23 Disposal of the dead. Uncommon mortuary practices from Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă 2003 excavation Mihai Gligor Universitatea “1 Decembrie 1918”, Alba Iulia, România Kirsty McLeod John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom Abstract The aim of this paper is to provide a biological profile of the disarticulated human skeletal remains excavated in 2003 at Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă, Romania. We have established that the MNI for the assemblage is 17 (13 adults and 4 subadults). The analyses of the human bone remains from pit G1/2003 allowed the identification of depressed fractures on several skulls, as well as cut marks present on some bones. The chronological timeframe given by the AMS dating of the human bone material spans between 4600-4450 BC. Key words Osteological analysis, mortuary practices, Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă, Bayesian approach, Early Eneolithic Archaeological Context Any understanding of mortuary practices in Transylvanian prehistory must take into account the important site of Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă for the Neolithic and Eneolithic period. The Lumea Nouă site is located in the northeastern part of the city of Alba Iulia (Alba County, Transylvania) and represents one of the most important settlements from the middle Mureş River area. Archaeological excavations from 2003 (Trench II) revealed a pit, G1, in square C, 1.50-1.70 m in diameter, marked by stones placed around its exterior. Inside were found a large number of human skulls, together with other human bone remains, randomly distributed in the upper levels (Figure 1a-b), with many long bones found in a slanting position (Figure 1c). The human skeletal remains were not found in anatomical connexion (Gligor 2009, 31- 32, Pl. X/2, CCII-CCIV). Towards the bottom of the pit, what appear to be the bones of a partial single skeleton were found in anatomical connexion, in a crouched position (Figure 1d). It was possible to classify this funerary complex culturally under the Foeni group (Gligor 2009, 31-32, 71-86). a b c d Figure 1. Human remains from Trench II/2003, □C, Pit G1. a) ▼0,65-0,75m; b) ▼0,90-0,95m; c) ▼1,10-1,15m; d) ▼1,20-1,30m. Legend: black = stone; red = adobe; yellow = bone.
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Disposal of the dead. Uncommon mortuary practices from Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă 2003 excavation
Mihai Gligor Universitatea “1 Decembrie 1918”, Alba Iulia, România
Kirsty McLeod John Moores University, Liverpool, United Kingdom
Abstract The aim of this paper is to provide a biological profile of the disarticulated human skeletal remains excavated in 2003 at Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă, Romania. We have established that the MNI for the assemblage is 17 (13 adults and 4 subadults). The analyses of the human bone remains from pit G1/2003 allowed the identification of depressed fractures on several skulls, as well as cut marks present on some bones. The chronological timeframe given by the AMS dating of the human bone material spans between 4600-4450 BC. Key words Osteological analysis, mortuary practices, Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă, Bayesian approach, Early Eneolithic
Archaeological Context
Any understanding of mortuary practices in Transylvanian prehistory must take into account the important site of
Alba Iulia – Lumea Nouă for the Neolithic and Eneolithic period. The Lumea Nouă site is located in the northeastern part of the city of Alba Iulia (Alba County, Transylvania) and represents one of the most important settlements from the middle Mureş River area. Archaeological excavations from 2003 (Trench II) revealed a pit, G1, in square C, 1.50-1.70 m in diameter, marked by stones placed around its exterior. Inside were found a large number of human skulls, together with other human bone remains, randomly distributed in the upper levels (Figure 1a-b), with many long bones found in a slanting position (Figure 1c). The human skeletal remains were not found in anatomical connexion (Gligor 2009, 31-32, Pl. X/2, CCII-CCIV). Towards the bottom of the pit, what appear to be the bones of a partial single skeleton were found in anatomical connexion, in a crouched position (Figure 1d). It was possible to classify this funerary complex culturally under the Foeni group (Gligor 2009, 31-32, 71-86).
a b
c d Figure 1. Human remains from Trench II/2003, □C, Pit G1. a) ▼0,65-0,75m; b) ▼0,90-0,95m; c) ▼1,10-1,15m; d) ▼1,20-1,30m.
Legend: black = stone; red = adobe; yellow = bone.
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14C AMS Data
Samples from human bones were taken for 14C AMS analysis in order to establish the site's absolute chronology, and to determine as precisely as possible the chronological dating for the funerary deposits in pit G1: ALN #02: Poz-19375 – 5650 ± 40 BP - (1σ) 68.2% 4536-4451 calBC; (2σ) 95.4% 4556-4365 calBC (▼1.00 m); ALN #18: Poz-59120 – 5665 ± 35 BP - (1σ) 68.2% 4528-4460 calBC; (2σ) 95.4% 4591-4374 calBC (▼0.65-0.75 m); ALN #19: Poz-59121 – 5720 ± 35 BP - (1σ) 68.2% 4605-4501 calBC; (2σ) 95.4% 4683-4466 calBC (▼1.20-1.25 m); ALN #01: Poz-19489 – 5750 ± 50 BP - (1σ) 68.2% 4683-4543 calBC; (2σ) 95.4% 4716-4466 calBC (▼0.90 m). The radiocarbon results indicate a date range between 4683/4536-4543/4451 calBC (1σ) and 4716/4556-4466/4365 calBC (2σ) (Figure 2). Using a Bayesian approach we have modelled the dates from G1/2003 (Figure 3), which suggests a timeframe of around 4500 BC: start 4782-4471 BC (95.4%), mean 4594 BC (Figure 4a); end 4556-4285 BC (95.4%), mean 4456 BC (Figure 4b). It is believed that the human remains from pit G1/2003 were arranged and deposited around this time.
a
b Figure 4. a) Modelled date (BC) from pit G1/2003 using
OxCal v4.2.4 - Start; b) Modelled date (BC) from pit G1/2003 using OxCal v4.2.4 – End.
Figure 2. 14C AMS calibrated date (calBC) from pit G1/2003 using OxCal v4.2.4.
Figure 3. Modelled date (BC) from pit G1/2003 using OxCal v4.2.4.
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Methodology
Previous studies (Gligor 2006; 2009; 2010; 2013) did not benefit from an exhaustive osteological analysis. For estimating the minimum number of individuals, the published data was obtained mainly by counting the human skull fragments in situ during excavation. We have also published a more recent study containing detailed bioarchaeological data (Gligor, Roşu and Panaitescu 2012), which included material from the 2003 excavation. The present analysis deals with the entire group of bone fragments excavated in pit G1/2003, out of which 2,509 were human and 14 non-human. The skeletal material was assessed according to the British Association of Biological Anthropologists and Osteologists standards and IFA Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains (Brickley and McKinley 2004). Analysis of the adult skeletal remains was carried out using aging and sexing methods found in Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994), while the subadult human skeletal material was not analyzed because secondary characteristics of bone do not manifest until a person reaches puberty (Bass 2005). Age estimation for the subadults was carried out using a combination of several methods: dental development (Ubelaker 1987; 1989), epiphyseal union (Schaefer, Black and Scheuer 2009), and development of the skeletal elements (Molleson and Cox 1993; Schaefer, Black and Scheuer 2009).
Osteological Analysis
Minimum number of Individuals (MNI) By counting the number of repeated skeletal elements within the sample, and choosing the mandible as the most recurrent bone in the adult material of the assemblage, we obtained an absolute MNI of 13 adults. Using also the left mandible for the subadult material, the value of 4 MNI was calculated, thus giving a total MNI of 17 for the whole assemblage. Completeness of Elements Due to the high number of disarticulated elements in the analyzed data, we looked at the completeness of elements to obtain insight on how much post-depositional activity has occurred. Disarticulated elements are categorized as being <25%, <50%, <75% or 100% complete, and in the case of Lumea Nouă 2003 data they can be classified as being >50% complete, allowing general osteological observations to be made. One interesting observation is that many of the epiphyseal ends of the long bones have been eroded, which will have an impact on the metric analyses’ potential. Sex Determination Methods employed to determine the biological sex of human skeletal remains are largely based on morphological characters and morphometric variables of the skull and pelvis (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). We have identified nine adult frontal bones with both male and female characteristics, as indicated in Table 1.
Table 1. Sex determination of the frontal bone (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994).
For metric analysis of the femoral head (Pearson 1917-1919), seven proximal right femurs were suitable; of these, two displayed incomplete fusion and were classified as young adults. The others are categorized as <43.5 mm (female), 43.5 mm-46.5 mm (undetermined), and >46.5 mm (male), and can be observed in Table 2.
Femoral head
Measurement (mm)
Sex
1 39.99 Possible female 2 41.78 Possible female 3 38.91 Possible female 4 41.55 Possible female 5 44.62 undetermined 6 39.10 Still fusing - Young adult 7 41.84 Still fusing - Young adult Table 2. Sex determination using the femoral head
(Pearson 1917-1919). We have also performed metric analysis of the bicondylar width (Pearson 1917-1919) on five distal right femurs, the results being detailed in Table 3. The results are categorized as <74 mm (female), 74-76 mm (undetermined) and >76 mm (male). Six left humeri were identified as suitable for metric analysis of the humeral head (Stewart 1979). The results are categorized as; <43 mm (female), 43-47 mm (undetermined) and >47 mm (male). The results can be observed in Table 4.
Femur Measurement
(mm) Sex
1 72.06 Possible female 2 69.45 Possible female 3 75.80 Undetermined 4 70.53 Possible female 5 73.53 Possible female
Table 3. Sex determination using bicondylar width (Pearson 1917-1919).
Humeral
head Measurement
(mm) Sex
1 37.40 Possible female 2 38.05 Possible female 3 41.45 Possible female 4 38.38 Possible female 5 38.69 Possible female 6 43.75 Undetermined
Table 4. Sex determination using humeral head (Stewart 1979).
Frontal bone
Supraorbital margin
Supraorbital ridge
Sex
1 rounded prominent Possible male 2 rounded prominent Possible male 3 rounded prominent Possible male 4 rounded prominent Possible male 5 sharp smooth Possible female 6 sharp smooth Possible female 7 sharp smooth Possible female 8 sharp smooth Possible female 9 sharp smooth Possible female
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In conclusion, of the 13 adults recognized in the MNI assessment, there are at least five females and four males that can be identified. Four adults (two of them young) remain as undetermined. Assessment of age The age of adults is estimated from the stages of bone development and degeneration, including the auricular surface (Lovejoy et al. 1985), pubic symphysis (Brooks and Suchey 1990), and teeth attrition (Lovejoy 1985). Subadults can be assessed by observing the stages of development of skeletal growth (Schaefer, Black and Scheuer 2009) and dental development (Ubelaker 1989). For adults, the majority of the aging characteristics had not survived, therefore age estimation solely relies on teeth attrition (Lovejoy 1985). This method allows only a gross approximation of age (White and Folkens 2005, 365-367) and its results are influenced by other factors, such as diet, pathology, or use of the teeth as tools (Milner and Larson 1991). The erosion of the epiphyseal ends of most of the long bones made us estimate the subadults age by their dental development (Ubelaker 1989). The results can be found in Tables 5 (for adults) and 6 (for subadults).
Element Sample Attrition
code Age
Left Mandible 1 G 35-40 yrs. Left Mandible 2 G 35-40 yrs. Left Mandible 3 I 45-55 yrs. Left Mandible 4 F 30-35 yrs. Left Mandible 5 I 45-55 yrs. Left Mandible 6 F 30-35 yrs. Left Mandible 7 G 35-40 yrs. Left Mandible 8 I 45-50 yrs. Left Mandible 9 D 20-24 yrs. Left Mandible 10 E 24-30 yrs. Left Mandible 11 H 40-45 yrs. Left Mandible 12 I 45-55 yrs. Left Mandible 13 n/a Undetermined
Table 5. Adult age estimation using teeth attrition (Lovejoy 1985).
Element Sample Method Age
Left Mandible 1 Ubelaker 1989 3-5 yrs. Left Mandible 2 Ubelaker 1989 2-4 yrs. Left Mandible 3 Ubelaker 1989 1-2 yrs. Left Mandible 4 Ubelaker 1989 2-4 yrs.
Table 6. Subadult age estimation using dental development (Ubelaker 1989).
Age Group Description Number of skeletons
0-4 yrs. Infant 3 4-8 yrs. Early juvenile 1
8-14 yrs. Late juvenile 0 14-18 yrs. Adolescence 0 18-30 yrs. Young adult 2 30-45 yrs. Young middle adult 5 45-55 yrs. Old middle adult 5 55+ yrs. Mature adult 0
Undetermined Adult 1 Table 7. Estimated age categories of the individuals in the
2003 collection.
Estimation of age using teeth attrition confirms that there are two young adults in the sample. The age estimation performed on the disarticulated material confirms the MNI assessment of 17 individuals. The age categories for the 2003 collection are concluded in Table 7. Six of the adult mandibles analyzed for age also displayed identifiable sex characteristics as identified in Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). Table 8 shows the estimated age and sex of those six individuals within the sample.
Element Sample Sex Age Left Mandible 1 Possible female 35-40 yrs. Left Mandible 2 Possible male 35-40 yrs. Left Mandible 3 Possible female 45-55 yrs. Left Mandible 4 Possible female 30-35 yrs. Left Mandible 5 Possible male 45-55 yrs. Left Mandible 6 Possible female 45-50 yrs.
Table 8. Estimated age and sex of six adults within the sample.
Stature Estimation Stature depends on genetic, environmental and chronological factors, and needs at least one complete and fully fused long bone to be present for a skeleton to be considered. The value is calculated using a regression formula developed from individuals of known stature, which for European Neolithic persons is, according to Hermanussen (2003), approximately 165 cm for males, and 150 cm for females. Four right femurs (previously identified as female) were recognized as being suitable for stature estimation. The maximum length of each femur was recorded and stature was calculated using the method by Brickley and McKinley (2004) (Table 9).
Femur Measurement
(cm) Sex estimation
Stature (cm)
1 38.8 Possible female 149.9 ± 3.7 2 42.1 Possible female 158.1 ± 3.7 3 37.2 Possible female 146.0 ± 3.7 4 38.2 Possible female 148.5 ± 3.7
Table 9. Estimated stature from four right femurs (Brickley and McKinley 2004).
Femur 2 indicates a stature of 154.4 cm to 161.8 cm, which is outside the calculated range for European Neolithic females as suggested by Hermanussen (2003), and is probably explained by human variation (Appendix 1). The other items fall into the calculated range. Pathological Analysis Palaeopathology examines the evolution and progress of disease through long periods of time and looks at how humans have adapted to diseases in their environment (Roberts and Manchester 2010). Several pathologies can be observed in the 2003 disarticulated remains, and for the purpose of this paper, pathologies are categorized according to their aetiologies; e.g. congenital, metabolic, infectious, traumatic, neoplastic.
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Fractures Several bones within the collection have been identified as presenting possible healed fractures (Figures 5 and 6).
Figure 5. Possible healed rib fracture.
Figure 6. Twisting of this left humerus possibly indicates a healed fracture.
Skull blunt force trauma (Ortner 2003) can be identified by concentric radiating fractures on the external surface of the skull (Aufderheide and Rodriguez 2008), a linear fracture from a blow and comminuted injury with radiating fractures in the immediate area or on the opposite side of the skull (Roberts and Manchester 2010, 111). Usually, bevelling on the endocranial surface of the skull is also present (Ortner 2003). We have found at least four adults with skull blunt force trauma in the form of depression fractures. The shape of the depression fracture, along with chronology, suggests a stone axe or similar may have been the weapon (Figures 7 to 10).
Figure 7. Cranium with depression fracture (up).
Internal bevelling (down)
Figure 8. Cranium with depression fracture (up). Internal
bevelling (down).
Figure 9. Cranium with depression fracture to the occipital
bone.
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Figure 10. Cranium with two depression fractures (up).
Internal bevelling (down). Congenital Disease Genetics and environmental factors can predispose an individual to congenital diseases, most of which are simple anomalies not affecting the person exhibiting the defect. Sacralization is the condition characterized by the union of the 5th lumbar vertebra to the 1st sacral vertebra (Roberts and Manchester 2010, 56). While the sacrum presents a normal morphological aspect, it shows five sacral foramina instead of the usual four (Aufderheide and Rodriguez 2008, 65). There are two occurrences of sacrum bones exhibiting spine sacralization (Figures 11 and 12) in the analyzed samples. The second one (Figure 12) additionally presents an extreme curvature. Joint disease Osteoarthritis is the most common form of arthritis (White and Folkens 2005, 325-327) and the most frequently occurring joint disease in archaeological skeletal material (Jurmain and Kilgore 1995). It is common with advancing age (Roberts and Manchester 2010, 136-139) when the body gradually loses the ability to maintain joint cartilage (Mann and Hunt 2005), and can be diagnosed on bones that show eburnation (bone polishing) (Cockburn et al. 1980; Waldron 2009). Other diagnostic criteria include
osteophytes, sclerosis, joint surface pitting and alteration of joint surfaces (Rogers et al. 1987).
Figure 11. Sacralization of the 5th lumbar and 1st sacral
vertebrae.
Figure 12. Curvature and sacralization of the 5th lumbar and
1st sacral vertebrae. Figure 13 shows osteoarthritis of the scapula observed in a fragment of the acromion process with eburnation. Osteoarthritis of the shoulder is rare without a history of trauma, but the acromioclavicular joints can be affected by joint disease in elderly individuals (Roberts and Manchester 2010).
Figure 13. Area of eburnation on a fragment of the acromion
process of the scapula.
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The most common joints affected by osteoarthritis are the hip and knee, because they are the main weight bearing joints (Waldron 2009). Figure 14 shows osteoarthritis of the patellae, which display eburnation and surface pitting.
Figure 14. Eburnation and joint surface pitting on a right and
left patella.
Figure 15. Spinal osteophytosis.
Osteoarthritis can also be present on vertebrae, as a direct consequence of the strain placed on the spine through bipedal posture and mechanical loading (Bridges 1994). With advancing age, degenerative change in the form of ostephytosis can be observed on vertebral body margins (Roberts and Manchester 2010),
and we were able to observe this condition in one lumbar vertebra (Figure 15). Infectious disease Periostitis is a non-specific inflammation found on the surface of bones (Roberts and Manchester 2010), more specifically affecting the periosteum of the bone (Burns 2007). Most commonly, it is found in the bones of the lower legs, probably because they are closer to the skin surface and can more often be subjected to recurrent minor injuries (Schultz 2001; White and Folkens 2005). The surface on the shaft of a tibia fragment with a localised area of porous woven bone with striated new bone formation (Figure 16), indicates that the inflammation was still active at the time of death.
Figure 16. Periostitis on a tibia fragment.
Figure 17. Periostitis on a femur fragment.
In Figure 17 we show the surface on the shaft of a femur fragment displaying a localized area of porous woven bone.
The thickening of the surface of a fibula presents with a localized area of porous woven bone with striated new bone formation (Figure 18), indicating periostitis still active at the time of death.
Figure 18. Periostitis on a fibula.
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Metabolic disease Metabolic diseases are also described as indicators of stress, as the abnormalities observed in skeletal remains represent the individual’s adaptive response to stress during their growing years (Roberts and Manchester 2010, 221-246). In ancient populations, diet deficiencies can be attributed to a number of stress markers, which can be identified on the human skeleton. Cribra orbitalia is amongst the most frequent pathological lesions seen in ancient human skeletal collections (Walker et al. 2009, 110). It is a condition exhibiting coral-like lesions of the eye orbits, and is caused by acquired anaemia, usually due to a deficiency in iron (Ortner 2003). Similar lesions can be observed in other conditions, like vitamin B9, B12 (Walker et al. 2009, 114), vitamin C and D deficiency, infections, or tumours (Roberts and Manchester 2010, 231).
Figure 19. Cribra orbitalia on two eye orbit fragments.
Two eye orbit fragments found within the material display signs of cribra orbitalia, and suggest malnutrition (Figure 19). Porotic hyperostosis is also a frequently noticed pathological lesion encountered in ancient human skeletal collections (Walker et al. 2009, 109-110). It is a condition similar to cribra orbitalia, and its causes are the same, the difference is that the lesions are present on the cranial vault, usually isolated to the parietal and occipital bones (White and Folkens 2005). We have seen such marks on an occipital bone fragment (Figure 20). It was common to attribute porotic hyperostosis or cribra orbitalia to iron-deficiency anemia. However, recent
studies have concluded that such anemia results in a restriction of the red-blood cells (RBC) production, rather than increasing it. The latter is directly associated with severe cases of anemia, when the skeletal centers of hemopoietic marrow are stimulated to produce more RBC, and causes diploë expansion and the characteristic spongy-bone lesions (Walker et al. 2009, 111-112, 119).
Figure 20. Occipital skull fragment with porotic hyperostosis.
Dental Health Due to the remains being highly fragmented, prevalence of dental disease amongst the population proves very difficult to establish. We were able to identify caries marks (opaque spots on the crown of the tooth to large gaping cavities (Hillson 1986; 2001, 257-261)) on a small percentage of teeth in the assemblage; at the same time, calculus was present on several teeth (White and Folkens 2005, 330; Hillson 2001, 265). Cut Marks Fifty-four long bone fragments from both adults and subadults in the 2003 skeletal collection display cut marks, examples of which can be observed in Figures 21 to 23. Microscopic analyses of these marks are required for further interpretations.
Figure 21. Cut marks along the shaft of an adult femur.
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Figure 22. Cut marks on the shaft of a subadult femur.
Figure 23. Cut marks along the shaft of a subadult ulna.
Burnt bones A number of bone fragments display burning signs (Figures 24 to 27) with a charred black color, suggesting an advanced stage of burning (Thompson 2004).
Figure 24. Traces of burning on a subadult mandible.
Left and right fragments.
Figure 25. Traces of burning on a cranial fragment.
Figure 26. Traces of burning on a cranial
frontal fragment.
Figure 27. Traces of burning on a proximal femur
fragment.
Mortuary Practice
There are a total of 206 bones in an adult human skeleton and over 300 bones in a subadult human skeleton. Therefore, it can be concluded that approximately 3,900 bones should represent a population with an MNI of 13 adults and four children. During the excavation of the 2003 material only 2,509 disarticulated human fragments have been recovered, of which a number could be joined together. Comparisons of the numbers of different elements represented in the assemblage indicate that there was a higher percentage of long bone, cranial and os coxae fragments recovered. Patella, ribs, vertebrae and the bones of the hands and feet are poorly represented. Evidence suggests that this may be due to the better preservation of cortical bone, being more resistant to taphonomic processes than the skeletal elements with a higher composition of fragile spongy bone. However, it cannot be ruled out that there has been a selective process of particular skeletal elements collected purposely for burial. By studying the prevalence of age at death, the age of each individual within the sample can also offer a clue about the Neolithic lifestyle. All of the subadults are under 5 years suggesting a vulnerable period of time possibly due to childhood diseases or malnutrition. Most of the adults are over 35 years (Table 7) and this is considered a good age for people living in the Neolithic period.
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Conclusion
By analyzing the 2003 skeletal assemblage using the mandible as the most recurrent bone for both adults and subadults, we have established the MNI value of 17 (13 adults and four subadults). Sex determination of the 13 adults has provided evidence of at least four males and five females, with a further four adults categorized as undetermined. The sexual identification of the subadult human skeletal material was not performed because secondary characteristics of bone do not manifest until a person reaches puberty (Bass 2005). Age estimation has provided a variety of ages within the sample, ranging from 1 year to 55 years; all four subadults are under 5, while most adults are over the age of 35. By looking at the age at death distribution, we observed that there were no people between 5 and 35 for the given skeletal assemblage. It is possible to assume that, if an individual survived the first five years of their life, maybe they would probably survive to adulthood. The excavated human disarticulated fragments equal 2,495 and are not a true representation of the 17 individuals excavated; a number of the smaller bones of the human skeleton are underrepresented. We observed three occurrences of skull blunt force trauma, they were probably the result of heavy blows to the head (Panaitescu et al. 2008, 263-267; fig. 1, 4, 6, 8, 10). The presence of cut marks on skeletal remains may represent cannibalism (Roberts and Manchester 2010, 119; Boulestin et al. 2009, 975-977) or defleshing (White and Folkens 2005, 60; Roberts and Manchester 2010, 119). Another interpretation of the cut marks is a post-mortem ritual treatment applied to the corpse (Schulting et al. 2015, 38). At the same time, a part of secondary burial customs might have been defleshing (Kuijt 1996, 317, 321). Acknowledgement This work was supported by a grant from the Romanian National Authority for Scientific Research, CNCS–UEFISCDI, project number PN-II-RU-TE-2012-3-0461. References Aufderheide, A. and Rodriguez-Martin, C. 2008. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Human Paleopathology, 4th Edition. New York, Cambridge University Press. Bass, W. 2005. Human Osteology. A Laboratory and Field Manual, 5th Edition. Springfield, Missouri Archaeological Society. Brickley, M. and McKinley, J.I. 2004. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. Southampton, Institute of Field Archaeologists Paper 7, BABAO. Bridges, P.S. 1994. Vertebral arthritis and physical activities in the prehistoric United States. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 93, 83-93.
Brooks, S. and Suchey, J.M. 1990. Skeletal age determination based on the os pubis: a comparison of the Ascádi-Nemeskéri and Suchey-Brooks methods. Human Evolution 5, 227-238. Buikstra, J.E., Ubelaker, D. 1994. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Proceedings of a Seminar at the Field Museum of Natural History. Fayetteville, Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series 44. Boulestin, B. Zeeb-Lanz, A., Jeunesse, C., Haack, F., Arbogast, R.M. and Denaire, A. 2009. Mass cannibalism in the Linear Pottery Culture at Herxheim (Palatinate, Germany). Antiquity 83, 968-982. Burns, K. 2007, Forensic Anthropology Training Manual, 2nd Edition. New Jersey, Pearson Education. Cockburn, A., Barraco, R.A., Peck, W.H. and Reyman, T.A. 1980. A classic mummy: PUM II. In A. Cockburn and E. Cockburn (eds.), Mummies, Disease, and Ancient Cultures (2nd edition), 52–70. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Gligor, M. 2006. Înmormântări multiple în aşezarea preistorică de la Alba Iulia-Lumea Nouă. Revista Română de Medicină Legală 14(1), 16-21. Gligor, M. 2009. Aşezarea neolitică şi eneolitică de la Alba Iulia-Lumea Nouă în lumina noilor cercetări. Cluj-Napoca, Mega. Gligor, M. 2010. Funerary discoveries in Neolithic settlement from Alba Iulia-Lumea Nouă (Romania). Multiple burial or ritual centre?. Transylvanian Review 19, suppl. no. 5(1), 233-250. Gligor, M. 2013. An Unknown Part of Prehistoric Spirituality: Unusual Mortuary Practices in Transylvania. European Journal of Science and Theology 9(6), 201-210. Gligor, M. Roşu, M. and Panaitescu, V. 2012. Bioarchaeological Inferences from Neolithic Human Remains at Alba Iulia-Lumea Nouă (Romania). In R. Kogălniceanu, R. Curcă, M. Gligor and S. Straton (eds.), Homines, Funera, Astra. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Funerary Anthropology, 5-8 June 2011, “1 Decembrie 1918” University (Alba Iulia, Romania), 57-70. Oxford, Archaeopress, BAR International Series 2410. Hermanussen, M. 2003. Stature of early Europeans. Hormones 2(3), 175-178. Hillson, S. 1986. Teeth. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. Hillson, S. 2001. Recording Dental Caries in Archaeological Human Remains. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology 11(4), 249-289.
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