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Chapter 32Metal Artefacts and Metallurgy
Myrto Georgakopoulou
How to cite this chapter:Georgakopoulou, M., 2013. Metal artefacts and metallurgy, in The Settlement at Dhaskalio, eds. C. Renfrew, O. Philaniotou, N. Brodie, G. Gavalas & M.J. Boyd. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 667–92.
667
Metal Artefacts and Metallurgy
Chapter 32
Metal Artefacts and Metallurgy
Myrto Georgakopoulou
metallurgical activities were already taking place on Dhaskalio in this period. Most are small, shape-less, largely or entirely corroded copper-based metal fragments, recovered mainly from Trenches II and VI. They usually bear attached calcareous rock or soil conglomerate. They could either correspond to severely weathered and fragmented finished artefacts or, more probably based on their small size and lack of defined shape, are metal spills. Only in the latter case can they be taken as proof of the practice of metallurgy on Dhaskalio in Phase A. This hypothesis is, however, also supported by the identification of a single small ceramic fragment (14051; Fig. 32.2) that bears a minute green copper-based spot on one side surrounded by a thin layer of black soot or vitrification, indicating that it was directly involved with, or in the vicinity of, mol-ten copper. The sherd is a body fragment, lacking any curvature and therefore undiagnostic of the original shape or function of the vessel.
A significant number of metal artefacts of copper, lead and gold, as well as metallurgical remains, was recovered from Dhaskalio. The quantity of artefacts is even more impressive if one considers that only a small part of the site has been excavated. Artefacts were recovered from all three identified phases, their quantity increasing in the later phases, which form the majority of the excavated contexts.
In this chapter metals and metallurgical remains are discussed under their corresponding chronologi-cal phase, derived from their stratigraphic context. A description of the artefacts, their typological paral-lels, and contextual information are presented here. A selection of artefacts and metallurgical remains was sampled for analysis aiming to address technological and provenance questions. A note on the nature of sam-pled copper-based artefacts is made on the catalogue with reference to alloy types. The detailed results of the analytical work are presented in a subsequent chapter (Volume III), where they are more fully discussed and considered in comparison with finds from other parts of the site complex. Some of the metal artefacts were studied following conservation treatment at the laboratories of the National Archaeological Museum in Athens. These are noted in the catalogue, while the remainder were studied prior to any cleaning.
Phase A
Metal artefactsOnly two metal artefacts were found in the limited Phase A contexts excavated. The first is a small copper-based fragment of rectangular section (10694; Fig. 32.1), possibly part of a punch, but too small for further com-ment. The second is a fragment of lead (5366) filling the intentionally pierced hole of an almost rounded clay object, possibly part of a pre-existing rivet (for a catalogue entry see Chapter 31C).
Metallurgical remainsSeveral finds dated to Phase A are probably (although not certainly) metallurgical remains, suggesting that
0 2 cm
Figure 32.1. Copper artefact of Phase A, 10694. Scale 1:1.
10694
Figure 32.2. Metallurgical ceramic of Phase A (14051). Scale 1:1.
Metal artefactsCopper-based10694 (VI, 48). L. 8 mm; W. 4 mm; Wt <1 g. Fig. 32.1.Arsenical copper.Elongated fragment of rectangular section, possibly from a punch.
Metallurgical remains10198 (I, 40). L. 10 mm; Wt 2 g.10217 (II, 39). L. 13 mm; Wt <1 g.10646 (VI, 37). L. 6 mm; Wt <1 g.10647 (VI, 37). L. 9 mm; Wt <1 g.10648 (VI, 38). L. 10 mm; Wt <1 g.11006 (II, 39). L. 7 mm; Wt <1 g.11160 (VI, 52). L. 7 mm; Wt <1 g.12204 (VI, 38). L. 4 mm; Wt <1 g.14052 (II, 39). L. 2–15 mm; WtTOTAL 7 g (14 fragments).Shapeless, largely or totally corroded, copper-based fragments, oft en with att ached calcareous rock or soil conglomerate; most are probably metal spills
14051 (II, 39). L. 30 mm; Th. 5 mm; Wt 3 g. Fig. 32.2.Small fragment of metallurgical ceramic of dark red clay very rich in mica. There is no clear slag layer internally, and it is not magnetic. Part of its internal surface has a thin layer of black soot or vitrifi cation and within it a small spot of green corroded copper-based prill (c. 3 mm diameter). The sherd was largely covered with post-depositional calcareous deposits.
Phase B
Metal artefactsCopper-based and lead artefacts as well as a single gold fi nd were recovered from Phase B layers on Dhaskalio.
Copper-basedThree copper-based artefacts were found. 5059 (Figs. 32.3 & 32.4) is a thin, elongated, rectangular fragment, with a rounded edge. It is too small to allow specula-tion on its original shape or function. The fi sh hook (5058; Figs. 32.3 & 32.4) is of the simplest type, thin and of circular section, bent through 180° to a simple, barbless pointed tip. It corresponds to Branigan’s (1974, 29) Type I fi sh hooks. The use of these simplest forms of fi sh hook, in a variety of lengths and open-ings, is att ested from the beginning and throughout the early bronze age, as well as in late bronze age contexts in diff erent parts of the Aegean (for refer-ences see Branigan 1974, 173; Powell 1996, 139–58) including the Cyclades (e.g. EB II Chalandriani, LM IA Akrotiri), the northern islands (e.g. EB I Poliochni and Emporio), Crete (e.g. EM I–II Ayia Photia, LM I–II Palaikastro), the south-central mainland (e.g. EB II Raphina), and the Ionian islands (e.g. early bronze age Steno-Nidri on Lefk as; see also Kilian-Dirlmeier 2005, pls. 22:5, 25:2).
Figure 32.3. Fish hook, needle and copper fragment. Scale 1:2.
5058
0 3 cm
11132
5059
0 3 cm
Figure 32.4. Fish hook, needle and copper fragment. Scale 1:1.
The copper-based needle (11132; Figs. 32.3 & 32.4), recovered from a fi ll layer below Floor R in Trench I is more distinctive. Two lead rivets (10189, 10191; Figs. 32.5 & 32.6) and two shapeless corroded copper fragments (10188) were recovered from the same layer. The needle was found complete but bro-ken in two pieces, subsequently reunited during con-servation. It is a wire of circular-section with an oval eyelet starting approximately 3 mm from its blunt end. The opening has been formed by piercing the wire and at this point the wire is widened and fl att ened. Branigan (1974, 30–31) proposes four types of needle, of which this belongs to Type I. The position of the eyelet at some distance down the shaft with the needle slightly fl att ening at this point (noted by Blegen et al. 1951a, 11) off ers, however, a further distinguishing feature within Branigan’s Type I needles. Hence, 11132 fi nds its closest parallels during the early bronze age at northeastern Aegean and central Anatolian sites, such as Troy, already in Troy I (cf. 36-417 in Blegen et al. 1950a, 43; 1950b, 215), later in Troy III (no. 37758 in Blegen et al. 1951a, 94; 1951b, 47), and numerous examples from the Schliemann collection (Schmidt 1902, 257, nos. 6465–78), Emporio (Hood 1982, 661, fi g. 295:7), Kusura Phase B (Lamb 1936b, fi g. 18:3), Kilise Tepe Level Ve (Collon & Symington 2007, 516 & fi g. 301:2227) and Aphrodisias (Kadish 1969, pl. 29, fi g. 27). The Anatolian affi liations of this artefact are in line
with its dating to the ‘ Kastri phase’. In later periods of the bronze age, examples of this type of needle are known both on the mainland (e.g. Persson 1942, fi g. 6:2) and Crete (e.g. Boyd Hawes et al. 1908, pl. IV, 39).
LeadThree of the six Phase B lead artefacts are rectangular-section fragments of rivets for mending broken pott ery (10189, 10191 and 14053; Figs. 32.5 & 32.6). Another possible rivet fragment (5383) was identifi ed within the perforation of a rounded reworked sherd (Chap-ter 31C). Find 5128 (Figs. 32.5 & 32.6) is a roughly drop-shaped, thin disc, which forms a ‘lip’ pointing upwards in its thinnest side. The latt er feature is not necessarily deliberate and may have occurred at any stage given the soft ness of lead. The nature of this object is unclear and the possibility of it being either a weight or an ingot can be considered. The use of lead for both types of object is suggested in the early bronze age Aegean (for artefacts identifi ed as lead ingots see Blegen 1928, 184; Petritaki 1980, 174; Renfrew 1967, 4; Theocharis 1954a, 75; 1954b, 112; and as weights, Christmann 1996, 314; Theocharis 1953, 117; Tsountas 1899, 126; Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 169). Two circular lead discs of roughly similar size to 5128 were identifi ed in the 1987 survey on Kavos (Birtacha 2007d, 377 & fi gs. 11.1, 11.2). Birtacha (2007d) notes that, given the very small amount of metal involved, these artefacts were
more likely used as weights than ingots. In the late bronze age of course the use of lead discs for weights becomes prominent (e.g. Michailidou 2008; Petruso 1992). Similar discoid artefacts in earlier phases of the bronze age are less common, including one example from Stratum II of Tholos Gamma at Archanes (Papa-datos 2005, 34), while the four lead discs from Phyla-kopi cannot be assigned a secure stratigraphic context (Bosanquet & Welch 1904, 192; Renfrew 1967, 4 & pl. 2).
Find 5055 (Figs. 32.5 & 32.6) has the shape of a truncated cone with shallow circular depressions on both its top and bott om surfaces. In the absence of conservation it is unclear whether these depressions continue deeper (possibly, though it seems rather unlikely, forming a perforation through the length of the object, now fi lled with corrosion products). In such a case the object could be recognized as a spindle whorl, with similar examples known from Poliochni (Bernabò Brea 1964, 659, pl. CLXXVII:34), Phylakopi (Bosanquet & Welch 1904, 192) and Troy (Schmidt 1902, 224). An alternative interpretation, particularly in the absence of a perforation, is its use as a weight. A similar truncated cone that additionally bears a shal-low circular depression and fi ve symmetrical dots on its base was found in an EH II context at Lithares and is classifi ed by Tzavella-Evjen (1984, 169, pl. 80a) as a weight. Petruso (1992, 3) reports that the cone is a form that did see limited use in stone as a weight at least as early as the middle bronze age.
GoldThe gold bead 12202 (Fig. 32.7) is circular and made of sheet metal. Its opening is wide compared to its overall diameter and not precisely centred, with the width of the bead therefore varying between 0.8–1 mm. Branigan (1974, 39) identifi es such beads, whether made of solid metal or from sheet, as Type III beads. Close contemporaneous parallels are known from the northeastern Aegean in Troy IIg (Blegen et al. 1950b, pl. 356 Type 7 and 357 e.g. 37-341, 35-559, 35-562) and Poliochni Yellow (Bernabò-Brea 1976, pl. CCLII:5–10), as well as from southwestern Bulgaria (Christov 2008).
The identifi cation of a gold artefact is particularly signifi cant, in view of the acknowledged scarcity of this metal in the early bronze age Cyclades, in contrast to the situation in contemporaneous Crete and the northern Aegean (Branigan 1974, 109; Gale & Stos-Gale 1981, 181; Renfrew 1967, 5). Three exam-ples of gold artefacts are known from Final Neolithic contexts (or even Late Neolithic, see Zachos 1999) in the Cyclades (Sampson 2007, 35; Televantou 2007, 51; Zachos 1990, 30; 1999, 154), while only a single gold bead has been reported from the early phases of the early bronze age, from the cemetery of Phyrrhoges on Naxos (Papathanasopoulos 1962, 138 & pl. 71a). The gold bead recovered from Dhaskalio represents therefore one of the very few early gold artefacts from the Cyclades and the fi rst one known from this particular chronological phase. In this respect it is also noteworthy that the numerous beads recovered from Grave 26 at Louros Athalassou on Naxos are of a similar type, but made in silver (Papathanasopoulos 1962, 135 & pl. 67).
Me tallurgical remainsThe practice of metallurgical activities is much clearer in this period. An assemblage of three tuyères, two complete (10161 and 10157) and a fragment of another (10162), was found together on the western side of Floor P in Trench I (Figs. 32.8 & 32.9). Another whole one (10130) was recovered from the tumble above Floor P in the same trench (layer 25; Figs. 32.8 & 32.9). The intact specimens have an open conical shape with a wall thickness not exceeding 10 mm and a height between 45 mm and 60 mm. The hole of the outlet has a diameter between 7–10 mm, while the lower opening is much larger, with a diameter around 30 mm. They show variable degrees of vitrifi cation (see descriptions below). The colour of the clay on 10130, 10157 and 10161 is orange to red and macroscopically they appear fi ne, 10130 being the fi nest, with fi ne biotite and quartz-type inclusions, possibly granitic (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). Specimen 10162 has a buff grey colour, it is extremely fi ne, and has similar mica and quartz-type inclusions, whereby mica appears to be mainly biotite and to a lesser extent muscovite (Volume III).
It is noteworthy that two of these specimens (10130 and 10162) bear incised marks on their outer surfaces. Find 10130 has two marks, one with fi ve incised superimposed chevrons and a long vertical line passing through their middle, and a second one in the shape of a slightly asymmetrical swastika with smooth-curving instead of angular branches. Find 10162 has two incised, slightly curving, lines that cross at an acute angle. The specimen is broken at the edge of the mark, so part of it may be missing. Three
conical tuyères with incised marks, two of which are illustrated (Schliemann 1880, 582, nos. 1338 & 1339; Schmidt 1902, 268), are known from Schliemann’s excavations at Troy. Decorated tuyères are known from later contexts such as the early second millen-nium graves in Kalinovka (Gimbutas 1965, 548; Tyle-cote 1981, 118, fig. 15) or bronze age sites in central Europe (Déchelette 1910, 186–7; Tylecote 1981, 110, fig. 5). In the case of the Dhaskalio and possibly of the Trojan examples, however, it seems more likely, on the basis of the layout of the incisions, that these did not serve a decorative purpose and should be more broadly recognized as potmarks following the definition given by Lindblom (2001, 13). Potmarks are known on pottery sherds from several early bronze age sites (for a selection of references see Lindblom 2001, 15), where they appear infrequently compared to later periods. Several potmarks were recognized on ceramic sherds from Dhaskalio (P. Sotirakopoulou pers. comm.; Volume IV), while some of the ceramic spindle whorls have incised motifs (Chapter 31B). It is also noteworthy that the same marks found on the tuyères from Keros are found incised on spindle whorls from Troy (see Schmidt 1902, Taf. VII, VIII for examples), while some specimens have the same com-bination of marks as identified on 10130 (Schmidt 1902, Taf. VII, no. 5252). As with the potmarks on ceramic vessels of this period it is unclear what, if any, purpose the ones incised on the Dhaskalio tuyères served.
Rehder (1994) proposes that this type of short tuyère was used as the nozzle of blowpipes, probably made from perishable reed and operated by human
breath. The clay nozzle would protect the blowpipe from burning (see also Doumas 2011). Alternatively, instead of using human breath directly, one may imagine, in the absence of evidence for the use of pot bellows on Dhaskalio (see Betancourt 2006), the use of simpler bellows made only from organic materials (e.g. Tylecote 1981, 109, fig. 4). Although all the tuyères have a conical shape, their form is not standardized. The shortest, 10130, appears to be well-made with a smoothly finished surface, as was probably the case also for the fragment 10162. The surface of 10157 is uneven, as is that of 10161, and its shape is slightly different. It may be significant that the two specimens bearing the marks appear to be the ones that are most well-made. The tuyères could have been re-used many times (see also Tylecote 1981).
Although not always recognized as tuyères, similar hollow conical-shaped clay objects, often termed funnels, are known from other early bronze age Aegean sites, such as the Poliochni Blue period (Bernabò Brea 1964, 589, pl. LXXXIII:r,s,t) and Green/Red periods (Bernabò Brea 1964, 658, pl. CLXVII:1,2 & CLXX:7,8); from Troy (Blegen et al. 1951a, 34; 1951b, 80, no. 33203; Schliemann 1880, 410, 582; Schmidt 1902, 268); Thermi (Lamb 1936a, 161); and the Raphina metallurgical workshop (Theocharis 1951, 80; 1952, 131; 1955, 116). Single ones were found at Ayios Dimitrios (Zachos 2008, 77), the copper-smelting site of Paliopyrgos-Aspra Spitia on Kythnos (Bassiakos & Philaniotou 2007) and Akrotiraki on Siphnos (Z. Papa-dopoulou pers. comm.). With the exception possibly of Ayios Dimitrios, metallurgical activities are clearly
attested in all of these sites, as on Dhaskalio, so their identification as tuyères is further supported. The examples from the western Cycladic sites on Kythnos and Siphnos appear to be generally longer and thinner, while other contemporaneous specimens also identi-fied as tuyères appear to be of an entirely different type (e.g. Gropengiesser 1986; Sotirakopoulou 2008a, fig. 14.12; although see Doumas 2011 for an alternative interpretation of the Akrotiri examples).
Two other small, undiagnostic metallurgical ceramic fragments (5373 and 14054; Fig. 32.11) were recovered, possibly parts of crucibles, although they are too small and weathered to deduce their shape. Their thickness is around 8 mm and both bear on their inner surface a thin (c. 1 mm) layer of black slag, which is magnetic and has green copper-based staining and prills. The colour of the clay fabric is orangey and clear organic imprints are visible on the surface. Several small green copper-based fragments were recovered from Trench I: as with the similar fragments noted from Phase A contexts, these should in most cases be identified as copper metal spills.
Finally, three medium to large slags were found in Phase B contexts (5655, 8309 and 10167; Fig. 32.10). They are rounded and fit well in one’s palm, suggest-ing that they may have been brought to Dhaskalio (possibly from the Kavos Promontory) for a secondary usage as tools, whether in metallurgical or other activi-
ties involving pounding. The scarcity of slags proper so far on Dhaskalio, with the exception of these three finds, suggests that the practice of smelting did not take place on the islet, making such secondary usage more probable (see further discussion below). Possible secondary use of rounded slags as tools is also docu-mented at some of the western Cycladic smelting sites (e.g. Georgakopoulou 2005, fig. 5.13; Papadopoulou 2011, 152; Philaniotou et al. 2011, 160).
Catalogue
Metal artefactsCopper-based5058 (II, 27). L 40 mm; Wt <1 g. Figs. 32.3 & 32.4.Copper-based fish hook of circular section, very thin (D. 1 mm), bent to 180°, ends in barbless pointed tip.
5059 (I, 16). L. 30 mm; W. 5 mm; Th. 1 mm; Wt <1 g. Figs. 32.3 & 32.4.Arsenical copper.Copper-based strip, covered in green patina, rounded tip one side, slightly bent on both edges.
11132 (I, 38). L. 89 mm; Wt 1 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.3 & 32.4.Copper-based whole needle of circular section (D. c. 1.5 mm) miss-ing very end of tip, slightly bent along its length. Broken in two and stuck together during conservation. It has a tear-shaped eyelet c. 3 mm down from its blunt end, measuring 4 × 1.5 mm formed by piercing the wire in two. The wire is slightly wider and more flat in this part.
Lead5055 (II, 22). L. 17 mm; H. 12 mm; D.17 mm and 7 mm; Wt 15 g. Figs. 32.5 & 32.6.Lead object shaped as a truncated cone with depressions on the top and bottom surfaces (opposite each other). Since this object has not undergone conservation, it is impossible to see how deep the perforations are and whether they meet to form a hole (spindle whorl or weight?).
5128 (I, 3). L. 32 mm; Th. 5 mm; Wt 26 g. Figs. 32.5 & 32.6.Lead disc, roughly tear-shaped, on one side has a very shallow almost circular depression. On the narrower end it forms an upward-facing ‘lip’.
10189 (I, 38). L. 34 mm; Wt 32 g. Figs. 32.5 & 32.6.Lead rivet fragment, rectangular section, one side is flat and smooth.
10191 (I, 38). L. 37 mm; Wt 7 g. Figs. 32.5 & 32.6.
Figure 32.10. Slag tools (10167, 5655 and 8309) of Phase B. Scale 1:2.
0 3 cm
0 2 cm
Figure 32.11. Metallurgical ceramic fragments of Phase B. Scale 1:1.
Probably part of lead rivet, of rectangular section with one side flat and smooth, heavily corroded.
14053 (II, 30). L. 21 mm; Wt 5 g. Figs. 32.5 & 32.6.Lead rivet fragment of rectangular section.
Gold12202 (I, 18). External D. 3.5 mm; D. hole 2 mm; Th. <1 mm; Wt <1 g.Fig. 32.7.Small gold bead, made from sheet metal, internal opening is not exactly centred and the width of the bead varies between 0.8–1 mm.
Metallurgical remains5373 (II, 16). L. 32 mm; Th. 8 mm; Wt 6 g. Fig. 32.11.Metallurgical ceramic, small and shapeless. Ceramic fabric of light orange colour significantly weathered. The internal surface has a very thin black vitrified and/or slag layer (<1 mm), partly magnetic, with several green copper-based prills.
5655 (I, 10). L. 68 mm; Wt 219. Fig. 32.10.Slag, medium to large fragment. Black, only slightly magnetic, very little external green copper and orange iron (oxide/hydroxide) stain-ing, low porosity. The fragment is rounded and may have been on Dhaskalio for secondary use as a tool.
8309 (V, 2). L. 75 mm; Wt 192 g. Fig. 32.10.Slag, medium to large fragment. Black, only slightly magnetic, very little external green copper and orange iron (oxide/hydroxide) stain-ing, low porosity. The fragment is rounded and may have been on Dhaskalio for secondary use as a tool.
10130 (I, 25). H. 45 mm; D. at bottom opening 25 mm and 28 mm; D. of top opening 7 mm; Wt 51 g. Figs. 32.8 & 32.9.Whole ceramic tuyère with incised marks. Upper opening is small and roughly circular, while the bottom one is more ellipsoidal. The surface is smooth, the wall thickness is at most 10 mm. The clay is red and macroscopically the fabric is fine with fine biotite and quartz-type inclusions, possibly granitic (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). This example has macroscopically the finest fabric of all the Dhaskalio tuyères. Partly blackened externally from heat, but no clear vitrification. Partly covered by post-depositional calcare-ous deposits both in the inner and outer surfaces. The first mark consists of five superimposed incised chevrons with a vertical line passing in their middle, while the second looks like a swastika with smoothly curving (instead of angular) branches.
10157 (I, Floor P). H. 57 mm; D. at bottom opening 25 mm and 27 mm; D. of top opening 8 mm; Wt 74 g. Figs. 32.8 & 32.9.Whole ceramic tuyère. The surface has dimples, probably finger imprints from shaping. The maximum wall thickness is 10 mm. The upper opening is blocked from calcareous post-depositional encrustation. The colour of the clay is orange/red and the fabric is fine with fine biotite and quartz-type inclusions, possibly granitic (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). The surface is externally blackened only on one side, with no clear vitrification. Partly covered by post-dep-ositional calcareous deposits both in the inner and outer surfaces.
10161 (I, Floor P). H. 53 mm; D. of bottom opening 35 mm; D. of top opening 10 mm; Wt 81 g. Figs. 32.8 & 32.9.Whole ceramic tuyère with maximum wall thickness 10 mm. The colour of the clay is dark red and the fabric is fine with fine biotite and quartz-type inclusions, possibly granitic (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). The external surface is significantly blackened, while vitrification can be seen in the inner surface around the small open-ing, where the clay has partly flaked from exposure to heat. Partly covered by post-depositional calcareous deposits both in the inner and outer surfaces.
10162 (I, Floor P). L. 33 mm; Wt 20 g. Fig. 32.9.Fragment of ceramic tuyère. Retaining part of the larger opening whose diameter can be estimated to 26 mm. The maximum wall thickness is 10 mm. The clay is of a buff-grey colour, the fabric is extremely fine (similar in fineness to 10130) with quartz-type inclu-sions and mica, mainly biotite, but also some muscovite (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). Partly blackened externally and covered largely by post-depositional calcareous layer internally and externally. On the external surface it bears a mark consisting of two incised lines, slightly curving, crossing at an acute angle. The bottom part of the mark may be broken. A finger imprint is noted on the circumfer-ence of the opening.
10166 (I, Floor P). L. 30 mm; Wt 3 g.10188 (I, 38). L. 15 mm and 6 mm; Wt <0.1 g (2 fragments).11103 (I, 23). L. 12 mm; Wt <1 g.12105 (I, 44). L. 20 mm; Wt 7 g.12113 (I, 44). L. 6 mm; Wt <1 g.Shapeless, largely or totally corroded, copper-based fragments often with attached calcareous rock or soil conglomerate; most are probably metal spills.
10167 (I, Floor Q). L. 95 mm; Wt 796 g. Fig. 32.10.Slag, large fragment. Black, rounded, and only a little magnetic. Sev-eral large pores externally. On one side of its surface it has significant secondary copper and iron mineral staining from weathering of enclosed metal. Its shape and context suggest it may have been on Dhaskalio for secondary use as a tool.
14054 (I, 4). L. 20 mm; Th. 8 mm; Wt 2 g. Fig. 32.11.Small fragment of shapeless metallurgical ceramic. Orangey clay with organic imprints, bearing a thin (c. 1 mm) vitrified and/or slag layer internally, which is magnetic and has green copper staining.
Phase C
Most metal artefacts from Phase C are copper-based (n = 25), followed by those which are lead-based (n = 17), and finally again a single gold object, a small gold sheet. Numerous finds in addition were recognized as metallurgical remains.
Metal artefactsCopperThree copper-based tools, an axe-adze (12734 and 12735), a single axe (12741) and a chisel (12740), were found close together in Trench XXX (Chapter 10; Figs. 32.12 & 32.13). The axe-adze (12734 and 12735) was broken in two when found, but was stuck together during conservation. It is, otherwise, in excellent condition. Given that the two parts (12734 and 12735) did not have fresh breaks and based also on their layout when found, it is clear that the artefact had been broken prior to deposition. It has a smooth curving profile and an almost circular shafthole with triangular sleeves at either side of it that would have stopped the handle from twisting during usage. Ham-mering marks are seen along the sides of the artefact (Fig. 32.14), while a triangular depression has formed on the top surface of its axe side, showing that it was
extensively worked following casting to shape it and increase its hardness. A single small shallow depres-sion, the remnant of a gas bubble from casting, is seen at the lower surface of the axe end, close to the shaft-hole and almost halfway across the artefact’s width. Its position and the absence of a visible casting seam suggest that the artefact was not cast in a two-piece mould, but more probably using lost-wax casting (see also discussion below for 12741). Both the axe and adze edges show use-wear in the form of small nicks along their whole length (Fig. 32.15; see Dolifini 2011; Kienlin & Ottaway 1998; Roberts & Ottaway 2003, 122). It should be noted that the tool was studied following conservation. Furthermore, the artefact curves slightly upwards at the adze end. This bending is more likely the result of improper usage of the tool, rather than part of the original tool design. One may envisage that it was such improper usage that also resulted in the breakage of the adze-axe at its shafthole, which con-stitutes a point of weakness (A. Goumas pers. comm.).
The axe-adze from Dhaskalio constitutes only the second published early bronze age Aegean example of its kind with a secure context, the other coming from the late EH II Eutresis hoard (Goldman 1931, 217, fig. 287-2, 2a). Both show a smooth curving profile, which distinguishes them from later Aegean examples, which usually have a sharp stepped profile towards the adze end (e.g. Catling 1964, 91–2; Deshayes 1960a, 279–91; Renfrew 1967, 8). Very similar to the Dhaska-lio example is the axe-adze from the ‘Kythnos hoard’ (Renfrew 1967), which was, however, later excluded from the reconsidered ‘Naxos hoard’ (Fitton 1989) and remains without a provenance. Based on its typology it is, however, most probably of early bronze age date (Renfrew 1967). Deshayes (1960a, 282–3; 1960b, 116) groups two other undated axe-adzes together with the
Eutresis and old ‘Kythnos’ finds in his Type B1; one is said to be from Acarnania and the other from Athens. The ‘Acarnanian’ example, for which illustrations are available (Deshayes 1960b, pls. XXXVIII:5 & LXI:7), does indeed show clear similarities with the Dhaskalio example, but unfortunately remains without a clear date or findspot.
The single shafthole axe (12741) was preserved almost whole, but compared to the other two objects was found in poorer condition and remained fragile even after conservation. The sides of the axe are almost straight and parallel to each other, the cutting edge is convex, the shafthole is almost circular with thin walls, and it ends in a deep half collar, which forms a trian-gular edge both on the top and the bottom. A mould for lost-wax casting of a similar, although not identi-cal, single axe was recovered from Blue Period layers at Poliochni (Bernabò-Brea 1964, 591, fig. LXXXVd), showing that the technique was already in use in the broader Aegean region from the early parts of the early bronze age (Branigan 1974, 82–3), and thus raising the possibility that the Dhaskalio example was also cast in this way. Unfortunately, the poor state of surface preser-vation of this object does not allow further observations on manufacture or use-wear traces. Given the presence of a deep collar, the axe fits with Branigan’s type III (Branigan 1974, 23), but McGeehan Liritzis (1996, 66–9) rightly further distinguishes between axes bearing a full or a half collar, whereby the Keros example would fall with the latter. It therefore has its closest parallels in the axe from the Thebes hoard (Demakopoulou & Konsola 1981, pl. 9; McGeehan Liritzis 1996, 67 & fig. 2.4.3.1), which also dates to the end of the early bronze age, as well as to examples from northern Greece, such as the ones from early bronze age Mandalo (Merousis 2004, 1291 & pl. 3b; Papaefthimiou-Papanthimou &
Figure 32.14. Hammering marks on the side of the axe-adze 12734 and 12735.
Figure 32.15. Evidence of use-wear on blade of axe-adze 12734 and 12735.
Pilali-Papasteriou 1997, 126, fig. 60) and Archontiko (Merousis 2004, pl. 6b), as well as Toumba Mesimeriou and Toumba Plagiariou (Grammenos et al. 1994, 89–91, figs. 12, 13), the latter two lacking stratigraphic context. At just under 100 mm maximum length, however, it is smaller than all these examples. These axes can be distinguished from others bearing a full collar, such as those from the Petralona hoard (Grammenos et al. 1994; Tzachili 2008) and the Poliochni Vano 829 hoard (Bernabò Brea 1964, pl. CLXXIII; Nakou 1997, 637–8).
The third object in the group (12740) has the shape of a chisel. It was found whole and in excellent condition. It should be noted here that the distinction between artefacts identified as flat axes or as chisels is not straightforward and various scholars suggest slightly different discriminating parameters (for a discussion and references see McGeehan Liritzis 1996, 57–8). The length to maximum width ratio of the Dhaskalio example is, however, above 5, and therefore well into the typical chisel range (Branigan 1974, 24; McGeehan Liritzis 1996, 58). It is noteworthy that the tool thins at both the wider cutting edge and the butt, suggesting that both ends were prepared for usage. Hammering marks are not clearly visible on the sides (Fig. 32.16), possibly smoothed out during the finishing stages of manufacture. Noteworthy are also two asymmetrical dents on the two sides of the base of the smaller end (Fig. 32.17). A possible explanation for their presence is that the chisel was occasionally or permanently tied with a string from that point onto a wooden base or handle (A. Goumas pers. comm.). The artefact was studied following conservation, and although use-wear patterns in the form of scratches or nicks are not clear, it is noteworthy that its cutting edge is slightly asymmetrical, as if worn more on one
side (Fig. 32.13). This deformation may be the result of repeated sharpening after use, an action that would have been necessary with early copper-based tools, and would have largely eliminated micro use-wear patterns (Dolfini 2011; Roberts & Ottaway 2003).
The chisel is a common and very widely distrib-uted tool in the early bronze age Aegean (see examples in Branigan 1974, 24–6; Grammenos et al. 1994), while its usually simple form does not facilitate compara-tive discussions based on typology. The Dhaskalio example finds its closest parallels in Branigan’s (1974, 24–6) Type III and particularly, given the rounded butt, IIIa, which includes examples of variable lengths from Troy and the Cycladic islands. Moulds for cast-ing chisels of this type are known from Troy (Schmidt 1902, 265 no. 6726 & 266 no. 6761). The shape of the butt in the Dhaskalio example is, however, distinctive and at present finds no exact parallels, as the sides of the chisel converge towards that end and open to a roughly oval shape, probably a result of hammering to make this edge also thinner and sharper for usage.
The three tools from Trench XXX can be con-sidered a small ‘hoard’, very similar in composition (although smaller than most in number of artefacts) to other groups of copper-based tools known from the early and middle bronze age Aegean (Branigan 1969; 1974, app. 2; Knapp et al. 1988, 234–5; C. Renfrew 1967; 1972, 325–8). Interpretations on the nature and role of these hoards vary depending on the number and type of artefacts included in each case, as well as the context of their discovery, wherever that is known. In most cases they are considered to be carpenter’s toolsets, although for some it has been proposed that they may represent founder’s hoards, votive deposits, or deliberate caches of metal wealth (see discussions
Figure 32.16. Side of chisel (12740) with no hammer marks.
Figure 32.17. Smaller edge of chisel 12740 with dents (note sampling point).
in Branigan 1969; 1974, 132–4, 142–4; Grammenos et al. 1994, 104–7; Knapp et al. 1988, 234–5; C. Renfrew 1967; 1972, 325–8; Tzachili 2008, 18). The three tools from Dhaskalio show evidence of use-wear, showing that they had been functional. Furthermore, the axe-adze was found broken, while the edge of the chisel was worn to one side. The state of the single axe prior to deposition cannot be deduced, due to significant weathering. The number of artefacts is small and there is so far no clear evidence of deliberate deposi-tion for the purpose of hiding them associated with their findspot. The term ‘hoard’ may therefore be slightly misleading in this context and the assemblage should most likely be considered a toolset, probably for carpentry, based on the nature of the artefacts (see also Evely 1993 for a discussion of possible functions of these tools). The evidence for wear and damage further suggests the possibility that the artefacts were deposited together in anticipation of repairs, although not strictly as a founder’s hoard given the absence of other scrap metal. In this respect it is interesting that in the immediately overlying stratigraphic unit two joining fragments of a copper-bearing crucible were found (14063, see below), suggesting metalworking activities in this part of the site.
Several other artefacts were recovered in very good condition from Phase C contexts. These include a pair of tweezers (10787), a knife (12328), and a pin (10611). The knife (Figs. 32.18–32.20) has a concave back and a rounded cutting edge, with a rectangular butt bearing a single circular hole for a rivet that secured the handle. Next to the hole the metal is worn on both sides (Fig. 32.20). The middle is thicker than the sides, which would have been hammered to shape. Its shape would have made it more suitable for scrap-
ing or skinning. Typologically it shows similarities with examples grouped by Branigan (1974, 27–8) in his Types IIIa, VI and VII, while both Tripathi (1977, 39–41) and McGeehan Liritzis (1996, 53–6) offer a less discriminating typology for the mainland examples, whereby the Dhaskalio knife would fit more closely with their Types I and K.2 respectively. It is clear from all collective accounts that the closest parallels for the
1061112328
0 3 cm
Figure 32.18. Knife and pin from Phase C. Scale 1:2.
Figure 32.19. Knife and pin from Phase C. Scale 1:1.
0 3 cm
12328
10611
Figure 32.20. Detail of hole at the butt of knife 12328 showing wear.
Dhaskalio knife should be sought in the Anatolian and northern Aegean region with similar, although not identical, artefacts known for example primarily from Troy (e.g. Schmidt 1902, 249–50) and other neighbour-ing sites. Similarities are also noted with the knife from Thermi II (Lamb 1936a, pl. XLVII, 31.30), although Branigan has grouped it in a different type (IIIa) than the majority of the Trojan examples.
One whole pair of tweezers was found (10787), while four other fragments appear to be parts of such implements (10788, 11844, 12012 and 12851; Figs. 32.21 & 32.22). The complete pair 10787 forms a U-bend with arms flaring towards the tips (Figs. 32.21 & 32.22). Similarly the three fragments of arms (10788, 11844, 12012) widen towards the tips, while 12851 appears to be a V-bend connector part. Similar tweezers with a plain spring and flared arms (Branigan 1974, 31, Type II; McGeehan Liritzis 1996, 93, Type T1b; Tripathi 1977, 54, Type I) have a widespread distribution in the early bronze age Aegean with numerous examples known from Crete, as well as several sites on the mainland and a single example from Poliochni (for further details and references see Branigan 1974, 175; McGeehan Liritzis 1996, 93).
The pin 10611 (Figs. 32.18 & 32.19) is complete, of circular section with a spherical head, slightly flat-
tened on top. It finds parallels in Branigan’s (1974, 35) Type IVa, very common in the northeastern Aegean, with examples recovered from Troy (Schliemann 1880, 505, nos. 934, 935), Poliochni Blue (Bernabò Brea 1964, pl. LXXXVII:7), Red Green (Bernabò Brea 1964, pl. CLXXVI:7, 10, 11, 12, 13), and Yellow (Bernabò Brea 1976, pl. CCXXXVII:1, 10, 18, 23–9), Thermi (Lamb 1936a, 166, fig. 48a, nos. 32.19, 31.16 and pl. XXV, no. 30.18), Ayios Ermolaos on Lemnos (Agallopoulou 1994), as well as Palamari on Skyros (Hadjipouliou 1997, 358, fig. 8). Furthermore, single examples come from Manika (McGeehan Liritzis 1988, 108) and Asine (Frödin & Persson 1938, 258, fig. 182 no. 1 left). A pin of similar type but made in silver was found at Chalandriani on Syros (Tsountas 1899, 101, pl. 10:11). The head of a pin recovered from the Special Deposit South at Kavos (6461; Volume II), is distinguished by its hemispherical shape, falling in Branigan’s (1974, 35) Type IV.
Numerous other copper-based artefacts were recovered in fragmentary condition, often largely covered by corrosion products making clear identifica-tion of their type or further discussion difficult (Figs. 32.23 & 32.24). These include elongated fragments of probably square (10631, 11816, 11839, 11857 and 12087.3) or circular (12087) section, most likely frag-
Figure 32.22. Tweezers and fragments of Phase C. Scale 1:1.
Figure 32.21. Tweezers and fragments of Phase C. Scale 1:1.
ments of pins or punches; thin strips (5062 and 11856), one partly bent (5785) and one coiled (5790); a hook fragment (10704); and possibly a pinhead (12209) and a knife edge (12087.2), although the latter is too small and corroded for secure identification.
LeadA total of seventeen lead-based objects were found in Phase C layers, more than half of which (5822, 10785, 10786, 10851, 11624, 12320, 12326, 12556 and 14055) are fragments of rivets of different shapes and sizes used for mending pottery (Figs. 32.25 & 32.26). In fact two of these were found still attached to sherds (10785 and 14055).
Particularly interesting is the small shafthole axe found in wall tumble in Trench VII (10709; Figs. 32.27 & 32.28). A figurine of the Apeiranthos type was also recovered from the same layer (5814). The shape of this axe is more like an axe-hammer. The artefact is not entirely symmetrical, which, given the softness of lead as a material, is more likely to have developed at a later stage of the artefact’s lifetime than to be a feature of the original design. At least four small lead axes are known from different early bronze age sites in the Aegean and all were recovered from funerary contexts. They include two small lead shafthole single axes from early bronze age child burials, one from Samos (Milojčić 1961, 52) and one from Bakla Tepe (Phase III) on the eastern Aegean coast (Keskin in press), as well as two small lead double axes from an EM II–III secondary burial at Mochlos on Crete (Seager 1912, 36). The five lead axes, including the Dhaskalio example, are not identical and would fall typologically in differ-ent groups, but they do share the common character-istic that they are made of the soft lead metal and are very small in size. These features make it unlikely that these had a function as axes. A larger lead double axe, 150 mm in length, from Sesklo (Tsountas 1908, 354) dates later to the Fourth Period (Wace & Thompson 1912, 74). Here as well, the excavator raises doubts as to its practical use (Tsountas 1908, 354).
One possible interpretation is that lead, as a soft material with a low melting temperature, was used to form the original model, around which a mould was subsequently fashioned from clay in order to cast the artefact in copper, an alternative to the use of wax in lost-wax casting (Branigan 1974, 82–3). These artefacts would therefore be models to be cast subsequently in copper. In this respect it is interesting that at Mochlos a miniature copper-based double axe, of the same type as the two lead ones, was recovered from the same context (Seager 1912, 35). Note that the copper axe appears to be slightly larger than the two lead ones. A small shafthole copper-based single axe is known
in the Goulandris Museum collection (Doumas 1983, 160, no. 200); the artefact shows typological similari-ties with the miniature lead axe from Samos, at least on the basis of the available illustrations. Several miniature copper-based single axes were recovered from Middle Minoan secondary burials at Palaikastro (Branigan 1968, 88) and these do show use-wear on their edges (Evely 1993, 58). On the other hand and given that the other four examples were all recovered from burials, the possibility that such artefacts were not functional must be given serious consideration. An interesting suggestion (ultimately speculative) about the Dhaskalio lead axe was raised by Akis Goumas, an experienced silver-goldsmith. Upon seeing it he immediately rejected the possibility that it was func-tional, unless used as a model as described above. Otherwise he proposed, without any knowledge of the contexts of recovery of the other examples, that it was made for a child, possibly by a metalsmith relative. He noted, through personal experience, that children often like to watch and copy actions under-taken by adults in a workshop. Lead metal would have provided a relatively cheap and easily-workable material to satisfy such curiosity. The suggestion fits nicely not only with the recovery of some of the other known examples from child burials, but also with the various other indications suggesting metalworking activities within the contexts investigated in Trench VII (see below).
Two other lead artefacts of different shape may have been used as weights (Figs. 32.27 & 32.28). The first, 5741, is a cylinder with a depression on one surface and on the other nine small impressed dots in a roughly ‘U’-shaped arrangement. Similar dots, albeit five, arranged in a circle, are noted in the bottom surface of the lead truncated cone found at Lithares (Tzavella-Evjen 1984, 169, pl. 80a). A lead cylinder of roughly the same size as the Dhaskalio one with a hole pierced on one side going through half its length was recovered from early bronze age levels at Ayia Irini, Keos (Wilson 1999, 146 & pl. 94). The second arte-fact, 12092, is in the shape of a spool and extensively weathered. It was found together with a limestone spool within the Summit Enclosure. Lead spools are known from the Red Period in Poliochni (Bernabò Brea 1964, 659, pl. CLXXVII:29), Kastri on Syros (Tsountas 1899, 126), Provatsa on Makronissos (Lambert 1973, 9), and Ayios Dimitrios in the southwest Peloponnese (Zachos 2008, 78). Two lead spools and two cylinders are reported from Aegina (Walter & Felten 1981, 142–3 & pl. 127). In Chapter 25, Haas-Lebegyev and Renfrew consider at length different possible interpretations for the role of spool-shaped artefacts on Dhaskalio made from different materials. Although 5741 and 12092 do
not conform with measuring units so far recognized, the authors do conclude that a weight function is more likely for spools made of lead.
The remaining lead artefacts cannot be attrib-uted to a particular type and their function remains obscure (Figs. 32.27 & 32.28). They include a roughly ‘T’-shaped object with perforations at its three ends (5796), an elongated, almost rectangular specimen with rounded ends and possible holes at its two edges (11828), a roughly tear-shaped artefact with a flat back (5707), a pierced thick disc (12502), and an almost rectangular, partly bent object (5786) with a possible hole going through it. The latter vaguely resembles part of a small shafthole axe. If indeed lead was used to model moulds for casting, 5786 might be tentatively identified as an unfinished example. Given the high density of lead it is possible that some of the above fragments were used as weights for various functions (e.g. net sinkers).
GoldA single minute fragment of gold sheet (5060) was recovered from Trench VI (Fig. 32.29). The importance of the artefact again lies in the rarity of gold metal in the early bronze age Cyclades (see above).
Metallurgical remainsA significant amount of finds relating to metallurgical activities was recovered from Phase C on Dhaskalio. The majority are minute, shapeless, largely weathered copper-based fragments, which, as discussed above for earlier periods, may in most cases be metal spills. The practice of metallurgy on Dhaskalio during Phase C is clearer based on other finds, such as the numer-ous metallurgical ceramic fragments. These include two specimens (14058 and 14062; Fig. 32.33) which have been recognized as fragments of baking pans (P. Sotirakopoulou pers. comm.; see for example Sotira-kopoulou 2008a, fig. 14.6), two joining fragments of a curved vessel (14063; Fig. 32.32), and one fragment whose original shape cannot be deduced (14059; Fig. 32.33). These sherds are recognized as metallurgical ceramics as they all show evidence for heating as well as copper residues in their inner surface. There is no clear attached slag layer and none shows macroscopi-cally thick vitrification layers often seen in furnace
walls. The identification of at least two different types of vessels relating to metallurgy in Phase C, one in the form of a baking pan and the other of a bowl, is noteworthy. Doumas (2011) has recently proposed an elaborate installation for melting metal that involves the use of different known Early Cycladic ceramic shapes. Within his reconstruction, which remains tentative, the baking pan fragments would corre-spond to a portable hearth, and the curved vessel to a crucible. Further insight into the potential use of different ceramic types in the metallurgical activities may be gained upon completion of the study of the Dhaskalio pottery.
Beyond these vessel fragments, the metallurgical ceramic assemblage for this period includes one whole
0 2 cm
Figure 32.29. Fragment of gold sheet 5060. Scale 2:1.
5060
10717
14061
Figure 32.30. Tuyère (10717) and clay mould (14061) of Phase C. Scale 1:2.
0 3 cm
0 3 cm
10717
14061
Figure 32.31. Tuyère (10717) and clay mould (14061) of Phase C. Scale 1:2.
tuyère (10717; Figs. 32.30 & 32.31) and a fragment of one (11157; Fig. 32.33), as well as three fragments that all seem to belong to the same ceramic mould (14060 and 14061; Figs. 32.30 & 32.31). The type of object(s) cast on this mould cannot be deduced based on the surviving fragments. It is also noteworthy that even though the tuyère 10717 appears macroscopically to be of a fabric similar, although slightly coarser, to most of the ones from Phase B discussed above, containing fine biotites and quartz-type inclusions, it shows more evidence of intense heating and the external surface is not smooth. A few fragments of slag were found in Phase C contexts at Dhaskalio. The majority are minute, very magnetic, with intense copper residues externally.
Although all the above finds, with the exception of the tuyères, are clearly associated with the practice of copper metallurgy, a single litharge fragment (5828) suggests further the possibility that cupellation, the separation of silver from argentiferous lead, was also practised on Dhaskalio. Another litharge fragment had been recovered from the area of the Special Deposit North during the 1987 expedition on Kavos (Georga-
kopoulou 2007, 396). Although suggestive, these can-not yet be taken as definitive evidence for cupellation on site given the sparse quantities involved (see also discussion in Georgakopoulou 2007).
Finally, 11541 is another so far unique find from Dhaskalio (Fig. 32.34). It is a shapeless, metallic and highly magnetic fragment, covered with secondary iron (hydr)-oxides, that looks macroscopically like iron metal. Preliminary analysis of this specimen sug-gests that it is an iron arsenide/antimonide, a material known as speiss (for further details see Volume III). Speisses are intermetallic compounds of transition metals with elements of the fifth group of the periodic table, primarily arsenic and antimony (Thornton et al. 2009, 308). They are often accidental by-products of smelting arsenic or antimony-rich multimetallic ores, although recent studies from the early bronze age sites of Tepe Hissar (Thornton et al. 2009) and Arisman (Boscher et al. 2011) in Iran suggest deliberate produc-tion of ferrous speiss in the late fourth–early third millennium bc. Thornton et al. (2009) propose that the material may have then been used as an alloying agent mixed with copper to produce arsenical copper.
0 2 cm
14063
Figure 32.32. Probable crucible fragment 14063 of Phase C. Scale 1:1.
Figure 32.33. Metallurgical ceramics from Phase C. Scale 1:1.
They furthermore suggest that an arsenical iron frag-ment identified by Doonan et al. (2007) in an EM I–IIA context at Poros Katsambas on Crete is also speiss and not the mineral löllingite originally suggested (Thornton et al. 2009, 310), showing that the material was not unknown in the prehistoric Aegean. The find had also been interpreted as the arsenic-bearer in arsenical copper production. Speiss is also known from later historic contexts in the Aegean, including a single fragment from Roman contexts at the site of Kastri on Kythera (Broodbank et al. 2007), and large quantities in smelting sites of the historical periods in eastern Macedonia (Nerantzis 2006; Photos 1987). The possibility that speiss was used as an alloying agent is particularly interesting for Dhaskalio Kavos, given extensive evidence for the production of arsenical copper on the site (Georgakopoulou 2007; see further Volume III, where it will be considered in more detail). This fragment was recovered from Trench XV, in the same layer as the human cremation remains (Chapter 22). Moutafi proposes a possible symbolic association between the use (and spectacle) of fire in cremation and pyrometallurgical activities on the site raising the possibility that in this case the specimen was associ-ated with the cremation burial (i.e. as a gravegood). Unfortunately, such association cannot be proven with certainty due to the disturbed character of this context.
Catalogue
Metal artefactsCopper-based 5062 (VI, 23). L. 21 mm; W. 4 mm; Th. 2 mm; Wt <1 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Thin strip, completely corroded.
5785 (VI, 23). L. 13 mm; W. 3 mm; Th. 1 mm; Wt <1 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Thin curving strip, completely corroded. May have been part of a ring.
5790 (VI, 24). L. 17 mm; W. 5 mm; Th. 1 mm; Wt 2 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Thin coiled strip, completely corroded and covered in soil.
10611 (VI, 28). L. 88 mm; D. pin shaft 4 mm; D. head 8 mm; Wt 7 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.18 & 32.19.Whole pin of circular section with spherical head partially flattened.
10631 (VI, 34). L. 3.5 cm, W. 4 mm; Wt 2 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Elongated fragment, roughly rectangular section, heavily corroded with thick encrustation of corrosion products externally, expanding its original width. Possibly a punch fragment.
10704 (VII, 24). L. 18 mm, D. 25 mm; Wt 0.5 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Circular section, bent, pointed tip, probably hook fragment.
10787 (VII, 38). L. 26 mm; W. 4 mm; Wt 1 g. Figs. 32.21 & 32.22. Tweezers, U-bend, arms of roughly the same length and of rectan-gular section, slightly flared at the edges.
10788 (VII, 38). L. 28 mm; W. 3 mm; W. flared end 6 mm; Wt 1 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.21 & 32.22.Fragment of tweezers (part of one arm), elongated, roughly rectan-gular section; one edge is flared.
11816 (XXI, 9). L. 31 mm; W. 3 mm; Wt 2.2 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Elongated square-sectioned fragment, unclear what original artefact was, possibly punch.
11839 (XXI, 11). L. 20 mm; W. 3 mm; Wt 0.6 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Elongated, square-sectioned fragment, bent on one end, unclear what original artefact was, possibly punch.
11844 (XXI, 11). L. 30 mm; W. 3 mm; W. at flared end 6 mm; Wt 1.2 g.Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.21 & 32.22.Fragment of tweezers (part of one arm), elongated, rectangular section, curving along its length and flared at one edge.
11856 (XXI, 11). L. 15 mm; W. 4 mm; Th. 1 mm; Wt 0.5 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Thin strip, slightly bent.
11857 (XXI, 11). L. 22 mm; W. 2 mm; Wt 0.8 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment. Fig. 32.24.Elongated fragment, square section, unclear what original artefact was, possibly punch.
12012 (XXIII, 2). L. 46 mm; Wt 3 g. Figs. 32.21 & 32.22.Copper with silver?Probable fragment of tweezers (one arm), elongated, roughly hemispherical section with a diameter of 2 mm, flaring on one end to a width of 7 mm. The back appears to be flattened. It is largely covered by corrosion products and soil.
12087 (XXIII, 12). L. 22 mm, D. 2 mm; Wt <1 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Two joining fragments forming part of thin artefact, curving towards one end, roughly circular section, largely covered in cor-rosion products. Unclear what original artefact was (pin, needle, hook or similar).
12087.2 (XXIII, 12). L. 18 mm; Wt 2 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Fragment rounded on one side, very corroded and encrusted with corrosion products and soil, possibly the edge of a knife.
12087.3 (XXIII, 12). L. 11 mm; W. 2 mm; Wt <1 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Elongated fragment, square section unclear what original artefact was, possibly punch.
Figure 32.34. Speiss fragment 11541. From Trench XV layer 3. Scale 1:1.
12209 (XX, 31). L. 15 mm; Wt 3 g. Figs. 32.23 & 32.24.Tear-shaped or oval fragment, with maximum D. of 8 mm, ending on short, thin elongated tip, possibly the head of a pin, or just a metal spill.
12328 (XXIV, 7). L. 75 mm; maximum W. 19 mm; maximum W. tang 8 mm; maximum Th. 2 mm; rivet D. 3 mm; Wt 6.7 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.18 & 32.19.Knife, whole. Concave back and concave cutting edge, ending at rounded tip, with roughly rectangular tang bearing one hole. Next to the hole the metal is worn on both sides. The body of the knife is thicker in the middle and thinner towards the edges.
12734 & 12735 (XXX, 7). L. 192 mm; Wt 507 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment. Figs. 32.12 & 32.13.Arsenical copper.Axe-adze, was found broken in two at the middle of the shafthole. Subsequently mended forming the whole during conservation. It has a smooth curving profile and almost circular shafthole (D. 26–8 mm) with triangular sleeves at either side of it and arc-like cutting edges on both tool sides; W. at adze end 32 mm, W. at axe end 45 mm, L. of sleeve 35 mm. Hammering marks are visible along its sides and a roughly triangular depression is noted on the top surface of its axe side, caused by extensive working during manufacture. The artefact was not finished on the inner, bottom side of the shafthole, where a ridge of extra metal from casting remains. One small depression, the remnant of a gas bubble noted at the lower surface of the end close to the shafthole and almost halfway across the artefact’s width. Use-wear marks are visible on both edges, but are more pronounced in the adze, in the form of small nicks along their length. The adze end curves slightly upward at the edge.
12740 (XXX, 8). L. 221 mm; maximum W. edge 42 mm; W. butt 18 mm; maximum Th. 10 mm; Wt 348.4 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.12 & 32.13.Arsenical copper.Chisel, whole and in excellent condition. Rectangular section, con-vex sides ending in convex cutting edge, and on the other side to a roughly oval-shaped butt. Thins at both the cutting edge and the butt to <1 mm. There are no clear use-wear marks on the edge, but it is asymmetrical, probably as a result of repeated re-sharpening. Dents are noted on either side of the base of the butt end.
12741 (XXX, 8). L. 97 mm; W. axe 19 mm; Wt 136.8 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.12 & 32.13.Tin-bronze.Single shafthole axe. Straight sides, smooth curving profile, to deep half-collar ending both on top and on bottom in triangular edge, convex cutting edge, circular shafthole (D. 22 mm) with very thin walls (3 mm width). Specimen was preserved almost complete, but was badly corroded particularly at its cutting edge, which has cracked in parallel to the axe direction and is expanded to a thickness of 6 mm. Artefact remains fragile even after conservation.
12851 (XXV, 12). L. 17 mm; Wt 4 g. Figs. 32.21 & 32.22.Arsenical copper. Fragment, probably connector part of tweezers (V-bend), covered in thick corrosion products and soil encrustation.
Lead5707 (VI, 2). L. 47 mm; Wt 56 g. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.Tear-shaped object ending in a thinner elongated part. One side is flat, while the other is thicker in the centre and thinner towards the edges. The artefact may be in a semi-finished state or scrap metal.
5741 (VI, 9). L. 30 mm; D. (lower) 25 mm, (upper) 24 mm; Wt 139 g.Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.
Complete cylindrical object slightly narrowing on its upper side. Smooth surface covered in white (hydro-cerussite) weathering products. Its bottom side has a shallow oval depression (4 mm × 3 mm). The upper side has an arrangement of nine small impressed dots in an almost ‘U’-shaped arrangement, each of a diameter c. 1 mm and with a distance of 2–3 mm between them, some partly connected with an incised line.
5786 (VI, 23). L. 34 mm; W. 12 mm; Th. 5 mm; Wt 20 g. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.Small elongated artefact, bent along its length. A ridge is noted at the edges of both surfaces, probably from hammering. Both surfaces have a round depression at the same point that presently does not seem to go all the way through, though is possibly blocked by post-depositional weathering products. The artefact is therefore probably perforated at this point. Unclear function.
5796 (VI, 25). L. 64 mm; Wt 96 g. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.‘T’-shaped object with relatively flat back side. It has three circular perforations each towards one end that can be seen on both sides but do not go all the way through, blocked by corrosion products. Unclear intended function, possibly part of a large rivet?
5822 (VII, 5). L. 18 mm; W. 7 mm; Wt 6 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Fragment of rivet for mending pottery consisting of one arm and part of the attachment, rectangular section.
10709 (VII, 11). L. 61 mm; W. ‘axe’ edge 6 mm, other end 16 mm; Wt 74.3 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.Small shafthole axe-hammer. The thickness at both the ‘axe’ and the
‘hammer’ ends is around 5 mm, but this may be partly a result of the expansion by corrosion. Shafthole roughly circular with a diameter of 5 mm. The artefact is not symmetrical when seen from the top, but one end bends to the side, this possibly not part of original design.
10785 (VII, 38). L. 35 mm; Wt 36 g (dimensions from sherd). Fig. 37.28.Rivet of a roughly semicircular section with a width of 6 mm still attached to pottery sherd.
10786 (VII, 38). L. 41 mm; Wt 19 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Probably fragment of rivet for pottery mending, elongated, rec-tangular section (12 mm × 7 mm), very slightly bent in the middle.
10851 (X, 2). L. 24 mm; W. 7 mm; Wt 20 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Rivet for mending pottery, ‘Π’-shaped, with one arm bent, roughly square section.
11624 (XVII, 3). L. 52 mm; Wt 95 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Lead rivet fragment, very large, retaining one arm and part of the connector
11828 (XXI, 9). L. 69 mm; Wt 72 g. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.Rectangular object with widened rounded corners (one wider than the other). The artefact appears to have been perforated at both longitudinal ends, as depressions are noted on both surfaces at the same opposing points, currently blocked from corrosion products. Unknown intended function.
12092 (XXIII, 13). L. 32 mm; D. (top) 29 mm, (bottom) 30 mm; Wt 144.3 g. Underwent conservation treatment. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.Spool, intensely weathered, surface cracked and thick encrustation of (hydro)-cerussite weathering products.
12320 (XXIV, 6). L. 32 mm; Wt 19 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Fragment of large rivet for mending pottery.
12326 (XXIV, 7). L. 55 mm; Wt 18 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Fragment of rivet for mending pottery.
12502 (XX, 10). D. 27 mm; Wt 15.2 g. Underwent conservation treat-ment. Figs. 32.27 & 32.28.Thick disc, pierced in the middle, with diameter of hole 7 mm. The artefact is thicker on one part of its circumference c. 9 mm, thinning to 4 mm, but this may be a result of weathering and subsequent cleaning during conservation. Unknown intended function.
12556 (XX, 22). L. 20 mm; Wt 19 g. Figs. 32.25 & 32.26.Rivet fragment of roughly ‘Π’ shape, rectangular section (13 mm × 6 mm)
14055 (XXI, 9). Wt 17 g (with sherd). Fig. 37.28.Small fragment of rivet on pottery sherd.
Gold5060 (VI, 25). L. 4 mm; Wt <1 g. Fig. 32.29.Minute fragment of gold sheet, one surface appears polished/shiny and the other matt.
Metallurgical remains5061 (VI, 25). L. 3 mm and 9 mm; WtTOTAL <1 g (2 fragments).5063 (VI, 25). L. 0.9 mm; Wt <1 g.10612 (VI, 28). L. 15 mm; Wt 3 g.10634 (VI, 34). L. 17 mm; Wt 4 g.10640 (VI, 35). L. 7 mm; Wt <1 g.10643 (VI, 35). L. 12 mm; Wt <1 g.10697 (VI, 50). L. 7 mm; Wt 0.2 g.10747 (VII, 34). L. 13 mm; Wt 2 g.11385 (XIII, 15). L. 25 mm; Wt 4 g.11531 (XV, 2). L. 19 mm; Wt 3 g.11850 (XXI, 11). L. 11 mm; Wt <1 g.12093 (XXIII, 13). L. 10 mm; Wt <1 g.12097 (XXIII, 14). L. 8 mm; Wt <1 g.12203 (VII, 38). L. 17 mm; Wt 1.6 g.12205 (XIII, 11). L. 9 mm; Wt <1 g.12206 (XXIII, 2). L. 12 mm; Wt <1 g.12207 (VII, 37). L. 15 mm; Wt 2 g.13063 (XXIII, 30). L. 10 mm; Wt <1 g.13068 (XXIII, 30). L. 7 mm; Wt <1 g.13074 (XXIII, 30). L. 6 mm; Wt <1 g.14056 (VI, 27). L. 3 mm; Wt <1 g.14057 (XXIII, 9). L. 11 mm; Wt 2 g.14066 (XXIII, 9). L. 11 mm; Wt 2 g.Shapeless, largely or totally corroded, copper-based fragments often with attached calcareous rock or soil conglomerate; most are probably metal spills.
5064 (VI, 23). L. 21 mm; Wt 7 g.Iron mineral, non-magnetic, with host rock.
5828 (VII, 5). L. 34 mm; Wt 86 g.Litharge fragment, shapeless, completely covered in white (hydro)-cerussite layer.
10717 (VII, 24) H. 30 mm; D. bottom opening c. 25 mm, D. top open-ing c. 7 mm; Wt 55 g. Figs. 32.30 & 32.31.Whole ceramic tuyère with maximum wall thickness 10 mm. It has intense heating evidence, more than the other examples found on Dhaskalio. The colour of the clay is red, but it is blackened from heating mainly around the mouth and on one side across the length. Macroscopically the fabric appears rich in muscovite in association with glassy quartz (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). It is partly covered internally and externally with post-depositional white calcareous layer.
11002 (XVII, 2). L. 6 mm; Wt <1 g.Slag fragment, very small, black with one protruding copper prill (D. 0.15 mm), magnetic.
11007 (XXXVI, 3). L. 15 mm; Wt <1 g.Slag fragment, small, very magnetic, black with green staining, partly covered with soil.
11010 (XXII, 3). L. 4–15 mm; WtTOTAL 3 g.Slags, five tiny fragments, almost completely covered in green copper corrosion and soil, but in parts black; most are magnetic.
11013 (XXIII, 2). L. 16 mm; Wt <1 g.Slag fragment, small, completely covered in soil, with green stain-ing, magnetic.
11157 (XXI, 3). L. 44 mm; Th. 10 mm; Wt 12 g. Fig. 32.33.Possible tuyère fragment retaining small part of circumference from the bottom, not possible to deduce diameter. Clay colour buff-grey, with biotite and quartz-type inclusions (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). The specimen is not significantly blackened from heating, only towards the inner surface of the circumference.
11163 (XIV, 10). L. 23 mm; Wt 4 g.Slag fragment, black, almost completely covered with soil, some green staining, magnetic.
11541 (XV, 3). L. 45 mm; Wt 32 g. Fig. 32.34.Speiss fragment. Metallic-looking material, very magnetic, covered in secondary iron minerals.
11632 (XVII, 6). L. 42 mm; Wt 36 g.Slag, black, non-magnetic, with minute rock fragments attached on its lower surface, no visible green staining.
11830 (XXI, 9). L. 32 mm; Wt 41 g.Iron mineral (magnetite?), black, very magnetic, partly crystalline, dense.
12208 (VII, 31). L. 10 mm; Wt <1 g.Slag fragment, black with some green staining and residual post-depositional calcareous layer, magnetic.
14058 (VI, 34). L. 35 mm; Th. 8 mm; Wt 9 g. Fig. 32.33.Metallurgical ceramic fragment. The sherd is a fragment of a ‘bak-ing pan’ type vessel (P. Sotirakopoulou pers. comm.), of red sandy micaceous fabric (J. Hilditch pers. comm.). It has a very thin, black slag or vitrified layer (<1 mm) in inner surface with green staining. Part of the outer surface (probably the top) is also black.
14059 (VII, 9). L. 38 mm; Th. 10 mm; Wt 8 g. Fig. 32.33.Metallurgical ceramic fragment. Red micaceous fabric (J. Hilditch pers. comm.), possibly part of rim but shape cannot be deduced, no curvature to vessel, inner side covered in black slag/vitrified layer (thickness 1 mm), only a little magnetic, with some green staining.
14060 (XXI, 7). Shapeless ceramic fragment with one blackened surface, probably another fragment of the mould 14061.
14061 (XXI, 9). L. 104 mm; Wt 190 g. Figs. 32.30 & 32.31.Ceramic mould fragments (two joining fragments). On the upper surface it is partly black with some faint green colouration in parts, probably from copper-based metal corrosion products. Only a small part of the mould survives in a weathered condition; not possible firmly to deduce the type of object(s) cast. From the surviving black surface it appears to have been a relatively flat and long artefact, possibly a chisel.
14062 (XXIV, 3). L. 40 mm; Th. 9 mm; Wt 22 g. Fig. 32.33.Metallurgical ceramic. The sherd is a rim fragment of a ‘baking pan’ type vessel (P. Sotirakopoulou pers. comm.). The inner surface is blackened from heating, while it has a thin slag layer on one small part, which is magnetic and has visible green copper-based prills.
14063 (XXX, 6). L. 65 mm; Th. 7 mm; Wt 28 g. Fig. 32.32.Metallurgical ceramic, probably part of crucible. Two joining frag-ments, part of the rim of an open curved vessel, similar to a bowl. Inner side is blackened from heating and has some copper prills. Post-depositional calcareous encrustations.
14064 (XXIII, 2). L. 16 mm; Wt 3 g.Slag, black, no copper residues externally, shaped as part of a tapped layer, very little magnetic, low porosity.
14065 (XXIII, 6). L. 28 mm; Wt 3 g.Slag, black, no copper residues externally, shaped as part of a tapped layer, magnetic, medium porosity.
Unphased
A few metal artefacts were recovered from layers that cannot be dated with certainty as accompanying pot-tery was not found. These are listed separately below. They include a strip of copper metal and three iron nails. The latter were found on a layer just below the recent surface on top of Wall C of the Summit Enclo-sure. They are probably associated with the Byzantine chapel to the south, although pottery or other artefacts of this date were not found in the same context. The copper strip 11855 was recovered from layer 10 to the west of Rock Feature 1 and Wall G in Trench XXI, features that are dated to Phase C (or possibly earlier: Chapter 12).
One copper artefact was recovered during the excavations of 1963 (DF23; Chapter 7). It is a large fragment of porous copper metal (MuN2275); its shape and porosity suggest that this is raw metal, a shapeless ingot, which would subsequently have been worked into artefacts. The findspot of this fragment corre-sponds to Trench XVII, from which in 2008 two small copper slags were also recovered (11002 and 11632), albeit one above and one below the floor surface excavated as layer 3 (Chapter 13). Interestingly also, geochemical analysis of sample 17.27 taken from this floor in Trench XVII, showed elevated copper contents (Chapter 15). All these elements together raise the possibility of in situ metalworking in this part of the site. Charcoal was also recovered in the same layer as one of the slags (Chapter 19), although its association with metallurgy is not established. This copper frag-ment is listed here as unphased as the pottery from strata excavated in 1963 have not been studied so as to place them within the chronology established for the 2006–2008 seasons; however, unless this were a surface find, it can be presumed to belong with the other Phase C finds of the trench.
Catalogue
Metal artefactsCopper-based 11855 (XXI, 10). L. 20 mm; W. 4 mm; Th. 1 mm; Wt 0.5 g. Underwent conservation treatment.Copper-based strip, orthogonal-section.
Iron12530 (XX, 54). L. 123 mm; D. 8 mm; Wt 17 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment.Iron nail, very weathered and broken in three fragments. Circular section with thicker head (11 mm diameter) in the shape of a flat-tened sphere (height 4 mm).
12531 (XX, 54). L. 107 mm; D. 8 mm; Wt 14 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment.Iron nail, very weathered and broken in two fragments. Circular section with thicker head (11 mm diameter) in the shape of a flat-tened sphere (height 4 mm).
12532 (XX, 54). L. 65 mm; D. 8 mm; Wt 7 g. Underwent conserva-tion treatment.Iron nail shaft fragment of circular section, very weathered.
Metallurgical remainsDF23 (MuN2275) Doumas excavations, Building B (= Trench XVII). L. 45 mm; Wt 82 g. Fig. 32.35.Raw copper fragment, shapeless, covered in green patina, non-magnetic, very porous with large pores on its upper side and smaller and more numerous ones on the other.
The following artefacts are all surface finds and again cannot be assigned to a particular phase. Most are remains of copper metallurgical activities, similar to finds discussed already from various excavated contexts across Dhaskalio; primarily shapeless copper-based fragments, probably spills, small metallurgical ceramics and slags. In near vicinity to each other were found a thin schist slab with a black vitrified layer on one surface and attached green copper-based prills, an undiagnostic metallurgical ceramic, and three tiny shapeless copper-based metal fragments, probably spills (5111, 5111.2 and 5111.3). The assemblage is indicative of metalworking. One possible explanation for the heating evidence and copper staining of the schist slab, is that this was the cover of a one-piece mould used in casting copper artefacts (see for example Branigan 1974, 80; Evely 2000, 355), although it should be noted that the burnt surface is not entirely flat.
The two copper-based artefacts are both frag-ments, one shaped as part of an ellipse (10002) and the other as part of a crescent (10003). It is possible that both are parts of small ingots (see examples of possible early–middle bronze age ingots of different shapes in Branigan 1974, 54). Alternatively, 10002 may also be the back end of a chisel.
Metal artefactsCopper-based10002 (970; 450). L. 28 mm; W. 20 mm; Th. 2.5 mm; Wt 11.7 g. Under-went conservation treatment. Fig. 32.35.Copper with lead.Copper-based fragment, shaped as part of an ellipse, with both surfaces flat. Possible fragment of chisel handle or ingot fragment.
10003 (970; 460). L. 30 mm; W. 20 mm; Th. 5 mm; Wt 23.4 g. Under-went conservation treatment. Fig. 32.35.Copper with arsenic.Copper-based fragment, shaped as part of a crescent. Possibly cast ingot fragment.
Metallurgical remains5111 (970; 410). L. 100 mm; Wt 158 g.Fragment of reddish schist, partly covered on one surface with thin (c. 1 mm), black, vitrified layer (slag?), which has several green prills and is a little magnetic.
5111.2 (970; 410). L. 25 mm; Wt 8 g.Shapeless metallurgical ceramic fragment, mostly black vitrified with slag, which has intense green staining and is magnetic, very little of the outer fired red ceramic fabric survives.
5111.3 (970; 410). L. 12 mm; Wt 1 g (3 fragments).5207 (950; 390). L. 3 mm and 8 mm; Wt <1 g (2 fragments).10702 L. 20 mm; Wt 5 g.Shapeless, largely or totally corroded, copper-based fragments often with attached calcareous rock or soil conglomerate; most are probably metal spills.
10004 (960; 390). L. 11 mm; Wt 1 g.Small copper slag, black with intense green copper residues exter-nally, very magnetic, roughly oval in shape.
Discussion
The excavations on Dhaskalio brought forward sig-nificant evidence both for use and for working of metals on the site. Copper- and lead-based artefacts are frequent, particularly in the more extensive Phase C contexts. The repertoire of copper-based artefacts includes primarily tools (axes, a chisel, a knife, fish hooks etc.), toilet implements (tweezers) and pins;
weapons were not recovered. The small hoard recov-ered in Trench XXX appears to have been a carpentry set, with evidence of use-wear, possibly deposited awaiting repair. Lead was extensively used for mend-ing broken pottery, while numerous other lead-based artefacts were found. Most have uncertain functions, while some were possibly used as weights. Silver is absent from the assemblage, despite its prominence in the early bronze age Cyclades and the possibility of silver production in situ on Dhaskalio, suggested by the discovery of a few litharge fragments (see above). The rarity of silver at Dhaskalio is probably related to the use of the metal primarily for jewellery and the association of such artefacts principally with funer-ary instead of habitation contexts. Given, however, that only a small part of the site has been excavated it would be premature to comment further on this picture. The presence of gold, although meagre, is noteworthy as the minute bead and the sheet frag-ment from Phases B and C respectively are the first two gold artefacts recovered from later early bronze age contexts in the Cyclades. Still, gold is rare, in line with other early bronze age Cycladic metal assem-blages, and in contrast to contemporaneous sites in the northeastern Aegean and Crete. Beyond gold, however, the typological study suggests associations primarily with sites in the northeastern Aegean, the Cyclades and the Mainland.
Remains of metallurgical activities were found in all three chronological phases at Dhaskalio, although the evidence from Phase A is limited and the extent of metallurgical practice in that period therefore not entirely clear. The evidence is in all cases more con-sistent with secondary metalworking practices such as melting, hammering and shaping into artefacts, a conclusion reached both through the macroscopic study of the finds, as well as from the analytical examination results (Volume III). Primary production of copper, smelting, is only attested at the opposite coast, on the Kavos Promontory (see Georgakopoulou
2007; Volume II). Large slags, indicative of smelting, are virtually absent on Dhaskalio and it is suggested that the few such fragments found were brought to the site for secondary usage as tools. The most common finds are corroded shapeless copper metal fragments, probably accidental spills during melting of metal, followed by metallurgical ceramic fragments that include possible crucibles and portable hearth frag-ments, tuyères and a mould. The rarity of moulds so far is notable and although only a limited part of the site has been excavated it is in contrast with the scat-ter of other types of metallurgical remains on the site. The types of activities undertaken at Dhaskalio and their potential association with those from the Kavos Promontory are considered further in Volume III.
Metallurgical remains are scattered across vari-ous excavated contexts on Dhaskalio. The following paragraphs offer a few preliminary remarks on the emerging spatial distribution of the associated activi-ties in the different chronological phases encountered. Little can be said at present for Phase A, given the small number of relevant layers excavated. Corroded copper fragments were found in all the areas with Phase A layers. It should also be noted that as shape-less copper fragments need not necessarily be remains of metalworking, but may be largely weathered arte-facts, their presence is not unequivocal evidence for metalworking practices. The metallurgical ceramic fragment (14051) and most of the shapeless copper fragments from Trench II were found in a relatively confined area and all in layer 39, where, additionally, the excavators noted darker discolouration on the soil and charcoal fragments (Chapter 9). The association of these artefacts with charcoal might indicate metal-working in situ in this part of the site. The remaining contexts are presently less clear.
For Phase B, all metallurgical finds were recov-ered from Trench I, with the exception of a single small metallurgical ceramic fragment (5373, from Trench II) and one rounded slag (8309, from Trench V). Particu-larly interesting was the concentration of finds associ-ated with Floors P and Q in Trench I (see Chapter 9). Three of the tuyères were found in the western part of Floor P along with a few shapeless copper-based fragments and one of the large rounded slags (10167) identified as a tool. The fourth tuyère was recovered from layer 25 immediately overlying Floor P. Further copper-based fragments were found below Floor Q in layer 44. The presence of the tuyères within this structure is not necessarily indicative of metallurgical activities in situ as the findspot could also represent storage of these artefacts for use elsewhere. However, the presence of copper spillages in the same context provides further supportive evidence in this direction.
Moreover, Haas-Lebegyev and Renfrew (Chapter 25) note the abundance of spools in this part of Trench I, which they associate with possible usage in metal-working or other craft activities, noting a parallel relationship between metal and spools in room 11 at Kastri on Syros (Bossert 1967, 63). Evidence for obsid-ian knapping is also attested in the same part of Trench I (Chapter 28), suggesting the use of the same space/workshop for different crafts.
Turning to Phase C deposits, which form the majority of excavated contexts at Dhaskalio, the picture is more complicated. To assist the discussion, the metalworking remains from this phase have been plotted on Figure 32.36, which depicts their two-dimensional distribution, taking into account, wher-ever possible, their association with specific walls, but not their detailed stratigraphic context. Furthermore, the figure needs to be read in conjunction with the extent of completion of the trenches involved, which varies substantially in some cases. It should also be noted that representation of absolute number of finds results in a slightly misleading picture in some cases, particularly in Trench XXIII, where the five slag frag-ments depicted weigh a mere 3 g in total. Neverthe-less, it is clear that nearly all trenches with Phase C deposits yielded metallurgical finds. Again, the mere presence of shapeless copper-based fragments should be viewed with caution as these could simply corre-spond to largely corroded artefacts.
Several finds were recovered from within the main summit structure, the Hall, including copper-based fragments, two minute slags, and three metal-lurgical ceramics, two in the shape of a ‘baking pan’ and one from a rounded vessel, probably a crucible. It is noteworthy that even in trenches extending outside the main summit structure, the finds were in most cases found in interior space (note for example Trench VI). Significant obsidian-knapping evidence is also attested in the Hall (Chapter 28). Numerous copper-based fragments and three minute slags were recovered from the Summit Enclosure in Trench XXIII. Given the limited space delineated by this enclosure, it is possible that finds here are in secondary contexts and do not represent working in situ, as suggested also for the obsidian-knapping residues (Chapter 28). Another very interesting concentration is attested in the southern summit area and specifically Trenches VII and XXI, which were excavated to bedrock. Most finds from Trench VII were found in the eastern part of the trench, to the east of Walls A and B. Interestingly the single litharge fragment came from the other end of the trench. To the north of this assemblage in Trench XXI were found the mould fragments, a tuyère frag-ment and several copper-based fragments. A further
Figure 32.36. Distribution of metallurgical remains across excavated contexts of Phase C.
noteworthy group was recovered from Trench XVII and included, as discussed above, two small slags, a copper ‘ingot’, as well as an elevated concentration of copper in the floor surface. Finally, as was noted above, the single speiss fragment found so far may possibly be associated with the cremation burial in Trench XV.
In short, indications of metalworking, although small in quantity, are attested in most of the excavated
areas for all chronological phases. The present picture, particularly for the better-documented Phase C, is consistent with dispersed craft activities in various parts of the excavated settlement, as opposed to a more centralized single workshop model. Caution, is, however, necessary as the low number of finds recov-ered from any one discrete context, with the possible exception of Structure I and Floors P and Q in Trench
I (Phase B), makes it difficult to assess with certainty whether the finds are in all cases in primary contexts, and thus whether they represent working in situ. The association of these finds with those from other parts of the site complex is considered in Volume III, along with a broader discussion of their position within early bronze age southern Aegean metallurgy.
Acknowledgements
Conservation of the artefacts transported to the National Archaeological Museum in Athens was skilfully undertaken by Maria Kontaki. I thank Lena Papazoglou-Manioudaki, then head of the Prehistoric Collection, for facilitating the study of these finds in the National Museum laboratories. Detailed photographs in high magnification were taken by Elli Papangelaki. Nikos Papadimitriou kindly provided the equipment for the latter. Akis Goumas offered insightful ideas on some of the Dhaskalio metal artefacts. I am grate-ful to my colleagues on the project Peggy Sotirakopoulou, Thomas Loughlin, Jill Hilditch, and Ioanna Moutafi for their help with specific aspects of this work. I am particularly grateful to Michael Boyd for efficiently addressing numer-ous questions throughout this study.
