Book of Pr

oceedings

Full Papers

The LesothoNational Conference on SustainableLand ManagementSustainable Land Management in

SLM Conference Organising Committee

Compiled and edited by: Qalabane K. Chakela

MINISTRY OFFORESTRYAND LAND

RECLAMATION

Lesotho

Sub-Saharan Africa: Increasing Land Productivity

Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation

The Lesotho National Conference on Sustainable

Land Management

SSustainable Land Management in Sub-Saharan Africa: Increasing Land Productivity

Book of Proceedings :Full Papers

SLM Conference Organising Committee

Compiled and edited by:

Qalabane K. Chakela SLM MASERU JUNE 2014

BBackground

Capacity Building and Knowledge Management for Sustainable Land Management (SLM) is a Government of Lesotho project financed by the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Working in synergy with other development initiatives in the country, the project works towards the following objective: Supported by a knowledge management network, Lesotho begins to alleviate poverty, achieve more sustainable livelihoods and deliver global environmental benefits on the basis of enhanced local and national techniques, approaches, capacity and strategy for up scaling successful SLM

The Kingdom of Lesotho has suffered severe land degradation in both cultivated lands and the range resource complex for many decades. Cultivated lands are threatened by water and wind erosion; declining soil fertility; sediment deposition on and outside cultivated areas; increasing variability in stream flow and lower water tables. Similarly, the range complex is threatened by reduced ground cover due to grazing and fuel collection; wind and water erosion of soils; declining soil fertility affecting pasture productivity, woody biomass and biodiversity; and hydrological instability leading to variable stream flows and off site sediment deposition within and beyond Lesotho. Despite numerous attempts and extensive but fragmented technical knowledge, barriers continue to obstruct efforts to develop or implement effective sustainable land management (SLM) models. As a result, land degradation continues to impoverish local livelihoods and to impose broader environmental costs on the region beyond Lesotho’s borders. The mountain kingdom is the source of rivers that reach the Atlantic Ocean in the west; its catchments supply an increasing proportion of the water consumed in South Africa’s industrial heartland. Integral, functioning ecosystems are vital not only to the livelihoods and welfare of the people of Lesotho, but to deliver ecosystem services and global environmental benefits on a much larger scale. SLM in Lesotho is therefore a vital ingredient of broader environmental wellbeing. The SLM project is intended to add to existing national efforts with incremental activities that will unlock these broader benefits.

The SLM project aims to address these challenges using three interrelated areas of work: Proven, strengthened, participatory, replicable models and techniques that successfully overcome current institutional and governance barriers to SLM are ready for national implementation;

Adequate local and national capacity for adapting and scaling up proven SLM models and techniques;

Enhanced awareness, dialogue, understanding and analysis of SLM best practice at resource user, community, local government, NGO and national government levels across the country, reflected in the relevant policies, strategies and programmes

Published jointly by UNDP Lesotho Country Office and the Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation. The selection and presentation of material and the opinions expresses in this publication are the responsibility of the authors concerned and do not necessarily reflect the views of the Publishers. The Sponsers would like to acknowledge the great assistance received from many people in hosting the conference and in the preparation of the proceedings. October 2014 Maseru

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SUB-THEME 1 : POLICY AND INSTITUTIONAL AND GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORKS SUPPORTIVE OF SLM (INCLUSIVE OF VALUE CHAIN)

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SUSTAINABLE LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT DRIVEN BY SOUND POLICIES AND GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORKS – LESSONS AND PROSPECTS FOR LESOTHO MICHAEL NDIMBA, WIMBAI MAKUNIKE AND PROSPER B. MATONDI

RUZIVO TRUST 28 Greendale Avenue| Greendale| Harare| P. O. Box MP 961 Mount Pleasant| Harare| Zimbabwe| +263 773 853 641| www.ruzivo.co.ww |

ABSTRACT Sustainable land use and management requires a holistic approach that includes providing the necessary incentives to motivate people to engage in productive agricultural practices and optimally utilize the land. This should be backed by friendly policies and governance frameworks that provide assurance of land ownership and security of tenure in order to promote infrastructural development on the land and preserve it from degradation. Lesotho, like many other countries in Africa has suffered severe land degradation in both cultivated and range land. Travelling through the Lesotho countryside, one can’t help but notice severe erosion scars. Vast areas of once fertile fields have been reduced to unproductive wasteland because of poor land management over many years. Wind and water erosion are the chief causes of declining soil fertility; sediment deposition on and outside cultivated areas. Similarly, the rangelands are threatened by reduced ground cover due to grazing and fuel collection affecting pasture productivity, woody biomass and biodiversity; and hydrological instability leading to variable stream flows and off site sediment deposition within and beyond Lesotho. Land degradation continues to impoverish local livelihoods and to impose broader environmental costs on the region beyond Lesotho’s borders. The climate change and variability, is exacerbating the challenges hence it calls for the government of Lesotho and other stakeholders in the southern African region to pull heads together and develop policies and strategies of mitigating such effects. The crafting of sound policies that address the issues of; land ownership, fair and equitable distribution of land, environmental and forests protection, provision of agricultural incentives will help the land owners to productively use their land, while protecting it from environmental destruction. Alongside polices, there is also a need to strengthen the existing institutional frameworks, while identifying gaps to manage in a participatory manner the usage of different sector resources such water, wildlife, minerals, and forests. Lessons should be drawn from best practices in other countries, but also watching out for the pitfalls that some other nations like Zimbabwe made when they implemented their land reform programs.

Key words: land, sustainable development, Lesotho, policy, institutions, environment

1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 COUNTRY CONTEXT The Kingdom of Lesotho has suffered severe land degradation in both cultivated lands and the ranges for decades. Cultivated lands are threatened by water and wind erosion; declining soil fertility; sediment deposition on and outside cultivated areas; increasing variability in stream flow and lower water tables. The most unfair part is that the effects are also being felt beyond Lesotho like in South Africa. Recent work by Professor John Compton from the University of Cape Town shows that most erosion in the Orange River basin occurs in Lesotho due to

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high rainfall and steep topography. Lesotho has 56.6 percent of the population living below the poverty line, (40 percent living in extreme poverty) (Lesotho Household Survey Budget). The country has one of the highest HIV and AIDS rates in the world, with over 23 percent of the population believed to be infected according to the Lesotho Demographic and Health Survey (DHS) released in 2010. This has had serious consequences for the country’s productive workforce. Most people in Lesotho reside in rural areas or work in neighbouring South Africa. Those who live in the rural areas, eke out a living from agriculture. The countryside is rugged and mountainous and the poor use of limited land resources has led to acute soil depletion and erosion1.

Purpose and objectives Land in Lesotho has been communally owned and this was becoming an obstacle to commercialization of agriculture. According to Johnson (2013)2, the government passed a new land act in year 2010 which gives the minister powers to regulate ground rent, dictate what the land can be used for and exempt certain companies from being disqualified from holding title to land in Lesotho. Crucially, it also allows for the termination of a lease holding or the right to occupy land that has been declared abandoned – effectively amounting to ‘legal’ dispossession. This paper seeks to provide a critical review of the existing land use and management policy of Lesotho and make recommendations of adopting best land policy and governance practices being applied elsewhere in the region and the continent.

Scope of issues This paper is a compilation of the investigations and recommendations made on the policy and governance framework that can work best for sustainable land management in Lesotho. The study looks at the institutions already in place and examines the governance structures in relation to land use, environmental management, water management, forests and wildlife management. (Williamson et al 2010).

A review of the literature identifies a plethora of systemic contradictions, operational deficiencies and resource constraints, which undermine the effectiveness of SLM in Lesotho and other countries in Africa. A study of the best practices in other countries that underwent similar reforms will be made and recommended for adoption in Lesotho.

2.0 Methods and Materials Although the best research methodology could have been to go in to the field to collect primary data from stakeholders and people affected by the land policies, time could not allow that and the research was confined to desk studies and literature view of scenarios in Lesotho, the region and the continent at large. Some case studies and success models from other countries were analysed and helped to inform the research. The paper draws from a range of written work on Lesotho and the SDAC region with regards to the land policy and agricultural production trends in the country.

2.1 LAND AND POLICY DEVELOPMENT – KEY ISSUES AND PARAMETERS

2.1.1 Principles of land ownership, access and use The fundamental principle of Lesotho's traditional land tenure system was that all land was vested in the Basotho nation, and was held in trust by the king as head of state. An individual was allocated arable land to meet his family's subsistence, but had exclusive rights only to 1 http://www.fao.org/isfp/country-information/lesotho/en/ visited on 6/05/2014 2 Paper presented to the Annual World bank conference on Land and Poverty in 2013

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crops and the land would revert to communal use after harvesting for things such as grazing. There were no individual rights to grazing as all members of the community were entitled to communal grazing.

In Lesotho, land was viewed as a "free good." Because this fundamental factor of production was received free of charge, there was no cost factor to encourage greater productivity. Under heavy population pressure (in southern Africa, Lesotho is the most densely populated area), uneconomic subdivision or fragmentation occurred to further lessen the development potential of the land. This development stifled personal initiative and industry.

2.2 POLICY REFORMS FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND USE MANAGEMENT The government of Lesotho should be commended for tabling the land bill to the National Assembly in 2009 which was intended to improve efficiency in Land administration and land management in Lesotho. The land bill was an outcome of an extensive consultative process that includes the establishment of a commission of enquiry in 1999 and was indented to replace the 1979 land act. Under the previous Land Act, no one had the right to sell land as it belonged to the king and it was allocated to citizens through chiefs and headmen on behalf of the king. As a result of this traditional system, hundreds of hectares of land lay idle either because they were owned by older people or disabled people or people who had no economic means of utilising it. Or – worse still – people who had no interest in using their land for agriculture.

The new bill was seen as a key move in driving the agricultural sector forward because it provides security of land tenure. The issue of land ownership is very key in promoting investments and productivity at the farms. Concerns over food security in sub-saharan Africa reflect in the Millenium Dvelopment Goal (MDG) to reduce the number of food insecure people by half by 2015. This can only be achieved if issues of access to land, security of tenure and the capacity to use land productively are addressed.

More lessons of land tenure reforms should be drawn from Rwanda which has taken huge strides in providing security of land tenure to Rwandese nationals. (Ref : International Gorilla Program, Rwanda, Eugene Rurangw ) Different laws and policies were formed that include; constitution of republic of Rwanda of 0/06/2003, The National land policy of February 2014

Box 2.1: Lend tenure - A case of Zimbabwe

In Zimbabwe, the newly resettled farmers were not issued with security of tenure in the form of title deeds and are hesistant to invest on the farm for fear of repossession. There are cases of repossessions currently going on in Zimbabwe, where influential politiciatians are evicting resettled farmers from their land taking it. No legal action can be taken because the settlers will be holding offer letters, which do not depict ownership. The financial institutions are not prepared to provide loans to resettled farmers because they consider them a risky segment.This has incapcitated the farmers who end up underutilisng the land or leasing out to those who can afford to purchase inputs. They farmer are failing to adopt the recommended farming practices because of lack of resources. They can not afford to put fire guards and are failing to construct contiour ridges resulting in veld fires and soil erosion. Forest are being destroyed indiscriminately by the communities and because it is difficult for the settlers to restrain them because they have no basis to derive such authority. This happens agains the backgrop of regulating authoirties that lack the means and capacity to enforce the laws. In year 2005, the Zimbabwe governement imlemented a program known as operation Murambatsvina were all people and informal traders who were illegally settled were evicted and their structures demolished. Although politically motivated, the government took advantage of the lack of security of tenure and the victims cold not take legal action as they did notbhave proof of land ownership.

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( Chapter 4 and 5), The Organic law determining the use and management of land in Rwanda of 14?05?2005, The law relating to expropriation in the public interest of 19/04/2007 and the thee inheritance law of 1999. The new laws paved a way for improving security of tenure through land registration, and removing barriers for women to acquire own land either individually or through marriage. The idea of land registration raised the value of land as instrument for collateral to secure credit financing and has improved market transactions which is boosting production. Rwanda provides a certificate of land registration which constitutes evidence of ownership of land right. For sustainability of the land registration, a common database with official digital land register was developed and is used to conduct all transactions related to land. The land tenure regularisation was done. By December 2012, 10.3 million parcels of land were already demacated and entered into the land tenure regularisation database with 8.3 million with full information. Seven (7) million leasehold titles were approved and printed for distribution. The key success factor of the land tenure reform in Rwanda were as follows;

Clear and strong institutional farmework with a strong political will Strong legal framework that ensure security of tenure to all land owners Systematic land registration that allowed to secure delivery of land titles to all land

owners and helped in land related despute resolution Providing a good foundation for economic growth all in the interest of all land owners Land has got its real identity as a capital and the title is used to get access to bank loan

using land as collateral.

Property rights to land are thus one of the most powerful resources available to people to increase and extend their collection of assets beyond land and labour to the full portfolio necessary for sustainable livelihoods, i.e., natural resources, social, human, and financial capital as well as physical assets

2.2.1Current policy and legal framework Policies should be backed by a legal framework that stipulates the subsequent action that will be taken in the event of violating policies. Ministry of Justice, Human Rights & Rehabilitation, Law & Constitutional Affairs and the Ministry of home affairs should be roped in to advise on the development of statutory instruments that will be used to support policy. There is need to develop water tight pieces of legislation perculiar to each sector. Other countries in the southern Africa have the forest acts that govern developments in the forestry sector. The same is found for water, wildlife, sand exctraction, mining and so forth.

2.3 INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR SLM

2.3.1 Role of central government in SLM

Since the 1992 Rio summit, central governments have become increasingly aware of the environment and the need for sustainable development. One of the countries that recorded successes in sustainable land management is Uganda, through organic farming policy. Uganda derived both economic and environmental gains. According to Sukhdev, stones, and Nuttall (2010), certified organic exports increased from US$3.7 million in 2003/4, to US$6.2 million in 2004/5, before jumping to US$22.8 million in 2007/8. In terms of environmental gains, there was a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of 64% per hectare, entailing a huge reduction in water pollution due to chemical deposits.

Another example of effective central government policy implementation on sustainable land management was that of Niger. Responding to its arid climate, limited vegetation and water resources, and severe land degradation, Niger designed a National Action Program for

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Adaptation (NAPA) in 2006. As part of implementation of the NAPA, the government started promoting sustainable pasture management, water harvesting, tree planting, developing livestock markets, and other strategies. Accordingly, a large area of degraded land has been rehabilitated through the presidential program on land rehabilitation and several donor-funded projects (Reij, Tappan, and Smale 2009). In addition, at least 250,000 hectares of dry land were rehabilitated using tree planting while more than 3 million hectares were reforested through farmer-managed natural regeneration (Reij, Tappan, and Smale 2009).

2.3.2 Significance of traditional leadership in SLM Most people in African countries live in rural areas and they continue to adhere principally to traditional institutions, being guided by traditional leaders. Traditional leaders represent a major part of Africa’s history, culture, and political and governance systems and are respected. Traditional leaders are responsible for allocating ‘state land’ to their followers and are then able to take a lead in sustainable land management. In Niger, recognition of traditional institutions, through the Rural Code, resulted in the implementation of an exemplary tree planting and protection program, which has contributed to re greening of the Sahel (Reij, Tappan, and Smale 2009).

In Nepal, local leaders facilitated the establishment of community forests, which contributed to restoring forest resources in Nepal. Forests account for almost 40 per cent of the land in the country. Although this area was decreasing at an annual rate of 1.9 per cent during the 1990s, this decline was reversed, leading to an annual increase of 1.35 per cent over the period 2000 to 2005 (Pearce, 2006). These are some of the policies and practices that Lesotho could also consider adopting to reverse the effects of overgrazing, deforestation and land degradation.

2.4 LAND REDISTRIBUTION POLICY FRAMEWORK

2.4.1 Equitable land distribution

Equitable land distribution is key in any society, particularly those that are dependent on agriculture. In this case, ensuring equitability is a specific tenet that should first be affirmed in the constitution and land laws, and secondly must be practiced fairly. Therefore in any attempt at land redistribution, all deserving cases irrespective of the gender, political affiliation, religion, ethnicity, race or creed. The criteria for land allocation should be based on merit and affordability for those who intend to venture into commercial agriculture. If land is distributed on partisan lines, undeserving cases will end up accessing the land without the resources to use on the land.

2.4.2 Land and poverty in the context of class differentiation

At the centre of the rising tide of indignation against the law are Lesotho’s high rates of poverty and inequality and the fear that – if land becomes a priced commodity – only the Basotho elite or foreigners will be able to own land. Others argue that taking away powers of the traditional leaders, who hold land on behalf of the king and allocate it free to citizens, is equal to surrendering national sovereignty to foreigners for the love of money. Furthermore, there are concerns that the new law allows any company doing business in Lesotho to own land – as opposed to the old law, which stipulated that a company must be registered in Lesotho and must have Basotho as majority shareholders. Once again, it looks as if the law has been designed to favor foreign investors rather than the Basotho people, many of whom are subsistence farmers and totally dependent on the land for their survival. All these misconceptions breed a spirit of resistance to change, hence the need for an awareness and

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education campaign about the land reform program to all members of the community and key stakeholders. Land is a key resource whose planning requires involvement all key stakeholders and should be treated in the same vein as what governments do when they reviewing their constitutions.

2.5 LAND USE MANAGEMENT

2.5.1 Investing in the productive use of Land

Distribution of land without provision of the requisite means of production will result in people acquiring land for the sake of status without putting it of productive use. There should be complimentary polices that address the issues of finance and private sector partnerships. It is encouraging to note that Lesotho also signed the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program (CAADP) and stakeholders pledged to increase investment in agriculture through precepts of CAADP (www.nepad/food security/news/3151). The broad aim is to increase agriculture production by 6%. All the stakeholders that include commercial banks, micro finance institutions, credit and saving cooperatives and private sector players should join forces and provide windows of finance to farmers. The conditions for accessing those funds should not be too stringent but couched in such a way that committed farmers with the necessary farming skills are identified and supported. Once funding is tied to collateral security, the majority of smallholder farmers will not be able to access those funds and it becomes survival of the fittest. Most smallholder farmers in Africa have remained in abject poverty because financiers consider them a risky group to work with. It is about time that governments should assist by providing guarantees to the loans. The private sector players should also engage farmers to do contract farming. However, this should be accompanied by the necessary legislation to protect the private companies from side marketing by the contracted farmers and also protect the farmers from unscrupulous companies bend on duping the farmers by charging exploitative prices on inputs and buying the produce for a song. Zimbabwe had to develop a statutory instrument 140 of 2013 of the Agricultural Marketing Authority to guide both parties on how to proceed with contract farming.

2.5.2 Value Chain Development

Value chain analysis looks at every step that a business goes through from raw materials to the eventual end user. The goal is to deliver maximum value for the least possible cost. In designing polices on land utilisation, the different value chain nodes should not be treated in isolation as one node affects the other. The lack of finance, skills, transport and markets all affect crop and livestock production. The government should have policies that capacitate the farmers to participate in the whole value chain. This can be achieved by organising the farmers to add value to their products and sell them as processed to products to get higher returns, for example farmers involved maize production can be supported to form a milling association that will process the maize into mealie meal and sell the products processed. The government through policy should also keep an eye on other players in the value chain to ensure that there is a smooth flow of complementary services. No matter how skilled and resourced that farmers may be, if the issue of market is not addressed, this will affect production. The opposite is also true, that an abundant market can be available, but if the farmers lack the means of production such as inputs, finance, skills and the land, no farming will take place. Government should understand the whole value chain web in all sectors so that it can respond by developing policy that holistically address all value chain actors.

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2.5.3 Agricultural imports regulations

The government should have a policy that protects the local farmers from cut throat competition from imports. When a country is flooded with cheaper agricultural produce for other countries, the majority of people tend to shun the expensive local produce going for the imports. The local produce end up rotting on the shelves and this discourages the local farmers from investing more in the farming business. This gives rise to the need for either increasing import tariffs or impose a ban of Agricultural commodities if the local supply is sufficient to cater for the local demand. Zimbabwe recently introduced a ban on the importation of Agricultural produce because farmers were complaining that the price of imported products were far below their breakeven levels. When a farmer is not getting good return for his dollar from farming, he will not value the land and get de incentivized from investing in it and taking good care of the farm

2.5.4 Investment in infrastructure and services for SLM

Infrastructure is key to the development of any agricultural systems. Lack of infrastructure affects the whole value chain from supply of inputs, production and marketing. Policies that promote investment in dams, road networks, electricity and telecommunication should be put in place so that the farmers are easily accessible. All the nations that have thriving agriculture and horticulture such as Kenya invested in infrastructure which helped to boost their production and exports.

Communication (including ICT) across all the value chain players is quite crucial. The farmers need to be informed about developments on the markets with regards to funding sources, input suppliers, output markets and weather conditions. This can only be achieved if there are policies that promote and support the development of such services. Cell phone and internet facilities are no longer a luxury. These facilities will enable farmers to receive and transmit real time information resulting in timely decisions. The advantage of Lesotho is that telecommunication has been transformed from a state owned monopoly to a private national operator. There is now effective competition in the mobile sector, a factor that induces competition and results in better quality and lower prices.

Energy for the agricultural sector is the quite key for a country like Lesotho which has been affected by rapid land degradation. There is need for more irrigation facilities to be established and diversifying in winter crops such as wheat and barley. These ventures require some investments in the energy sector. Lesotho is a net importer of electricity hence the need to develop some polices that promote investment in power generation. The country is endowed with rivers and topographical features that are ideal for hydro power generation. The transition from subsistence farming to commercial farming can best be achieved if farmer get access to farming equipment. Government should have facilities to assist farmers with farming implements such as tractors, planters, boom sprays, disc harrows, rippers and so forth. In Zimbabwe, there is a department within the Ministry of Agriculture, Mechanisation and Irrigation department known as the district Development Fund (DDF). This department is responsible for maintaining roads for easy access and providing farmers with tillage services at nominal charges. These are some of the best practices that Lesotho could tap from. The government and private sector players can also consider leasing out some of the equipment on a rent to buy arrangement.

2.5.5 Investment in technical skills

Land distribution should be done accompanied by a program to provide technical skills to the beneficiaries. Farming is a specialised field that requires some skills. The failure of many

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land reform programs is attributable to the lack of skills. The majority of people are used to subsistence farming which is worlds apart from commercial agriculture. There is need to send people for training in basic agronomy before allocating them land. Over and above skilling the farmers, there is need to provide effective extension services. There should be a policy that encourages the following:

Centres of agricultural excellence – These can be in the form of virtual schools where farmers can have instant access to information about best farming practices. The southern African learning alliance and Virtual livelihoods Schools are typical examples of models that can be referenced to in the design of such centres. Volunteer professionals in the fields of agriculture, environment and natural resources can contribute agricultural related knowledge products to the centres for easy access by all interested parties

Agricultural centred curriculum development- It is about time that African states embarked on an exercise to remove the stigma that has long been attached to the field of agriculture. Policies that encourage curriculum development throughout the whole educational systems should be developed. Gone are the days where students should be punishment through agricultural work for misbehaving in class. The policies should develop curriculums that prepare agricultural professional not only for employment but to also engage in farming.

Farmer to farmer participatory training –There is need for polices that promote cross pollination of ideas amongst farmers. These can be achieved through look and learn visits, farmer field schools or during field days. Training of trainer (TOT) is another good way of cascading knowledge to fellow farmers. The policy can facilitate identification of lead farmers who have the capacity to be trained and pass on the knowledge to their colleagues. Adult education is quite effective when learning is done though seeing, practice and simulations.

3.0 LAND AND ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT 3.1 ADDRESSING LAND DEGRADATION Land degradation in Lesotho has accelerated during the 20th century due to increasing and combined pressures of agricultural and livestock production (over-cultivation, overgrazing, forest conversion), urbanization, deforestation, and extreme weather events such as droughts. Policies such as was done in Swaziland should be formulated. In Swaziland, the country was experiencing vast land degradation problems compounded by persistent dry conditions. A large proportion of Swaziland, prominently the range lands, were largely affected by severe erosion and land degradation since about 50% of the total land area is used for communal grazing. This led to widespread soil erosion due to overgrazing and poor range management and consequently land degradation. However, the country has now formulated and implemented a number of policies and strategies aimed at alleviating environmental damage. In particular, the country has an Environmental Audit, Assessment and Review Regulations legislation of 2000 which addresses the issue of proper location of construction sites and physical infrastructure. This guides construction of buildings on proper sites without having negative implications on the land in the area. Swaziland has also developed programs to strengthen the school curricula and adult education programmes for environmental protection and land management in collaboration with Ministry of Education. This exposes the young generations on sustainable land use management so that they are aware of the implications of poor land use. Raising of environmental awareness through media like radio programmes, newspapers and brochures has also been implemented and has helped sensitize locals on effects of poor land use. The Government has also developed the Environmental

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Management Act of 2002 which led to the establishment of a National Environmental fund whose objective include collecting funding for programmes and activities that provide for and promote sustainable management of natural resources.

In countries like Botswana, policies have been put in place to help address land degradation i.e. Agriculture policy (1991) which seeks to utilize the country's land resources, both grazing and arable, without long-term damage to the environment. Forestry policy, which is meant to support the development of sustainable forest management options based on sound ecological principles and restoration of degraded land using afforestation and plantations to make the land reusable

SUSTAINABLE WATER MANAGEMENT The Ministry of Natural Resources is the organ of state responsible for formulating policy and legislation with regard to water resources in Lesotho. All water uses (except domestic use) must be licensed, and domestic uses have priority. Most of the population lives in the Lowlands and experiences frequent water shortages, despite the plentiful supply in the Highlands. Water management in Lesotho is impacted by the Lesotho Highlands Water Treaty, and the institutions it established. Consequently, these institutions must be included in any discussion of Lesotho water management policy and practice. Development in Lesotho has been limited by its lack of natural resources and investment capital. Water is its only abundant resource, which is precisely what regions of neighbouring South Africa have been lacking. Through the ongoing Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), Lesotho is able to generate income by supplying water to South Africa, as well as by generating its own hydroelectric power. Lesotho is home to one of southern Africa’s principal water catchment areas. Rainfall together with winter snowfalls provides an estimated 5.5 billion cubic metres of water annually and renewable groundwater resources of around 340 million cubic metres per year. Water is Lesotho’s most abundant resource as well as being the country’s largest single source of foreign exchange earnings since the implementation of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP).

Although Lesotho appears to have developed a modern water management framework, the implementation of this structure is constrained by several factors (ORASECOM 2007a). The policy, legislative and institutional frameworks are still at initial stages of development and transformation into an integrated framework, and therefore are not fully operational.

WILDLIFE AND FORESTRY MANAGEMENT According to FAO, 1.4% or about 44,000 ha of Lesotho is forested, this means that of Lesotho’s total land area, less than 1% is under forest cover. Lesotho has about 10,000 ha of planted forest. About 80% of Lesotho’s population resides in the rural areas. The majority of households in the rural areas depend heavily on traditional fuel sources such as trees, shrubs, and animal dung and crop residues. The overall success record of forestry initiatives in Lesotho has been poor

There are two main approaches to community involvement in forest and wild life management in southern Africa. The first and more dominant strategy recognizes communities as forest users, seeking to secure their co-operation by granting them legal access to certain products or a share in forest-derived benefits. This is the model of joint forest management initiatives e.g Zimbabwe (Mafungautsisi), Mozambique (Tchuma Tchato), Kenya (Golini-Malunganji), Malawi (Chimaliro), Zambia (Muzama), and Uganda (Bwindi). Zimbabwe’s wildlife-centred CAMPFIRE programme, which begun in the 1980s, has been particularly influential in this paradigm in its objective to share the sometimes

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substantial returns from private safari and hunting enterprises in woodlands with resident populations. Details of this model are explained in the embedded file

MINING AND SLM Lesotho is endowed with various minerals, however the volatility of mineral prices in the period leading to 2000 resulted in the closure of the country’s key mines. Lesotho possesses key natural resources, including diamonds and water, but had for a long time depended on South Africa as a source of employment, and the economy remained predominantly at subsistence level. Lesotho doesn’t have a vast extractive industry, but the little activity there is has impacted a lot on communities within which it is carried out. In mining villages there is a state of unrest, and conflicts between the community, the mining companies and the government.

The national legislation guiding or relating to the mines and minerals in lesotho are quite outdated, and also criminalize artisanal mining. There is the Precious Stones Order of 1970, the Mines and Mineral Resources Act of 2005 and the Land Act (Amendment) of 2010. These laws have to be revisited to cater for the involvement of communities in the industry, and to empower communities affected by this industry. The government has very little regard for transparency and accountability in the management of mineral resources. Though it has domesticated the Kimberly Process Certification Scheme (due to advocacy by civil society), this has proved not enough. The policy need further tightening as some companies capitalise on the loopholes, For example five years ago when Angel Diamond started to carry out mining activities in Kolo, the company did not even have an EIA prior to operation, it only came after the community started to question its legitimacy. As it is Lesotho has no mining policy, has not joined the EITI and has not formed a national PWYP coalition. This means there is still a long journey ahead to engage in transparency and accountability initiatives. EITI once enacted would go a long way in enhancing these good governance principles. The corporate social responsibility and investment of mining companies are still questionable.

KEY LESSONS LEARNT The take home points in the drafting of an effective land use management policy will be to consider the following:

1) Security of land tenure 2) Setting up of structures to participate in the policy formulation processes and

oversee enforcement of policies. 3) Traditional leaders should be involved and be respected as the original custodians

of the land. 4) The policy should promote equitable distribution of land not based on gender, age,

ethnicity, race, colours or creed. 5) The land policy should address the issue of skills and capacity development and

this should focus on establishment of training centres, development of robust curricula,

6) The land policy should address the issue of finance since it has a bearing on agricultural inputs, equipment and investments on the farm.

7) The policy also needs to promote infrastructural developments in the dimension of road networks, communication, energy, dams, irrigation facilities and so forth.

CONCLUSION The cardinal principle for successful land use and management is a participatory approach that involves all stakeholders and the community both in the planning process and setting up of the structures to manage the land. If the a top down approach is used where policies are

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made from the top and pushed through to the grassroots, the effects can be disastrous and might lead to sabotage by the communities. Proper planning and policies are required that will ensure targeting efficiency (identifying deserving and committed people), provision of the technical and business skills, access to finance for inputs and equipment, adequate extension, attractive markets and provision of the ideal infrastructure. If any of these variables is missing, it can be very difficult for land to be used optimally. In a book written by Doctor Matondi on the Zimbabwe land reform, he notes the above as impediments for successful land utilisation in Zimbabwe. Unless and until these challenges are holistically addressed, it may take years before Zimbabwe regains its status as a bread basket of southern Africa and the same will apply to other African states overlook such issues.

REFERENCES Amakye, S.A and Aquah, I.C. (2012), Mainstreaming Drylands Development into National, District, and community Level Development Policies in Ghana, www.undp.org/drylans [accessed 14 May 2014]

Gunay, T. (2010), The role of NGOs in the formulation of sustainable land management policies and programmes, ministry of forestry, Turkey

Lambin, E.F. and Geist, H. (2006), Land-Use and Land-Cover Change Local Processes and Global Impacts, Springer, New York

Sanderson E.W., Jaiteh, M., Levy, M.A., Redford, K.H., Wannebo, A.V., and Woolner. G. (2002), The human footprint and the last of the wild. BioScience 52(10): 891-904.

Sukhdev, P., Stone, S., and Nuttall, N. (2010), Green Economy, Developing Countries’ success Stories, United Nations Environment Programme, www.unpan.org/greeneconomy [accessed 14 May 2014]

Walker, Cherry (1997) Cornfields, gender and land in Shamim Meer (ed.), op. cit.

Chilonda P. and I. Minde, 2007. Agricultural growth trends in Southern Africa, Policy Brief No. 1, Regional Strategic Analysis and Knowledge Support System for Southern Africa

Lunn, J., Beale, E. & Townsend, I. 2008. Malawi: A political & economic profile. Commons Africa. Natural Resource Perspectives, No 58, June 2000. Overseas Development Government of Swaziland (Swaziland Environment Authority). Swaziland Environment

Action Plan (1997) Vol.1 The Kingdom of Swaziland. Third National Report on the implementation of the UNCCD

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AGRONOMIC-MARKET PRACTICES AND CLIMATE SMART AGRICULTURE: CASE OF LANDSCAPE LABELLING AND CERTIFICATION OF AGRICULTURAL COMMODITIES IN TANZANIA DR. TUMSIFU ELLY

University of Dar es Salaam Business School, Tanzania Email: tom_tim2000@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT Markets, as institutions, have become very powerful as they influence how production is conducted, products are traded and eventually the sustainability of the production systems. For a long time though, efforts towards ensuring climate smart agriculture, have ended up with standaloneexperiment or case based evidences. These success stories and experiments are too idyllic as compared to realities of the real world. This paper presents issues beyond experiment and/or field based trials that reflect on the realities of sustainable agricultural systems, environmental conservation and consumer welfare. Through innovation leaders, and field visit interviews,the unfolding findings suggest that, sustainable agricultural systems are only possible when farmers, consumers, policy makers and other stakeholders are aligned to offer one and the same valuetowards conservation efforts. Though farmers are the centre piece, policy incentives, and consumer sanctions, linked directly to a particular sustainable production system would offer a more realistic solution over unsustainable land use, inappropriate resource exploitation, while offering value to both farmers and consumers. Certification of commodities offers a potential model that provides for rewards on conservation efforts to farmers and ensures consumer well being. These market-agronomic practices would however require favourable policy incentives as well as concerted efforts of all other stakeholders

Keywords: Climate Smart Agriculture, Certification, Agronomic Practices

1.0 INTRODUCTION AND JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY Markets as institutions have become very powerful as they influence how production is conducted, products are traded and eventually the sustainability of the production systems(Adams and Jeanrenaud, 2008;Jones et al. 2008). Therefore, linking production and marketing systems, is of a great potential in addressing among others the producer and consumer concerns and welfare which are relevant for conservation efforts. These activities involve farmers-the commodity producers, processors, traders and consumers. The actors in unison, have potential to redress problems related to poor agronomic practices, and make agricultural activities more rewarding for farmers who adhere to certain conservation practices. Most of the previous climate smart agriculture prototypes are either based on research projects or are of a standalone orientation that involve farmers alone (see Hailu and Campbell, 2013). These kinds of successes face a danger of being short-lived and non sustainable. Much as it is attractive and showcased as best results on combating and decelerating problem caused by agricultural activities on the environment, paying for ecosystem services for instance have a huge element of un-sustainability in face of competing needs such as food and health.Most of other projects oriented initiatives such as those related to afforestation are subject of failure shortly after the project halt. Thus, making most of these kind of initiatives too idyllic as compared to realities of the real world.

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In contrast, practices which involve all beneficiaries of the farming activities, including consumers, farmers, traders and others along the supply/value chain could be more meaningful as approaches towards climate smart agriculture. Involving actors in supply/value chain connotes an agronomic-market practice. Birthal and Josh (2007) propose that, linkages between farmers, processors, traders and retailers, which are important in the coordination of supply and demand would help improve smallholders’ access to market. We propose that, the linkage and its value proposition could be a point of departure in endeavours to ensure climate smart agriculture. As such initiatives portray facts beyond experiments and field based trials that reflect on the realities of agricultural systems, environmental conservation and consumer welfare.We reckon that farmers are the centre piece of efforts related to conservation. By adding value to their commodities, to a great extent could transform their living standards. The relationship between conservation and living condition of the participating communities is significant and important (Adams and Jeanrenaud, 2008). From this model, this study evaluates the relevance of certification in fostering climate smart agriculture.

FAO defines climate smart agriculture as sustainably increasing agriculture productivity and incomes (food security), adapting and building resilience to climate change (adaptation) and reducing and or removing greenhouse emission(mitigation). A closer look at these defined themes reveals that, aspects of income and productivityis obvious, which suggest a need for more value from agricultural activities in terms of increased productivity and value. Additionally, Field to Market: Environmental Resource Indicators Report, (2009) propound sustainable agriculture as meeting the needs of the present while improving the ability of future generations to meet their own needs by focusing on the following outcomes:

Increasing agricultural productivity to meet future nutritional needs while decreasing impacts on the environment, including water, soil, habitat, air quality and climate emissions, and land use;

Improving human health through access to safe, nutritious food; and Improving the social and economic well-being of agricultural communities.

These outcomes call for an inclusive approach, which not only focuses on the farming practises, but also on consumers and producers wellbeing. Thus, it’s only when actors in the supply/value chain are orchestrated to offer the same value for the climate smart/sustainable agriculture these outcomes will be attained. Hitherto, certification is seen as all embracing mechanisms or institutions which foster values to all participating actors. It is from this value where sustainability is hinged on.Yet, Adams and Jeanrenaud (2008) suggest that, mainstream sustainable development is built on the idea of market-driven approaches and strategies. They promote a market as a human institution of unique power and efficiency, capable of driving massive changes in environment and human opportunity on a scale and at a speed that dwarfs the regulatory powers of citizen, state or global organization. That, human aspirations and subsistence are inextricably linked to the performance of that economy. We foster agronomic-market practicesas powerful institution relevant in promoting competition, protecting smallholders from exclusion and unscrupulous trade practices, and institute better farming practices for conservation sake and ensure food safety for consumers (see, Brithal and Joshi, 2007). Through agreed standards and norms which have increasingly factored in conservation principles, the adoption and implementation of these agronomic practices bare some aspects of climate smart agriculture with sustainability features. As Adams (2006) propounds, the mainstream sustainability include three dimensions, environmental, social and economic sustainability. These dimensions have to be integrated in a balanced manner. As farmers participate in the certification scheme, they will be following

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agreed conservation practices, as well as applying less deleterious pesticides and fertilizers (GLOBALG.A.P, 2011)while realizing value from assured markets and improved production. RELEVANCE OF CERTIFICATION FOR THE TANZANIAN AGRICULTURE

Agriculture remains the predominant sector in Tanzania and vital in poverty reduction as it accounts for a large proportion of GDP and provides employment for the majority of the nation’s population (HODECT, 2010). Tanzania is, in essence, an agricultural country where agriculture means almost everything. Over 80 percent of the people live in the rural areas and agriculture is their main source of livelihood. The sector accounts for 95 percent of the food, 25 percent of the GDP and 30 percent of the foreign exchange earnings (SAGCOT, 2011). Therefore improved production and ensuring sustainability have been the major goals for the development strategies in Tanzania (URT, 2010).

Furthermore, shifts in consumer preferences, food safety and concerns about conservation and increased production are altering the volume and composition of world trade in agricultural commodities (FAO, 2004). To this end there are new development of regulatory and verification mechanisms for the safety and quality of food and agricultural products. These development are transforming the global agri-food systems governance structure to involving more of the third-party certification (Hatanka et al., 2005). Given the requirement thereof FAO (2010) informs that, food safety and quality control system in Tanzania do not provide the level of consumer protection necessary to ensure food safety for Tanzanians or for the competitive export market. Raison d’être this status include, lack of good agricultural practices (GAP) awareness at the level of both government officials and private operators among others. GAP are practices that address environmental issues, economic and social sustainability for on-farm processes and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products (FAO 2010). To this end there is a consensus among people involved in sustainable development that three issues are important in order to protect our environment while meeting the needs of the growing population. First, a need to reverse widespread degradation of soil, water, forest and other key resources. Second, a need for improving means to access these resources at sustainable levels and in a secure manner and third, these interventions must be those that meet the needs of economic growth at national level, and livelihoods at the individual level (Bass et al., 2009).We see these aspects as related not only with how production is managed, but also how other institutions are supporting the best production systems. This demonstrates the importance of certification as emphasized by Gomez et al. (2011) that, today’s agricultural commodities must meet nutritional content, food safety certification, and indicators of impacts on natural resources, greenhouse gas emission and farmworkers. They further propound that, these multidimensional demands require multi-attribute product labelling and specification. These interventions and practices hinge on economic viability, environmental sustainability, social acceptability and food safety and quality.

Although these practices are stringent and more demanding compared to the traditional farming and business practices they offer unprecedented opportunities as they improve safety and quality of food and agricultural products. At the same time producers and consumers benefit from global markets and hence improve their socioeconomic well being (FAO, 2010).

FAO (2007) cautions that:

Small-scale farmers in Tanzania face a risk of not being able to access export market opportunities unless they are adequately informed, technically prepared and organized to address the needs of good agricultural practices(GAP)

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The GAP implementation, will increase production costs which requires alternative certification systems

Proper policy and adequate resources are required to facilitate improvement of the food safety programme and,

That participation of small-scale producers among others is critical if the initiative is to be successful.

This situation requires appropriate approaches that are context specific and geared towards poverty reduction, food security and socioeconomic well being of majority of smallholders. Bass et al. (2009) reveal that some very promising models for local and national institutions are rapidly emerging; if engaged wisely with appropriate investment, these new opportunities could lay the foundation for truly sustainable management of natural resources and support livelihoods, health, security and economic growth. These are imperatives that are vital if Tanzanian Agriculture has to meet the food requirements of its population and for the global markets. CERTIFICATION AS A VITAL MARKET INSTITUTION RELEVANT FOR CLIMATE SMART

AGRICULTURE

Certification has been a useful tool in linking smallholders with consumers locally and abroad. Adoption of the standards normally shapes farmers’ agronomic practises in a manner that complies with certain market, environmental and agronomic requirements. In recent times most of the standards have continued to embrace on, some of the conservation principles (see SAN, 2010). Although certification is seen as more of the farm level approach, in same places where certain communities are involved in such programs, ithas a wider influence beyond farm level. Mankad et al. (2014)suggest that, the approach is more of a farm scale management practice which does not embrace on the landscape phenomenon, better for biodiversity conservation. We still value certification as a tool useful in conservation efforts as it has a potential of reducing the adverse impacts caused by individual farmer at the farm level. Still the practice could acquire a landscape scale effect, should the majority of smallholders from a particular landscape participate. What is required of a better agronomic-market model include, community welfare (the producers), quality commodities, and environmental conservation. Certification thus provides for these aspects as products which are certified could offer more value, than the generic products.Hatanaka et al. (2005), argue that certification reorganizes, transforms and discipline people and things throughout the supply chain, with differential social and economic implications for various participants.

Docherty (2012) suggests that, producers are more attracted to and with the certification models as they add some social premium or price into the products as compared to those not following the model. Usually farmers respond quickly to the price incentives. Any form of price motivation normally triggers farmers’ responses manifested through more production and adoption of new farming techniques inter alia. The reactions could also include intensive use of the land and/or undertaking complex practices when the benefits are apparent and other factors of production are made available. Hitherto, the value associated with certified commodities, farmers could even adopt complex farming practices geared towards environmental conservation than otherwise. Certification therefore, provides for a model that promotes voluntary participation of farmers who are the centre piece of the conservation efforts.

This voluntarism though,is value oriented as certified products command better prices than those without. While valueproposition of certification model is purely a market phenomenon, the actual requirements of certified commodities go beyond healthy requirements and quality commodities, to include regulated fertilizer application in terms of

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amount, and type, also some conservation principles (GlobalG.A.P2011, SAN, 2010). As revealed previously markets have become such powerful institutions in enforcing among others principles that could spoil or improve our environment, community and economic welfare. As Adams (2006) when advocating for sustainability, propounds that, “the market is hugely powerful as a force, for good or bad”. We construe this adage to the adoption of standards in certification schemes as being a very powerful tool in enforcing the best agronomic-market practices, and the positive aspect being climate smart agriculture.

This paper proposes a combination of market and agronomic practices in combating environmental degradation. As such, market incentives that reward environmental smart agricultural practices while addressing food security and safety and health could be more sustainable than others. This approach not only tackles the issues of environment, but also addresses the socioeconomic well being of smallholders. Additionally the models being considered, certification and landscape labelling, use resources from within the local communities, an important aspect of sustainability. The livelihood component of the proposition is an incentive for farmers to participate meaningful in these efforts.

We therefore see certification as having triplet outcome which zero in the three dimensions the environmental, social and economic sustainability. Thus the study adopt the these dimensions as its conceptual framework (figure 1.1) in assessing the relevance of certification scheme as an agronomic-market tool for climate smart agriculture.

Climate Smart Agriculture; Adapted from VDA, (2006)

2.0 METHODOLOGY The data used in this study are from an ongoing research on the assessment of the market and agronomic value of the landscape labelling and certification in Tanzania. Thus, findings presented are based on a single case ( Collected from HomeVeg limited Company explained in ensuing paragraphs) that presents uniqueness on how the firm has adopt and adapt certification procedures and make the whole program affordable, worthwhile and sustainable among smallholder farmers from Kilimanjaro, Arusha, and Lushoto-Tanga. According to Yin (2003) case study is very much useful when a research intends to among others cover contextual conditions as believed to be relevant to the phenomenon under study. This study focused mainly on the object of the study, which in this case is certification as an agronomic-market tool and the role it plays in fostering climate smart agriculture through conservation, integrated pest management and other best practices. The study is therefore predominantly an

Economic Growth/productivity

Environmental protection/ Ecological

Social Progress/ consumers and community welfare

Clim

ate smart

Agriculture/sustainable

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explanatory case study which sought to explain the causal links (market-agronomic practices with climate smart agriculture) in real life interventions this being adopting and adapting standards and its effect on social, economic and environmental wellbeing (Baxter and Jack, 2008).

Validity and reliability of the data were so much in order. The researcher used a single-case study methodology where several sources of evidence for data collection were used, chiefly, interviews (where-two innovative Homeveg Limited Tanzania directors were involved), archival records and physical artefacts (see also Yin 1994). Data analysis follows explanation-building technique which is a form of pattern-matching useful in explaining building an explanation of the case, most suitable for explanatory case studies (Baxter and Jackl, 2008).

Home Veg Tanzania Limited, a fresh vegetable exporting company, started working with organized groups of growers in the Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions and letter Lushoto-Tanga in 2009. The company purchases fresh beans, peas, chillies and baby corn from local producers to sell in export markets.The mission of the company is to help facilitate profitable and sustainable horticultural farming in Tanzania by linking producers with reliable markets and by adhering to acceptable market standards such as GLOBAL GAP. The company is set to follow market first model in endeavours to assure smallholder farmers market for their produce. GLOBAL GAP sets voluntary standards for the certification of production processes of agricultural products, primarily designed to reassure consumers that food is produced with minimal detrimental environmental impacts.

FINDINGS

The HomeVeg Tanzania Limited Profile Founded in May 2009, Homeveg Tanzania Limited is 100% export business engaged in the exportation of vegetables and fruits. The company exports to the United Kingdom, Holland, Belgium and Germany among others. The export of certified fruits and vegetable has been possible by adopting GLOBALG.A.P. standards. HomeVeg follows the “Market First Model” as it first get assurance of the market for farm produces. The Company deals with smallholders in Kilimajaro, Arusha and Lushoto in a contract farming arrangements where farmers are organized in small groups. From 150 farmers who were participating in the certification program in year 2009 the company has mobilize about 2000 farmers who are currently organized in groups. These farmers have been able to participate in global markets through a certificationscheme based on GLOBALG.A.P. standards (See GLBALG.A.P, 2011). To date the company has trained seven agronomists who are working with farmers directly in their fields.

Towards Environmental Protection and Enhanced Productivity Homeveg follows the standards that mandate farmers and retailers following the same to adhere to best agronomic, health and safety requirements. As revealed by the company management, the company does the following in ensuring the adherence to the requirements:

First, the company secures all necessary inputs for the farmers under its contract. This includes seeds, fertilizers and pesticides. This has been an important milestone towards ensuring increased productivity, harmonization of the produced vegetables and or fruits,- through controlling of the seed varieties, fertilizers and pesticides. Through this arrangement, this company has experienced growth in terms of the volume of exports from the time it was founded to date (see Figure 1.2)

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21

The two functions input supplying and trading with farmers and markets abroad are very important in endeavours to ensure climate smart agriculture. To a large extent climate smart agriculture principles encompass, the control of the type and amount of fertilizer and pesticide application. This role (an intermediary role) is very relevant as it first helps in shortening the supply chain by excluding a number of actors. The dual functions of supplying and trading under one roof and by a single actor eliminate a number of actors, thus potential in ensuring that farmers get more value for their commodities. When this is realized we are sure that community welfare has been addressed, one among relevant aspect in conservation effort. Given that farmers voluntarily opt for the contract arrangement, suggest that they also find it of value to work with the firm.

The second most relevant activity of the firm is the input supply function. For a very long time there have been problems related to the type of fertilizers and pesticides used. The firm ensures that all farmers under the contract use only the recommended fertilizers and pesticides. Certifying bodies have continuously recommended less harmful pesticides andfertilisers; by this control mechanism we are at least sure that, farming activities will be less harmful and thus addressing concerns on biodiversity and ecosystems.

Most of researchers advocate the requirements for certification as being costly for smallholders’ participation. Thus, most of initiatives involving smallholders’ commodities certification tend to fail. Homeveg has overcome this problem, first through using own trained agronomist to help and train farmers on the best agronomic practises in their own fields. Additionally, by controlling the input supplied to the participating farmers. Lastly by facilitating and carrying out recommended auditing for all farms under their contract. In this case the costs for auditing and participation are spread between farmers in their groups and the company. The adoption-adaption certification model makes it possible to gain economies of scale which makes the whole aspect more sustainable than otherwise.

Challenges faced in implementing the certification model A number challenges are registered, as the management of the firm indicated that, still there are problem related to expansion of the services they render to the farmers and thus the number of participating farmers. The use of own agronomists limits expansion in terms of crop varieties and number of farmers. To a great extent this requires joint efforts including government interventions in terms of policy incentives and supporting such practices as this. If the public extension service could be reliable, these limitations could have been taken care. Additionally, the firm experiences challenges related to packaging as most of the materials are sourced from outside the country, chiefly from Kenya. This adds into the transaction cost and time. We argue that, the business sector could as well contribute in ensuring availability of materials required to meet the global standards.

Discussion and Lessons learned from Homeveg Certification model

The model being implemented by the company understudy has features making it more sustainable for smallholder farmers. The functions supplying inputs, value addition, monitoring and evaluation, and eventually trading the commodities shorten the supply/value chain by excluding a number of other actors on one hand. And ease the participation costs from the smallholder perspective. The model makes it possible to offer more value for commodities supplied by the farmers. With such shortened chains more value goes to the farmers, who eventually participate more meaningfullyin agricultural activities. Additionally, the connection function (linking smallholders with markets abroad) creates a strategic

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improvement in terms of the farming practices aswell as value proposition as the agricultural commodities gain more value compared to those which are sold locally. The control functions result in increased productivity as farmers tend to use improved seed varieties, fertilizers and do the same more appropriately. This could be termed as intensification which reduces expansion of agricultural area.

From FAO’s climate smart agriculture perspective, community livelihood has to be addressed in order to reduce their impact on the surrounding environment. Blackman and Rivera (2010), reported that proponents of certification standards which promote environmental and social welfare were purporting them as having financial incentives for farms and firms,and improve their environmental and social economic performance. Although the empirical evidence from their study on whether sustainable certification had significant benefit was limited, we are of the opinion that, the benefits depend much on how the process is undertaken and the model adopted. In the case of Homeveg, the use of own agronomists and the process of auditing and monitoring make the whole process more cost effective through economies of scale and thus making this process more sustainable and thus more relevant and applicable for smallholder farmers. The model adopted reduces costs that would have been incurred should farmers undertake own auditing and use public extension services while sourcing inputs from an number of customers. Adopting and adapting of the certification process by the company understudy make it a novel and unique way of linking agronomic and market practices. This innovation provides financial incentives to farmers for practicing agriculture in ways that help to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem while improving livelihood security (EcoAgriculture Partners, 2013). Such initiatives have potential to overcome a great deal of the challenges of traditional agronomic practice by enhancing smart agronomic-market practices (Kissinger, 2013).

The function rendered by the agronomists (imparting knowledge, controlling for approved seed varieties, types of fertilizers and pesticides) imparts practical skills and knowledge to the farmers as well as “sanctioning”the use of less deleterious inputs and thus addressing the need of maintaining ecosystems and biodiversity in the areas surrounding farming activities. We should note that the GLOBALG.A.P total number of control points is 234 for fruits and vegetables. The points are 21- workers welfare, 46-tracebility, 50-environment (including biodiversity) and 117-food safety (GLOBALG.A.P, 2011). This suggests that environmental issues are in order and thus if well articulated could ensure sustainability. Scherry and McNeely, (2008) point to a need for production and sharing of knowledge, and building capacity especially for rural communities as they are key stewards of biodiversity conservation and important in ensuring agricultural activities meet the joint production, conservation and livelihood goals. This unique model whereby agronomists work hand-in hoe with farmers has a potential to elude the long time problems related to skills gap among farmers.

We conclude that, sustainable agricultural systems are only possible when farmers, consumers, policy makers and other stakeholders are aligned to offer one and the same value towards conservation efforts. Though farmers are the centre piece, policy incentives, and consumer sanctions, linked directly to a particular sustainable production system would offer a more realistic solution over unsustainable land use, inappropriate resource exploitation, while offering value to both farmers and consumers. Such policies that encourage best practices are relevant for the long lasting solution in endeavour to ensure sustainable agriculture. Certification of commodities offers a potential model that provides for rewards on conservation efforts to farmers and ensures consumer well being. These market-agronomic practices would however require favourable policy incentives as well as concerted efforts of all other stakeholders. The bottom line is that market institutions are very powerful

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in shaping how farming is carried out. As market could regulate seed varieties, farming schemes and conservation principles, while controlling for pesticide and fertilizer application. Value propositions are vital in ensuring consumers and producers participate meaningfully in endeavours related to climate smart agriculture.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This paper draws heavily on Homeveg certification program. I am grateful to the managing directors Mr.Mussa Mvungi and Michael Tarimo for their availability for interviews as well as availing the company’s information used in this publication. The additional views beyond information provided by the directors and the artefacts obtained from the factory and farms are mine and do not necessarily reflect the company’s stand

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Gomez, M.I, et al. (2011), Research principles for Developing Country Food Value Chains. Science, Vol. 332 pp 1154- 1155

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THE ROLE OF PROPERTY RIGHTS TO GRAZING LANDS IN RESOURCE USE AND MANAGEMENT: CASE OF TAUNG IN MOHALE’S HOEK RANTLO, A. M.A

*Corresponding Author: Tel +266 59134917 Email: am.rantlo@nul.ls/amontoeli@yahoo.co.uk aDepartment of Agricultural Economics, National University of Lesotho, P.O. Roma 180.

ABSTRACT

Property rights are social institutions that define and delimit the range of privileges granted to individuals of specific resources, such as land and water. They are the authority to determine different forms of control over resources thus determining the use, benefits and costs resulting from resource use. That is, they clearly specify who can use the resources, who can capture the benefits from the resources, and who should incur costs of any socially harmful impact resulting from the use of a resource. In order to be efficient property rights must be clearly defined by the administering institution whether formal or informal and must be accepted, understood and respected by all the involved individuals and should be enforceable. These institutions influence the behaviour of individuals hence the impact on economic performance and development.

The thesis has attempted to determine how the situation of property rights to grazing lands affects the grazing lands’ use and development of smallholders in the Taung Maralleng area. Data was collected from 96 households who were selected using random sampling. To capture data, a questionnaire was administered through face-to-face interviews. Institutional analysis and ANOVA were used for descriptive analysis to describe the property rights situation, security of property rights and the impact of property rights on the grazing lands’ use and management.

The results show that some rights holders have secure rights to grazing land resources while other farmers have insecure rights to grazing landresources. The results from institutional analysis show that the situation of property rightsnegatively affects resource use and management in the Taung Maralleng area. There are various institutional factors that negatively affect development of smallholder farmers and grazing lands’ use and management in the Taung Maralleng area. Based on the research findings, some policy recommendations are made. These include consideration of the local context and strengthening of the protection ofproperty rights.

Keywords:Smallholder/small-scale farmers, Development, Property rights, Grazing lands, Taung Maralleng.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Institutions as the set of formal and informal rules of conduct that ensure social cohesion through governing the relationships within a society are essential for economic development due to their bearing on behaviour that affects various social outcomes (North, 1990). In rural areas of the developing world, agriculture is key to economic development as many rural people depend on farmland, rangeland, irrigation and fishing waters and forests for their livelihoods. This dependency makes access to these resources of great significance for economic development of these areas. This access to natural resources will lead to poverty alleviation by allowing people to grow food and to invest in productive activities (Van Braun,

26

2004). However, this access to resources is not realised automatically but depends on the institutions that govern resource use in these areas, thus property rights (Meinzen-Dick and Di Gregorio, 2004). Anderson (2008) stated that property rights define incentives people face for undertaking sustainable and productive management strategies and they determine the extent and distribution of socioeconomic benefits from natural resources. These have important implications for technology adoption, food security, poverty reduction, economic growth and environmental sustainability, hence overall development.

The realisation of these outcomes is dependent upon the institutions that administer property rights through ensuring that individuals and communities involved have clearly defined, understood and accepted the property rights. The institutions that administer property rights should ensure that property rights rules are respected and enforced and this has been facilitated by the institutions’ social legitimacy, legal support and accessibility by and accountability to the property rights holders (O’Driscoll jr. and Hoskins, 2003). Nevertheless, multiple property rights present in the world have resulted in various outcomes in different settings and the outcomes being determined by various socioeconomic factors. The main determinants have been social capital, resource conditions, politics, markets and the needs and preferences of the local people (FAO, 2008).

Property rights have been very important in the management and sustainability of natural resources such as land and water. Secure property rights provide incentives to the owners and users of the resources to conserve these valuable resources since owners and users are guaranteed of the benefits that come from the resources. Conservation could be achieved through various means including the adoption of better technologies, production and management systems.Sustainable utilisation of land and water resources requires onlysecure property rights irrespective of the administering institution (Meinzen-Dick et al, 2007).

Insecure property rights are detrimental to environmental quality as people do not have incentives to invest in the preservation and sustainability of the resources since they do not have a guarantee that they would reap the benefits from the resources. This has led to overexploitation of resources as people use them rapidly in order to get maximum benefits (Key et al, 1998). When property sights are secure people become confident to invest in the management and development of their land and water resources. In areas where people have secure property rights, the level of environmental quality has been relatively high as people have adopted soil and water quality improving elements such as fertilizers and manure. The farming practices such as crop rotation and appropriate use of and proper chemicals have improved water and land quality. The level of pollution particularly of water resources has been relatively low (McCulloch et al, 2001; Colby, 1995).

Secure property rights usually result in economic improvements that lead to sustainability of the environment (Anderson, 2008). People with secure property rights to land and water resources get financial gains from the productive activities involving these resources and these gains are used in the acquisition of technologies. Technologies such as irrigation systems provide efficient use of water and better waste disposal systems reduce the rate of water pollution and these ensure improved availability of clean water for irrigation and livestock as well as human consumption (Colby, 1995). However, Demsetz (1967) stated that the investment in some technologies requires the security of property rights to be of long duration as it takes time to realise the benefits from other technologies.

Governments in developing countries have designed and implemented various policies aimed at achieving development but the success of these policies has been limited and absolute failure has been realised with other policies. Several factors have been mentioned as sources of failure and these include lack of finance, poor natural resources, and lack of human capital

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among others (O’Driscoll jr. and Hoskins, 2003). The Lesotho government together with development partners has implemented policies aimed at achieving development through providing access to, economic use of, non-gender based distribution of, sustainable use and management of land and water resources throughout the country (Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture, 2001). These policies have been and continue to be given various forms of support including finance, human capital, technical support, natural resources of good quality and where this has not been the case improvement measures have been taken (UNEP-GEF, 2014). Despite all these, the policies have achieved limited success with regard to the intended outcomes particularly in the rural area of Taung Maralleng in Mohale’s Hoek. However, the effects of the situation of property rights to grazing land resources in the Taung area on the achievement of the national development objectives are examined in this study.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 STUDY AREA The study was undertaken in Taung Maralleng in the Mohale’s hoek district. The area is situated in the north western part of the district and about 25 kilometres from Mohale’s hoek town.

It has agriculture as its main source of livelihoods based on livestock production though production has been declining due to deteriorating range condition. The area is characterised by high unemployment rates and social conflicts.

2.2 DATA COLLECTION METHOD In this area there were two different grazing lands used by different sections of the community. The eastern grazing land was only occupied by people with exclusion rights to this land while the western grazing land was occupied by people who invaded the land many years ago. The technique of simple random sampling was employed. The strata consist of those using the western rangeland and those who use the eastern rangeland. In each stratum, forty three households were randomly selected.

2.3 DATA ANALYSIS The methods and techniques employed in any investigation depend upon various factors including the nature/type of data to be collected (Leedy and Ormrod, 2005) as well as the purpose and objectives among others (Patton, 1990). The nature of data collected for the investigation of the role of property rights in resource use and management in Taung Maralleng is qualitative. As a result, the study employed a predominantly institutional framework of analysis and the informal and formal institutional factors that were argued to have had contributions to both development and underdevelopment were highlighted and the recurrent themes were isolated for analysis and discussion. In that regard, institutional economists, particularly Williamson’s (2000) hierarchy of society’s institutions were employed for guidance. The analysis employed North’s (1990) theoretical propositions in discussions of transaction costs.

A qualitative evaluation of the contributions of the factors to underdevelopment was carried out in the study. Factors that were consistently argued to have hugely contributed towards underdevelopment and hence high social transaction costs were assigned a high ranking of ‘3 points’, while those which were argued to have had no detrimental contributions were assigned no ranking, which implicitly signals a ‘zero point’ value assignment. The factors that had least contribution were assigned a ranking of ‘1 point’ and those with higher contribution were assigned a ranking of ‘2 points’. The rankings were as follows; ‘minimum=1 point’; ‘medium= 2 points’ and ‘high= 3 points’. Based on the sum of ranking

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points assigned to each category of factors, deductive judgments were made on their contributions towards underdevelopment of the area. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for the descriptive analysis whereby frequency and mean values were main descriptive indicators used.

Security is defined as freedom from interference from outside sources, continuous use, and ability to reap the benefits of labour and capital invested in the resource. Embedded in this description are three dimensions of land rights; breadth, duration and assurance.Breadth refers to the types of rights held. Generally, the more rights held the more secure those rights. Households with rights to alienate resources or to make long-term improvements on land would be considered more secure than those with only use rights to land. Duration refers to the length of time over which the individual/group may enjoy specific benefits while assurancerefers to the ability of individuals to exercise their rights.

In this study, breadth was measured by the number of rights held to land. In the case of land when use, exclusivity and transferability were held it was ranked strong and when only two were held it was ranked moderate while it was ranked weak when only one type of rights were held.

Water and grazing lands are public goods and no community member should transfer and exclude others from this resource. Breadth of thegrazing rights was measured by the possession of use rights. In this case, breadth was either ranked strong or weak. If use rights were held it was ranked strong and when such rights were absent it was ranked weak.

Table1: Variables used for the determination of security of property rights

Variable Definition Indicators Measure Security Freedom from interference

from the outside sources, continuous use, and ability to reap the benefits of labour and capital invested in the resource

Breadth Number and type of rights

Assurance Knowledge of boundaries. Enforcement and protection of rights

Duration Certainty/uncertainty on the length of time for exercising the rights

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 PROPERTY RIGHTS TO GRAZING LAND There is homogeneity with regard to the tenure system and type of rights exercised on grazing lands in the area. In this area there were two different grazing lands used by different sections of the community. The eastern section was only occupied by people with individual rights to arable and residential lands and had approximately 8 hectares (ha) of grazing land, while the western section occupied by people who invaded the land had access to about 17 ha of grazing land.

3.2 PROPERTY RIGHTS TO EASTERN GRAZING LAND Livestock farmers from the eastern section indicated that they obtained rights to this land from their fore-fathers and chiefs. The authorities (grazing committee) had to be notified before exercising any rights on the grazing land. All farmers exercised use and exclusion of only people from the western side and other villages, while other rights such as transfer were

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not exercised. The majority (92%) of these farmers indicated they were clear about the boundaries of their grazing land. The property rights to this land were seen as strongly protected, enforced and recognised by the law and all residents were certain and positive about the future of their rights to this land. Generally, the level of security of rights to grazing land was viewed as good since this was indicated by all. However, the users did not prefer communal use of resources, including the grazing lands, and they demonstrated strongly negative attitudes towards the communal rights system.

The whole group of users had knowledge of the grazing rules and regulations but when it came to observation of such rules different responses were provided with the majority indicating that other users did not observe the rules. A member of the grazing committee indicated that the grazing rules were not observed on this grazing land and the structures were intentionally destroyed by the users.

3.3 PROPERTY RIGHTS TO WESTERN GRAZING LAND This was the larger of the two grazing lands in the community and it was used by more people than was the eastern grazing land. Some users indicated that they gained access through land invasions, while others obtained it from the local committee. Users only exercised use rights to this land and other rights including transfer and exclusion were prohibited. The rights were exercised by all livestock farmers in the area. This section of the community indicated that even the members from the eastern section were not excluded although the latter excluded the former on their eastern grazing land. There has been some conflicts reported on this grazing land and they were mainly between users from the eastern and western sections. The boundaries of the land were known by 70% of the users (Table 2) while the remainder had no knowledge of the boundaries. The whole group of users indicated that their property rights to this land were not recognised, enforced and protected by law. There was uncertainty regarding the future of property rights to this land among all the respondents. All users of this grazing land indicated that the level of security of their rights to this land was very poor.

Table 2: Responses on boundaries, security, future and legal status of rights on grazing lands Location of grazing land

Knowledge of boundaries

Views on security of rights

Views on future of rights

Views on legal status of rights

Eastern section

Known=92% Unknown=8%

Very good=100%

Certain=100% Strongly enforced, protected and recognised=100%

Western section

Known=70% Unknown=30%

Very poor=100%

Uncertain=100% Unenforced, protected and unenforced=100%

There were regulations that governed the use of this western grazing land and all people were aware of the rules and forms of punishment for breaking the rules. The rules were enforced by the local committee. However, a member of the local committee indicated that some rules were not observed in their entirety while others were no longer operational. The member also mentioned that the small size of the pasture in relation to livestock population made it difficult to implement rotational grazing. The disrespect of the grazing rules and regulations was confirmed by the respondents as majority of them indicated it to be one of the major problems on this grazing land.

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4.0 ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION OF THE SECURITY AND IMPACT OF PROPERTY RIGHTS IN THE TAUNG MARALLENG 4.1 SECURITY OF PROPERTY RIGHTS TO GRAZING LANDS According to the previous section, for the western grazing land users, the breadth is strong while the assurance and duration are weak.For livestock farmers who utilise the eastern grazing land all security aspects including breadth, assurance and duration are strong (Table 3).

Table 3: Summary of security of property rights to communal grazing lands

Location of the grazing land

Breadth Assurance Duration

Eastern section Strong Strong Strong

Western section Strong Weak Weak

On the western grazing land, the security of property rights is weak which had negative impact on the livestock farming. This situation has not motivated these farmers to employ better practices in terms of use and management of the rangeland. They only grazed their livestock without applying any effort to improve fertility and preventing degradation of the rangeland. The situation has resulted in land degradation observed in the area which, in turn, has negatively affected productivity among farmers utilising the rangeland. On the eastern grazing land, the situation regarding attitudes, use and management of the grazing land is the same as the western grazing land which is contrary to economic theory when considering that these farmers had secure property rights to this land. The institutional factors that led to this contradiction will be discussed in the subsequent section.

4.2 Institutional analysis and discussion of the impact of property rights

4.2.1 Institutional factors affecting grazing lands in the Taung Maralleng area

The eastern grazing land users had negative attitudes towards communal use and management of grazing resources. These attitudes led to misuse and mismanagement of this grazing land and destruction of structures such as watering points on the grazing land. The grazing rules and regulations were not observed. These factors led to degradation of the rangeland, hence poor livestock farming development in the area.

It was observed by the researcher and reported by people from the western rangeland that this land was used by the whole community even though people from the eastern section of the community never mentioned it during interviews. The size of the western grazing land was too small given the high population of animals kept on the pasture about 17 ha in size. This led to inconsistency in practising and enforcing basics such as rotational grazing. Some rules and regulations were no longer observed and operational as a result and the situation had led to deterioration in the condition of the rangeland.

In the case of eastern grazing lands, the detrimental factors were bad as they scored 4 out of 6 points. The results revealed that disrespect of grazing rules and regulations is the most detrimental factor to grazing resources management and development of the small-scale livestock farming on the pasture as it scored 3 out 4 points attributed to all detrimental factors. The dislike of the communal rights system scored a point (Table 4).

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Table 4:A quantitative evaluation of the contributions to underdevelopment: case of the eastern grazing land

Individual rights holders

Institutional Factors Quantitative evaluation of contributions to inefficiencies/underdevelopment

Total points

Min=1 Med=2 High=3

1.Disrespect of grazing rules and regulations

2. Dislike of communal rights system

X

X

Index points 1 0 3 4/6

In the western grazing land, the detrimental factors were quite strong as they achieved 7 out of 9 points. The results show that lack of property rights is the most detrimental factor to the management of grazing resources and development of the small-scale livestock farming in the area as it scored 3 points out of 7 that is scored by all detrimental factors. Small size of pasture and disrespect of grazing rules and regulations scored 2 points each (Table 5).

Table 5: A quantitative evaluation of the contributions to underdevelopment: case of the western grazing land

Western grazing lands

Factors Quantitative evaluation of contributions to inefficiencies/underdevelopment

Total points

Foundational Min=1 Med=2 High=3

1. Small size of pasture

2. Disrespect of rules and regulations

3. Lack of property rights

X

X

X

Index points 0 4 3 7/9

The security of property rights was analysed and discussed and the institutional analysis was carried out to investigate the impact of property rights to grazing land resources on resource use/management, hence smallholder development in the area. Quantitative evaluation of institutional factors’ contribution to underdevelopment was employed in the exercise. The next chapter presents conclusion and recommendations from the research.

5.0 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS It is argued that smallholder farmers have to engage in meaningful agriculture, if they are to contribute to economic growth and development in the rural areas. Nevertheless, this can only be achieved in the presence of property rights that is, institutions that govern resource use. The property rights should be clearly defined, accepted, understood, protected and enforced in order for them to be efficient and effective.

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The main question of the study was how the situation of property rights to land and water resources in the Taung Maralleng area affects smallholder development. The main focus was on how the property rights influenced land use as well as productivity among smallholder farmers. The results of the study agree with the economic theory that property rights affect economic performance and there are other factors that affect efficiency and effectiveness of the property rights.

In the eastern grazing land, the property rights were secure. However, they did not have a positive impact on the use of the grazing as the users disliked the land management system and disrespected the rules and regulations which resulted in misuse, mismanagement and deterioration of the rangeland. The property rights are insecure on the western grazing land and this insecurity coupled with small size of pasture and disrespect of the rules has resulted in misuse and degradation of the veld.

5.1 RECOMMENDATIONS Based on the results and findings in this study, two policy recommendations can be made. The options that can be considered in Taung Maralleng in order to improve resource use and to help smallholder livestock farmers reach their full potential are outlined in this section.

5.1.1 Consideration of the local context and Peoples’ preferences

One of the requirements for efficient and effective property rights is the acceptability by the communities. In the Taung Maralleng area, farmers on western grazing land prefer communal rights for grazing lands while those with private rights to arable and grazing lands prefer private rights for such lands. Therefore, policy makers should consider these when dealing with land issues in the area. That is, land policy should focus on granting only the land rights that are preferred by people as it is believed that such rights could positively influence their behaviour and economic performance.

5.1.2 Strengthening of property rights

Most economic development is the result of private ownership of resources including land and water. It was discovered that private rights to land resources are disrespected, hence inefficient and ineffective in the Taung Maralleng area. As a result, the government through its relevant ministries should ensure that the property rights to resources are protected and enforced in the area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to express my sincere gratitude to everyone who contributed towards the success of this research paper. It would not have been possible without your input, time and support; I really appreciate your help. Special thanks go to the community of Taung Maralleng for their cooperation during the survey part of the study.

REFERENCES ANDERSON, T.L., 2008. Property Rights and Sustainable Development. Hoover Press,

Stanford. COLBY, B.G., 1995. Bargaining over Agricultural Property Rights. American Journal of

Agricultural Economic,77 (5): 1186-1191. DEMSETZ, H., 1967. “Toward a Theory of Property Rights”. American EconomicReview, 57

(2): 347-359. FOOD AND AGRICULTURAL ORGANISATION (FAO)., 2008. Irrigation Technology

Transfer in Support of Food Security. [Online]. Available From:

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http://www.fao.org/docrep/W7314E/w7314eOa.htm#TopOfpage. [Accessed on 22/06/08].

KEY, N. MUNOZ-PINHAD, J. DE JENVRY, A. and SADOULET, E., 1998. Social and Environmental Consequences of the Mexican Reforms: Common Pool Resources in the Ejido Sector. Department of Agricultural and Resource Economics. University of California. California.

LEEDY, P. D., and ORMROD, J, E.2005. Practical research. Planning and design. Pearson Merrill Prentice-Hall. Ohio. USA.

McCULLOCH, N. WINTERS, A.L. and CICERA, Z., 2001. Trade Liberalization and Poverty. Centre for Economic Policy. London. [Online]. Available from: http://books.google.co.za/books?hl=en&1r=&id=mO1vh3pDJ9AC&Oi. [Accessed on 16/07/08].

MEINZEN-DICK, R. and DI GREGORIO, M., 2004. Collective Action and Property Rights for Sustainable Development. Research Report 3, International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, DC.

MEINZEN-DICK, R. PRADHAN, R. and DI GREGORIO, M., 2004. Understanding Property Rights. Research Report 1, International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, DC.

MINISTRY OF TOURISM, ENVIRONMENT AND CULTURE., 2001. National Environment Act. Maseru, Lesotho

NORTH, D., 1990. Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University. Cambridge.

O’DRISCOLL JR, G.P. and HOSKINS, L., 2003. Property Rights: The key to Economic Development. Policy Analysis 482, CATO Institute. Washington, DC.

UNEP-GEF. 2014. Implementation of National Bio-safety Frameworks in Lesotho. Project Brief, Maseru. [Online]. Available from: www.environment.gov.ls/conventions Accessed on 07/01/2014

SUSTAINABLE RANGELAND MANAGEMENT THROUGH CAPACITY BUILDING OF RANGE RESOURCE GOVERNORS AND USERS: CASE STUDY OF LESOTHO I. BULANE

ABSTRACT For effective land range resource management stakeholders have to be capacitated with proper range management. This involved, chiefs, community councillors, livestock owners and herders. Historically training of these groups was done, separately and this has not borne any fruits and the rangelands continue to be mismanaged and thus high degradation. Currently the department of DRRM has adopted a more participatory approach in which all the stakeholders are provided with the same basic knowledge at the same the time to enable effective interaction within the groups.

In this particular study the trainees were local authorities (Chiefs and community councillors) and herders. The main purpose of the workshop was to familiarise herders with good practices on range management since they hardly attend the meetings as they are done during the day while they are out in the field. The knowledge herders have, has to be taken into account during formulation of regulations and laws and well as development of grazing management plans. Chiefs and the councillors on the other side are responsible for proper management of rangelands and in most cases they work independently (silos). This poses

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problems in management of the impression obtained so far from implementation of this approach is that, there is improved cooperation among the three groups as indicated from the groups which were trained. This resulted in improved understanding of the responsibility of each group as indicated during trainings. Secondly conflicts emanating from misunderstanding among the groups have been amicably resolved.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Lesotho National Action Programme (NAP) in natural resource management and combating desertification and mitigating the effects of drought states that rangelands in Lesotho have seriously deteriorated. Carrying capacities have declined to levels where rearing animals in large numbers is becoming very difficult. The decline in the quality of rangelands has affected special and fragile ecosystems in the mountain areas (Poverty Reduction Strategy, 2005). The causes of rangeland degradation in Lesotho are reported to be overstocking, poor livestock management and poor range management, exacerbated by population expansion and communal land tenure systems (National Environment Action Plan 1989; Energy Policy Framework for Lesotho; State of the Environment in Lesotho 1997, Agriculture Sector Investment Programme 1996)

Another factor which contributes to the decline of rangelands is road construction. Roads Act 1969 gives the roads authority to cut and remove tree vegetation within the limits of a road reserve where necessary for construction or maintenance of a road. The roads authority is not required to re-vegetate or rehabilitated any area denuded by construction or maintenance of works. This has resulted in significant deterioration of rangelands through soil erosion.

Lesotho Constitution and Vision 2020 advocate for protection of the environment through adoption of policies and strategies designed to protect and enhance the natural and cultural environment of Lesotho for the benefit of both present and future generations and shall endeavour to assure to all citizens a sound and environment adequate for their health and well being. Agricultural Sector Investment Programme, 1996 focused in reducing overgrazing by adopting donor supported policy initiatives such as rangeland adjudication, breed exchange and culling programme, which seemed to be the main cause of rangeland degradation. Besides many government sectors have developed regulations, strategies, policies and laws which are geared towards improvement of rangelands resources either directly or indirectly (Range Management Policy1985;The Environment Act 2008; Land Husbandry Act 1969; National Environment Policy; Lesotho Water and Sanitation policy 2007. National Strategy on Lesotho’ Biological Diversity: Conservation and sustainable use 2000;Land Policy Review Commission 2000and PovertyReduction Strategy, 2005, recommend establishment of Range Management Areas to improve community natural resources management through established Grazing Associations and village grazing schemes. Formation of Grazing Associations promotes full participation of the stakeholders at grassroots level in rangeland management.

Furthermore, Mines and Mineral Act 2005 stipulates that “the holder of a mineral right shall, in accordance with this act or any other law in force and good mining industry practices, conduct its operation in such a manner as to preserve the environment”. The holder of the mineral right shall ensure that his mineral right area is rehabilitated and ultimately reclaimed in a manner acceptable to the Commissioner and the Authority without prejudice during and at the end of the operations in any mine, excavation, waste dump, or pond the holder of the mineral right shall take such measures as are required to maintain and restore the topsoil of affected areas and other wise to restore the land substantially to the conditions in which it was prior to the commencement of the operation. Generally the mine act recognises the

35

importance of environmental protection and thus requires rehabilitation programmes on disturbed areas by mining operations to be undertaken.

Melao ea Lerotholi, 1984 and Range Management and Grazing Control Regulations 1980 clearly stipulate that access and control to the rangelands is administered by the Chiefs with the advice of the Agricultural officer. It was a requirement that rangelands in the mountain grazing zone be assessed, demarcated according to their potential so as to avoid over-utilization. This was to promote wise use and sustainable range management practices. Local councils have been instituted and are empowered to control and administer all matters related to Range Management. Much as the local councils are empowered to administer grazing control activities, they lack the authority to enforce the regulations (Local Government Act 2008).

For smooth implementation of legal framework developed by the government of Lesotho, a vigorous training programme should be undertaken for all stakeholders to enable them to interpret legislations and identify their roles and those of others correctly. Such training should include ecological aspects of resources, resource conservation, leadership roles and conflict resolution skills. There should be deliberate efforts, especially from the government, to initiate a participatory process amongst stakeholders that address the deteriorating status of rangeland resources. This has come as a major recommendation in the interventions related to improvement of rangeland resources from several programmes, studies and projects in Lesotho (Drakensberg Maloti Mountains Conservation Programme; Maloti Drakensberg Transfrontier Project; Wetlands Restoration and Conservation Project Millennium Challenge Account – Wetlands Protection; Lesotho Highlands Development Authority (LHDA); SANREMP (IFAD).

The Department of Range Resources Management has been involved in training stakeholders as a major tool to address the prevailing problem of rangeland degradation. The main stakeholders are chiefs, local councils, livestock owners and herders. In the past, the training was conducted in such a way each groups was trained separate from the others groups. Besides, the trainings were not participatory in that the trainees were given limited time to express their own views of the issues taught. This posed a problem especially in the management on rangeland resources. In most cases good ideas which stakeholders might have were often not taken into consideration. As a result, rangelands continued to degrade. In the beginning of 2013, the approach to the training was changed and conducted in a way that involved all stakeholders trained together as a unit. This has had a significant impact and has enabled the trainees not only to express group views but to exchange views and ideas among the groups. The result has been improved understanding of the responsibilities of each group and how best they can work together to improvement rangeland resources and production. In this report, we present this new approach to training resource users and resource manager in a participatory manner and present the results of the initial benefits as expressed by the stakeholders.

2.0 METHODOLOGY/APPROACH The trainings for the local authorities (community councillors and chiefs) responsible for the six pilot areas: of Mashai Community Council in Thaba-Tseka, Qibing Community Council in Mafeteng and Tosing Community Council in Quthing form the core of this study. Participatory appraisal techniques were used whereby the trainees were divided into groups of up to five members and asked to deliberate on the following questions:

What is the condition of the rangelands in your area? What could have resulted in the current condition of the rangelands?

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37

3.0 RESULTS

Group presentations Local authorities

The observation from all the community councils, for the first question they all said their rangelands were degraded and its continuing to decline.

Reasons for the degradation were as follows:

In recent years there have been prolonged droughts, which result in grass not growing well

Erratic rainfalls which normally follow the droughts washes away the soil which is expected to support growing of vegetation thus soil erosion

The seasons of the year are no longer predictable. For instance in Thaba-Tseka the expectation is that in winter it will snow. But this year there was no snow at all. This has affected the grazing capacity of the rangelands as well as the crop production. At times during summer crops and fruit trees experience late frost which normally result in poor production

Dry weather which are normally followed by heavy rains tend to kill livestock High population of livestock has also viewed to be one factor negatively affecting the

condition of rangelands. Herders trespassing the grazing areas set aside from grazing Conflicts between community councilors and the chiefs Old rangelands regulations, which are no longer able to address the current challenges Shortage of extension officers in their areas reduce mortality among local authorities Local authorities failing to do their responsibility People vandalizing interventions done by the government through watershed

management project

What should be done to address the challenges? For this one the groups came up with the following answers:

The communities should no longer follow their old way utilizing the rangelands (change the grazing pattern), rather follow the one which will favour improvement of the rangelands

They should also reduce livestock. Rear livestock which are useful for them. They should also supplement their water sources by harvesting water from roof water

tanks as well as from springs. So that during dry seasons they can still have water for their livestock as well as for crops. Construction of earth dams was mentioned as one intervention that can be followed to address shortage of water during dry seasons

People should be more engaged in stall feeding as this will reduce pressure from the highly degraded rangelands

Construction of stonelines on steep slopes will also help as they reduce water velocity and thus reduction in soil loss

38

Construction of gully structures will also reduce soil loss during heavy rains and windy seasons

Rangelands regulations have to be reviewed Both chiefs should know their responsibility and not cross the line Awareness campaigns should be intensified for all community members herders

inclusive Extension officers should frequent the communities as this motivates and boost their

morale Projects should not be imposed communities have to be involved at the planning stage

rather at the implementing phase as this compromises protection of such areas thus vandalism

Department of research should advise farmers on the types of crops which are tolerant to changing weather conditions

They concluded that community councillors, chiefs and extension officers should take the leading role in seeing that all the mentioned solutions are put into place. But the communities should also be put at the fore front by feeding them with all the information at every step from planning until the implementing stage. And their ideas should be considered and seen to be incorporated.

Results of the training evaluation All the trainees seemed to be happy about the trainings. They said it widened their minds and their relations will be highly improved. They said sometimes they feel neglected especially chiefs because they are never invited for any workshop. They were happy that the training included the community councils as at times they have misunderstanding and this result in vandalism. Community councils were grateful because though they attend many workshops they never had workshop with chiefs. So this workshop is going to improve their relations with chiefs.

Herders On addition to the above mentioned challenges, herders further stated that other things which lead to the poor current condition of the rangelands are as follows:

They are normally excluded in the management of rangelands. Yet they are the ones who know best the situation in the veld.

Livestock owners force the herders to disobey the rules mainly due to the low fines which they can easily afford.

Livestock owners together with herders do no longer respect the local authorities because of the conflicts between the leaders.

At times herders follow the steps of those powerful people in the villages such as ruling authorities, rich man in the village. There are situation where this people tend to disobey or not respect the areas set aside from grazing. Instead of herders taking those people to the relevant authorities they also graze their animals at those areas marked forleboella.

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39

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40

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41

The strength of the current workshop that was found to be outstanding is that, it promotes coordination among all stakeholders (chiefs, community councilors, livestock owners and herders). It also encourages active participation of all the stakeholders. Which was not the case with the previous approach. See more details in Table 1 below.

Table 1: Strengths of Current Training Approach

Strengths Percent Cumulative Percent

Involvement of herders in planning meeting 11.1 11.1

Highlights importance of the establishment of grazing associations 14.8 25.9

Promotes coordination among all stakeholders (chiefs, Community Councils, livestock owners and Herders) 37.0 63.0

Encourages active participation of all stakeholder 33.3 96.3

Creates common understanding about rangelands management among the stakeholders 3.7 100.0

4.0 CONCLUSION Both workshop and questionnaire findings show that the current training was very useful and it can bare fruitful results in improvement of rangelands. Training all the groups together was very imperative because it enabled all stakeholders to share ideas and end with a common. For example herders raised that in most cases they are excluded by the authorities in the forums discussing management of rangelands. Yet they may contribute or play a vital role in the planning of rangeland resources than to include them at the implementation phase as is the case. Their reason being that they spend most of their time in the veld and they have better understanding of what is happening there than any else. This made the authorities to be aware that involvement of herders in the management of rangelands. The approach of the current training also improves relations among the groups and thus reduces conflicts. In the chief and community councillors being the authorities responsible for rangeland management were never given trainings together. Chiefs had little training than local councillors and they information they gathered from those trainings there was a possibility of being interpreted differently to suit interest of each group. And instead of resolving the conflict between the authorities, it was escalating it. The good relations between the groups is very important

REFERENCES Agency of International Development of United States of America 1995: Community Natural

Resource Management- Final Report. Bonham, C.D. 1989. Measurements for Terrestrial Vegetation. New York: John Wiley and

Sons Chapeyama Oliver; USAID 2004: “Rangeland Management in Lesotho”. Report on

Assessment of Needs to Reintroduction of Grazing Fees

42

Child R. Dennis et al 1984: Arid and Semiarid lands "Sustainable use and management in developing countries”

Du Toit, P.C.V. 1997. Description of a method for assessing wild condition in the Karoo. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 14(3):90 – 93Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being: Synthesis. Island Press, Washington. 155pp

Furstenburg, D. 2002. Optimising game production in a new era: the road to financial success. Grootfontein Agric vol 5(2002): 17 – 27

Hartley Dawn for PARTICIP GmbH Consultants 2001: “Synthesis Report on Preparing Integrated Natural Resource Management” for the Government of Lesotho, Ministry of Environment, Gender and Youth Affairs

IUCN 1995: Indigenous Knowledge Systems and Natural Resource Management in Southern Africa

Kingdom of Lesotho (1984) (1984): Melao ea Lerotholi Kingdom of Lesotho 1987: Report of the Land policy Review Commission Kingdom of Lesotho 1989: National Environmental Action Plan Kingdom of Lesotho 1994: National Action Plan to Implement Agenda 21 Kingdom of Lesotho 1996: Agricultural Sector Investment Programme: policies, Institutional

frameworks and strategies Kingdom of Lesotho 2000: Land Policy Review Commission Kingdom of Lesotho 2000: Lesotho Vision 2020 Kingdom of Lesotho 2001(Draft): Energy Policy Framework for the Kingdom of Lesotho Kingdom of Lesotho 2003; Programme for Implementation of Local Government in Lesotho Kingdom of Lesotho 2005: Poverty Reduction Strategy Kingdom of Lesotho: National Environmental Action Plan Kingdom of Lesotho: Range Management and Grazing Control Regulations Legal Notice No.

39 of 1980 Kingdom of Lesotho: The land Act No 17 of 1979 Kingdom of Lesotho: The Land Husbandry Act of 1969 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA). 2005. Ecosystems and Human Well-Being:

Synthesis. Island Press, Washington. 155pp Ministry of Agriculture and Marketing 1985: Range Management Policy National Environment Secretariat 1997: The State of the Environment in Lesotho National Environment Secretariat 2000: National strategy on Lesotho’s Biological Diversity:

Conservation and Sustainable Use Portillo E. M et al 1991: Planning for Management of Communal Natural Resources affected

by Livestock Smith, E.L. 1994a. Class notes for Range Management RAM 456/556. Fast Copy, University

of Arizona, Tucson. Smith, E.L. 1994b. Class Lectures (1 Novembe-30 November, 1994) for Range Management

RAM 456/556. School of Renewable Natural Resources, University of Arizona, Tucson.

Stoddart, L.A., A.D. Smith, and T.W. Box. 1975. Range Management. New York: McGraw-Hill, 532 pp

UNEP 1990: Rangeland and Soil Conservation UNEP 2000: From Policy to Implementation

43

SUB-THEME 2: CLIMATE SMART IMPROVEMENT OF

ECOSYSTEMS (BIODIVERSITY, FORESTRY,

RANGELANDS, WETLANDS AND DRY-LAND CROPPING).

44

CLIMATE SMART APPROACH: A KEY TOWARDS IMPROVEMENT OF ECOSYSTEMS BY B.T. SEKOLI

ABSTRACT Ecosystems are a key life supporting land-based resource, maintaining the functioning of a wide array of secondary production systems. Management of ecosystems demands informed coordination of various functions deriving from three factors: climate regime; edaphic features; and cultural/technological practices. These factors determine the character of the ecosystem.

Climate consists of weather elements and includes phenology and physiographic issues such as slope and aspect. It is a driver and determinant of the photosynthesis process and consequently controls biological yield. Through the hydrological cycle, climate controls water availability. It also influences edaphic conditions of ecosystems and is the main agent of land degradation.

The challenge to improve ecosystems has not always been as acute as it is today. The pressure on land is increasing due to rising populations and economic needs and expectations. Added to this and more critical, the changing climate aggravates risks on the survival of the ecosystems. Climate smart improvement of ecosystems is fundamental for successful sustainable land management (SLM) programmes. The approach should be to describe current climate and ecosystems, to project the future climate and to model the impact of the emerging climate on the ecosystem. The impact assessment process should be based on influence of distinct climate elements on corresponding ecosystem components. It is to be supported by sound networks to measure climate and geo-physical elements. Climate smart management calls for interdisciplinary participation including meteorologists, hydrologists, soil scientists and biological scientists. SLM programmes should be underpinned by culture of networking involving various institutions.

1.0 INTRODUCTION The influence of climate on the productivity of land resources has since civilization began, always been appreciated. However, conscious efforts, based on scientific discipline and approaches to use the understanding of the climate behaviour to improve the performance of ecosystems in particular only began during the last fifty or so years( 4th Assessment Report IPCC 2007). Rising global populations and heightened expectations for a better life demand sustained and predictable returns from investments on water resources development, forests and rangelands protection, among others.

Productivity and improvement of ecosystems depends on the photosynthesis process and the hydrologic cycle in order to optimally produce vegetative and water yields. Three factors or variables determine the photosynthesis and hydrological processes: the climate regime, the edaphic conditions and the technological practices. Of the three, climate has for a long time been taken for granted, with planning for production being largely based on the assumption that climate is the same from year to year, barring of course some normal variability’s.

The advent of climate change requires better understanding and management of the dynamic interrelations between the three factors of production mentioned above and additionally capturing the challenge of the changing and new climate element. Climate smart improvement of the ecosystems requires meteorological, hydrological, phenological and physiographic data. From the understanding of the ecosystem needs and potential, the data can be matched singularly or grouped through a direct linear relationship, or a complex

45

computer based model to anticipate performance of elements of the hydrological cycle and the biological yield.

2.0 THE HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE-GLOBAL TRENDS IN APPLICATION OF CLIMATE SCIENCE FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT.

Measurement of weather elements to develop climate records started around the 1850s. First records in Lesotho began in 1879.

Later, scientists elaborated the atmospheric processes through physical and dynamic representations (equations), to understand the make-up of the weather and ultimately develop weather forecasting techniques.

Application of the broad science of meteorology has over the years developed, driven mainly by its response to economic and social demands, which change from time to time. It now extends to practically all facets of life, mainly to reduce the risk factor and promote sustainability of development endeavours.

Below are some key milestones highlighting the development of meteorology to meet development and social needs.

1880-1900: Weather forecasting commenced in the 1880s and its earliest application was to improve safety and efficiency in sea navigation. This period also saw the creation of a system to classify global climate through vegetative distribution and patterns. The leader in this area was a Russian biologist, Koppen.

1900-1920: In this period, the use of meteorology extended to the development of air navigation. It also found effective use in military applications during World War 1, even gaining a new weather term ‘front’ from the military formation.

1920-1940: Koppens approach gained wider use and the League of Nations, through the International Meteorological Organisation, created the Commission for Climatology in 1929. This marked the first effort, globally coordinated, to improve land productivity through matching it with the reigning climate. The term agricultural meteorology was first used in this period although it was to be defined better in the 1980s.

However the need for increased focus to match productivity with climate was dampened by the fact that land (including virgin lands) was still abundant to compensate for crop failure at one particular place with success elsewhere. But more important, chemical fertilizers were introduced, and they eased the pressure on the demand for land based production by spectacularly increasing yields.

1940-1970: Despite World War 2, the globe saw unprecedented population explosion and the resultant increased pressure on the land. With virgin lands diminishing and fertilizer use peaking, there was a renewed need to harmonise climate with food production and ecosystem conservation to improve food security in particular. New words like AGROCLIMATIC ZONING came into use (in 1947) to determine suitability of species to climate.

To meet the challenge, the United Nations Organisation created among others, the Food and Agriculture Organisation and the World Meteorological Organization. The later in turn established the Commission for Agrometeorology and the Commission for Hydrometeorology to provide scientific leadership in linking climate with the exploitation of land resources. At the same time, the largely generic Koppen approach at estimating land productivity lost much use as Thornthwaite method for climate classification and crop suitability was adopted (first introduced in 1948). This method uses the MOISTURE INDEX, employing potential-evaporation rather than evaporation to estimate crop water requirements. It is dynamic and more specific to the needs of the area of production. The period also saw

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1.1 Rainfall depth

x x x x x x x X x x X x x

1.2 Rainfall intensity

x X x x X x x x

1.3 Rainfall return period

x X x X x x

2.0 Evaporation

x

2.1 Evaporation rate

x x x X x x x x

2.2 Evapotranspiration

x x x x x x x X x x x x x

3.0 Temperature (air & soil)

3.1 Minimum temp

x x x x x x x x x

3.2 Maximum temp

x x x x x X x x x

4.0 Radiation

4.1 Angle (latitude)

x x

4.2 Duration x x x x

4.3 Intensity x x x x x

5.0 Humidity

5.1 Minimum humidity

x x x x X x x x

5.2 Maximum humidity

x x x x X x x x

6.0 Wind

6.1 Wind speed (min & max)

x x X x x x x x

49

6.2 Wind direction

7.0 Surface water level

7.1 Stage of level

x x x X x x x

7.2 Temporal variation

x x x X x x x

7.3 Stage-discharge relationship

x x x x

7.4 Flood discharge

x x x x x

7.5 Flood frequency

x x x x x

8.0 Sediment

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8.2 Transport rates

x x x X x x x

8.3 Sedimentation rate

x x x X x x x

9.0 Soil moisture

9.1 Infiltration and percolation

x x x x x x x x x x X x x x

9.2 Moisture content

x x x x x x x x x X x x x

10.0 Water quality

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10.2 Physical properties

x x x

10.3 Chemical properties

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10.4 Biological properties

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11.0 Ground water reserves and resources

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50

(point & aerial)

11.2 Yields x x x x x x x x x x X x x x

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11.4 GW / SW interaction

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x x x x x x x x x x X x x x

12.2 Downstream (quantity & quality)

x x x X x x x

12.3 Analysis of long term modifications

x x x x x x x x x x X x x x

13. Physiographic

13.1 Aspect x x x x x x x X x x x

13.2 Slope x x x x x x x X x x x

5.0 CAPTURING THE CLIMATE CHANGE ELEMENT

Climate smart improvement of the ecosystem will in addition to the phenological and other requirements detailed above, also entail optimising productivity in the face of the changing climate. This is achieved by using predicted climate change conditions to estimate the changes in the climate elements. The art of weather forecasting has improved dramatically in recent years and permits climate change modelling which incorporates photosynthetic, water cycle and soil parameters to allow (impacted) sector specific performance models. Use of modelling also allows for effective monitoring of the condition of the ecosystem to permit prompt application of corrective measures where deterioration in the ecosystem is anticipated or observed.

6.0 CLIMATE CHANGE SCENARIOS FOR LESOTHO

Climate change scenarios that were generated by the Lesotho Meteorological Services, used six global circulation models using historical data for the years 1961 to 1994. They predict warmer future climatic conditions over Lesotho, lower precipitation, particularly in the spring and summer seasons, a higher precipitation in winter and a gradually increasing precipitation in autumn. The result could be a shift in precipitation patterns in such a way that good seasonal rains that characterize the summer season could then set in late in autumn. This is likely to have serious implications for agro-ecological conditions in the country as the growing season is pushed forward and perhaps shortened. On the other hand, an increase in

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51

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53

7.0 CURRENT SITUATION OF THE ECOLOGY Lesotho faces the biggest challenge in the conservation of the environment in general but particularly with regards to ecology and wetlands. The ecosystem is very fragile and is hosted by erodible terrain due to its sloppy nature. The summer rain fall is mainly convective and therefore very intense and because it often comes after prolonged dry periods when grass cover is very poor, its effect on the top soil is very destructive. Climate therefore has always placed critical constraints on the performance of the ecosystems. It is also negatively and increasingly destroying the vital wetlands.

8.0 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON THE ECOLOGY The Lesotho Meteorological Services has simulated through general circulation models the impact of climate change on various sectors. The results are as follows;

The Water Sector: GCM simulations of future scenarios show a reduced surface and sub-surface runoff under climate change as a result of the predicted lower precipitation. This could translate into an ecological disaster, and lead to the closure of many water based economic and social activities.

The Forestry Sector: The results generated by the Holdridge Life Zone Classification model show a potentialfor a widespread occurrence of sub-tropical dry forest and temperate moist forest cover under climate change.

The Rangeland Sector: Results that were generated by the SPUR modelindicate that due to reduced and delayed precipitation under climate change, the country is like to loose aa lot of its nutrious climax grass species and gain a lot of hardy and less nutritionous varieties, with serious consequences for livestock productivity.

Soils and Desertification: The GCM scenarios predict conditions that will have an incremental effect on the rate and magnitude of soil erosion in the countssry. High temperatures, poor grass cover, lower rainfall,frequent droughts, rainstorms, strong winds and the melting of heavier snow are all likely to increase soil loss far above current levels.

9.0 MONITORING THE CONDITION OF THE ECOLOGY In April 2014, with the release of the Fifth Assessment Report on the Status of Climate Change the IPCC commented: vulnerability to climate change and capacity to respond to it varies from country to country. In some countries, the negative impacts of climate change are irreversible.

In the same month of April 2014, the Honourable Selibe Mochoboboroane, the Minister of Science and Information Technology, speaking on behalf of Government of Lesotho, made a statement following the heavy rains. He gave an account of loss of human life, damage and the destruction of roads and bridges. His statement included these details: In the Mohales Hoek district, heavy rains washed away top soil, including entire crop stands in a number of fields. The numbers of fields affected were as follows, Ha Mokotso, 65, Ha Morena, 80, and Ha heko, 50.

This is certainly an alarming example of an irreversible impact of high intensity rainfall associated with emerging climate scenarios in Lesotho.

Qualitative monitoring of the ecosystems is a prerequisite to effective and sustainable improvement of ecosystems, including wetlands. In Lesotho, assessment of sediment transfer after a rain event has not been accorded a high priority it deserves. Consequently, the country has no official figure for annual topsoil loss due to erosion, although land degradation is the

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55

the makeup of the ecosystems and wetlands. It is only through this that appropriate linkages between the climate and wetlands can be possible.

On top, the institutional mandates for meteorological services, hydrological services, forests, range lands and water resources management should be well understood and respected. Management of the networking through relevant sectors and institutions is critical.

Improvement of ecosystem should be based on systematic, long term proactive strategies based on modelling the impact of climate elements. The short term reactive and site specific actions will not be sustainable

AN ANALYSIS OF THE PRODUCTIVITY OF MAIZE AND BEANS UNDER CONSERVATION AGRICULTURE IN UGANDA. BY: PAUL MWAMBU, ROBERT NABANYUMYA (PHD), STEPHEN MUWAYA & SARAH MUJABI

ABSTRACT This study sought to evaluate the performance of conservation agriculture (CA) technologies by comparing the productivity levels of maize and beans production under CA with conventional farming. The analysis is based on findings from the first cropping season (March- July, 2012). In total, 420 smallholder farmers were supported to host CA demos and the data was used for comparing productivity between CA and conventional farming. Data from 246 farmers reveals that the yield under CA practices more than doubled compared to the conventional (non-CA) farming practices. Further, farmers in Lyantonde district, where the rainfall was minimal and very unreliable reported some reasonable harvest under CA but total crop failure under the conventional agriculture. The findings, especially from Lyantonde district, reaffirm the scientific underpinning of the CA principles being climate resilient. Results from Kamuli district on the other hand, where rains continued for some time after planting, indicate that where weather conditions are more favorable, CA is more exciting as the percentage yield increase under CA was in the excess of 300%. These results indicate that farmers will produce more than double the yield they would get under conventional agriculture. These results show highly significant yield gains under CA practices and significant contributions to food production. Further, CA is land-saving, and this is an important issue for the poor smallholder farmers because they can still have viable food production on smaller area. But high labor demands and scarcity of mulching materials (for the first trial) in CA present some problems in adoption, particularly for the poorer farmers.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Approximately 36% of Uganda is affected by severe land degradation and 10% by very severe land degradation. Land degradation leads to loss of reliability of our land and natural resources and increases our vulnerability to the impacts of climate change (NEMA 2007).

Land degradation is a major threat to world food security especially in dry land areas. More innovative and efficient use of land promises to be the only way to improve agricultural production and stem food insecurity. Available information in Uganda shows that the poor are increasingly farming marginal land prone to land degradation. Expansion into marginal areas brings increased risks of crop failure and loss of soil, forest, watershed functions, and biodiversity. Consequently there is an urgent need to break the cycle between poverty and land degradation by employing strategies that empower farmers economically and promote sustainable agricultural intensification using efficient, effective and affordable SLM practices. Sustainability of agricultural production in the cattle corridor in Uganda will be achieved

56

mainly if the promotion of Conservation Agriculture (CA) is given priority in many of the dry land programmes.

The Government of Uganda, through the Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) with support from United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and Global Environmental Facility (GEF) is implementing the project “Mainstreaming Sustainable Land Management in the Cattle corridor districts (SLM-Main)” to overcome land degradation in some of Uganda’s Cattle Corridor Districts. The project is part of Uganda Government’s Strategic Investment Framework (SIF) on Sustainable Land Management (SLM), which, itself, is within the framework of the Development Strategy and Investment Plan (DSIP) and the National Action Program (NAP) to combat desertification. The overall goal of the project is “Sustainable Land Management” providing the basis for economic development, food security and sustainable livelihoods while restoring the ecological integrity of the Cattle Corridor ecosystem. The project supported processes to develop District Environment Action Plan (DEAP) in the focus districts as part of the SLM mainstreaming into district action plans.

The DEAP process that the project supported clearly identified declining soil fertility and unreliable rainfall as key dryland issues. In response to addressing these problems, the project invested some resources in promoting sustainable land management technologies. Small scale farmers in the cattle corridor have been supported to learn new techniques to help them adapt to climate change and declining soil fertility. These technologies constitute important components within the climate change adaptation strategies of small scale farmers, to counter results of unsustainable use of land resources in crop and animal production, and, deforestation for charcoal production. Realizing the severe impact of these practices, initial project support was directed to over 400 small farm holders in the cattle corridor to implement Conservation Agriculture (CA) activities among other interventions.

This paper outlines the results from supporting individual smallholder farmers from 14 local communities in six of the cattle corridor districts; namely Kamuli, Kaliro, Lyantonde, Sembabule, Nakasongola and Nakaseke. Each farmer hosted ½ acre demonstration plot of both maize and beans in the first cropping season of April to July, 2012. An attempt has been made to analyze data from over 50% of the participating farmers, being representative of all the groups that participated in CA trials that were implemented in two seasons; the April to July and September to December 2012 seasons. In total, over 400 smallholder farmers were supported to host CA demos.

The promotion of CA was undertaken in collaboration with Rural Enterprise Development Services (REDS) Ltd, a Ugandan enterprise which was contracted by the Zambia Conservation Farming Unit (CFU) to promote Conservation Agriculture activities under the Conservation Agriculture Regional Programme (CARP) funded by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Royal Norwegian Government.

Data from 246 farmers reveals that the yield under CA practices more than doubled compared to the traditional (non-CA) farming practices. Further, farmers in Lyantonde, where the rainfall was minimal and very unreliable reported some reasonable harvest under CA but total crop failure under the conventional agriculture. The findings especially from Lyantonde reaffirm the scientific underpinning of the CA principles being climate resilient. Results from Kamuli district on the other hand, where rains continued for some time after planting, indicate that where weather conditions are more favorable, CA is more exciting as the percentage yield increase under CA was in the excess of 300%.

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61

4.0 DISCUSSION An investment of about USD 35000 into 400 acres of land spread in six districts yielded a percentage increase in productivity of maize of up to 174% and productivity of beans of up to 167%. This is more than double the total production of maize and beans. Moreover, farmers all over Uganda start consuming maize and beans as soon as they start ripening, and that quantity is not measured and therefore not reflected in this increase. The fresh maize is roasted, whereas fresh beans are steamed. In these forms, both are a delicacy and it is the form in which they are shared with neighbors and friends. To that effect, the quantities consumed in these forms are often not recorded because they are harvested as required. Considering that this practice is done whether under CA or not; it means that its effect is null. The increase in productivity is thus a consequency of implementation of the CA approach and it may be attributed to the use of the combination of fertilizers (to provide for otherwise leached nutrients), mulching (conservation of moisture), use of herbicides to minimize soil disturbance and the use of basins to trap moisture and efficient use the fertilizers. No wonder, farmers in the pilot districts are excited and looking forward to plant crops in the same manner during the following seasons.

It is worthy noting that eighty per cent of the Ugandan population is rural based and 68% of them survive on subsisting agriculture (UBOS, 2007) and so this CA input that helps to increase productivity to such a magnitude is important to the overall country economy. The decline in soil fertility in smallholder systems is a major factor inhibiting equitable development in much of sub-Saharan Africa and especially Uganda. CA provides for the use of appropriate fertilizers both organic and inorganic. However, despite widespread recognition of the importance of inorganic fertilizer use, use rates remain alarmingly low – Ugandan farmers use an average of only one kilogram of nutrients per hectare of arable land, compared to 35 in Kenya, 22 in Malawi and 13 in Tanzania (Wallace & Knausenberger, 1997). This low rate of fertilizer use is particularly worrisome given that Uganda has one of the highest rates of soil nutrient depletion among countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Stoorvogel and Smaling, 1990). The advantage with CA is that fertilizer application is at specific sites, basically only in the basins and this reduces the amounts required and thus the cost of fertilizers per unit area is also reduced. The low cost would encourage the farmers to use specified fertilizers. This project encouraged and supported farmers to acquire hybrid animals so that in the event of lack of chemical fertilizers, animal manure could be applied the basins prior to planting,

Ordinarily, the farmers could periodically fallow their land, which allows it to lie idle for one or more seasons primarily to restore its fertility (Kwesiga, et.al, 1999). Improved fallow, which is the deliberate planting of trees or shrubs in rotation with crops have great potential for improving soil fertility. However, with the increasing pressure on land, the fallowing of land is increasingly becoming a luxury that is not affordable anymore. By providing Nitrogen to crops, tree fallows can help farmers increase their incomes and food security. They may also help in the reduction of soil degradation and curb deforestation. Forage, shrubs, trees and grasses are very important for agriculture and livestock, particularly the trees have high foliage productivity, and high leaf protein content (Rehman, 2010). The woody biomass from these shrubs and trees provide a very high potential charcoal production and thus can sustainably improve incomes of subsisting communities. CA is therefore an appropriate approach to fallowing. Most of the farmers that have implemented CA have had surplus for sale. This is important for not only their livelihood but also the environment as well.

62

5.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS CA involves adopting a number of agronomic practices that together comprise a farming system. If these practices are followed correctly, a number of important benefits arise:

a) Farmers can plant a larger area because they are not moving or turning over soil for each part before they plant. This saves money and time; e.g. it has been estimated that ploughing 1 acre of land to 10 cm depth involves turning over 400 tons of soil, which costs energy (be it manual or mechanical).

b) Farmers can prepare their land as soon as they have harvested. This allows for early planting at the onset of the rains which is critical for success. Early planting permits timely weeding.

c) Labor requirement for land preparation for planting is spread over several months rather than being done at once.

d) Mulching by retaining residues reduces soil and water loss, improves infiltration, reduces soil temperatures and in time, improves soil fertility.

e) Conservation Agriculture leads to increased yields. There is cost efficiency and cost effectiveness in CA as it leads to reduced costs per unit production of maize and beans mainly because of the improved returns on labour and purchased inputs. The improved performance in dry, wet and normal seasons makes effective use of the whole year for crop production.

It is therefore recommended that communities in the Uganda cattle corridor districts, and indeed communities from drylands the world over should be encouraged to implement CA in order to ensure food security as well as protect the environment.

REFERENCES Kwesiga, F., Franzel, S., Place, F., Phiri, D., Simwanza, C.P., 1999. Sesbania sesban

improved fallows in eastern Zambia: their inception, development, and farmer enthusiasm. Agro-forestry Systems 47, 49-6.

NEMA- (National Environment Management Authority) 2007. State of environment report for Uganda. The Republic of Uganda. Kampala, Uganda.

Stoorvogel, J.J. & Smaling, E.M.A. 1990. Assessment of soil nutrient depletion in sub-Saharan Africa: 1983-2000. Report 28. Wageningen, The Netherlands, Winand Staring Centre.

Uganda Bureau of Statistics (UBOS). 2007. Uganda National Household Survey, 2005/06: Report on the agricultural moduleKampala: UBOS.

Wallace, M.B. and W. I. Knausenberger. 1997. Inorganic fertilizer use in Africa: Environmental and economic dimensions.Environmental and Natural Resources Policy and Training Project, Applied Research, Technical Assistance and Training.Winrock International Environmental Alliance, Arlington, VA, USA.

63

EVALUATION OF COVER CROPS PERFORMANCE AND IMPACT ON SOIL NUTRIENT STATUS UNDER MINIMUM TILLAGE IN TWO AGRO-ECOLOGICAL ZONES OF LESOTHO BY: B. MAPESHOANE*, S. NKHASI*, L. MOTHUNYA* AND L. THIOMBIANO**

*Department of Soil Science & Resource Conservation, Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Lesotho, P.O. Roma 180, Lesotho

**FAO, SFE Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

ABSTRACT Wetlands hydroperiod are important for both wetland and catchment health, it is therefore critical to understand the hydrology of wetlands if we want to manage them effectively and sustainably. Soil characterisation study was carried out at Khalong-La-Lithunya to assess the hydrology in two paired geologically homogenous wetlands of which one was restored and the other used as reference. Hydrology was evaluated by measuring, soil water levels in piezometers and soil hydraulic properties in the wetlands. The soil samples were taken along a slope gradient transects from four depths at 200 mm interval to depth of 800 mm from which piezometers had been previously installed by MCA-Lesotho wetland project. A four year data on piezometer water levels was compared with the current year piezometer water levels. There is significant difference (P 0.05) in bulk density, porosity and hydraulic conductivity between reference and restored wetlands with high bulk density (0.96 ± 0.16 g cm-3), high porosity (0.64 %) and low hydraulic conductivity (2.74 ± 1.86 mm hr-1) in the reference wetlands. Even though the restored wetlands exhibit significantly difference in soil hydrological properties from reference wetland there was no significant difference within 800 mm soil depth and across the slope gradient. The piezometer water table levels were higher in reference wetlands (306± 16 mm deep from the soil surface) while the restored wetlands water levels were 510± 6 mm deep from the soil surface. The soil hydrological properties indicated that reference wetlands may still exhibit compaction to some extent.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Livestock grazing represents the major anthropogenic pressure on many wetlands of Lesotho. Overstocking and mismanagement of the rangelands has resulted into severe degradation and drying up of wetlands (MCA, 2012). Lesotho contains some of unique wetland ecosystems, of palustrine system dominating the highlands areas and the majority of which are associated with watersheds. These are mires with highly organic soils that have formed peat in most cases. Wetlands provide very important ecological functions, such as supporting biodiversity and act as a carbon pool (Mitsch & Gosselink, 2007). Wetlands also provide very important hydrological functions such as natural filtration of nutrients, contaminants and sediments thereby improving water quality, cycling the nutrients up the food chain, and retention of water to decrease peak flows. Water retention reduces flooding, increases ground water infiltration, increases watercourse base flows and minimises erosion (Acreman & Bullock, 2003).

According to (Rezanezhad et al.., 2009) the nature of water flow and storage in peats requires knowledge of the unique physical properties of this porous medium such that the increase degree of decomposition with depth below the ground surface results in a decrease in the size of particles and inter-particle pores, and an increase in the bulk density which affects soil hydrology within the soil profile. They observed that a reduction in an active porosity and a decrease in pore size, and the saturated hydraulic conductivity of peat lands by several orders

64

of magnitudes within the depth of 500 mm from the soil surface. However, some studies report that layering of peat and other factors give a more complicated relation between soil hydraulic properties and depth (Passoni et al., 2009; Bradley et al., 2013; Jarvis et al., 2013). According to (Jarvis et al., 2013) hydraulic conductivity of the surface soil layers at and near saturation is an important parameter regulating the partitioning of precipitation between surface runoff and ground water recharge, plant water uptake and rates of biogeochemical cycling in soil.

Wetland hydrology refers to the inflow and the outflow of water through a wetland and its interaction with other site factors. The land is characterized as having wetland hydrology when under normal circumstances, the land surface is either inundated or the upper portion of the soil is saturated at a sufficient frequency and duration to create anaerobic conditions (Hunt et al., 2012). A wetland condition occurs where topographic and hydro-geologic conditions are favourable and a sufficient long-term source of water exists (Bibi et al., 2010). A hydroperiod is referred to as the pulsing water flow regime, it is the seasonal pattern of water level of a wetland and a hydrologic signature of each wetland type (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). Water level fluctuations especially their extent, frequency, and duration, are dominant forces controlling the functioning of aquatic ecosystems (Leira and Cantonati, 2008). Considering the key role of surface water flow patterns in shaping substrates, biogeochemical cycling, restoration, and ecosystem characteristics in wetlands, the impacts of anthropogenic pressures such as grazing and their effects on soil properties are of great interest. The main objective of this study was to characterise the soil hydrology of the restored and reference wetlands of Khalong-la-Lithunya from soil hydraulic parameters and underground water levels. Measurements of soil hydraulic properties are costly; therefore, the study selected a few parameter and pedotransfer functions such as bulk density and total porosity. It is hypothesised that the restored wetlands have higher hydrology than reference wetlands.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 STUDY SITE

Khalong-la-Lithunya catchment is located between Oxbow and the Letseng diamond area in the northern district of Lesotho at 28 53S, 28 47E. The population in the area is sparse, with herders from nearby villages being the only regular users of the rangelands and wetland. The wetland drains into the Motete River. Two micro-catchments previously defined by the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA, 2010) Wetland Project as reference and restored wetlands were used as study area (Figure 1). The “reference wetland” is where grazing is not controlled and no conservation measures are employed. The second micro-catchment defined as “restored wetland” is where grazing is not allowed and conservation measures have been laid down for at least 2 years. Characteristic of the wetlands are given in Table 1. The dominant wetland soils in the region are Hydric Cryohemists soils (MCA, 2010). The annual rainfall ranges from as 1000 to 1200 mm (Lesotho Meteorological Services).

Table 1: Study site wetland attributes (MCA, 2010)

NAME TYPE WETLAND AREA(ha)

TRIBUTARIES(km)

OUTLET ELEVATION(masl)

Khalong-La-Lithunya

Reference 191.00 10.63 3,015

Khalong-La-Lithunya

Restoration 242.38 10.84 3,090

65

Fig. 1: Two wetlands of Khalong-la-Lithunya the northern wetland was used as reference and

the southern one was restored wetland is a main stream and the numbers are catchments. Source: MCA (2012).

2.2 DATA COLLECTION

For characterization of the soil hydrological properties and processes, soil auguring was done along transects at depths of 0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80 and 80-100 cm. The soil physical properties that were investigated were bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, porosity, water content, and soil texture. Soil moisture content was determined using the gravimetric method in which water content (�g) was expressed as the mass of water per mass of dry soil.Bulk density was determined by using the core method expressed as the dry weight of soil per volume of soil.

Soil porosity is the ratio of the volume of soil pores to the total soil volume. Bulk density indirectly provides a measure of the soil porosity

0 21km

Streams

Wetland

Boundary

Ü

4

6

M 1

23

5

M

1

2

Mal

ito

Lira

mon

g

Motete

b

dsds V

M

66

and is closely related to the soil porosity through the following relationship:

p

dsPorosity 1 (where p is particle density)

In the laboratory undisturbed core soil samples were subjected to a constant falling head, to estimate the saturated method (Knowles et al. 2011). Groundwater levels data previously recorded once a month over a period of three years from the three observation points on the restored catchment and one from the reference wetlands that were recorded as a benchmark. Similar data was measured from the same observation points using a stuff gauges and piezometers once a month for one year. The observations were labelled as M , 1, 2 , on restored and M on reference wetlands shown in Figure 1. Data was analysed using general linear model (SPSS, 2003).

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 SOIL HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES IN THE TOP 200 MM OF THE SOIL The analysis of variance shows that in the top 200 mm of the soil there was a significant difference in bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and porosity between restored and reference wetlands at 0.05 significance level (Table 2). The soil moisture content in the two wetlands was 0.98 ± 0.21 m3 m-3 in the reference wetlands and 1.09±0.71 m3 m-3 in the restored wetlands. The bulk density was significantly higher 0.961 ± 0.161 g cm-3 in reference wetlands compared to 0.649±0.21g cm-3 in the restored wetlands. And so the inverse was true for porosity which was significantly lower porosity (0.638± 0.60) than restored wetlands (0.75±0.08). Hydraulic conductivity was 2.77 ± 1.86 mm hr-1, and 6.22± 2.61mm hr-1 in the reference and restored wetlands respectively which also imply the inverse of bulk density. MCA (2010) reported infiltration rates of 5 mm hr-1 in the wetland of Khalong –la-Lithunya. The high bulk density and ultimately low conductivity in reference wetlands was attributed to livestock trampling effect causing soil compaction which in turn affects hydrology of the wetlands because with increase in compaction, movement of water within the soil is restricted. Compaction reduces the volume of micro-pores resulting into densification of soils (Russo et al., 2012). Water retention and transmission are very sensitive to the location of the compact layers because infiltration characteristics are affected. Compaction decreases water movement by decreasing the void volume and by changing void size distribution to block some connections between voids (Jarvis et al., 2013).

67

Table 2: Comparisons of soil hydraulic properties means between restored and reference wetlands at 200mm

3.2 SOIL HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES WITH DEPTH IN RESTORED WETLAND. The analysis of variance shows that there is no significant difference between soil depth 200mm, 400mm, 600mm, and 800mm for moisture content, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and porosity (Table 3).

TABLE 3: Analysis of variance for soil parameters with depth in restored wetland

SOIL PROPERTIES DF SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL SOIL MOISTURE CONTENT 3 0.818 BULK DENSITY 3 0.856 POROSITY 3 0.860 HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY 3 0.468 TOTAL 11

Bulk density has shown to increase with depth while porosity and hydraulic conductivity decrease. These may be attributed to migration of clay particles from topsoil to the subsoil where the particles fill the existing pore spaces, resulting in pore space volume and increase in bulk density. In the top layers there is much concentration of fauna and plants roots which increase penetration of water in the soil and air circulation thus increasing porosity and hydraulic conductivity of the soil.

SOIL HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES

F-value REFERENCE WETLAND

RESTORED WETLAND

Soil moisture content Mean Std error

0.220

0.982 0.860

1.093 0.290

Bulk density; Mean ( g cm-3 ) Std error

0.015

0.961 0.657

0.650 0.846

Porosity; Mean Std error

0.019

0.637 0.247

0.752 0.326

Soil hydraulic conductivity Mean ( mm hr-1 ) Std error

0.025

2.768 0.758

6.222 1.063

68

TABLE 4: Soil hydraulic properties means for restored wetlands from 200 mm to 800 mm depth.

SOIL DEPTH(cm)

Moisture Content Bulk Density Porosity

Hydraulic conductivity

200 mm Mean Std. dev.

1.093 ±0.710

0.649 ±0.207

0.752 ±0.079

6.222 ±2.60

400 mm Mean Std. dev.

1.501 ±1.44

0.859 ±0.497

0.673 ±0.190

6.878 ±2.60

600 mm Mean Stddev.

1.553 ±2.35

0.872 ±0.549

0.671 ±0.207

5.703 ±3.79

800 mm Mean Std. dev.

2.067 ±1.75

0.809 ±0.646

0.702 ±2.34

3.936 ±1.86

3.3 SOIL WATER LEVELS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SOIL PROPERTIES In restored wetland, there is high water levels than in reference wetland and this implies that decrease in water table increases water level hence why there is high water table in reference wetlands than in the restored wetlands and this might be due to hard pan that might be existing in the reference wetlands which restricts the downward movement of water down the profile. Also lateral movement of water within the soil is affected by the slope therefore this result in to accumulation of water in the bottom slope which can increase the water table due to water accumulation, so the assumption is that the slope might be much steeper in the reference wetlands than in the restored wetlands.

Table 5. Soil water levels in both restored and reference wetlands

IDENTITY WATER LEVEL IN REFERENCE WETLAND

WATER LEVEL IN RESTORED WETLAND

UPPER SLOPE 36.75 32 MIDDLE SLOPE 11 40 BOTTOM SLOPE 34.25 108

4.0 CONCLUSION The study findings revealed that the soil hydraulic properties (bulk density, porosity, texture and hydraulic conductivity) and the wetland water levels within a wetland are different between restored and reference wetlands, and data adds to the baseline information of the conservation efforts in the area. The understanding is that livestock trampling within a wetland affects the soil hydraulic properties which in turn influence the movement and water quality from the wetland. Cattle maybe kept on the outer edges of the wetland, away from permanently flooded areas especially in the dry season so that cattle do not churn up very wet soils, making them susceptible to erosion.

69

REFERENCES Acreman M and Bullock A, 2003. Role of wetlands in the hydrological cycle. Hydrology

and Earth System Sciences, 7:358-389 Bibi R.N Gondwe, H. Seng-Hong, Wdowinski S.B .Peter, 2010. Hydrological Dynamic of

the Groundwater-Dependent Sian Ka’an wetland, Mexico, Derived from In SAR and SAR Data. Wetlands, 30:1-13.

Bradley. J. Petru, C. Ahn, G. Chescheir. 2013; Alteration of soil hydraulic properties during the construction of mitigation wetlands in the Virginia Pietmont; Ecological Engineering; 51: 140-150.

Hunt R.J; Walker J.F; Krabbenhoft.2012.”Characterising Hydrology and the importance of groundwater discharge in natural and constructed wetlands”. Wetlands, 19, 452-472.

Jarvis, N., Koestel, J., Messing, I., Moeys, J.,and Lindahl, A., 2013. Influence of soil, land use and climatic factors on the hydraulic conductivity of soil. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 5185–5195.

Knowles, O.A., B.H. Robinson, A. Contangelo, and L. Clucas. 2011. Biochar for the mitigation of nitrate leaching from soil amended with biosolids. Sci. Total Environ. 409:3206–3210. doi:10.1016/j. scitotenv.2011.05.011.

Leira, M. & Cantonati, M. 2008. Effects of water-level fluctuations on lakes: an annotated bibliography. Hydrobiologia, 613, 171.184.

MCA, 2012. Environmental Monitoring Report, Wetlands Restoration and Conservation Project, Ministry of Natural Resources. Maseru.

MCA, 2010. Intergrated Baseline Assessment of the wetlands catchments/watersheds. Khalong –la Lithunya, Kotisephola and Letse’ng la letsie areas. Department of water affairs.

Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 2007. Wetlands, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 582 pp

Passoni .M, F. Morari, M. Salvato, M. Borini. 2009 ; Medium-term Evolution of Soil properties in a constructed surface flow wetlands with fluctuating hydro period in North Eastern , Italy ; Desalination , 246 : 215-225.

Rezanezhad, F., Quinton, W. L., Price, J. S., Elrick, D., Elliot, T. R. and Heck, R. J., 2009.Examining the effect of pore size distribution and shape on flow through unsaturated peat using computed tomography. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 1993–2002.

Russo T.A, A.T Fisher and J.W Roche, 2012; improving riparian wetland conditions based on infiltration and drainage behaviour during and after controlled flood. Journal of Hydrology, 432; 98- 111.

70

INVESTIGATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF EXCLUSION OF GRAZING IN CONTROLLING SHRUB INVASION IN RANGELANDS . M. NTHEJANE3, C. RATSELE,

Department of Range Resources Management, P. O. Box 92, Maseru 100

ABSTRACT Bush encroachment is one of the main problems of rangeland management in Lesotho. The problem manifests itself through the invasion of woody species that replace grass especially palatable species in rangelands. Exclusion of grazing is one of the methods that can be used effectively to control bush encroachment in rangelands. A study was undertaken to investigate the effectiveness of exclosures in controlling shrub invasion by fencing of an area of Letseng- La-Terai and the adjacent grazing areas.

The study employed transect method to undertake vegetation assessments both inside and outside the fenced area. The result reveal that shrub densities are higher outside the exclosure than inside. There was complete cover inside the exclosure while there were more bare spaces outside. A higher diversity of shrub species was observed outside the fence unlike inside where only one shrub species dominate. There was a higher diversity of grass species inside than outside. Excluding grazing was found to be effective in controlling some shrubs while other shrub species co-exist with grasses and other plants in undisturbed areas.

Key Words: shrub invasion, rangeland resting, grazing exclusion, shrub density

1.0 INTRODUCTION Lesotho has a very fragile environment characterized by steep slopes and frail soil formations which results in extreme loss of soil through erosion. The direct consequence of soil erosion is decline in productive land which in-turn exacerbates the problem of food shortages. Remedial efforts such as proper range management have been put in place but loss of biodiversity still challenges such efforts (IMF, 2006). This compromises livelihoods of people who rely on natural resources based enterprises such as livestock production (Olaotswe et al., 2013).

The most evident indicator for loss of biodiversity is the spread of invasive woody plants (bush encroachment) which is a common phenomenon in Lesotho’s rangelands. Bush encroachment is an increase in abundance of woody plants in rangeland accompanied by changes in the herbaceous cover and composition of natural vegetation (Archer et al., 1998; Britz et al., 2007). It is considered a major bottleneck for the survival of livestock farming and conservation of biodiversity (Lesoli et al., 2013). The incursion of bush encroachment is triggered by heavy grazing pressure (DiTomaso et al., 2010)and anthropogenic factors (Zhang et al., 2002; Oba et al., 2000; Oba, 1998) and this is exacerbated by climate change (Kirkman & Nobala, 2013).

Rangeland resting and animal exclusion are key in developing strategies to rehabilitate and conserve biodiversity. Resting rangelands prevents overgrazing which weakens palatable plant species until they die. This leads to low-producing rangelands. Rangeland resting allows plants to recover, reproduce and survive unfavourable conditions (Romo, 2006). Ash et al. (2011) attributed this recovery to improved moisture and soil condition. One of the basic tool on rangeland resting is exclusion of livestock by fencing.

3 Corresponding Author: mabatho@rocketmail.com

71

The extensive area around the Letšeng Mine has been encroached by woody plant species which drastically affected the structure and functions of rangelands ecosystems. Due to the potential impact of the invaders on the resilience of rangeland resources, conservation of biodiversity and hence local livelihood security brush control has been a priority in rangeland rehabilitation. The paper attempts to investigate the efficiency of the exclusion of grazing in controlling shrub invasion at Letseng-la-Terai Mine area.

2.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS 2.1 STUDY AREA The study was conducted at Letšeng Diamond Mine (LDM) in Mokhotlong district, in the north-east of Lesotho. The mine is situated within the basalt capped Maluti (Drakensberg) Mountains range and is at an average elevation of 3,100 m above sea level. The climatic conditions of the area is generally temperate with very cold winter temperatures. The annual temperature ranges from summer maximum of 22 0C to winter minimum of -22 0C. The average annual precipitation rate is 750 mm (Bornman, 2010). The precipitation is usually in the form of summer thunderstorms and snowfall in winter. Soil in this area is shallow to moderately deep poorly structured humic (apedal to weak blocky) soil with a fine to very fine sandy to silty clay loam texture. The vegetation has been classified into montane, sub-alpine and alpine belts with the altitude and slope aspect determining their location. The main types of vegetation include grasses.

2. 2 SITE SELECTION AND LAYOUT Two sites were selected inside the mine fence where there is zero grazing and outside the fence where the rangeland is grazed continuously. Two 10 m X 10 m plots were laid out on each site. In each plot, all shrub species were counted and recorded in terms of individual height, diameter and basal distance from (a) the next shrub species and (b) the next plant in order to determine shrub density, basal cover and compositional diversity for sites.

While there is no recorded information on the grazing history of the two sites, the vegetation of the fenced area was compared to the one of the adjacent area which is heavily grazed. In each plot all plant species were also identified. Simple descriptive statistics were employed for analysis of data using SPSS-16 software analysis.

3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSION All sites in the study area were dominated by shrubs. The total number of shrub plant identified irrespective of species was high outside the fence (657) than inside (353). The most important encroaching shrub species (in descending order) outside the fence were Helichrysum Triliniutums, Chrysocoma Ciliata,and Pentzia Cooperii, while the dominating shrub species inside the fence were Helichrysum Witburgense, Helichrysum Triliniutums and Eumorphia Serecea. The average basal distance between shrubs inside was high outside than inside as shown in Table 1. This is because the shrubs outside had a bigger canopy and more height when compared to those found inside (Table 2) which indicated that shrubs outside the fence have high potential for survival and hence long- term increase in the area. Figure 1 shows that for shrubs found inside the fence Eumorphia Serecea had thehighest mean height and canopy cover while Helichrysum Witburgense had the lowest mean height and canopy cover. Outside the fencePentziaCooperii was the shrub species with the highest mean height

72

and canopy cover while Helichrysum Triliniutums had the lowestmean height and canopy cover.

Table 2 Basal distance between shrubs

Site Mean distance (cm)

95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound Upper Bound

Inside 21.277 17.367 25.187

outside 27.911 22.467 33.355

Table 2 Canopy and height of shrub plants

Site

Mean (cm)

95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound

Canopy Inside 31.078 22.558 39.597 Outside 36.181 27.683 44.679

Height Inside 26.725 22.204 31.247 Outside 31.039 26.528 35.549

Fig. 1 Canopy and height of shrub species

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Eumorphiaserecea

HelichrysumTrilineatum

Helichrysumwitbergense

Chrysocomaciliata

HelichrysumTrilineatum

PentziaCooperii

inside outside

cano

py/h

ight

(cm

)

Shrub Species

Canopy

Height

PLANT S

A total vegetatiforbs. Tspecies that placanopy co-existoutside shrub sp

Figure 2

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73

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74

Table 3 Identified plant species, form, nutritive value and where found in the study area.

Plant species Form Where found Nutritive value Inside outside

Festuca Caprina Grass palatable Merxmuellera Disticha Grass intermediate Geum Capens Forb Alphedia Thodei Forb Pentaschistis Oreodoxa Grass Desirable GeraniumMultisectum Forb Schophyxium Sedge Sebaea Natalenses Herb Senecio Speciosa Forb Ficinia Filliforalis grass Desirable TrifoliumBurchilatum Forb intermediate Helichotrichon turgidulum

Grass

Berkhey Multigage Forb Koeleria Capenses Grass intermediate

Table 5 Basal distance between shrub and plant

Plot Mean 95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound Upper Bound

Inside .921 .590 1.251

Outside 1.471 1.037 1.905

4.0 CONCLUSION There was complete cover inside the exclosure while there were more bare spaces outside. Both sites showed a higher diversity of shrub species although the density was high outside than inside. There was a higher diversity of grass species inside than outside. Excluding grazing was found to be effective in controlling some shrubs while other shrub species co-exist with grasses and other plants in undisturbed areas.

75

REFERENCE Ash, A.J., Jeff P. Corfield, J. P., Mcivor, J. G. &Ksiksi T. S., 2011. Grazing Management in

Tropical Savannas: Utilization and Rest Strategies to Manipulate Rangeland Condition.Rangeland Ecology & Management 64, 223-239

Archer, S., Scifres, C., Bassham, C. R. &Maggio, R., 1988. Autogenic succession in a Subtropical savanna: conversion of grassland to thorn woodland. Ecological Monograph 58, 111-127.

Borman, F. 2010. Letšeng Diamond Mine No. 2 Plant Project. A process engineering and design review. The Southern African Institute of Mining and Metallurgy Diamonds -Source 10

Britz, M. L. &Ward, D., 2007. Dynamics of woody vegetation in a semi-arid savanna,with a focus on bush encroachment. African Journal of Range and Forage Science, 24, 131-140.

Ditomaso, J. M., Masters, R. A. &Peterson V. F., 2010. Rangeland Invasive Plant Management. Rangelands 32, 43-47

Hejda, M., Pyšek, P. &Jarošik, V., 2009. Impact of invasive plants on the species richness, diversity and composition of invaded communities. Journal of ecology 97, 393-403

Hobbs, R. T. &Huenneke, L. F., 1992. Disturbance, Diversity and Invation: Implication for conservation. Conservation Biology. 6, 324-337.

International Monetary Fund. 2006. Kingdom of Lesotho Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper, Prioritization and Cost Matrix. Staff Country Report No. 06/143. IMF Publication Services. Washington DC.

KIRKMAN, K. & NOBALA, T., 2013. Vegetation baseline survey; Demonstration project on community based rangeland management in Lesotho. Technical Report. 24, Rev, 1, 21 Oct. 2013.

LESOLI, M. S., GXASHEKA, M., SOLOMON, T. B. & MOYO, B., 2013. Integrated Plant Invasion and Bush Encroachment Management on Southern African Rangelands, Herbicides - Current Research and Case Studies in Use, Dr. Andrew Price (Ed.)

OBA, G. 1998. Assessment of indigenous range management knowledge of the Borana pastoralists of southern Ethiopia.Commissioned by GTZ-Borana Lowland Pastoral Development Program in collaboration with the Oromiya Regional Bureau for Agricultural Development, Negelle/Borana Ethiopia.

OBA, G., POST, E., SYVERTSEN, P.O. & STENSETH, N.C. 2000. Bush cover and range condition assessments in relation to landscape and grazing in southern Ethiopia. Landscape Ecology. 15, 535–546.

OLAOTSWE E. KGOSIKOMA & MOGOTSI, K. 2013. Understanding the causes of bush encroachment in Africa: The key to effective management of savanna grasslands. Tropical Grasslands 1, 215-219

ROMO 2006. Resting forage plants; A beneficial grazing management practice on native rangelands. University of Saskatchewan, Canada. Lesotho Fourth National Report on Implementation of Convention on Biological Diversity.

ZHANG, B., Y. YAO, Y., CHENG, W., ZHOU, C., LU, Z., CHEN, X., ALSHIR, K.,ERDOWLET, I., ZHANG, L., & SHI, Q., 2002. Human-Induced Changes to Biodiversity and Alpine Pastureland in the Bayanbulak Region of the East Tienshan Mountains. Development 22, 383-389.

76

AN INVESTIGATION INTO THE EFFECTIVENESS OF GRAZING ASSOCIATIONS IN MANAGEMENT OF COMMUNAL RANGELAND RESOURCES R. NTSOHI , C. TSOLO, M. NTHEJANE, C. RATSELE Department of Range Resources Management, P. O. Box 92, Maseru 100

ABSTRACT In Lesotho, rangelands are used extensively as common-pool resources for subsistence livestock productionand their sustainability is largely dependent on utilization patterns. The concept of management of common resources by user groups has been used as a technique for management of grazing areas. The assumptions are: allocating exclusive grazing rights on a range management area (RMA) to a group of users (grazing association (GA)) creates a sense of ownership, and incentive for management of resources and as the association matures, conservation of the RMA improves. The objectives were to evaluate the effectiveness of GAs in maintaining conservation values of RMAs and influence timely response of members where values are threatened. The RMA area selected for the study is Pelaneng/Bokong GA. The method employed a metric-belt transect to establish trends in vegetation condition between 1996 and 2003. Results on vegetation assessment indicate dominance of increaser II species, gradual emergence of increaser III species and very low occurrence of shrubs. Dominance of increaser species may be an indication of selective grazing. Future management interventions should consider practicing high intensity grazing.

Key words: Grazing patterns, Grazing association, Management effectiveness, Ecological status

1.0 INTRODUCTION In Lesotho, formation of grazing associations offers a feasible solution for sustainable management and governance of communal rangeland resources. Everson and Hatch (1999) define communal rangelands as areas where grazing pastures are a common resource to which all community members are entitled to collective access and livestock production is largely oriented towards subsistence needs. This type of tenure has always been the basis of livestock production in Lesotho. Historically (before 1880), the Basotho nation occupied vast areas in the lower valley of the Caledon river, both east and west of the present border, and the land was characterized by free movement of livestock and wildlife. Livestock was managed through a seasonal transhumance movement between lowland plains in winter and uninhabited highland pastures in summer, and local chiefs as land managers played a modest role. Invasion of Basotho territory west of the Caledon River after the gun war of 1880 forced them to create permanent residences in the highlands, thereby disrupting the alternate and balanced use of lowland and highland resources. Pristine rangelands were lost due to conversion to cropland and livestock was moved to marginal lands with lower productivity (Showers, 1989).

Collective impacts of reduced land-base, conversion of rangelands to croplands, and the on-set of collapse of the transhumance system has resulted in new challenges in the management of rangeland resources in Lesotho. According to Turner (2004) rangelands utilization systems have become more complex and necessitate customary authorities to adapt to changes in resource use patterns and employ more stringent measures to regulate resource use (Motsamai, 1991), a challenge which they have largely not handled successfully.

4 Corresponding Author: refiloentsohi@gmail.com

77

2.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE RANGE MANAGEMENT AREA PROGRAMME The Range Management Area (RMA) programme was introduced in 1980 as a response to pervasive degradation in rangelands. The programme established community based institutions called grazing associations with the aim of devolving authority of management of rangeland resources from local chiefs to resource users. RMAs are declared following customary consultations with local chiefs and communities and allocation of the grazing area by Principal Chiefs. The association is run by an executive committee with two representatives from villages that form an association with local chiefs of the villages as ex officio members.

Several studies have supported the concept of communal resource management by user groups. Dietz et. al.(2003)said that user groups foster cooperation among individual group members and eliminates independent thinking that focus on maximizing short-term personal gain, while they facilitate mutual decision making and collective action and accountability. Pretty (2003) has added that within user groups, members accept responsibilities and are willing to contribute to the cost of supply of the resource. Adams et. al.(2003) has demonstrated that there are differences in knowledge, understanding and priorities among role players in management of common-pool resource, and users do not necessarily share a similar understanding and interpretation of key challenges and issues. He added that while the main objective of conservation agencies may be conservation of biological resources, livestock owners on the other hand may have other priorities which need to be understood and met. User groups offer an opportunity for members to establish a similar and accurate understanding of problems they are trying to address, and understand how individual actions affect collective outcome.

Management of livestock grazing is the main activity in grazing associations, and grazing plans are developed as a tool to control grazing. Dietz et. al. (2003) has pointed out that regulations and rules of appropriation of resources are easier to follow and enforce under management by user groups.Maintaining frequent face-to-face communication and information sharing with all members improves cooperation and performance.Murphree (2004) and Dietz et. al. (2003) have emphasized that for individuals to have long-term interest and make investments in conservation, their livelihoods should be dependent on the resource and benefits of being a member of a user group should match or exceed the costs. Turner (2006) has pointed out that security of tenure provide one of the main incentives for investment in conservation activities. The findings of these multiple studies have been infused into the RMA concept.

The effectiveness of grazing associations can be measured on the basis of maintaining conservation values of an area under their management. Under good rangeland management, veld should generally be dominated by palatable grass species (Decreasers) and occurrence of Increaser species and shrubs should generally be low(Tainton and Hardy, 1999). The objectives of the study were to evaluate the effectiveness of grazing associations in maintaining conservation values of RMAs and influence timely response of members where values are threatened. The RMA area selected for the study is Pelaneng/Bokong Grazing Association.

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78

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79

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83

dominate in rangelands where there is selective grazing of more palatable plants such as Decreasers and Increaser I species.

At RMA paddock (Figure 9.), Decreaser species were not recorded in the initial sampling in 1996, however subsequent sampling showed increase in Decreaser species cover and decline in Increaser II species cover. Unlike other sampling areas, RMA paddock is fenced and it is used as a breeding camp. The camp is subjected to high intensity grazing during the breeding season and rested for the rest of the year. High intensity grazing promote uniform grazing of both palatable and less palatable grasses resulting in the rangeland at RMA paddock undergoing regression from the less desirable condition where the rangeland is dominated by Increaser II species, to a more desirable condition of dominance by Decreaser species.

In terms of life-form, the rangeland condition is generally good as the rangeland is dominated by grass and grass-like species. This indicates good productivity for livestock. However, in terms of ecological status, Decreaser species that are palatable to livestock are being driven out of the system and the rangeland is dominated by less palatable Increaser II species. It appears that once established, increaser II species are hard to drive out and they largely establish themselves as the climax plant community. It is also apparent that there was already overgrazing at the on-set of the programme.

6.0 CONCLUSION The formation of a Grazing Association at Pelaneng/Bokong has proven effective in maintaining conservation values of grazing areas by maintaining low shrub densities. However, ubiquitous dominance by Increaser II species indicated that low intensity grazing system practiced by the grazing association encourages selective grazing of more palatable species. To make the management by grazing association more effective, the association should be encouraged to practice high intensity grazing that will result in uniform grazing of all grass species and a more desirable rangeland condition.

REFERENCES: Adams, W. M., Brockington, D., Dyson, J. and Vira, B. 2003. Managing tragedies:

Understanding conflict over common pool resources. Science. 302:1915 – 1916. Dietz, T., Ostrom, E. and Stern, P. C. 2003. The Struggle to Govern the Commons. Science.

302: 1907-1912. Everson, T. M. & Hatch, G. P. 1999. Managing veld (rangeland) in the communal areas of

Southern Africa. In: Tainton, N. M. (ed). Veld Management in South Africa. Pietermaritzburg, University of Natal Press, pp. 381 – 388.

Germond, R. C. 1967. Chronicles of Basutoland. Morija. Morija Printing Works. Hardy, M. B., Hurt, C. R. and Bosch, O. J. H. 1999. Veld condition assessment, In: Tainton,

N. (ed). Veld management in South Africa. Pietermaritzburg. University of Natal Press. Murphree, M. W. (2004). Communal approaches to natural resource management in Africa:

From whence and to where? Keynote address to the 2004 Breslauer graduate students symposium. Berkeley, Carlifornia

Page, R. L. 1986. Installation and measurement of metric belt transects. Handbook No. 1. Pretty, J. 2003. Social capital and the collective management of resources. Science.

302(1912): 1912 – 1914. Showers, K. B. 1989. Soil erosion in the Kingdom of Lesotho: Origins and colonial response,

1830s – 1950s. Journal of Southern African Studies. 15(2): 263 – 286.

84

Todd, A. G., Madden, E. M., Murphy, R. K., Smith K. A and Nenneman, M.P. 2004. Monitoring native prairie vegetation: The belt transect method. Ecological restoration. 22 (2): 106 – 112.

Turner, S. (2006). The state, legal reform and decentralisation: consequences for the commons in Lesotho. Proceedings of the 11th IASCP Conference, Bali, 19-23 June 2006. Centre for International Co-operation, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam.

Turner, S. 2004. A land without fences: Range Management in Lesotho, In: Fabricius, C., Koch, E., Magome, H. and Turner, S. (eds). Rights, resources and rural development: Community-based natural resource management in Southern Africa. London, Earthscan, pp. 174 – 181.

BUSH CONTROL BY BURNING, GRAZING AND BROWSING DR. RATSELE, DR. DUBE, DR. LESOLI

ABSTRACT Rationally, livestock farmers would prefer a situation where grass dominates over woody species in the rangeland for their animals to graze. To laymen, fire is always an option when bush encroachment threatens. Fire alone cannot control bush encroachment, to be successful, a combination Sof methods is required. Fire-grazer-browser interaction can influence bush-grass mixtures in the rangeland ecosystem. To investigate whether long term burning, grazing and browsing as well as burning followed by fire exclusion could have effects on woody species vigour/stability; a study was conducted at Honeydale University of Fort Hare, South Africa and Matopos Research Station in Zimbabwe. Vegetation characteristics that were measured were diameter of main stems in woody species, diameter of sprouts and number of sprouts. The findings of this study showed induced sprouting of woody species and reduced main stem and sprouts diameter under fire treatments. Grazing induced greater stem diameter but lowered sprouting. Goats browsing had significantly reduced main stem diameter and sprouting. Burning followed by fire exclusion produced inconsistent effects on diameter of sprouts. Through their effect on characteristics of woody species such as physiognomic structure and sprouting, burning, grazing and goats browsing could have consequent effect on bush control, however, this should be done with care because no matter how detrimental perturbation is, some plants are stimulated to develop adaptive mechanisms. Correct timing, choice of methods, stage of plant development and relative position of perennation buds are important considerations when controlling unwanted vegetation.

Key word; Bush control, burning, grazing, browsing

1.0 INTRODUCTION Burning is the simplest and least expensive practice to improve poor quality rangelands (Higgins et al. 1989). In general, burning can have a dramatic impact on growth of woody species (Furley et al. 2009) however, plant age, soil moisture at time of burn, intensity of fire, season of burn, health of the plants, and frequency of droughts all play a part in how fire affects shrubs in the long run (Higgins et al. 1989). Fire has the ability to alter sprouting in shrubs and woody plant species. Additionally, Bond & Midgley (2001) give details that for a plant to be able to sprout after sustaining an injury from burns, it needs surviving meristems and stored reserves to support regrowth. Furley et al (2009) indicate that the influence of fire behaviour, intensity and frequency, timing of burns, and the overall impacts on vegetation structure, species composition, species resilience in varying conditions of rainfall, soil fertility, herbivory and human interaction can be intricately interwoven and to some extent

85

site-specific. To this end, Scholes et al. (2003) and, van Wilgen et al. (2003) submit that fire influences on savanna vegetation is controversial. To investigate whether long term burning, grazing and browsing as well as burning followed by fire exclusion could have effects on woody species vigour/stability; a study was conducted at Honeydale University of Fort Hare, South Africa and Matopos Research Station in Zimbabwe.

2.0 METHODOLOGY 2.1 STUDY AREA The study is composed of three experimental sites. At Honeydale University of Fort Hare research farm in South Africa, there were two experimental sites (Fire trial and burning, grazing and browsing trial). The other experimental site was at Tree Kop (Red Thornveld), Matopo Zimbabwe (Figure 2.1).

2.2 EXPERIMENTAL DESCRIPTION Fire/burn trial at Fort Hare University farm was a Randomized Complete Block Design with two replications; it consisted of six treatments namely: No burn /control, 6-year burn, 4-year burn, 3-year burn, 2-year burn and 1-year burn. Burning, Grazing and Browsing trial was a Randomized Complete Block Design without replications consisting of three treatments namely: Follow-up-burn, Grazing (winter grazed), Goats Browsing (winter browsed), Control (trees removed periodically and winter grazed). Before the site was exposed to grazing and browsing (Burning, Grazing and Browsing experiment), veld conditions surveys were conducted to determine the stocking rate of livestock and carrying capacity. The fire trial in Matopos, Zimbabwe was a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications; the treatments were 1-year burn, 2-year burn, 3-year burn, 5-year burn and No burn.

2.3 DATA COLLECTION, VEGETATION SAMPLING AND ANALYSIS Vegetation characteristics measured were diameter of main stems, diameter of sprouts and number of sprouts. Measurements were taken within a 15m by 15m and10m by 10m quadrates for University of Fort Hare farm Matopos respectively. Vernier caliper and ruler were used to get the measurements for the diameter of stems and sprouts of all plants within the quadrates. Number of sprouts was obtained by physically counting sprouts within a quadrate. All tree species were recorded using taxonomic nomenclature.

All data sets were subjected to analysis of variance (ANOVA) using the General Linear Models (GLM) Procedure of SPSS-PC Version 15.0 (SPSS 1999) at 5% level of significant. Where differences occurred between means, the Duncan multiple range test was used. Differences between treatment means were considered significant at p 0.05.

3.0 RESULTS This part is divided into long term effects of burning, long term effects of burning, grazing and browsing by goats and long term effect of burning followed by ten-year period of fire exclusion.

3.1 LONG TERM BURNING EFFECTS ON WOODY SPECIES VIGOUR/ VITALITY

Maim stem diameter Woody species under burn treatments had smaller (p 0.5) main stem diameter than under plots protected from burn (Figure 3.1); the main stem diameter values under no burn treatment were significantly high (4.9cm). Burnt plots had lowest (0.8cm) main stem diameter values under 1-year burn and highest under 4-year burn (2.5cm). Main stem

diametedifferen

Figure 3

SproutsThe finsprouts treatmeunder 1

Figure 3

NumbeSproutsmore (punder 4burn an

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3.1: Main st

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tem for woo

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ear and 3-ye

n treatment

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ch burn trea

cantly differr burn, 2-yeuts number

ear burns w

(UFH)

ameter (Figuom 0.6cm tometer unde

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rent (p 0.ear burn and

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86

tistically

he mean der burn urn than

uts were urn) than r 3-year

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There wburningmain st(2.4cm)

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FFECTS OF B

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eter of mainats browsinge 3.4). The 5).

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n stems for wg reduced (p

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87

SPECIES

nts under meter of diameter

burning, ing than ure 3.5). st.

Figure 3

NumbeThe numplot wafollow under g

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3.3 LOWO

Main stFire sigMean dthan val

3.5: Sprouts

er of Sproutmber of spras significaup burn tha

grazing and

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NG TERM EFOODY SPECIE

tem diametegnificantly rdiameter vallues recorde

s diameters

ts routs produntly differean under otbrowsing w

er of sprout

FFECT OF BES VIGOUR/V

er reduced thelue for mained under oth

for woody

ced by wooent (p 0.0ther treatme

was not sign

ts for woody

URNING FOLVITALITY

e diameter n stems (5.3her burnt tre

species in e

ody species 05) More sents. The d

nificant (Fig

y plants in e

LLOWED BY

of the mai3cm) under eatments (fr

each treatme

under follosprouts (p

difference ingure 3.6).

each treatme

TEN-YEAR

n stems forno burn wa

from 1.7cm

ent (UFH)

ow-up burn 0.05) we

n number o

ent (UFH)

PERIOD OF

r woody sps significanto 3.5cm).

n, grazing anere produceof sprouts p

FIRE EXCLU

pecies (Figuntly higher (

88

nd goats ed under produced

USION ON

ure 3.7). (p 0.5)

Figure Zimbab

SproutsSignific(0.8cm)were no

Figure

NumbeFire haddifferenvalues ryear anunder 3

3.7: Mainbwe)

s diameter cantly highe) under 3-yeot significan

3.8: Sprout

er of sproutd significannt treatmentrecorded unnd 2-year b-year burn

n stem diam

er values foear burn. Thntly differen

ts diameters

ts nt different ts. Unburnt nder unburnburn treatme(Figure 3.9)

meters for

or diameterhe sprout dint (Figure 3

s for woody

effects on nplots had f

nt plots did nents. Signif).

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r of sprouts iameter valu.8).

y plants in ea

number of sfewer sprounot differ sificantly hig

lants in ea

was under ues under 2

ach burn tre

sprouts produts compareignificantly gh (p> 0.05

ch burn tr

1-year burn-year, 3-yea

eatment (Ma

duced by woed to burnt p

from value5) number o

reatment (M

n (1.9cm) ar and 5-ye

atopos Zim

woody specieplots; howe

es reported uof sprouts

89

Matopos

and low ar burns

babwe)

es under ever, the under 1-(6) was

Figure 3

DISCUThe lodemonsdiameteconsisteprotecteSolbrig it becomsize. Hinflictedfrequenof this hamperdamageon wooseason o

The trefrequenand sprmain stThis cocollectidata wastill higis unlikdoes reaccommat a grindividureduced

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USSIONSong-term estrated in ther, under buent with theed from fire(2003) poi

mes increasHoffmann an

d on burnt pncy), the tim

study by inrs uniform ge resulting inody species of burn, hea

end exhibitncy of burn.outs diamettems diameould be ascon date. Eas collectedgher comparkely that a oepeated burmodate grazrazeable heual woody d non-repro

er of sprouts

S ffect of fi

his study, thurnt plots coe expectatioe than on bunt out that o

singly suscend Solbrig plants by fi

ming of burnndicating thgrowth of thn reduced gis dependenalth of the p

ed in this The findinter with decter and spr

cribed to thEven thoughd, the recordred to undernce off fire rning. In thzing, it is imeight. Reber

plants fail oductive sta

s for woody

fire on wohere was lowompared to

ons. Peter Aurnt plots. Inonce the apieptible to de

(2003) indire could bens and spechat every tihe affected

growth. Hignt upon planplants, and f

study is thngs of this screased burnouts diamet

he reality thh the 6-yearded values r 1-year burincident co

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rtus et al.to grow to

age.

y plants in e

oody plantw measuremo under unbA et al. (200n support ofical meristeestruction indicate furthe governed cies compostime fire bu

plants; repggins (1986)nt age, soil frequency o

hat damagestudy show n frequencyter under 6hat 6-year br burn plotsfor main strn, 2-year bould drasticahere fire isnote that fir(1993) rep

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used to cre would beports that uze classes;

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been burnt burnt the prter and sproyear burn. Tthe growth ontrol busheffective to

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90

mbabwe)

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91

Ability of plant species to resprout after disturbance is important because it is an index of vigour or vitality. This phenomenon perpetuates species where growth from seeds is not viable. Browsers as well as grazers at times, need woody plants as food. If woody plants could be extinct on a site, this would mean a tragedy to animals that depend on them as a source of food. In this study, fire induced sprouting of woody species as expected. More sprouting under burn treatments could be a response of some woody plants to avoid extinction following disturbance. However, Bond & Midgley (2001) argue that sprouting varies among species, among life history stages of species and among disturbances of differing severity. As expected, sprouting declined with increased burn interval.

More sprouting under burn treatments than under plots that were protected from fire was consistent with the findings reported by (Bock & Bock 1984, Furley et al. 2008 and Bond & Midgley 2001). Under Savannah condition grazers e.g. cattle could consume leaves of woody species and some small twigs. Several small sized sprouts (>5 in number and<1cm in diameter) under burn treatments than under no burn could be additional food for animal. Even the main stems under burn treatments were not very thick (<3cm diameter) to avoid consumption by animals, however this could be dependent on species, species acceptability, species nutritive content, animal type and age and time of the year.

Burning frequencies did not have clear contrasting effects on number of sprouts produced by woody plants after 10-year period of fire exclusion. In the present study, the results confirmed that burning effects on sprouting could be long lasting even though a significant difference could not be clearly established, there were relatively more sprouts produced in burnt plots than unburnt (no burn). After ten years of fire exclusion more sprouts could generally be associated to some extent with 3-year and 5-year burn treatments than 1-year and 2-year burn treatments. Significantly more sprouts under 3-year burn than under other burn treatments and control is hard to explain; Perceptible incidences of unprescribed fires could be attached to this effect. Burnt plots could become desirable areas for grazing because fire renders them green, tender and palatable. Because of this, there are chances that grazers could concentrate their efforts in such areas, which in this case could have been a 3-year burn.. In support of this, Zida et al. (2007) state that savanna species form sprouts following disturbances and these young sprouts are preferred by foraging animals because they are tender and nutritious. Though the findings of this study and Zida et al. (2007) are not without credibility, (Bond & Midgley 2001) advise that for sprouting to occur after sustaining an injury, a plant needs surviving meristems and stored reserves to support regrowth. On the same matter, Scholes et al. (2003) and van Wilgen et al. (2003) indicate that the degree to which fire influences savanna vegetation is to some extent still controversial.

CONCLUSION

Findings of this study have demonstrated that fire could ultimately have effects on vitality on a site. Through its effects on physiognomic structure (diameter of main stems, sprouts stems diameter) and sprouting, fire had effect on the ability of a site to regenerate (vigour). Diameter of main stems and sprouts were reduced to bellow 3cm and 2cm respectively. Burning induced sprouting of woody plant species.

Burning, grazing and goats browsing had effects on site vitality through its influence on sprouting. Grazing increased main stem diameter but lowered sprouting of woody species. Goats browsing and burning reduced diameter of sprouts alike. Goats browsing had significantly reduced main stem diameter and number of sprouts than other treatments.

92

This study has demonstrated that long-term burning followed by ten-year period of fire exclusion could have effect on vitality of a site through its influence on some physiognomic structure of woody species and sprouting. Burning followed by ten-year period of fire exclusion resulted in reduced main stem diameter of woody plants and increased sprouting.

REFERENCES Bock JH, and Bock CE 1984. Effects of fire on woody vegetation in the pine-grassland

ecotone of the southern Black Hills. Am Midl Nat 112: S35-42. Bond WJ and Midgely JJ 2001. Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche.

Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 45–51. Bond WJ and Midgely JJ 2001. Ecology of sprouting in woody plants: the persistence niche.

Trends in Ecology and Evolution 16: 45–51. Furley PA, Rees RM, Casey Ryan M and Saiz G 2008. Savanna burning and the assessment

of long-term fire experiments with particular reference to Zimbabwe Progress in Physical Geography 32: 611

Furley PA, Rees RM, Ryan CM and Saiz G 2009 "Savanna burning and the assessment of long-term fire experiments with particular reference to Zimbabwe." Progress In Physical Geography in press.

Higgins KF, Kruse AD, and Piehl JL. 1989. Prescribed burning guidelines in the northern Great Plains. USFWS and Coop. Ext. Serv., S. Dak. State Univ., USDA EC760.

Hoffmann WA Solbrig OT 2003. Forest Ecology and Management 180: 273–286 Peterson DW & Reich PB 2008. Fire frequency and tree canopy structure influence plant

species diversity in a forest-grassland ecotone. Plant Ecol 194:5–16P Rebertus AJ, Williamson GB, Platt WJ, 1993. Impact of temporal variation in fire regimes on

savanna oaks and pines. In: Hermann, S.M. (Ed.), Proceedings of the 18th Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference on the Longleaf Pine Ecosystem: Ecology, Restoration, and Management. Tall Timbers Research Inc., Tallahassee, FL, Pp 215–225.

Scholes RJ, Bond WJ and Eckhardt HC 2003. Vegetation dynamics in the Kruger ecosystem. In Du Toit J, Rogers KH and Biggs HC editors, The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity, New York: Island Press 242–62.

Scholes RJ, Bond WJ and Eckhardt HC 2003. Vegetation dynamics in the Kruger ecosystem. In Du Toit J, Rogers KH and Biggs HC editors, The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity, New York: Island Press 242–62.

Van Wilgen BW, Trollope WSW, Biggs HC, Potgieter ALF and Brockett BH 2003. Fire as a driver of ecosystem variability. In Du Toit, J., Rogers, K.H. and Biggs, H.C., editors, The Kruger experience: ecology and management of savanna heterogeneity, New York: Island Press, 149–70.

White AS 1983. The effect of thirteen years of annual prescribed burning on Quercus ellipsoidalis community in Minnesota. Ecology 64: 1081-1085.

Zida D, Sawadogo L, Tigabu M, Tiveau D and Oden PC 2007. Dynamics of sapling population in savanna woodlands of Burkina Faso subjected to grazing, early fire and selective tree cutting for a decade. For. Ecol. Manage 243, 102–115.

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SUB-THEME 3: LANDSCAPE MONITORING AS A TOOL FOR SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT

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TOWARDS ASSESSING RANGELAND CONDITION AND PRODUCTION FOR THE KINGDOM OF LESOTHO. DR AR PALMER Biotrack SA Pty Ltd PO Box 101 Grahamstown

ABSTRACT Following a reconnaissance survey of the grazing resources of Lesotho and an intensive veld condition survey of the Upper Senqu valley, we present the results from these two studies. A plan for the national inventory of the rangelands of Lesotho is presented together with a map of livestock carrying capacity for Lesotho. This map is based largely on net primary production (NPP) values from the MODIS NPP product, and values are converted to carrying capacity using a daily dry matter use co-efficient for large stock units. The livestock census data for Lesotho are reviewed, and the national livestock herd discussed in this context. A framework for the selection of sites for a comprehensive network of veld monitoring points is presented.

1.0 INTRODUCTION The rangeland and soil resources of the Kingdom of Lesotho have been the subject of numerous recent studies (Chakela 1984, Showers 2005, Palmer 2013a, b) and since the beginning of the 20th Century there have been several suggestions that the rangelands and soils are severely degraded, and there is a net loss of both soil nutrients and grazing resources. The degradation is reflected in a number of indicators, including of a high level of soil erosion with both rills and gully erosion being the most obvious. These erosion features are clearly obvious on the landscape, and only empirical evidence of changes in the rate of erosion can put an end to the debate about whether or not the many interventions have been successful. The challenge however remains to show that the rapid and extreme soil erosion processes of the early part of the 20th Century have been reduced. Intervention in the form of erosion control structures appears to have made a major contribution to reducing the rate of erosion from cultivated lands, and the implementation of conservative tilling practices (Silici et al. 2011) had further reduced soil loss from cultivated lands. There is abundant evidence of stabilization of gullies, with the short perennial creeping grasses such as Cynodon incompletus playing a very important role in preventing further nutrient and water loss.

For the rangelands, degradation indices include changes in the species composition of the rangelands, changes in the basal cover of rangelands and the invasion of aggressive alien weeds. The degradation has been attributed to several drivers including over-grazing by livestock, excessive and inappropriate ploughing practices, as well as the activities of micro-mammals.

Establishing and accurately measuring of appropriate indices to define degradation or desertification in any ecosystem is presented with several challenges. The most important challenge is having an appropriate understanding of the ecological processes which drive landscape change in the ecosystems under consideration. This understanding is most often only developed after lengthy observation of patterns of land-use and the complex human-herbivore-plant interactions within these ecosystems.

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Secondly, the complex social-ecological systems which encompass the management of common resources must be considered. Landscapes under common property regimes, the so-called communal rangelands, are most often described as the worst examples of degradation. Many studies have shown that environmental impact is linked several driving processes, including the inertia in management response to environmental clue, the historical legacy of these areas to depressed economic circumstances, as well as the socio-political history which forced people to live in high numbers in these areas. In complex ecosystems which are governed by transhumance, and complex land tenure systems involving extensive common property, it is even more vital that the context is well understood.

SAMPLING METHODOLOGY The line transect method (Barnes et al. 1985) has been used successfully at rangeland and shrubland sites throughout the grassland and shrublands in southern Africa. When using this method, assessment of vegetation is carried out during dry season to ensure that only perennial plants are recorded. A stratified sampling strategy was adopted to ensure comparability of samples. Sample sites were selected a priori using a set of rules and the position verified on Google Earth. The ASTER digital elevation model (30m resolution) was used to identify sampling sites on the basis of elevation; the MODIS net primary production (NPP) was used to identify production gradients; and National Land Cover project (NLC2000) to define land cover. Minor adjustments to the position of each sample were made based on visual assessment that integrates the perceived land cover, distance from the nearest road access and landscape condition viewed on Google Earth. Each site was located in the field using a hand-held GPS unit in 3-D or differential mode using the datum WGS84. Line transect sampling was adapted from the simplified range condition assessment approach developed for the Eastern Cape (Scogings et al. 1994, Vetter et al. 2006), which has been widely employed in similar studies. At each sample site a single 100-m transect was laid up the slope using a tape measure and 100 individual point measurements (one every meter) were taken using a sharply pointed steel rod. At each point strikes on rock, bare earth or directly on plant tuft or stem are recorded and, in the case of strikes on rock or bare earth, the rooted species within 15 cm of the point was also identified. If no species was identified within 15 cm of the point then the point is recorded simply as rock or bare earth. Grasses are identified to species level, while species of herbs and karroid (dwarf) shrubs are recorded under these two life form categories. The distance from the point to the nearest rooted plant is also measured. The mean point to tuft distance (PTD) provides a proxy for basal cover (Hardy and Tainton 1993) and also provides a crude indication of vulnerability to soil erosion . At each point any woody shrub species > 25 cm in height (i.e. non-karroid) occurring within 1.5 m are also recorded and the distance to the base of the stem recorded.

SAMPLING SITE SELECTION

LAND COVER Use the NLC2000 coverage to identify samples in each of the following land cover categories: Unimproved grassland, including thicket & bushland, shrubland and low fynbos

The above three should be combined into a single class. This presents a large proportion of the relatively un-disturbed natural rangeland in Lesotho and includes the important Alpine region above 2900m.

Survey sites need to include representative examples of good condition rangeland as these will be the benchmarks from which deviation can be defined. Sites within the two National Parks, Nature Reserve and RAMSAR wetland sites should be sampled as benchmark.

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Degraded: unimproved grassland

Large areas of Lesotho (mainly 2200-2900m in elevation) have been subjected to heavy grazing pressure for decades, and display evidence of dominance by several unpalatable species, including Chrysocoma ciliata, Leucosidea sericea, Hyparrhenia hirta, Aristida congesta, Euryops spp, and Passerina montana.

Cultivated: temporary - semi-commercial/subsistence dryland

All land <2200m that is not urban.

Sampling rules for un-improved grassland (natural/un-ploughed rangeland) monitoring sites, including Thicket & bushland, and Shrubland and low Fynbos.

ELEVATION I recommend the use of elevation to define broad potential vegetation classes

Three elevation classes: <2200m 2200-2900m >2900m

RANGELAND PRODUCTION Use Carrying Capacity map (Figure 2) in 3 categories (low, medium and high) to select initial sampling site location.

The cross classification of these three layers created 34 unique classes, many of which were surveyed during 2012/2013.

The following general rules were applied when selecting the samples sites (Figure 1)

Landscape (1km) scale: Identify gradient of production adjacent to main road using MODIS NPP (grazing capacity model)

Local scale: Use Landsat/SPOT NDVI or Google Earth – 30/20m to locate sample in natural rangeland

Avoid ploughed/cultivated area (even if they are abandoned) Sample site needs to be ¬100m away from major disturbance – i.e. road, stock-post,

or village. Patches (3-5 ha) must be visible on Landsat or SPOT image as a high NDVI site Exclude wetlands Sites must be within 500m of 4x4 vehicle access.

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Moist grassland 183.6 2.7 4 77 768

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Grassland 144.9 3.5 60 69 673

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Depression in valley 83.6 6.0 1 79 134

LIVESTOCK NUMBERS Livestock census data were acquired from the Bureau of Statistics (BOS) for the periods 2004-2005 and 2009-2010 (Tables 1-3). These data were used to calculate current (2009-2010) and historical (2004-2005) livestock (cattle, sheep and goat) biomass for Lesotho. Using Livestock conversion tables (Meissner 1982) for Lesotho, where smaller framed animals are preferred, we have modelled the recommended livestock populations for Lesotho (cattle = 0.7 LSU, sheep = 0.12 LSU and goats = 0.15LSU) (Tables 1-3 ). These data are compared with the livestock numbers from the 2004-2005 and 2009-2010 livestock censuses (Table 4). Many districts are currently (2009-2010) heavily over-stocked based on a comparison with the production model using MODIS NPP, especially Mafeteng (60%), Mohale’s Hoek (30%), Maseru (37%) and Berea (40%), but Mokhotlong, where the LHDA is located, is relatively lightly stocked by comparison (Table 4).

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Table 2. Cattle numbers 2004-2005

District

Male cattle Total Female cattle Total TOTAL

< 1 year

1-2 years

> 2 years Male

< 1 year

1-2 years

> 2 years Female CATTLE

Butha-Buthe 2178 3007 10181 15366 2421 5683 12465 20569 35936

Leribe 5820 8057 28242 42120 4896 11282 40267 56444 98564

Berea 5526 6829 38277 50633 4619 8532 33429 46580 97212

Maseru 10856 5740 36687 53283 4305 8648 40311 53265 106548

Mafeteng 4841 6447 24426 35713 3498 7110 44029 54636 90349

Mohale's Hoek 3415 9394 12509 25318 3377 3484 28560 35421 60739

Quthing 1325 2275 5109 8709 2880 2995 18717 24592 33301

Qacha's Nek 1803 1773 7760 11336 1039 1943 12634 15616 26952

Mokhotlong 1894 3722 9448 15064 2084 2067 21925 26077 41141

Thaba-Tseka 3983 4376 27646 36004 1551 3764 45151 50467 86471

Lesotho Rural 41642 51619 200287 293547 30671 55508 297489 383668 677213

Table 3. Sheep numbers in Lesotho (2004-2005 Census)

District

Male sheep Total Female sheep Total TOTAL

< 1 year

> 1 year Male

< 1 year

> 1 year Female SHEEP

Butha-Buthe 7155 12972 20127 6195 19612 25807 44934

Leribe 12486 27918 40404 13756 51911 65667 106070

Berea 10262 22401 32303 10872 24138 35011 67314

Maseru 12400 36937 49337 10670 45770 56440 105777

Mafeteng 8448 23540 31988 8007 48443 56450 88438

Mohale's Hoek 9692 26519 36212 12837 48033 60870 97082

Quthing 5200 15688 20888 5771 53101 58872 79761

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Qacha's Nek 6608 18033 24641 16964 36297 53261 77902

Mokhotlong 11430 22470 33900 12769 65953 78722 112622

Thaba-Tseka 9558 31627 41185 14291 147801 162093 203278

Lesotho Rural 93239 237745 330985 112133 541059 653192 984176

Table 4. Goat numbers 2004-2005

District

Male goats Total Female goats Total TOTAL

< 1 year > 1 year Male < 1 year > 1 year Female GOATS

Butha-Buthe 4486 8089 12574 6087 18186 24273 36848

Leribe 7495 23210 30705 10797 30966 41763 72468

Berea 4694 16796 21940 8117 25249 33365 54856

Maseru 7123 26894 34017 13063 33002 46066 80082

Mafeteng 5780 17626 23406 8254 25568 33822 57228

Mohale's Hoek 8460 28182 36642 12321 34920 47241 83884

Quthing 4069 19586 23655 16643 29593 46236 69891

Qacha's Nek 5169 21858 27028 11089 31062 42150 69178

Mokhotlong 8868 15652 24251 8940 19438 28378 52899

Thaba-Tseka 9011 14016 23027 10138 37868 48005 71032

Lesotho Rural 65156 191908 257065 105448 285581 391299 684364

COMPARISON WITH THE OTHER DISTRICTS IN LESOTHO The district of Mokhotlong is lightly stocked relative to the recommended stocking rate based on its net primary production. When compared with many of the other districts in Lesotho, it is also well below the livestock densities experienced in other more productive districts. This is most likely a consequence of two main factors. The first is that this is one of the highest elevation areas of Lesotho, and is mainly used for summer grazing. The trans-humance patterns that are a feature of the grazing practices in Lesotho, mean that this area receives a rest during the winter months. The second is that the region has the largest sheep population in the country and sheep keep the grass shorter than cattle, making better use of the stoloniferous grasses.

Table 5. Summary of total livestock biomass (LSU) from 2004-2005 and 2009-2010 agricultural census data. This shows that the Mokhotlong District is under-stocked relative to the estimated carrying capacity of the area using the MODIS net primary production data.

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District TOTAL LSU Area (ha)

Actual Stocking rate (ha/LSU)

Recommended (Palmer 2012) (ha/LSU)

Proportion over (-) or under (+) stocked

Proportion over (-) or under (+) stocked

2004-2005

2009-2010

2004-2005

2009-2010 2004-2005 2009-2010

Butha-Buthe 36074 43725 179009 5.0 4.1 4.4 0.14 -0.06

Leribe 92593 79447 282880 3.1 3.6 4.4 -0.30 -0.18

Berea 84354 68649 198991 2.4 2.9 4.9 -0.51 -0.40

Maseru 99289 114552 404309 4.1 3.5 5.6 -0.27 -0.37

Mafeteng 82441 76429 237576 2.9 3.1 7.8 -0.63 -0.60

Mohale's Hoek 66750 70006 343706 5.1 4.9 7.0 -0.27 -0.30

Quthing 43366 41187 296444 6.8 7.2 6.0 0.14 0.21

Qacha's Nek 38591 54121 212563 5.5 3.9 5.4 0.02 -0.27

Mokhotlong 50248 68543 415552 8.3 6.1 5.2 0.59 0.17

Thaba-Tseka 95578 91278 482975 5.1 5.3 5.6 -0.09 -0.05

Lesotho Rural 689285 707936 3054005 4.4 4.3 5.7 -0.22 -0.24

CONCLUSIONS ABOUT POLIHALI EXPROPRIATION AREA The PEA has a relatively low standing green biomass (<2000 kg per ha), with most of the area covered by well-grazed perennial grasses (e.g. Themeda triandra, Eragrostis chloromelas, E. racemosus, Heteropogon contortus). These grasses are very productive during the growing season and provide good grazing for cattle and sheep. The herding practices of the livestock owners in this region have meant that intensive active green patches occur around kraals, homesteads, and along water courses. These patches comprise the short stoloniferous grasses (Cynodon incompletus and C. dactylon) and provide good wet season grazing for sheep. In addition, trans-humance practices which are prevalent in Lesotho means that the area is only grazed lightly during the winter months. There are relatively few woody shrubs present in the region (Figure 6). Although this is one of the least productive regions of Lesotho (6-8 ha per LSU) (Figures 2 & 3), the general absence of intensive cultivation means that rangelands are in relatively good condition. Veld condition scores and the associated grazing capacity are provided (Table 1) from the additional line transect data. These data further confirm the findings using the MODIS NPP products that the region remains in reasonable condition and remains productive. The benchmark sites and the benchmark scores used in determining veld condition are provided (Table 1).

Using a GIS to calculate the area of inundation by the Polihali reservoir, I determined that 6543 ha will be directly affected. Approximately 60% of this is uncultivated and therefore directly available to livestock. However, it is important to remember that ALL land in Lesotho is subjected to grazing during some part of the year as there are no fences to control access. Herders keep livestock off the cultivated lands during the growing season, but crop residues are an important source of feed during the dry season, so animals are allowed to

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ERENCESDL, Beukeighveld in t(1): 23-27 a Q 1984. St PCV, Van

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ttp://gadi.agMB and Tairasslands. Aer HH 1982

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Scogings PF, Bekerling AC and Trollope WSW 1994. Simplified techniques for assessing range condition for livestock production. Development South Africa 11(2): 229-241

Showers KB 2005. Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho (Ecology & History). Ohio University Press, Cinncinati. pp

Silici L, Ndabe P, Friedrich T and Kassam A 2011. Harnessing sustainability, resilience and productivity through conservation agriculture: the case of likoti in Lesotho. International Journal of Agricultural Sustainability 9(1): 137-144

Vetter S, Goqwana W, Bond W and Trollope W 2006. Effects of land tenure, geology and topography on vegetation and soils of two grassland types in South Africa. African Journal of Range and Forage Science 23(1): 13-27

SIGNALS OF RECOVERY: THE CASE OF SHAH TOURS GULLY, PRELIMINARY RESULTS; SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT PROJECT, KILIMANJARO, TANZANIA 1Francis X. Mkanda And 2richard E. Balegeranya 1Sustainable Land Management Project, Regional Commissioner’s Office, P.O. Box 307, Moshi, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Email: francis.mkanda@undp.org 2Moshi Municipality, P.O. Box 318, Moshi, Kilimanjaro, Tanzania. Email: richardemily2@gmail.com

ABSTRACT The Project on Sustainable Land Management (SLM) Project in the Highlands of Kilimanjaro Region rehabilitated the Shah Tours gully in Moshi Municipal Council using check dams of wire gabions and sandbags. Prior to rehabilitation, soil loss was estimated at 17.3 t ha-1 yr-1. After rehabilitation, however, the amount of sediments deposited within the gully, which in essence is the amount of soil eroded upstream was estimated to be 11.6 t ha-1 yr-1, a reduction of about 67%. In terms of colonization by vegetation, grasses and shrubs have started establishing themselves in the gully bed, which was rocky and devoid of such plants previously, although the banks have some vegetation. These results will be crucial in planning for other gully-rehabilitation works in the Kilimanjaro region, which is vulnerable to soil erosion because of not only physical factors, but also anthropogenic activities such as land-use change, poor land-management practices, unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, etc. They will also be a basis against which future trends of recovery of the gully will be measured and compared.

Key words Kilimanjaro ecosystem. land degradation, soil loss, rehabilitation, deposition, vegetation colonization

INTRODUCTION This paper seeks to provide a preliminary understanding of the recovery of a rehabilitated gully in the Kilimanjaro ecosystem, which is vulnerable to soil erosion because of not only physical factors, but also anthropogenic activities. Knowing the recovery rate of the gully offers an opportunity to include rehabilitation works in government work plans and budgets beyond project life.

The Kilimanjaro ecosystem provides a range of services including water catchment, soil formation, nutrient cycling and primary production. The watershed is critical for regulating hydrological flows to the Pangani River basin, which flows into the Indian Ocean. The

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catchment also provides drinking water, traditional small holder irrigation and power generation for the national grid. The mountain acts as major climate modifier and supports a tourism industry, hosting close to 10,000 tourists annually (United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), 2010).

The ecosystem, however, is experiencing extensive degradation and deforestation, driven by a set of complex interrelated physical and anthropogenic factors, such as gradient, soil erosivity, land-use change, poor land-management practices, unsustainable harvesting of natural resources, etc. Some patches of the forests and agricultural lands have almost crossed “thresholds of irreversibility” in the course of ecosystem degradation, making “passive” restoration to a presumed pre-disturbance condition impossible (Aranson et al., 1993). Examples include completely deforested patches and enormous soil-erosion gullies.

Soil loss as a result of erosion is of concern for different reasons, e.g., socio-economic, and ecological. Soil erosion adversely affects soil quality and productivity by reducing infiltration rates, water-holding capacity, nutrients, organic matter, soil biota, and soil depth (Pimentel et. al., 1995; Troeh et al., 1991). Research on soil erosion-soil productivity relationships indicates that, generally, crop yields on severely eroded soils are lower than on protected soils. Loss of crop yield implies loss of income and reduced food security.

Ecologically, suspended sediments in water bodies have a negative effect on the feeding and breeding behaviour of fish. They cause turbidity thereby limiting the penetration of light, which is essential for primary production (Bootsma and Hecky, 1999). Additionally, sediments seal holes where most of the rock-dwelling cichlids breed (Reinthal, 1993; Munthali, 1997). Gullies, therefore, require some form of intervention to promote a favourable environment for the establishment of plants, increase soil protection, and allow for sediment deposition.

In response to the degradation, the Government of Tanzania, with technical and financial support from the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and UNDP, is implementing a 4-year project aimed at reducing land degradation in the highlands of Kilimanjaro. The Project is covering 40,000 ha, across six watersheds in three mountain blocks of Kilimanjaro, North Pare, and South Pare. Activities include rehabilitation of gullies, and building the capacity of the extension staff so they deliver updated extension messages such as low-cost water harvesting technologies, agro forestry, soil and water conservation measures, soil-fertility management, etc.

Rehabilitation of large gullies, however, is a tedious process. Construction of check dams is sequential, as the build up behind the barriers fills up, another layer of must be constructed. This being the case, gully rehabilitation, let alone recovery outlasts project periods and is costly. Knowing such factors is important when conducting rehabilitation works. As such, this study assesses the recovery of the Shah Tours gully after rehabilitation. It answers the question: What is the rate of gully recovery of the gully?

STUDY SITE The Kilimanjaro Region (13,209 km2) is located in the north-eastern part of Tanzania. , lying between 20 25’ and 40 15’ S, and 360 25’ 30’’ and 380 10’ 45’’ East. The region is bordered by Kenya in the north, and administrative regions of Arusha, Manyara, and Tanga in the north-west, west, and south-east respectively (United Republic of Tanzania (URT), 1998). It is administratively divided into 6 district councils, namely Siha, Mwanga, Rombo, Hai, Moshi, and Same; besides the municipal council of Moshi.

Typically, it has two distinct rainfall seasons (bimodal rainfall regime), i.e. August to October and February to April (Rowshani et al., 2011) , with the driest months occurring between

107

November and January. The physiography includes the peak of Kilimanjaro Mountain (1,800 to 5,895 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l)), highlands (900 to 1,800 m.a.s.l), and the lowland /plains (below 900 m.a.s.l). This type of relief creates extremely steep slopes. The mean annual rainfall varies from 500 mm in the lowlands to over 2,000 mm in the mountainous areas (URT, 1998). Anon. (undated) showed that gradients and rainfall erosivity, some of the factors that contribute to soil erosion, are as high as 25% and > 800 respectively. Makundi (2009) illustrated that the whole region has very severe human-induced soil degradation; it ranges from moderate to severe. The lower lands and Pare highlands experience the most severe soil degradation.

Although the region is potentially vulnerable to soil erosion on account of physical factors such as steep topography, and erosive rainfall, human activities, e.g., deforestation and agriculture exacerbate this potential. Cultivation of steep slopes, without appropriate soil-conservation measures, such as terracing, is common. One of the largest changes of land use arises from the conversion of dry deciduous forest into agricultural land. Kashaga et al., (2014) reported substantial changes in land use and cover, e.g. agricultural land was 35.6% in 1995 but in 2014 it had increased to 37.0%. Bare land also increased from 1.0% to 15.6% during the same period. On the other hand, forest land declined from 9.8% in 1995 to 9.3%.

METHODS To assess recovery, we monitored soil deposition and colonization by vegetation in the Shah Tours gully within the Moshi Municipality, the first council to rehabilitate a gully under the Project. It was chosen as a priority by a Ward Development Committee because of its sizes, and threat it posed to property, especially houses and cultivated land.

Before rehabilitation, topographic and corridor surveys were conducted to determine the layout and elevations of the gully so as to facilitate designing of intervention measures. Appropriate parameters needed to estimate soil loss such as gully width, length, etc., were taken and used in the analysis following the methods of Stocking and Murnaghan (2000). We made the following calculations:

i. the average cross-sectional area of the gully, using the formula (w1+w2)/2*d in m2, where w1 = width at the lip of the gully, w2 = width at the base, d = depth;

ii. the volume of soil lost (in m3) from the gully by multiplying the cross-sectional area with the length of gully (m);

iii. the volume lost per m2 equivalent within the catchment (contributing) area; and iv. the volume of soil lost in tonnes per hectare over the whole catchment area.

To give a socio-economic context to the amount of soil lost, we converted it to loss in yield of maize, a staple in the region. We used the current average yield of maize of 2.0 t ha-1 (FAOStat, 2013) and the price of TZS 1000.00 (US$ 0.62) per kg to calculate yield and monetary losses respectively. The price is highest that middlemen can fetch from the central market in Moshi Municipality. .

Gully rehabilitation was done in January 2014. It involved use of physical structures, such as check dams of wire and stone gabions, interspersed with sand bags, and stems of Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) planted on the banks because of its effectiveness in keeping soil-loss rates low (Hellin and Heigh 2002; Truong and Loch, 2004). The key objective of the interventions is to slow water flow and cause sediment deposition, which may subsequently allow natural colonization by vegetation (Anon. 2003). Check dams made wire and stone gabions (4), and 2 of sand bags were installed in January 2014. The sandbags were put downstream of the gabions where the gully is narrow and the runoff flow weaker than upstream. All the check dams were 1.0 m high above the gully base, and 0.5 deep into the

108

ground. The ones made of sand bags were reinforced with concrete poles 1.0 m above the bed and driven 0.6 m deep into the ground.

We monitored sediment deposition and colonization by vegetation between the gabions only because the latter are located where the gully is wide enough to allow for establishment of sampling plots. We established three plots, one in each gabion; sizes varied with base width of the gully, two of them were 3 x 4 m and one was 5 x 5 m, giving a total area of 49 m2. Again, we followed the method of Stocking and Murnaghan (2000) to estimate sediment deposition behind each barrier usingthe following calculations:

i. the average depth and of accumulation against each barrier; ii. the average cross-sectional area of the accumulation, using the formula for the area of

a triangle (i.e., 1.5 horizontal width x depth); iii. the volume of soil accumulated behind each barrier; iv. the total volume accumulated to a volume per square meter of the contributing area; v. the volume per square metre to tonnes per hectare; and

vi. the total soil loss as represented by the soil accumulated behind the barrier into an annual equivalent.

To monitor colonization by vegetation 1-metre strips were made using a metre-tape that was laid out on the ground at 1-metre interval across each plot. Plants were simply identified and categorized as grass, shrub, or tree. We followed the methods of Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) to determine species abundance and density.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The rate of soil loss exceeds 12.8 t ha-1 yr-1, which is severe, according to Elwell and Stocking (1982). In fact it is higher than the maximum permissible limit of approximately 12.7 t ha-1 yr-1, which is balanced by the rate of soil formation from below (Shaxson, 1970). Soil is, therefore, being eroded at a faster rate than it is being formed, thereby undermining the long-term sustainability of agriculture. This observation gives further justification to the priority that the Project has given to rehabilitation of degraded lands.

Table 1: Characteristics of the Shah Tours gully, Moshi Municipality, Tanzania

Characteristic Amount

Table 2: Estimates of maize yield and financial loss resulting from soil loss in Shah Tours gully, Moshi Municipality, Tanzania

Variable Amount Loss ha-1

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Table 3: Sediment deposition behind barriers, Shah Tours gully, Moshi Municipality, Tanzania

Barrier Soil Deposited (t ha-1 yr-1)

Average 11.62

In terms of crop yield, the loss of soil translates to approximately 36,800.0 kg (Table 2). In monetary terms, the yield loss converts to approximately TZS 36,800,000.00 (US$ 22,871.35) or TZS 2,000,000.00 (US$ 1,243.00) per ha or about US$ 103.00 per month, which is equivalent to 55.4% of the monthly income of a majority of households. Mutimba (2013) reported that 79% of the households in the municipality earn below US$ 186.00 per month.

With respect to sediment deposition, it is evident that there was a decline in soil loss from 17.3 t ha-1 yr-1 (Table 1) to 11.62 t ha-1 yr-1 (67.3%) as seen from the amount deposited behind the barriers, which in essence is the quantity of soil lost upstream. That there are no other land management projects in the area, the reduction in soil can be attributed to the SLM Project. Within Moshi Municipal Council and Moshi District Council, part of which is upstream the gully, over 270.00 out of 15000.00 ha (2.0%) targeted by the Project are under direct SLM in terms of tree planting, sub-soiling, and diversion of surface runoff into natural waterways using cut-off drains. Within the same area, 1,279 out of 28,212 land users (about 5%) have acquired skills of SLM. Four hundred forty-nine farmers have actually adopted the practices.

Within three months into the rainy season, all the three barriers were full of deposited soil. Considering that the average height of the gully is 3.0 m, one would be tempted to project that the gully would fill up with sediments within 3 years approximately. However, this is unlikely to happen because of the conservation measures being applied upstream. The amount of soil lost, which in essence is being deposited within the gully, is likely to decline. May be a better indication is to determine the recovery period be to use the total amount soil lost from the gully, i.e., 432.46 t ha-1 (Table 1).At the current rate of deposition, the gully would fill up in about 37 years, assuming everything is constant. Either way, sediment deposition would not fill the gully in less than 3 years, by which time the Project would have phased out. These estimates underscore the need to indeed include such activities in government work plans and budgets.

In terms of colonization by vegetation, being the first season, it still low as evidenced by plant species abundance and density (Figs. 2 and 3). However, that natural colonization has commenced is an encouraging sign. Before rehabilitation of the gully the bed was devoid of such plants.

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Fig. 2: Abundance of naturally colonizing plants, Shah Tours gully, Moshi

Municipality, Tanzania

Fig. 3: Density of naturally colonizing plants, Shah Tours gully, Moshi Municipality,

Tanzania These being results for only one season, not any meaningful interpretation of the rate of gully recovery can be made. Long-term monitoring will, therefore, be appropriate. However, these results will not only be a baseline against which comparisons can be made, but they will also contribute to the computation of a recovery rate once data are robust enough. Based on the experience from this gully, it would be appropriate for Project to also rehabilitate and monitor those gullies that have been surveyed in the districts of Rombo, Same, Mwanga, Hai, and

No.

of I

ndiv

idua

ls

Type of Plant

Before After

Indi

vidu

als/

m2

Type of Plant

Before After

111

Moshi. That way, data on recovery and vegetation colonization rates will be robust and be interpreted more meaningfully than is the case presently.

CONCLUSION This study set out to provide an understanding of the recovery of a rehabilitated gully. While is too early to make any firm conclusions, preliminary results suggest that to date 11.62 tha-1 yr-1 of soil have been deposited in the gully, a reduction of 67.3% in soil loss. There is also natural colonization of the gully bed by vegetation. Planning for other gully-rehabilitation works in the Kilimanjaro ecosystem will greatly be encouraged by the results from the Shah Tours gully.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are extremely grateful to the Government of Tanzania, UNDP, and GEF, who are jointly funding the Project on Reducing Land Degradation in the Highland of Kilimanjaro. They are also thankful to different individuals for their various roles at various stages of the study. Special thanks go to Martin F. Mgangaluma, Polycarp Marunda, Rajab Killaghai, Nuru Mkwizu, and Elizabeth Kimaro for surveying, designing and implementing intervention measures, and data collection.

REFERENCES Anon. 2003. Check Dams. California Storm water BMP Handbook 1 of 5 Construction.

[www.cabmphandbooks.com, accessed Jan 2013.] Anon. undated. Land Degradation Mapping in Kilimanjaro Region, Tanzania. UNDP

Country Office, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. pp 9. Aranson, J. Floret, C. LeFloc’h, E. Ovalle, C. and Pointainer, P. 1993. Restoration and

Rehabilitation of Degraded Ecosystems in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands. I. A View from the South. Restoration Ecology: 8-17.

Bootsma, H.A. and Hecky, R.E. 1999. Executive Summary: In Bootsma, H.A. and R.E. Hecky (Eds.), pp 1-15. Water Quality Report, Lake Malawi/Nyasa Biodiversity Conservation Project, Ministry of Forestry, Fisheries and Environmental Affairs, Lilongwe Malawi.

Elwell, H.A. and Stocking, M.A. 1982. Developing a Simple Yet Practical Method of Soil Loss Estimation. Tropical Agriculture (Trinidad), 59: 43-48.

FAOStat. 2013. Agriculture and Trade Opportunities for Tanzania, working paper , December 2011, United Nations University, UNU-WIDER Food Security, IFPRI,[www.foodsecurityportal.org/tanzania, accessed 27 May 2014).

Hellin, J. and Haigh, M.J. 2002. Impact of Vetiveria zizanioides (Vetiver Grass) Live Barriers on Maize Production in Honduras. 12th International Soil Conservation Organisation Conference (ISCO), Beijing [http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/pnade444.pdf, accessed 27 May 2014].

Kashaga, R.I., Sangeda, A.Z., Kahimba, F.C., Semu, E., and Mhonge, C.P. 2014. Decision-making Tools to Facilitate Village Land-use Planning for Natural Resources Management in Kilimanjaro Region. A Consultancy Report Submitted to the Regional Administrative Secretary. pp 96.

Makundi, W. R. 2009. Climate Risk and Vulnerability Status of Kilimanjaro Region. Environmental Management Consultants Moshi, Tanzania, pp 50.

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Mutimba, S.N. 2014. Scaling Up Fuel Efficient Technologies for Domestic, Institutions and Industrial Use with Carbon Benefits in the Kilimanjaro Region. A Consultancy Report Submitted to the Regional Administrative Secretary. pp 77.

Mueller-Dombois, D. and Ellenberg, H. 1974. Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology. John Wiley & Sons. New York.

Munthali, S.M. 1997. Dwindling Food Fish Species and Fishers' Preference: Problems of Conserving Lake Malawi Biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation 6: 253-26.

Pimentel, D. Harvey, C. Resosurdarmo, K. Sinclair, D. Kurz, M. McNair, S. Crist, L. Shpritz, L. Fitton, R. Saffouri, R. Blair, R. 1995. Environmental and Economic Costs of Soil Erosion and Conservation Benefits. Science 267: 1117-1122.

Reinthal, P. 1993. Evaluating Biodiversity and Conserving Lake Malawi's Cichlid Fauna, Conservation Biology 7: 712 -718.

Rowhani, P., Lobell, D.B., Linderman, M., and Ramankutty, N. 2011. Climate Variability and Crop Production in Tanzania. Agricultural and Forest Meteorology 151: 449-460.

Shaxson, T.F. 1970. Conservation for Survival. The Society of Malawi Journal 23 (1): 48-57. Stocking, M. and Murnaghan, N. 2000. Land Degradation-Guidelines for Field Assessment.

Overseas Development Group, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. pp 120. Troeh, F.R., Hobbs, J.A., and Donahue, R.L. 1991. Soil and Water Conservation. 2nd

Edition. Prentice-Hall, New Jersey, U.S.A. Truong, P.N.V. and Loch, R. 2004. Vetiver System for Erosion and Sediment Control. 13th

ISCO Conference– Brisbane, July 2004: Conserving Soil and Water for Society: Sharing Solutions [http://tucson.ars.ag.gov/isco/isco13/PAPER R-Z/TRUONG.pdf, accessed 27 may 2014].

United Nations Development Programme, 2010. Reducing Land Degradation on the Highlands of Kilimanjaro Region. United Nations Development Program, Tanzania LRM Project document [http://www.tz.undp.org/content/dam/tanzania/Sustainable Land Management in Kilimanjaro.pdf, accessed March 2014].

United Republic of Tanzania, 1998. Kilimanjaro Region Socio-Economic Profile. The Planning Commission Dar es Salaam and Regional Commissioner’s Office, Kilimanjaro Region. pp 238.

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CHARACTERISING HYDROLOGY OF TWO HOMOGENEOUS WETLANDS OF LESOTHO BY: MAPESHOANE B., NKHELOANE T., MOEPI P.I., THOKOENG K.D., LIBENYANE T.A. AND

QATHATSI T., Department of Soil Science & Resource Conservation, Faculty of Agriculture, The National University of Lesotho, P.O. Roma 180, Lesotho

ABSTRACT Wetlands hydroperiod are important for both wetland and catchment health, it is therefore critical to understand the hydrology of wetlands if we want to manage them effectively and sustainably. Soil characterisation study was carried out at Khalong-La-Lithunya to assess the hydrology in two paired geologically homogenous wetlands of which one was restored and the other used as reference. Hydrology was evaluated by measuring, soil water levels in piezometers and soil hydraulic properties in the wetlands. The soil samples were taken along a slope gradient transects from four depths at 200 mm interval to depth of 800 mm from which piezometers had been previously installed by MCA-Lesotho wetland project. A four year data on piezometer water levels was compared with the current year piezometer water levels. There is significant difference (P 0.05) in bulk density, porosity and hydraulic conductivity between reference and restored wetlands with high bulk density (0.96 ± 0.16 g cm-3), high porosity (0.64 %) and low hydraulic conductivity (2.74 ± 1.86 mm hr-1) in the reference wetlands. Even though the restored wetlands exhibit significantly difference in soil hydrological properties from reference wetland there was no significant difference within 800 mm soil depth and across the slope gradient. The piezometer water table levels were higher in reference wetlands (306± 16 mm deep from the soil surface) while the restored wetlands water levels were 510± 6 mm deep from the soil surface. The soil hydrological properties indicated that reference wetlands may still exhibit compaction to some extent.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Livestock grazing represents the major anthropogenic pressure on many wetlands of Lesotho. Overstocking and mismanagement of the rangelands has resulted into severe degradation and drying up of wetlands (MCA, 2012). Lesotho contains some of unique wetland ecosystems, of palustrine system dominating the highlands areas and the majority of which are associated with watersheds. These are mires with highly organic soils that have formed peat in most cases. Wetlands provide very important ecological functions, such as supporting biodiversity and act as a carbon pool (Mitsch & Gosselink, 2007). Wetlands also provide very important hydrological functions such as natural filtration of nutrients, contaminants and sediments thereby improving water quality, cycling the nutrients up the food chain, and retention of water to decrease peak flows. Water retention reduces flooding, increases ground water infiltration, increases watercourse base flows and minimises erosion (Acreman & Bullock, 2003).

According to (Rezanezhad et al.., 2009) the nature of water flow and storage in peats requires knowledge of the unique physical properties of this porous medium such that the increase degree of decomposition with depth below the ground surface results in a decrease in the size of particles and inter-particle pores, and an increase in the bulk density which affects soil hydrology within the soil profile. They observed that a reduction in an active porosity and a decrease in pore size, and the saturated hydraulic conductivity of peat lands by several orders of magnitudes within the depth of 500 mm from the soil surface. However, some studies

114

report that layering of peat and other factors give a more complicated relation between soil hydraulic properties and depth (Passoni et al., 2009; Bradley et al., 2013; Jarvis et al., 2013). According to (Jarvis et al., 2013) hydraulic conductivity of the surface soil layers at and near saturation is an important parameter regulating the partitioning of precipitation between surface runoff and ground water recharge, plant water uptake and rates of biogeochemical cycling in soil.

Wetland hydrology refers to the inflow and the outflow of water through a wetland and its interaction with other site factors. The land is characterized as having wetland hydrology when under normal circumstances, the land surface is either inundated or the upper portion of the soil is saturated at a sufficient frequency and duration to create anaerobic conditions (Hunt et al., 2012). A wetland condition occurs where topographic and hydro-geologic conditions are favourable and a sufficient long-term source of water exists (Bibi et al., 2010). A hydroperiod is referred to as the pulsing water flow regime, it is the seasonal pattern of water level of a wetland and a hydrologic signature of each wetland type (Mitsch and Gosselink, 2007). Water level fluctuations especially their extent, frequency, and duration, are dominant forces controlling the functioning of aquatic ecosystems (Leira and Cantonati, 2008). Considering the key role of surface water flow patterns in shaping substrates, biogeochemical cycling, restoration, and ecosystem characteristics in wetlands, the impacts of anthropogenic pressures such as grazing and their effects on soil properties are of great interest. The main objective of this study was to characterise the soil hydrology of the restored and reference wetlands of Khalong-la-Lithunya from soil hydraulic parameters and underground water levels. Measurements of soil hydraulic properties are costly; therefore, the study selected a few parameter and pedotransfer functions such as bulk density and total porosity. It is hypothesised that the restored wetlands have higher hydrology than reference wetlands.

MATERIALS AND METHODS STUDY SITE Khalong-la-Lithunya catchment is located between Oxbow and the Letseng diamond area in the northern district of Lesotho at 28 53S, 28 47E. The population in the area is sparse, with herders from nearby villages being the only regular users of the rangelands and wetland. The wetland drains into the Motete River. Two micro-catchments previously defined by the Millennium Challenge Account (MCA, 2010) Wetland Project as reference and restored wetlands were used as study area (Figure 1). The “reference wetland” is where grazing is not controlled and no conservation measures are employed. The second micro-catchment defined as “restored wetland” is where grazing is not allowed and conservation measures have been laid down for at least 2 years. Characteristic of the wetlands are given in Table 1. The dominant wetland soils in the region are Hydric Cryohemists soils (MCA, 2010). The annual rainfall ranges from as 1000 to 1200 mm (Lesotho Meteorological Services).

Table 1: Study site wetland attributes (MCA, 2010)

NAME TYPE WETLAND AREA(ha)

TRIBUTARIES (km)

OUTLET ELEVATION(masl)

Khalong-La-Lithunya

Reference 191.00 10.63 3,015

Khalong-La-Lithunya

Restoration 242.38 10.84 3,090

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Figure 1: Two wetlands of Khalong-la-Lithunya the northern wetland was used as reference and the southern one was restored wetland is a main stream and the numbers are catchments. Source: MCA (2012).

DATA COLLECTION For characterization of the soil hydrological properties and processes, soil auguring was done along transects at depths of 0-20, 20-40, 40-60, 60-80 and 80-100 cm. The soil physical properties that were investigated were bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, porosity, water content, and soil texture. Soil moisture content was determined using the gravimetric method in which water content (�g) was expressed as the mass of water per mass of dry soil. Bulk density was determined by using the core method expressed as the dry weight of soil per volume of soil.

0 21km

Streams

Wetland

Boundary

Ü

4

6

M 1

23

5

M

1

2M

alito

Lira

mon

gMotete

b

dsds V

M

116

Soil porosity is the ratio of the volume of soil pores to the total soil volume. Bulk density indirectly provides a measure of the soil porosity and is closely related to the soil porosity through the following relationship:

p

dsPorosity 1 (where p is particle density)

In the laboratory undisturbed core soil samples were subjected to a constant falling head, to estimate the saturated method (Knowles et al. 2011). Groundwater levels data previously recorded once a month over a period of three years from the three observation points on the restored catchment and one from the reference wetlands that were recorded as a benchmark. Similar data was measured from the same observation points using a stuff gauges and piezometers once a month for one year. The observations were labelled as M , 1, 2 , on restored and M on reference wetlands shown in Figure 1. Data was analysed using general linear model (SPSS, 2003).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION SOIL HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES IN THE TOP 200 MM OF THE SOIL The analysis of variance shows that in the top 200 mm of the soil there was a significant difference in bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and porosity between restored and reference wetlands at 0.05 significance level (Table 2). The soil moisture content in the two wetlands was 0.98 ± 0.21 m3 m-3 in the reference wetlands and 1.09±0.71 m3 m-3 in the restored wetlands. The bulk density was significantly higher 0.961 ± 0.161 g cm-3 in reference wetlands compared to 0.649±0.21 g cm-3 in the restored wetlands. And so the inverse was true for porosity which was significantly lower porosity (0.638± 0.60) than restored wetlands (0.75±0.08). Hydraulic conductivity was 2.77 ± 1.86 mm hr-1, and 6.22± 2.61 mm hr-1 in the reference and restored wetlands respectively which also imply the inverse of bulk density. MCA (2010) reported infiltration rates of 5 mm hr-1 in the wetland of Khalong –la-Lithunya. The high bulk density and ultimately low conductivity in reference wetlands was attributed to livestock trampling effect causing soil compaction which in turn affects hydrology of the wetlands because with increase in compaction, movement of water within the soil is restricted. Compaction reduces the volume of micro-pores resulting into densification of soils (Russo et al., 2012). Water retention and transmission are very sensitive to the location of the compact layers because infiltration characteristics are affected. Compaction decreases water movement by decreasing the void volume and by changing void size distribution to block some connections between voids (Jarvis et al., 2013).

117

Table 2: Comparisons of soil hydraulic properties means between restored and reference wetlands at 200mm

SOIL HYDRAULIC PROPERTIES WITH DEPTH IN RESTORED WETLAND. The analysis of variance shows that there is no significant difference between soil depth 200mm, 400mm, 600mm, and 800mm for moisture content, bulk density, hydraulic conductivity and porosity (Table 3).

TABLE 3: Analysis of variance for soil parameters with depth in restored wetland

SOIL PROPERTIES DF SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL Soil moisture content 3 0.818 Bulk density 3 0.856 Porosity 3 0.860 Hydraulic conductivity 3 0.468 Total 11

Bulk density has shown to increase with depth while porosity and hydraulic conductivity decrease. These may be attributed to migration of clay particles from topsoil to the subsoil where the particles fill the existing pore spaces, resulting in pore space volume and increase in bulk density. In the top layers there is much concentration of fauna and plants roots which increase penetration of water in the soil and air circulation thus increasing porosity and hydraulic conductivity of the soil.

SOIL HYDRAULIC

PROPERTIES

F-value REFERENCE

WETLAND

RESTORED

WETLAND

Soil moisture content

Mean

Std error

0.220

0.982

0.860

1.093

0.290

Bulk density;

Mean ( g cm-3 )

Std error

0.015

0.961

0.657

0.650

0.846

Porosity;

Mean

Std error

0.019

0.637

0.247

0.752

0.326

Soil hydraulic conductivity

Mean ( mm hr-1 )

Std error

0.025

2.768

0.758

6.222

1.063

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TABLE 4: Soil hydraulic properties means for restored wetlands from 200 mm to 800 mm depth.

SOIL DEPTH(cm)

Moisture Content Bulk Density Porosity

Hydraulic conductivity

200 mm

Mean

Std. dev.

1.093

±0.710

0.649

±0.207

0.752

±0.079

6.222

±2.60

400 mm

Mean

Std. dev.

1.501

±1.44

0.859

±0.497

0.673

±0.190

6.878

±2.60

600 mm

Mean

Stddev.

1.553

±2.35

0.872

±0.549

0.671

±0.207

5.703

±3.79

800 mm

Mean

Std. dev.

2.067

±1.75

0.809

±0.646

0.702

±2.34

3.936

±1.86

SOIL WATER LEVELS AND THEIR RELATIONSHIP TO SOIL PROPERTIES In restored wetland, there is high water levels than in reference wetland and this implies that decrease in water table increases water level hence why there is high water table in reference wetlands than in the restored wetlands and this might be due to hard pan that might be existing in the reference wetlands which restricts the downward movement of water down the profile. Also lateral movement of water within the soil is affected by the slope therefore this result in to accumulation of water in the bottom slope which can increase the water table due to water accumulation, so the assumption is that the slope might be much steeper in the reference wetlands than in the restored wetlands.

Table 5. Soil water levels in both restored and reference wetlands

IDENTITY WATER LEVEL IN REFERENCE WETLAND

WATER LEVEL IN RESTORED WETLAND

Upper slope 36.75 32

Middle slope 11 40

Bottom slope 34.25 108

119

CONCLUSION The study findings revealed that the soil hydraulic properties (bulk density, porosity, texture and hydraulic conductivity) and the wetland water levels within a wetland are different between restored and reference wetlands, and data adds to the baseline information of the conservation efforts in the area. The understanding is that livestock trampling within a wetland affects the soil hydraulic properties which in turn influence the movement and water quality from the wetland. Cattle maybe kept on the outer edges of the wetland, away from permanently flooded areas especially in the dry season so that cattle do not churn up very wet soils, making them susceptible to erosion.

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and Earth System Sciences, 7:358-389 Bibi R.N Gondwe, H. Seng-Hong, Wdowinski S.B .Peter, 2010. Hydrological Dynamic of

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Jarvis, N., Koestel, J., Messing, I., Moeys, J.,and Lindahl, A., 2013. Influence of soil, land use and climatic factors on the hydraulic conductivity of soil. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 17, 5185–5195.

Knowles, O.A., B.H. Robinson, A. Contangelo, and L. Clucas. 2011. Biochar for the mitigation of nitrate leaching from soil amended with biosolids. Sci. Total Environ. 409:3206–3210. doi:10.1016/j. scitotenv.2011.05.011.

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MCA, 2012. Environmental Monitoring Report, Wetlands Restoration and Conservation Project, Ministry of Natural Resources. Maseru.

MCA, 2010. Intergrated Baseline Assessment of the wetlands catchments/watersheds. Khalong –la Lithunya, Kotisephola and Letse’ng la letsie areas. Department of water affairs.

Mitsch, W.J. and J.G. Gosselink. 2007. Wetlands, 4th ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 582 pp

Passoni .M, F. Morari, M. Salvato, M. Borini. 2009 ; Medium-term Evolution of Soil properties in a constructed surface flow wetlands with fluctuating hydro period in North Eastern , Italy ; Desalination , 246 : 215-225.

Rezanezhad, F., Quinton, W. L., Price, J. S., Elrick, D., Elliot, T. R. and Heck, R. J., 2009.Examining the effect of pore size distribution and shape on flow through unsaturated peat using computed tomography. Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci., 13, 1993–2002.

Russo T.A, A.T Fisher and J.W Roche, 2012; improving riparian wetland conditions based on infiltration and drainage behaviour during and after controlled flood. Journal of hydrology, 432; 98- 111.

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MANAGE THE LAND TO MANAGE THE WATER: SYSTEMIC CHALLENGES TO SOIL CONSERVATION AND RANGE IMPROVEMENT IN LESOTHO COLIN HOAG, PhD Student, Department of Biological Sciences, Aarhus University, Denmark and PhD Dept. of Anthropology, UCSC, 1156 High St., Santa Cruz, CA, USA, 95726 colinhoag@gmail.com 266 5612 7008

ABSTRACT: Rangeland degradation and soil erosion have long been issues of concern in Lesotho. Crushing poverty forces rural people to maximize their exploitation of soil and plant resources – in a country with steep topography, frequent droughts, and intense summer thunderstorms that predispose it to erosion. The implementation of the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which provides Lesotho with revenues from water export to South Africa and 72MW of hydro-electricity, has raised the stakes on the question of how to effectively practice soil conservation and watershed management. The rapid siltation of the ‘Muela Reservoir – just as the LHWP Phase II agreement moves forward – shows that Lesotho must find a way to protect this increasingly important sector of the economy. While much of the soil conservation and range restoration work in the country entails the construction of physical conservation works such as stone-lines and gabions, the difficulty of transporting construction tools and materials means that roadside areas are serviced while huge swathes of rangeland go unaddressed. This suggests that a more comprehensive strategy should be pursued to address the systemic problems that inhibit effective range management. Based on ongoing anthropological and ecological research in Lesotho, I propose a strategy for sustainable land management that includes 1) annual vegetation surveying; 2) a consolidation of responsibility for the production of livestock data; and 3) a strengthening of the technical capacity of chiefs, who are charged with managing rangeland but who rarely have a strong understanding of range ecology and relevant legal instruments.

INTRODUCTION 1. THE PROBLEM:

Rangeland degradation and soil erosion have long been issues of concern in Lesotho. Crushing poverty forces rural people to maximize their exploitation of soil and plant resources – in a country with steep topography, frequent droughts, and intense summer thunderstorms that predispose it to erosion. While in earlier decades, rural people could invest in animals as a secondary income source, relying primarily on remittances from family members working in South Africa, employment for citizens of Lesotho in that country has declined dramatically since the 1990s. This means that many rural people in Lesotho are more reliant than ever on the sale of livestock and livestock products, heightening the importance of maintaining the range while at the same time raising the possibility of increasing degradation.

At the same time as employment in South Africa has declined, Lesotho has embarked on a massive water transfer scheme, the Lesotho Highlands Water Project (LHWP), which provides Lesotho with crucial foreign revenues from water export to South Africa and 72MW of hydro-electricity. The desirability of Lesotho’s water comes from both its quality and

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abundance, but both of these come under threat by degraded highland landscapes above LHWP reservoirs – land that is even more stressed due to the loss of croplands and grazing lands in inundated areas. High altitude wetlands, for example, help to purify and regulate streamflow, and these ecological services are likely under threat. Marneweck and Grundling (1999; cited in National Wetlands Management Programme, 2005) calculate that Lesotho’s wetlands currently store 36% less water than is their potential because of degradation. Many other observers have also noted evidence of degradation by livestock and rodents in Lesotho’s alpine bogs and fens (Grab and Deschamps, 2004; van Zinderen Bakker and Werger, 1979; du Preez and Brown,2004).Degraded wetlands threaten not only diminish the quality of the water that enters Lesotho’s highland streams—they will also cause an increase in the energy of water flowing downslope, carrying sediment and organic matter into the reservoir. The reservoir water will suffer quality losses from the introduction of organic matter while at the same time the reservoir will eventually lose active storage capacity. The LHWP has therefore raised the stakes on the question of how to effectively practice soil conservation and watershed management in Lesotho. The rapid siltation of the ‘Muela Reservoir –just as the LHWP Phase II agreement moves forward – shows that Lesotho must find a way to protect this increasingly important stream of electricity and foreign revenues.

While much of the soil conservation and range restoration work in the country entails the construction of physical conservation works such as stone-lines and gabions, the difficulty of transporting construction tools and materials means that roadside areas are serviced while huge swathes of rangeland go unaddressed. This is not to mention the fact that these “fato-fato” programs have, in the past, been guided by the interests of politics rather than conservation. Moreover, Showers (2005) has shown that physical conservation works, when not done right, can actually exacerbate erosion. This suggests that a more comprehensive strategy should be pursued to address the systemic problems that inhibit effective range management, one that can take account of the social and political dynamics of that task as well as the significant knowledge base needed to do so effectively.

The precursor to addressing these problems, however, is to begin filling the knowledge gap. Assessing the extent to which livestock grazing pressure is driving erosion or changes in vegetation requires an understanding of historical change—necessitating vegetation monitoring and a clear determination of livestock densities. Based on ongoing anthropological and ecological research in Mokhotlong, I propose a three-pronged strategy for sustainable land management that includes 1) annual vegetation surveying; 2) a consolidation of responsibility for the production of livestock data; and 3) a strengthening of the technical capacity of Chiefs, who are charged with managing rangeland but who rarely have an adequate understanding of range ecology and relevant legal instruments.

2. THE CONTEXT: Lesotho has the highest soil erosion hazard of any country in Southern and Central Africa (Chakela and Stocking, 1988), raising concerns that poor land use managementcould lead to acute soil erosion and the rapid sedimentation of Lesotho’s reservoirs. Indeed, a recent report by the World Bank found that LHWP reservoirs are silting up “at an alarming rate,” and that as a result “the LHWP might bury itself in a few decades” (Hitchcock et al., 2011:22,16). While it is generally accepted as fact thatlivestock are leading to increased erosion and shrub encroachment in highland pastures, the extent to which this is true has not been firmly established by scientific methods.The unintended ecological consequences of reforms based on faulty assumptions are serious, however, as when British colonial soil scientists led earlier soil conservation efforts in Lesotho that in fact increased soil erosion by misidentifying erosion geographies (Showers, 2005). Many statements on Lesotho’s rangelands refer to

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“overgrazing” and “degradation” without defining these terms or citing any evidence for their validity. For example, estimates of the rate of overstocking on Lesotho’s rangelands have varied from 17% to 300% (Turner, 2004:175-6), suggesting either gross data deficiencies or a lack of agreement over how to define the term “overstocking”. These statements also tend to presume an equilibrium model of ecological succession (Clements, 1936; Dyksterhuis, 1949), whereas range ecologists have shown that non-equilibrium dynamics (Holling, 1973; May, 1977; Westoby, et al. 1989) can prevail in places like Lesotho, where the coefficient of variability in rainfall can exceed 30% (Vetter, 2005).

In non-equilibrium systems, abiotic factors such as rainfall tend to dominate as drivers of vegetation composition (with geomorphological consequences) over biotic or management factors such as livestock densities or timing. While this possibility does not mean that livestock impacts are irrelevant, it does suggest that greater attention needs to be given to disentangling the various drivers of vegetation before prescribing management changes. This is particularly true given that blaming livestock and their owners for land degradation without sufficient basis is a recurring theme in the academic literature on range ecology and pastoralism (Dodd, 1994; Fratkin, 1997; Vetter, 2005). In Lesotho, land management reform is a deeply political proposition in rural areas where common land tenure is fundamental to social structure (Ferguson, 1994), and any change to land management should be well informed. A lack of available data and long-term studies in Lesotho complicates this effort.

MATERIALS AND METHODS My findings are the product of ongoing ethnographic and ecological fieldwork in the Mokhotlong District of Lesotho, including one month in August, 2011, one month in August 2013, and 12 months between January to December of 2014. So far, I have conducted dozens of interviews with livestock owners, herders, Chiefs, Councilors, and people impacted by the LHWP Phase II. I have carried out participatory observation with herders and livestock owners, and spent time with officials at the Range Management Division (RMD) of the Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation (MFLR), as well as with people working on fato-fato crews. I have also initiated ecological studies investigating the drivers of shrub encroachment and soil loss, including livestock impact, in the Seate sub-catchment of the Khubelu River.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION STRATEGY 1: AUGMENTATION OF VEGETATION MONITORING The term “degradation” implies change over time – from a more productive state to a less productive state. But change is rarely documented in discussions of range degradation in Lesotho—neither by independent researchers nor the Lesotho government. A standardized monitoring policy/programme, combined with improved data management, would help tremendously in the important task of establishing a clear picture of historical trends in Lesotho’s rangelands. The Range Management Division(RMD) of the Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation (MFLR)currently does carry out annual inventories of vegetation at various sites within Lesotho. These efforts could be made much more valuable, however, if they were done in a way to produce data that were directly comparable with previous datasets, including especially the National Rangeland Inventory carried out by the RMD in the 1980s.Developing an official, standardized sampling protocol, perhaps similar to the one followed in the valuable Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project (MDTP) Biodiversity

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Assessment Technical Report (MDTP, 2007), would be advisable. Permanent transects could be established at sites that are selected as being representative of a range of geographical conditions, preferably in places where stocking rate and climate data can be determined (e.g., near climatological stations of the Lesotho Meteorological Society). The RMD might not have the financial, technical, or staff resources to do detailed ecological investigation into the drivers of range condition, but independent researchers might – and these baseline data could be made available to them by application. The lack of baseline data is currently a barrier to doing this kind of ecological investigation, and the establishment of an official RMD standardized sampling protocol could avoidthe production of a patchwork of incommensurate data by individual researchers.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and satellite imagery are key tools for this effort, both for the sake of analyzing historical trends as well as identifying sites of concern. Developing these capacities should be a key area of focus for the MFLR, however present financial and technical resource constraints surely pose obstacles. If there is a possible role for non-governmental organizations and donor organizations, it is in helping to surmount these obstacles. This can be done on the one hand by providing the necessary technology and training to current MFLR employees. On the other hand, perhaps as important is to facilitate the education of young Basotho through bursaries or other means to use GIS and to handle satellite imagery. Indeed, encouraging young Basotho—especially rural students—to study range ecology and plant science should be a broader goal for all interested parties. That so few specialists in these subjects are produced in a country where people are so dependent on rangeland ecosystem services seems a shame. The LHDAis clearly an important stakeholder, and perhaps one that can help fund this training, given that the ecohydrology of Lesotho’s rangelands is so important to the sustainability of the LHWP.

STRATEGY 2: CONSOLIDATION OF RESPONSIBILITY FOR LIVESTOCK STATISTICS Developing an understanding of how range condition has changed over time only brings us halfway to producing a knowledge base upon which to pose smart range management reforms—we still need to know the extent to which livestock grazing is responsible for those changes as opposed to rainfall, fire regime, plant community dynamics, or other factors. This requires accurate figures on the number and location of livestock grazing in Lesotho’s rangelands. Currently, the production of livestock statistics is undertaken by at least six different offices of government. Ward Chiefs and Councilors in the highlands maintain a “master registry” of the livestock that live in their area, though this does not include livestock that are owned by people outside their area but which graze within it (and vice versa), nor is it a complete accounting, as many livestock owners neglect to register their animals. Principal Chiefs whose areas contain high-altitude “A” rangelands keep a fragmented registry of animals kept at cattle posts there. The Department of Trade and Industry maintains figures on stock that are imported or exported from the country.Their effortsare primarily focused on small stock given the importance of the wool and mohair industry as well as the fact that large stock are not sold on the market in any significant numbers. The Livestock Division of the Department of Home Affairs maintains a database of livestock that are tattooed as part of their new marking program, which has been slow to roll out (due to lack of resources, the Division can currently register only 1,000 animals per month). Subsequent to the first round of markings, the DHA is going to charge a fee, which suggests that the participation will drop considerably. The Lesotho Mounted Police Service also keeps track of livestock that are reported stolen and which they help to retrieve. Finally, the Bureau of Statistics produces figures through an annual, countrywide survey, although their survey does not account for the fact that animals owned in one district may be grazed in another district for part or all of the

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year. Moreover, livestock are not kept uniformly across districts, meaning that district-wide figures can be difficult to use when investigating a specific landscape.

A consolidation of responsibility for livestock registry and data management would aid in the task of establishing how many livestock of which type are grazing in a particular location at a particular time. Because livestock statistics become particularly meaningful when they are compared across time, this work should begin soon. It seems wise to rely on the Ward Chiefs and Councilors, given that they currently collect the most detailed information. They do not currently collect information on the location of livestock owners’ summer and winter cattle posts, however, which is a gap that should be filled in their reporting requirements.

STRATEGY 3: AUGMENTATION OF THE TECHNICAL CAPACITY OF CHIEFS Chiefs have historically had the responsibility for managing common rangelands in Lesotho. This responsibility was transferred officially with the introduction of Community Councils in 2005 (although Chiefs still maintain a seat on the councils), except for the high altitude pastures (“A” and “B” rangelands) that continue to be managed by Principal Chiefs and the Grazing Associations (mekhatlo ea phuliso) that work at their behest. However, even in the case of the “C” rangelands, Area Chiefs, Ward Chiefs, and their Headmen still continue to serve as important mediators in range disputes and as protectors of closed pastures (maboella).This surely has to do with the fact that Councils do not have the wherewithal to manage the sprawling rangelands under their charge, which can number in the thousands of hectares. Yet, despite being the de facto rangeland managers, few Ward Chiefs, Area Chiefs, and Headmen are well versed in range ecological processes, range management, and range law. They should be capacitated to do so.

Chiefs’ historical role in managing common rangeland is also reason to support them over other possible political structures. There has been a proliferation of range authorities over the past few decades, and it could be argued that this proliferation weakens rather than strengthens range management capacity by undermining what authority does in fact exist. Between the Range Management Division (RMD), Chiefs, Councilors, Grazing Associations (GA), Village Development Committees (VDC), Managed Resource Associations (MRA), and Catchment Management Associations (CMA), Lesotho has had plenty of individuals and collectives weighing in on range issues. Rather than create more “user associations,” which have met with limited success, I suggest that the existing capacity of Chiefs be strengthened to meet the demands of the work they are already doing. While I recognize that Chiefs are perceived by some segments of Lesotho society as corrupt and ineffective, they are nevertheless viewed by many (at least in the highlands) as the ones primarily responsible for rangelands. They already have the legitimacy—more than any other body, anyway—to intervene in range matters. Although people cannot vote a Chief out of office as they can a Councilor or the Chair of a GA, people can (and often do) exert pressure on their Chief to accede to their needs.I am not naïve ot the problems of the chieftaincy, nor do I wish to return to someidyllic past. Instead, I question the push toward new range management structures. Perhaps continuity is what is needed.

CONCLUSIONS Establishing a clear picture of historical changes in range condition and livestock ownership is key to determining the extent to which livestock and livestock keeping practices are responsible for bringing about those changes. Filling that knowledge gap can help to ensure that proposed range reforms are well informed and to avoid the pitfalls of earlier, unsuccessful interventions (Ferguson, 1994; Showers, 2005).In the meantime, reinforcing

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Chiefs’ knowledge of general range ecological processes and the legal statutes that currently govern range use is a wise goal, given their existing role in managing everyday range issues.

In conclusion, one additional point is worth mentioning, though it might at first appear outside of the ambit of “sustainable land management”: efforts to reform range management must be accompanied by efforts to enable Basotho access to the South African employment market. Remittances from workers in South Africa have been the single most important source of Basotho livelihoods since the late 19th century, and the decline of access for citizens of Lesotho directly impacts range use and the possibilities for range management. Today, the sale of wool, mohair, and small stock meat has become the primary source of income for most rural people. What was previously a precarious livelihood is now even more so. In fact, it is very possible that no feasible scheme exists to adjust land use (range or cropland) in a way that can sustain the highlands population without supplement into the future. This possibility suggests that employment in other sectors, most likely in South Africa, will continue to be the key to survival for many highlands residents.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This research has been supported financially by the Wenner-Gren Foundation, the Social Sciences Research Council, the UCSC Science and Justice Research Center, the UCSC Center for Tropical Research in Ecology, Agriculture, and Development, the UCSC Department of Anthropology, and the Aarhus University Department of Bioscience. I also thank the Department of Historical Studies at the National University of Lesotho for research affiliation during my stay.

REFERENCES Chakela, Qalabane, and Michael Stocking. 1988. “An Improved Methodology for Erosion

Hazard Mapping Part II: Application to Lesotho.” Geografiska Annaler. Series A, Physical Geography 70(3):181–89.

Clements, Frederic E. 1936. “Nature and Structure of the Climax.” Journal of Ecology 24(1):252–84.

Dodd, Jerrold L. 1994. “Desertification and Degradation in Sub-Saharan Africa.” BioScience 44(1):28–34.

du Preez, P.J., and L.R. Brown. “Impact of Domestic Animals on Ecosystem Integrity of Lesotho High Altitude Peatlands.” Ecological Biodiversity: 249–70.

Dyksterhuis, E. J. 1949. “Condition and Management of Range Land Based on Quantitative Ecology.” Journal of Range Management 2(3):104–15.

Ferguson, James. 1994. The Anti-Politics Machine: “Development,” Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in Lesotho. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Fratkin, Elliot. 1997. “Pastoralism: Governance and Development Issues.” Annual Review of Anthropology 26:235–61.

Government of Lesotho, Department of Water Affairs. 2005.“Lesotho National Wetlands Management Programme.” Maseru, Lesotho.

Grab, Stefan W., and Christine L. Deschamps. 2004. “Geomorphological and Geoecological Controls and Processes Following Gully Development in Alpine Mires, Lesotho.” Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research 36(1): 49–58.

Hitchcock, Robert, Amusaa Inambao, Jonathan Ledger, and Michael Mentis. 2011. “Panel of Environmental Experts: Report No. 58.” Maseru: Lesotho Highlands Water Project.

Holling, C. S. 1973. “Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems.” Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 4:1–23.

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May, Robert M. 1977. “Thresholds and Breakpoints in Ecosystems with a Multiplicity of Stable States.” Nature 269(5628):471–77.

Marneweck, G. and C. Grundling. 1999.“Wetlands of the Upper Catchment Areas of theBokong, Malibamatso and Matsoku Rivers in Leribe,Bokhotlong and Botha-Bothe Districts of Lesotho.”AfriDev and Lesotho HighlandsDevelopment Authority, Report No. 26/99. Maseru, Lesotho.

Maloti-Drakensberg Transfrontier Project. 2007. “Spatial Assessment of Biodiversity Priorities in the LesothoHighlands: Technical Report.” Department of Environment: Maseru, Lesotho.

Nüsser, Marcus. 2002. “Pastoral Utilization and Land Cover Change: A Case Study from the Sanqebethu Valley, Eastern Lesotho.” Erdkunde 56(2):207–21.

Showers, Kate Barger. 2005. Imperial Gullies: Soil Erosion and Conservation in Lesotho. Columbus, OH: Ohio University Press.

Van Zinderen Bakker, E. M., and M. J. A. Werger. 1974. “Environment, Vegetation and Phytogeography of the High-Altitude Bogs of Lesotho.” Plant Ecology 29(1): 37–49.

Vetter, Susi. 2005. “Rangelands at Equilibrium and Non-Equilibrium: Recent Developments in the Debate.” Journal of Arid Environments 62(2):321–41.

Westoby, Mark, Brian Walker, and Imanuel Noy-Meir. 1989. “Opportunistic Management for Rangelands Not at Equilibrium.” Journal of Range Management 42(4):266–74.

GULLY MAPPING USING GIS: CASE STUDY OF BEREA DISTRICT LESOTHO. MOTŠOANE THABO Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation, GIS UNIT, Maseru, Lesotho Tel: +266 22323600 E-mail: motsoanethabo@gmail.com

ABSTRACT Gully erosion in Lesotho has reached a horrible state which has impacted negatively on land use/land cover in the last three decades, mainly because there are no precise measurements which have been done to establish how much it has impacted on different land uses particularly on arable land. The general objective of this study was to test the effectiveness of onscreen digitization of gullies and establish their impact on different land uses with most focus on land suitable for crop production. Armed with ArcGIS 10.0 license, 2000 Land Use Map, 2006 Orthophotos, 2005 SPOT 5 Imagery, 1:50000 Topographic Maps and Google Earth Imagery shapefiles were created to determine the possibly coverage of gullies. The gullies shapefiles were then over-layed on updated land use and 1979 Soil Associations shapefiles to identify Land uses and Soil Series which were most affected. The results of this study are an important initiative to support monitoring of gully erosion in Lesotho using GIS. The results showed that of the 4 931.26 ha of gullied land, which is about 2.5% of the total area of Berea district, 56% which is 2 787ha were located on cropland. Settlements also seemed more affected with 35% (1 719.9 ha) of the gullies found within their vicinity. The Sephula_Maseru_Berea_Gullied_land Soil Association which comprises of the Sephula, Maseru and Berea series and gullied land with minor soils comprising rockland (sandstone) also seems more vulnerable soil association. An average Nearest neighbor analysis was also done to establish the how close the gullies are to each other and a z score of -46.95 was obtained signaling clustering of the gullies. The study has shown that although a very good approach of gully identification and mapping, digitization requires expert knowledge and not

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only is it a time consuming approach but it is also costly and vulnerable to errors. But with limited resources this method can still be employed to paint a picture of how gullies affect different land uses and can still aid conservationists to develop proper plans knowing at least where major focus can be directed to curb gully erosion.

Key words: Gully, GIS, Berea.

INTRODUCTION Soil lost through erosion in Lesotho is estimated to be 4 billion cubic meters annually. The major erosion in Lesotho is gully erosion in the Lowlands and sheet erosion in the Highlands with a bit of both in the Foothills. Soil erosion is regarded as a key limitation to achieving agricultural productivity as it affects not only arable land but also rangelands (Majara, 2005). Changes in the distribution and extent of gullies play an important role in determining the location and resources required for erosion control thus gully erosion maps, produced quickly and cheaply from readily-accessible information, are a useful tool in planning (Taravinga, 2008). GIS techniques are suitable identification for gully identification and assessment of impact of gullies on an area. These techniques present an appropriate method for quantifying the extent of gullies in land uses which pose a challenge to land productivity (Dondofema, 2001). The development in geospatial technologies has created new opportunities to improve current methods and enhance the accuracy of the computation methods associated with gully mapping and erosion computations. Thus GIS presents an easier and useful chance to integrate conversional approaches to mapping and user observation. With this integration even the most beginning users of the tools can with easy understand how their studies can be enhanced by creation of simply informative maps through the use of GIS techniques. This paper aims to establish the effectiveness of onscreen digitization of gullies in Berea district and deduce their impact on different land uses particularly land used for crop production. Moreover the paper aims to show that onscreen digitization although a time consuming can still be employed particularly by conservationist who are less skilled in GIS to assess the impact of gullies in their respective areas and deduce the extent of their occurrence

Description of the study area The study area covered Berea District, which occupies about 197, 831.55 ha of Lesotho. It lies North East of the Capital Maseru with its major town, Teyateyaneng (TY) about 50 km from the Maseru. The relative location is that it borders Leribe district on the North, Thaba-Tseka on South-East and Maseru on the North. The capital of the district is Teyateyaneng (Figure 1.0 below). The average annual temperatures range from 8.8 °C to 23.3 °C while the average annual Rainfall is about 534 mm. Geographically Berea falls between 29° 10 0 S, 27° 55 0 E.

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Sofonia_Caledon_Kolonyama Soil Association – Soils of this association are moderately deep to deep with a fine sandy loam to clay loam texture. They are found on alluvial terraces and flood plains of major rivers and their tributaries. Principal soils of this association are the Sofonia, Caledon and Kolonyama series with the minor soils being Rockland (sandstone), gullied land and the Bosiu and Maseru series.

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131

Tools and Techniques: GIS based tools ArcGIS were used to identify and digitize gullies from Orthophotos and SPOT 5 imagery. Google earth imagery was employed where visibility was obscured by cloud cover and the KML files were converted to shapefiles and merged with the already digitized gullies.

Slope percentage of the entire area was derived from the 30m DEM using the Spatial Analysis tool in ArcGIS to aid in establishing where more gullies are located and at what elevation.

Soil Associations Map was used to establish the location of gullies in relation to vulnerable soils.

Nearest Neighbor Statistics- the average nearest neighbour distance tool was used to measures the distance between each feature centroid and its nearest neighbour's centroid location. It then averages all of these nearest neighbour distances. If the average distance is less than the average for a hypothetical random distribution, the distribution of the features being analyzed are considered clustered. If the average distance is greater than for a hypothetical random distribution, the features are considered dispersed. The index is expressed as the ratio of the observed distance divided by the expected distance (expected distance is based on a hypothetical random distribution with the same number of features, covering the same total area). Hence if the index is less than 1, the pattern exhibits clustering; if the index is greater than 1, the trend is toward dispersion.

The Land Use Map was updated using only five classes (Cropland, Rangeland, Forest, Settlement and Water) using Topographic Maps as reference. Gullies shapefiles were overlayed on updated Land Use Map to establish extend in each land use.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The use of GIS in gully mapping is very important. A total of one thousand seven hundred and sixty gullies were identified and mapped (Figure 2). They cover a total of 4,931.26 ha which is about 2.5% of the total area of Berea district. Their sizes range from about 0.0035 ha to 111.5 ha.

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Education as well awareness campaigns should be done to inform the field owners on the dangers of poor management practices. Biological measures such as grasses and trees with fibrous roots are best suited to control the alarming rate of soil erosion. The recommendation is that more technical staff should be engaged in monitoring of gully erosion and be trained in GIS and Remote sensing techniques which will also aid in establishing the volumetric loss of soil in the area. Moreover there should be a more practical approach at local level with respect to farming practices, enhanced afforestation, reduction of overgrazing, and prevention of rangelands fires would go a long way in reducing the problems and consequences of gully erosion in Lesotho.

REFERENCES Dondofema.F, Murwira. A, and Mhizha.A, 2001, Identifying Gullies and determining

their relationships with environmental factors using GIS in the Zhulube meso-catchment, Strategic Environmental Focus, PO Box 7485, Lynwood ridge 0040, Pretoria, South Africa, www.sefsa.co.za (accessed 13th April 2014 at 0900 hrs GMT)

Igbokwea J. I., et al., 2008, Mapping and monitoring of the impact of gully erosion in South-Eastern Nigeria with satellite remote sensing, and geographic information system, The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences. Vol. XXXVII. Part B8. Beijing 2008

Kakembo. V., Xanga. W.W., and Rowntree. K., 2011, Topographic thresholds in gully development on the hillslopes of communal areas in Ngqushwa Local Municipality, Eastern Cape, South Africa, Department of Geosciences, Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University, Port Elizabeth, South Africa

Majara. N, 2005, Land Degradation in Lesotho: A Synoptic Perspective, Thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Natural Science at the University of Stellenbosch, (accessed 14th April 2014 at 1000hrs GMT)

Nwilo. P.C. et al., 2011, An Assessment and Mapping of Gully Erosion Hazards in Abia State: A GIS Approach, Journal of Sustainable Development, Vol. 4, No.5; October 2011, www.ccsenet.org/jsd (accessed 14th April 2014 at 14:00 hrs GMT)

Sattar. F., et al., 2010, The development of geo-informatics based framework to quantify gully erosion, Tropical Spatial Science Group, School of Environmental and Life Sciences, Charles Darwin University, Darwin NT0909, Australia (accessed on the internet on 14th April 2014 at 14:00 hrs GMT)

Taruvinga. K, 2008, Gully Mapping using Remote Sensing: Case Study in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Environmental Studies in Geography, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada

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A REVIEW OF SOIL PHOSPHORUS STUDIES TO IMPROVE THE PRODUCTIVITY OF THE CROPPING LANDS: PHOSPHORUS RETENTION, PH EFFECT, MAIZE RESPONSE. S.F. MOLETE* AND NKHELOANE, T. Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Lesotho, P.O.Roma 180, Lesotho. Email sfmolete@nul.ls; moletesebolelo@ymail.com

ABSTRACT Phosphorus (P) is the second major nutrient after nitrogen for plant growth and development. However, its low content and high activity promote retention of its ionic forms absorbable by plants and thus reduces effectiveness of P fertilizers applied to the soils to increase crop yield. Earlier publications on the soils of Lesotho reported high P retention (PR) in Machache, Sefikeng and Tumo series. However, resent studies on PR of eleven benchmark soils of Lesotho demonstrated that Thabana, Fusi, Machache and Sefikeng series rank highest in PR, followed by Khabos, Sephula and Tumo series. The high P retaining group measured 69–83 % and 75–80% PRC according to Bray–1 and Olsen P extraction procedures, respectively. On the other hand, the moderate P retaining group measured 22–39% and 58–66%, according to the respective P extraction procedures. In another study comparing response of P fertilizer application on high to low PR soils, high PR soils gave high yields and good crop quality compared to low P retaining soils. However, soils with high PR require very high fertilizer rates for optimum yield. In the other study on soil acidity management on selected soils with varying PR capacity, it was found that lime requirement increases with PR, and that liming does not free the retained P but rather reduces Al3+ concentration. Very high and strong PR was associated with high clay content plus appreciable quantities of free iron and aluminum and their oxides, among others.

Keywords:Phosphorus sorption, Climate smart improvement of ecosystems, dry-land cropping, land management

INTRODUCTION Phosphorus (P), which is the second major nutrient element for plant growth and development, is the most limiting nutrient in soils due to its high retention by soil colloids, leading very low concentrations in most soils (Norrish & Rosser, 1983; Wild, 1988). Retention of P in soils is not a problem with native P only but also for applied P. This is often the reason for the low effectiveness of P fertilizers, notwithstanding the high P fertilizer application rates required by most fertile cropping soils. Reactions leading to P retention (PR), methods of studying PR and soil factors that determine PR, have all received wide attention from researchers worldwide.

Phosphorus retention studies are used to predict the availability of soil P or applied P, and the effectiveness of P fertilization programmes. The latter depends largely on the P retention properties of soils. For instance, in soils with high PR capacity most of the applied P is often retained in less available forms while only a small fraction remains available for plant uptake. Conversely, a small part of applied P is retained in soils with low P retention capacity. Thus, the P retention properties of soils play a vital role in determining P fertilizer application rates. Furthermore, correlations between PR and soil factors that influence the former are helpful for quick predictions PR and hence required P fertilizer application rates. This is because the

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procedures for PR studies are usually laborious and lengthy. Soil factors, which enhance PR include, inter alia, high clay content dominated by sesquioxide and no–expanding clays, high concentration of free iron and aluminium associated with acidic pH, high concentration of calcium associated with high pH, and alternating wetting and drying (Loganathan, Isirimah & Nwachuku, 1987; Johnston, Miles & Thibaud, 1991; Ritchie & Weaver, 1993; Agbenin & Tiessen, 1994; Bainbridge, Miles, Praan & Johnston, 1995; Agbenin, 1996). Management of soils to reduce PR therefore, requires thorough understanding of the interrelationships between PR and other soil characteristics. Apparently, soil pH and OM manipulation influence most of the soil factors that attributes of PR, and are more easily managed. However, good understanding of how they determine PR is vital. The present review, which is by no means exhaustive, is mainly focused on studies conducted on retention of applied phosphorus by the benchmark soils of Lesotho, and the response to phosphate application rate and placement, and effects of liming on P availability, on high and low P retaining soils. This review is intended to raise awareness in farmers and policy makers alike, on the significance of knowing our soils and their hidden problems, especially those associated with the use of fertilizers and their efficiency.

MATERIALS AND METHODS RETENTION OF APPLIED PHOSPHORUS BY THE BENCHMARK SOIL SERIES OF LESOTHO – (MOLETE,

2000)

Soil sampling and Analyses Topsoil samples of the eleven benchmark soil series of Lesotho, collected from both cultivated and uncultivated land, to a depth of 300 mm, using a simple random sampling technique were air–dried and crushed to pass through a 2–mm sieve. Each benchmark was replicated five times by location, covering a full spectrum of arable land in the lowlands and foothills of Lesotho. The soils were subjected to the following laboratory soil tests: particle size analysis, sample density, organic carbon (OC), cation exchange capacity (CEC) and exchangeable base cations (Ca++, Mg++ K+ and Na+), available Bray–l and Olsen P, soil pH (in water and 1N KCl suspensions), and free and amorphous Al and Fe oxides, using procedures described in the Methods of Soil Analysis (1982; 1986) and by The Nonaffiliated Soil Analysis Work Committee (1990).

Experimental procedure, data processing and analysis A P retention study was conducted in a laboratory, with the soil samples incubated with a range of P levels, viz. 0, 50, 100,200 and 400 kg P ha-1, hereafter referred to as P0, P50, PI 00, P200 and P400, for a period of 42–days; at room temperature and moisture level of 75% field capacity. Phosphorus was applied in KH2PO4 solution spray. Each sample was replicated three times. At the end of this period, each treatment (as separate replicates) was air–dried and crushed to a 2–mm particle diameter, in preparation for analysis of available P using the Bray–1 and Olsen methods.

Retained P was calculated as the difference between applied P and extracted P, corrected for P extracted from the control, and expressed as percentage of applied P (PRC). Other parameters used to express PR were P retention index (PRI), which was the slope of graph of retained P against applied P, and PR capacity (PRC) at a single level of applied P namely,

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P400 (PRC400). These parameters were adopted from Fox & Kamprath (1970) and Bache & Williams (1971).

The standard analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to determine significance of variation on soil tests and PR parameters amongst the soils and P levels. A model for randomized complete block design (RCBD) in a split–split–plot was used for % PRC; split–plot for PRI, PRC400 and available P, and simple RCBD for all other soil tests. In all instances the main soil replicates (phases/locations) were treated as blocks. Where the variations were significant at an alpha 0.05 means were separated with mean comparison tests for the respective models. Both the analyses of variance and mean separation tests were run with the Mstat computer statistical package. Correlation regression analysis was used to determine correlations between PR parameters themselves and with different other soil tests.

RESPONSE TO PHOSPHATE APPLICATION RATE AND PLACEMENT BY SELECTED P RETAINING BENCHMARK SOIL SERIES – (SELLO, 2003)

Study soils Sampling and Analyses Four benchmark soil series were selected, representing high and low PR groups according to Cauley (1986), Arduino et al. (1993) and Molete (2000). Each soil was replicated at four sites, spreading from the lowlands to the foothills. The soils were Machache and Sefikeng series for high PR group and Berea and Leribe series for the low PR group. Prior to the experiment, the soils were characterized by particle size distribution, OC, pH in water and 0.01M CaCl2 suspensions, exchangeable Al and available Bray–1 P (International Course on Soil and Plant Analysis, 1996). Samples used for laboratory tests were collected from the top 20–cm depth of surface soil, using the standard random sampling plan.

Experimental design and procedure The study was conducted as a field experiment consisting of two soil groups, two fertilizer placement methods, viz. banding (with seed) and broadcasting, and five fertilizer rates, viz. 0, 15, 30, 60 and 105 kgP ha–1, replicated four times. Nitrogen was applied as basal treatment using urea (46% N), at 80 kgN ha–1 and double superphosphate was used as source of P. Maize (Zea mays) was used as a test crop, sawn at rate of 10 kg ha–1. At each site, the experiment was conducted on an area of 643–m2, consisting of 2.1 x 4–m plots, with four rows each space by 0.70–m. Similar amounts of rainfall were received at all sites (Figure 1).

DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS Measurements made comprised of (i) dry matter (DM) weight of plant stalk (ii) P uptake measured in the flag and penultimate leaves, both at silking stage, (iii) P uptake measured in the grain and stover at maturity, and (iv) DM weight of stover (biomass) and (v) grain yield at maturity. Plant tissue P analysis was determined by vanadomolybdophosphoric yellow procedure according to Lesotho Flour Mills laboratory manual (2000). Statistical Analysis Software (SAS) program (North Carolina) was used for analysis of variance (ANOVA), where the means were compared by single degree of freedom contrasts.

Response of selected benchmark soil series to addition of lime – (Nkheloane, 2008)

STUDY SOILS AND ANALYSES Four benchmark soil series representing high PR (Machache and Sefikeng series), moderate PR (Tumo series) and low PR (Leribe series) were selected. Air–dried samples, crushed to pass through a 2–mm sieve, were subjected to routine laboratory soil analyses of pH (in water and KCl suspensions), OC, exchangeable Al and available Bray–1 P using the standard

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procedures (Methods of soil analysis, 1982; 1986). Lime requirement (LR) was also determined using single buffer method (SMP) of Shoemaker et al. (1961) described in Methods of soil analysis (1982).

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN AND PROCEDURE A pot experiment was laid out as 4 × 6 factorial in a randomized complete block design with three replications. The treatment factors were four soil series and liming at six application rates, viz. 0, 50, 75, 100, 125 and 150 % of actual LR determined for each soil. Field bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) was used as test crop. Lime was thoroughly mixed and incubated with soils for a week to induce soil–lime interaction before sawing.

DATA COLLECTION, PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS Plant measurements were taken at pods development stage, consisting of plant height measured before plants were harvested; and dry matter weight (biomass). Post–harvest soil analyses of pH, exchangeable Al and available P were also performed. All these data were subjected to the standard ANOVA using General Linear Model procedure and the means were compared by single degree of freedom polynomial contrast. All were done by SAS.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS PHOSPHORUS RETENTION Since the amounts of applied P varied from soil to soil depending on sample density of individual soil series, the percentage of applied P retained rather than the absolute amount of P retained was used to express PR capacity (% PRC). In general, the latter varied with the amounts of P applied, and also varied between the P extraction procedures as well as amongst the benchmark soil series. There was also a significant variation in % PRC as a function of an interaction of soil series and extraction methods.

Alternatively, the slopes of the graphs obtained from the plots of retained P against applied P were used to express the potential of the soils to retain P, viz. the PRI (Reeve & Sumner, 1970). Those plots fitted straight–line graphs that were described by linear regression models with coefficients of determination, viz. r2 values, in the order of 0.40 to 1.00 and 0.96 to 1.00 for the Bray and Olsen methods, respectively and all significant at 0.05 probability level or less. The variation in PRI between soil series, extraction methods and their interaction was significant.

The third alternative index of PR was the single level of P application suggested by Bache and Williams (1971). This single level is normally extrapolated from the sorption curves as the equivalent of the optimum P application level for maximum P retention or sorption capacity, and is recommended as a routine procedure for determination of the PRC of soils which is particularly useful for soils whose sorption curves are already known (Bache and Williams, 1971). In this study the highest P application level was chosen arbitrary because all the graphs of retained P against applied P were linear, viz. PRC400. Again, a significant variation in PRC400 between soil series, extraction methods and the interactions was shown by ANOVA.

There were strong correlations between PRI and PRC400 (Bray: r2 = 0.99; Olsen: r2 = 0.98), and also between PRI (Bray: r2 = 0.99; Olsen: r2 = 0.95) and PRC400 (Bray: r2 = 1.00; Olsen: r2 = 0.99) against the percent P retention across application levels, which therefore, confirmed that those indices could be used interchangeably to describe P retention characteristics of the study soils. This was in agreement with their extensive use by other researchers (Barrow, 1983; Wild, 1988). Values of those three PR indices and their mean

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comparisons for the benchmark soil series of Lesotho, according to each P extraction method, are shown in Table 1 below. Apparently, grouping was easier with Bray–1 extraction method than Olsen. Therefore, based on Bray–1 method, these soils were grouped into the high PR, viz. Fusi, Machache, Thabana and Sefikeng series, the moderate PR, viz. Khabos, Sephula and Tumo series, and the low PR, viz. Berea, Leribe, Matela and Rama series respectively.

Table 1. Mean comparisons for phosphorus retention (PR) capacity of the benchmark soil series of Lesotho, using three PR indices according to two P analysis methods

Bray Olsen

Soil series % PR PRI PRC400 Soil series % PR PRI PRC400

Thabana 87.16 a 0.237 a 83.25 a Sefikeng 83.37 a 0.232 a 79.71 a

Fusi 84.18 a 0.230 a 80.83 a Machache 83.00 a 0.227 a 80.96 a

Machache 81.15 ab 0.221 ab 78.59 ab Thabana 82.26 a 0.225 a 79.20 a

Sefikeng 77.03 b 0.199 b 69.07 b Fusi 72.71 b 0.214 a 74.81 ab

Khabos 47.60 c 0.104 c 39.14 c Tumo 70.51 b 0.152 b 65.94 bc

Sephula 32.88 d 0.054 d 24.45 d Matela 63.25 c 0.142 bc 58.26 cde

Tumo 28.86 d 0.055 d 22.31 d Khabos 57.95 cd 0.163 b 60.25 cd

Matela 11.99 e 0.023 e 10.81 e Berea 57.05 cd 0.118 cd 50.18 def

Rama 8.48 e 0.002 e 1.00 e Leribe 55.55 d 0.117 cd 48.13 ef

Leribe 6.86 e -0.063 f 1.64 e Rama 54.30 d 0.112 d 47.59 f

Berea 6.78 e -0.003 e 2.19 e Sephula 52.77 d 0.108 d 46.77 f

Means within a column with the same letter are not significantly different at P = 0.05

RESPONSE TO PHOSPHATE APPLICATION RATE AND PLACEMENT The results of this study were significantly affected by harsh weather conditions like the dry spell during the October – January period, as well as the normally low annual rainfall of 339–522mm received in that year (Figure 1) compared to the favorable annual rainfall of 620m for maize (Onwueme and Sinha, 1991). As revealed by ANOVA, there were variations amongst the four soils and also between the high and low P retaining soils all plant growth parameters, with the exception of total P uptake in the biomass. Fertilizer application rate and placement alone but their interaction and the interaction of placement and sorption had significant effects on growth (indicated by DM at silking). Growth was promoted by banding fertilizer with seeds on high PR soils; the response to fertilizer rates was very high in low PR soils although the growth never reached same level as in high PR soils.

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Figure 1. Average monthly rainfall measured at the experimental sites during the study period.

On the other hand, grain yield varied with fertilizer application rate–placement–sorption interaction; it was two times lower in low PR soils than in high PR soils but variation between placement methods was very inconsistent. Other parameters, particularly the P uptake in grain (an indication of crop quality) was significantly higher in high PR soils than in low PR soils. In general, broadcasting gave higher response in most cases within high PR soils while banding performed better, especially at low application rates in low PR soils, with exception of early plant growth (DM at silking). This could be attributed to a nutritional imbalance which occurs from concentrating the fertilizer too nearer to the seed.

Apparently, addition of P increased soil residual P and decreased the PR. Banding performed better than broadcasting on residual P but the opposite was true for P sorption in both groups of soil PR. High amount of P was sorbed in high PR soils resulting in lower residual P than in low PR soils. However, variation between the PR groups but amongst the study soils was not significant.

RESPONSE TO LIME APPLICATION Very high significant effect of lime (Prob 0.002) was observed in pH, exchangeable Al and available P as well as in plant height and biomass. All the relationships with lime application were best fitted to quadratic graphs. A pH6.5 was attained at lime application rate of 0.4LR in low PR soil, 0.42LR in moderate PR soil and 0.5–0.52LR in high PR soils while exchangeable Al was reduced to zero at 100%LR in the soils regardless of their varying original levels, viz. 1.2, 1.3 and 1.7–5.13 cmol ha–1 in low, moderate and high PR soils, respectively.

However, the change in extractable P in response to lime application was very low in the high to moderate PR soils compared to the low PR soil, but more reduction in P occurred in the latter soil than the former P retaining soils. Several laboratory and field studies have been undertaken to determine how phosphate (P) availability responds to lime addition. The results have been notoriously inconsistent and liming has been reported to increase, decrease or have no effect on P availability (Haynes, 1983; 1984).

0

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With regard to plant grow response, the highest height was observed on low PR soil followed by moderate PR soils and the opposite was true for biomass while the high PR soils exhibited the lowest plant height and biomass of all the three groups of soil. The optimum yield obtained in the three groups of soil was in the order of 25–30 (high PR), 36 (low PR) to 48 (moderate PR) grams plant–1. It is important to note that was only the response to the effect of lime application, no fertilizer was added.

CONCLUSION While all cropping soils today depend heavily of fertilizer application, the efficiency of fertilizers depends on characteristics of the soils. Therefore, characterization of each soil prior to application of any fertilizer, as well as determining correlation between different soil characteristics with their nutrients fertilizer requirements are vital for any successful soil fertility improvement strategy. Recent studies on the benchmark soils of Lesotho in relation to their P fertility revealed that they vary greatly in their potential to retain P and hence response to P fertilizer application and pH amendment. These soils have been grouped into three according to their P retention, viz. High P retaining (Thabana–Fusi–Machache–Sefikeng) group, moderate P retaining (Khabos–Tumo–Sephula) group and low P retaining (Matela–Leribe–Berea–Rama) group. High P retaining (PR) soils are generally fertile soils and given sufficient fertilizer, they give better yields than the moderate or low PR soils. Although they require more liming than their counterparts, liming is important in this soils to reduce exchangeable Al, which is the most active determinant of P retention. In fact, liming does not necessarily release retained P but only reduces active Al that increases P retention.

REFERENCES AGBENIN, J.O., 1996. Phosphorus sorption by three cultivated alfisols as influenced by pH.

Fert. Res. 44, 107 – 112. AGBENIN, J.O. & TIESSEN, H., 1994. The effects of soil properties on the differential

phosphate sorption by semiarid soils from Northeast Brazil. Soil Sci. 157, 36 – 45. ARDUINO, E., BERBERIS, E., BADAMCHIAN, B. & ROOYANI, F., 1993. Phosphorus

status of certain agricultural soils of Lesotho, Southern Africa. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 24, 1021 – 1031.

BACHE, B.W. & WILLIAMS, E.G., 1971. A phosphate sorption index for soils. J. Soil Sci. 22, 289 – 301.

BAINBRIDGE, S.H., MILES, N., PRAAN, R. & JOHNSTON, M.A., 1995. Phosphorus sorption in Natal soils. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil. 12, 59 – 64.

BARROW, N.J., 1983. A mechanistic model for describing the sorption and desorption of phosphate by soils. J. Soil Sci. 34, 733 – 750.

CAULEY, P.M., 1986. Benchmark soils of Lesotho: their classification, interpretation, use and management. Office of Soil Survey, Conservation Division, Ministry of Agriculture, Maseru.

FOX, R.L. & KAMPRATH, E.J., 1970. Phosphate sorption isotherms for evaluating the phosphate requirements of soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 34, 902 –907.

HAYNES, R.J., 1983. Effects of lime and phosphate application on the adsorption of phosphate, sulphate and molybdite by a Spodosol. Soil Sci. 135: 221 – 227

HAYNES, R.J., 1984. Lime and phosphate potentials in soils. Adv. Agron. 37: 259 – 317.

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INTERNATIONAL COURSE ON SOIL AND PLANT ANALYSIS (ICSPA), 1996. Methods of soil chemical analysis Part 2. Service laboratory for soil, plant and water analysis, Faculty of Agriculture, Minia University, Minia, Egypt.

JOHNSTON, M.A., MILES, N. & THIBAUD, G.R., 1991. Quantities of P fertilizer required to raise the soil test value. S. Afr. J. Plant Soil 8, 17 – 21.

LESOTHO FLOUR MILLS LABORATORY MANUAL, 2000. Lesotho Flour Mills. Maseru, Lesotho.

LOGANATHAN, P., ISIRIMAH, N.O. & NWACHUKU, D.A., 1987. Phosphorus sorption by ultisols and inceptisols of the Niger Delta in Southern Nigeria. Soil Sci. J. 144, 330 – 338.

METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS, Part 1. Physical and mineralogical properties. 1986. A. Klute (ed.). Am. Soc. of Agron., Madison, Wis.

METHODS OF SOIL ANALYSIS, Part 2. Chemical and microbiological properties. 1982. A.L. Page, R.H. Miller and D.R. Keeney (eds.). Am. Soc. of Agron., Madison, Wis.

MOLETE, S.F., 2000. Retention and release of applied phosphorus by the benchmark soils of Lesotho. Ph.D. Thesis. Faculty of Agriculture, University of Orange Free State, Bloemfontein, Republic of South Africa.

NKHELOANE, T., 2008. Lime requirement of selected acid soils of Lesotho and response of field beans (Phaseolus valgaris) to lime application. Dissertation. Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Lesotho, Maseru, Lesotho.

NORRISH, K. & ROSSER, H., 1983. Mineral phosphate. In Soils: an Australian viewpoint. Division of Soils, CSIRO, Melbourne.

ONWUENE, I.C. & SINHA, T.D., 1991. Field crop production in the tropical Africa. pp162. ACP–EEC, Lome Convention. U.S.A.

REEVE, N.G. & SUMNER, M.E., 1970. Effects of aluminium toxicity and phosphorus fixation on crop growth on oxisols in Natal. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. Proc. 34, 263 – 267.

RITCHIE, G.S.P & WEAVER, D.M., 1993. Phosphorus retention and release from sandy soils of the Peel–Harvey Catchment. Fert. Res. 36, 115 – 122.

SELLO, M.L., 2003. Response of maize to phosphorus placement and rate of application in selected high and low phosphorus sorbing soils of Lesotho. MSc Thesis. Faculty of Agriculture, National University of Lesotho, Maseru, Lesotho.

THE NON AFFILIATED SOIL ANALYSIS WORK COMMITTEE, 1990. Handbook of standard soil testing methods for advisory purposes. Soil Science Society of South Africa, South Africa.

WILD, A., 1988. Plant nutrients in soil: phosphate. In A. Wild (ed.). Russell's soil conditions and plant growth. John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York.

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SUB-THEME 4: MAINSTREAMING GENDER AND CAPACITY BUILDING IN UP-SCALING SLM TECHNOLOGIES

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MAINSTREAMING GENDER AND CAPACITY BUILDING IN UPSCALING SUSTAINABLE LAND MANAGEMENT MS ’MATAU FUTHO-LETSATSI

INTRODUCTION The Third United Nations Women’s Conference in Nairobi in 1985 was one of the first to make linkages between sustainable development and women’s involvement and empowerment as well as gender equality and equity. In the Nairobi Forward Looking Strategies, environment was included as an area of concern for women. In the run-up to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), held in 1992 in Rio de Janeiro, advocacy activities were undertaken to reflect that women are managers of primary resources though they bear the highest costs of environmental problems and have the greatest potential for contributing to the solution of the crisis. These resulted in an en-gendered Agenda 21 –a road map for sustainable development for the 21st Century. The United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing in 1995 Section K asserted that “women have an essential role to play in the development of sustainable and ecologically sound consumption and production patterns and approaches to natural resource management” (paragraph 246).

Five years later at the Millennium Summit, world leaders agreed “to promote gender equa-lity and the empowerment of women as an effective way to combat poverty, hunger and disease and to stimulate development that is truly sustainable”. This vision was reflected in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), MDG 1 - eradicate extreme poverty, MDG 3 - promote gender equality and empower women and MDG 7 - ensure environmental sustainability. Principle 20 of the Johannesburg Declaration endorsed by the Heads of States and Governments at the outset of the World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002) committed them to ensuring that women’s empowerment and emancipation, and gender equality are integrated in all activities on sustainable development. These resulted in the Commission on Sustainable Development making gender a cross-cutting issue in 2003 in all its upcoming work up until 2015.

Every area of the earth has been affected directly or indirectly by human activity. Human beings (men, women) tend to possess diverse knowledge and skills of managing and using biological resources in different ways. Thus they relate differently with the components of biodiversity.

Gender inequalities undermine the success of national conservation strategies as well as the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and policies to eradicate poverty. Reducing inequality would be instrumental in contributing towards achieving the MDGs. In communities women play a key role in managing local biodiversity to meet food and health needs while men seek remunerated work away from home. The women mostly manage agriculture and are primary savers and managers of seeds. They are responsible for development, transmission, control and protection of significant traditional knowledge.

Conservation triggers the introduction of a series of new activities or change of existing practices. Such changes can be related to land use, agriculture, forestry, livestock, fisheries and water management among others where women and men carry out different activities, have unequal access to and control over different resources, and benefits (Sasvari et al, 2010).

Gender is a logical and useful dimension of development. It draws attention to the finer distinction of the targets of development (needs of women as different from the needs of men) that in turn affect the outcome of development (more equitable distribution of resources).

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Gender responsive SLM techniques mean that both women and men are given equal opportunities in SLM program to do and to be, and to enjoy a satisfying and productive life (Herrin, 2002). The integration of gender concerns into SLM techniques uses the strategy called gender mainstreaming. It is a holistic view of development that presupposes the existence of a ‘mainstream’ where major decisions on policies, priorities and resource allocation affecting the economic, social and political options of a large number of women and men are made. Gender mainstreaming seeks to make the mainstream receptive to gender issues and to ensure that mechanisms and structures are put in place to address the said issues. An objective of this strategy is to improve the livelihood of the disadvantaged gender, have access to and control of resources by removing impediments to equal participation of all gender as development agents and beneficiaries.

Both women and men have an essential role to play in the development of sustainable, ecologically sound consumption and production patterns and approaches to natural resource management and responsibilities. Their gender roles may be classified into the productive, reproductive and community roles. The productive roles are those tasks that contribute to the income and economic welfare and advancement of the household. They may include farming, selling wood, selling livestock, engaged in marketing, transportation, food processing, home based micro-enterprises and waged/formal sector employment. Most of the manual work done is carried out by women while the mechanical work is mostly done by men. The reproductive roles are those that are carried out to reproduce and care for children. The spacing and number of children to be borne is the responsibility of both wives and husbands and highly influenced by culture and tradition (valued child sex). These have implications for choice of contraceptive method adopted.

Reproductive roles include those carried out daily to meet family’s basic needs such as food, clothing, shelter, fuel, health care and water. These are mostly done by women more than men. The community roles are those undertaken for management and conservation of resources for collective community consumption (such as fuel, range and water). They also include the participation in burials, feasts, weddings, cultural and religious ceremonies, community protection, formal and informal political activities as well as participation in development organisations at community, regional and national levels.

Women and men have different and changing gender roles with regard to water resources management. They derive different benefits from the use and management of water. Women are primary users. Women are responsible more than men for water use in child and family consumption, health, sanitation, subsistence agriculture as well as education. Women and men also have different energy needs due to their differing household roles, responses to crisis and coping mechanisms. Access to and control over energy resources differs for women and men with women on the disadvantaged side yet they are responsible for household cooking, warming, lighting and ironing. Access to and control over landed resources (household and business sites, fields, forests, and dongas) differs for women and men. Women are on the disadvantaged side as for them access is based on their relationship with men. Insecure land tenure reduces incentives to make improvement practices necessary to cope with environmental degradation. Without secure land rights women have little or no access to credit to invest in natural resources.

Climate change similarly affects women more than men due to their gender roles and relationships. During drought it is women who walk long distances in search of water and in search of wild vegetables. Increased cost of energy, water, transportation, health care and food due to disrupting climate change affects women disproportionately by increasing insecurity and poverty. Domestic waste control and management is more a responsibility of

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women than of men. These include cleaning, removal and disposal of waste. Interventions in waste management at national level including sorting, recycling and reuse can create paid employment for women and men (OSCE, 2009).

Range management and control often excludes women yet women and men use range land differently. Women collect wild vegetation for medicines and some for food. They collect wild shrubs and trees for household fuel. They collect wild grasses for making ropes used in fuel collection; ‘leloli’ for the making of grass mats, dishes (liroto, lirotoana), sives (metlhotlo) and handbags; they collect wild grass (monya, mosea, thitapoho) for making brooms; they collect reeds (leqala, lehlaka) to make food stirrer (lefehlo), setloana and doors ‘soahla’; they collect grass ‘tsikitlane’ to make traditional dress (thethana); they collect some grass ‘khahla’ to make hats and baskets. Women also collect different kinds of soils from the veld with different colours (mokoetla, lekoetje and selokoe) for smearing and decorating houses. Some soil (khokhotsi) is collected for cosmetic purposes. Women also collect stones from the veld for grinding food, for issues related to their health, for decorating households, paving, cleaning and massaging.

Women and men have different needs based on their different roles and responsibilities that they are expected to perform. Needs should be considered in all SLM techniques and programs as they affect performance of their roles at home and in the economic sphere. The needs may be classified into two categories namely the practical gender needs (PGN) and the strategic gender needs (SGN). The PGN comprise women’s and men’s needs for carrying out their current roles easily. For example as producers women need access to productive inputs and technology; as suppliers of labour women need equal access to education and training; as consumers women need equal access to health and nutrition services (i.e micro-nutrient supplementation during pregnancy and lactation); as child bearers and carers women need maternal and child health as well as family planning information and services, and systems that support child care (day care centres) and market work. The SGN comprise women’s and men’s need to be freed from traditional gender roles. Actions required to meet these needs seek to change existing gender roles (i.e inheritance of landed property by girls, access and control of credit by women, inheritance of chieftainship by daughters) (Herrin, 2002).

Access to and control over assets is critical for both women and men not only in securing food and livelihood but also for conservation. In these, women are more disadvantaged than men since their access and use of most assets depend on their relationship with men. Assets of interest here are natural resource assets: land, water, forests; financial assets: credit, capital, income; physical assets: technology, labour saving technology; information assets: local knowledge, education, access to natural resources information. A household with a range of assets copes better with environmental shocks and stresses such as droughts.

The main objective of mainstreaming gender into SLM techniques and programs is to reduce and eventually to eradicate poverty. Poverty encompasses the notion of inequalities in access to and control over the productive and reproductive resources. These include rights, political voice, employment, information, services, infrastructure and natural resources. Gender is an important determinant of inequality. It is preceded by a gender analysis – a process of identifying key issues contributing to gender inequalities.

A gender analysis focuses on statistics disaggregated by sex and qualitative information on the situation of women and men. It is conducted with regard to: the gendered division of labour; access to and control over productive and reproductive resources; the legal basis for gender equality / inequality; political commitments with respect to gender equality; and culture, attitudes and stereotypes which affect all preceding issues. Gender analysis should be conducted at the micro level (the nature of the typical household division of labour between

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men and women and its implications for access to resources and to services), meso level (how the structure of sectoral services – clinics, schools or extension site; types of user fees; gender composition of service deliverers and decision makers affect men and women’s access to and use of services. Patterns of paid and unpaid employment among women and men, and how they affect respective access to services in the sector – considering both monetary and time use implications of employment) and macro level (legal and regulatory framework in order to understand how it affects women’s citizenship rights, access to land, credit and material resources, access to contracts. Study of the government budget from a point of view of how it impacts on women and men). An analysis of a program or project reveals whether gender equality objectives are articulated from the initial idea, whether or not the planned activity will contribute to or challenge existing inequities, and whether there are any gender issues that have been addressed.

SLM PROJECT DEVELOPMENT The SLM program development has to be based on the outcome of the situational analysis with the aim of filling identified gender gaps that have to be addressed through the intervention. Each level of the program such as a) planning, b) implementation, c) monitoring and evaluation – has to ensure gender-sensitive objectives, results and activities; gender-sensitive project partner assessment; gender-sensitive management arrangements; gender-sensitive indicators for monitoring, and evaluation as well as gender-sensitive resource allocation. This may be guided by questions.

GENDER-SENSITIVE PROJECT OBJECTIVES, RESULTS AND ACTIVITIES At implementation stage, it is necessary to constantly review progress towards project objectives that reflect gender equality issues, monitor results, activities, outputs and outcomes using gender sensitive indicators. These will be reflected in engendered operational plans, engendered monitoring reports and implementation report. The following questions are asked at every level of the program cycle. a) Is it necessary and or appropriate to have specific project objectives relating to gender? b) Are gender issues clearly set out in the logical framework analysis? c) Is gender balance ensured in all activities? (unless the project is focusing for specific reasons on only men or women) d) What specific activities are required to ensure attention to gender issues? e) What type of expertise is required to ensure full implementation of the gender elements in the project design? f) Does the risk analysis take into consideration factors that may influence the women’s or men’s ability to participate in the project activities (such as lack of time, missing transport, discriminatory approaches, etc) and propose measures to overcome these risks? g) Has any other alternative project strategies been considered? h) In assessing different project strategies, has there been consideration of the possible benefits of strategies that better promote women’s participation and involvement? i) Is specific care taken to ensure that women benefit from the project as much as men?

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GENDER-SENSITIVE INDICATORS FOR MONITORING, AND EVALUATION A gender sensitive monitoring and evaluation should also be done from design phase onwards, including the establishment of indicators that measure the extent to which gender equality objectives are met and changes in gender relations achieved. It has to be undertaken by gender experts. Gender –sensitive indicators are needed in order to measure progress towards targets which themselves need to be gender- sensitive. Gender-sensitive indicators can be quantitative or qualitative. Sources of quantitative indicators are data systems and records where information is presented in a sex disaggregated manner (sources include censuses, labour – force surveys, administrative records, and sociological surveys of the target population). Examples here may be the ration of literate women to men 15-24 years old; share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector; proportion of seats held by women in decision-making positions. Sources of qualitative indicators can be defined as opinions, judgements and perceptions about a given subject. These may be derived from public hearings, focus group discussions, attitude surveys and interviews, participatory appraisals, participant observation, sociological and anthropological fieldwork.

At macro level focus is on changes in legislation or policy framework affecting gender equality; changes in institutional focus on gender issues; access to productive assets – land, credit, training; access to basic services – education, health, water; trends affecting gender roles and relations such as economic reform, migration to urban areas and introduction of new employment opportunities. At meso level indicators may be used to measure changes in quantity or quality of gender competent staff; changes in creation and use of tools and procedures to mainstream gender into SLM techniques and programs; changes in recruitment practices towards equal opportunities; changes in budget allocation. At micro level focus is on the participation (quality / quantity) of women and men in project activities; access to decision-making, project resources and services by women and men; expected or unexpected project outcomes for women and men in relation to project objectives; met / unmet practical and strategic gender needs in relation to expressed needs; changes in capacity to mainstream gender by SLM project staff.

The following questions are asked at every level of the program cycle. a) Are there specific indicators identified to monitor results relating to gender equality? b) In projects involving community-based initiatives, have both women and men participated in the development of indicators? c) Are there indicators to track progress towards meeting specific objectives rela-ting to women’s participation? c) Is it possible to have disaggregated indicators for women and men? d) Who undertakes monitoring and evaluation at all level (numbers of females and male) e) Have gender equality SLM indicators been spelled out?

It is also important that all levels of the SLM techniques, intervention and programs evaluate relevance, efficiency and effectiveness of objectives, activities, indicators and results. Relevance to gender equality issues checks the appropriateness of identified objectives to the challenges, to physical and social environment in which the program is operating. Was the treatment of gender issues throughout the program logical and coherent? Were adjustments made to reflect changing gender roles and relationships? Efficiency assesses whether project results for women and men have been achieved at reasonable cost. Effectiveness in reaching gender equality objectives checks the achievement of the project purpose and the way in which assumptions have affected project achievements. This includes assessment of the benefits accruing to particular stakeholders and target groups (disaggregated by sex).

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GENDER-SENSITIVE MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS The following questions are asked at every level of the program cycle. a) Are the project personnel familiar with gender issues in general and more specifically as they are related to the project activities? b) Is gender equality a defined priority of the project team? c) Is training needed for project personnel on SLM gender issues? d) What is the composition of the project personnel (male / female)? e) Have women been given a chance to participate in technical field and decision-making positions? f) Have the SLM program catered for practical and strategic gender needs of project personnel?

GENDER-SENSITIVE RESOURCE ALLOCATION The following questions are asked at every level of the program cycle. a) What resources do men and women have to work with? b) Who uses / owns / controls each of these resources? c) Who is excluded from use / ownership / control? c) Are there enough resources for gender-specific monitoring and assessment during the project? d) Is there adequate budget for all stages of the project cycle?

GENDER - SENSITIVE PROJECT PARTNER ASSESSMENT The following questions are asked at every level of the program cycle. a) How is the capacity of partner institutions that have shown interest to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women in SLM? b) Is specific training on gender sensitive SLM required among potential partners? c) Does the implementing partner have a commitment to gender equality and to achieving positive outcomes for women through the project? d) Is there sufficient capacity within the implementing partner in terms of skills and access to information on gender? e) Has an awareness of the gender dimensions of the intervention and their importance been communicated to all partners and institutions involved? f) Are the responsibilities and expectations concerning the gender aspects in the project clearly spelled out in project documents, agreements or contracts? g) Is it necessary to research specific issues or bring in particular stakeholders to ensure a gender-sensitive project proposal?

In order for the SLM program to succeed there should be clear objectives on building capacity of those involved in the program. Each level of the program should be targeted such that they are aware of the gender concerns, issues and approaches that the program intends to mainstream into SLM program in order to achieve the set targets. The capacity building module will have to address staff PGN and SGN. The module has to make staff aware of the level indicators of progress and be in the position to report about the level. The capacity building module should be in such a manner that it enables staff and role players with skills to articulate level gender sensitive objectives, activities, indicators, outputs, outcomes as well as envisaged impact on themselves and on the beneficiaries. Stakeholders at each level should be aware of the level resources, implementing agencies, NGOs, development partners, participation modalities, program sites and related steering committees as well as task teams. The module should assist stakeholders to be able to articulate level structure, authorities and their own terms of reference.

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CONCLUSION Mainstreaming gender into SLM techniques and programs will contribute towards addressing gender inequities and inequalities at national level, will also transform or reshape gender roles (productive, reproductive and community) for the better. Productive roles include all tasks which contribute to the income and economic welfare and advancement of the household and community. Both women and men perform a range of productive roles. Women’s productive roles include cash and subsistence farming, fishing, foraging in forests, care of livestock, marketing and transporting, food processing for sale, cottage or home-based industries (micro-enterprises), and waged / formal sector employment. Reproductive roles include activities carried out to reproduce and care for the household. Responsibility for contraception and decision making about reproduction may be in the hands of women or men, depending on the cultural context. Community management activities include management and conservation of resources for collective community consumption (such as fuel, forests, range and water), as well as participation in cultural and religious ceremonies, formal and informal political activities, and involvement in development organisations, such as non-government organisations or women’s groups. Mainstreaming gender into SLM techniques and programs will also contribute to the implementation of the Beijing Platform for Action as well as CEDAW for enhanced economic development, prevention and eradication of poverty.

REFERENCES

Caro et al (2003) A Manual for Integrating Gender into Reproductive Health and HIV Programs From Commitment to Action – Population Reference Bureau.

CBD (2010) Guidelines for Mainstreaming Gender into National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plan – Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.

Government of Lesotho (2013) National Range Resources Management Policy Ministry of Forestry and Land Reclamation.

Government of Lesotho Environment Act, 2008. Government of Lesotho Land Act No. 8 of 2010. Government of Lesotho Water Act No. 88 of 2008. Government of Lesotho Water Resources Act No. 22 of 1978. GTZ (1999) Land Use Planning: Methods, Strategies and Tools – Eschborn. Herrin A. (2002) Guidebook in using Statistics for Gender Responsive Local Development

Planning National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women – CIDA. IUCN (2004) Gender Checklist and Guidelines – International Union for Conservation of

Natural Resources Pakistan. Legal notice No. 144 of 1986 Range Management and Grazing Control (Amendment)

Regulations. Lesotho Gender and Development Policy 2003. Lesotho Government Gazette Extraordinary Legal notice No. 150 of 1993 Range

Management and Grazing Control. Lesotho Government Gazette Extraordinary Legal notice No. 44 of 1996 Range Management

and Grazing Control. Lesotho Government Gazette Extraordinary Legal notice No. 78 of 1992 Range Management

and Grazing Control (Amendment) Regulations. Lesotho National Action Plan to Implement Agenda 21 1994. Lesotho National Environment Policy 1998.

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Lesotho Water and Sanitation Policy 2007. OSCE (2009) Gender and the Environment – Vienna. Prabha Khosla et al (2008) Gender in Local Government UN Habitat Nairobi Kenya. Simaya S. et al (2010) Gender Dimensions of Investment Climate Reform: A Guide for Policy

Makers and Practitioners The World Bank – Washington, D. C. UNDP (2005) Gender-sensitive and Pro-poor Indicators of Good Government – New Delhi. UNDP (Undated) Bio-fuel Production and Sustainable Land Management Ghana. United Nations (1992) United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change Rio de

Jeneiro. United Nations (2002) LDCs: Building Capacities for Mainstreaming Gender in

Development Strategies UNCTAD – New York.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank the organising team and UNDP for having confidence in me to undertake this assignment. My gratitude goes to Ms ’Mabohlokoa Tau who had patience with me during this time. Very special thanks go to officers of the Department of Gender who assisted with information. I am indebted to Mr. Ntitia Tuoane who also assisted with some information. I thank Learabetsoe Futho for reviewing this presentation. Lastly I wish to thank my family for their understanding and support during this assignment.

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SCALING DOWN TO SEE GENDER: MEASURING "SUSTAINABLE" LAND MANAGEMENT IN LESOTHO CHARLES FOGELMAN, PH.D. CANDIDATE

Department of Geography & GIS, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 607 E Springfield Ave., Champaign, IL 61820 USAfogelma2@illinois.edu +266 57 52 7078

ABSTRACT Lesotho's agricultural land is widely degraded, but about 75% of the population engages in subsistence agriculture. An estimated 70% of global food production is performed by women. Women's ability to benefit from land is a key to land management policies that are genuinely sustainable. Basotho, colonizers, scientists, and development agencies have proposed various initiatives over the last 150 years in an effort to extract maximum value from Lesotho's land. The latest, "sustainable land management," has taken place alongside a sweeping U.S.-led land reform. A major aim of the reform was to ensure equal land rights for women and men. The U.S. government and Lesotho government have both declared the legal reforms a success from a gender perspective. However, their data for this declaration are typically atdistrict or national level. Such data elide the scales on which gendered contestations over land often happen: the village and the household. Preliminary qualitative research from peri-urban Maseru paints a less positive picture of gender equality vis-a-vis land access in Lesotho. The results indicate that more nuanced understanding of land access at smaller scales is needed in order to determine the relative merits of this and other land reform projects. This study is a starting point toward determining how land policies can benefit women at the most germane scales.

INTRODUCTION The history of control over land in Lesotho is inextricably tied to the history of control over people. Who gets use of what land, what they use it for and how those rights are governed are all vital decisions in a country where 75% of the population engages in subsistence agriculture. The matter of who controls the land has never been determined by Basotho alone. It is a process that has long been tied up in ideas from within and without Lesotho about how to "develop" the country.

A decade after Colin Murray (1981, 19) declared that "the history of 'development' projects in Lesotho is one of almost unremitting failure to achieve their objectives," James Ferguson (1994, 8) wrote that "[f]or the 'development' industry in Lesotho, 'failure' appears to be the norm." Still another author contends that soil-related Development projects in Lesotho have been largely predicated on incomplete and sometimes erroneous understandings of history and science (Showers 2005). Despite the litany of scholars who have critiqued and criticized 'development' practices, both globally and within Lesotho, the projects and money have continued to roll in to the Mountain Kingdom, with an estimated $120 million spent by donors in Lesotho in 2012 alone (OECD).

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MATERIALS AND METHODS GENDER AND ACCESS This paper investigates gendered land access in Lesotho. Rather than a traditional "bundle of rights" approach to property, the access framework (Ribot & Peluso 2003) is concerned with a bundle of powers. I am not merely concerned with the right to benefit from land, but the ability to benefit from land. Access is here defined as the "ability to benefit" from something, in this case from land. Simply having legal right to a parcel of land in no way ensures one the ability to benefit from that parcel. Further access is needed to be able to benefit from that land: to markets, to labor, to inputs, to capital, social relations, authority and technology, among others. This is what Ribot and Peluso call the "structural and relational mechanisms of access." Access does not happen in a vacuum; it is enhanced, governed and mediated by other actors, accesses and relationships.

Measures of success in the ongoing land reform in Lesotho do not have a nuanced and multi-scalar view of women's access. Most measurement of the land reform project, both by the U.S.-based funding agency and the Lesotho-based parastatal that administers the project, speak only of "rights" and of absolute numbers of leases countrywide. This elides the question of access. New laws have bestowed powerful rights upon women land users in Lesotho. But have those laws brought with them the material ability to benefit from land? This is a question that can only be answered by investigating the "structural and relational mechanisms of access" to land at scales much smaller than the state.

HISTORY OF LAND MANAGEMENT POLICY IN LESOTHO The linkage between control of land and control of people in Lesotho dates at least as far back as Moshoeshoe's climb up Butha-Buthe mountain during the Lifaqane.Moshoeshoe co-opted his defeated foes by offering them fertile agricultural land in exchange for their military support and recognition of Moshoeshoe as their leader (Thompson 1975). There are several significant differences between 1820s and 1830s-style land management and the modern day.

It was during British colonial rule in Basutoland that the modern day linkages between Basotho people and Basotho land began to be drawn. With the discovery of diamonds in Kimberley in 1866 and gold in Gauteng in 1886, Basutoland became the breadbasket for the mines. Huge amounts of pressure were put on Basotho subjects and land to produce massive quantities of food. By the 1930s, Lesotho had been transformed, as Colin Murray famously put it, "from granary to labour reserve" (Murray 1981). After a half-century as an exporter of cereals to the mining populations of Kimberley and the Witwatersrand, Lesotho's land was suffering mightily from colonial officials' demands to continually increase production and the loss of the fertile Caledon River Valley to the Orange Free State (Showers 2005). The country's inability to produce ample food for export led to the export of the commodity that has been the crucial driver of Lesotho's economy ever since: male mine labor. One of the results of these absent men is that Lesotho has seen a longstanding feminization of agriculture (Murray 1981, Bloomer 2009).

Throughout the era of British rule, control over women was "a central aspect of state policy" (Epprecht 1996). This remained the case after the transfer of power, when agricultural labor became women's work, as a huge number of able-bodied adult men went to work in gold mines. Women were to stay at home and manage the homestead – household production and reproduction were the realm of women and men's labor was either in Gauteng mines or, generally speaking, nonexistent.

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State power was formally handed over from Brits to Basotho in 1966 and with it emerged what has become a multibillion-Maloti Development industry. The Development industry has staked claims to many elements of life in Lesotho, but land has been among the most consistent. At least as far back as a 1963 report by the University of Chicago and Ford Foundation called "Recommendations and Reflections on Some Problems of Land Tenure in Basutoland", academics, foreign states and philanthropists have been staking claim to Lesotho's land policy. The recommendations and reflections are often framed as requested by the government of Lesotho, but that rarely seems to be the actual case. If the 1963 report was truly prepared for Moshoeshoe II's benefit, did he really need to be told that "Basutoland is a small enclave within the republic of South Africa" (Bentsi-Enchill, et al. 1963, 1)? Similarly, and far more recently, the land elements of Lesotho's Millennium Challenge Compact with the U.S. was ostensibly written by Lesotho and all projects were implemented at the request of Lesotho. That makes it remarkable that the section on land tenure includes language nearly identical to that of the Millennium Challenge Compacts for Burkina Faso and Mongolia.

These major claims to Lesotho land, from production for mining towns to the present era of Big Development, have largely been imposed by non-Basotho. Their efficacy and the underpinnings of their logic have often been questioned. Showers (2005) demonstrated how there is a lineage that runs throughout them of questionable science, unsupported conclusions and a general dichotomy that paints Basotho as land misusers and Development as land ameliorators. Current policies are no exception – with "sustainable land management" comes the implication 5 that Basotho land management is unsustainable and only an external agency—the UNDP—can provide sustainability. Likewise, the Millennium Challenge Corporation gave the name "modernization" to activities to change the land administration system in Lesotho. Lesotho's misgivings about the land modernization project have been apparent from the beginnings. Former Prime Minister Pakalitha Mosisili's government ostensibly wrote the compact, but via the Ministry of Local Government and Chieftainship, then proved unwilling to execute much of Land Act 2010. Wikileaks-released classified cables from the U.S.'s Maseru Embassy to Washington make clear that neither the LCD nor the ABC (Lesotho's two major parties at the time of passage) seemed particularly fond of Land Act 2010 and saw the Act as politically unsupported by the public.

CURRENT TRENDS IN LAND MANAGEMENT POLICY IN LESOTHO There is a tension between a stated goal of the Millennium Challenge Corporation and the reality on the ground. The MCC, which seeks "poverty reduction through economic growth," aims to "increas[e] the participation of women in the economy." It does not specify the type of participation, but the dual goals of increasing land values and increasing women's participation can be in tension. Gray and Kevane demonstrated that, throughout sub-Saharan Africa, rising land value can often lead to negative outcomes for women: "As land increases in value, individual men andcorporate groups dominated by men, including state authorities, find it in their interest to renegotiate andchallenge, before traditional authorities and statutory bodies, the direct and indirect ties that support women’s rights to land" (Gray and Kevane 1999, 6). The dissonance between the two indicates how vital it is that the bundle of powers governing land access allows women to have a voice about their land.

Measures of leaseholds in Lesotho indicate that a large majority of new leases are now registered jointly to married couples. In recent years, far more individually-registered leases

5 This is not strictly implicit – UNDP's website makes no bones about claiming that "Lesotho's natural resources

are presently heavily utilised and poorly managed." [http://www.ls.undp.org/content/lesotho/en/home/ourwork/environmentandenergy/successstories/slmmodeldeveloped/]

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have gone to women than men – this is a far cry from 1981 to 2006, when 80% of individually-registered leases went to men and joint leases were virtually unheard of. At a countrywide level, this is a rousing success. Efforts to increase women's economic participation in land have succeeded. There has been economic growth as land parcels have been made exclusively market-driven. The open questions are two: has that growth and female participation led to poverty alleviation? And are women serving as handmaidens to capital who, following Gray and Kevane, are delivering land to wealthy and powerful entities? Research from a peri-urban village in Maseru provides some illumination.

DATA AND ANALYSIS: GENDER AND LAND IN A PERI-URBAN VILLAGE IN MASERU Data collected in a village inperi-urban Maseru indicate that Land Act 2010 and its mandate of leaseholds in urban areas have produced both positive and negative outcomes for women. The village, Ha Mohapi6, is situated on the boundary of Maseru urban and Maseru rural. The preliminary data in this section were collected from semi-structured interviews with members of 12 households in Ha Mohapi. Qualitative and quantitative data from Maseru City Council employees, Land Administration Authority officials and private real estate developers also contributed to this section.

Of the leases that have been registered to households in Ha Mohapi, 52% of them are joint registrations, 31% have been registered to women alone and 17% have been registered to men alone. According to the aggregate scale at which MCC and LAA choose to measure gender equality, Ha Mohapi is a success story. However, all these statistics tell us are that women are receiving the right to benefit from leases. It tells us little about the ability to do so. There are three main areas that can illuminate the question of women's access in Ha Mohapi: 1. agricultural decision-making, 2. equitable treatment by local authorities, and 3. attempts to dispossess people of their land.

One of the key functions of mandated joint leases for married people is that they limit the likelihood that a woman will lose her land in the event of her husband's death. This is an altogether common phenomenon and seven of nine women interviewed said that joint leases provided a greater degree of security to them than Form Cs and allocation papers had. This is clearly the biggest success story of leases – women have greatly increased land tenure security in the event of their husband's death. The laws, however, have done little to prevent losses of labor and capital in the event of a woman's death. Cases of stock theft are much more common in female-headed households than in male-headed or joint-headed households. There is little question, however, that leases provide increased tenure security for women in the event of a husband's death.

Who makes agricultural Decisions? Among the 75% of households (n=9) in which a lease is jointly registered, men tend to believe that agricultural decision-making is done jointly, while women tend to believe that it is their husbands who make the decisions.7This indicates that men are aware of gender equality, and perhaps even aspire to it, but that they generally fall short of it.

Do you think that a dispute would be fairly adjudicated by your chief? The chief of Ha Mohapi has been serving in the role since he was retrenched from his job in the Gauteng mines in 2011. While virtually all interviewees had something negative to say about the chief, only one man felt that a land dispute would not be fairly heard by the chief.

6 A pseudonym to maintain participant confidentiality 7 Men and women in jointly-headed households were interviewed separately

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On the other hand, seven women (of 11) felt that the chief would either be unjust or would demand compensation in order to hear their side.

While there are strong indications that the chief of Ha Mohapi tends towards corruption and capriciousness, evidence from interviews indicates that he is much more responsive to men than to women. Since the chief is the first line of defense in land dispossession (before police, municipality, or superior chiefs), this is a major role reserved by village chiefs and materially swings the balance of land power in favor of men.

Has your land access been threatened in Ha Mohapi? The ongoing threat to land access in Ha Mohapi appears to be not from a widow's in-laws or opportunistic thieves. Instead, it appears that the people of the village are under threat from a far different source: real estate capital, with assistance from the state.

While only four households (3 joint; one woman) report that they have sold fields or other sites recently, they have all sold to the same investment company and they have all sold for the same amount per square meter – an amount they complain is too small. When asked why they entered into a willing buyer-willing seller sale for a price that was too low, each household said that they felt a great deal of pressure from the Maseru Municipality to sell and were warned that payment would be much slower for those who did not take the offered rate. The area is planned to be a golf course and housing development.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION AT WHAT SCALES DO WE MEASURE GENDER? While there is evidence that the urban leases mandated by Land Act 2010 have increased land security for women, there is equally compelling evidence that they have weakened smallholder security in favor of capital. During a recent conversation about the topic of poor subsistence agriculture-practicing people being pushed out of places like Ha Mohapi, a senior official with Maseru City Council told me "The city is no place for poor people!" This view is a pervasive one and it creates a reality in which tenure is not fully secured. Those who sold their fields express wariness about their choice. Leases, it appears, have securitized tenure more for the wealthy than for the poor. That the local state was involved in the process makes clear that the value of a lease is different for the wealthy than it is for those without money. David Harvey famously said that "The right to the city is…far more than a right of individual access to the resources that the city embodies: it is a right to change ourselves by changing the city more after our heart’s desire" (Harvey 2003, 939). Between the 75% of Basotho who engage in subsistence agriculture and those who believe that the poor and agricultural should relocate to rural areas, it is clear that the latter vision is winning.

CONCLUSION When Development agencies, states, parastatals, et al., look at people only as numbers at large scales, they ignore the question of access. The "structural and relational mechanisms of access" are vital and are what determine if true benefits come from the rights that are measured at large scales. Without zooming in to the smallest scales, we do not take a full view of access. It is in the village, the household, the individual, where the structural and relational mechanisms of access are contested and where true questions of access are answered. Without rigorous qualitative research that supplements and enhances the

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quantitative work already done, counting measures of leases is an inelegant and incomplete way to discuss women's access to land or markets.

Finally, when making calls for land to be managed sustainably, the question "sustainable for whom?" must be asked. Sustainable for those who depend on subsistence agriculture? Sustainable for capital and golf courses? Or sustainable for some combination of the two? It is one thing to meet the Millennium Challenge Compact's goal of "increasing the participation of women in the economy." It is another, more vital task to determine what form that participation takes. Are women the ones who obtain the surplus from the land? Or are they simply short-term caretakers before the land passes to local real estate capital? It is at the smallest scales that we will learn what truly "sustainable land management" looks like.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many thanks are due to the UNDP-Lesotho for hosting these papers at an important and timely conference. Additional gratitude to Liteboho Tsoako, expert research assistant and collaborator, to the people of "Ha Mohapi," and to the many people from MCA, MCC, LAA, UNDP, et al., willing to take time out of their work and their lives to help me. Thanks to Colin Hoag, Tom Bassett, Jesse Ribot, Ashwini Chhatre, Ezekiel Kalipeni, and dozens of others for their conversation and guidance.

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