Multilingual education in Kenya: debunking the myths

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Multilingual education in Kenyadebunking the mythsDaniel Ochieng Orwenjo aa English and Linguistics Kenyatta University PO Box 43844Nairobi 00100 KenyaPublished online 02 Mar 2012

To cite this article Daniel Ochieng Orwenjo (2012) Multilingual education in Kenya debunking themyths International Journal of Multilingualism 93 294-317 DOI 101080147907182012657641

To link to this article httpdxdoiorg101080147907182012657641

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Multilingual education in Kenya debunking the myths

Daniel Ochieng Orwenjo

English and Linguistics Kenyatta University PO Box 43844 Nairobi 00100 Kenya

(Received 8 March 2011 final version received 27 December 2011)

Arguments that have been advanced against multilingual education in Kenya andAfrica in general are not new Most post-colonial African governments have stuckto the pre-colonial education policies which have no relevance to the present dayAfrica and were at best guided by the interests of the colonial powerUnfortunately most of the claims and arguments against multilingual educationare often made on a priori grounds and are more often than not not backed byany objective data or scientific or pedagogical underpinnings This article makes acase for multilingual language in education policy for Kenya and criticallyexamines such claims that have been made within the Kenyan context with a viewto sieving through them and arriving at a more informed position with regard tothe issue of multilingual education in Kenya

Keywords multilingualism education Kenya myths

Introduction

A plethora of studies about the language situation in Africa exist and an equally

innumerable writings about the language situation in Africa also exist One such

study conducted by Multilingual Education Network Kenya (Kioko et al 2008)

outlines the many questions raised about language use in Africa and attempts to

answer them These range from pedagogical questions like lsquoWill using African

languages as languages of instruction hinder the learning of a second language or the

learning process itselfrsquo lsquoHow can teachers be equipped and supported for mother

tongue-based multilingual educationrsquo They move to policy questions like lsquoIs it too

costly to introduce multilingual educationrsquo They also address sociopolitical

questions like lsquoWhy are African parents resistant to Multilingual educationrsquo

lsquoWhat are the implications of multilingual education for issues of national unityrsquo

lsquoWill the use of African languages cause Africans to be sidelined in this globalised

worldrsquo Their response to these questions gives useful insights to some of the

linguistic complexities in Africa

Simire (2004) has explored the linguistic complexities of Nigeria where about

500 codes are spoken He observes that the language situation of post-colonial

Nigeria is a direct reflection of the colonial administration linguistic policy whereby

English is the dominant language with three local languages Hausa Igbo and

Yoruba prescribed by virtue of the large population of speakers He also notes the

presence of what he refers to as lsquoneutral codesrsquo Anglo-Nigerian pidgin and Arabic

Email orwenjoyahoocom

International Journal of Multilingualism

Vol 9 No 3 August 2012 294317

ISSN 1479-0718 printISSN 1747-7530 online

2012 Taylor amp Francis

httpdxdoiorg101080147907182012657641

httpwwwtandfonlinecom

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In view of the obtaining complex linguistic situation Simire (2004 p 135) advocates

for a multilingual approach in solving the countryrsquos linguistic problems

In order to sow and nourish the seeds for articulate meaningful and embedded nationaldevelopment it is necessary for the Nigerian government to reach the old and theyoung illiterate and literate male and female lowly and highly placed individuals acrossdiversified ethnolinguistic groups in their own codes

The Kenyan scenario is not any different from the Nigerian one The only one glaringdifference has got to do with how the two countries have addressed the challenges

accruing from such complex linguistic scenarios Unlike Kenya Nigeria has been

able to do a lot about her complex language situation Simire (2004) for instance

reports that more than 100 Nigerian codes are standardised and reduced to writing

Yet Nigeria and Kenya are not the only countries in Africa and indeed in the

whole word who have had to grapple with such issues Studies report similar concerns

are raised in several countries such as India (Pattanayak 1990) Philiphines

(Gonzalez 1980) Ethiopia (Anteneh 2006) and Botswana (Bagwasi 2004) In

Botswana for instance Bagwasi (2004) reports that English has the high status This

is in spite of the fact that Setswana a common mother tongue is spoken by 80 of

the population and only 3540 can speak English either fluently or just basically

The result is a diglossic situation where Setswana is the national language and is

widely used in every day communication in Government offices local business

transport marketplace traditional courts political and social gatherings and in the

home English is the official language and the language of education Although the

linguistic situation of Botswana does not sound as complex as that of Nigeria for

example Simire (2004 p 119) expresses the fear that lsquo although Setswana is the

dominant language in the country it will soon face competition from English which is

becoming popular not just for educational and economic reasons but also for reasons

of statusrsquo

From the examples cited above it is evident that many African (and other non-African) countries still have to resolve many linguistic issues Linguists and

educational psychologists agree that the use of the mother tongue as the language

of instruction in the early years of education has proven advantages especially where

the development of cognitive faculties is concerned (Trudell amp Shroeder 2007)

Conversely it has been demonstrated that classroom use of a language which is not

the language already spoken by the child results in cognitive and pedagogical

difficulties This was attested by research on experiences in six African countries

Botswana Kenya Mali Nigeria South Africa and Tanzania (Okombo amp

Rubagumya 1996) The discussion in this article will therefore be relevant not just

for Kenya alone but for the rest of the African countries dealing with similar

linguistic phenomena

12 Language situation in Kenya

Kenya has over 42 ethnic languages which roughly correspond to the number of

ethnic communities (tribes) found in the country These languages fall within the

Bantu group of the Niger-Congo family the Cushitic group of the Afro-Asiatic

family and the Nilotic group of the Nilo-Saharan family This makes for a

considerable linguistic diversity in the country leading to a 391 linguistic outcome

International Journal of Multilingualism 295

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whereby most Kenyans can speak a home language Kiswahili (the co-official

language and also the lingua franca Until the recent constitutional changes in 2010

the only official language was English and Kiswahili was the national language)

Some educated people can also speak either German andor French The home

languages double as the language of instruction in the early schooling years and also

the home language in the rural areas while Kiswahili is normally the home language

and also the language of instruction in the early schooling years in the urban areasEnglish being the official language is reserved for official business and adminis-

trative functions in private and government enterprises This function however more

often than not falls on Kiswahili too

A typical Kenyan child joining the school system at primary class one (grade one)

in the rural area is therefore likely to encounter the home language in the school

system as the language of instruction for the first three years of the school cycle This

language will also be taught to the child as a subject From the fourth year of the

primary school cycle the language of instruction switches to English and the childrsquos

home language is neither used as the language of instruction nor taught as a subject

In fact the home language becomes totally banished from the school system and its

use attracts stiff punishment as it is seen as lsquointerferingrsquo with the childrsquos mastery of

the English language which at this stage is viewed as very essential for educational

progress The Kenyan urban child undergoes a slightly different experience in that the

home language may be his or her mother tongue Kiswahili English or a mixture

of the three On entering school in primary one the language of instruction willbe either English or Kiswahili (the schools are left to make this decision) From the

fourth year of the school cycle two children are faced with similar experiences The

sudden and abrupt switch of the language instruction at primary four coupled with

the disconnect between the home language and the school language that Kenyan

school children are faced with has been the subject of a lot of debates speculations

and policy shifts in terms of what impacts it has on the academic and overall

development of the child It is within this context that the present article contributes

to this debate by advocating for a multilingual education policy and by examining

critically the arguments against such a policy that have been put forward To provide

the reader with the necessary background and context the history of language in

education policy formulation is first presented

Language generally is regarded as a key to knowledge information and

communication an indicator of appropriateness of technology a major element in

elite formation and alienation and also a barrier to or equaliser of social political

and economic opportunities Language plays a central role in the modernisation and

development of a country The choice of the language of instruction therefore hassignificant consequences The significance of choice is most critical for multilingual

communities and more so those that grapple with prestigious language versus

national language It is therefore hardly surprising that the issue of language in

education in Kenya at the turn of the millennium still remains a heavily contested

issue Colonial language education policy which was intrinsically infused with

unequal and varying language proficiency demands for pupils and students at

various levels of education in Kenya was replaced immediately after the attainment

of independence in 1964 following the Kenya Education Commission (also known as

The Ominde Commission) report

The commission concluded that lsquothey had no doubt about the advantages of

English as a medium of instruction in the whole education processrsquo Thus the newly

296 DO Orwenjo

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independent government based on the perceived advantages of English as a medium

of instruction swiftly reversed the colonial policy which had advocated for the

instruction of the natives in their own languages because English was allegedly lsquotoo

complex for them to comprehendrsquo Whereas the colonial government had advocatedfor instruction in the home languages the newly independent state drastically

reversed this policy by advocating for English as a medium of instruction in the

entire school curriculum It is worth noting that none of these policies was bilingual

and that they differed only with respect to the preferred language of instruction and

the motivations behind the policy Whereas the colonial government sought to ensure

that the African gained the minimum literacy that would be just enough to make

them useful and functional to the administration the newly independent government

wanted to assert their independence by drastically overturning the colonial policyand making accessible to the Africans what was hitherto denied to them Yet in their

zeal to assert their newly acquired independent status a perfect opportunity of

introducing bilingual education policy by simply adding English as a medium of

instruction alongside the African languages which had been used under the colonial

regime was lost This then is the genesis of the current language in education policy

which continues to advocate against bilingual education

2 A brief historical background

In this brief historical background the language in education policy in Kenya is

surveyed under two broad epochs the colonial and the post-colonial periods

21 The colonial era

Language policy in Kenya cannot be addressed without taking a historical

perspective It has it basis in the colonial language policy following the scramblefor Africa by European powers which took place towards the end of the nineteenth

century The boundaries of the continent were defined by Europeans in the Berlin

Conference on December 1884 to January 1885 In 1886 a joint commis-

sion comprising of representatives from powerful European nations like Britain

Germany and France met to deliberate on the Zanzibarrsquos Sultan authority in the

East African Coast This led to the partitioning of African nations culminating in

the European colonisation Kenya became part of the British East Africa

Protectorate There were several issues that the British had to consider in order tofacilitate their rule in the colonies Among these were language and educational

policies The colonial language policy in Kenya is important putting into considera-

tion that it impacted greatly on post-colonial language policy Contrary to the long

held postulation that it was the objective of the colonial government to promote

English language in the colony the colonial language policy was always inchoate and

vacillating such that there were occasions that measures were put in place to promote

or deter its learning However such denial inadvertently provided a stimulus for

Kenyans to learn English considering that they had already taken cognisance of thefact that it was the launching pad for white-collar jobs

The colonial language policy in education in Kenya can best be captured by

looking at the several education commission reports that were instituted to guide the

government Between 1950 and 1951 the Education Department Reports pointed

out that it was inappropriate to teach three languages at the primary school


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The Reports included Beecherrsquos (1949) Binnrsquos (1952) and the Drogheda Commission

(1952) The documents recommended that English be introduced in the lower

primary to be taught alongside the mother tongue and called for the dropping of

Kiswahili in the curriculum except in areas where it was the mother tongue Theimplementation of this policy took effect in 19531955 (Gorman 1974) The Beecher

Report of 1949 particularly stands out among these colonial education reports

especially with regard to language policy in education It represents the closest

attempt by any government in Kenya to introduce multilingual education It

recommended that Kiswahili be used as the language of literacy in towns and that

in the rest of the areas pupils to be taught in local languages for the first 5 years In

addition it advocated for the use of local (home) languages for oral instruction

throughout the country Thus the local home languages would be a medium ofinstruction alongside English and Kiswahili albeit only for oral instruction But even

this modest proposal was not to see the light of the day In 1953 English was made

the main subject of curriculum in Intermediate Schools only two lessons per week

set a side for teaching of Kiswahili

22 The post-colonial era

As has already been mentioned the independent Kenyarsquos language in educationpolicy was largely a reaction to the colonial policies and an attempt to right the

wrongs that were manifest in such policies When Kenya attained self rule in 1963

English was declared the official language It was to be used in all important

governmental sectors education inclusive This was a marked departure from the

colonial language policy in the sense that English was now made available to all

races In addition those who took the helm of leadership after the colonialists were

spawned by the colonial education system and in formulating language in education

policies there was a high likelihood that they would perpetuate neo-colonialismrather than help to bring change (Ngugi 1986) In spite of this there were

epistemological and strategic moves in form of research commissions which were

carried out in order to inform the language policy In 1964 for instance the Kenya

Education Commission mounted a survey to establish the interests of the citizens

with regard to language use The findings revealed that most people wanted a

trilingual approach to education The mother tongue was preferred for verbal

communication especially in rural areas while English and Kiswahili were preferred

for education from lower primary to the university Kiswahili was especially favouredin education for purposes of national and regional unity Furthermore Kiswahili was

seen as the appropriate language for the Pan-Africanism dream (Mazrui amp Mazrui

1996) However unlike English the language was not anchored in to the school

curriculum and for a long time it remained an optional subject

The newly independent government in keeping with the traditions of her colonial

masters set up a series of education commissions to formulate not just language in

education policy but education policy in general touching on such wide ranging

issues as curricula aims and goals of education and the overall educationalphilosophy of the country As observed earlier the first of such commissions was

the Ominde Commission in 1964 It revealed that many Kenyans were in favour of

English as the medium of instruction from the beginning class in primary school to

the university The Commission threw its weight behind English language arguing

that it would expedite learning in all subjects by ensuring smooth transitions from

298 DO Orwenjo

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5

lsquovernacularsrsquo and owing to its intrinsic resources (Mazrui amp Mazrui 1996) English

was therefore introduced in beginnersrsquo classes in primary schools through the New

Primary Approach in which its learning was heavily emphasised The commission

also emphasised the use of mother tongue and Kiswahili in the education system atdifferent levels and localities

The supremacy of English in the Kenyan educational system was entrenched

following the Gachathi Commission in 1976 which recommended that English

becomes the language of instruction from the fourth grade in primary school to the

university Though the Commission also declared Kiswahili an important subject in

primary and secondary classes the language received inferior status when compared

with English in the school curriculum While English was allotted 810 periods out

of the 40 hours per week Kiswahili was allotted 3 hours (Chimera 1998) Five yearslater in 1981 the Mackay Commission would recommend that English remains the

language of instruction while Kiswahili was made a compulsory subject in both

primary and secondary education The Mackay Commission further advised that the

mother tongue be used in lower grades of primary schools in areas where this was

possible At present the language in education policy requires that the language of

the catchment area be used as a medium of instruction and be taught as a subject in

the lower primary schools in rural areas while Kiswahili be used as the medium of

instruction in urban areas From primary four English becomes the medium ofinstruction and Kiswahili continues to be taught as a subject in both rural and urban

areas

It is therefore clearly evident from the foregoing that the discourse surrounding

language in education policy in Kenya has been going on for a very long time right

from the colonial period Unfortunately this observation still leaves some begging

questions which are quite fundamental in any discourse regarding language in

education policy in Kenya Why for instance is it that despite the formation of many

education commissions none has recommended a multilingual education policythroughout the school curriculum Could it be that Kenyan policy-makers are

unaware of the inherent large-scale returns that accrue from a multilingual education

policy If they are aware of such advantages how do we explain the fact that after

over 40 years of independence Kenyan home languages are used as a medium of

instruction only in lsquothe first three years of the primary school cyclersquo in their

respective catchment areas and during which time English is not being used hence

still retaining the monolingual policy This article argues that several claims against

the multilingual education policy together with vested interests of the policyformulators has ensured that multilingual education in Kenya remains a mere pipe

dream It further contends that most of the claims and arguments against

multilingual education are often made on a priori grounds and are more often

than not not backed by any objective data or scientific or pedagogical under-

pinnings But first in order to firm situate these arguments within the relevant

contexts the context of language in education is revisited with a closer emphasis on

the Kenyan situation

3 The context of language in education

A discussion on the context of language in education of any country should

inevitably touch also on the usersrsquo of these languages and their attitudes and

perceptions about these languages in education Unless the fog of prevarication and


Dow

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5

myths with regard to the role and nature of languages in education in a multilingual

country like Kenya is unveiled the little window we have to effect language policy in

education especially with regard the introduction of multilingual education

The failure of language and educational policies where the two are not in sync in

multilingual settings like Kenya is legendary International research and experience

shows that lsquono language policy will ever succeed unless an accompanying action plan

is implemented neither will it succeed if there is an accompanying plan which is at

variance with its goalsrsquo (Akinnaso 1991 pp 2961) Furthermore a language in

education policy will not succeed unless it is integrated with and in synchrony with

the national educational policy and plan Chumbow (1987 p 22) has asserted

elsewhere that lsquothe place of language planning is within the National Development

Planrsquo This further underscores the unique and central position occupied by language

in education and language planning in general with the national development and

planning of a country

If the education system in Kenya is to ensure equity quality and equality to all

pupils in the country such that they will have equal access not only in terms of

enrolment and participation but also with regard to a useful and constructive

engagement with the curriculum the obstacles on such a path must be removed

before any meaningful realisation of these noble ideals This article addresses one

such obstacle the fact that language in education policy in Kenya since time

immemorial has been tailored to favour monolingual education with multilingual

education on the other hand being considered inappropriate impractical and at

times retrogressive

4 The case for mother tongue-based multilingual education policy in Kenya

In an attempt to define mother tongue-based multibilingual education Malone

(2007 p 2) observes

Discussions relating to MT-Based MLE in Asia tend to use the term in one of two waysIn some contexts MT-based MLE refers to the use of studentsrsquo mother tongue and twoor more additional languages as Languages of Instruction (LoI) in school In othercontexts the term is used to describe bilingual education across multiple languagecommunitieseach community using their own mother tongue plus the official schoollanguage for instruction

This article adopts the first conceptualisation as the basis of arguing for a

multilingual education policy in the Kenyan education system A widespread

understanding of Multilingual Education (MLE) programs (UNESCO 2003

2005) suggests that instruction takes place in the following stages

(1) Stage I learning takes place entirely in the childrsquos home language

(2) Stage II building fluency in the mother tongue Introduction of oral L2

(3) Stage III building oral fluency in L2 Introduction of literacy in L2

(4) Stage IV using both L1 and L2 for lifelong learning

MLE proponents stress that the second language acquisition component is seen as a

lsquotwo-wayrsquo bridge such that learners gain the ability to move back and forth between

their mother tongue and the other tongue(s) rather than simply a transitional

300 DO Orwenjo

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5

literacy programme where reading through the mother tongue is abandoned at some

stage in the education In line with this UNESCO understanding this article will

make a policy proposal on multilingual education in Kenya which is closely modelled

along the four stages proposed earlier

Although language is not the only important factor in educational success both

at the individual and the societal level and although its role continues to be shrouded

in a plethora of confusion and ill-formed myths it is undoubtedly the most

important factor which ultimately determines the failure of the majority and the

success of the minority It certainly widens the gap between those who have and

those who do not By the time children begin school they have begun gaining

confidence in their ability to communicate meaningfully in their mother tongue

They have built a foundation of knowledge and experience through observing and

interacting with peers and adults in their community The language knowledge and

experience that children bring to school form an important foundation for their

learning in the classroom (Malone 2007)The educational problem faced by many children from ethnolinguistically diverse

communities is twofold In the first place some have no access to education at all

Those who do have access to school but do not speak the official language when they

enter the education system find that their knowledge experience and language rather

than serving as a foundation for learning are treated as a disadvantage Their

language skills do not serve them because their language has no place in the

classroom Instead textbooks and teaching are in a language they neither speak nor

understand Their learning and problem-solving experiences and their knowledge of

lsquohow things workrsquo in their own culture and social setting do not serve them because the

culture of the classroom the teachers and the textbooks is that of the dominant society

Behavioural and cognitive psychologists and learning theorists have over time

attested to the usefulness of instruction in a language in which the pupilrsquos worldview

and thought processes are moulded around over a policy in which the pupil is

instructed in a foreign or second language which in most cases as is the case in Kenya

he or she is in fact still in the process of mastering and coming to terms with

The logic of a multilingual language in education policy in Kenya would be based

on the recognition and acceptance of the fact that Kenya is a multilingual country and

that the mother tongue (or the language used most proficiently at home) is the most

appropriate language of learning and instruction anywhere in the world Almost every

commission of inquiry into language and education every language and education

conference and every other recommendation on the matter anywhere in Africa within

the last 100 years has concluded that education must begin (and continue) in the

mother tongue of the child or in the language of the immediate community which the

child knows and uses best (Heugh 1999 Skutnabb-Kangas 2000) Secondly such a

policy would be premised on the false assumption that pupils need a strong proficiency

in at least one other language and that English for most pupils will be a language of

high priority A multilingual language in education policy on the other hand would

add a second and a third language to a pupilrsquos linguistic repertoire in ways which would

best guarantee both academic and linguistic success

Several scholars such as Baker (1988) Baker and Garcia (2006) Cummins

(1984) Krashen (1996) Liddicoat (1991) Skutnabb-Kangas and Cummins (1988)


Dow

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5

and Skutnabb-Kangas (2000) have dialogued on the advantages of bilingual

education especially in the early years of the school cycle They provide copious

evidence of the failure of most children who are plunged too quickly into English

without a strong support within the school system for their home language In

particular they argue that the majority of children whose home languages have a

lower status than English are never likely to achieve more than 40 in their final

school examinations for English if they are plunged too quickly into an English

mainly or only education Several longitudinal studies such as those of Ramirez

Ramey Yuen and Pasta (1991) and Thomas and Collier (1997) attest to this This

therefore means that the common-sense notion and widely held belief that the earlier

and greater the exposure to English coupled with a proportional decrease in the use

of mother tongue would automatically result into better proficiency in English does

not match up to strict scientific scrutiny Rather the less use made of mother tongue

in education the less likely the student is going to perform well across the curriculum

and in English In a multilingual society like Kenya where English is also so highly

prized the only viable option would be multilingual education where adequate

linguistic development is fore grounded in the mother tongue whilst other languages

are systematically added If the mother tongue is replaced the other languages will

not be adequately learnt and linguistic proficiency in both will be heavily

compromised

A majority of parents and education stakeholders in Kenya today would find

the arguments espoused in the preceding paragraphs hardly convincing Most of

them would argue that parents believe that the sooner their children are exposed to

English as the language of instruction the sooner they will gain competence in it

While it is important that the attitudes and views of parents and other stakeholders

should be taken into account while initiating any sort of reforms in the education

sector let alone one as fundamental as language in education policy such views

must nonetheless be critically interrogated What for instance is the statistical

evidence that supports such a view as the one put forward above And if it is indeed

true that parents think that early exposure to English is beneficial and not

detrimental to the childrsquos performance and linguistic competence why do they think

so Krashen has pointed out that such a perception does not always stand up to

reality

If you ask people if they support the development of the first language at the expense ofEnglish and school success nearly all say lsquolsquonorsquorsquo But if you ask them if they supportbilingual education a surprising number say they do Similarly a large percentageagrees with the principles underlying bilingual education When people do object tobilingual education quite often it is on the basis of application not theory (Krashen1996 p 49)

In this section a case for the introduction of multilingual education in Kenya has

been made In the next section we now look at some of the issues that have always

made it difficult or impossible for such a policy shift Having made the case for a

multilingual language in education policy in Kenya and having given a proposal of

how this can be implemented let us now focus on the second part of this article by

closely examining some of the arguments that have been used to frustrate the

implementation of a multilingual language in education policy in Kenya

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5 Myths misconceptions and misdiagnoses

51 Nature of myths

A myth is irrational and believed Wrong statements can be refuted by evidence

faulty deductions can be subjected to the litmus test for logic but a myth is exempt

from all this One does not have to prove anything one needs to simply state what is

lsquoknownrsquo A myth imposes logic of its own It has the power not only to explain how

things are but also to give them an apparent justification Myths survive not becausethey are true but because they are emotionally satisfying aids to contentions which

are difficult or even impossible to justify on coldly rational grounds As Combs

(1979) states myths contain a lsquogermrsquo of truth they come institutionalised and

therefore exempt from question Therefore questioning myths opens a person to

ridicule Myths are stated not argued believed and not demonstrated They shore up

a case not illuminate one they pre-sent an issue but do not give details as to why

things are as they are presented Some myths have some element of truth in them

just enough to suggest that we are in the realm of fact but not enough to bear theweight of the interpretation placed on them Once a culture or social institution has

adopted a myth it is very robust and difficult to dislodge

A myth does not flourish without reason Classical myth for instance long

outlived any literal belief due to its convenience as a framework as conceptual

shorthand as an emotional comforter or as embellishment in literature Myths

express a social dialectic They transmit truths that are more general they

manipulate these truths according to the modalities of sensory perception and

transpose them onto a concrete plane They justify our preferred behaviours andconstrain others Combs (1979) assert that people can always find good reasons in

their myths for the things they had rather do (or not do) Myths assume a double

function thus they bring fact to light and contribute to the creation of ideals

52 Why use myths

A myth is a deliberate moralisation of the master ideas which cannot be put at the

disposal of anyone at any time A myth by the virtue of being an emotionally

satisfying aid to a contention which is difficult or even impossible to justify provides

a learner with a reason rational or not for eliciting the specified behaviour A mythis believed due to this simplicity in believing it is appropriate for use in education

One does not have to prove anything nor is it necessary to demonstrate fact Myths

are used because they are an effective vehicle for creating attitudes and because they

also communicate the ideals of the education system in a colourful manner Myths

are used because they set a challenge to the learner this challenge calls for a

response which in turn modifies a social or educational situation They are also used

because they constitute a first stage of learning

53 Myths on multilingual education in Kenya

What are some of the myths that have dogged the quest for a multilingual language

in education policy in Kenya This article argues that in Kenya the tangible and

evidence-based claims against multilingual education in other words what negative

impact a policy shift towards multilingual on education performance indicators have

not been forthcoming When the what is not necessarily identified or found it is


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sometimes invented Claims are made about public perceptions Then the claims are

treated as verifiable evidence (the what) If any evidence is offered it is either weak or

it applies only to a small sample of students or informants rather than the majority

Despite evidence which is flimsy at best it finds its way into texts which support the

status quo in relation to language use in education Collectively because the claims

are restated with such frequency they become mythologised Some of the several

contemporary myths about language and education in Kenya are outlined below

531 Multilingual education is too expensive

One of the most pervasive arguments against multilingual education has been the

much touted belief that it would be too expensive to entertain Addressing this

contention with regard to bilingual education Ouane and Glanz (2009 p 37) make

the following observation

Despite the good results achieved by bilingual programmes many people doubt whetherthe limited resources of African countries should be spent on transforming the schoolsystem into a late-exit or additive bilingual education system particularly in view of thelinguistic heterogeneity of the classrooms and learning set-ups across the continentShould this really be a priority and what can be expected from this investment Would itnot be too expensive to produce teaching materials train teachers and develop thelanguages

Those who subscribe to the school of thought that multilingual education policy

would be too expensive for African states to afford point out to the fact that it is

costly to produce learning materials train teachers and implement other aspects of

the curriculum for and in many languages and that the most economical route to

take would be to stick to the English medium This article adopts the view that this

and similar arguments are hinged on distorted notions of the process of implement-

ing a multilingual education policy and are at best escapist arguments put forward by

those who either do not appreciate the need for pupils to use their home languages

or those who for a variety of reasons and self interests would prefer the entrenchment

of the status quo In any case the economics of multilingual education is a new

field of study and the relationship between language and learning is not yet well

understood by most economists (Gorter et al nd)

Such arguments are however not unique to Kenya In South Africa for instance

similar arguments have consistently been used to promote and perpetuate English

only education (Heugh 2004) Every year the government of Kenya spends a great

deal on textbooks in English and on teachersrsquo salaries on the pretext that we are

providing an education through the medium of English While this is being done we

continue to be forced to contend with high drop-out rates low retention rates and

low progression rates all of which are indicators of an inefficient educational system

The teachers who purport to be teaching in an English medium only system

especially those who teach in primary schools do not themselves have suffi-

cient English to teach in the English language They can hardly teach in good

Standard English in their classrooms despite the fact that they think they should do

so and despite the fact that they claim to teach through English Heugh (2004 p 31)

while discussing the case against multilingual education in South Africa makes the

following observation

304 DO Orwenjo

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The language model they provide for their pupils is a code-mixed model This is theclosest they can get to English medium and it is not English medium Pretending that wecan go for an English only or mainly option under these conditions or that we are reallypractising English mainly is not responsible and it reveals unfortunately a form ofschizophrenia in which the truth is denied

Such a situation could as well be a description of the Kenyan case where pupils

continue to underachieve academically due to an English medium only policy

especially in upper primary schools because the English they are exposed to contains

so many fossilised errors that make it essentially an interlanguage Such errors are the

stimuli which form the input on the basis of which learners are supposed to acquire

English This inevitably leads to some sort of vicious circle which has devastating

effects not only across the curriculum but also on the learning of English itself At

best we hear teachers code-switching but more often than not they are code-mixing

(using two languages within the same sentence) Under such circumstances this

article argues that the losses and the effects of a monolingual policy on the whole

education policy make it even more expensive than a multilingual policy The

advantage of effective mother tongue-based multilingual education on the other

hand lies in a significant improvement of achievement scores as well as in lower

repeater and drop-out rates For example the case of South Africa has shown that

the high school leaving pass rate relates only to those students who can study in their

first language With an education budget increase of just 5 current analyses (Grin

2005 Heugh 2006) suggest that a large proportion of the costs for such reforms will

be recovered in 57 years through lower repetition and drop-out rates

The debate on whether a multilingual language in education policy is expensive

or not can also be viewed as two sides of the same coin In other words in attempting

to answer the question Is a multilingual education policy in Kenyarsquos education

system expensive a fundamental answer would be to pose the converse of this

question Is a monolingual policy cheap and affordable This is the same question

posed by Ouane and Glanz (2009 p 40) when they pose

If we ask whether late-exitadditive mother-tongue multilingual education is affordablewe should also ask whether the current language models used in schools are cheaper interms of real costs and returns on investment not to mention in terms of social cohesionand opportunities

Although as yet there is little research available on this topic a look at some studies

conducted in the recent past can throw more light on the issues In a study that

compared an early-exit model which is moving towards late exit with a dual medium

approach in year 5 and 6 and the traditional school system in Mali (Fomba et al

2003) concluded that improved learning outcomes are cost-effective and that

moderately higher expenses are thus worthwhile The World Bank (2005) also

compared the costs and benefits of the French-only and mother tongue programmes

in Mali and found that the total cost for a student for six yearsrsquo primary school

attendance was 27 higher for the French-only programmes The main cost

reduction factors identified were lower repetition and drop-out rates Yet policy-

makers across the African continent are still stuck to the monolingual education

policies under the pretext that parents who are key stakeholders want their children

to learn in foreign languages This leads us to the second myth do Kenyan parents

want their children to have an English only medium of instruction


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532 Parents want straight for English

There has always been a widespread but rather mistaken belief that Kenyan parents

would prefer that their children be taught in English only and not in any of the home

languages For obvious reasons English has continued to play a significant role and

will continue to do so not least in the area of international communication higher

levels of education and the economy in Kenya At the same time an attachment to

and high value accorded English does not necessarily imply that an attachment to

indigenous languages is proportionately reduced The high value accorded to English

has got to do with the socio-economic benefits that are perceived to accrue from a

good command in English later in life Once the home languages are empowered

parents of course would not abandon their languages in pursuit of English for their

children Two other observations are worth making with regard to this second myth

there has never been any scientific survey that has confirmed this wide held belief

that is documented anywhere and can be quoted to the best of my knowledge Hence

it just remains to be what it actually is a myth Secondly even if that were to be the

case it should not be the basis that informs a language in education policy since such

parents would be merely providing layman views without an in-depth understanding

and appreciation of the complexities of the issues involved

The poorest and most marginalised are acutely aware that their access to both

education and high-status language has been limited and they have a right to expect

the school to teach their children the same language that has benefited the elite

(Benson 2005) Undoubtedly parents will choose the L2 when presented with an

either-or proposition however studies (see eg Heugh 2002) have shown that when

parents are allowed to make an educated choice from appropriate options they

overwhelmingly opt for bilingual rather than all-L2 programmes and most bilingual

programme evaluations report high levels of community support (CAL 2001)

533 English has a higher linguistic capital than Kenyan languages

The notion of linguistic capital stems from that of cultural capital as propounded by

Bourdieu (1973) For Bourdieu capital acts as a social relation within a system of

exchange and the term is extended lsquoto all the goods material and symbolicrsquo without

distinction that present themselves as rare and worthy of being sought after in a

particular social formation Cultural capital acts as a social relation within a system

of exchange that includes the accumulated cultural knowledge that confers power

and status and includes forms of knowledge skills education and advantages that a

person has which give them a higher status in society Parents provide their children

with cultural capital by transmitting the attitudes and knowledge needed to succeed

in the current educational system Within this paradigm linguistic capital forms part

of the values knowledge and attitudes that are transmitted by parents to their

children Parents and stakeholders hold certain views about which language(s) that

are worthy of being sought after and has the potential to confer power and status on

those who successfully pursue and acquire it In Kenya such an exalted position has

for a long time been the preserve of English

In Kenya lsquothe promise of Englishrsquo is more evident now given the hard economic

times and the increasingly competitive educational system Consequently there is a

strong belief that English will bring benefits to those who learn and master it In

economic terms this belief translates to the idea that English will provide better jobs

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and better pay to those who master and gain proficiency in it Such claims have often

formed a justification for the English only education policy not only in Kenya but

also in other Anglophone African countries However commenting on the lsquothe

promise of Englishrsquo Pennycook (2007 pp 100101) notes

Particularly salient today are the claims that English holds out a promise of socialand economic development to all those who learn it (rather than a language tied to veryparticular class positions and possibilities of development) and that English is alanguage of equal opportunity (rather than a language that creates barriers as much as itpresents possibilities) this thing called English colludes with the many perniciousprocesses of globalization [and] deludes many learners through the false promises itholds out for social and material gain

As is evident from the comments above any claims in relation to the lsquopromise of

Englishrsquo that have been used many times to make it appear to have a higher linguistic

capital and therefore the only suitable medium of instruction in a developing

country like Kenya are at best fallacious and at worst informed by ignorance

Tollefson (1991 p 210) also concurs with Pennycookrsquos views and calls for a total

rejection of the lsquofalse promise of Englishrsquo

[We] must reject the notion that learning a language is an ideologically neutral actintended simply to develop an employment skill That some people must learn Englishto get a job is a result of unequal relationships of power-not a solution to them

Thus the argument that has been used for a long time to perpetuate the monolingual

educational policy in Kenya that English has a higher linguistic capital than thelocal African languages which in turn is hinged on the lsquopromise of Englishrsquo is a mere

fallacy What can be gained from English is always constrained by relations of social

power Consequently the promise of English as often articulated in popular

discourses about the practical utilities of English in Kenya is but an illusion

534 English is the only language which has the capacity to deliver quality education

Benson (2005) has called this lsquoThe myth that local languages cannot express modern

conceptsrsquo She argues that this is lsquoanother colonial concept (which) is the supposed

inherent worth of European languages in contrast to othersrsquo but observes that lsquoall

human languages are equally able to express their speakersrsquo thoughts and candevelop new terms and structures as needed Leopold Senghor once illustrated this

by translating Einsteinrsquos Theory of Relativity into Wolof a lingua franca of Senegalrsquo

On the other hand Alexander (2003) is of the opinion that the difference lies in

which languages have historically been chosen for lsquointellectualisationrsquo or develop-

ment through writing and publishing

At present within the Kenyan educational set-up English is the medium of

instruction from primary four This is in spite of the fact that a majority of the

teachers do not have a sufficient command of the English language which would beadequate for them to enable their students make nuanced distinctions This has given

rise to a situation whereby despite what the best efforts could and good intentions of

the teachers of English in terms of their desire to gain the desired proficiency in

English their efforts are undone by the impoverished input that students are exposed

to from other teachers who do not teach English language If we take into account


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the educational and learning environment in a country such as Kenya where any

teacher always has a position of authority on almost anything and is almost always a

role model for their students then we can conclude that the students are usually left

torn between what they have learnt from their English teachers and what they pick

up from the other teachers

If we remove the assumption that the teachers of English themselves have the

desired mastery of and adequate and proficiency in English then the situation

becomes even more alarming Such a scenario leaves pupils with an interlanguageone that is sometimes quite far from the desired competence and is filled with many

fossilised features carried over from their teachers This would inevitably have a

negative impact on their performance not only in the English language but across

the curriculum In order to forestall such a scenario it would appear that the

government and other stakeholders have only two options continuing with the status

quo and having to deal with its negative impacts across the curriculum or adopting a

bilingual or multilingual education policy This article advocates for the latter

535 Instruction in English improves overall academic performance

This is another myth that is often put forward in an attempt to dismiss the inherent

advantages that multilingual or bilingual education would bring to the Kenyan child

This myth is neither new nor unique to Kenya As early as late nineteenth century

the common belief among educational researchers was that bimultilingualism had a

detrimental effect on intelligence Laurie (1980 p 15) for instance in a series of

lectures at Cambridge University suggested that

If it were possible for a child to live in two languages at once equally well so much theworse His intellectual and spiritual growth would not thereby be doubled but halvedUnity of mind and character would have great difficulty in asserting itself under suchcircumstances

Low intellectual growth would logically lead to lower academic performance The

argument has been that when children are instructed in English then there is an

overall improvement in their academic performance across the curriculum As has

already been argued in the forgoing section such an argument would only make

sense if the English proficiency levels of both the teachers and their pupils were highenough to enable them reap the benefits of English only instruction In a case

whereby both groups have what could at best be characterised as interlanguage

English characterised by many fossilised errors and nativisations there are hardly

any benefits that would accrue from an English only education

The relationship between studentrsquo overall achievement in the content areas and

their level of proficiency in the language of instruction has been investigated by a

number of scholars Butler and Castellon-Wellington (2000) compared studentrsquos

performance in content areas and their proficiency in the language of instruction and

found a strong positive correlation Bayliss and Raymond (2004) also examined the

link between academic success and second language proficiency and noted that the

relationship between the two disappear as the students approach near native

proficiency levels Most recently Fakeye and Yemi (2009 p 494) have concluded

that lsquoEnglish language proficiency is a good indicator and predictor of academic

achievement of senior secondary students in Nigeriarsquo They recommend that the

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goals of educating Nigerian English as a Second Language learners to be proficient

in English should be lsquorigorously perusedrsquo Their contention however runs counter

to several early studies that have found out the contrary One such study is that by

Pearl and Lambert (1962) where they provide the following benefits of a child being

bimultilingual

(1) Greater mental flexibility

(2) The ability to think more abstractly less concretely more independently of

words resulting in superiority in concept formation

(3) A more enriched bicultural environment which benefits the IQ(4) Positive transfer between languages benefiting verbal IQ

Moreover the goals which the Nigerian study recommend have always been pursued

with even more rigour Kenya and yet year after year the Kenya National

Examinations Council Annual Reports continue to lament dismal and dwindling

performances in English by candidates in both primary and secondary school

examinations This therefore implies that such children would never benefit from

English only education

From an empirical perspective the rejection of this myth is motivated by a

research carried out by Heugh (2009) Her research showed that in Ethiopia

students with eight years MTE [Mother Tongue education] have higher scores acrossthe curriculum especially in mathematics and science than students with six four orzero years of MTE Students who perform best in English are those with six years ofMTE followed by English medium but overall students with eight years of MTEachieve best across the entire curriculum (Heugh 2009 p 173)

Clearly therefore the claim that instruction in an English only medium must be

rejected since it is not based on any sound empirical basis It is within such a

background that the present article rejects as a myth that English only instruction

would improve academic performance and advocates for the alternative bilingual or

multilingual education

536 Some Kenyan children do not have a mother tongue and therefore do not needmother tongue education

Another myth against multilingual or bilingual education that has been propounded

for so long is the claim that many young Kenyan children especially those that have

elitist backgrounds do not really have a single mother tongue and therefore mother

tongue education would be practically untenable Such an argument is quite

untenable given the present realities in Kenya and other African countries where

a majority of children live in multilingual contexts and already have a range of

language dialects and registers when they go to school Such children do not appear

confused about the linguistic identity of their communicative acts and the vast

majority of them clearly identify with a majority first or home language On the

theoretical fronts arguments such as the one being discussed here which suggest that

bilingual or multilingual children do not have proficiency in any language other than

a messy amalgam of languages belongs to the lsquodeficit theoryrsquo Deficit theories

in education are based on the assumption that there is some deficiency often


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5

cognitive within the student The fact that multilingual children deftly switch from

one language to another for different purposes is a testimony of multiple

proficiencies Thus while it may be important to factor multilingual proficiencies

into the linguistic repertoire of the classroom there is hardly any logically soundargument which could support the notion that multilingualism precludes mother

tongue education Wolff (2000 p 18) explicitly makes the same argument

If multilingualism is the norm rather than exception in Africa and if even beforeentering any kind of formal education multilingual children in Africa are known tohave mastered adequately and creatively their command of two three or morelanguages and if this linguistic competence testifies to more elaborate and complexpatterns broader communicative competence of these children as opposed to mono-lingual children then anyone who bears some responsibility in planning and decidingon linguistic aspects of educational policies would be well advised to viewmultilingualism as an important resource to be utilized as widely as possible since thisdraws on the childrenrsquos prior experience their established abilities and relates directly totheir linguistic social and cultural environments

Wolff makes further references to numerous scientific findings on the numerous

cognitive and linguistic advantages of bilingualism dating back as far as 1800 years

ago and the inherent ability of young children to accurately distinguish between two

or more languages within their system What these findings attest to is the fact that

bilingual or multilingual children in fact have an advantage over their monolingual

counterparts in the classroom environment Thus the argument that some Kenyan

children do not have a mother tongue but have an amalgam of languages codesand dialects and therefore do not need mother tongue education does not hold

upon closer scrutiny Indeed as has been demonstrated in the foregoing argu-

ments such children are in fact better poised to gain from the benefits of

multilingualism

537 The one nation one language myth

This myth is hinged on the mistaken belief that the numerous civil and tribal conflicts

that have bedeviled Africa are a result of the many languages that are spoken in

many of the countries in the continent The argument therefore proceeds that inorder to maintain peace stability and one nationhood there is need for a unifying

language policy that is reflected in all the spheres of life including education

Reacting to this prevalent myth in many African countries Benson (2005 p 7)

argues

This has been the justification for monolingual language in education policies in manyAfrican countries The colonial concept that a nation-state requires a single unifyinglanguage has influenced policy-makers in many parts of the world yet imposition of aso-called lsquolsquoneutralrsquorsquo foreign language has not necessarily resulted in unity nor haverelatively monolingual countries like Somalia Burundi or Rwanda been guaranteedstability

Ouane (2003) strengthens Bensonrsquos argument by noting that in fact government

failure to accept ethnolinguistic diversity has been a major destabilising force in

countries like Bangladesh Pakistan Myanmar and Sri Lanka Specifically with

regard to Kenya all the inter-ethnic warfare that the county has witnessed has been

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5

as a result of poor political leadership and unequal distribution of the countryrsquos

natural resources Indeed it is the position of this article that a multilingual language

in education policy will foster even closer social cohesion because all the Kenyan

communities will feel that their languages are duly recognised

6 The way forward a practical proposal for multilingual education policy in Kenya

Having considered the often put forward arguments against multilingual educational

policy in Kenya it is clear that such arguments are not based on any sound

pedagogical theoretical or empirical foundations On the contrary if one takes into

account the works of Ianco-Worrallrsquos (1972) research findings as contained in the

early reports in the Bilingual School and those of Agnihotri (1995) it is clear that

multilingual children have more and better language proficiencies than monolingual

children Such children also know how to distinguish between the different languages

in their repertoire and when they appear not to and mix the languages they are

doing so in order to preclude other people (usually adults and those in positions of

authority) from their discourse and not necessarily because they have failed to make

such a distinction The question in the Kenyan context therefore is not whether or

when a multilingual education policy ought to be adopted but how

The attitudes reflected by these myths provide a background for understanding

other more practical challenges of implementing mother tongue-based bilingual

schooling The logistics of school reform in economically disadvantaged countries

are admittedly daunting no matter which innovations are being considered and the

use of previously underdeveloped languages raises special issues While these issues

continue to challenge use of the mother tongue in school as Hornberger points out

lsquoNearly all objections and limitations have met with creative and effective

solutions in one case or another over the past forty yearsrsquo (1994 p 77) It is within

this context that this article makes certain suggestions for a practice framework

which would support the establishment mother tongue-based multilingual education

Implications of a new language in education policy in Kenya which would

introduce multilingual education would inevitably include the need to use other

Kenyan languages as medium of instructions alongside English In practical terms

and taking cognizance of the linguistic repertoire and situation of the Kenyan child

upon joining primary one as discussed in section 12 above this article therefore

argues for multilingual education beginning perhaps with a home language

(a language in which learners are proficient or a regional language to which learners

have access) then Kiswahili (taught as an L2) and English (taught as an L3) Within

this framework the three languages would also be used as language of instruction

apart from being taught as subjects within the school curriculum The implementa-

tion of such a policy would take the following proposed format

(1) In rural areas the language of the catchment area would be used as thelanguage of instruction and also be taught as L1 in the first three years of the

primary cycle as is the case even today

(2) In cosmopolitan urban areas the learners would be taught in Kiswahili in the

first three years and English would be introduced at primary four alongside

Kiswahili as the medium of instruction English and Kiswahili would

be taught as L2 and L3 respectively


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5

(3) From the fourth year of the primary cycle both English and Kiswahili also

become the language of instruction alongside the home language of the

catchment area

(4) In primary six to eight (the end of the primary cycle) the home languageshould be dropped as the language of instruction but be retained as subject

but no longer examinable

(5) At the onset of the secondary school cycle other languages such as French

and German can be introduced as L4 with students being given an option to

choose one while English and Kiswahili continue to be taught as subjects

and being used as language of instruction for the four years of the secondary

school cycle

(6) At the university level all courses could be taught in English so thatcandidates are able to compete for jobs in any part of the world but those

preparing to teach the mother tongues must take courses including

methodology courses in the specific mother tongues they want to teach

Therefore as proposed by Watson and Pienaar (2007) and Nyika (2009) the

article encourages training teachers at the university level to use mother

tongue in their teaching career To change lsquo the diminishing status of

African languages as linguistic capital rsquo they lsquo call for the re-opening

and re-invigorating of African languages departments at universities and forthese institutions to incentivise proactively the training of language profes-

sionals such as teachers translators writers and linguists in order to create

jobs across various sectorsrsquo (Nyika 2009 p 256)

(7) Students in urban areas should learn at least one indigenous language apart

from Kiswahili for cultural relations The school should offer the students in

urban areas some of indigenous languages to choose from Just as it is at the

moment schools able to offer foreign languages such as French and

German should do so for international relations English and Kiswahilishould continue to serve as languages of countrywide communication

The approach proposed here is known as Mother tongue-based multilingual

education also known as lsquofirst language firstrsquo or lsquothe additiversquo approach and uses

a language in which the learner is proficient (L1) to teach beginning literacy (reading

and writing) and curricular content One or more new languages (L2 L3) are taught

systematically beginning with oral communication so that learners can transfer

literacy and knowledge from the familiar language to the new language(s) In our

case these would be Kiswahili and English respectively This model has been used

with a high degree of success in other countries such as Pakistan and South Africa

The process of transfer would begin at primary four and would be facilitated by

building a strong literacy and learning foundation in the L1 by exposing learners to

the new language(s) and by explicitly teaching the sounds and letters that differ

between the L1 and the new language(s) Like in many other mother tongue-based

multilingual education content like mathematics would be taught through the L1 in

the early years (preschool and early primary) promoting understanding

and developing higher level thinking skills in the familiar language From grade 4

onwards bilingual or multilingual methods and materials would be introduced

and would make learning understandable Higher level L2 and L3 would also

be introduced to promote transfer Learning would be assessed bilingually or

312 DO Orwenjo

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5

multilingually to ensure that language is not a barrier for learners to demonstrate

their understanding

The goals of the proposed mother tongue-based multilingual education would be

threefold The linguistic goals would be providing a foundation of competencies

which are readily transferred to additional languages such as English and Kiswahili

(and later on French and German) This would be achieved by teaching initial

literacy in the language the learner knows best The principle pedagogical goal would

be to provide much greater access to curricular content including cognitively

demanding abstract information and skills In addition all learners would become

multilingual (speaking all target languages well) and multiliterate (able to read and

write all target languages) to maximise cognitive and communicative benefits

Finally there are also socio-economic goals of maximising the home school

connection creating greater family cohesion higher participation rates in schooling

improved retention rates throughout schooling and the achievement of a more

equitable attainment across gender regional rural and social class dividesThe implementation of this proposal across the Kenyan educational system is

bound to have far reaching practical implications To begin with it would imply that

school textbooks and other instructional materials must be made available in these

languages thereby leading to an inevitable systematic and tremendous development

in terminology translation and language documentation and preservation Then

there would be the inevitable need to mount in-service courses for the teachers

already in the field to equip them with the necessary skills to enable them to cope up

with the new policy Closely related to this would be the revision or review of the

teacher education curriculum at all the levels of education to reflect the policy shift

and to ensure that as the ultimate implementers of the curriculum the teachers are

well equipped for the task

In implementing the proposed policy there would also be the inherent need to

ensure that teachers are prepared to implement the use of indigenous languages in

education by training teachers to teach the mother tongue and in the mother tongue

This is the best step that any country can take towards policy implementation

because teachers teach what the system has prepared them to teach Teachers must

also be encouraged to provide a lot of exercises to the students According to Heugh

(2009 p 174)

School exercise books examined during the Ethiopian study revealed regular writingtasks undertaken on a daily basis and consistent evidence of daily homework includingreading and writing

There would also be the need to reinvigorate the Departments of African Languages

at the Kenyan universities which currently focus only on the teaching of Kiswahili

so that other Kenyan languages are also included in the curricula Indeed Maseno

University had earlier embarked on such an ambitious programme which collapsed

due to among other factors lack of interest by students who did not see any future

occupational and professional motivations for learning African languages at the

university level One only needs to look at the huge enrolments of students in

Kiswahili departments of some of the Kenyan universities to realise that once made

the languages of instructions and subjects in the curriculum there is bound to be a

lot of interest on African languages at the university level Pre-primary school-

teachers such as those who work in nursery or kindergarten levels should also


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5

be trained to teach English Kiswahili and the mother tongues Here we recommend

that since in primary school teachers are expected to teach any subject they should

be prepared to teach English Kiswahili and their mother tongue This will give them

a chance to work in urban schools apart from schools where their mother tongue is

based The mother tongue just as English Kiswahili German and French should be

offered to those training to be secondary schoolteachers (Bachelor of Education

students) who may opt to teach the mother tongue as subjects in secondary schools

This may not be attractive initially when opportunities to advance as a teacher of

mother tongue may not seem apparent

4 Conclusion

This article has discussed the current debate on the prospects for multilingual

education in Kenya by tracing the issue from a historical perspective the present

state of affairs and the future prospects It has addressed itself to the several often

touted fallacies with regard to why the introduction of multilingual education policy

in Kenya is inadvisable impossible or impractical It has been shown that contrary to

such views a multilingual education policy in Kenya would have immense

educational and economic advantages By way of conclusion the following words

from Wolff (2000 p 23) in his study on lsquoPre-school Child Multilingualism and its

Educational Implications in the African Contextrsquo are worth taking note of

There could be no successful and competitive development of multilingual states inAfrica without due recognition of the big three lsquoMrsquos multilingualism (multiculturalism)modernization of mother tongues and mother tongue education Any education policywhich in consequence deprives its children of mother tongue during education particularly in environments characterised by social marginalization cultural aliena-tion and economic stress as id true of many communities in Africa will produce anunnecessarily high rate of emotional and socio-cultural cripples who are retarded intheir cognitive development and deficient psychological stability Faced with heavyinstitutional multilingualism especially in urban anglomerations with English as thepreferred target language to which they have only a restricted access and largely in theform of inadequate role models joblessness and juvenile delinquency are just two ofthe likely social consequences the other is the emergence of lsquonewrsquo languages filling upthe vacuum educationists linguists sociologists have barely began to look at atotally new set of problems resulting from this consequence

References

Agnihotri AK (1995) Multilingualism as a classroom resource In K Heugh A Siegruhnamp P Pluddemann (Eds) Multilingual education for South Africa (pp 37) JohanessburgHeinemann

Akinnaso EN (1991) Towards the development of a multilingual language policy in NigeriaApplied Linguistics 12(1) 2961

Alexander N (2003) The African renaissance and the use of African languages in tertiaryeducation PRAESA Occasional Papers No 13 Cape Town PRAESA

Anteneh G (2006) Language policy in Ethiopia Ethiopian Journal of Education and Sciences2(1) 3762

Bagwasi M (2004) The functional distribution of Setswana and English in BotswanaIn MJ Muthwii amp AN Kioko (Eds) New language bearings in Africa A fresh questFrankfurt Lodge UK Multilingual Matters

Baker C (Ed) (1988) Key issues in multilingualism Clevedon Philadelphia MultilingualMatters Ltd

314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5

Baker C amp Garcia O (Eds) (2006) Bilingual education an introductory reader ClevedonUK Multilingual Matters

Bayliss FA amp Raymond PM (2004) The link between academic proficiency in the contextof two professional programmes The Canadian Modern Language Review 61(1) 2951

Benson C (2005) The importance of mother tongue-based schooling for educationalquality Commissioned study for EFA Global Monitoring Report 2005 StocklhomUNESCO Publications

Binns AL (1952) A study of educational policy and practice in British tropical AfricaLondon Oxford University Press

Bourdieu P (1973) Cultural reproduction and social reproduction In R Brown (Ed)Knowledge education and cultural change Papers in the sociology of education (pp 71112)London Tavistock

Butler FA amp Castellon-Wellington M (2000) Studentsrsquo concurrent performance on tests ofEnglish language proficiency and academic achievement In The validity of administeringlarge-scale content assessments to English language learners An investigation from threeperspectives (Final Deliverable to OERIOBEMLA Contract No R305B60002 pp 5183) Los Angeles University of California National Center for Research on EvaluationStandards and Student Testing (CRESST)

CAL (2001) Expanding educational opportunity in linguistically diverse societiesWashington DC Author

Chimera R (1998) Kiswahili Past present and future horizons Nairobi Nairobi UniversityPress

Chumbow BS (1987) Towards a language planning model for Africa Journal of WestAfrican Languages 17(1) 1522

Colony and Protectorate of Kenya (1949) African education in Kenya (The Beecher Report)Nairobi Government Printer

Combs AW (1979) Myths in education Beliefs that hinder progress and their alternativesBoston Allyn and Bacon

Cummins J (1984) Bilingualism and special education Issues in assessment and pedugogySan Diego CollegeHill Press

Drogheda Commission (1952) Language planning and the British empire ComparingPakistan Malaysia and Kenya London The British East Africa Protectorate

Fakeye DO amp Yemi O (2009) English language proficiency as a prediction of academicachievement among EFL students in Nigeria European Journal of Scientific Research37(3) 490495

Fomba CO Weva KW Keıta F Traore S Diallo K Kone S Chabert A (2003) Anational case study Mali The pedagogy of convergence as a means to improve the quality ofbasic education in Mali Study of the development of innovation and perspectives WorkingDocument Biennale de lrsquoADEA 2003 Grand Baie Maurice 36 decembre 2003

Gonzalez A (1980) Language and nationalism The Philippine experience thus far QuezonCity Ateneo de Manila University Press

Gorman TP (1974) The development of language policy in Kenya with particular referenceto education system In WH Whitely (Ed) Language in Kenya (pp 397446) NairobiOxford University Press

Gorter D Hoekstra JF Jansma L Lammert G Ytsma J (Eds) (1990) Benefits oflinguistic diversity and multilingualism Position Paper of Research Task 12 on CulturalDiversity as an Asset for Human Welfare and Development SusDiv (SustainableDevelopment in a Diverse World) EURODIV (Cultural Diversity in Europe) Retrievedfrom httpwwwsusdivorguploadfilesRT12_PP_ Durkpdf

Grin F (2005) The economics of language policy implementation Identifying and measuringcosts In N Alexander (Ed) Mother-tongue based bilingual education in Southern AfricaThe dynamics of implementation (pp 1125) Multilingualism subalternity and hegemonyof English Volume 4 Frankfurt aM and Cape Town Multilingualism Network andProject for the Study of Alternative Education in South Africa

Heugh K (1999) Languages education and reconstructing education in South AfricaInternational Journal of Educational Development 19(23) 5788


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yatta

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ity]

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449

20

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201

5

Heugh K (2002) The case against bilingual and multilingual education in South AfricaLaying bare the myths Perspectives in Education 20(1) 171196

Heugh K (2004) The case against multilingual education in South Africa PRASESAOccasional Papers (Vol 6) Cape Town PRASESA

Heugh K (2006) Cost Implications of the Provision of Mother Tongue and Strong BilingualModels of Education in Africa In H Alidou A Boly amp B Brock-Utne Y Satina DialloK Heugh amp H Ekkehard Wolff (Eds) Optimizing learning and education in africa thelanguage factor a stock-taking research on mother tongue and bilingual education in sub-saharan Africa (pp 138156) Paris Association for the Development of Education inAfrica (ADEA)

Heugh K (2009) Literacy and bimultilingual education in Africa In T Skutnabb-KangasR Phillipson AK Mohanty amp M Panda (Eds) Multilingual education for social justice(pp 103124) New York and Bristol Multilingual Matters

Hornberger NH (1994) Literacy and language planning Language and Education 8(12)7586

Ianco-Worrall A (1972) Bilingualism and cognitive development Child Development 4313901400

Kioko A Schroeder L Mutiga J Muthwii M Trudell B amp Inyega H (2008) Languageand education in Africa Answering the Questions Nairobi UNESCO

Krashen SD (1996) Under attack The case against bilingual education Culver City CALanguage Education Associates

Laurie SS (1980) Lectures on language and linguistic method in the School Cambridge CUPLiddicoat A (Ed) (1991) Bilingualism and bilingual education Melbourne NLLIAMalone S (2007) Paper on multilingualism in South Asia Presented at the Seminar on

Education Policy and the Right to Education Towards more Equitable Outcomes forSouth Asiarsquos ChildrenKathmandu 1720 September 2007 Kathmandu

Mazrui AA amp Mazrui AM (1996) A tale of two Englishes The imperial language in thepost colonial Kenya and Uganda In J Fishman A Conrad amp AL Lopez (Eds) Postimperial English (pp 271302) Berlin Mouton de Grutyer

Ngugi T (1986) Decolonising the mind Nairobi HeinnemannNyika N (2009) Language complaints as an instrument of language rights activism Thecase

of PanSALB as a guardian of the right to mother-tongue education Language MattersStudies in the Languages of Africa 40(2) 239260

Okombo O amp Rubagumya C (1996) Languages of instruction and school outcomes state ofresearch Paris Association for the Development of Education in Africa Retrieved fromhttpadeaiiepunescoorg

Ouane A (Ed) (2003) Towards a multilingual culture of education Hamburg UNESCOInstitute for Education

Ouane A amp Glanz C (2009) Why and how Africa should invest in African languages andmultilingual education An evidence and practice based policy advocacy brief HamburgUNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning

Pattanayak DP (Ed) (1990) Multilingualism in India Clevendon Avon England Multi-lingual Matters

Pearl E amp Lambert WE (1962) The relation of bilingualism to intelligence PsychologicalMonographs 76(27) 123

Pennycook A (2007) Global Englishes and transcultural flows London RoutledgeRamirez JD Ramey D Yuen S amp Pasta D (1991) Final report Longitudinal study of

structured English immersion strategy early exit and late exit transitional bilingualprogrammes for language minority children San Mateo CA Aguirre International

Simire GO (2004) Developing and promoting multilingualism in public life and society inNigeria In Muthwii amp Kioko (Eds) New language bearings in Africa A fresh questBristol Frankfurt Lodge UK Multilingual Matters

Skutnabb-Kangas T amp Cummins J (Eds) (1988) Minority education From shame tostruggle Clevedon Multilingual Matters

Skutnabb-Kangas T (2000) Education of minorities In JA Fishman (Ed) Handbook oflanguage and ethnic identity New YorkOxford OUP

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yatta

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vers

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at 0

449

20

May

201

5

Skutnabb-Kangas T (2000) Linguistic genocide in education or worldwide diversity in humanrights Mahwa NJ Lawrence Erlbaum Associates


Thomas WP amp Collier VP (1997) School effectiveness for language minority studentsWashington National Clearing House for Bilingual Education

Tollefson JW (1991) Planning language planning inequality Language policy in thecommunity London and New York Longman

Trudell B amp Shroeder L (2007) Reading methodologies for African languages Avoidinglinguistic and pedagogical imperialism Language Culture and Curriculum 20(3) 132143

UNESCO (2003) Terralingua World Wide Fund for Nature United Nations EducationalScientific and Cultural Organization place de Fontenoy Paris UNESCO Publishing

UNESCO (2005) First language first community-based literacy programmes for minoritylanguage contexts in Asia Bangkok UNESCO Bangkok

Watson P amp Pienaar M (2007) A case study of the language in education complaintsreceived by the CRL Commission Multilingualism a far cry from implementation SouthAfrican Linguistics and Applied Language Studies 25(4) 575588

Wolff E (2000) Pre-school child multilingualism and its educational implications in theAfrican context PRASESA Occasional Papers (Vol 4) Cape Town PRASESA

World Bank (2005) In their own language Education for all New York World Bank


Dow

nloa

ded

by [

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yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5

Multilingual education in Kenya debunking the myths

Daniel Ochieng Orwenjo

English and Linguistics Kenyatta University PO Box 43844 Nairobi 00100 Kenya

(Received 8 March 2011 final version received 27 December 2011)

Arguments that have been advanced against multilingual education in Kenya andAfrica in general are not new Most post-colonial African governments have stuckto the pre-colonial education policies which have no relevance to the present dayAfrica and were at best guided by the interests of the colonial powerUnfortunately most of the claims and arguments against multilingual educationare often made on a priori grounds and are more often than not not backed byany objective data or scientific or pedagogical underpinnings This article makes acase for multilingual language in education policy for Kenya and criticallyexamines such claims that have been made within the Kenyan context with a viewto sieving through them and arriving at a more informed position with regard tothe issue of multilingual education in Kenya

Keywords multilingualism education Kenya myths

Introduction

A plethora of studies about the language situation in Africa exist and an equally

innumerable writings about the language situation in Africa also exist One such

study conducted by Multilingual Education Network Kenya (Kioko et al 2008)

outlines the many questions raised about language use in Africa and attempts to

answer them These range from pedagogical questions like lsquoWill using African

languages as languages of instruction hinder the learning of a second language or the

learning process itselfrsquo lsquoHow can teachers be equipped and supported for mother

tongue-based multilingual educationrsquo They move to policy questions like lsquoIs it too

costly to introduce multilingual educationrsquo They also address sociopolitical

questions like lsquoWhy are African parents resistant to Multilingual educationrsquo

lsquoWhat are the implications of multilingual education for issues of national unityrsquo

lsquoWill the use of African languages cause Africans to be sidelined in this globalised

worldrsquo Their response to these questions gives useful insights to some of the

linguistic complexities in Africa

Simire (2004) has explored the linguistic complexities of Nigeria where about

500 codes are spoken He observes that the language situation of post-colonial

Nigeria is a direct reflection of the colonial administration linguistic policy whereby

English is the dominant language with three local languages Hausa Igbo and

Yoruba prescribed by virtue of the large population of speakers He also notes the

presence of what he refers to as lsquoneutral codesrsquo Anglo-Nigerian pidgin and Arabic

Email orwenjoyahoocom

International Journal of Multilingualism

Vol 9 No 3 August 2012 294317

ISSN 1479-0718 printISSN 1747-7530 online

2012 Taylor amp Francis

httpdxdoiorg101080147907182012657641

httpwwwtandfonlinecom

Dow

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of statusrsquo



















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21 The colonial era






















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5










































298 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

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by [

Ken

yatta

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vers

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at 0

449

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May

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5



















areas

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

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May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

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by [

Ken

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vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

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by [

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yatta

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at 0

449

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May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

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ded

by [

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ity]

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449

20

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5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

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ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

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ded

by [

Ken

yatta

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vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

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ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























of statusrsquo



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































296 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















21 The colonial era






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































298 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



















areas

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































296 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















21 The colonial era






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































298 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



















areas

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















21 The colonial era






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































298 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



















areas

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































298 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



















areas

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



















areas

























Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5























times retrogressive



(2007 p 2) observes













300 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5




















compromised













reality









302 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


51 Nature of myths






















52 Why use myths


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5








































304 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5















































306 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5









































308 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5





bimultilingual


































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
















multilingualism







argues






310 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5














































Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5



catchment area







school cycle


































312 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5


their understanding






























(2009 p 174)














Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5










4 Conclusion











References







314 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5






















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5
























316 DO Orwenjo

Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5












Dow

nloa

ded

by [

Ken

yatta

Uni

vers

ity]

at 0

449

20

May

201

5

Date post:	30-Nov-2023
Category:	Documents
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Multilingual education in Kenya: debunking the myths

Documents