 847 and Pantomime

,by Pan ta

loon,in 1 850. Thirty - seven stallions and three

mares were sent t o t he Cape during,and prior

t o, t he year 1 860(vol . ix , General Stud Book).Con t inen t of Europ e—The demand for English Thoroughbreds appears t o have begun int he early ’twenties of t he last century . In

'

1 823

Ra inbow was sent t o France. During t he’thirties and ’forties t he demand from Franceincreased, and such horses as A lingt on ,

byGustavus (exported Cad land , by Orvile(exported Sir Benjamin

,by Whisker (ex

ported Dangerous, by Tramp (exportedTheodore

,by Comus (ex ort ed were

purchased by our French neighbours ; and manyThoroughbred mares were taken by them duringt he period 1 850—60. The demand from t he

States wh ich now constit ute t he German Empiretook shape in t he ’thirt ies. Erymus

,exported

in 1 832,was among t he earlier purchases ;

Brut andorf w as sent t o Germany in 1 842,Mun ~

dig in 1 843 , and Elis in 1 844. M any mareswere sold t o German buyers during t he period1 85 7—60. R ussia began t o buy from us about1 823

,in which year Soothsayer

,by Sorcerer

,

Antar,and In terpreter were sent t o that coun

try. Many horses were sent t o R ussia duringt he

’forties, including H ymen , brother t oGlaucus(exported Coronation (exported and

Zanoni (otherwise R unning R ein) in 1 847 . The

earliest Austrian purchase traceable is that ofGrimalkin , sold by t he Duke of R utland t o t heEmperor in 1 8 1 4. Cardinal Puff

, Carthaginian ,Clincher, and Old Dan Tucker went t o Aus t riain 1 85 2. Buccaneer, sire of Kisber

,sold in 1 865

,

w as one of t he most noteworthy exports t oAustria-H ungary .

Thoroughbreds have also been sold t o Sweden,

H olland,Spain

,Italy

,and othercountries during

200 I

t he last fifty years. It is t o be observed thatt he great majority of Thoroughbreds exportedt o t he Continent are purchased by t he respec

tive Governments , the purpose being t o improvet he nat ive breeds , net t o produce racehorses.H EIGHT A N D CON '

FORMATION .—The modern

racehorse differs very widely from his ancestorsof t w o centuries ago, bot h in height and con

formation. The Arab and Barb stal lions andmares which played so large a part in mak ingt he breed were animals of 1 4 hands or l ittlemore ; and there is good reason t o believe thatEnglish ‘running horses ’ of that period werel ittle

,if at all, big er. Old Turf records ih

d ica t e that 1 4 han s Was t he average heightof the racehorse. In 1 71 1 a P late at N ewmar

ket was advertised, each horse, mare, or gelding t o carry 10 st. if 1 4 hands high , if above or

under t o carry weight for inches . In 1 750 theconditions for a £50P late a t N ewmarket wereframed on t he same lines

,

‘1 4 hands t o carry

8 st. 7 lb ’. H eber’s Calendar of 1 75 2 is t hefirst work of the kind which contains a Tableof Weights to be carried in t he Give and TakeP lates ’; and this provides for horses of from1 2 hands t o 1 5 hands high

,clearly indicating

that these were t he extremes it was necessaryt o provide for. H eight w as a point seldommentioned by t he old authorities un less t heanimal w as exceptional in one direction or t he

other. Thus it is recorded of M ixbury, by t heCurw en Bay, Barb, darn by Old Spot ( t emp .

Charles II), that he w as only 1 3 2 . Gimcrack(foaled 1 760) w as 1 4 hands and quarter of aninch. The advertisements of st all ions whichappear in the old Calendars are helpfu l as regards horses of a later period. We find Bosphorus, by Old Balram,

dam by t he H ampt onCourt Old Childers, advertised in 1 768 as

‘up

wards of 1 5 hands high ’. In t he same volume(H eber’s Calendar) t he following stallions areadvert ised : Young Travel ler, ‘full 1 5 handsh igh S loe, ful l 1 4 hands 3% in. high

’

; Second,‘very near 1 4 hands 3 in . high ’; Torresmond ,‘very nea r 1 4 hands 3 in. high ’. The ‘BayH orse call

’d Babraham ’ is also advert ised as

‘full 1 6 hands high ’, bu t this assertion mustbe accepted with great reserve.

Though so much smal ler than t he modernThoroughbred , t he racehorse of that period os

sessed valuable qualities. H e was require t o

carry as much as 1 2 st. in races of three or fourmiles run in three heat s , somet imes more, on

t he same day a t intervals of half an hour between t he heats ; and with these requirementsin view he w as bred t o meet them. Thus hew as more compact, better coupled, and had

greater stamina ; and w as almost as much usedt o get hunters and roadsters as t o get racehorses

,which by virtue of his stoutness and

general conformat ion , not less than his courageand speed, he was wel l fitted t o do. The w ritersof a century ago make frequent reference t o t heservices of racehorses for general s t ud purposes,and it would seem t o have been t he exceptionrather than t he rule to keep a stallion ex

elusively for t he service of racing mares. For

example,it is recorded of Mambrino ( 1 768) that

he was t he sire of many excel lent hun t ers and

Thoroughbred Horses

strong useful road horses’. Bosphorus, t he horseabove referred to, advertised in H eber’s Calendar of 1 767 to cover at three guineas a mare at

Mr. Haswel l’s, Epsom , is described as not onlylikely as any horse in t he Kingdom t o get a

Ra cer,but a H unter orCoach - horse, oraccording

t o his mares Few Thoroughbreds of our ow nday would be chosen by t he j udicious breederas sires of weight- carrying hunters.The change in t he direction of increased height

of racehorses would seem t o have begun abou tt he end of t he 1 8 th century. It was at th is

geriod that t w o- year-old racing

, advocated byir Charles Bunbury, came into vogue, and t hepractice brought in its train as a necessary conseq uence t he system of ‘forcing ’ t he growth ofyoung stock in order t o make them t he soonerready for t he racecourse. An anonymous authorwriting in 1 836 refers t o t he marked increasein siz e which had then taken place : ‘The in

t elligen t reader must perceive that t he great sizeso much admired by t he public in brood mareshas been acquired The English racer

,w e

cannot doubt, acquired his enlarged structureby rich food.’ The writer w as of opinion thatthe horses of his day were inferior t o those offifty years earlier in respect of stoutness

,ability

t o carry w eight , and in staying power. The syst em of heat racing w as declining in t he ’thirt ies

,

and t he programme of any Meeting bore grea t erresemblance t o t he

‘card ’ of t he presen t day .

Increase of t he practice of racing youn horsesunder light weights, together w ith a andonment of heat races under heavy weights, between them brought about t he endeavour t oproduce a bigger horse able t o gallop fast fora short distance under a light weight. Thist endency which had borne fruit seventy yearsago has continued down t o our ow n time, t helong- striding animal sought having been gradual ly brought t o its present conformation . Itis very doubtful whether t he average height oft he racehorse in t he ’thirties exceeded 1 5 hands

,

though w e need not doubt that individual horsesof greater height occasionally occurred.

The late Admiral Rous has shown that t heaverage height of our Thoroughbreds had increased at t he rate of 1 in . in every twenty - five

years. The increase has been more rapid duringrt he last hundred years than during t he hundredyears preceding it

,but in t he main t he assertion

of t he Admiral holds ood . The lat e MathewDawson ‘considered it emonst rable that withint he experience of living persons t he size of t heracehorse has increased in this country’(R ichardson

,The English Turf). The increase in heigh t

has been by no means an unqualified advan t age.

Granting t he truth of John Scott’s oft - quotedmaxim that ‘

a good big one will always beata good little one

’

,w e have t o bear in mind

William Day’s remark (The Ra cehorse in Training) that as a rule you may get fifty good sma l lhorses for one good large one

, and t he formerwill, and do, run wel l after t he latter has beenput t o t he stud ’.The same high authority held (The H orse :

H ow t o Breed and R ear him) that little stallions put to suitable mares get much betterStock than most large horses ; and he cites

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Thoroughbred Horses Thoroughp in

S tockwel l as t he only thoroughly good largestal lion he had known within forty years.Our entire racing system has undergone a

great change in t he last hundred - and - twentyyears. In t he old days

,horses were not raced

unti l they were four,five

, or even six years old ;during our ow n time they are very generallysent t o t he stud at the age when ,

in formertimes, they were only beginning their activecareer on t he racecourse. This change, bring1 1) about t he forcing system already referredt o

, must be held responsible for t he falling- off

in constitu t ion and soundness. Yearling colts,nowadays, appear in t he sale ring nearly a handhigherthan theywould have been if reared underna t ural conditions ; hot s t ables, soft food, and

general pampering results in rapid rowth andaccompanying defects. The horse t us reared,l ike a child t oo tal l for its age, is delicate and

soft ’. N otwithstanding t he care bestowed byt he skilful trainer

,t he work required of it finds

ou t weak spot s and develops latent unsoundness. It is very doubtful whether t he forcingprocess affects t he ultimate growth of t he horse ;in all probability t he animal simply a t tains it smaximum growth at an unnaturally early age.

(The natura l rowth of t he horse in its firstyear is exceedingly rapid . The writer is indebted t o P rofessor Cossar Ewart for figureswhich show that a colt born of aren t s eachexceeding 1 5 2 in heigh t , w as at time of

birth and measured 1 3 hands when one yearold ; this despite t he fact that it ‘did badly ’during it s first ear, probably because t he damw as ou t of con itiou and could not nourish itproperly. When three years old this colt stood1 5 hands

,having made up lost ground in its

second and third years . )It is only reasonable t o assume that N ature

ordains a certain normal average size for anygiven breed, and , endowing t he animal with a

measure of vitality coinciding with t he normalaverage size. does not increase that measure of

vita lity in response to t he demands of art ificia lenlargemen t of frame. H ence, when by carefulmating, rich food, and a hothouse system of

forcing growth, t he frame is enlarged at an ah

normally early age, that larger frame is morel iable t o disease and more l ikely t o suffer fromt he effects of exposure and hard work, Our

modern racehorses are bigger and no doubtfaster over a short d istance than their ancestors,bu t they lack their ancest ors’ stamina, soundness, vitality, and weight- carrying power.The same results of early racing and short

races under a feather -weight are t o be seen int he Australian Thoroughbred. The demandfor a speedy sprinter has brought about t heproduction of light, long- limbed horses, whichcan make wonderfully good time over four orsix furlongs under a light- weight ; but t he stoutsaddle horses, peculiarly valuable in that countryof great distances, which were formerly bredfrom blood stock, have almost disappeared.COLOUR .

—The Arabs, Barbs , and Turks fromwhich our racehorses so largely trace theirdescent were of very various colours. Lessthan a third of t he number enumerated byMr. Osborne in t he H orse—breeders’H andbook

are described by colour ; but so far as this proportion enables us t o j udge, grey w as muchcommoner than it is now . There are 1 6 greyhorses

,1 1 bay , 8 chestnut, 4 black , 3 dun or

yellow,2 white

, 2 brown, 2 roan , 2 piebald or

particoloured, and 1 bay roan. This variety ofcolour is reflected in t he ages of t he early StudBooks and Racing Calendhrs : greys , blacks, andparticoloured horses were much more n umerouson t he Turf a century ago than they are in ourow n day , when, so far as England is concerned,grey and particoloured horses have practica llydisappeared, while blacks are rare. The period1 760—1 800saw some of t he best grey horses thatever ran : Gimcrack, Mambrino, Grey B iomed,Kildare (an Irish horse), H ollandaise and Sym

metry (winners of t he S t . Leger in 1 778 and

1 798 respectively). Grey horses become feweras w e examine t he records of t he last century ;t he on ly grey sire now serving, so far as t he

writer is aware, is Grey Leg. H orses of thiscolour have grown rare because w e have not

w ithin memory had a grey sire of outstandingexcellence t o perpetuate his k ind.Chestnut, formerly an uncommon colour, hasgradually become more frequent . I t is worthnoticing t he fact that Eoli se w as a chestnut,and it is a commonplace of tiie Turf that Eclipseblood is asserting its greater vital ity over t heblood of H erod and Mat chem . Blacks are now

unusual ; when t he colour does occur, it indicates with certain ty descent from t he blackByerley Turk . This colour is prone t o dis

appear for a generation or t w o and appearagain. Bay and brown

,varieties of t he same

colour,are now

,as for many years past, t he

common hues of our Thoroughbreds ; and t he

predominance of bays seems t o furnish evidencein support of t he theory that t he colour of t heancestral horse was bay . [W. G.]

Thoroughpin Compress forThoroughp in

Th o ro u g h p in .—A soft fluctuating swell

ing at t he upper and posterior part of t he hook ,beneath t he great tendon (extensor pedis), isknown by this name, and is a bursal enlarge

202 Thousand - headed Ka le Threadw orms

ment. It may appear on one side only, bu tmore frequently on both. Tw o kinds are dist inguished

—one by sprain and irritation of t hetendon ; and t he other from sim ilar conditionsaffecting t he true hock joint, and often an extension of t he condition known as bog spavin . Anexcess of synovial fluid which must bulge whereit can , and taking t he l ine of least resistance, isa description which applies both t o bog spavinand t he t w o forms of thoroughpin , but theyvary greatly in extent and degree. Lamenessis so often absent that t he enlargement is generally observed without any history of knownsprain or trouble ; but some degree of stiffness,of heat in t he part, and an attitude intendedt o favour t he joint, must have been present atfirst. Although cons t ituting techn ica l unsoundness it is often passed over by practical horsemen

,as it may remain about t he same for years,

while t he animal continues t o work sound. Asa rule"

,however, it increases. Blistering gene

rally confers benefit,both at t he time, by some

reduction of t he swelling, and subsequently, bythickening t he skin and strengthening t he pal

jt s.

H . L.

Th o u sa n d - h ea d e d Ka le .—The atten

tion of agriculturists w as first drawn t o thisvaluable fodder crop by t he late Mr. R obertR ussel l of H orton Kirby, Dartford, Kent, in1 876. M r. R ussell drew special attention t o

its luxuriance and adaptabili t y for all kinds ofsoils

,and also t o its importance, as both a spring

and autumn fodder. H e recommended it t o besown in April for A ugust consumption , and inAugust forApril consumption—a syst em whichprovides an ample amount of fodder at t wo

critica l periods of t he year. So completely hast he name of t he introducer of this crop becomeidentified with it, that t o this day t he mos tapproved seed is described as R ussel l’s stock .

Thousand- headed Kale belongs t o t he classof open—headed cabbages. The distinguishingtitle ‘thousand - headed ’ refers t o its numerousbuds at t he axils of every leaf, which branchou t during t he development of t he plant andform a dense globular mass of foliage. It is insome respects similar t o rape, but t he leaf is A’ 9' B’ 3 “

more cabbage- like,being oval and less lyrate in

form,besides being of a l ighter - green colour

,

and free from t he blue- green or glaucous tintof rape. It grows very vigorously, often rising(before flowering) t o such a height that a mancan put t he leaves betw een his teeth withoutstooping. It attains its maximum develo menton good land

,after having been singled, u t it

may be grown on poorer classes of land. Int he latter case it is better left unsingled, andwhen so grown forms a sol id mass of vegetationparticularly suitable for ewes and lambs. Itmay also be mixed with rape or white turnipson high- lying ground

,with excel lent results.

The roots are very strong and ‘fangy ’, especially after t he crop has been singled, and thisconstitutes an objection

,although easily over

come. The same tendency also probably accountsfor t he plant being thought less suitable as a

preparation for corn than rape, as t he rootscarry off a considerable amoun t of fertil izingmatter when removed, as they almost must be.

The depth and st rength of t he roots enable t heplant t o roduce a second or even a third cropafter fol '

ng, and it has been said to be evencapable of st anding for an indefinite t ime, producing folds for sheep at intervals

,during its

occupation of t he ground. It is extremely hardy,and successfully resisted t he intense fros t of

1 895 , when even rape died,and swedes rotted.

The cul t ivation is exactly t he same as forrape,and 3 cwt. per acre of superphosphate drilledwith t he seed is suffi cient manuring. Like all

crops,it is benefited by a dressing of dung.

Three pounds of seed are usually d rilled, in rowsfrom 1 8 t o 27 in. apart. J . Wr.]Th rea d w orm s (N ematoda), a class of

worms with t he following general characters.The body is unsegmented,more or less thread—like orstringlike

,cylindrical “ in

cross section ; t he skin iscovered with a smoot h or

slightly ringed cuticle,

often thick , usual ly unpigmen t ed

,and in many cases

subject t o moulting ; t hemuscular system is welldeveloped and consists ofelongated muscle- cells arranged longitudin al ly

,and

often leaving t w o free‘la t eral lines a nerve ringround t he gullet gives offnerves forwards and backwards ; t he sensory systemis represented by papil laeround t he mouth ; t he alimentary canal is usuallywell developed ; there is novascular system nor respirat ory system ; t w o lateralexcretory tubes open farforward by a single pore ;t he sexes are usually separate, t he males are often

Dochmius duodenalis much smaller than t he

females ; t he life- history isin many cases very in t ricate. Many of t he N ema

todes live in water (fresh and salt), damp earth,and decaying organic matter ; t he others areparasitic during part or t he whole of l ife. Of

t he latter,some are free as larvae and parasitic

as adults,e.g . Tylenchus and Strongylus ; others

are parasitic as larvae and free as adults,e.g.

Mermis ; others are parasitic throughout life,

and in most cases require two host s. The following representative t y es may be noted : A scarismegalocep hala from t e horse, Ox'

z/uris curvu lafrom t he horse, both in t he family Ascaridae ;Strongylus in horses

,cattle

,sheep ; Eustrongylus

gigas in t he kidney of t he horse, Dochmius cernuain sheep and goats

,Syngamus trachealis causing

gapes in poultry—all in t he family Strongylidae ;Tric/zocep /ia lus afi nis in sheep

,Trichina sp iralis

in rat, pig, man , and other host s

,both in t he

family Trichot rachelidee ; F ilaria immit is,t he

cruel worm in dogs, Sp irop tera ret imt la ta , round

tendons and muscles in horses,both in t he

family F ilariidae ; Mermis,that creeps out of

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204

it w as not until Andrew Meikle of Whitekirk,East Lothian , patented his revolving drumworking in a concave

,in 1 788, that anything

of practica l value w as evolved. This is one of

t he most notable and most valuable inventionsyet produced. M eikle’s machine w as successfulwhere its predecessors were not

,because it com

bined bot h a striking and a rubbing action .

All threshing is now done on this principle inwhich t he squeezing ac tion plays so great apart . M eik le’s principle separa te d t he strawfrom t he corn by means of a jogging screen ;and used t w o blasts

,t he first blast separating

t he chaff, and t he second freeing t he gra in,after passing through a hummeller

,from im

purities. There were therefore t he elemen t aryfoundations for t he cleaning part s w hich are

Thresh ing M ach inery

found in t he ‘finishing ’ machines of t o- day .

The modern straw shaker, where t he straw isreceived on a series of long slatt ed arms placedparallel on cranks which produce a somewhatperistaltic action by giving them a throw which

,

whilst oing forward, causes each to al t ernatelyrise an so l ift t he straw onward

, and whilstgoing backward t o sink, so that it does not

hinder t he forward motion of t he straw, wasinven ted between 1 829 and 1 837, Docker of

Findon claiming t he first date, and R itchie of

Melrose t he later. The threshing machine,which is also spoken of as t he drum,

t he barnpart

, t he mill , t he thresher, &c.

,in various dis

t rict s, is now capable of handling a crop in sucha way that, whilst making all needful separations in connection with t he straw and foreign

lfi'

g. l .—Sect ional View of Finish ing Threshing Machine (Brown May , Lt d . )

A , Unt hreshed Corn. B , St raw .

1 , Drum. 1A, Concave. 2

, Shakers .

7 , Seed Sieve. 8 , First B lower.

B lower. 1 3 , Separat ing Screen.

0, Cavings .

3 , Upper Shoe .

9,Corn Elevator.

1 4, Corn Sp ou t .

matter, it turns ou t a sample of corn so wel ldressed that it is fit for market ; though moresimple machines are still made which, whilsteffecting good threshing

,do not aim at making

a market sample, nor are they so complete intheir other separations ; they are, however, general ly constructed t o be worked by small power,such as hand

,horse, or small engine.

The working parts of t he threshing machineare t o a great extent encased

,and t he process

of a sheaf through it is not easily followed .

The illustration (fig. 1 ) is a sectional View of

M essrs. Brown May’s finishing machine,which

shows t he order adopted in t he best machines.To make it more easily u nderstood

,it has to be

recognized that after t he sheaf is broken u and

threshed,which is done as it passes throng t he

drum and concave, t he straw passes along t heshakers and falls out at t he front of t he machine. N 0 further heed need therefore be takenof t he straw. All the remaining mat erials goon t o t he cavings screen ; and t he cavings areexpelled and therefore are finished with. The

smal ler mate rial left behind is chaff, corn, andsmall rubbish . When t he chaff meet s a blast

,

it is . blown ou t ; consequently, there remains

n, Chafi .

10, Awn er and Polisher.

1 5 , Second Dresser.

E, Chobe.

4, Caving R iddle.

r, Com . 6 ,Finished Grain . H . Dust .

5 , Chat" R iddle. 6 , Chob R iddle.

1 1 ,‘

ConveyorWorm. 1 2, Back

1 6, Third Dresser.

8,2,

nothing but t he grain and it s heavy impurities,so that

,from this stage

,all operations are d irect ed

towards t he cleaning of t he grain.The details of t he process from t he commencement are

,that t he sheaf is led into mouth of

t he machine, and is dragged in by t he revolvingdrum

,1,t he beaters of which are fluted, so that

whilst exercising force t o beat, and rub againstt he bars of t he concave, 1 A , they allow t he grainto adapt it self in t he indentures so that it is notcrushed

,as it would be if brought violently be

tween t w o hard surfaces. The threshing is complet ed whilst passing through t he drum and con

cave,much of t he corn falling directly downwards

towards t he caving riddle,4 ; t he other passes

along with t he straw t o t he shakers,2 where it

is shaken through with t he cavings,chaff

,and

other smal l material t o t he 11 per shoe, t he strawpassing out at t he front. T e upper shoe, 3 , isa reciproca ting receiving board which shakesback anything which fal ls on t o it towards themiddle of t he machine, where it falls on t o t hecaving riddle

,4,which reciprocates in such a

w ay that it sifts through anything that willpass through its perforations, but carries t heremainder, t he cavings, forward, where they

Thresh ing

fal l under t he straw ; t he chafi'

and corn fal lthrough on t o t he lower shoe

,another rec ipro

cating board, which works them towards t hemiddle of t he machine again

,where they fal l

on t o a series of sieves,5, 6, and 7 , meeting

there a blas t Of air from t he fan 8,which blows

ou t t he chafi'

,and leaves nothing but grain and

heavy small material behind : thus the stage isreached where subsequent operations are con

fined t o t he cleaning of t he grain . R iddle 5 ist he chafi

‘ riddle ; 6 t he chob riddle, which takesOff poppy and thistle heads

,pieces of stick

, &c .,

which have reached this point ; but it allows t hesmal l heavy seeds and particles of dirt t o passthrough on t o 7 , t he seed riddle, which holds upt he grain

,but allows small seeds such as Char

lock and Dock, and dirt of similar and smallersize

,t o pass ou t at E . This constitutes t he first

cleaning. In connection with t he operationsafter t he short material passed through t he

Drum Guard , open

Mach inery 205

Openings in t he shakers, it may be noticed thatt he upper shoe, cavin g, and riddl e, low er shoe,t he chafi

' riddle,and t he series of sieves below,

are so suspended on ash hangers that , in spiteOf their great size and weight, they are actuatedwith little effort. If these parts oscillated inguides

,which would cause great frict ion , espe

cially in such dus ty surroundings, they wouldconsume much power ; however, t he suspensmn

allows motion without frict ion , and with muchease.

The corn having received its first cleaningwhen it passes over t he seed sieve 7, is shakendown t he shaker shoe into t he bottom of t he

case enclosing t he corn elevator, t o undergofurther cleaning. The elevator is a continuousbel t carrying dredging cups, and works over anupper and lower pulley. The corn is thus takenagain t o t he top of machine at t he rear of t hedrum

,so that it may be dealt with in another

Drum Guard , shutFig . 2.—Safet y DrumGuard

cleaning sect ion . It may be noticed here thatt he space within t he threshing machine isdivided into three sect ions t he u

pper or

tion in fron t t o eliminat e st raw and c afi'

,2) a

small section below 1 t o t he first dressin (3)t he space behind t he drum t o t he second ressing and finishing. The corn leaves t he elevat or,9, t o pass into t he awner (hummel ler or haler)and polisher, 10, a combination of beat ers andchil led - iron disks running in a metal case withcorresponding serrated rings, which take Off

any chaff which adheres t o wheat, or awns notbroken from barley kernels, at t he same timebrightening t he grain by rubbing. When it isnot necessary t o use t he hummeller, t he cornpasses direct t o t he second series of sieves bymeans of a conveyor worm,

1 1 . A second blastis provided by a fan , 1 2, which operates upon t hecorn as it passes over t he sieves 1 5 and 1 6, andany rough material is blown forward , and bymeans of '

a guide is sen t on t o t he caving riddle,4. The corn , F , is now practically clean , and

passes t o t he rotary screen, 1 3 , for final separation . In this particular machine a third bloweris used, being placed on t he end of t he awnerspindle t o remove any light particles which mayhave escaped ; this is brought t o bear on t he

grain as it enters t he rotary screen . The corn

en t ers t he cylinder Of t he rotary wire screen,

and, in passing along, all those grains which are

too large to fal l through are conveyed t o t heother end , and drop into t he corn spouts . Thisis t he cleaned sample. The thin or tail grains

,

which fall between the bars of t he screen , fal linto t he t ail - corn spout s ; those nearest t o t heentry naturally being t he sma llest

,are t he tail

proper, and t hose falling lat er are known as

seconds. This completes t he whole Operation ;but there are several Special attachments whichare used with more or less frequency t o aecomplish specific purposes ; most of these are supplied t o t he best types of machin es.Ordinarily, feeding is done by aman st andingin a sunk hole, t he feed - hole running alongsidet he drum

,where he is conveniently placed t o

control t he feeding. Owing t o t he danger andt he numerous serious accidents which prevailedwhen nothing was provided t o keep t he feederfrom falling in

,drum guards are now com

pulsorily provided . They are generally of suchconstruction that if a man applies a portion of

his weigh t t he cover is brought over t he drum ,

and accident avoided . Automatic feeders areincreasingly used

,and take various forms. In

Wilder’s automatic feeder t he sheaves,after t he

bands are cut, are spread on t he shaker boxes,

206 Thresh ing

and carried by them under t he vibrating fork,which feeds t he corn evenly into t he drummouth. M essrs. Clayton Shuttleworth combine the self- feeder with a sheaf elevator, bandcutter

,and a wind stacker

,making an essen

t ially modern machine. The P lat e gives a

good idea Of t he arrangement. The elevatoris removable, and can be attached t o either sideof t he machine ; and t he pitch is easily alteredby means of t he suspender. The band cutterhas a series of knives On a spindle, which cut

Mach inery

t he band and spread t he sheaf as it moves forward t o t he feeder. Th e feeder is fitt ed withan efficient governor t o control t he rate of feed

,

and feeding does not start until t he speed of

t he thresh ing drum rises within 5 per cent oft he normal rate. The W indstacker is used muchmore abroad than at home. The straw falls intoa large fan revolving at high speed ; t he fan isprovided with a hooded spout through whicht he straw is blown and carried on t o t he stack.

The threshing drum is made of metal through

Fig. 3 .—Sect ion t hrough Pat ent Divided Blast

ou t,instead of with steel fluted plates sitting on

wood. This is practicable because t he plates areflanged so as t o give a big rubbing surface ; andbeing a smooth surface it threshes clean withou t unduly breaking t he straw. The drum is ina fixed position ; consequently, t o afford Opport unit y t o regulate t he distance between t he

drum and the concave,t he latter has t o be ad

just able, and is made in t w o parts having threeindependent adj ustments . Loose corn requiresa wider feeding mouth than sheaved corn

,and

Fig. 4.—Sect ion t hrough Adjust able Barley Awner

t he adj ustments allow this t o be provided for.

Indicator plates at t he side of t he machine provide ready means for accurate adjustment. Thearms or boxes of t he straw shakers are carriedon a single or double crank ; preference may begiven t o t he double because they are more easilybalanced and t he straw is more vigorously actedupon over t he whole surface. Check boards areplaced over t he shakers t o prevent grain beingthrown out by t he force of t he beaters. The

riddles are perforated in a special manner, with

t he under side of t he perforations broadest, t o

allow t he material t o pass through freely andavoid blocking. The illustration shows t hemethod Of arranging t he caving riddle and t he

sieves in t he first dresser, together with t he

fan and t he direction of t he blast. The cornriddles are changeable t o suit t he nature of t he

crop being threshed. The adjustable barleyawner

,comprising t he helica l blades and polish

ing bars,is shown ; and t he degree of polishing

can be regulated by moving them so that theyapproach nearer t o or fartherfrom t he narrow end Of t he

conica l casing ; provision foreffecting which is made byt he small hand wheel working a threaded screw. M uchharm is often done by not properly regulating this attachment

,especial ly in t he case of

barley, where t oo hard rubbing skins t he kernel so muchthat it becomes useless formalting purposes

, as it willnot germinate.

6

The rotary screen is so con

structed that t he space between t he wires throughoutits length can be adj usted toscreen small seeds oranythingup t o t he siz e of peas. This

is effected by means of a screw contained in t hehol low shaft or spindle

,adjusting springs inside

t he mesh causing t he wire t o expand evenly atall parts, according as .t he setting screw givesspace. Round wire has been used, but wirewith a somewhat truncated pear - shaped sectionis better as being less likely t o block .

It is now pretty general t o attach a chaffbagging attachment t o machines

,instead Of

al lowing t he chaff t o fal l t o t he ground ; and inmany cases this is advan tageous. Straw ele

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Thrips Thrush

vat ors, introduced in 1 85 3 , are included in all

sets of t hreshin tackle, and tend t o increase t hequantity Of w or done daily. Their chief Objections are that they are heavy, costly, and liablet o

get ou t of repair quickly—unless carefully

t en ed—and t o harbour dust in t he trough,

w hich on wetting becomes mud and causesrapid decay. In America light elevators areattached t o t he framework of t he machine

,

hinged so as t o easily fold back over t he drumfor transit ; and this is better than t he heavys t ackers in common use in Britain. On farms

,

however, t he stacker is general ly needed forst acking corn or hay during harvest, cousequently there is not t he inclination t o purchaset he t w o kinds. It is not uncommon now t o

attach a straw trusser t o t he machine, so as t o

take t he straw from t he shakers, and bind it

for transport. Double- string trussers are use

ful , and commonly used. S ingle- string trussersare available, and are useful for many urposes

on t he farm, but t he trusses are not su c ien t lyneatly or securely bound for rou h transport.The trusser is an adaptation of t e principlesof t he sheafer and binder of t he corn binder.Where straw is needed for export t he balingpress is a useful adj unct. One Of t he most useful attachments is t he chafl

‘ cutt er, but it isnecessary t o employ t he large five or six - knifemachines, as t he straw has t o be chafied as fastas it can be passed through t he thresher. See

Cnarr CUTTERS .

A clover - rubbing drum ,t he essential part of

which is a revolving core with helica l edgesworking in a conical concave, is attached t o

some threshing machines. Until comparativelyrecent years a so lid core w as used ; but th is isfound unnecessary, and a hol low, helica lly ribbedcore is more effective. The huller, rubber, or

drawer is used t o rub ou t t he seed from t he

pods,w hich with other parts Of t he seed- head

form t he cob . [W. J. M.]Th rip s , a remarkable group of insects forwhich a separate order, Thysanoptera, has been

Thrips

1 - 4 , Thrip s cerealium ; 5 - 8, T. minu t issima (both nat uralsiz e and magnified)

constituted. They are of smal l size,with four

narrow fringed wings, elongate bodies, and feetending in sucking disks, whence t he Germanname Bladder- foot . They are sometimes popularly known as Black -fly , or Thunder-fly . The

207

larvae resemble t he adults except in colour andin t he absence Of wings. They inj ure

plants

by sucking t he sap, and their very sma l sizemakes them diffi cult t o deal with . They aresometimes very troublesome in hothouses, anda few outdoor crops are particularly liable t o

attack. The best-known species is Thrips cerealium an active l ittle black insec t , whichresides in t he spathes and husks of wheat andrye in June, causing t he grain t o shrivel , andat an earlier period effecting t he absorption oft he ear, by puncturing t he stems above t he

joints,being most injurious t o late- sown wheat.

In t he larval state they are deep - yellow.

T. minu t i'

ssima (Linn ) lives beneath potatoleaves in t he summer, and subsists upon t hesap. It is of a pale- yel low colour in all itsstages.Another very destructive species is t he PeaThrips

,T. p isi

'vora,which attacks t he develop

ing pods, greatly disfiguring1them, and in bad

cases ruining t he crop. T e larva is yel lowwith a black tail

,but t he mature in sect is black.

The eggs are laid in t he substance of t he stamenshea th in t he pea flower. [J . c.] [c . W.]Th roa t , Disea se s o f .—The various t hroat

affections t o which farm l ive stock are l iableare fully described in t he arts. LARYNGITIS ;CATAR RH ; R OAR ING A ND Wm srnme ; H OOSE ;TUBERCULOS IS .

Th rom b os is .—A clot of blood in a vessel ,

more Often a vein than an artery, is known asa thrombus, and t he condition as thrombosis ,when it more or less completely obstructs t hecanal. It fol lows upon accidents and inj urieswhere coagulation results, and t he clot is carriedinto a vessel and arrested by a valve or byreaching one in 'which its further passage isimpeded by t he smallness of t he channel . Clotsfol lowing on parturition are perhaps t he mos tfrequent

,and give rise t o lameness behind,

through plugging of a vessel of supply t o t helimb. A clot from an inj ured car has beenknown t o cause plugging in t he lungs, and

thrombosis and pneumonia. Thrombi are not

Often within t he range of treatment,but there

is a tendency t o fatty degeneration and gradualabsorption , with restoration of function as t heobstruction disappears. [H . L .]Th ru s h is t he name given t o a dischargefrom t he cleft of t he fro of t he horse’s foot

,

Often ext ending t o its who e substance. I t con

sists of degenerate horny material and has a

very Obnoxious Odour. I t is caused by im sr

feet secret ion of t he horn papillae, and is sel omseen in unshod horses with frogs, which havethei r share in bearing t he animal’s weigh t andare consequently functionally active. The raising of t he frog from t he ground by a rim of

iron attached t o t he crust is a physiologicalcrime

,but an economic necessity. It throws

t he frog ou t of work ; atro by and degeneration follows, and then t he fal ing- ih of t he heels

,

or sO- called contracted feet. ‘Wired in ’ is t heterm given by farriers. The true remedy is t orestore frog

pressure. With t he carriage horse

this is done y a variety of rubber and leatherpads. Blacksmiths should be instructed t o re

move no part of t he frog or sole save ragged

208

or exfoliating portions. P rovided t he shoes oft he general - u t ility horse are not row in inpressing on t he seat of corn—he erives enefit

from wearing them unti l they become thin and

permit t he frog to come more in con tact w itht he ground. The hunter and t he farm horseget some assistance from oing over t he soil .S tanding in stale l it ter on ad floors doubtlesscontributes t o causing thrush. Calomel dustedinto t he fissures

,or a nightly dressing of 5 part s

S tockholm tar t o 1 of table sa lt,is curative, as

are all metal lic sal t s in solution, but they dryup t he foot instead of restoring t he functionof t he frog ; and it is t o t he measures aboveadvoca ted w e would specially call at te

pt ion

z.

|H . L .

Th u j a , a genus ( including Biot a and Thujopsis) which comprises about a dozen speciesof very ornamen ta l, hardy conifers, t he foliageof some of which changes t o brown in winter

,

becoming green again in spring. The leaves andcones are small . The most valuable species forplanting are : T. d olabra ta

,Japan, which forms

a large t ree, and has shining leaves. There is avariet y variega ta marked wit h creamy yellow ,

and another of dwarf habit (nana) . T. gigan tea ,R ocky Mountains, a handsome fast - growingtree

,somewhat fast igiate in habit

,and wel l

adapted for avenue planting,or t o form a screen .

I t atta ins to 1 50 ft. in height,and there are

several varieties. T. j aponica , Japan , an ornamen ta l shrub Of erect conica l habit. T. occid en

t ah s,American Arbor- vitae

,White Cedar, heigh t

40ft . t o 50ft . ; introduced from N orth Americain 1 5 98 . There are several variet ies, includinga S iberian form. T. orientalz

'

s (B iota orien ta lis),Chinese Arbor- vitae

,a low tree or pyramidal

bush which is very variable. It is one of t he

best ornamenta l shrubs ; aurea, j ap onica , com

pacta , elegant zlesima , meldensz'

a, pend u la

,and sem

peraurescens are all good ' forms. The speciesof Thuja are raised from seeds sown in 8 ringunder glass. Cu tt ings of half - ripened shoot staken in summer readily root in heat or in a

shaded frame. The forms are commonly graftedon seedling stocks . These trees thrive in almostany soil , bu t it should not be very w et or poorin quality. [W.W. ]Th ym e . Tw o spec ies of Thymus (nat . ord .

Labiatae) are cultivated in gardens for theiraromatic leaves , which are used in son 8 and

st uffings. These are Common Thyme (ITvul

yam’

s) , of which there are narrow and broadleaved varieties ; and Lemon Thyme (T. se

r

pg/l

lum orCitriodorusvulgaris), which has a creepinghabit. Thyme is usually grown as an edgingplant, forwhich purpose it should be replan t edevery three or four years. P lants are generallyraised from seeds sown in April in finely prepared soil , either where they are t o stand or ina seedbed, being eventually transplan t ed t o from4 t o 6 in. apart. Thyme is also readily increased

‘by division in March or April,this being the

best method with Lemon Thyme ; or by cuttingor layering. A light

,rich

,well - drained soil

and warm posit ion are best for t he plant s . Thebranches are ou t j ust before coming into flower

,

and hung up in an airy pla ce for use when

required .

Thuja Tillage

m .

H . L .]Tig er M o t h ; a brilliantly coloured mothwhose larvae cause much destruction on gardenplants and moths. See ARCT IA .

Til la g e . Under t he expression ‘til lage’(which Johnson defines as husbandry a largenumber Of Operations might be included. It isdifficult t o separate current ac t s of tillage fromdrainage, subsoil in g, or clay - burning

,as all of

them improve t he physica l , or mechanical, condition of t he soil. The term is, however, commouly res t ricted t o operations which take placein t he ordinary course of crop cultivation ; but‘tillages ’

,as unders t ood by valuers, is more

elastic,and may include processes which are

not performed by implemen t s . A schedule of

tillages migh t , for instance, contain an allowance for t he consumption Of a root crop upont he land by sheep ; a dressing Of dung, or of

art ificial manure, or t he residual value of cloveror sa infoin root

,left for t he benefit of an in

coming tenant. There are other Operations,which

,although of similar nature

,appear under

other headings, such as liming,chalking, marl

ing,and boning. These may or may not have

been immediately applied to a recent or s tanding crop, and are more conveniently scheduledunder compensation ’for unexhausted improvements

,or it may be for cake and purchased

foods consumed on t he holding.Tillage may therefore be regarded from t wo

point s of view. First, as a. general term for

acts of husbandry such as ploughing, harrowing,and rolling ; and , secondly, as including every

process which fits t he ground for producingett er crops. In this latt er sense tilla e maypr

pperly be considered as ‘husbandry ’

, u t , as

nu erst ood by valuers , it is restrict ed to Operations preceding a particular crop. Tillages

,as

an asset of a sitting tenant, are usual ly barred

by t he rea liza tion Of t he crop t o which they areapplied . Thus no tillages are allowed on a cornstubble

,or after potatoes

,or aft er any crop sold

off t he land. There are, however, half - til lages,as when a root crop has been consumed and t heresidual benefits stil l remain ; and these halftillages are recognized by all valuers as con

st it u t ing valid claims. Tillages,however, gen

erally refer t o t he current expendit ure of t he

year ; and back- tillages,of a durable character,

are more properly classed under t he head of

compensation. [J . Wr.]

Tic ks—These acarina have been long known,t he dog tick being mentioned by Aris totle.

R ecent investigations have established the fac tthat quite a number of diseases are tick - borne.

R edwater and Texas fever,whether varieties

of t he same disease or not , have been tra ced t oinoculation by ticks which have themselves beeninfected. The males and t he nymphs feed uponpus or other products of t he inflammat ion theycause by biting, but t he females suck blood andin t he act infect their hosts. The d isease iscarried to t he next generation although t heyhave not had contact with an infect ed animal.The reader is referred to t he art s. TEXAS FEVERand REDWATER . The means of eradicating themfrom infested past ures is dealt with under TEXASFEVER and R EDWA ’

I‘ER. See also IxoDFs

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2 10

( tracheids) wi th large internal spaces (lumina),w hose walls are dotted with large bordered its ;and somet imes there is also a subordinate orm

of wood fibre shaped like true hard tissue, butfi lled wi th rot oplasm,

starch , and other substances. (2 The wood - vessels, seen as poreson making a tran sverse section , are long narrowtubes closed at both ends, with thin wal ls andlarge lumina. (3 ) The wood- cells forming softtissue (parenchyma) are thin - wal led, more or

less cubica l , and mostly with flattened ends ;and they are chiefly found near t he vessels,where they store reserve nutrients ( starch , &c.)for reproductive purposes ( new foliage, flowers ,and fruit, while t he sap is conveyed throught he woody fibres and t he vessels .The wood of broad- leaved trees contains allthree kinds of woody fibres

,while that of coni

fers consists only of tracheid fibres. H ence, t helarger t he relative pro ort ion of hard tissue,t he heavier, harder, an stronger is t he woodof any given kind of broad - leaved tree ; and t helarger t he proportion of thick -walled tracheidswith small lumina produced during t he warmsummer weather, as compared with t he thinwalled tracheids with large lumina forming t hesofter inner zone produced in spring, t he heavier,harder, and stronger is t he wood of any givenkind of coniferous tree. In conifers, any woodcells formed are found only around t he resinducts in t he Abietineae

,and are Sparsely scat

t ered throughout t he tracheids in t he otherkinds . But both broad - leaved and coniferoustrees havemedullary rays, formed of wood- cells

,

extending radial ly from t he central pith ( orsome annual ring n '

ear it ) t o t he bark. Thesemedullary rays serve partly for storing reservenutrients in winter (for leaf production , &c.

, inspring), and their number and size affect t hetechnical properties of timber. In conifers theyare narrow and close

,giving a sort of silky gloss

t o a. thin transverse section ; but in broad- leavedtrees they are usually more prominent, beinglargest of all in Oak, where they form t he‘flowering ’ when planks are cut radially t o

show the silver side ’. These rays are broadest

in Oak and Beech, and highest in Oak and

Alder ; fairly broad in Ash, Elm, Maple,Syca

more,P lane

, and H ornbeam ; narrow in Alder,Birch

, Cherry, Chestnut, H orse- chestnut,Lime

,

and R obinia ; and almost indistinguishable inWillows and Poplars , The wood of conifersdiffers further from that of broad- leaved treesby usually having resin - ducts or tubular spacessurrounded by resin - producing cells withoutdefinitely constructed walls . These resin - ductsare not only found running longitudinally int he stem and branches

,usual ly in t he summer

zone of wood,but also occur along t he medullary

rays . Both of these t w o kinds of resin - ductscommunica t e with each other

,and t he total

quantity of resin stored u in t he wood hasa great influence on its technical properties.The width of each annual ring of wood varieswith t he soil and sit uation

,and t he amount and

intensity of light during t he growing period ;and t he annual rings are usually broader inyoung and midd le - aged than in old trees, whilethey are always broadest near t he butt of t he

Timber

stem ; but t he best class of timber is that In

which t he breadth of t he successive annual ringsis fairly equal, and where t he annual rmgs havea relatively broad dense zone of summer Woodformed during t he warmest time of t he year.2. A s regard s Chemical Comp osit ion, green woodconsists usually of about 50 t o 75 per cent ofwoody substance, and 25 t o 50 per cent of sapor water contain ing organic and mineral substances in solution and suspension ; and evenafter being seasoned or air- dried, from 10 t o 1 2

er cent of its weight consist s of water. The

Framework of t he woody fibres, vessels, and cellsis cel lulose (CGH IO

Ofi ), with a composi t ion of

about 44 carbon , 6 hydrogen , and 50 oxygenper cent, which during a process ca lled lignifica t ion loses oxygen and absorbs more ca rbonalong with n itrogen and mineral substances.But t he elemen tary composition of t he drywoody substance varies only slightly in differentwoods, t he rough average consisting of t he following percentages : 50 carbon , 6 hydrogen , 42oxygen , 1 nitrogen , and l ash or incombustiblemineral substances consisting chiefly of lime, potash , magnesia, and phosphoric acid, t he amountand composition of which vary, of course, ac

cording t o t he kind of tree and t he soil, situation , and cl imate. The organic and mineral substances in solution or suspension in t he sap are

part s of t he cell - wal l or products of it s transformation

,and include protein or nitrogenous

matter,carbohydrates, and glucosides ; oils,

resins, and aromatic substances ; tannic, oxalic,and other acid s ; and dyestuffs ; and these com

bine t o give t he different parts of t he tree, andespecially t he heartwood , their ow n peculiar anddistinctive colour, aroma, and properties. Sometrees form a harder and darker- coloured heartwood of inert tissue, which is heavier, morethickly stored with organic and mineral substances

,and more durable than t he younger

zone of sapwood, in which sap can stil l ascend(see H EARTWOOD and SAPWOOD).3 . The Ornamen tal Propert ies of Timber are it scolour

,lustre, grain ,

texture, and marking, andsometimes also its odour oraroma (eg . Cam hor

wood). When green or freshly sawn , tim er isl ighter in colour than when seasoned and longexposed t o t he air. Woods used for ornamen talpurposes, such as furniture, wainscoting, &c.

,

are chiefly selected on account of their colour,texture

,and marking ; and t he coarser t he grain

of t he wood,t he more t he texture and t he mark

ing are displayed (as in Ash and Mahogany) ;while t he greatest variety of marking is shownon a radial section fully exposing t he medullaryrays ( eg. t he flowering of Oak). Forkedgrowth and abnormal ‘burr ’ excrescences increase t he value of timber for ornamental purposes

,though depreciating its value forbuilding

and construction. There is, however, a fashionin woods ; and many beautiful tropical and subt ro ical kinds of timber can only be sold profit a ly in Britain under some ficti t ious name like‘Australian Teak ’ or

‘Canadian Mahogany ’,suggestive of well - known woods lon in demand,and t o which t he bear some resem lance.

4. ThePhysical rop ert z’

es of Timber, uponwhichits mechanica l properties are directly dependent,

Timber

and which are therefore of farmore importancethan mere outward a pearance, are : ( 1 ) its densit y and weight, (2) t e amount of water it contains, or t he extent t o which it is seasoned, (3)its relation toward s drought and moisture, asevidenced in shrinking

,cracking or s lit t ing,

warping, and expanding,and (4) its freedom

from defects and unsoundness. All these physical properties are continually acting and reacting on each other ' for t he dryness or mois t nessof t he wood affects it s density or specific weightas well as its tota l volume

,and also t he d irec

tion in which shrinkage and expansion takeplace under dry and moist conditions of t heatmosphere.

( 1 ) A s regards dens ity and weight , t he specificweight of t he pure woody substance (exclusiveof lumina and other hollow spaces) is in our

w oodland trees on t he average about 1 5 bothfor heartwood and sapwood ; but t he specific

gravity per cubic foot of wood varies greatly forifferen t k inds of trees ; while for any ivenkind it also varies greatly in t he green an t he

seasoned conditions. For technical purposes itis only t he seasoned weight that is important

,

as green timber is not used. Oak, Ash , Beech,H ornbeam

,Maple, Elm,

and Robinia are heavywoods (sp . gr. and above) ; Sycamore, Chestnut

, P lane, Birch , and Larch are of moderateweight (06 t o while H orse- chestnut, Alder,Douglas Fir, P ine, Spruce, S ilver Fir, Willow,Poplar

, Lime, Thuj a gigan tea , and most otherconifers are light (04 t o(2) A sregardsmoistnessordryness, green timber

on t he average con t ains sap or w ater t o aboutone- half of its total weight (42 per cent in hardwoods, 5 2 in softwoods, and 5 7 in conifers) ; andit stil l retains water t o about 10per cent of itsweight when thoroughly seasoned (8 to 10 inbroad - leaved, and 10 t o 1 2 in con ifer wood

,or

more if 'very resinous). To save time and moneyt he more valuable kinds of furniture woodsare now usually dried in hot - air chambers

,as

this does not affect their strength ; otherwiseseasonin takes t w o t o four years for barkedlogs

, an splitting and warping are l ikely t ooccur if logs are sawn in t o planks before sea

soning.(3) A s regards rela t ion to water

,upon which

shrinking, cracking, s lit t ing, w arping, and ex

pansion depend, w oo shrinks more or less inseasoning and thus tends t o warp, t he dense,slow - drying heartwood shrinking more gradually than sapwood, and resinous conifer woodmore gradual ly than that of broad - leaved trees.But t he specific weight of wood gives no indication of it s liability t o shrink or warp. Lime,Beech, H ornbeam, Elm , Chestnut, Birch, and

Alder shrink most, and pedunculate Oak and

conifers least. Shrinkage is least longitudinal ly,greater radially (about 6 per cent),and greatesttangentially (about 10p

er cent) ; and it is thiswant of uniformity in t e rate of shrinkage thatoccasions warping, cracking, and splitting. The

more rapid t he shrinkage, t he greater t he t end eney t o warp , crack , and split ; hence summerfelled timber is more l ikely than winter- fel ledt o do so

,and barked logs crack and split more

than those left wi t h bark on (which in conifers

21 1

would lead t o bark beetles breeding in largenumbers). P ractically

,in proportion as wood

shrinks in seasoning, it swells or expands againby absorbing water in a damp state of t he air;and this must be al lowed for in constructionwith timber.(4) Defects in t imber are d ue t o abnormal anatomic structure and other conditions, and includebranch knots

,twisted fibre

,wound—surfaces and

rind—galls completely covered, and shakes of

various kinds ( simple or star - shaped heartshakes

,frost cracks

,cup or ring - shakes), which

all depreciate t he value of timber for t echnica lpurposes.(5 ) Unsoundness is d ue t o fungus disease. The

chief kinds of unsoundness are canker,red - ro t

,

white-rot , white- piping (Oak), and blueing of

conifers (especially Scots P ine) ; but root - rot ,branch - rot

,and stem - rot are common in old

trees rowing on unsuitable or imperfectlydrained land . And even after it is convertedand used in construction , timber, especially ifon ly partially seasoned or in a damp place

,is

l iable t o be attacked by dry - rot (due t o Mer'ulius

lacrgmans) and other saprophytic fungi.5 . The Mechan ical Prop ert ies of Timber are of

t he first importance,as they govern its relat ion

t o external influences. They include strength,

elasticity,

flexibility , toughness, fissibilit y , hardness

,and durabili ty.

( 1 ) S treng th in timber is t he resistance offeredt o any force tending t o separate its fibres

,

whether applied longitudinally as if pulling t hefibres apart ( tension), or pressing them together(crushing), orat right angles t o t he grain ( transverse pressure or breaking strain), or so as t o

twist t he fibres ( torsion), ormore or less parallelt o t he grain so as t o displace and se arate t hefibres sideways (shearing). The breafing - strain

is by far t he most important in timber used forconstruction . Of our British woods

,Oak

,Ash

,

and Larch stand this pressure best ; then otherhardwoods ; and sa woods and very resinousconifer timber least (though Spruce bett er than,

S ilver Fir, and S ilver Firbetter than Scot s P ine) ;but any defect or unsoundness weakens t hestrength . The coefficient of transverse strengthcan be obtained from t he formula

where W is t he w eight in pounds placed on

middle of t he bar w hich causes it t o break ;L t he length of bar in feet, between supports ;B t he breadth and D t he depth in inches.(2) Elast ici ty , f lexibility , and Toughness

—Intimber, elasticity is proportionate t o t he strength ;while flexibil ity and toughness usually increasewith t he amoun t of water

,and are greater in

green than in partly or wholly seasoned wood,

and also much increased by steaming. H ard~woods have generally t he greatest elasticity

,

and softwoods t he greatest flexibility and toughness ; while in conifers a moderate amount ofresin increases, and much resin diminishes them ;but all these three properties depend on t he

length and straightness of t he woody fibres,

and are diminished by branch - knots and ah

2 1 2 Timber

normal growth of any kind. The modulus ofelasticity is found from t he formula

_

1 1 3_ l

a s d’

where L,B,and D are as above, and W is t he

weight in pounds support ed at t he centre of t he

bar and causing a deflection of d inches.(3 ) F issibility is t he ease with which wood

can be split by a wedge driven in parallel t ot he run of its fibres. Alder, Lime, and conifers(unless very resinous) are easiest t o split, and

H ornbeam,Elm,Willow, Poplar, Birch, Maple,

and Sycamore hardest ; while Oak, Ash , Beech ,Chestnut, &c.,

occupy an intermediate posit ion .

Fissibil ity is greatest in lon and st raight- fibredwoods, and lea st where fiires are short andstrongly lignified ; and t he drier and moreelastic t he wood, t he easier it is t o split (exceptWillow ,

Poplar, and Alder, in w hich t he wedgeholds better when t he wood is moist). The

greater t he fissibilit y , t he more difficult it ist o obtain a fine smooth surface by planing.

(4) H ardness is t he resistance offered t o t he

penetration of another body, and is usuallycharacteristic of heavy woods, t he hardness increasing with t he strength and cohesiveness oft he woody fibres (see H ARDWOODS and SOFTwoons).(5 ) Durability means t he length of time timbercontinues sound and serviceable ; and this, of

course, varies greatly according t o how and

where it is used . It depends mainly, however,on t he exten t t o which t he wood is exposed t oalternating dampness and dryness, especial lyduring t he warmer months of t he year ; for itis then that t he various timber - boring insects(A nob ium,

P t ilinus, Lymexy lon ,&c.) and t he

many saprophytic fungi (Polyporus, Agaricus,M erulius

,which are chiefly instrumental

in decomposing t he woody tissues and t he ligneous substances, find t he most favourable conditions for their thriving and development. The

mere weigh t of wood gives no proper indica tionof its durability because t he larger t he quantityof albuminoid subst ances contained in any kindof wood, t he more l ikely it is t o be attacked byfungi and insects which feed on these ; but , forone and t he same kind of wood (whether Oak ,Beech

,Larch

,P ine

,t he heavier it is, t he

more durable, owing t o t he higher proportionof lignin and preservative substances per unitof volume. As regards general durability , Oakand other hardwoods (except Beech) are usuallymuch more durable than softwoods, and Larchlasts longer than P ines or F irs ; bu t in conifersit increases with resinousness. Seasoning increases durability

,and winter- fel led timber is

more durable than summer - felled . The durab ilit y can be greatly increased by artificial means(see also TIMBER PRESERVATION and DURAB IL ITYor MATER IALS ). [J . N .]Tim b e r a n d T re e - d e s t ro y i n g

Fu n g i.—Unsound timber is evidence that thetree has grown abnormally. I t may be thatbecause of weakness it w as unable t o producesound timber, or that because of some unfavourable condition in t he soil or atmospheric en

vironmen t , t he tree w as imperfectly nourished.As growth depends on t he act ivity of t he leaves ,it follows that any extensive inj ury to t he folIage by insects or other animals wil l also resultin some un soundness in t he timber. The fungiare another important group of inj urious agentswhich do much damage both in t he forest andafterwards when t he timber is in use.

Almost all t he fungi which destroy timbercan live as saprophytes on dead wood or on

dead part s of a tree. So long as t he tree re

tains its natural bark, these fungi are unablet o reach t he l iving tissues, and it is only aftert he bark is broken that an entrance is effected.

Wounds sui table for t he entrance of destructivefungi are produced by wind and frost, by insect sand ot her animals (e.g. squirrels and rabbit s),and during t he operations of thinnin g, pruning,

felling, and timberhauling. Throughwounds t he fungusfilaments reach t he

livin tissues , and as

t heyiave t he powerof secreting enzymescapable of d issolv

ing cellulose, lignin ,starch

,and other

nutritive mat erialsin t he wood , theyconvert these int ofood material .d Themycelium gra ually

bfl

fall filial (iii-l

i

tdgiggllgg extends throu h t he

t he Branch Snag t ree' frequent, y between t he bark and

wood and thence into t he medullary rays andother part s of t he timber ; filamen t s of the mycelium may also bore through t he walls of t hewood—cells, and gradual ly corrode t he lignifiedwal ls (see fig. 2

,art . FUN GI). In this w ay t he

walls are either reduced to t he thinnest of mem

branes or t he wood becomes a fine powder ; inboth cases decaying cavities are produced. Ift he mycelium att acks t he cambium or otherliving tissues

,these are frequently stimulated

t o abnormal growth and ‘cankers

’are produced,

with swelling and distortion of t he stem, andoften with exudation of gum or resin .The recognition of t he particular fungus in

any case is t he work of t he special ist with W ideexperience, but a brief description of some of

t he more prevalent timber - d est royin fungimay assist identification . I t will be est t o

arrange them in t heir respective groups usedin t he classification in art . FUN GI .Order A scomycetes : ( l ) N ectria.

—Three speciesare destructive t o trees

, and all are wound- fungicommencing their existence on broken branchesorwounds

,whence they s read into living art s.

The sporules are producedin lit tle red cus ionson t he bark .

N ectria d it issima is a. frequent cause of cankeron Apple

,Ash, and other trees (see APPLE

PA R A S I'I‘IC FUNGI, with illustration).N . cinnabarina occurs on dead branches ofmany deciduous trees, and t he bright- red sporulecushions are familiar enough .

N . cu curbit ula frequent s conifers, and re

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21 4

decayed wounds with meta l , cement, &c. , is ofmuch benefit, because t he fungi generally re

main quite active ; a fill ing of cemen t mightbe effective if t he cavity were cleaned ou t , thencharred, and dressed with t ar before fi

[lling uw. G. s .

Tim b e r, Pre serva t io n ofl -The largert he proportion of nitrogenous or albuminoidsubstances cont ained in any kind of wood, t hemore likely it is t o be attacked by insec t s andsaprophytic fungi. These are t he chief causesof decay , and their attacks are facilitated whentimber is exposed t o rapid alternation of dampness and dryness, especial ly if combined withwarmth. If t he albumen can be steril ized or

so altered as t o be made unfit for t he food of

insects and fungi , t he woody fibres then becomestrongly protected against both of these destruotive agencies

,and also against t he action

,thus

obviated,of dissolving fermen t s developing under

their operation. Some kinds of timber,and not

ably hardwoods as compared with softwoods,and

very resinous as compared with only slightlyresinous conifers , have more or less of naturalprotection from substances contained in theirtissue, e.g . t he tannic acid in Oak

,essential oils

distasteful t o insects in Teak,Camphor- wood, andDeodar, strong resinificat ion in Larch and P ine,&c . ; but all timber is much more durable if util iz ed in dry and airy places, or else entirelysubmerged in water or buried in t he ground,where atmospheric oxygen is cut off and thereare practically no al ternating changes from w et

t o dry . The weight of a piece of wood gives ofi tself no reliable indication of its durabil ity

, e.g .

Beech used , say , for fencing decays much soonerthan Larch ; but for any one particular kindof wood (Oak, Ash , Beech , Larch, P ine, Spruce,

t he higher t he specific gravity t he moredurable t he timber, because that means a largerproportion of woody fibres, and of lignin

, tannicacid

,resin, and other substances preservative

of t he woody tissue. Speaking generally,wood

felled in au t umn , just about t he fal l of t he leaf,when there is least sap in t he tree, is more durable than that cut at any other time of t he

year ; and wood felled just before t he flush of

t he foliage in spring, when t he tree is fullest ofsap , is usual ly least durable.

The preservation of timber may take place1 . By seasoning

(1 ) N aturally,by gradual drying in t he

open air.

(2) A rt ificially , by evaporating t he sap inhot—air chambers.

2. By impregna t ion w ith an t isep t ic substances

( 1 ) Through S imple immersion.(2) Through injection under pressure.

Seasoning, whether by slow natural process orby artificial means

,renders wood much lighter

in weight and more durable. M ere superficialcoating w ith paint

, &c.

,is of l ittle use unless

t he wood is thoroughly seasoned and is t o beused indoors. Bu t by far t he most effectivew ay of increasing du rability is t o impregnatet he woody tissue as thoroughly as possible withantiseptic fluids

,rendering t he albuminoid sub

stances unfit for t he food of insects and fungi(see also DURAB IL ITY or MATER IALS).

Timber

The earl iest methods of preservation by antiseptic means were simple submersion of con

verted wood in sea -wat er, or in a solution of

common salt,or in milk of lime (a 1 - in - 40 solu

tion of slaked lime in wat er), or by charringand coal - t arring fence- posts and stobs at t he

lower ends put near or below t he surface of t he

ground. The ideal preservative fluid would beone tha t preserves thoroughly, penetrat es eas ilyand deeply in t o t he wood, remains there permanen t ly , is cheap and innocuous , and does notincrease t he inflammabilit y of t he wood ; bu tno such impregnating substance has yet beendiscovered. For large timber t he four oldestantiseptic processes worked on any large sca leare : ( 1 ) Egan

’s method by simple immer

sion and imbibition of a l -

per- cent solution of

bichloride of mercury, 1 lb. dissolved in 10gal.of water ( 100 lb. ) being sufficient to impregnate50cu. ft. of well - seasoned timber ; (2) B urnet t

'

s

method by injecting a 2 t o 3 -

per- cen t

chloride of zinc solution under neumatic pressure of 105 lb. per square inch (

El li atmospheres )

at 230°F .

,t he wood operated on (chiefly for rail

w ay sleepers) being thoroughly seasoned ; (3)Bethell

’s method by injecting creosote or

crude heavy oil of coal—tar in t o thoroughly seasoned wood under a pressure of 140lb. persquareinch and at a temperature of 1 20

°F and (4)

Boucherie’

s method by in jec t ing a l -

per

cent solution of su lphat e of copper (blue vitriol)under a pressure of 1 4 t o 28 lb. per square in chby means of a gutta- percha tube conveying t hesolution from a t ank 30 to 33 ft. overhead in t oa narrow chamber formed by a cap fitting overone end of t he log, so as t o force ou t t he sapfrom t he other free end as t he solution pressesit s w ay in , a process which is eas ier in t he caseof green than of seasoned wood .

The corrosive sublima te method preserves wel l,

but is dear and poisonous, corroding iron andcausing sores on w orM en

’

s hands,and soon

dissolving ou t in w et places . Chloride of z inc

is a weak antiseptic,and is easily soluble

,but

soon gets washed ou t . Creosote is nearly as

strong an antiseptic as corrosive sublimate,and

is not poisonous ; but it is dear, pungent inodour, and greatly increases t he inflammabilityof wood treated ; it is therefore only suitablefor timber used in t he open air

,and not for

house- building timber and pitwood. Su lp ha teof copp er is a weak antiseptic and corrodes iron

,

but is t he cheapest process. Impregnating withcreosote, originally introduced by Bethell in1 838 with pneumatic pressure

,is t he chief Bri

tish method .

Creosot ing _

w it h heavy coal - tar oil (boilingpoint 365 ° F . ) may either take place by simpleimmersion in open iron tanks

, or by injectionunder pressure in closed iron cylinders . The

simples t and cheapest way t o treat smal l quantities of well - seasoned wood (such as fence ost s

,

&c . ) by immersion is t o pack it (after beingwarmed , if convenient) in to t he open tank

, andfill this with creosote and heat it t o a little over21 2

°F . ( t o evaporate t he water stil l in t he wood) ;

then keep it at that heat for about twenty - fourhours (or more, according t o size of wood), runoff t he hot oil

,and take ou t t he creosoted wood

Timber

when cool enough t o handle. For such pur

poses, an open oblong iron tank or boiler and a

urnace cost about £60. Beech and Scots P ineabsorb t he oil most readily

,and Spruce and

Larch least readily ; while softwoods and conifers generally absorb more readily than hardwoods. Scots P ine and softwoods take easilyabout 8 t o 9 lb. and even up t o 10 t o 1 1 lb.

( 1 gal. ) of creosote per square foot ; but Oak andLarch, t he most durable woods without treatment, do not absorb t he oil well . CreosotedBeech fence- stobs last twenty years

,while um

treated Beech only lasts about three years. Int he case of Scots P ine stobs

,long immersion is

a waste of creosote, as it runs ou t ' again on t hestobs being stacked after treatment. As absorption is not uniform

,t he cost of creosoting varies

both with t he kind and t he quality of t he wood ;but with creosote at 22d . a gal , creosoting usual ly comes t o nearly 4d . per cubic foot , or 1 d . per

fence- stob 45 ft. x 3 in . x 3 ln .,and 9d . per

100 lineal feet of paling rails 4 x 1 in . (thoughranging up t o 6d . and l s. 3d . respectively) .When creosoting large quantities of wood

,

railway S leepers, &c .

,in closed iron cylinders

with injection under pressure, t he timber ispacked as closely as possible

,t he air extracted

by an air- pump,and creosote heated t o 1 20° F.

run in ; and when full , a force- pump is used t ogradually produce whatever pressure is desired(usual ly 100 t o 120 lb .

,but sometimes more),

unti l a g auge attached t o t he creosote tankshows that absorption has ceased. Softwoodscan thus be made t o absorb 10 t o 1 2 lb. of oil

per cubic foot. At Welbeck a pressure- cylinder30 ft. long by 4§ ft. diameter with self - cont ained pumps, which cost about £300 and isworked by a 25» horse- power portable engine,takes a charge of 450cu . ft . of smal l convertedtimber (gates, fence- posts

, &c . ) that can be subject ed t o a pressure of 100 lb. per square inchin about three hours. On absorption under thatpressure ceasing, t he door is unscrewed and t hesuperfluous creosote run oil“

,and t he timber is

taken ou t next day . When creosoting is donethus on a large scale, t he total cost comes t oabout 3d . t o 4d . a cubic foot , varying of courseaccording t o t he price of t he creosote. On t he

average,2; gal . or 275 lb. of creosote are con

sidered enough for Scots P ine sleepers 9 ft. x

10in. x 5 in . 3 ; cu . ft . , or 8§ lb. per cu . ft . ;

while when Oak sleepers are treated t he specificat ion varies from 4 t o 6 lb.In t he Rue ing creosote process t he wood is

first subject e t o a pressure of 60 t o 65 lb . t o

compress t he air into t he interior cel ls ; and on

warm creosote being run in, t he pressure isincreased t o 105 t o 225 lb. according t o size andqual ity of timber ; while under this high pressure creosoting not adhering t o t he cell - w allsis forced out again and run off, thus effecting asaving in creosote, while giving a more thoroughimpregnation .

Immersion in an open tank contain ing heatednap hthaline (CmH g), also a coal - t ar produc t , w asintroduced by Mr. Aitken

,of Falkirk , in 1 882,

and has recently come into very extensive use

for estate purposes (fence- posts and stobs) underan improved method invented by t he late Mr.

21 5

H enry Darroch, also of Falkirk, which makes

wood like Birch, Beech, Scots P ine, Spruce,&c.

,more durable than Oak, Larch , &c.

,thus

giving fencing material that is both cheaperand lasts longer (up t o fifteen or twenty years).In nap htha lining , t he crude naphthaline brough tin bags is put into an iron tank heated by steamfrom a boiler about 20 yd . off

,t he stove for

heating t he boiler being carefully isolated owingt o t he inflammabilit y of t he naphthaline. The

wood t o be treated must be thorough ly sea

soned ; and t he drier it is, t he better t he result.The tank being packed with fence - posts andstobs and then nearly filled with crude napht haline (which melts at 1 76° and boils at 422°steam is applied t o raise t he heat t o over t heboiling - point of water After being keptat this for from t w o t o twelve hours

,it is allowed

t o cool down sufficiently for t he w ood t o betaken ou t ; then other wood and more naphthal ine are put in

,and t he process repeated til l all

t he material has been treated. A tank 21 ft.long and 5 ft. diameter costs about £1 20, andcontains a charge of about 2 tons of naphthalinealong with t he wood ; and when t he crude napht haline costs 3 5 s. a t on at a near railway station

,

t he impregnation of tank - loads of mixed hardand soft woods averages about 3d . per cubicfoot. As regards pow er of absorbing naphthal ine, this is greatest in Scots P ine, Beech , Birch,Alder, and Douglas Fir, much less in Ash , S ilverFir

, and Oak, and least of all in Spruce, Larch,and Elm. But creosoting is t he preferablemethod, as naph t halining gives t he workmenheadaches and is altogether more dangerous.The P owell sacchariza t ion process is - a recen tBritish method for impregnating t he woodytissue with molasses, glucose, or sugar . It issaid t o darken t he colour of wood

, and t o increase its hardness and density without diminish ing its tensile strength , flexibility

,and tough

ness, whilst also slightly decreasing its inflammabilit y . The timber is placed on trollies andlet down into a large tank (20 x 95 x 5 ft. )filled with a solution of syrup or sugar

,which

is rapidly raised t o boiling- point (21 2° F.) bymeans of steam circulating through pipes

, andthen allowed t o cool down t o 70

° by passingwater through t he pipes ; and as t he timbercools t he solution is absorbed . The timber isthen stored in drying- chambers at a temperatureof 250

°t o and gradually allowed t o cool .

Conifers and Oak absorb 3 t o 4,Willow

, A sh ,

Birch , Elm,and Sycamore 5 t o 6

,Beech 75, and

Poplar 95 lb. per cubic foot ; and Larch and

Spruce,so difficult t o creosote

,are as easily sac

chariz ed as Scots P ine. It is also claimed forthis process that by t he addition of certainchemicals (of which alum is probably one) t hetimber is rendered non - inflammable and fireresisting.F ireproofing of wood is also carried ou t bymeans of impregnation with box-ates

,silicates

,

and ammoniacal and other volatile salts ; bu t ,though it can be made non—inflammab le

,no

process has yet been discovered for renderingwood incombustible.

For superficial coating,oil pain t can be made

non - inflammab le by adding phosphate of ammo

21 6 Timber Measurement

n ia and borax in t he form of impalpable ow

d srs ; while asbestos paint and mortar ma e of

p laster and asbestos are also used, and give partial security against fire. Of several processesfor fireproofing wood by impregnation understrong pressure ( thou h unfortunately alwaysonly t o a l imited dept Payne's is one of t he

best,t he wood being first impregnated in a

vacuum wit h a strong sulphate of iron solution ,then under pressure injected with a solution ofsulphate of l ime or some alkal ine carbonat e tomake t he iron insoluble.

In France, electricity is also used, both t o‘senilize ’ wood rapidly in order t o make itmore durable

,and t o fireproof it . Seniliz ing

takes place by impregnating green wood witha 20-

per- cent solution of magnesium sulphate

warmed t o about 90° F .

,passed in for seven t o

fourteen hours by an electric current varyingfrom 4 t o 6 amperes

,and then drying it in t he

open air ; while for fireproofing, ammoniacalsalts are used in place of magnesium sulphate.

Andi n another French rocess of senil iz ing, a

solution of 10 per cen t orax and 5 per centresin - soap is used in place of t he 20-

per- cent

solu t ion of magnesium sulphat e. But as yetit is t oo early t o j udge of t he success of thesemethods . [J . N . ]Tim b e r M ea s u rem e n t —There is no

general ly accepted definition of timber. As dist ingu ished from fuel , it is wood used for anytechnica l purpose. For railway freight it lnc ludes ‘

all descriptions of wood in an unmanu

fact ured or roughly hewn , or roughly sawn state ;but not any wood shaped, or repared or par

t ially prepared ’. As dis t inguis ed from coppice,with or without standards, it in English lawincludes all . woods and trees not cut in regularrotation ; though in t he case of Beech woodsin southern England cleared and naturally re

genera t ed about once in every ninety t o one

undred years,a legal decision held that such

timber could be used by t he heir - of—entailthrough local habit and custom

,withou t im

peachment forw aste—a restriction not applyingt o timber on Scottish en tailed estates. Again ,in sell ing trees

,loca l custom usually classes as

timber only what measures not less than 5 or

6 in : in quarter - girth (20 to 24 in . in girth)under bark (see BARK ALLOWAN CE) ; or fre

quently in Scotland t o 6 in. in diameter freefrom bark while pitwood is measured downt o 25 in . diameter under bark

, or 3 in . overbark at t he thin end. T0ps and branches belowt he local customary timber dimensions are not

paid for (see Lor A N D TOP).1 . Measurement of Logs or Round Timber.Aft er felled trees are cross - cut or definitelymarked off int-o logs, t he customary Britishmethod of measurement is t o multiply t he

length in feet into t he square of t he meanquarter - girth in inches taken with tape or

string (a steel t a e is best) in t he middle of t helog, and divide by 1 44 if t he quarter - girth ismeasured in inches

,when t he cubic contents

length x (i mean girth in inches)2 1 44.

Say a log is 20ft. long and 8 ft . in mean girth ;its cubic conten t s would therefore be reckonedas 20 x 22 80 cubic feet. But these are not

t he true cubic contents, which are lengthx superficies of middle section ; or in this case20 x (8

2 4 r) 101 8 cu. ft. S imilarly,

a log 1 8 ft. long and 2 ft . in mean diamet erwould have true cubic conten t s of 1 8 x

5 65 2 cu . ft . ; while by square - oi - quartermeasurement it would be sold and bought as

if only containing 1 8 x ( i x 44 36

cu. ft. British customary measure thus alwaysreckons only 785 per cent, or 215 per cent lessthan t he true cubic contents

,t he shortage being

supposed t o represent t he loss in sawing uR eady - reckoning tables Show t he con t ents of a 1sizes of logs. Other British methods of measuring used when specially prescribed are CustomsMeasuremen t with t he divisor 1 1 3 ( in place of

giving t he true cubic contentsDie- square Measure with t he divisor

1 8 1,giving t he maximum contents when squared ;

and Calli erMeasure used in Government dockyards

,W en t he diameter in inches is squared ,

multiplied into t he length in feet, and dividedby 1 8 1 , giving almost exactly t he true cubic conten t s. Ra ilway companies rescribe for squaretimber t he divisor 1 44 ; an for round timbert he divisor 1 1 3 for string - measurement underbark (with right of charging carriage for barkalso), and 1 44 for tape- over- bark. But t he railw ay rules are so complicated that those seekingdetailed information should consult t he GeneralRailway Classification of Goods last issued. Inmeasuring squared or converted timber t he truecubic contents are reckoned by multiplying intoeach other t he length , breadth, and depth . InAmerica

,Austral ia

,and N ew Zealand, board

measuremen t obtains, based on t he number of

superficial feet of 1 - inch boards which logs ofvarying length and mean girth wil l yield afterallowing for bark and was te in sawing ; and

ready - reckoning tables give t he result s for logsof all sizes.2. Measurement of S tanding Trees is in Britainusual ly made with tape or a hooked leatherstra at about 5 ft. above- ground, t he length oft he ole being es t imat ed

,sometimes by means

of a rod 1 5 t o 20ft. long, and t he cubic contentsreckoned after allowing for t he fall - off t o t he

mean girth . Or if girthed at 5 ft. and t he

length estimated t o timber height of 6 in . d ia

meter or 20 in. girth, then t he mean girth iseasily found by add ing these and dividing by2 ; and after allow ing for bark

, t he length ismultiplied into t he square of t he net quartergirth and divided by 1 44 t o give t he sa leablecontents. But it is far more satisfactory

,both

for seller and buyer, t o agree t o prices percubic foot for defined I and II class timber

,and

t o measure t he cubic contents when t he treesare felled.The height of standing trees can be more ac

curat ely measured with instrument s of variouskinds known as hy somet ers

,dend rometers

,&c.

,

which are all basedpupon t he similarity of e ual

angled trian les. One of t he simplest andc

h>estof these is t e Telescope H y someter, consisting of a hollow metal tube wit movable visionhole at one end and cross - wires at t he other,and an adj ustable upright rod at right anglest o t he line of vision ; and on this rod being set

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21 8

down without t he consent of both proprietors,but that if they were distinctly on t he side of

one or other proprietor they were his sole proert y , and his neighbour had only t he righ t t odemand that overhanging branches should belopped Off. I t has been decided in a SheriffCourt in Scotland that a tenant as against hislandlord is not entitled t o cut overhangingbranches which he alleged caused damage t o

his crop and prevented t he use of a reaper andbinder on that portion Of t he field. In t he caseof fruit trees growing near a boundary, it hasbeen laid down as t he law Of England that t heowner of t he fruit trees is entitled t o enter hisneighbour’s land in order t o gather up fruitwhich may have fallen on t he other side of t he

boundary, and t he same doctrine has been statedwith regard t o trees blown down by t he wind.

But this doc t rine would not apply t o t he case ofa tree which had fallen on t he opposite side Of

t he boundary while being cut down. In anyevent, entering on an adjoin ing property withou t previous request would be inadvisable.

M oreover,t he owner entering his neighbour’s

property for such purpose would be liable t o

make good any damage done by such entry.

As t o damage done t o cattle feeding on poisonous trees, see under P O ISON OUS PLAN

ES .

D. B .

Tim b er Va lu a t io n made while t he treesare stil l standing gives t he owner an idea of

what any fall he is considering may likely bringhim in ; and this valuation is sometimes madeby t he estate agent or factor, sometimes by anexpert hired for t he purpose, or sometimes byt he forester ; but t he methods adop t ed are

neither scientific nor exac t (see T IMBER MEA

for t he soundness and quality of

any standing tree can only be known when it isfelled and logged. The more accurate met hodsof valuing woodlands and growing timber cropsare described under WOODLANDS , VALUATION ;but cert ain statutory prescriptions relat ing t ot he valuation of woodlands , rating of woods andplan tations, and payment of succession duty

,

may most convenien tly be referred t o here.

Under t he Valuat ion Of Lands (Scotland) Act,1 85 4, t he yearly value of woods, copse, or underwood is t o be taken at t he rent at which intheir natural state they might reasonably beexpected t o let as pasture or graz ing lands ;and under English law t he prescribed standardis much t he same. Under t he Ra tin A ct

,1 874,

t he land (and not t he timber or nu erwood) israted

,t he natural and unimproved value of t he

land being estimated in t he case of woods andplan tations , and for 00pses and underwoodstheir rental value if let as such . Under t heFinance Act, 1 894, t he annual value of t he

woodland is t o be estimated at its renta l valuein its natural and unimproved stat e, and t he

timber is separately valued. To sat isfy t he

requirements of t he S uccession Duty A ct , thecustom in England is t o value all t he timberand other wood and t ake 3 per cent as a fairannual income under good management. Thisincome is then treated as an annui t y, and succession duty is paid upon it according t o a sliding scale annexed t o t he Act. Thus, if t he

Timber Valuation Timothy

income from t he woods were estimated at £1000a year, a life- tenant forty years old would onlypay as if such annuity had merely a capitalvalue of ( in place of

J. N .

Tim o t h y , or Ca t ’s - t a il (P/zleum p rao

tense), is a perennial grass which forms much oft he hay produced on good meadow land. The

plan t is composed of a simple tuft of looselycompacted green shoots deeply placed in t he

ground. The sho are round and stout, witht he leaves rolled roundone another. The leafblades are broad, lightin colour

,and have very

low flat ribs on t he uppersurface : from t he breadthOf

“

t he blade Timothy isentitled t o t he name‘t op

- grass ’. The ear issomewhat late in appearing. It shows abou t t heend of June, and in Julyflowering commences.This ear is an oblong,compact

,spikelike pan

iele,usually designat ed

a cylindrica l spike '

. I t

is com osed of one

flow ere flat spikelet s sodensely packed t hat theycomplet ely hide t he cen

tral axis which bearsthem. The figure showst he car in flower witht he stamens protruded.At a a dissected spikeletis seen

,w ith t he t w o

glumes lowest, and abovethem t he awnless t w ovalved husk or pales

,

then t he s tamens, and

t he t w o feathery stigmas.The length of t he ear

varies with t he soil ; on

poorer soils it is only 2or 3 in .

,but on rich land

Timot hygnt 7 t o 10 in. The heigh t

10of t he straw also varies,

a. Spik1et . bu t t he average may betaken as 3 ft. For hay ,

Timothy should be ou t before flowering, otherwise t he produce t ends t o become rather hard.After flowering and ferti lization have takenplace, t he ear begins t o form seed. When t heear assumes a yellowish - red tint, Timothy isready for seed harvest. The seed is a very smal legg

- shaped body about 1 5 mm . long,composed

Of a silvery glossy husk contain ing a roundedgrain pointed at t he base and finely dotted ont he surface. Sometimes t he husk is removed bythreshing, and then t he name ‘Shelled Timothy ’is applied. Commercia l seed is either homec rown or foreign ; and although home seed oft enfetches a higher price in t he market, t he experi

ments carried out at t he Experiment Station ,Kilmarnock, seem t o show that it has no advantage over forci n rown seed. Common impurities are : la der Campion , Chickweed,

Timothy

Spurrey , R ibgrass, Ox- eyeDaisy, Forget-me- not,

Self - heal, &c. If Timothy is t o be grown alongW i th R ed Clover, care should be taken t o secureTimothy seed free from dodder. [A . N . M

‘A .]

Timothy, which got its name from TimothyH anson , an American

,ranks along with t he

rye grasses as t he most valuable grass formowi ng which t he farmer has. It is extensivelygrown in t he midlands and south - west of Scotland and in some parts of England

,and it s

merits are also beginning t o be appreciatedand utilized in many districts of Ireland . Int he eastern States of N orth America it is morewidely grown than any other natural grass.Timothy is eminently adapted for growth on

cold, heavy clays, and on deep, moist, blacklands ; bu t it does not th rive well on t hin

,dry

,

sandy, or on calcareous soils,or on badly

drained, sour peats. It is extremely hardyagains t frost

,and for this reason often affords

good pasture very late in the season . It yieldsan abundan t crop of t he very finest quality ofhay , which is relished by all classes of stock

,

and is special ly prized for feeding t o horses andt o milk cows. One of its chief virtues is thatit gives a large produce on lands w hich are t ooheavy and w et t o be successfully green - cropped ,and thus it obviates summer- fallowing.Timothy should be used in seed mixture forleas of short duration wherever t he soil is suitable

,about 2 t o 4 lb. per acre being included ;

and about 2 lb. per acre may also be includedin mixtures for permanent pasture. But itsgood qualities are most fully utilized when itis sown down t o form a Timothy meadow ; andwherever conditions are favourable t o its growth ,farmers would be well advised t o lay down a

certain area with Timothy. The duration of

a Timothy meadow depends largely upon t hesuitability of t he soil , and varies from six up t ot en years or even more. Sooner or later, othermuch less valuable grasses, such as H olcus andBromus, will become predominan t. The meadowmust then be ploughed up , and it is often advis

able t o put under a five or six years course of

cropping , finishing with a turnip crop , beforeattempting t o, resow with Timothy.Timothy may be sown ou t instead of a. root

cro along with rape, or with Italian Rye Grassan R ed Clover. In t he former case, t he rapemust not be al lowed t o get t oo large before eat

ing OH with sheep ; and in t he latter, t he pro~

duce may be fed Off with sheep or cut green andfed t o dairy stock. Suitable quan t ities of seedper acre would be 1 6 t o 1 8 lb. Timothy and

6 t o 8 lb. rape ; or 1 6 t o 1 8 lb. Timothy, 6 t o8 lb. Ital ian R ye Grass, and 2 lb. R ed Clover.The more popular method , however, is t o sow

ou t with a white crop. The Timot hy may besown alone a t t he rate of 1 8 t o 20 lb. per acre,or it may be sown along with Ital ian RyeGrass and R ed Clover at t he rate above ment ioned . The advantage of t he lat t er mixtureis that it ensures a ful l crop of hay t he firs tyear after sowing, b u t if t oo much Rye Grassbe sown there is a danger of t he Timothy beingsmot hered ou t . In any case, t he land should beclean and in good tilth ; it should be rolled wel l

21 9

before sowing t he seed,which should be covered

lightly by means of t he chain harrows, and

finall y rolled again . It is very bad policy t osow other natural grasses, such as Cocksf( ot

and Meadow Fescue, along with Timothy, as

t he latter comes much later into flower,and is

not ready for cutting before t he other grasseshave become hard and wiry. Timothy reachesits full growth about t he second or third yearafter sowing.

To obtain t he finest qual ity of hay it isnecessary t o cu t Timothy just when t he bloomis going off t he ears . If cutting be delayed ti-lllater, in t he hope of securing a larger crop, t heplants become hard and woody in fibre

,more

indigestible,and so less nutritious. Of course,

if it is intended for seeding, it must be allowedt o ripen before cutt ing. Timothy is t he mos teasily secured of all t he grasses owing t o its largestems

,which allow t he drying action t o proceed

freely and rapidly. When green cut,Timothy

is handled in much t he same way as ordinaryryegrass and clover hay , t he method of liarvesting varying according t o local custom . Butwhen ou t for seed it mus t be tied into sheaves

,

allowed t o stand in stooks for four or five days,

and then put in to rickles unti l dry enough forthreshing or stacking. It is usual and preferable t o thresh it direct from t he rickles.Where t he land is suitable and has beenheavily manured

,crops of 4 t o 5 tons per acre

of Timot hy may be grown , but a first - class cropwould be 3 t o 3§ tons per acre ; and on poorersoils 15 t o 2 tons may be considered quite a

satisfactory yield. The yield of seed variesfrom 3 t o 5 cwt. per acre

, according t o the soiland stage of growth when cut.Timothy does not give a very large aftermath ,but it continues t o grow longer than almost anyother grass, and in open seasons will afford pasture all through t he winter. In t he Carse ofStirling some farmers reckon this winter grazing alone t o be worth 1 5 3 . t o 203 . per acre.

N 0 crop responds better than Timothy t oliberal and j udicious manuring

,and few will

give a better return t o applications of farmyardmanure. Wel l - rotted farmyard manure is best

,

and it may be applied in late winter or in earlyspring at t he rate of about 1 5 tons er acre.

After spreading t he dung,it is a goo plan t o

put t he harrows over t he land in order t o getmore uniform distribution. This should befollowed wi t h a topdressing of from 1 t o 1 3

12 cwt.

nitrate of soda or nitrate of lime per acre,ap

plied about t he first week in May . The dungneed only be applied about every second year

,

and in t he alternate years 5 cwt. per acre of

basic slag applied in t he autumn or winter wil loften give good results. But t he nitrate shouldbe put on every year. Where dung is not available

,its place may be taken by 4 cwt. super

phosphate, 1 cw t . potash manure salt, and gcwt.

sulphate of ammonia per acre, applied in March,

followed by t he nitrate as before. On manyTimothy lands a dressing of 1 5 t o 2 tons l imeshells may prove very profitable. N o crop responde better t o an application of liquid manure

,

wherever it can be secured at a reasonable cost.It always pays t o produce large crops of Timothy

,

220

as t he land is thereby kept much cleaner, andsuch weeds as Col t sfoot

,so troublesome on clay

lands, are effectually choked ou t .Timothy has also an indirect value as a soilfert ilizer. Its deep roots penetrate far downinto t he subsoil, promote aeration

,and when t he

land is broken up they form a lasting sourceof food material t o succeeding crops. So that,even though large crops are taken off everyyear, it is found that, if j udiciously manured,t he land under a Timothy meadow does not

become deteriorated but rather improved .

J. w.

Tin ea p e l io n e l la ( t he Common ClothesM oth).—Of all t he l ittle moths that infesthouses

,this is perhaps t he worst

, t he caterpillars destroying every article of wool or

feathers. They are smal l white maggots, about

i in. long, with a few hairs,ochreous heads

,a

slate- coloured line down t he back,and sixteen

legs. They form cases t o dwell in of t he ma~

t erial on which they feed,and within this they

change t o nut- brown pupae. The moths havea wing ex anse of six or seven lines

,and are

entirely o a satiny bufi‘ colour, wit h blackeyes

,t he wings being deflexed when at rest .

They are most abundant in summer and autumn,

but t he larvae are feeding all the winter. Cam

phor, R ussia leather shreds, and pepper willcep them ou t of drawers

,and baking infested

articles in a gentle heat will destroy t he insectsin every stage of their existence.

T. (Seard z'

a) granella ( t he Little Grain or

Corn M oth), also called t he mottled woollenmoth, does great mischief in granaries andmagazines of stored corn . The moths, whichabound in spring and summer

,rest by day on

t he walls and beams with their wings closed,

and at night fly about in order t o pair, after

which t he female is capable of producing fromthirty t o seventy eggs

,invisible t o t he naked

eye, one or t w o being deposited on each grain ;from these t he worms generally hatch in a fewdays, and eat into t he grain

,whether wheat

,

barley, rye, or oats, feeding upon t he flour,and

if one grain be not sufficient,t he caterpillar

attaches another or more t o it with its w eb andexcrement

,until it is full

—grown, when t he

corn - heaps are sometimes completely coveredwith a thick greyish - white w eb , from t he maggote running over them in search of somecrevice or chink t o change t o pupae.

Whenever t he granaries,&c .

,are em t y , they

should be thoroughly cleansed,and the walls

,

ceiling, and beams washed with lime and water,

as hot as possible. The floors may also besprinkled with salt dissolved in vinegar ; andsalt

,mixed with t he corn

,will kill t he cater

illars without inj uring t he grain . When t hearvae are feeding in t he spring and summer

,

kiln - drying at about 78° F. will kill them ; andcurrents of cold air

, by means of ventilators,are a safe and certain remedy, as they becometorpid and d ie if a low temperature be sust ained .

A still more satisfactory method is t o fumi

gate with carbon bisulphide

,but this should be

one by an expert,as t he substance is highly

poisonous and inflammable.

Tinea pelionella—Tipu la oleracea

T. tapetzella ( t he Wool len Moth) is abundan tin houses. The eggs are laid, in summer andautumn, u on wool len clothes

, &c. ,on which

t he larvae eed ; and as they grow, they formcases t o l ive in ; and these often unite t he foldsin clot h and sacks into masses, when undist urbed . The caterpillars sometimes inj urebeans

,pease

, and other seeds, when stored indamp places. They are about 1} in . long

,very

Tinea tapet zella ( theWoollen Mot h )

Figs. 1 , 2, The moth (nat ural siz e and enlarged) ; 3 , 4, 6 , 7 ,t he caterpillar; 5 , t he Chrysalis ; 8 , Chrysalis (magnified).

active,

fleshy, and yellowish - whit e, with longishhairs scattered over t he body . Furs may bepreserved from t he ravages of this moth by t hesimple expedient of storing them during t hesummer in paper parcels carefully gumm ed upso as t o close all apertures . c . W.]Tip u la o lera c ea ( t he Cranefly , orDaddylong - legs) .—The maggot s of this large gnat are

Tip u la oleracea (Cranefly , orDaddy - long- legs)

commonly known as‘leather jackets’, but are

met imes incorrectly called wireworms by agriculturists. They are exceedingly tough

,but

are destitute of legs. They are of a dirty - claycolour, composed of twelve rings besides t hehead, with t wo jaws, and t he tail has six spines,enclosing t w o spiracles (fig. They are mostdestructive animals in t he field and garden

,ea t

ing through t he roots of wheat,oats

,beet

, cabbages, carrots, potatoes, turnips, scarlet beans,

https://www.forgottenbooks.com/join

222 Toad—flax Tobacco

made of moss covered with lichen,and cobwebs

are used as a binding material. The lining isof feathers. A small hole near t he t op servesfor entry and exit. Dense high bushes and

shrubs,or low tree- forks

,form t he usual build

ing—places. The seven t o twelve white eggs aregenerally , but not always

,marked with faint

red spots and streaks. So beneficial are all t heti t s (especially t he Blue and Great Tits) thatthey should be rigidly protec t ed, and if possiblehelped t o tide over severe winters by feedingwith suet

,beech mas t , and acorns ; also by pro

vid ing nesting - boxes, which should be placedin inconspicuous places where cats cannot geta t them. The hole for entry should be smallenough t o preven t an invasion by sparrows (fordetails see H iesemann’s H ow t o Attract and

P rotect Wild Birds ; Witherby Fruitgrowers sometimes complain that Great and

Blue Tits now and then damage ap les and

pears by pecking them near t he stalk ; bu t evenin such cases t he good done by destruction of

insects far more than outweighs t he harm . Ithas been found that by planting rows of sunflowers in t he vicinity of orchards a counterattraction in t he form of t he fruits is providedwhich keeps these birds from t he ears andapples. Valuable pears have also een pro

t ec t ed by fitting pieces of cardboard 2 in. squareround their stalks. [J . a. A. D.]

Toad-flax (Linamia vu lgaris) . 1 , Sect ion of flower.

Toa d - f la x (Linaria) is t he common namefor a poisonous genus of herbaceous d icot yled onous plants belonging t o t he nat . ord . Scrophu lariaceae. Various species occur as occa

sioual weeds, but, though poisonous, they neverinj ure stock, for they are so nauseous that t heanimals utterly reject them. A Toad - flax isreadily recogniz ed by t he t wo - lipped corol laclosed at t he mouth like Snapdragon, and by t hepocket like prolongation (spur) on t he

' lowerface of t he corolla. Common Toad - flax (Linariavu lgaris) is a creeping perennial of sandy fieldswith yellow flowers

,erect st ems 1 t o 2 ft. high,

and glaucous narrow leaves. [A . N . M‘A .]

Toa d s (Bufonidae), a family of t ailless A mph ibians, withou t teeth in either upper or lowerjaws

,and without ribs. Most Bufonidae are

terrestrial and many burrow, but aquatic andarboreal forms occur. In many cases t he bodyhas a thick - set appearance and t he skin is verywarty. The British toad (Bufo vulgar

-is) is a

good representative. It may be distinguishedfrom t he common frog in many ways, e.g. by itswrinkl ed

,rather dry skin

,covered with wart

like ison glands and minute horny spines,by

its dliiller coloration - predominantly grey and

brown,by t he less developed w eb between t he

toes,by t he absence of teeth , by t he different

mode of locomotion—more crawling and lessj umping

,by being an expert cl imber, by its

marked nocturnal activity , by hibernating farfrom water

,and by laying t he eggs in long

strings in t he water, not in clumps. The poison,known as phrynin

,secreted by t he skin glands,

is volati le and repulsive t o many animals ; itsaves t he toad from being molested as oft en asit might otherwise be. The toad has no powerof spitting or squirting its poison . It is a gentle,harml ess animal

,easi ly tamed

,and very usefu l

to farmer and gardener alike, for it destroyslarge numbers of slugs and inj urious insect s.I t s food must be alive and moving . The natterjack toad (B . ca lamita) , loca lly distributed inEngland

,Wales

,and south -west Ireland

,is also

a notable insect- eat er. Th e common Indian toad(Bufo melano st z

'

ctus) eats ants and bees t he giantSouth American toad (Bufo marinus) eats largenumbers of mosquitoes and t he l ike ; t he Mexican toad (Rhinopkrynus d orsalis) feeds mainlyon termites. S imilar statement s may be madein regard t o a large number of toads . Old talesas t o toads hurting cows’ udders and the likeare entirely without foundation . [J . A. T.]To b a c c o and S n u fl " may be described

as special reparations Of t he leaves of certainspecies an varieties of N icotiana

,a genus of

herbs of t he nat . ord . Solanaceae. Of t he fortyone Species that have been described

, only t w o,

or erhaps three, are of commercial val ue,but

nu er each of t he economic forms have t o beplaced many varieties and races. The followingmay be accepted as t he more important :1 . N icot iana Tabacum, Linn . , a native of tropi

cal America,having under it—( a ) var. frut i

’

cosa,

t he narrow - leaved shrubby tobacco, a nativeof Mexico and Braz il ; it aflords t he racesknown as Carabobo, Ch ina, N epal

,Doniaku

,

S ingapore,and South India. (6) Var. lancsolia ,

a native of South America,is t he source of t he

Domingo, Kentucky, Burley , Cattaro, Kashmir,and other Indian hill tobaccos. (e) Var. virgi

nica.—This came originally from t he Orinoco

,

was introduced by t he English planters into

Tobacco

Virginia, and has given among others t he BigOrinoco orVirginian Broad Leaf

,Yel low Orinoco

,

Blue P ryor, Yel low Mammoth,Golden Leaf

, &c .

( d ) Var. brasiliensis, t he pet um of Brazil

,a native

of that country and of Guiana,Venezuela

,and

Bolivia. It embraces t he following special races—Brazil , Bahia, Paraguay, Pernambuco, F lorida,M aryland, Ohio, &c. (e) Var. lzavanensis

,in

digenous t o Mexico, but early carried byt he Spaniards t o Cuba

,and t he mos t highly

valued H avana tobacco, Of which there are

many races, such as H avana Seed - leaf, Connec

tiout, Pennsylvania, Wilson’s H ybrid, Zimmer’sSpanish, Manila

,&c. ( f) Var. macrop /zy lla,

a native of Mexico,but now t he chief form

grown in N orthern India,Persia

,Egypt

,

Peru , &c. It afi’ords much of t he so- calledMarylands of modern commerce

,also of

Cuba, Varinas, Venezuela, Makala, Saloniki,

Argos,&c.

2. N . rust ica,Linn .

,a smaller plant than

t he preceding, and which has orbicular leavesw ith distinct stalks

,and is leathery in t ex

ture, with pale - green ish - white, short butwide flowers . Co llectively t he tobaccos ofth is Species are usually classed as Turkish orEast Indian . The various grades of snufi

'

are mainly made from one or other of itsforms. It was probably original ly a nativeof M exico and Texas

,where it is still known

as t he p iciet l . There are numerous varietiesand cultivated races laced under it

,of which

t he following mayIhe mentioned : (a) var.

t exana,t he form early grown in France ; (5 )

var. j amaieensis, met with in Jamaica,Guate

mala, &c . ; (0) var. brasilt'

a,often ca lled fumo

cresp o, and frequently used for snuff ; (d )var. asia t ica , t he chief source of Syrian

,A ra

bian, and much of the Persian and Abyssinian t obaccos

,which are sometimes desig

nated t he common or English tobaccos,and

when made into snufi' is held t o be superior

t o mos t other grades ; (e) var. lzumilis,largely

used in t he manufacture Of snuff,specially

that in favour in Germany.

3 . N . a la ta,Lk. et O.

,a native of Brazil

,

and cultivated in gardens in Europe, Persia,&c . This is supposed by some t o be t he chiefsource Of the t umbelci of Persia ; by others thattobacco is regarded as owing its peculiar propert ies t o t he soil on which grown , t he methodof treatment, &c.

,and not t o t he s t ock Of plant

actually raised.The commercial classificat ion of tobaccos isnaturally based on t he purpose for which eachgrade is suited : (a) 'Cigar

-wrappers—t he outerleaf of t he cigar—for which t he most highlypriz edd i re t he Sumatra, Connecticut, H avana,&c . ; (b) Cigar - fillers—t he leaf placed in t he

interior of t he cigar—such as Cuban , Zimmer’sSpanish , &c. ; then comes (0) P ipe Tobaccos, ofwhich mention may be made of N orth Carolina,Bright Yellow , Maryland, &c . ; (d ) P lug Tobaccos—White Burley, Orinoco, Yellow Mam

moth,Virginia, Blue P ryor, White S t em ,

&c.

Tobacco w as not known in Europe and Asiaprior t o t he year 1 492, when America w as discovered. Of Europeans it w as first seen by t hefollowers of Columbus when t hey landed at

223

Cuba. In 1 5 3 1 t he Spaniards .commenced t ocultivate tobacco in San Domingo ; in 1 5 3 5 seedwas brought t o Europe ; and in 1 5 60 N icot ( inhonour of whom t he genus w as named) saw t he

plant being grown in Portugal

,and sent seed

rom there t o Catherine de Medicis. In t hesame year, tobacco was conveyed t o England byThomas H ariot

, S ir Francis Drake, and others ;while from 1 5 70- 84 Sir Walter Raleigh madetobacco- smoking popular in England . In 1 5 96Ben Jonson in Every Man in his H umourgave t he argumen t s for and against tobacco ;while King James I issued his Counterblast in1 603

,and raised t he tax t o 68. lod . on t he pound.

Tobacco Plant—Flowerand Leaf

King Charles in 1 630prohibi t ed t he cul t ivat ionin England and Ireland

,where, according t o

Macpherson, great quantities were being grown .

By an Act of 1663 cultivation in England w asagain prohibited, and Charles II, by an Act of1 670, compelled t he imports intended for Ireland t o be conveyed in t he first place t o England . In 1 73 1 Virginia and Maryland wereregarded as most valuable t o England becauseof their tobacco, so that in spite of all Opposition t he weed had apparently assumed a position of importance. By a special Act of GeorgeIII, 1 780, tobacco cultivation in Ireland w asallowed, but not in England nor in Scotland ;and lastly, in 1 830William IV again prohibitedt he Irish cultivation . The repressive legislationof t he British Government w as entirely a con

sequence of t he desire t o favour t he then Bri t ishcolony of Virginia . Recen t ly experimental cult ivat ion in En land, Ireland, and Scotland hasbeen authorize and t he success so far a t tained

224

gives promise of an extended industry in t heuture

,if production can be freed from anti

quat ed restrictions that have far t oo long ou t

l ived t he condi tions under which they camein to exist ence.

During t he reign of Queen Anne t he annualrevenue from tobacco was and t o- dayit comes t o well over 1 3 millions sterling

,after

an allowance for drawbacks on re- exports. The

average imports for t he pas t five years havebeen : manufactured tobaccos of all kinds

,valued

at from 15 to mill ion sterling,and u nmanu

fac t ured from 25 t o 3 mill ions sterling. The.

corresponding weight s were, for manufacturedtobaccos, 35 t o close on 5 millions, and of un

manufactured,from 865 t o 1 1 9millions of pounds.

These import s come mainly from t he UnitedS tat es of N orth America

,followed by Cuba,

t he northern S t ates of South America, Manila,Borneo

,and Bri tish India. But Of these quan

tities imported, a considerable proportion of t heraw stuff is worked up in bond and either exported , or used in Great Britain it self, so alsoa certain share of t he foreign import s are re

exported . Of these exports,t he British manu

fac t ured tobaccos sent outside t he country in1 907 came t o lb .

, valued atand t he re- exports during t he same year were

lh .,valued at manufactured

and unmanufactured together. In t he consumption of tobaccos Belgium comes first with lb .

t o t he head of population ; then H olland,

lh . ;

Germany,

lh . ; Austria, lb . ; N orway,

22 4 lb . ; R ussia, lh . ; France, lh . ; GreatBritain and Ireland, lh. ; and Spain , lb.

For successful cultivation tobacco requires arich sandy loam

,con taining a distinct percent

age of potash and l ime, together with plentyof vegetable matter. Good tobacco cannot beraised on poor soils

,unless heavily manured

,

while clay and calcareous soils are unsuited. Insome of t he best loca l ities (of India, forexample)water is so near t he surface that t em oraryw ells can be formed throughout t he fiel s ; butwhile subsoil moisture is desirable

,good drain

age is indispensable. A humid atmosphereduring t he early months of growth - is essential .While all t he species are natives of t he Tropics,tobacco cultivation is pursued during t he coldermonths of warm tracts and t he hot ter of coldregions

,so that as a summer crop its production

has been extended into t he temperate countries ;in fact t he greater proportion of t he leaf Ofcommerce is obtained from t he temperate Statesof America

,and a considerable proportion is

even now raised in Europe. The land mustbe deeply and thoroughly ploughed and cross

ploughed

,lime ashes and farmyard manure being

iberally applied before t he last ploughing ; inthis w ay t he weeds are killed and t he soil madefriable. It is then thrown into furrows 6 in .

deep and 3 ft. apart. N urseries are also prepared in a shady si t uation

,t he soil of which is

usually burned along with t he weeds and al l

t he brushwood available. This kills injuriousgerms, and t he ashes produced check t he growthof insects, besides being a highly beneficial manure. In about six weeks t he seedlings will beready for transplanting, and will be from 3 t o

Tobacco

4 in . high. They are best transplanted into t hefurrows and 1 8 in . apart

,this being accomplished

in t he afternoon so as t o give t he seedl ings t hecool of t he night to recover. If dry weathersupervene, irrigation within t he furrows maybecome necessary . After t w o or three leaveshave formed and t he plants have be nu t o

grow vigorously, t he earth may be pulle downgradually around t he stems until t he furrowsare filled up, and t he plants then stand on

slightly raised ridges.In from thirty t o forty days from transplan ting

,

t he flower buds wil l appear,and these must be

carefully n ipped off ; and a little later, whenlateral shoots begin t o show in t he axils of t heleaves, these also must be removed

,so as t o

force t he plant t o concentrate its efforts in t heformation of leaf. At this stage there shouldbe from eigh t t o twelve leaves t o each plant.As soon as these have at tained t he requiredmaturity, t he plants must be cut down t o t heground with a sharp knife. It is usual ly foundthat harvest time has been reached in fromt w o and a half t o three months from sowingtime. The surface of t he leaves wil l be thengummy, t he tex t ure appear granulated

, t he

colour become greenish - yellow with irregularpaler - coloured blot ches, t he edges and tips wil lhave curled

,while if bent backwards they will

break off. Before cutting t he plants,in many

parts of t he t obacco area it is customary t oconstruct a crude framework through t he fieldin rows. Th is consists of forks driven into t heground, and so adj usted as t o carry sticks ofa uniform length

,say 6 ft. long. The plants

are then taken in hand one by one and cut upinto pairs of leaves. The good leaves are throw nover certain sticks and t he inferi or ones overothers. Thus assort ed

,they are left t o dry and

wither in t he sun ; but if rain or heavy dewscome, they are at once ca rried within doors

,and

t he sticks with their leaf placed across beamsfitted for that purpose within t he drying- house.

In some loca lities t he pairs of leaves are simplyspread on t he ground for an hour or t w o t o dry ,and are then carried t o t he withering - house and

hung across sticks in t he w ay described. Butthere is great skil l in drying. Rapid dryingwil l produce pale leaf, and slow drying darkcoloured leaf. Wh en t he midribs are quite dry(and usually this t akes some thirty days) t hepairs of leaves

,orportions of stems and attached

leaves, are then ready for t he nex t 0 erat ion.

They are taken down,separated from t liick use

less stems, and placed in heaps on t he floor toferment or sweat. For this purpose they areflattened out carefully and built into circularstacks, t he stems or leaf - sta lks being poin tedinwards and t he leaves outwards. It is preferable t o select a damp day for this work. Serate stacks are built up of t he finer leaves fi

ll

ythemselves. The stacks may be from 2 to 6 ft.high , and it is customary to cover them overwith cloth . Aft er one or t wo days t he s tacksare pulled down and remade, t wo stacks of onequality being dealt with simultaneously

,so that a

leaf from one and t he second from t he ot hermaybe used in construction of t he new stacks. Careis also taken t o secure that leaves that were in

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226 Tobacco Grow ing in Britain

burning quality is desired. The most economical and effective system of manuring for thiscountry is t o broadcast 20 t o 30 tons of wellrotted manure in t he autumn or early spring,and apply from 6 t o 1 2 cwt. of readily availableartificial manure in t he dril l back of t he scraw ’

immediately before planting. The formulawhichhas given t he most general sat isfaction in t heIrish experiment s consists of :

30part s su lphat e of ammonia, equal t o 5 7 6 percent nit rogen .

54 part s 35-

per- cent superphosphate, equal t o

per cen t solub le phosphat e.

1 6 part s sulphat e of potash , equal t o 7 '

6 percentpotash KQO.

In this climate properly hardened plan t s willwi thstand five degrees of frost, but it is scarcelysafe t o begin planting before t he 2ot h of May .

P lanting should be completed as soon after t he1 st of June as possible. The distance betweenplants has a pronounced effect upon t he qualityand characteristics of t he cured tobacco, and

should vary with t he type of tobacco grown ,with t he soil, and with t he climate. The varieties recommended should be planted as follows :

Class. Variet y.

Plants.

Tobacco should be plan ted on very low flatdrills

,and in cultivation t he roots should be

kept well covered. Weed growth should beabsolutely prevented by frequently stirri ng t hesoil

,deeply at first

, and then more shallow as

growth proceeds.Topping .

—The practice of t op ing or remov

ing t he seed- head should vary wit t he class andtype of tobacco. Tobaccos requiring large thickleaves should be al lowed t o bear about t en leaves,while Samos cigarette and Sumatra cigar varieties should not be topped at all, in order t o keept he leaves of Samos smal l , and of Sumatra delicate and thin . The H alliday variety should havet he flow er- head and a few t op leaves removedwhen t he lower leaves are turning ripe. Allsuckers or lateral growths should be broken offwhen 4 t o 6 in . long. R ipening is hastened byt he toppin

gand suckering operations. R ipeness

is indicate in t he leaf by curling of t he edgesand drooping

,change of colour and texture

,loss

of smoothness and gloss,increase of body and

brittleness.Harvest ing

—As all of t he leaves on t he plantdo not ripen at once

,t he highest- class cigar and

cigarette varieties are harvested by removingt he leaves as they ripen from t he ground up.

With lower - class tobaccos, notably pipe varieties, the entire plant is harvested when t he

middle leaves are ful ly mature. The lower leavesof Sumatra and Samos varieties may be fit t o

harvest t he latter end of July, and all of t he

leaves may be gathered before t he 1 st of September ; whereas t he P ryor, Orinoco, and H alliday varieties wil l not be ready for harvesting ont he s talk until t he l st of September or later. Itis desirable t o harvest tobacco after a few brightdays have caused t he nat ural oils and gums t o aocumulate in and on t he leaf. A sunny day is alsoa great advan tage when harvesting, as t he rapidevaporation causes t he leaves t o wilt, which permits t he plants t o be handled without breakage,and housed in less space without danger of subsequent mould and rot . P lacing t he cut plantsupon scaffolds in t he field also serves t he samepurpose. From five t o eight plant s are spearedthrough t he lower ends of t he sta lks on a lath4 ft. long, 1 § in. wide, and 5 in . thick. Whent he leaves are harvested separately they are

strung with a needle, and t he ends of t he twineare attached t o t he ends of light 4 - ft . laths.These laths of either leaves or plants are carefully placed in t he curing barn on horizontalsupports so arranged that t he whole interiormay be fi lled with tobacco and yet admit t heair t o every plan t and leaf.Curing

—Curing barns may be designed t oafford mere protec t ion from inclement wea ther,or for t he more d ifficul t purpose of regulat ingt he temperature and humidity to an exact degree. N ew tobacco barns should be cons t ructedof wood. A convenient height and width is20ft. They may be of any length, though smallbarns are best. Ventilators should be abundant, evenly distributed, easily controlled, andarranged t o prevent rain from hea t ing or blowing in . A new wooden barn t o accommodatet he produce of 2 ac. of P ryor tobacco, suitablefor both tobacco curing and cattle feeding, maycost £80. Existing structures of many kindsmay be cheaply converted into curing barnsby providing control led ventilation , supplyingsimple means of heating, and erecting supportsor racking on which t o hang t he tobacco plants.Curing is not merely drying, but is a chemica lprocess t he exact changes and reactions of whichcannot be fully explained. Sun curing is not feasible in Britain . Air curing

,when supplemen ted

in unfavourable weather by some simple meansof heating, is a success with all of t he typesrecommended excepting Samos

,which should

be cured rapidly by artificial heat. H eat maybe supplied cheaply by means of stoves, cokebraziers, or in t he case of certain tobaccos, bymeans of open hardwood fires and peat fireshandled in a special manner. British market stake large quantities of fire- cured pipe tobacco,but cigar and cigarette tobaccos should neverhear t he odour of smoke. Curing proceeds byt he following stages z1 . Wilt in —The leaves should lose moist urerapidly and ecome limp, but drying should not

propped t oo rapidly

, else t he green colour will bexe

2. Yellowing.—Their colour gradually changesfrom green t o yellow, beginning at t he tips andedges of t he leaf.3 . Browning—The yellow colour gives place

t o brown in t he same manner.4. Fixing—A s t he brown colour runs the leaf

Tobacco Grow ing in Britain—Tomato

should lose its surplus sap, otherwise mould androt will set in .

5 . Killing—When t he brown colour is spreadand fixed in all t he leaves

,t he midribs must be

kil led or dried ou t thoroughly in order t o prevent mould and rot . The leaves are then incondition t o strip from t he stalk and grade.

Prep arat ion for Market—The preparation of

tobacco for market involves t he operations ofgrading, bulking, fermenting or sweating, ordering, packing, and ageing. In tobacco- producingcountries these operations are not usually performed , except in a temporary w ay , by any butt he largest growers. The tobacco

,graded roughly

or not at all, is sold eit her loose or in rough

packages t o middlemen,called rehand lers. It

is their business t o grade, prepare, and pack t hetobacco for special markets with which they arein touch . These facilities cannot exist, however,in t he experimental stage of t he industry.Grad ing

—Each type of tobacco is gradeddifferently. Sumatra tobacco is graded

,after

fermenting,into as many as seventy grades.

P ipe tobacco is graded as t he leaves are strippedfrom t he stalk into three grades.Fermen tat ion —All tobaccos undergo somedegree of fermentation before they are fit t ouse. It may be violent and rapid for cigar,m'

oderate for heavy pipe tobacco, and mild and

prolonged for cigarette. Cigar tobacco is fermen t ed for six w eeks t o three months in largeorderly piles. P ipe tobacco is sweat ed and

cigarette tobacco is slowly matured after beingpacked for market.P acking

—Cigar and cigarette tobaccos are

packed in bales weighin-g from 100 t o 300 lb.

P ipe tobacco is packed either in bales or hogsheads

,and in order t o reduce its moisture t o sui t

commercial requirements it is superdried , and

then brought into order for packing by means ofsteam vapour. Very expensive a paratus is usedfor this purpose by American re andl

_ers.

Market ing—I t is very difficult t o develop a

market for a new tobacco, for t he reason thatt obacco manufacturers are very conservative andlook askance at an unknown product . If it isa tobacco of merit

,however

,it may eventual ly

gain recognition and gradually develop a reputation . In t he meantime it may find a sale owingt o a general scarcity of tobacco in t he markets,or by being offered at a very low price. It isfar more difficult t o establish a reputation forquality than for cheapness, but t he productionof a cheap inferior tobacco seldom ays. Alltobacco leaf sold and consumed in t e UnitedKingdom must pass through a bonded warehouse, where duty must be paid upon t he net

w eight of tobacco before it is withdrawn formanufacture. The t obaccomay be sold througha broker or direct t o t he manufacturer.R esu lts—Yields vary greatly with t he soil ,

manuring, and type of tobacco grown . The

varieties recommended wil l yield from 900 t o

I5OO lb. of dry tobacco per acre, and t he pricewill vary from 4d . per lb. forp

ipe tobacco t o 1 8.

per lb. for cigar wrappers. T e cost of production , including every legitimate charge, is notless than £20per statute acre for pipe tobacco,£3 5 for Samos, £40 for H all iday , and £50 for

227

Sumatra. Many of t he charges for attendanceand oversight included in these estimates migh tbe omitted in t he case of a farmer w ho does hisown work with t he assistance of his family. I t

is not likely,however

,that t he profi t can be

made sufficiently attractive t o t he British farmerwithout Government help or protection , especial ly at t he beginning, when he is learning t ogrow a crop with which he is quite unfamiliar.Tobacco is regarded as a valuable farm crop fort he reason that it affords a large amount of fairlyregular employment

,and because t he roduce,

when properly packed,is non -

perisha le, and

may be cheaply transported t o dist anfmark

elt s.

G. N . K.

Tog g e n b u rg Goa t —Of t he four principal Swiss varieties this is t he mos t esteemedas a milker

,especially in England . It is met

with throughout t he canton of S t . Gall, butespecially in t he valley whence it derives itsname

,and where great pains are taken t o breed

it pure t o type. The unique drab tint of t hecoat may best be described as mouse- coloured ,and it has certain white or greyish mark ingswhich are also a feature of t he breed . There isalways a streak of grey down each side of t he

face,t he same colour bein noticeable on each

side of t he tail , under t he ody on t he interiorof t he thighs

,and on t he legs as far as t he

knees. In Switzerland both long and shorthaired specimens are met with, but in Englandt he former are discountenanced . On t he otherhand

,with us there are many possessing horns

,

whereas in their native valleys these are rarelyseen

,as t he Swiss breeder destroys any k ids

that possess these attributes. The ears in thisbreed are of me dium size and as a rule pricked,though sometimes carried in a horizontal position . Some remarkable yields have been re

corded from milking prize stock in England.

A herd of five goats belonging t o Mr. Gates ofGuildford gave in one year 7 1 40 lb. of milk

,or

about 71 4 gal . , whilst a three- quarter—bred goatbelonging t o Mr. B. Hook of Churt, Surrey, gavein t en months 1025 lb. See also Goa'rs

,BREEDS

or. [H . s. H . r. ]Tomat o . The Tomato or Love Apple

Lycop ersicum escu len tum) is a tender annualintroduced from South America about t he sametime as t he potato, and extensively grown int he warmer parts of Europe for its fruit

,but

on ly recently valued in this coun try , althoughlong grown by lovers of t he curious as a decorative plant . Closely related t o t he potato and

t he aubergine, t he Tomato is distinguished byits unarmed procumbent stems, unequally pinnate leaves

,green above, glaucescent benea t h ,

and more or less hairy, and its large, fleshy,

multicelled fruits containing numerous seedsembedded in a soft, juicy pulp. Under cultivation it has varied chiefly in t he size and

_form of

its fruits. There is also considerable variationin t he thickness of t he skin , and in t he flavourand j uiciness of t he pulp. Upwards of a hundred named varieties are in cultivation in thiscountry alone. Many of these

,however, are

scarcely distinguishable from each other, a dif

ference in quality being d ue t o a slight differencein strain

,also t o t he care exercised in t he cu l t i

228

vation and selection of t he plants from whichseeds are saved.Cu l tiva t ion ou t of doors.

—N ot w it hstandingt he tender nature of t he Tomato, it may be

successful ly cultivated in t he open air in summer in t he warmer parts of t he British Islands,and if favoured with hot , dry weather excel lentcrops of good - quality fruits are produced withvery little outlay. Soi l that will grow potatoeswil l also grow tomatoes , and their cultivationdoes not differ much, excep t that t he youngplants require protection until t he end of May ,when they may be planted outside, and as t he

stem elongates it is supported with a stoutstick. P lants for this purpose are raised fromseeds sown early in April and placed in a l itt le

Fig. 1 .—St ou t end St ake, wit h

Tomato Plant,show ing t ype usual ly

p lant ed by market -growers

warmth t o germinate,transferring them singly

into 3 - in . pots as soon as they have formed t w otrue leaves

,and keeping them in a warm house

or frame for a few weeks. They may then bebrough t along with such plants as geraniumsand fuchsias

,affording them plenty of light and

air when t he weather is favourable,so as t o

keepthem sturdy. An open

,sunny border

,

sha ed from wind,having been prepared for

them by digging, they may be planted 3 ft.apart and at once well watered . Blank spaceson walls devoted t o fruit trees or in front ofa house facing south may be utilized for tomatoes, or they may be put in deep frames re

viously used for wintering tender lants , w ere

they may be nursed along by a ju icious use of

t he lights until they are strong enough t o be

permanen tly exposed. The main shoot shoulde support ed by a s t ou t stick 4 ft. or 5 ft. high ,

or if agains t a wall, with a t ie here and there.

Fig. 2.—Bamboo Cane, wit h Tomato

Plan t t urned ou t of 6 - inch po t

Tomato

All lateral shoots should be pinched ou t earlyso as not t o interfere wit h t he develo men t oft he flower raceme produced from t he eaf axilson t he main stem,

and on which t he fru its areborne. It is not necessary t o remove any por

tion of t he leaves from t he main stem. The

fruit should commence t o ripen from July ou

wards. After September it is advi sable t o

remove all t he full - sized green fruits, and placethem in a warm room or on a shelf in t he greenhouse, where they will soon ripen and developcolour.The market gardeners w ho grow tomatoes on

a large sca le ou t - of—doors prepare t he groundby manuring it well in advance of lan t ingtime. Some use a chemical manure ma e up as

follows : N itrate of soda 4 cwt. ,superphosphate 8 cwt. , sulphateof potash 2 cwt .,

sulphate of

iron é cwt. per acre. They sett he plant s 1 5 in . apart with 3 ft.between t he rows, otherwiset he trea tment is similar t o thatalready described.The cultivation of tomatoesunder glass is now an importan tindustry. They aremost profitable as an early summer crop,when, if marketed in June, t hefruit real izes something like 8d .

per lb. They are grown as a

rule in pots or boxes, t he plan t sbeing raised from seeds sown inJanuary, and t he young plan t streated t o tropica l conditions,keeping them close t o t he glass,where they wil l get plenty ofl ight. They are finally plantedin lo- in . pot s and placed inrows in low

,l ight houses ; t he

soil used forthem is a pure loamwithou t manure

,this being sup

plied later if necessary whent he fruit is maturing. Whilet he house is kept w arm , t he

minimum temperature neverfalling below 60

°F .

,plenty of

ventilation is provided, whichis necessary t o prevent ou t

breaks of disease. The plants are liberally supplied with water at t he root, that is, they arewell watered when dry. When in flower itpays t o assist fertilization by tapping t he flowerracemes with a twig, at t he same time keepingt he temperature rather high. The main cropof tomatoes grown under glass is obtained from

plants that are put into their fruit in pot s oroxes in A ril

,or if t he houses stam

gi on soi l

that is suita le they may be planted ou t . Magnificent crops have been obtained where ligh thouses have been set up over good agriculturalsoil in which t he tomatoes have been set abou t2 ft. apart

,and trained either along t he roof or

t o stakes set upright, restricting t he growthsby pinching

,and encouraging t he development

of flower racemes in t he leaf axils of t he mainstem. The secret of success with tomatoesunder glass lies principally in t he ventilationand t he maintenance of a regular temperature.

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230

cancer, and tubercular deposit s commencing int he glands and extending into t he muscularsubstance of t he organ . So long as t he mouthis kept shut, t he tongue occupies a peculiarlyfavourable position for recovery from diseaseand inj ury ; but if t he animal is for any reasonunable t o close t he cavi ty and keep t he organmois t

,an ill odour and unfavourable conditions

are set up . The dense covering upon t he uppersurface does not extend t o t he sides, and ruminan t s are much more l iable t o abrasions andt he entrance of . the ray fungus than horses (seeACTIN OMYCOS IS). Irregularities of t he teeth area frequent cause of abrasions and of local inflammat ions of a more or less septic character

,

where food is retained in t he interdental spacesand has undergone decomposition (see TEETH ,

DISEASES OF) . The lodgment of foreign bodies,as bramble s and thorns, and t he obstruction oft he duct of t he sublingual gland by an oat

,or

salivary ca lculus, are t o be reckoned among t hecauses which give rise t o swelling and inflammation of t he tongue

,sometimes t o an extent

threatening suffocation. Inj uries are of verymuch more frequent occurrence than diseaseand this applies more t o horses

,mules

,and

asses—through t he use of t he bit,and improper

methods of control stil l t oo common amongstablemen

,who do not fear t o put t he twitch

on t he l ingual member of a stubborn animal .H orses receive inj uries from jointed bits, seldomfrom straight bars . Fall ing on t he mouth‘pecking ’as hunting folks have it—often resultsin biting t he tongue. Crib biters and mis~chievous animals have occasional ly t o pay t he

penalty of their behaviour by lodgment of

splinters , and t he tearing asunder of t he tonguein chains and by spring hooks. Treatment oferuptive troubles wil l of course be const it u

t ional primarily,and will be found under t he

diseases mentioned above, but local applicationsare nowhere more successful than when appliedt o this organ . Solutions of alum , and borax

,

and honey serve t o give relief in almost allt ongue sores, including t he great ulcers resulting from foot - and - mouth disease. Spongingwith permanganate of potash

, 2 per cent, withch inosol

, chlorinated lime water, chlorate of potash in solution

,and other simple disinfectants

soon relieves unhealthy and languid ulcers fromwhich t he tongue suffers in common with t hegums. [H . L.]To n ic s .

—The veterinarian gives a widersignificance t o t he word ‘tonic’than is generallyunderstood by t he public . P ure air or a runat grass may prove a tonic for t he stabled animal

,as wel l as those drugs and chemica l sub

stances which either supply some element wanting, or ca l l forth t he latent vital forces in a

manner more lasting than do stimulants. Thereare general tonics

,as iron and t he bitter vege

table extracts ; nerve tonics, as quinine and nuxvomica ; heart tonics , as digitalis and st rophan

~

thus. The exact manner in which certain tonicsact upon t he various organs

, as t he liver andkidneys, t he stomach and pancreas, t he gas t ricand peptic glands, may not be very clear ; butt he practice of medicine is still largely emp irical, and experience has accumulated of a kind

Tonics Toulouse Goose

that is very helpful t o t he general practitioner,w ho prescribes t he various t onics with a largemeasure of success ; restoring digestion and

assisting in assimilation,and t he renewal of

tone and constitutional power after exhaustingillness

,or loss of blood, nervous shock, and t he

debility incurred by parasitism. [H . L. ]To n q u in P ig s are similar in colour, form,

and characteristics t o Chinese igs (see CH IN ESEPros), and were said t o have been used in t he

improvemen t of t he Smal l Yorkshire, hence t hename Tunky or Tonquin by which t he latt erpigs were frequently ca lled in t he midland counties. [s. s.]Torm e n t il.—The common Tormentil , or

Blood R oot (Tormen t illa or P oten t illa oficina lis,nat . ord . R osaceae

,sub~order Pot en t illeae), is a

familiar plant on moors and heaths in Britainand t he greater part of Europe. The largewoody root, which contains tannin, gum , and a

red colouring matter,has long been es t eemed as

an astringent. The small bright- yel low flowersare produced in summer ; they have four petals,but t he lowest on t he stem frequently has five.

[w w ]Tort rix , a genus of smal l moths

,many of

which are popularly known as‘leaf rollers ’

,

from their habit of curl ing up t he leaves of t heplan t s on which they feed, thus protecting themselves when at work. There are innumerablespecies of this and allied genera, and hardly anygarden plant is free from their depredations.The little active ca terpillars so destructive to

roses belong t o this group.

T. oirida na is t he wel l—known Green OakTortrix

,which in certain seasons entirely defoli

ates Oak trees over large areas. As with otherleaf - eating caterpillars

,t he best treatment in

t he case of Tortrix attack is t o spray with Parisgreen or some other arsenica l poison (see art .

ARSEN ICAL WASHES) . [R . H . L.]To u lo u s e Goos e . Though t he Toulousegoose originated in France and is stil l extensively bred in t he Department of H auteGaronne

,

probably much of its size is due t o British influences

, as it has been bred here t o a fixed typeand for size. The plumage is largely grey incolour with light stern

,paunch

,and tail

,in

which respect it follows its progenitor,t he

Greylag. It is very massive,deep and long in

body , t he l ine of t he keel being almost levelwith or near t o t he ground. The legs are shortand heavy in bone. These birds at ta in a largersize than t heEmbden , but are slower in growth,and consequently are not usual ly ready for kil ling before Christmas. They respond t o goodtreatment, and appear t o require richer landsin order t o bring them t o a state of perfection

,

with abundant feeding. They fatten well ; butas goose flesh is not nearly so much in demandas was t he case at one time

, and smal ler birdsare desired , t he special qualities of t he Toulouseare not so much in its favour as formerly. Thesebirds will often reach 20 lb . in eight months,and few people want specimens of that size.

The geese are good layers, and t he eggs laid by

them are very large, but t he birds are not veryreliable for hatching and rearing. Breedingfor exhibi t ion has led t o development of a dew

Tow n Dairy Toxins

lap on t he throat and t o a loose paunch,which

are by no means improvements,and are ap t t o

promote looseness of skin . [E. B . ]

Tou louse Geese

Tow n Da iry , R eg u la t io n s f o r. SeeDAIR IES

, Cow SHEDS , A N D M ILK SH OP ORDERS .

Tow n s , Tree s f o r.—For planting in t hesmoky atmosphere of towns , coniferous trees areleast suited for resisting t he poisonous actionproduced upon t he leaves by t he sulphurousacid contained in t he smoky atmosphere. The

denser t he foliage and t he longer it persists,t he

more t he evergreen conifers suffer from smokyair. S ilver Fir su ffers most, then Spruce and

Scots P ine,and t he deciduous Larch least of all.

Thus in t he Glasgow Botanic Gardens, coniferscan no longer be grown ; and even in t he lesssmoky atmosphere at t he Edinburgh BotanicGardens they are now becoming unhealthy.N o hard- and - fast classification can be made

as to t he suitabili ty or non - suitability of t he

different kinds of deciduous broad - leaved treesforgrowing in towns . But experience has shownthat, in general , Beech suffers most from townsmoke

,and Oak , Elm,

Sycamore, R obinia, andP lane tree least

, especial ly t he hybrid varietyknown as London P lane (Pla tanus acerifolia) ;whilst t he other trees mostly grown for ornamen t in parks and gardens , and including Birch,Lime, Alder, Ash , Maple, P oplars , Willows,H orse - chestnut

,G ingko

, Catalpa, and Ailanthus

,occupy intermediate positions between

these extremes, though varying, of course,

according t o t he nature of t he climate, soil , andsituation . For street planting and for townavenues , Plane, M aple, Sycamore, Elm,

Lime,and H orse- chestnut are t he most suitable ; andtheir growth is improved when large open

23 1

gratings are put round t he tree at ground - levelt o allow moisture t o percolate into t he soil , andt o provide a certain amount of aeration . Int he London parks, P lane, Elm,

Sycamore, and

R obinia usually thrive best on t he whole, thenLime and Ash ; while Canadian Poplar doeswell for about twenty years

,and then produces

only poor and ragged fol iage. Among t he. morerecently introduced trees t he leathery - leavedJapanese maidenhair tree ( til ing/co biloba ), t heIndian Bean (Ca ta lp a bignonioid es), and t he

Tulip tree (Liriodendron t u lip ifera) are foundt o thrive in parks and open spaces

,and t o be

highly ornamental . In t he larger towns of

N orthern Europe t he trees chiefly planted intowns are Lime

,Eln-i

,Maple, Sycamore, P lane,

and H orse- chest n u t . Of these t he H orse - chestnut is t he most beautiful in t he flowering timeof Spring ; in summer, P lane and Elm have t hebest foliage ; and in autumn

,t he Maple shows

t he richest colouring. In Central Europe t he

American H orse - chestnuts,t he red and t he

yellow - flow ering Buckeye (Pavia) , are largelygrown in avenues ; but for their full development they need a warmer cl imate than obtainsin most parts of Britain . [J . N .]Tow n s h e n d , Lo rd .

—Charles V iscoun tTownshend

,a member of an ancient N orfolk

family,w as born in 1 674. After a political

career of great distinction,in which he held

many important posts,including that of P rime

M inister in t he reign of George I,he retired t o

his ancestral estate at Rainham in 1 730. For t heremainder of his life he devoted himself entirelyt o agriculture

,in connection with which

,it may

safely be said,he did more good in t he few

years that remained t o him than he had donein a long career in politics. H e at on ce begant o improve t he naturally poor and badly megleeted soil of his estate. Travels on t he Cont inent of Europe had rendered him familiarwith t he marling of t he land and t he cultivation of turnips and clover as field crops . Partlyby t he former, but far more effectually by t helatter, he steadily raised t he fertility of hisland . The feeding of sheep on turnips and cloverwas t he best of all treatment for t he poor lightsoil of his part of N orfolk . Tull had introducedturnips before Townshend began t o grow them ;but no one had fol lowed t he former in cultivatingt he crop . Townshend w as t he first landownerin England t o grow it extensively . H e adoptedfor it s cultivation Tull’s methods of drillingand horse—hoeing (see TULL). H is persistentadvocacy of t he growing of t he roots gainedhim t he nickname of ‘Turnip Townshend ’. H e

was t he initiator of t he four - course plan of

farming which in course of time made t he N or

folk system of husbandry famous all over t heworld . H e died in 1 738 . [W. E. B . ]Tox in s . In t he strict sense of t he term

,

toxins are poisonous substances produced byt he bacteria that cau se such diseases as tetanusand diphtheria. These organisms do not themselves spread in t he body

,but develop comple

poisonous compounds that flood t he circulation .

Their chemical nat ure is obscure,but their mole

cules appear t o contain t w o side chains , one of

w hich,called t he haptophore group

,enables t he

232

t oxin molecu le t o combine with t he body cells,and t he other, t he toxophore group, producest he poisonous effect. Against t he action of anyspecific toxin t he organism seeks t o protect itselfby roducing a corresponding antitoxin, whichconibines with t he toxin and thus prevents itfrom doing its characteristic mischief, unlesst he toxin present is more than t he antitoxinformed can neutralize. By injecting a toxin ,e.g . tet anus toxin , into a horse in gradually increasing quantities, large amoun t s of antitoxinare produced, and t he serum becomes capableof immunizing other animals against tetanus .The toxin combines with t he animal cell bymeans of side chains attached t o t he latterwhich have been called receptors. It is supposed that t he injection of toxin in t he processof pre arin

gan immune serum causes an in

crease pro uc t ion of these receptors,and that

many of them become detached from t he bodycells. The l iberated recept ors are t he moleculesof antitoxin , which can combine with t he toxinand thus prevent these becoming attached t ot he body cells.There are certa in other poisons

,of which t he

snake venoms are t he mos t important, whichhave many points of resemblance t o t he t oxinsthat have been described above, but also presentcert ain important poin t s of difference. The cadaveric alkaloids and other t omaines are sometimes cal led toxins

,but t ey differ from t he

true toxins fundamentally. Like s t rychnine and

t he other poisonous vegetable alkaloids they donot combine with t he body cel ls as the truet oxins do

,and therefore they cannot be an ta

gon iz ed by anti- substances l ike t he antitoxins.The name of toxins has also been given t ocertain products that are supposed t o be excretedby t he roots of plants and t o make t he soil inj urious t o succeeding crops of t he same species.The existence and action of these substances is,however

,t o say t he least, t oo problematical t o

cal l for their mention here. [0. M . L .]Tra c h eo t om y .

—A n operation upon t he

w in doipe or trachea whereby an artificial open

Tracheotomy Tube (Arnold Sons)

ing is made, and through which t he animal isenabled t o breathe

,is known by t he above name.

It is of great value when suffocation threatensthrough obstruction of t he air passage of t helarynx (see LARYN GITIS) from inflammation or

t he presence of foreign bodies . It is also performed for t he permanent rel ief of roarers orwhistlers (see R OAR IN G). The most convenient

Tracheotomy Transp lanting

sit e for operation is about one- third of t he waydown t he windpipe

,from t he throat t o the

breast , as here there is t he minimum amount ofmuscular clothing ; but some experts prefer t oplace t he tube very high up

,and where it is less

seen,close t o t he larynx . The animal owner

cal led upon t o act in an emergency may chooset he first situation, make an incision 3 in . long

,

right through t he skin,and showing t he car

t ilaginous rings of t he trachea. The in t egu

ment is easily separated on each side for t he

removal of a circular piece of t he pipe,which

should be prevented from falling inwards bybeing firs t transfixed with a needle carrying a

s t out thread. When t he disk is taken ou t,a

tube of any sort may be temporarily employedwhile a veterinary surgeon is sought. The

hinged and valved tubes inven t ed by Mr. Gib

son,

of Oakham, are t he best, butsimpler and less expensive ones are suppliedby instrument makers . Antiseptics should

,of

course, be employed, but t he operation is qui tea simple one as performed upon animals.s.

[H . L .]Tra c h y t e , a partly glassy, partly crystalline

,igneous rock with t he chemical composition

of syenite,from which it d iffers in having cooled

more rapidly, usually as a lava at t he earth’ssurface. It is generally light in colour

, greyishor whitish

,with crystals of clear orthoclase

scattered through it. Certain hil ls south - eastof Limerick are formed of ancient trachytes ;but t he rock is rare in t he British Isles. It iscommon on t he Rhine near Bonn

, and trachyticash forms an abundant porous earth in t heBrohl t al. Trachyte soils are light

,dry

,and

wel l furn ished with potash,of which t he unde

composed rock may contain 5 t o 6 per cent.[G. A . J. c .]

Tra g o p og o n (Goat’s - beard) is t he botanica lname of a genus of taprooted biennial or perennial com osit e plan t s with milky j uice sometimes foun as reeds in meadows and pastureson rich land, but never troublesome. The leavesare 5 t o 8 in. long, narrow and grasslike

,with

t he base broadest and sheathing t he stem. The flowersare all l igulate

,and arranged

in heads surrounded by narrow involucral leaves over1 in. long. The seed ’is longand narrow

,with a slender

beak crowned by a tuft of

very feathery hairs ( p appus).Yel low Goat’s - beard (Tragop agan pra term

'

s) has yellowflowers Purple Goat’s- beard

,

or Salsify (Tragopogon p orrifolius), has purple flowers, andis cultivated as a culinaryvegetable. [A . N . M

‘A .]

Tra in in g H orse s . See art . BREAKIN G.

Tra n s p la n t in g , one of t he most import ant and everyday operat ions in horticulture.

Because of t he need for economizing space,and

for other reasons,comparatively few plants are

grown from seeds or cuttings in t he positionsthey are t o occupy permanently

, and if carefully performed transplanting is usually bene

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234

traps in ditches, for polecats, when on t he prowl ,always make their way along any convenienthollow, in order t o conceal themselves. S toatsand weasels are most troublesome pests, and inspite of t he vigorous persecution t o which theyare subjected, they do not seem t o be diminishing very greatly in numbers. These little car

nivores can travel great distances , and it is thusalmost impossible t o clear an estate of themaltogether. When hunting, they go t o work ina most systematic manner

,and slink along in

ditches or under cover of walls orhedges. Trapsshould therefore be laid in such situat ions asthese. A hole in a wal l is an excellent spot t oselect, for t he weasel is a most thorough littlehunter, and is certain t o go through t he hole inorder t o survey t he land on t he opposite side.

Small steel traps are general ly used, and it isu sually found unnecessary t o bait them

,if they

are laid in t he situations mentioned . Thesevermin can be mos t effectively destroyed in May and June, when theyhunt in family parties. If t he trapper watches until t he old female iscaught

,and then suspends her dead

body over t he trap, he will find thatt he young wil l walk in to t he snareone after another until all haveperished. H edgehogs should be

taken in traps baited with eggs. SeeTRAPS FOR VERM IN . [H . s . R . E.]Tra p - ro c k . Lavas contain ingmuch iron and no excess of silica,such as basalts and basic andesi t es

,

flow t o considerable distances fromvolcanic vents

,and form extensive

sheets across t he country. Whenattacked by weathering

,they form

sca rpsperpendicular t o their surfaces

,partien

larly w en a columnar structure has developed,

and successive flows, with their fairly level topsand vertical edges, resemble a series of giganticsteps in a broad landscape. This structure

,so

cons icuous in Skye and M ull and t he outlyingTreshnish islets, is styled trappean, from a

Swedish word meanin a staircase. Graduallysuch lavas were cal le ‘trap - rocks ’ or ‘traps ’,and t he term came t o be applied t o them whetherin dykes, bosses, or terraced flows. For t hecharacters of typica l trap - rocks

,see arts. AN DE

S ITE and BASALT. [G. A. J. c .]Tra p s fo r Ve rm in . Of all t he forms oftraps in use for smal l animals

, t he most general ly serviceable is that known as t he ‘deadfall ’. This consists of a heavy block of stoneor wood, which is supported by a trigger of

ingenious but easily contrived pattern , cal ledt he ‘figure

- of—four ’ support. All countrymenwill be familiar with this trap

,and every game

keeper wil l know how t o set it. The instrumentis inexpensive and effective

, and , in appropriatesizes, can be used for all kinds of vermin . For

stoats and weasels it should be baited with t heentrails of rabbits ; t he bait is attached t o t hewooden trigger

,and when t he little carnivore

pull s at it, t he precarious support gives w ay andt he stone crashes down

,flattening ou t and kill

ing t he animal instan taneously. It is a humanemethod of putting an end t o t he creature’s

Trap - rock Tree Creeper

existence,since there is no l in ering death.

(For t he best situation in w hic t o set t he

t ra s,see TRAPP IN G. ) The dead fall can be

ma e large enough for killing cats. Rabbit sare often great pests t o farmers, but (although,perhaps

,shooting is t he best method of destroy

ing them) they are generally snared in largenumbers by a simple and cheap contrivance .

A wooden peg is driven into t he ground overa rabbit hole or by a run in t he hedge-row .

From this a wire projects,and is twisted on

itself t o form a noose about 1 ft. in circumference

,and having a ring at the end

,which

will run freely along t he wire. This is t heordinary snare. I t is made much more humaneby t he following contrivance. F ive and a halfinches from t he end of t he wire a small ring istied t o t he wire by a simple knot. When t herabbit runs his head unthinkingly and withsome force into t he noose

,it is of course pulled

Dead Fall

tight as far as this knot. The noose,which is

now only 5 5 in . in circumference,is securely

around t he creature’s neck,and he cannot pos

sib ly get his head ou t . On t he other hand,

there is no painful throttling process,for owing

t o t he second ring t he noose cannot be drawnany tighter. The animal merely sits in t hepainless snare til l t he trapper goes his rounds

,

and experience shows that, after t he first few

moments in t he noose, t he captives struggle bu t

little. This variety of trap was first tried witha knot only—with no second ring. Thus constructed it proved a failure

,but now that t he

ring has been introduced t he snare should bewidely adopted . Wire- cage traps

,if set in such

places as ditches, along which stoats and weaselsare wont t o steal , are very effective. The bestsort are those which have spring doors a t bothends, so that they can be left open for severaldays in order tha t t he animals may grow accust omed t o walking through them. If they bethen baited with flesh , t hey _

are sure t o securet he first carn ivore which comes along. Thefamiliar steel trap, or gin , is an extremely cruelinstrumen t, though very widely used . Whentraps are employed, t he t rapper should visit hisgins at very short intervals

,in order t o terminate

as quickly as possible t he agony of his captives.H . s . R . s .]

Tree C re e p er (Certhia familzam'

s).—Thissmal l perching bird may often be seen climbing

Tree of Heaven—Treesup trees and wal ls in search of insects

,of which

i t s food entirely consists. The stiff tail servesas a support, and t he slender curved beak iswel l adapted for probing crevices in t he bark .

The upper side of t he body and wings is brown,

spotted and streaked with white, and t he underS lde ls buff- coloured. The nes t is built of moss

,

roots, and feathers, either in a hole in a treetrunk, or in a gap formed by t he separation oft he bark. The six t o eight white eggs aremarkedW ith red spots at t he broad end . Of no importance agricultural ly, t he bird is extremely benefic1al t o forestry and fruit culture

,destroying

Tree Creeper

noxious insects in all stages of their existencefrom t he egg onwards. [J . R . A. D.]Tree o f H ea ven , a tall , rapidly growingtree

,often planted as a shade tree in parks and

public places. See A ILAN THUS .

Tre e s , S y lvic u lt u ra l C h a ra c t e ris

t ic s o f , are : (I) their 8 ecial peculiarities regarding climate

,soil

,an situation ; light and

shade ; shape of root system, stem , and crown ;rate of growth ; reproductive and regenerativepower ; and maturity and longevity ; and ( II)their general characteristics as woodland crops

,

in consequence of these special eculiarit ies.

( 1 ) A s regards clima te, all kin s of trees havenorthern and southern limits determined bywinter cold and summer heat or drought, andalso l imits of alti t ude in mountainous tractsdetermined by cold. Owing t o geographicalconditions and local configuration , there can

never be hard - and - fast lines of demarcat ionthroughout Western Europe ; bu t t he northernlimit of t he chief forest trees is for Silver Firabout Beech PedunculateOak ScotsP ine and Spru ce In Eastern Europe(R ussia), however, these limits are reduced considerably , except in t he case of Oak ; while t hesouthern limits vary greatly, according to t he

amount and t heregularity of t he summer rainfall .(2) A s regards temperat ure and rainfall, t he

23 5

mild equable climate of Great Britain is except ionally well suited for all t he woodland treesof Central Europe ; and many of t he N ort hAmerican trees thrive far better here than on

t he Continent. But of our common woodlandtrees

, experience shows that Birch, Scots Elm,

and Scots P ine grow better in Scotland thanin England ; that Beech , English Elm, Ped un

culate Oak, Chestnut, and Weymouth and Maritime P ines do best in t he warmer parts of England ; that Alder, Ash , Pedunculate Oak, English Elm

,Maple, Willows, and Poplars thrive

best on low - lying land ; and that Scots Elm,

Sessile Oak, Sycamore, Scots P ine, Spruces ,S ilver and Douglas Firs, and Larch do beston hilly land. Beech, Ash , Chestnut, R obinia,and S ilver and Douglas (Pacific) Firs are mostl iable t o damage from frost ; whileAspen , Birch ,Elm

, H ornbeam,Lime, Sallow ,Larch , and Spruceare t he hardiest against winter cold ; though allkinds are more likely t o be nipped by late frostwhen growing on land exposed t o t he earlymorning sunshine. Elm, Oak, and Larch do bestin a fairly dry climate, and Alder, Ash, Maple

,

Sycamore, Willow, and Poplar in a fairly moist.(3 ) A s regards soil and situa t ion , conifers gener

ally are less exacting and have a greater accommodat ive power than broad - leaved trees inrespect t o moisture and mineral food, t he mostaccommodative trees being Aspen , Birch, Sallow,and Scots P ine, and t he least accommodative,Ash and English Elm. Depth

,permeability

,

and a moderate amount of moisture are of moreimportance than any particular kind of soil ;for it is of greater physiological advan t a e thatt he root system of any tree should evelopfreely and normal ly , and that t he situationshould (as regards climate, natural drainage,aspect, &c.) be suitable, than that t he soil itselfshould be of a sandy, a loamy, a clayey

,or a.

l imy description. With satisfactory physicalproperties (depth, permeability, moisture, andtemperature) any kind of soil may be relied ont o furnish sufficient mineral food for good treegrowth ; but Oak, Ash, Elm,

Chestnut, Maple

,

Sycamore, Larch , Douglas and S ilver F irs, andScots P ine have t he deepest roots

, and thereforeneed t he greatest depth of soil for good growth ;while Aspen

,Birch

,Willow

,Poplar

,and Spruce

have only a shal low root- system ( though they,t oo, grow better on a deep than in a shallowsoil). Beech , Ash ,Elm,

Maple,Sycamore, H orn

beam,White Alder, Oak , Austrian P ine, and

Larch thrive well on soil containing a gooddeal of l ime

,but this seems t o act inj uriously

on Sweet Chestnut, Douglas Fir, and MaritimeP ine. H umus or leaf-mould improves all kindsof soil, and hence replantation on true ‘woodland soil ’ is usually more successful than t hefirst planting of waste lands and poor pastures(probably owing t o a deficiency of nitrogen inan easily available form).(4) A s regards light and shade, trees are clas

sifiab le as light- demand ing and shade- enduring ,

according t o t he amount and t he intensity of

t he sunlight needed for assimilation and sapelaboration—t he demand being apparent fromt he amount of fol iage borne by t he tree- crown(which, of course, varies with t he situation and

23 6

t he quality of t he soil). The light- demand ingtrees most im at ien t of shade are Larch, Birch ,and R obinia ; ines, Poplars, and Willows ; Oak,Ash

,Elm

,and Chestnut ; less impatient of shade

are Alder, Lime, H orse - chestnut, Maple, and

Sycamore ; while Beech and H ornbeam,and most

ever reen conifers (es ecially Spruce, Douglasand ilver F irs, and T uj a gigantea), are shadeenduring, as also t he stool - shoots of the kindsof trees usual ly grown as underwood in copses.All our woodland trees thrive best when theircrown of foliage is freely ex osed t o sunlight ;but Beech and S ilver Fir see ings need proteotion against frost for t he first t w o or t hree t ofour or five years.( 5 ) A s regards root system,

stem, and crown ,

trees grown as woodland crops are always confined ih a smaller growing - space than whenstanding freely in t he open ; but while t he rootsand t he crown are kept smal ler, t he growth inheight (d ue t o t he struggle for existence ) isgreater

,and there is less tendency t o spread

sidewards into branches. And, of course, it isonly when deep - rooting and light - demandingkinds of trees have their natural requirementssatisfied that good growth can bemaintained, andmore especial ly as t he trees approach maturity.

(6) A s regard s ra te of growth as timber crops,

few of those which grow rapidly in height atfirst furnish very large mature crops, thought he Pacific variety of Douglas Fir is an exception in this respect. The next largest crops peracre are yielded by S ilver Firs and Spruces ,which are both slow in establishi ng themselvesand beginning t o shoot ahead.(7 ) Reprodu ct ive and regene

r

a t ive p ower are

different forms of utilizing nutrient reserves forpropagation of t he species, reproduction beingachieved by stool - shoots and root - suckers (seeCOPP ICE) , and regeneration by seed. Treesbearing smal l fruits with tiny seeds are muchmore prol ific than those bearing large and heavyfruits

, and they seed more frequently, and are

spread farther by wind ; hence, even thought he germinative power of t he seed be less, t heaverage regenerative power of Aspen and otherPoplars

,Alder

,Birch

,Scots Elm

,Maple

,Syca

more,Willows

,P ines

,Spruces , Douglas Fir, and

Thi gh. gigan tea is greater than in S ilver Fir,Beech

,Oak, and Chestnut.

(8) Ma turity and longevity vary greatly in our

woodland trees (up t o about 500years, and more,for Oak and Chestnut) ; but timber crops reachtheir marketable or financial maturity at a com

parat ively early age, and earlier on poor thanon good soil

,varying from 40 t o 70 years for

conifers, 3 5 t o 50years for softwoods, 60 t o 100years for most hardwoods

,and 100 t o 1 50 for

Oak . Thus t w o or three conifer crops may be

taken for one of Oak ; and this is one of the

great advantages promised by growing conifertrees suitable for any given soil and situation .

In consequence of t he combined influence of

t he above-mentioned special peculiarities , treesare either gregarious in habit, and then foundforming large and more or less pure forests ; orelse sporadic

,and then found scattered singly or

in patches and groups mixed along with othert rees . Other things being equal, shade- enduring

Trees Trellis

trees would gradually,in course of time

,oust

light- demanding trees, and become ruling speciesover large areas ; as, for example, where t he Silver Fir

,t he Beech , and t he Spruce form large

forests in Central Europe. But other things arenever equal in nature ; and trees having ligh tand winged seeds , especial ly those hardy kindsof trees that grow quickly at first (e.g . Birchand Aspen), often establish themselves securelybefore t he kinds previously on t he ground havebeen able t o regenerate themselves (see M IXEDWOODS ), so that a mixture of trees varying ac ,

cording t o soi l and sit uation is characteristic ofall natural woodlands , and is t he safest atternt o copy in forestry. 51 . N .

Tre fo il, a common name for Black M edick,

N onsuch Clover, orYellow Trefoil ; a species of

Trefoil (Med icago lupu lim )

Medicago (which see) . It is sometimes referredt o by farmers as ‘H op

’or

‘H op Trefoil’, but thisterm should be abandoned as likely t o be confusedwith H op Clover (Trifolium procumbens, a

wi ld plant frequently found on dry soils .Trefoil is an annual or biennial lant grownchiefly on ca lcareous soils for t he fee '

ng of sheepand lambs. It yields a fair amount of nutritiousfodder on soils which do not row many greencro

ps successfully, and t he see is cheap . It is

rea y for use in spring t en days or a fortnightearlier than R ed Clover.When sown alone t he seed is broadcasted onyoung corn in s ring

,at t he rate of 20 lb. per

acre,and covere by a light harrowing.

Trefoil is extensively used as a constituent ofmixtures of clover and grass seeds for temporarypastures. It provides good ‘bottom ’ herbageduring t he first year or t w o of t he ley , but onaccoun t of its short l ife it should not be usedin excessive amounts for pastures t o be keptdown more than t w o or three years , as it isliable t o smother ou t t he more lasting plants

,

and when it dies ou t leaves bare patches whichbecome overrun with weeds. [J . r.]Tre l l is , an arrangement of supporters onwhich t o train garden plants. A framework ofwires fixed near t he glass in greenhouses is necessary for t he train ing of such plants as vines,peaches and nectarines

,melons and cucumbers ;

wire trellises, usually pyramid orballoon - shaped,

are fixed t o large pots containing Stephanotis,Lapageria, and other climbers ; and there mustbe some sort of t reilla e for t he support ofespalier frui t trees whio are not planted bya wal l. Espalier trel lis made of iron rods isneater and more durable than wood

,but plants

do not thrive so well in contact with metal ou tdoors , as metal is so extremely susceptible to

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238

animals, they may be distrained damage feasantin securit y of t he claim for damage done (seeunderCATTLE STRAYIN G ; POUND). And whetherdistress has been done ornot , an action fordamages l ies against t he owner of t heanimals. Wheret he trespass is likely t o cause great damage, t heCour t will intervene by inj unction t o prevent it.An action fortrespass t o land must be institu t edwithin six years after t he cause of t he action .A person w ho is inj ured on lands on which heis trespassing has, as a rule, no action againstt he owner or occupier

,w ho owes no duty t o

him . Thus where a member of t he publ ic,taking without t he owner’s permission a shortcut through a field in which a savage horse waskept, was inj ured by t he animal

,it was held

that t he farmer was not liable, on t he groundthat no duty on t he part of t he owner of a

savage animal t o take care that t he animal shal lnot inj ure him exist s towards a tres asser on t heland on which it is kept, alt houg t he ownerknew that t he public habitual ly trespassed on

his land,and also knew that t he anima l w as

savage, such animal not being kept for t he purpose oi attacking trespassers. But by Statuteit is unlawful t o set spring guns

,man traps, or

other engines calculated t o destroy human lifeor infl ict grievous bodily hurt on a trespasseror other person coming in con tact therew ith,though t he setting of any gun or trap such as

is generally set with in tent t o destroy verminis not thereby rendered illegal . Moreover, itis quite lawful t o set a spring gun or otherengine in a house for t he protection thereofin t he nighttime.

2. SCOTLAND.—The term trespass ’, which was

unknown in early Scots law and has been borrowed from England, has a more restricted sign ificance in Scots law than in English, since itdenotes merely t he temporary entry upon t heproperty of another by man or animals . Trespass by animals will be dealt with under WIN

TER H ERDIN G A o'r. Apart from t he statu t oryoffences t o be referred t o later, trespass is a civilwrong

, not a criminal offence ; but wilful dest ruotion of

, or damage t o, property is punishablecriminally as malicious mischief.N o trespass is committ ed if t he lands of an ~

other are entered,without his permission, for

t he purpose of extinguishing fire, t o preventa crime or in pursuit of a criminal, t o escapeurgent danger, or in defence of one’s goods orstock unlawfully taken or recently straying ont o t he lands. To this may be added that farmers in a pas t oral district are entitled t o entert he lands of others in pursuit of foxes, if theirdestruction is necessary for t he preservation ofsheep or other animals, provided t he good of t hepublic, and not mere amusement, was t he mot ivefor t he entry.

The owner of t he land which has been invadedis entitled t o order t he intruder off, and t o indicate t he line he must take in leavin Wheret he trespasser is checked on t he bor ers of t he

land on attempting t o enter, orwhere t he trespass is accompanied by acts of violence or suchthreats as would put t he interrupter in fear ofbodily hurt, force may be used t o repel the trespasser ; and it has even been said in one case that

Trespass

if a trespasserpersists in refusing to leave, after

being requeste t o do so, he may be ejected byforce. But in any event, as in England, if nunecessary violence is used t o eject a trespasser,there would be rounds for a charge of assault.This statement, ow ever, does not apply t o t heinvasion of a dwelling- house ; and in t he caseof housebreaking, t he occupier of t he house isentitled t o use force to check and t o arrest t hehousebreaker, and in exce t ional cases homicidehas even been held just ifia le. The on ly remedyavailable t o t he owner of lands on which trespass wit hout damage has been committ ed, is thatof i nterdict. This remedy is after all somewhatlimited in its value, for it will not be grantedunless a complainer can prove a reasonable likelihood of a repetition of t he trespass. If, however

,t he com lainer is able t o prove reasonable

grounds for elieving that t he offence will berepeated

,interdict will be grant ed, unless some

public or servitude right is alleged ; and in t heevent of decree being granted, expenses wil l begiven against t he trespasser. If thereaft er t hetrespass is repeated, it is in contempt of Courtand t he trespasser may be severely dea lt withaccording t o t he gravity of t he contempt . Inaddition t o t he civil right t o an in t erdic t in t hecircumstances above stated

,t he owner or occu

pier of t he land on which t he trespass has beencommitted has always an action of damagesagainst t he trespasser forany actual inj ury done,as, for example, by t he breaking down of fencesor t he trampling of rowing crops.The Statute prohi iting t he setting of springguns

, &c .

, above referred t o, does not extend t oScotland , as it was considered that the commonlaw of Scotland made such engines clearly il legal ;and in t he only case which is reported in thatcountry, it w as laid down that t he placing of

a spring gun t o shoot trespassers was indictableas murder if death ensued, even although therew as no design against any particular person .

But, as in England, such engines are permissible for t he protection of a house in t he nighttime.

In t w o cases trespass has been made a statutory offence

,viz . : ( l ) trespass in pursuit of

game (see under GAME LAWS), and (2) undert he Trespass (Scotland) Act, 1865 . This Actwas passed principal ly t o put a check on travell ing tinkers, gipsies, and others from squattingwithout permission on private properties or

private roads. The third section of t he Actprovides that ‘Every person w ho lodges in anypremises, or encamps on any land being privateproperty, wit hout t he consent and ermissionof t he owner or legal occupier of sai premisesor land, and every person who encamps or ligh t sa fire on or near any private road or enclosed orcultivated land, or on or near any plantation ,without t he consent or ermission of t he owneror legal occupier of sai road or land or plantation, or on or near any turnpike road, statutelabour road or other highway

,shal l be guilty of

an offence punishable as hereinafter provided ’.Section 4 enacts that offenders, if found in t heac t of commit t ing t he offence

,may be appre

hended by any officer of olice or constable,and

shall be at once brought efore a magistrate, t he

Triassic System

penalty for t he first ofi’ence being a sum notexceeding or imprisonmen t not exceeding

239

fora period not exceeding 21 days. Section 5 provides that t he prosecution must be commenced

1 4 days ; and fora second or subsequent offence,within one month after t he offence has been

a penalty not exceeding 40a, or imprisonment committed.

Tria s s ic S y st em .—This system of

strata, lying between t he Permian and t he

Juras sic,has its g reatest European develop

ment in t he Austrian Alps, where massivemarine limestones are a conspicuous feature.

In northern Europe generally, it is represented by beds accumulated on land , or inlagoons and lakes that became salt throughevaporation . In t he British Isles, t hemarineR haetic series, which closes t he system, is t heonly reminder of t he Alpine type. In central Germany, t he system begins with redsandst onesand marls styled t he Bunter series ;then follows a grey marine limestone, t heM uschelkalk ; and then sandstones and marlsstyled Keuper. The marine Rhaetic connects

with t he Lower Lias. In our

series are as follows :

The BUN TER gives us red sandstones, andconglomerates formed of quartzite ebbles ;t he sandstones are as a rule not su cient lyconsolidated t o serve as good building stones .With t he somewhat similar Permian sandstones

,they form what has been styled t he

N ew R ed Sandstone ’of England. The

KEUPER SER IES , beginning with sandst onesand coarse talus- dc osit s, t he Triassic ‘breccias’,closes with red an variegated marls, and thisseries has been called ‘N ew R ed Marl ’. The

breccias in t he south -west of England, as in t heMendip area, are formed of fragments from t heCarboniferous Limestone, on t he slopes of whichtheyarose ; and here an unusually calcareous typeof Keuper has been formed. This is known ast he Dolomitic Conglomerate, since t he blocks of

Sketch Map of Triassic Syst em

limestone have been dolomitized. In Worcestershire, S tafi

‘

ordshire, and Cheshire, t he Keupermarls include valuable beds of rock - salt. Thesalt is now raised as brine. Beds of gypsumoccur in the same strata. Owing t o t he extensive mining and brine umping

, t he lands roundDroitwich , N ant wich, ort hw ich

, &c., are liable

240 Triassic System '

t o considerable surface sinkingsg and in someplaces houses are built in timber frames

,so as

t o minimiz e t he effects of strain. The termwich so common as a t ermination in t he localnames, sign ifies a place where salt is worked .

The R HE TIC SER IES (PEN AR ’I‘K SER IES of

England) appears as beds rarely 50 ft. thick,which are seen at intervals from t he Severnest uary t o Lincolnshire, and which pass up intot he Jurassic strata. They consis t mostly of

marine l imestones and marls. They may be

traced as far west as t he Imiassic outcrop nearLimavady in Co. Londonderry.Though t he Bunter pebble- beds form hummocky country

,t he Trias of England, easily

worn away by denudation , has furnished inmost places a lowland

,which is a conspicuous

feature of t he midland counties. When w e

cross westward from t he scarp of Jurassiclimestones that runs across t he country, w e see

below us what appears t o be an immense plain,

t he nearer part of which is formed of Liassicbeds and t he farther part of Trias, extending t ot he Malvern H ills, t he Pennine Chain , or event o t he sea at Liverpool . The Trent keeps t oTriassic strata in it s course from S t affordshirethrough N ottinghamshire t o t he H umber ; andt he gypsum dissolved in its waters is said t obeneficial ly affect t he ales of Burton . Inliers ofmore hilly character, such as Charnwood Forestand t he midland coalfields, break t he lowlandhere and there ; and t he Carboniferous uplandsof t he Pennine Chain divide t he plains of York

,

Doncas ter, and N ewark, from those of Cheshire.

The agricultural value of t he Triassic countryearly favoured t he growth of market- centres init ; t he ground w as sui table for through - routesand communications ; and many of t he mostnot able English towns have arisen on it s surface. From N ewark t o Darlingt on and R ugbyt o Chester

,t he R oman roads and t he modern

railways have taken advan tage of Triassic country. Even t he fertile plain of York

,largely occu

pied by al luvium , owes its lowland character tot he denudation of t he Keuper marls and sandstones. Such towns as Manchester, Wolverhampton

, and Birmingham, closely dependen ton t he neighbouring beds of coal and iron - ore,

have none t he less developed within t he Triassicarea.

The sandst ones of Dumfries and t he valleysof t he N ith and Annan

,until recently regarded

as Permian, have now been correlated by t heGeologica l Survey with t he Trias. R esearchesin 1 909 on t he fossil footprints found in themtend

,however, t o Show their connection with

P ermian times (see sketch map). Across t heSolway , a large part of t he fertileVale of Eden,lying between barren Carboniferous Sandstonehil ls

,has been excavated in Keuper strata,

though these are now covered near Carlisle byas much as 200 ft. of glacial drift.A smal l area of reddish sandstone on t he coast

east of Elgin shows that t he Trias had at one

time a greater northerly extension . This regionis famous for t he remains of early reptiles.In Ireland , Trias of t he English type occurs ,including R haetic beds in places ; but it has

been preserved,with t he exception of a few ou t

l iers, only in t he neighbourhood of t he basal t icoutpourings of t he north. Soft sandstones, andmarls with rock - salt and gypsum

, are ex osedas a lowland along t he north - west side of

Belfas t Lough,and similar beds crop out under

t he basalt scarp at various points round t he

coast t o Lough Foyle. In Glenarifi‘ in County

Antrim and at Moneymore in County Londonderry, t he Triassic lands , with their red soils,present a marked contrast t o t he more ruggedground that forms t he neighbouring heights.Gyp sum is obtained from a Triassic outlier asfar south as Carrickmacross and Kingscourt.

[G. A. .I . c .]TR IASS IC Sous —Generally speaking

,these

soils are reputed t o be amongst t he most prod uct ive in t he kin gdom. Those of t he LowerTrias , or Bun ter Series, however, do not reachthis pre- eminence. At Cannock Chase, in S taffordshire

,for instance, t he soils derived from

t he loca l conglomerat es are gravels of t he poorest description

,while at Sherwood Forest the

land consisting of red or yellow sands can onlybe regarded as waste. Also t he soils derivedfrom t he micaceous sandst ones of t he LowerKeuper are light

,poor sands which scarcely

repay t he expense of cultivation,but which

produce pastures good for sheep. Various fores ttrees, particularly Birch , do well on this formation .

On t he other hand , t he great fertility of t hesoils of t he Upper Keuper deposit s is t he ou t

standing agricultural feature of t he Trias sicSystem . These soils are usually rich friablemarls or clays possessing a characteristic redcolour, highly fer t ile, and suitable al ike for

tillage,meadowing, or pasture. There occasion

ally occur soils of a lighter description whichhave been derived from intercalated sandy beds.The soils of this series are typical ly developedin Somersetshire and Devonshire

,where turnips

or beans and wheat can be grown with equalsuccess . In these counties t he applica tion of

lime has a very decided effect on t he quantity of t he crops which can be grown. The

whole of t he east side of t he celebrated cheeseproducing county of Cheshire is situated on thisformation , and t he fertile Vale of Evesham isdivided between t he N ew R ed M arl and t he

Lias deposits. A fair proportion of t he landsof t he Upper Keuper is under t he lough

,but

t he more clayey of them are al lowedt o remainin grass, which they produce in abundance and

of excel lent qual ity. Many of these soils areimproved by marling ; that this fact w as recogniz ed by ast generations of farmers is sufficien t ly evi en t from t he number of old marl - pi t st o be seen

,notably in S taffordshire

,Cheshire

,

and Somersetshire. Orchard fruit - trees do part icu larly wel l on t he red soils of this series, andt he cider produced on t he N ew R ed Marl deposits, as in t he Vale of

,Taunton

,in Devon

shire, rivals that from t he best cider districtsof t he

_Old R ed Sandstone formation .

To procure a water - supply on t he Keu er

marls, it is necessary t o bore into t he nu er

lying Bunter sandstone beds. [T. B .]