Gender and Computing:Understanding the

Digital Divide betweenBoys and Girls in

Secondary Education.

Author: Martin Japheth

PGCE, MA (Dist), BA (Hons), FdA.

May 2014

2

Abstract

“This case study is an investigation into why girls are being left behind on theroad to information technology and computing. It attempts to identify theinfluences and constraints that affect the way in which modern societyinfluences and disenfranchises girls from the current computing andinformation technology sector. This study presents data that providesguideposts and methodologies to overcome these misconceptions for girls.The report concludes that there is scope for developing remedies incurriculum pedagogy that partner from family dynamics to teacher-studentinteractions.”

3

Content

Introduction p.4

Background Literature Review

p.6

Research Methodology p.10

Research Analysis p.19

Conclusion p.22

References p.24

Bibliography p.29

4

Introduction

The focus of this study is to examine why there is a

shortage of girls in computer science and the technology

field. This study will also consider reasons why girls

choose not to take computer science as part of their

optional subject choice, when it comes to GCSE. This

study highlights the competing UK policy agendas

operating in this subject field, that attempt to address

the problems which impact differentially on girls and

boys with ICT and Computer Science. ICT policy in

secondary schools seems to be increasingly subsumed into

the educational policy-makers’ goal of increasing boys’

attainment.1

5

In terms of representing girls at GCSE and A-level ICT

and computing until 2010, statistics show girls as being

under-represented, as they formed under 50% at all exam

levels. The number of girls choosing to undertake GCSE

ICT and A-level ICT examinations has risen slightly

during 2005 to 2010, despite an overall decrease in the

amount of individuals taking these examinations. In 2010,

44.4% of those taking GCSE ICT in the UK were girls.

Figures corresponding for girls who took A-level ICT was

38.1% in 2010, increasing from 35.46% in 2005. In 2010

girls who sat A-level computing formed 8.9% of the total

number of those sitting this examination, a drop from

11.27% in 2005. It could be argued that there may be

various reasons for these dropping numbers, recognising

that there may be a more general issue, rather than

relating the cause down to gender.

Hypotheses put forward for the decline and low numbers of

pupils sitting these subjects in the UK include how ICT

and computing are increasingly seen as ‘Mickey Mouse’

subjects, reinforced by the fact that they are not

essential requirements for university admission in

computer science.2

Incorporating ICT into lessons is currently seen as an

innovative means to achieve this aim across all subject

areas. The European Commission report -Gender

6

Differences in Occupational Outcomes: Study on the

Measures taken and the Current Situation in Europe

highlights how “targeting gender-based attainment

patterns has been found to be a specific policy priority.

This is particularly connected to the under-achievement

of boys in schools”3

A DfES report Gender and Education (2007) noted the

important gender differences in subject choices at GCSE

level:

Taking the 10 most popular GCSE choices, 9 out of 10 GCSE

subjects are chosen by both boys and girls. Nonetheless many

subjects show gender stereotypical biases with girls more likely

to take arts, languages and humanities and boys more likely to

take Geography, Physical Education and IT.4

The challenge that poses itself here, is to create

awareness through running activities within lessons which

are not aimed specifically at girls, as this would

perpetuate the stereotypical idea that ‘mainstream’ ICT

is the domain of boys.5

The aim of this study is consider whether current

pedagogy addresses these issues and looks at strategies

that can be beneficial to increasing the numbers of girls

in undertaking Computer Science or ICT as an acceptable

subject in order to increase future class numbers. It

7

will aim to highlight the UK policy agendas operating in

this sphere, in an attempt to impact differentially on

girls’ and boys’ relationship with Computer Science and

ICT.

The purpose of the study will aid an attempt to motivate

girls into considering Computer Science as a suitable

career choice, or at least allow female pupils to gain

more confidence and encouragement to learn more about the

sector and how they could contribute to the technical

world in which we live today.

Review of Background LiteratureGender issues in the technology sector have been in

existence for a long time. This is not a phenomenon that

has been simply evolved overnight. In a presentation on

Research on Young women in Computer Science, Crombie

states, “Gender differences in enrollment in computer

science courses have been present since the 1980s”.6

The perception that girls have been seen as unequally

capable to perform as well as boys within the sector,

completely dogmatises the subject and is the remnant view

of stereotypes who have perceptions of women as the “stay

home and take care of the kids” kind of person.

Unfortunately, this is an ideology prevalent and

8

influenced outside of the classroom by cultural and

socialistic behavior. This perception of females’

intellectual level as well as the ability to perform has

been not only exceptionally low, but also disturbing.

Socialisation is a key term referred to within the

literature on gender and ICT. The influence of parents,

teachers, peers and the media is noted as being a major

factor affecting girls’ confidence, self-efficacy and

attitudes towards ICT. Numerous studies have identified

the existence of stereotyping in relation to gender and

ICT, which can, according to Cooper (2005) become self-

reinforcing – girls learn that computers are ‘boys-toys’,

which increases their anxiety around computing and ICT,

leading to negative attitudes and poor performance. This

performance is an indication that the stereotype is

correct. Cooper argues:

Much of the stereotyping may be unconscious but it is harmful

nonetheless – many teachers express a commitment to equality

(Sanders 2005) but those who believe that girls dislike ICT have found

to direct more attention towards boys when using ICT in the

classroom.7

Volman and Van Eck reference two studies from the mid-

1990’s, one from the UK, the other from the USA. Both

studies looked at the combined effect of socio-economic

status and gender on young people’s attitudes towards

9

computers.8 Both studies discovered that while lower

socio-economic status was related to lower levels of

interest in computers for both genders, the research

highlighted that this was more so in girls than boys. The

study offers an explanation for this in that the

prevalence of traditional gender roles found in lower-SES

households and the extent to which parents encourage

girls and boys to use the computer.9 Additionally, a

significant key point covered by the BECTA report

highlighted that:

Girls have lower levels of access at home compared with boys, and

generally use ICT less. Girls use ICT more for schoolwork, whereas boys

use it more for leisure purposes. A large proportion of this difference

can be accounted for by boys’ greater use of computer/console

games.10

In a report by BECTA, they also state that girls use ICT

to communicate and socialise. Socialisation is a key term

referred to within the literature on gender and ICT. The

influence of parents, teachers, peers and the media is

noted as being a major factor affecting girls’

confidence, self-efficacy and attitudes towards ICT. As

previously mentioned, numerous studies have identified

the existence of stereotyping in relation to gender and

ICT, which can, according to Cooper become self-

reinforcing – girls learn that computers are ‘boys-toys’,

which increases their anxiety around Computing and ICT,

10

leading to negative attitudes and resulting in poor

performance.

Within this context, the way in which ICT and computing

is used in school is therefore a very important factor.

Much of the research on peer interaction processes in

learning originating in Piagetian and Vygotskian theories

tends to be rather insensitive to the ‘non-cognitive’

characteristics of the individuals doing the learning.11

So what is it that bothers girls and boys about computing

in public or in the classroom? There are a few reasons,

that the presence of others increased anxiety, a possible

result of worry about competition. If girls are expected

to do poorly at a computer game in front of their peers,

then they may be more worried than boys about their

results. There are also socio-economic backgrounds held

responsible within this context, although there is little

research to prove this, there are however older studies,

which suggest that this could be a significant factor.

According to Gail Crombie, we should firstly “provide

information that counter the gender-related stereotypes

about computer science” 12 While some of the assumptions

may have some validity, it is necessary to provide girls

with factual information that demonstrates how viable a

career choice in computer science is and discuss role

11

models within the sector or within history who have

shaped technology and computing in the World. Once girls

learn to diminish the old stereotypes, they will be off

to a new and good start in Computing or ICT. While this

is only the first method suggested, I consider it to be

the most crucial.

The next combined key method of providing encouragement

and a positive environment. The article ‘Bridging the

Gender Gap in High-Technology Education’, Crombie,

Abarbanel and Anderson take a closer look at the positive

impact and experiences when dealing with computers.

They discuss that:

“Researchers have found positive computer experiences are a

significant predictor of positive attitudes toward computers, and

that positive attitudes toward computers are the best predictor of

future behavior…” 13

Most of the research covered by this study finds that

girls’ confidence is lower than boys, but this difference

is narrowing.14 Colley and Comber however found

significant gender differences:

Boys were more self-confident with computers, liked computers

more and showed less sex bias concerning computing use than

girls. They also rated themselves higher than girls on their

12

computing ability in relation to both boys and girls of the same

age (p.161).15

This substantiates from other research studies, which

note that boys consider themselves more capable of

advanced level activities such as downloading and

programming.16 Lower self-efficacy does not mean that

girls’ actual skill levels are lower than boys.17

Kennewell and Morgan’s evidence that computer gaming can

generate a self-efficacy with technology, thereby

increasing attainment. 18 Given boys’ propensity towards

games, this has significant gender implications.

Referring back to Socio-economic background of girls,

parents and teachers are the underlying reason so many

adults find games unacceptable pastimes (and learning

mechanisms) for their children is a fundamental lack of

understanding about what today’s kids are talking about

when they use the word “game.”19

A study of pre-school children in Scotland suggested that

game-playing is seen as a gendered activity by parents:

game consoles were bought primarily for boys, suggesting

that girls’ opportunities to play games are restricted

from an early age.20 This is an important misunderstanding

in adults’ knowledge of their children’s lives in a

technology sector, which is one of the fastest growth

sectors of the creative industries in the UK.

13

If we revert back to our own childhood before personal

computers, when we, as kids played our games. With a few

exceptions like chess, go, strategy games, Dungeons and

Dragons – games were mostly devoid of any importance,

meaning, or learning making them ‘trivial’. The last,

hugely successful non-computer game of this period was

named Trivial Pursuit.

Due to the game-playing experiences of most adults

growing up, when today’s parents and teachers hear the

word “game”, they typically think, “trivial.”21

There is a consensus in the literature that playing

computer games is the activity, which accounts for much

of the difference in girls and boys’ out of school use of

ICT.22 A BBC-commissioned report of UK game playing found

that while the gender split amongst gamers is not that

great (45% female, 55% male), those who play games more

frequently are more likely to be male (27% compared to

21% female).23

Research MethodologyThis study will examine various research resources that

are in the public domain, in addition will evaluate data

collected from lesson observations and evaluations for

years 7,8 and 9. The following graph shows how these

classes where proportionally split.

14

Figure 1 – Amount of Pupils Boys

Girls

In order to verify if the perception of pupils in Year 7,

8 and 9 classes, pupils were given the task of providing

a reflective view of their own use of computing behavior

at home, or at school as some pupils did not have access

to a computer at home and therefore school was their only

source of ICT. Analysis of this data, showed that a great

divide between boys and girls in their use of ICT and

Computing. The following data was collected as a starter

exercise and allowed individuals to provide information

about their ICT use. This provided an opportunity for

group discussions before pupils handed in their work.

What transpired and is evident in the patterns of data

collected is the validity of the studies previously

mentioned. The data was collected from three different

classes within each year group; this allowed the

collection of data to be un-bias. There is clearly within

15

these classes social influence as to why there are

misconceptions that lead girls to embrace computing or

ICT.

Figure 2 - Year 7 ICT Usage

The above mixed graph illustrates the great usage divide

between genders. The biggest divide for Year 7 is within

Gameplay, Social Media and Use of the Internet.

16

Figure 3 – Year 8 ICT Usage

The trend for Year 8’s is very similar (See Fig 3), with

the biggest divide between Gameplay, Social Media and

YouTube. For Year 9 the divide is widened further with

Gameplay a major difference between genders.

17

Figure 4 - Year 9 ICT Usage

The data showed in this initial study, showed no evidence

to suggest that ICT intrinsically suits boys better than

girls; what is clearly evident as a factor as to why the

divide in Gameplay exists between gender is that the

competitive, skill-based, non-collaborative nature of

many computer games (even educational ones) is de-

motivating for girls.24

The Problem of CompetitionThe school environment and education system is notorious

for reliance on competition. For pupils the desire to out

perform their peers is often used to motivate pupils to

18

excel and maximise their potential. For older pupils,

grades, academic ability, including admission to

University all rely on the student’s academic standing

relative to other students.

As the previous tasks and research had highlighted the

need for differentiation and reasons as to why girls can

succeed just as well as boys in the technology and

computing sector, and undertake ICT competition, the mere

problem and challenge faced here is to overcome girls

perception that learning a lesson on a computer could be

undertaken without arousing anxiety of gender related

conviction.

Computational thinking and methods enable us to solve

problems and design systems that not one of us would be

capable of tackling alone. 25 Computational thinking is

fundamental to planning and problem solving skills. It

develops a child’s analytical ability and includes a

range of mental tools that covers the breadth of Computer

Science but across the curricula in general.

From a teaching perspective this reflects a general

attitude in girls within ICT and Computer Studies, not

surprisingly why there is a general consensus as to why

few girls sit GCSE and A Level in ICT or Computer Science

as an optional subject.

19

Demonstrate Gender Equality in ProgrammingThe topic of the lesson was to introduce programming and

to teach pupils about the foundations of programming in

order to understand the purpose of an algorithm or

program and to learn the three main programming

constructs.

Pupils were requiring a lesson on how developers need to

create a flow chart using symbols, which represent the

constructs in order to break down the process and flag up

any potential bugs or errors before compiling a program.

The terminology in itself posed complexity, the

referenced keywords are alien to pupils, so in order for

pupils to understand what these terms represent, the

lesson needed to be broken down into small examples that

enabled the pupils to understand and identify on common

associated level.

The challenge for this was to create a starter that

refrained pupils’ use of the computer, so that they could

interact with an analogy of how algorithms in the real

world operated.

As a starter, a pupil was brought to the front of the

class with their back turned, facing the dry whiteboard

the rest of the class was shown a shape on paper, the

task for the class was to instruct the pupil to draw the

shape on the board through instruction only. Pupils were

not allowed to shout out or describe the shape. Very

20

quickly, pupils in the class became frustrated when their

instruction was poorly communicated, after several

attempts they soon identified the problem and learned

collectively as a group to instruct correctly. After a

couple of attempts with different shapes, pupils learnt

to construct their instruction in a systematic approach.

It was at this point discussed that programs function

accordingly in a similar manner.

For the plenary, pupils were shown a video on the Gaming

University.26

The purpose of this video was to demonstrate that the

gaming sector is looking towards pupils of their age to

start developing or even building their own games beyond

the classroom. Questioning the class following the video,

only a small handful of the class had considered going

into this sector as a suitable career choice. When it

came to questioning those who would like to build their

own games, the overall majority raised their hands. When

asking for reasons as to why they felt they wouldn’t

pursue a career in games, several of the girls made the

statement that it was “only boys would be able to do that

kind of work”. The lesson ended, upon evaluating the

lesson, targets were set to try and correct this

misconception, at the same time keep their motivations

high and on target in following their medium term lesson

plans.

21

Figure 5: TED Talks

The next lesson, pupils were to be introduced to the

application Scratch. Before any activities, I asked

pupils to view a video for TED talks. An influential talk

from Brenda Laurel on ‘Games for Girls’27 followed up by

an activity to demonstrate how the constructs of

programming can be used without writing any code. Before

getting into Scratch, the class were asked to log on to

the Hour of Code28 website in order to introduce them to

basic concepts of programming. The challenge was for the

class to undertake as many levels as they could within 10

minutes, using only the basic constructs provided. Each

level has a more complex problem to solve. The friendly

graphics from the popular game Angry Birds made the task

more appealing.

22

Figure 6 - Code.org Level 1

Figure 7 - Code.org Level 1 Interface

With very little assistance the class where engaged and

underway. At the end of the ten minutes, a count was

taken; three girls and one boy reached level 14. The rest

of the girls except for 1 reached level 9, the rest of

the boys reached between levels 6-9. As an assessment for

learning, questions where put to the class as to what

they found difficult about the program. The class was

praised for their performance, as the program allows up

to an hour to complete all 20 levels, they as a class had

23

worked remarkably well considering this. The scores were

collated for each class and entered into a spreadsheet.

The mixed Graph (See Fig 10, 11 and 12) shows the

resulting outcomes and provides evidence that girls in

most classes excelled beyond the boys at programming.

Figure 8 - Code.org Level 15

24

Figure 9 - Year 7 'Hour of Code' data results

Figure 10 - Year 8 'Hour of Code' data results

25

Figure 11 - Year 9 'Hour of Code' data results

The second activity of the lesson, pupils were introduced

to Scratch. Following an overview of the interface,

pupils where shown how to add movement to sprites on

screen and add a background maze. A worksheet handout had

been created for pupils to follow along. Several pupils

accomplished this task very quickly, these pupils were

asked to see if they could take their skills further and

add a wall collision detector to the sprite.

The outcome identified that all the girls including a

majority of the boys had listed that Girls where just as

good as boys in programming games.

The Gaming Industry looked fun and interesting to work in

and that all games use the same basic constructs. An

26

overall evaluation concluded that the lesson objectives

had not only been successfully achieved, but influence a

massive change in their misconception of not only gender

in ICT and computer studies, but also in computational

programming.

Research AnalysisData analysis of the three different class groups (Fig 2,

3 and 4) showed that girls prefer social and creative

uses of ICT. They like to work collaboratively and enjoy

using technology to learn, in both formal and informal

contexts.29 Online social networking in Year 8 and 9 in

the home showed to be mostly popular for girls. Behind

such findings is a complex and sometime contradictory

evidence base, which shows a variety of differences

between boys and girls across a range of technologies and

uses.30

This study has discovered major differences in the kind

of games boys and girls liked to play. Boys preferred

sports, action adventure and violent action games, where

girls preferred educational games, puzzles and fantasy

adventure. Girls preferred simulation games and were more

likely than boys to use games that were educational.

Despite this preference for educational games, girls in

other studies have been found to be more skeptical than

boys about the educational value of games. In contrast to

boys, girls do not believe that games provide a unique

27

learning experience and see game-based learning as just

another way to learn.31

Studies suggest that this gender imbalance in gaming

culture, not only accounts for the difference in how long

girls and boys spend using ICT, but also on other

differences in terms of ICT attitudes, confidence and

competence.32

It should be also noted that a teacher should be cautious

not to constantly remind the class of the misconceptions

of gender within the sector, as this predominantly

creates the footing that the sector is a male orientated

sector to begin with. Instead, positive enforcement and

encouragement, providing opportunities for girls to find

confidence in that they are equally capable as boys to

take interest in computing or ICT studies.

Female Role ModelsNot having a role model present can cause female students

to lose interest and even lose hope in their future

endeavors. Thom concurs, “Many girls need role models to

help them imagine their futures…in science”.33 Since

studies prove not only that female students are less

interested in computers, but also less confident,

“visibility of young women singled out for their

achievements is critical in changing how their female

peers think”.34

28

An influential talk from Brenda Laurel on ‘Games for

Girls’provided a great opportunity to demonstrate how the

sector attitude is changing.

Once girls come to realise that there are other women who

too have traveled the “road of technology” and overcame

these challenges, they will hopefully gain more

confidence and become themselves role models.

Fortunately, there are some additional methods that can

make a difference and may have an impact on girls.

The findings of this study highlight the need to

encourage girls to build more games that have appeal to

them, demonstrate that there is change needed in the

market by teaching them about the stereotypes` as

mentioned in this study. Features of game design

preferred by girls are now becoming commonplace,

especially within the context of games for learning. It

could be argued therefore that difference and

misconception in game playing between boys and girls will

become less marked, developing more games aimed for

girls.

Teachers, parents and role models must encourage and

support girls in future plans that involve computing.

Thom suggests one method in her article and states: “To

encourage interest in technology among young girls,

educators must recognize and address their learning

29

styles and interests”.35 There are several methods for

educators to inspire girls when referring to their

learning styles.

During this study, there has been one method frequently

mentioned: the use of female-only classes. This method

according to Fidishun is a great way to create effective

computer instruction. Swain and Harvey both agree in

their article Single-Sex Computer Classes: An Effective

Alternative.

They argue that: female-only classes will provide girls

with “opportunities to develop positive attitudes towards

technology and make a learning environment conducive to

girls gaining technology skills”.36

They believe our current educational system is not

engaging girls enough in computing or ICT, they propose

this as one alternative method that will offer girls the

advantage of learning in a more comfortable and peaceful

atmosphere where teachers can create lessons that are of

interest to the female gender.37 Other studies reported

seeing all girl classrooms as superior and shown

increased confidence levels. Studies show that girls seem

to participate not only more actively but also more

comfortably.38

30

CONCLUSION

While there are still challenges remaining in relation to

overcoming the misconceptions that girls have in relation

to computing and ICT. The fact still remains that

computing and ICT pedagogy within schools needs to adapt

in order to overcome the wider issues that this study has

highlighted. Other Empirical studies including the data

collected from this study show that where both sex

believe girls to have a lower degree of computer

proficiency than boys, Has the time come to have these

assumptions eliminated?

Through eliminating stereotypes, acknowledging the

success of women in computer science and the ICT sector,

the motivation from teachers, parents and others in the

wider community, not only will girls who lack confidence

overcome their anxiety and gain assurance, it will

encourage more girls to enroll in computer science and

ICT based classes, hopefully eliminating the gender gap

that currently exists and possibly encourage girls to

pursue a future within the constantly evolving sector.

With computers and the Internet being used by most

31

businesses and schools all over the world, it is

imperative for girls to learn and adapt to technology

advancements.

Considering this, ICT and computer skills are important

not only for career development, but also for academic

purposes. Smith agrees “computer technology is a

fundamental tool in our daily lives”.39

This process must begin in the classroom. Girls should be

encouraged to consider courses as early as possible. If

they do not, this could potentially jeopardise their

future endeavors and any may limit their career options

both inside and outside the growing information

technology field.40

This study has discussed potential reasons for the lack

of girls’ interest as well as participation in computer

classes, careers, and the technology sector. This study

has provided four strategies that may influence girls who

are interested in computing or ICT to follow their dreams

and pursue careers within the technology sector,

including:

(1) Getting rid of the stereotypes,

(2) Provide encouragement for girls to undertake tasks

(3) Create a positive classroom setting and environment

(4) Show female role models or encourage girls to

discover individuals

(5) Introduce programming early

32

These techniques are highlighted in an attempt to

motivate and inspire girls to gain interest in computing

and ICT. This study has also illustrated the challenges

that can occur. Unfortunately, there is no exact solution

for this matter, if there is one at all. The evidence

from this study in addition to the empirical research

covered all reiterate the need to increase the number of

girls enrolling in Computer Studies and ICT courses.

Understanding what a computer does is one thing, being

computer literate is another. As Snyder pointed out:

“Today, being literate has to do with understanding the complex ways

in which the written, oral, and audiovisual modalities of human

communications”.41

Knowing what a computer is one thing, being a computer

literate is another. In today times being literate is to

do with understanding the complex ways in which the oral,

written, and audiovisual modalities of human

communications. Pedagogy should include the promotion of

computer and ICT studies among female students.

33

References

34

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3 Ibid,. p. 409.

4 DfES (Department for Education and Skills) (2007) Gender and Education:

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9 Ibid. p.35-55

10 BECTA, (2008) How do boys and girls differ in their use of ICT? Research Report,

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18 Kennewell, S., Finch, S. and Sinclair, R. (2007) Harnessing Technology

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21 Ibid. p.56.

22 BECTA, (2008) How do boys and girls differ in their use of ICT? Research Report,

BECTA, Coventry.

http://www.vital.ac.uk/community/file.php/872/gender_ict_briefing.pdf

Accessed 04.10.2013. p.10.

23 BBC (2005). Gamers in the UK: Digital play, digital lifestyles.

[http://open.bbc.co.uk/newmediasearch/files/BBC_UK_Games_Research_200

5.pdf]

24 Ibid. p.3.

25 J, M, Wing. (2006) Communications of the ACM: Computational Thinking, Volume

49, No.3. p.33.

26 BBC (Technology News) (2014) ‘Gaming University’ founder sets out his plans,

London. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-26179884 Accessed

05.03.2014.

27 TED Conferences (Technology News) (1998) ‘Games for Girls’, New York.

http://www.ted.com/talks/brenda_laurel_on_making_games_for_girls

Accessed 20.03.2014.

28 Code.org (2014) Hour of Code, http://learn.code.org/hoc/1 Accessed

20.03.2014.

39 Smith, Sheila M. “The Four Sources of Influence on Computer Self-Efficacy.” Delta

Pi Epsilon Journal 43.1 (2001): 27- 39. 29

Ibid. p.3

30 BECTA, (2008) How do boys and girls differ in their use of ICT? Research Report,

BECTA, Coventry.

http://www.vital.ac.uk/community/file.php/872/gender_ict_briefing.pdf

Accessed 04.10.2013. p.9

31 BECTA, (2008) How do boys and girls differ in their use of ICT? Research Report,

BECTA, Coventry.

http://www.vital.ac.uk/community/file.php/872/gender_ict_briefing.pdf

Accessed 04.10.2013. p.11

32 Faulkner, W. (2002). Women, gender in/and ICT: Evidence and

reflections from the UK.

[http://www.rcss.ed.ac.uk/sigis/public/displaydoc/full/D02_Part3]

33 Anderson, Charles et al. “Gender & Information & Communications Technology

—A 10 Year Study of new Undergraduates.” TechTrends 46.6 (2002): 11-15.

34 Thom, Mary. “Girls in Science and Technology: What’s New, What’s Next?” The

Education Digest 67.5 (2002): 17-24.

35 Thom, Mary. “Young Women’s Progress in Science and Technology Studies:

Overcoming Remaining Barriers.” NASSP Bulletin 85 (2001): 6-19.

36 Harvey Douglas M., and Sandra L. Swain. “Single-Sex Computer Classes: An

Effective Alternative” TechTrends 46.6 (2001): 17-20.

37 Ibid p.17-20.

38 Crombie, Gail. “Research on Young women in Computer Science: Promoting High

Technology for Girls.” Presentation. May 1, 1999. 39

40 Crombie, Gail. “Research on Young women in Computer Science: Promoting High

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