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OUR AUSTRALIAN COLONIES.

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OUR AUSTRALIAN COLONIES:

THEIR

gisrotag, fyisstarg, Nt5ff nuts Vroputs.

SAMUEL MOSSMAN,AUTHOR OF THE 'ARTICLES "AUSTRALIA" AND "AUSTRALASIA" IN THE

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNIC!, ETC.

WITH MAP AND PLANS

LONDON :

THE RELIGIOUS TRACT SOCIETY.DEFOSITORIES: 56, PATERNOSTER Row ; 65, ST. PAUL'S CHURCHYARD ;

AND 164, PICCADILLY.SOLD BY THE BOOKSELLERS.

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PREFACE.

THE rapidity with which Australia has risen into im-

portance is without parallel in the history of the world.Eighty years ago the Great South Land was a terra

incognita, whose outline was uncertain and whose interiorwas unexplored. Within the memory of persons nowliving the first detachment of European settlers landedupon its shores. Yet the colonies then founded probably

surpass, in wealth and population, England in the days of

the Tudors. In the course of a single generation Australia

has reached a position which few nations have attained by

the slow growth of centuries. From the vastness of its

resources, the energy of its settlers, and its commanding

position, it is impossible to prescribe limits to its future.Every English village, almost every family, has helped to

people its towns, cultivqe its soil, cover its pastures withflocks, or explore its mineral treas.• res. Some of our most

important manufactures depend for their prosperity upon

the raw material which it supplies. Its yield of gold affects

the money-markets of the world.

The design of the present volume is to trace the history

of this progress, to describe the soil and climate, the flora

and fauna—so strange to English eyes—of its different

Vi PREFACE.

colonies, and to give exact information upon the pointslikely to interest persons about to emigrate. It is believed

that in no other work on Australia are the statistics sorecent and so full. Statistical returns are indeed somewhatuninteresting to the general reader, yet in no other modecan the progress of the colonies be so clearly traced, or

their present position be so accurately defined.The Author writes from long and familiar acquaintance

with the country and the people. He has visited all the

colonies, has resided in most of them, and has enjoyed

special advantages for arriving at a just estimate of their

history and prospects. Differences of opinion will, of course,

exist as to many of the questions discussed : he does not pre-tend to infallibility ; but he claims to have spared no painsin his investigation of the facts, and sedulously to haveaimed at impartiality in his judgment of them. For allthe statements made and opinions offered he alone is per-sonally responsible.

The plans of towns and harbours add greatly to the

value of the volume. For these acknowledgments are due

to Messrs. BLACKIE AND SONS.

CONTENTS.

PAGESCHAPTER I.

DISCOVERY OF AUSTRALIA 1-32

CHAPTER ILEXPLORATION OF THE INTERIOR 33-58

CHAPTER III NATURAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA 59-7G

CHAPTER IV.

NEW SOUTH WALES 77-127

CHAPTER V.TASMANIA 128-171

CHAPTER VI.VicTom.A. 172-240

CHAPTER VII.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA 241-282

CHAPTER VIII.

WEST AUSTRAL 983-315

VIII

CONTENTS.

PAGES

CHAPTER IX.QUEENSLAND 316-332

CHAPTER X.PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY 333-341

INDEX 342

MAPS AND PLANS.

GENERAL MAP OF AUSTRALIA Frontispiece

SYDNEY AND PORT JACKSON 126

HOBART TOWN 132

MELBOURNE AND PORT PHILLIP 238

BRISBANE AND MORETON BAY 318

CIIAPTER I.

DISCOVERY OF AUSTRALIA.

Theory of a Great Southern Continent—Claims of First Discovery—Portuguese Charts of 1512—Dutch Yacht Du yf ken in 1606—SpanishDiscoverer Torres, in 1606—Claims of De Quires in 1609—Dirck Hartog,1616—Zeachen, 1618—John Van Edels, 1619—Leeuwin Land seen in1622—Nuyt's Land, 1627—Commodore De Witt, 1625—Commodore Pelsart,1629—Wretchedness of the country and Inhabitants—Tasman discoversVan Diemen's Land in 1642, and the Gulf of Carpentaria in 1641—Dampier visits the West Coast in 1688—He returns in 1699 as Captain ofthe Roebuck—Portuguese Penalties for Publishing New Discoveries-Dampier's exaggerated Accounts—The Dingo—Cook discovers the EastCoast in 1770—Cape Howe—Botany Bay—Flora and Fauna of the Country—Port Jackson seen—Moreton Bay and Tropical Coast—Bustards—Dan-gers of the Coral Sea—The Endeavour Strikes upon a Beef—Aspect of theCountry—Friendliness of the Inhabitants—Objects of Natural History firstseen and described by Sir Joseph Banks—Extraordinary character of theTrees, Shrubs, and Grasses—Cook names the country New SOUTH WALES.

FOR upwards of a century before the actual con-figuration of Australia was ascertained, the most dis-tinguished European astronomers, geographers, andnavigators entertained the theory that there must be acontinent in the southern hemisphere equal in extentto those of Asia and Europe in the northern. Theyargued, that in order to preserve the equilibrium of theglobe, the land of the southern division must extendthrough the tropical and temperate zones into thqantarctic circle, in the same manner, and in corres-ponding meridians to what was then either known,or supposed on good grounds, to extend from theequator into the arctic regions, They presumed that

2 DISCOVERY OT AUSTRALIA.

the world could not revolve equably upon its axis,unless there was an area of land, above the ocean,between the south pole and the equator, equal to thatin the northern hemisphere. A glance at the terrestrialglobe will show to what a small extent this theory hasbeen carried out by facts. Australia will be seen tocounterbalance scarcely the area of Europe, while thevast Asiatic continent has no other equivalent than theboundless ocean. It was in the pursuit of this imagi-nary continent that the navigators of the seventeenthand eighteenth centuries, and probably before theseperiods, discovered the coast of Australia. As theSpaniards, Portuguese, and Dutch in those days werethe most enterprising seamen, always in search ofnew lands to conquer and colonize, they were the mostassiduous in endeavouring to solve this great geo-graphical problem.

Since the extent and nature of the country has beenascertained, the honour of first discovery has become asubject of much enquiry and discussion. First, it wasconsidered that the Dutch were entitled to that honour,then the Spaniards, but the most recent investigationstend to yield the priority of the discovery to thePortuguese. The various claims are impartiallyconsidered in a volume published by the HakluytSociety, under the editorship of Mr. R. H. Major ofthe British Museum, who clearly shows, from chartsin the library of that institution, that the coast line ofAustralia from the north-west round by the east to thesouthern shore, was known to the Portuguese as farback as 1542, and there is reason for concluding that itmay have been explored between 1511 and 1529.There are no accounts, however, handed down to showwho were the navigators that constructed those charts,

FIRST DISCOVERERS. 3

so that it rests on the testimony of the charts alone.In the absence of such accounts, the first authenticnarrative of discovery of the mainland rests with theDutch ; but the name of the discoverer has not beenhanded down to posterity. He was the master of theyacht _Duyfien (Dove), and when sent out by the DutchGovernment at Bantam to explore the island of NewGuinea, he sighted Cape York, which was previouslysupposed to be the southern part of that island. Thiswas in March, 1606.

About the close of that year a Spanish navigatornamed Luis Vaez de Torres appears to have been in thesame waters, with his ship the Almiranta and a tender,and to have sailed through the strait between NewGuinea and Australia ; which has since been namedTorres Strait by our countryman Dalrymple, who foundthe account of this voyage in the archives of Manilla,when that city surrendered to the British. Torresvisited this part of Australasia with the sole view ofdiscovering a southern continent, under the auspices ofthe Spanish Government at Callao. With him was apilot named Don Pedro de Quiros, experienced in thenavigation of the South Seas, who was on board anothervessel, called the Capitana. The two vessels reached anisland of the Australasian group in latitude 10° S., andanchored in a bay, naming the land Tierra del EspirituSanto. Here they separated, Torres sailing westthrough the strait, and Quiros returning to SpanishAmerica. It would appear that this pilot formedmost exaggerated notions of the small discoverythis expedition had made, for we read of his arrivalin Spain, in 1609, and reporting that he had discovereda tract, of land equal in extent to the aggregate area ofthe whole of Europe and Asia Minor combined. He

4 DISCOVERY OF AUSTRALIA.

presented several memorials on the subject to the Courtof Madrid, desiring assistance for the conquest of thecountry and its settlement, giving it the name of Aus-tralia del Espiritu Santo. Apparently, his suit wasrejected, as we hear nothing more of him afterwards.It is worthy of notice that he was the first navigatorwho named this country appropriately, and by thename which it now bears. Its derivation is fromAustral Asia, or Southern Asia. Hence it was usedby the Spaniards in their discoveries in the SouthernHemisphere, and this usage Quiros adopted when hegave his supposed continent the above designation.

These first discoveries of Australia were made bynavigators approaching the mainland from the northand north-east. The next authentic accounts are,where the discoverers of new parts of the coast camefrom the west ; and it is worthy of remark that theywere chiefly accidental. At the commencement ofthe 17th century, the Dutch East India Company hadestablished a lucrative commerce between Holland andtheir possessions in Java ; consequently a goodly fleetof merchantmen was employed in the trade. Afterrounding the Cape of Good Hope, the masters of thesevessels found that they had the most favourable windsto cross the Indian Ocean, by keeping well to thesouth of the equator before crossing it towards theirdestination. In doing so several of these outward-bound ships unexpectedly made the west coast ofAustralia.

The first mentioned in the Dutch annals was theRendraght (Concord), commanded by Dirck. Hartog ;who anchored in Hartog Roadstead, now called Shark'sBay, where he put up a plate of tin on the rocks,bearing an inscription that the _Eendraght arrived there

EARLY DUTCH NAVIGATORS. 5

on the 25th October, 1616. He afterwards sailed alongthe coast between 26° 30 / and 23° S., naming the coun-try Eendraght Land. Two years afterwards, Zeachensighted the north-west coast in latitude 15° S., sailedin a north-easterly direction to the west cape of theGulf of Carpentaria, and called it the Land of Arnheim.In the following year John Van Edels made the westcoast, south of these discoveries, between 24° and 29°,which has received the name of Edels Land. In 1622another Dutch skipper, whose name has not transpired,came upon the extreme south-west coast which hecalled Landt van de Leeuwin, or Land of the Lioness ;but for what reason is not recorded, although the nameis retained in Cape Leeuwin. The Guldee Zeepaard in1627 passed this cape and sailed " for a thousand miles "along the coast to the E.N.E., discovering all that tractof land designated Nuyts Land, in honour of Pietervan Nuyts, who was on board on his way out toBatavia, as an ambassador to Japan.

These accidental discoveries, made by merchant cap-tains who could not spare the time to prosecute themin detail, induced the Dutch East India Company to fitout a small flotilla of ships under the command ofCommodore De Witt, to ascertain their correctnessand to make further research. The result of this ex-pedition, which sailed from Batavia in 1628, was thediscovery of that tract of country between the Tropicof Capricorn and 15° S. latitude, named De Witt Land.But none of these discoverers furnish any but the mostmeagre account of the country and its inhabitants. Asomewhat fuller account was given by Francis Pelsart,also a commodore in the Dutch East India Navy, whosailed for Java in the armed vessel Batavia, with tentraders under convoy. On the 4th June, 1629, while


sailing across the Indian Ocean, a storm came onwhich separated his ship from the fleet, and it wasdriven ashore on some rocky shoals off the west coast,in latitude 29° S. ; afterwards named HoutmansAbrolhos. Excepting some rocky islets, no landcould be seen by the shipwrecked crew ; and as therewere 230 men on board, with the prospect of the shipbreaking up, it was necessary for Commodore Pelsartto seek for fresh water on the mainland, which, asthey calculated, was not .far off. Accordingly theship's long-boat was launched, and he proceeded witha volunteer crew, although the stormy weather con-tinued. They were not long in making land, butfound it impossible to approach the shore until theyreached 24° latitude, where smoke was seen, and someof the crew, who swam on shore, saw four natives whofled at their approach. For six days Pelsart sailedalong this inhospitable coast, landing at several placeswithout finding more water than barely sufficed fortheir own wants. Under these circumstances he deemedit most advisable to proceed northwards for Java, toreport the loss of his ship, and send succour to the ship.--wrecked crew—which was satisfactorily accomplished.

The account given by Pelsart of the country andfew inhabitants he saw, though meagre, has sincebeen found remarkably correct, and free from thosefabulous exaggerations to which navigators in thosedays were prone. He describes the country as " aparched and barren plain, covered with ant-hills, andthe air infested with multitudes of flies ;" the abo-rigines as " wild, black, and altogether naked." Hesaw no animals, but from the bones found near thenative fires, he concluded that there were some in thecountry fit for food. No doubt this unfavcurable

DISCOURA.GING REPORTS. 7

account of the new region, together with De Witt'sreport, tended to deter Dutch adventurers from under-taking voyages in search of the precious metals—thechief incentive to discovery—where no indications ofgold or silver were seen on the persons of the natives.Such ornaments would doubtless have been worn, hadthese poor children of the wilderness possessed eventhe intelligence of the negro on the coast of Guinea,by whom grains of gold were brought to the first dis-coverers of that country. Thus it is that travellersoften erroneously estimate the resources of unex-plored lands, from the imperfect data furnished bythe aboriginal inhabitants.

We learn nothing further of any Dutch ships visitingthe coast with a view to further exploration. No pro-fitable trade could be carried on with a people whoevidently were so poor and wretched as to be withoutclothing, and who, according to Pelsart's journal,"lived in the open country like the beasts of the field."Even the Government at Batavia ceased to considerthese discoveries of any value, excepting as a solutionof the great geographical question concerning theexistence of a southern continent, which again agitatedthe savans of Europe about the middle of the 17thcentury.

In 1642, however, the Governor-General of theDutch East Indies was a man of enlarged views, andencouraged those who wished to prosecute this im-portant question. Among his officers was a skilfulnavigator named Abel Jansen Tasman, who had his fullconfidence, and was a suitor of his daughter Maria.Whether the father held out hopes to the young officerof securing his daughter's hand in the event of successin his discoveries, history sayeth not ; but he was

8 DISCOVERY OF .A.USTRA.LTA.

selected by Governor-General Anthony Van Diemen toproceed on a voyage of discovery into the "South Seas,"as the Pacific and Southern Oceans were designated atthat time. Like Columbus and other brave navigators,Tasman undertook the voyage in a small yacht, theIreemskirlc, with a " flying boat," the Zeehaen (Sea-hen), as tender. He sailed from Batavia on the 14thAugust of the above year for the Mauritius, theGovernor furnishing him with minute instructions, con-taining a concise account of all that was previouslyknown of these regions. It is chiefly from this letterof instructions that we are indebted for informationconcerning the discoveries prior to Tasman's voyage ;for notwithstanding their importance, it would appearthat the Dutch never published any account of them.It has been suggested that the captains of the mer-chant ships did publish their narratives in Holland ina cheap form, but as they contained nothing marvellousto whet the public appetite, none of the accounts werepreserved, and their stories fell into oblivion.

Leaving the Mauritius, Tasman steered across theIndian Ocean in a general south-east course, reachinga higher latitude south of the line than any of hispredecessors had attained, but after sailing with histiny vessels upwards of six thousand miles, he foundnothing beyond the wide waste of waters. On the 20thNovember, however, his perseverance was rewarded bythe discovery of land in about 43° S. latitude, and 146°E. longitude. . Here he discovered a bold mountainouscoast, indented with deep bays and inlets. He an-chored his vessels in one of these and named it Frede-rick Hendrick Bay, after the then Prince of Orange; andlanded to take a view of the country and its produc-tions. There was nothing very tempting to be seen ;

ABEL JANSEN TASMAN. 9

the soil was sandy and rocky, and the vegetationremarkable only for the size and peculiarity of thetrees, from some of which he collected gum.

No natives were visible, but he observed smokecurling up among the branches of the primeval forest,which he considered an indubitable mark that the landwas inhabited ; and he observed the bark of the treescut with steps, evidently to assist them in ascendingto take birds' nests. Tasman was not then acquaintedwith the fact that the chief food of these aborigineswere the opposums and other animals that live in thetrees of Australia. This mode of chasing animals upthe trees by cutting notches in the thick bark, inwhich to rest the toe while ascending, is very curious,and we are not aware that it is practised by any otherrace of savages. They still hunt in this fashion withsuccess. The animals they capture are nocturnal intheir habits, lying dormant during the day, whichmakes them an easy prey to the climber, who wouldnot be successful at night, or if they were active indaylight.

At the spot where he landed, Tasman erected a postwith the brand of the Dutch East India Company uponit, and Prince Frederick Henry's flag flying from thetop. The land thus discovered he named in honour of" our master who sent us to make discoveries, AnthonyVan Diemen's Land." That. well-known name in theannals of transportation was considered inappropriatewhen the country was ascertained to be an island, so itwas suggested that it should be called Tasmania, afterits discoverer ; but it was not until the inhabitantspetitioned Her Majesty's Government, in 1853, thatit was legally adopted. While Tasman honoured thefather by naming his first discovery after him, he did


not forget the daughter, the object of his affections,as may be seen by the name Maria Island, off the eastcoast of Tasmania. This was the last point he ex-plored in these latitudes ; and he concluded that hehad determined the southern boundary of the landpreviously discovered on the west and north coasts.

Satisfied with the success of this part of hisvoyage of discovery, he continued his course in aneasterly direction, in search of other unknown regionsin the South Pacific. Of these it is not necessary tomake mention here. But we again find him pursuinghis researches on the north coast of Australia, wherehe explored that extensive indentation west of CapeYork, called the Gulf of Carpentaria. Hitherto ithas been supposed that this gulf was discovered byPieter Carpenter, a general in the Dutch East IndiaCompany's service, while homeward bound from Java,with five richly laden ships under his command. Thisis an error, as clearly shown by Mr. Major, in thework already referred to, where there are satisfactorydata for concluding that Tasman was the discoverer,and that he named the gulf in honour of Carpenter,while he was president of the Dutch East IndiaCompany, as he named Van Diemen's Land after thegovernor-general. These two discoveries of the northernand southern extremities of the Great South Land be-came known throughout Europe about 1645, anddetermined its latitudinal extent, but without solvingthe problem of the southern continent. The Dutch,assuming to themselves a national property in thisvast territory, consolidated the discoveries of theirnavigators, and gave it the general name of NEW

HOLLAND.

During this long period of geographical exploration,

DAMPIER'S FIRST VISIT. 11

and up nearly to the close of the 17th century, itwould appear that no English navigator had turnedhis attention to this region. The first of our country-men who saw any part of Australia were WilliamDampier and some others, forming the crew of abuccaneering vessel under the command of an English-man named Cook, (not the renowned navigator).They sailed from a place named Acomack, in Vir-ginia, doubled Cape .Horn, and entered the GreatSouth Sea to cruise against the Spaniards, with whomEngland was then at war. From these waters theyprobably crossed the South Atlantic, rounded the Capeof Good Hope, and sailed eastwards along the IndianOcean, probably expecting to come across some richlyladen Spanish galleons from Manilla and other ports inthe Phillipine Isles. Be that as it may, this privateerand its English captain and crew unexpectedly fell inwith the west coast of Australia on January 4th, 1688,in latitude 16° 50' S. situated between the territorydiscovered by Dirck Hartog to the south and thatexplored by Zeachen to the north ; so that this partymade a genuine discovery of an unknown part ofAustralia, which has been named Dampier Land. Theyappear to have sailed slowly along the coast withinview of the shore, examining the bays and inlets withsome degree of care, and landing at various placeswhere it was safe to do so. In this manner they spenttwo months on the coast, during which time theycareened and watered the ships, and afterwards re-sumed their privateering expedition.

Nothing was known in Europe of this discovery,until ten years had passed away, when WilliamDampier published an account of what he saw, in-cluding some things which he did not see, during his


buccaneering voyages ; but especially dwelling on thediscovery of an unknown part of Australia, spiced with afew marvellous exaggerations. It must be rememberedttiat he was only a common sailor, ranking as one ofthe crew in the privateer, and possessed only an ordinaryamount of education ; but he was a man of markedcharacter, with large powers of observation. Thesequalifications, together with his reputation as athorough seaman practically conversant with navi-gation, recommended him so powerfully to the Earl ofPembroke, then at the head of the Admiralty, that heinduced his Majesty King William III. to give him thecommand of the Roebuck man-of-war, and sent him ona voyage of discovery to Australia in 1699. He madethe west coast in 26° S. latitude, and anchored in thebay discovered in 1616 by Dirck Hartog. In hisaccount of this voyage he appears to have been igno-rant of the prior discovery by the Dutchman. Butthis is not surprising, as it was the policy of theDutch, Spanish, and Portuguese in those days to keepall their discoveries secret, the governments either

. suppressing or preventing any account being published.It is said that the Portuguese were so jealous on thispoint that they made it a penal offence on the partof any navigator of their nation to make public anaccount of his discoveries ; and some authorities go farto prove that capital punishment was inflicted uponsuch an offender. Under these circumstances, it is to besupposed that Dampier was but imperfectly acquaintedwith the discoveries of the Dutch ; consequently hecalled this harbour Shark's Bay, from the number ofsharks seen in it, which name it retains on Englishcharts, while the Dutch still call it, after the originaldiscoverer, Hartog Roadstead.

DAMPIER'S SECOND VISIT. 13

He remained a week in this harbour, exploring theshore as far as possible, which he found steep and sandy,covered with flowers and grass in tufts, but withoutfresh water. As a supply of this necessary element waspressing, he continued his course northwards, anchoringoccasionally, until he reached latitude 18° 21/ S., wherehe observed numerous fires on shore. Concluding thatthese were at a native encampment, and consequentlynear fresh water, he landed with an armed party of tenor eleven men. They soon perceived three aborigines,who ran away at their approach. However theyfound water for drinking by digging wells in the sand.While thus occupied nine of the natives came towardsthem making a great noise, with violent angry gestures.One, more told than the others, having his head, face,and body painted with red ochre, came within fiftyyards ; but he and his companions taking a suddenpanic fled away as fast as they could. Dampier thenformed an ambuscade to try and seize some of thembut failed ; while in the attempt one of his men waswounded in the cheek with a spear. This caused himto fire on the natives, first in the air, but afterwardswith ball. One of them was wounded, his companionshurriedly carrying him away. This terminated all com-munication with the aborigines ; and as it was the onlyoccasion when he had a near view of their persons, hisaccount of them is incorrect and exaggerated. "Theyhave great heads," he states, " round foreheads, andheavy brows. Their eyelids are half closed, to keep theflies out of their eyes ; so that from infancy they neveropen them like other people, and consequently cannotsee far, unless they hold up their heads as if they werelooking at something over them. They have greatbottle-noses, pretty full lips, and wide mouths. In

14 DISCOVERY OF AUSTRALIA.,

short, setting aside the human shape, they differ butlittle from brutes." The assertion about the eyes issheer nonsense : the Australian aborigines are famousfor the keenness of sight, and their features are moreregular than the best of the negro races.

Dampier is the first who makes mention of thedingo, or Australian dog, which he saw in thecompany of these natives. He describes their trackas the " footstep of . some beast as large as a mastiffdog :" subsequently he saw " three beasts resemblingwolves, but nothing but skin and bone." In hisrough mode of expression the latter account isgraphic ; for they are wretched looking animals,especially among the natives, to whom they are muchattached. Their general appearance, however, is morelike the fox than either the dog or wolf, and they havea bushy tail like reynard, with even a stronger offen-sive odour. They have also a great taste for fowl andmutton, and are the dread of the farm-yard and sheep-pen ; while the howl, or rather yell, which they set upat night during their depredations is of the most un-earthly kind ; hence the dingo is hunted and shotdown by the settlers wherever he is found.

It seems that Dampier's unfavourable account ofAustralia and its inhabitants had a similar effect uponhis countrymen, as the previous reports of DirckHartog and the other Dutch skippers had upon theirs.At all events, no venturesome trader, or association ofspeculators, such as the famous South Sea Company,had the courage to start a colonizing expedition tothe barren shores of New Holland. Nor did theBritish government deem the discoveries of Dampierworth following up in other latitudes of the southerncontinent. For seventy years after that rough but

CAPTAIN JAMES COOK. 15

energetic navigator visited Australia, the maritimestates of Europe abandoned further attempts to ex-plore what they considered a worthless wilderness.Thus the uncivilized and unclad aborigines were leftto roam over their verdant valleys and forests, solemonarchs of a land that held unbounded treasuresbeneath their feet.

At last the genius of Australian maritime discovery—as the precursor of colonization—arose in the personof Captain James Cook ; one of nature's noblemen,whose deeds, in the field of exploration, to which hebecame a martyr,will shed lustre upon his name throughall time. Although he was cut off in the prime oflife by the savages of Owhyhee, still he had the satis-faction of seeing his important discoveries in the SouthPacific appreciated by his king and country, which hedeemed the greatest reward for his exertions in the"cause of science and humanity. It was in the year1768, that he set out on his first voyage of discoveryround the world, chiefly to determine the moot pointof the existence of a great southern continent, whichwas once more revived in Europe. As the most suit-able kind of vessel for this purpose, he fitted out abarque of 370 tons, originally built for the coal trade,and named her the _Endeavour, to signify the modestyof his intentions. After two years cruising on thewest coast of South America, and among the Southea Islands, as they were then designated—during

which time he observed the transit of Venus acrossthe disc of the sun, and discovered parts of the coastof New Zealand not visited by Tasman—he steeredwestwards towards the terra incognita, Australis ;which had baffled, for upwards of two centuries, thecombined hydrographic skill of the civilized world toascertain its configuration.


It must be observed here, that while previous navi-gators had approached the land from the west and thenorth, Cook was the first who did so from the east.Hence he calculated his longitude from Greenwichcontinually west of that standard, until he arrived atthe meridian of 211° W., or as now computed 149° E.On the morning of the 19th April, 1770, being inlatitude 38° S., his first lieutenant saw the land, whichCaptain Cook named after him, Point Hicks. Steer-ing further west he saw nothing but a low sandybeach, which runs for 120 miles in that direction.Turning to the south, no land was visible after sailinga considerable distance ; this caused him to remarkin his journal that he could not determine whether theshore he had discovered was joined to Van Dieman'sLand or not. So he steered his course easterly andnortherly until he made the great elbow of south-easternAustralia, where the coast trends to the westward onthe one side for 1,800 miles, and northward on the otherfor 2,000 miles. He named this point Cape Howe,in honour of his admiral.

To follow his course past the numerous headlands,or into the many bays and inlets he discovered andnamed, would occupy more space than our volume canafford ; but we refer the reader to the accompanyingmap as a faithful record of this unexampled hydro-graphic feat, accomplished in four months ; duringwhich his ship was nearly wrecked upon a coral reef,that detained him seventeen days in harbour. Withoutentering into detail, a brief sketch of the chief points.of discovery will suffice to give continuity to thisnarration of those localities which have since becomeso famous in the world's history.

After an unsuccessful attempt to land at Red Point,

BOTANY BAY. 17

near the present 'town of Wollongong, where he firstsaw some of the inhabitants on the beach, he had tocontent himself with looking at a distance on thenovel aspect of the country and its vegetation. Nextmorning, however, he descried, at day-break, a baywhich seemed to be well sheltered from all winds ; sohe resolved to take his ship in thither. This wassafely effected in the course of the afternoon, and heanchored off the south point of the entrance. As thewind was fair, the good ship Endeavour had all sailsset, and rounded to, as she dropped her anchor, in suchgallant style, that at any civilized port it would haveattracted the attention of the people on shore. Herethe ship's company plainly saw the native inhabitantson both sides of the bay ; men, women, and children,moving about among their open huts, while four menin canoes were busily employed in striking fish withtheir spears ; and strange to say, that although theship passed within a quarter of a mile of them, theynever once turned their attention towards an objectwhich to them must have been a perfectly new andextraordinary spectacle. Not half a mile from wherethe vessel was anchored appeared a cluster of six oreight bark . huts, where an old woman and threechildren came out of the forest with firewood ; sheoften looked at the ship, but expressed neither fearnor surprise. In a short time the canoes went infrom fishing ; the men landed, hauled up their boats,and cooked and ate their fish, apparently as uncon-cerned about the ship as if they had been accustomedto see one every day. Captain Cook thought this veryremarkable, and was inclined to think that it arose fromtheir being so much engaged in their own affairs, thatthey did not observe his ship and crew ; while he sup-

18 DISCOYEB,Y OF AUSTRALIA.

posed the noise of the surf drowned that of the rattlingof the anchor and cable, and the shouts of the seamen.Probably, however, these aborigines not only saw thegreat canoe, but, with their keen eyesight, every oneon board ; and that they distinguished the rattling ofthe chain cable from the roar of the s Any otherconclusion would be a distinct contradiction to theirextraordinary perceptive powers. On the other hand,it is the chief mental characteristic of this race thatthey are almost deficient in the imaginative faculties,and evince no curiosity in any object that does not im-mediately concern their appetites or personal safety.Not possessing sufficient foresight to apprehend dangerfrom the new-comer, because it was on the water, itwas a matter of indifference to them. But the momentCaptain Cook attempted to land with a party of menin his boats, to look for fresh water, thereby arousingtheir fears of danger, they were up in arms, anddisputed the landing, brandishing their clubs andspears, shouting in harsh dissonant tones, and deter-mined to defend their country to the uttermost. Theleaders of these native warriors, were a youth apparentlyabout nineteen and a middle aged man. Captain Cookcould not but admire their courage, as they were buttwo to his forty. He was obliged to discharge a musketloaded with small shot at them, which . hit the eldersavage on the leg, and dispersed the whole tribe, beforehe could effect a landing.

This important event, of Captain Cook first steppingon shore in Australia, has been commemorated by thePhilosophical Society of Sydney placing a plate ofcopper, with a suitable inscription, on the overhangingcliff above the spot where he landed with Mr. (after-wards Sir Joseph) Banks and Dr. Solander, on the

FLORA AND FAUNA OF TILE COUNTRY. 19

28th of April, 1770. Here they remained until the 6thof May, during which time Cook surveyed the harbourand examined its shores, having formed a favourable im-pression of its capabilities for a settlement. Meanwhilehis scientific coadjutors in the field of discovery enrichedtheir collections of natural history with new and strangespecimens. These more especially consisted of nume-rous and beautiful flowers ; hence Captain Cook wasinduced to name the harbour Botany Bay. Those ofthe rising generation to whose ears this name is notfamiliar, will consider it a very appropriate and pleasingone. But few of their fathers will hear it without ashudder, by their recollection of its associations withthe most depraved of mankind, who were banishedfrom the prisons of the United Kingdom to its shores.

During the time the expedition was in this harbour,several excursions were made to the head of the bayand into the adjacent forests, to observe the naturalhistory of the country. The trees were considered tobe larger than the English oak, and growing wideapart, so that it would not be necessary to cut themdown for cultivation ; while between them the groundwas covered with tufts of grass growing together. Onetree yielded gum like the sanguis clraconis ; and a smallstunted one, a yellow gum like gamboge. The formerwas the red gum-tree or eucalyptus, the latter thegrass-tree or xanthorea. Neither of these gums,or rather gum-resins, have been utilized, as Cookexpected they would be ; and only that from theacacia or wattle-tree has become an article of com-merce.

Birds of exquisite plumage were seen, chiefly of theparrot kind, and crows like those in England. Therewas abundance of water-fowl, most of which were pre-


viously unknown. One, the most remarkable, " wasmuch larger than a swan, in shape resembling a pelican,with black feathers, except under the wings, and havinga red bill." This is the first account of the black swanCygnus atratus, which is now well known, and may befound consorting with its white namesake in our orna-mental waters. Like many other anomalous objectsin the flora and fauna of Australia, this bird falsifiesthe old Roman proverb that " It is as impossible as tofind a black swan." The habits of the bird are pecu-liarly interesting. The male watches the floating nest,while the female sits on it during the time of incuba-tion ; and he seldom relinquishes his charge until thecygnets are afloat on the water, and able to screethemselves from the swoop of the eagle or hawk.

It was Sunday morning when Captain Cook leftBotany" Bay with a fair wind, sailing within two orthree miles of the land ; and in a run of three leaguesthe ship passed a bay or harbour that " appeared tohave good anchorage," which he called Port Jackson.Although not mentioned in Cook's journal, it is statedon good authority that this harbour was first observedby the look-out mariner at the masthead, while thecaptain was at breakfast, and that taking his word forit presenting the appearance of a sheltered anchorage,he named it after him as a port. Be that as it may,it is just possible that the sailor Jackson obtained aglimpse of the inner harbour over a break in the highcliff near the South Head, which could not have beenseen from the deck ; and as the ship came abreast ofthe place, the opening leading to it was shut in amongstthe frowning precipices which rise perpendicularly, fromone to two hundred feet, at its entrance from thePacific. In this way the great discoverer passed

ITORETON BAY. 21

without examination one of the most magnificentharbours in the world, where all the navies and mer-chantmen in Europe could ride at anchor in safety.

On sped the gallant barque Endeavour, and at everyleague some new and interesting part of the coast wasopened up to view. Now it was a cape, then a bay,here a headland, there a sand-spit, again remarkablebills were seen, and numerous islands strewn along thecoast, all of which obtained " a local habitation and aname " on the navigator's chart. So numerous were thediscoveries, that at times he was at a loss to find appro-priate names, while, with the modesty of true genius,he never once thought of giving his own name to anylandmark or haven. In this, respect posterity hasproved, hitherto, as ungrateful as he was modest ;excepting some paltry creek or hill, there is no portionof this vast domain which he unfolded to his countryfor its good, that bears his honoured name ; while thoseof others, who have little claim to such honour, arerepeated ad nauseant over hill and dale, by stream andbay.

Running down this latitudinal course in the southernregions, the further north he sailed the warmer grewthe climate, until he entered the tropical seas ofAustralia, which on the east coast begin about lat. 28°S., near Moreton Bay. Here the vegetation remindedhim of the West Indies ; a reminiscence which wasfurther strengthened by seeing turtle in the bays. Atone place where he landed, his companions shot a largebird of the bustard species, which on being cookedproved as excellent eating as a turkey, though weigh-ing 1711b. They all agreed that it was the best birdthey had tasted since leaving England ; and in grate-ful remembrance, the harbour was named Bustard Bay.


Inthis pleasant manner the voyagers sailed into theTropic of Capricorn, and cruised between beautiful coralislands and the mainland, where fresh objects of interesteverywhere met their view. The weather was fine andthe wind was fair, so that they had nothing to fear aslong as they kept a good look-out. Every one was ingood spirits, as they anticipated an early and safe conclu-sion to the voyage. But these coral islands and theirtreacherous reefs were as dangerous as they werebeautiful, and the immunity from distress hitherto ex-perienced was suddenly checked by disaster near thatpoint on the map which, in consequence, was namedCape Tribulation.

One beautiful moonlight night, as the ship wasspeeding on her course with a fair wind, among theshoals of that Coral Sea, and while most of the officersand crew were tranquilly asleep, she suddenly struckupon a reef, and instantly roused every one on boardto the horrors of shipwreck on an inhospitable coast,where they might linger for years without succour.However, the captain and his officers and crew were equalto the emergency, and by throwing everything weightyoverboard that could be spared, the ship floated,but was making water rapidly. Had the weatherbeen at all stormy, no human power could have savedtheir vessel. As it was, the fine weather continued longenough to enable them to draw a sail over the leak,with fothering on it. This served the purpose of keep-ing her in sailing trim, until she was safely moored atthe mouth of a creek, which was named EndeavourRiver. This was on the 17th June, and they re-mained there repairing the damage to the ship, as wellas circumstances permitted, until the 4th of August.

During this long sojourn in harbour, every one, from

FRIENDLY ABORIGINES. 23

the captain and his scientific companions down to theordinary seamen, improved the occasion to obtainfurther information concerning the country, its inhabi-tants, animals, and vegetable productions. Contraryto what they had experienced at Botany Bay, theaborigines in this locality did not run away at theirapproach, and after one or two interviews, becamefriendly, and went on board the ship. It was observedthat they differed in appearance from the nativesin the south ; their skin was more of a chocolatecolour, their features agreeable, teeth white, and voicessoft and tunable. They gave in perfection that pe-culiar call of the Australian savage, which cannoteasily be written, with its prolonged cry and abrupttermination, without musical notes ; but the nearestapproach would be, coo-oo-oo-oo4. The difference inthe skin and the superior aspect of these natives resultsfrom an admixture of Polynesian blood in their veins ;otherwise they present the same features as the tribeson the south and west coasts of Australia, and likethem, were in a state of nudity. They were, however,cleaner in their persons, and some of the girls hadpretty necklaces of shells, which they could not bepersuaded to part with for anything. Their friendlydisposition, however, did not last long. One day tenmen were on board the ship, when some turtle hadbeen caught, which they coveted more than anythingelse, and tried, forcibly, to take one away in theircanoes. As this fresh food was of great value to thesick and the crew generally, (among whom symp-toms of scurvy were beginning to appear), the turtlecould not be spared. Off these black fellows rushedin angry mood, and as soon as they reached the shore,set fire to the tall grass, which damaged some of the


ship's stores, and nearly burnt a tent and other corn_bustible articles that had been landed during repairs.Had it happened a few days before, when the gun-powder was on shore, the consequences might havebeen very serious.

Here a kangaroo was seen for the first time by whitemen. One day some of the sailors were sent to shootpigeons for the sick, and when they returned, reportedhaving seen a creature as large as a greyhound, of aslender make, a mouse colour, and extremely swift.Next day everybody got a glimpse of this animal, andCaptain Cook had a good view of one while out walkingin the morning. It puzzled him sorely, as it did not runon all fours, but leaped on its hind legs. At last Mr.Gore, one of the lieutenants, had the good fortune tokill one, and the mystery was solved. On enquiry ofthe natives they called it kangaroo, a name whichCaptain King considers accidental, as, afterwards, onvisiting that part of the coast, they called the animalmen-u-ah. They dressed the kangaroo for dinner, andbeing a young one, it was considered excellent food.No doubt any kind of fresh meat would have been goodto these junk-fed mariners ; but the flesh of this animalis, at the best, dry and flavourless. The tail, how-ever, makes capital soup, and it is of great size, incomparison with the rest of the body ; that of theforester kangaroo will make more soup than a dozenox-tails.

The peculiar form of the interesting and curiousgenus of marsupials, or pouched animals, is nowfamiliar to all, from the specimens seen in menage-ries ; and, no doubt, many have wondered at theirawkward stoop while feeding, when their little forepaws seem to be useless, and their great hind legs a

KANGAROOS AND OPPOSSUMS. 25

burden and encumbrance. Those, however, who haveobserved them feeding in their native glades, where tilegrass grows as high as wheat in a corn field, have seenthe beautiful adaptation of its form to its mode offeeding. Standing erect, it holds the stalks of grass inits fore paws and nibbles away at the flower or seedof the native herbs, without ever bending to the groundfor the blades or leaves. Its power of bounding overthe grass, unimpeded by the stalks, renders it able toleave the swiftest four-footed pursuer far behind ; asMr. Banks found, when he sent his dogs after them.Since then, wherever the tall grass has disappeared,from sheep or cattle grazing, the kangaroo has left hisold feeding ground.

For the first time, Mr. Banks now captured an Aus-tralian opposum, a female, with two young ones. Thisclass of animals was previously supposed to be pecu-liar to America, from whence its name is derived.Being nocturnal in their habits, nothing is to be seenof them in the day time, unless you can catch aglimpse of one at noon-tide, sleeping soundly in thehollow of a tree. When night comes, they leap frombough to bough with the greatest animation, especiallyif it be moonlight. Some species, with thin mem-branes between the fore and hind paws, can take aflying leap of, sometimes, thirty yards from tree totree ; and hence they are called flying squirrels, thoughperfectly distinct in their nature from that animal.

While the naturalists were thus adding to theirstore of knowledge concerning the fauna of Australia,one of the sailors thought he would not be behindband in exploration. On his return from a ramble inthe woods one day, he told his messmates that he hadseen the " devil." Every one Was anxious to have a


description of the enemy of mankind, and Jack de-

scribed him as follows :—" He was as large as a one-gallon keg, and very like it ; he had horns and wings,yet he crept so slowl3 through the grass, that if Ihad not been afeard, I might ha. e touched him."It turned out that he had seen a large bat, of whichthere are many in the northern parts of Australia, towhich the name of flying-foxes has been given, as ata distance they have some resemblance to that animal.Some have considered them like the fabulous bat calledthe vampire, which was supposed to suck human bloodand fan its sleeping victim with its wings.

Besides being the first to discover specimens of theprincipal animals forming the Australian fauna, themembers of this expedition saw numerous less im-portant species of the feline and reptile families ; ofthe latter were snakes, venomous and non-venomous,and large lizards, guanas, and frogs, that broke thesilence of the night with their deep-toned croaking.

The ,birds were also plentiful and of great variety ;many with brilliant plumage, such as the loriquets,parrots, pigeons, ducks, and many small birds notknown in Europe. Of the duck kind they saw thatanomalous species commonly called the whistling duck,which, as its name implies, does not quack but makesa kind of whistling noise ; while it is less aquatic in itshabits than its fellow species, and is frequently foundroosting on trees some distance from lakes and ponds.In the sea, also, among the coral reefs, the waterseemed to abound with fish, some whose scales were asbrilliant in colour as the feathers of the parrots. Butfew were good eating, as experience has proved of allthe fish in the waters of Australia and Tasmania, withthe exception of the trumpeter fish, found in the

CURIOUS EJSHES AND INSECTS. 27

Derwent at Hobart Town, where English salmon are

now introduced and are expected to thrive well. InWeymouth Bay they found enormous cockles, somehaving 20 lbs. of meat in them, and among the man-grove trees and mud banks, innumerable oysters ofvarious kinds, among them the hammer-headed oysterand pearl oyster, plentiful enough for a profitablefishery. One curious little fish of an amphibious na-ture was found leaping, by means of its breast fins,over the small stones at low-water, as nimbly as afrog, and seemed to prefer the land to the water, untilthe tide rose, when it returned to its native element.Here, also, were seen on a calm day, looking to thebottom of these coral caves through the transparentwater, the coral itself, of delicate red and pink hues,and crabs of the most brilliant colours, like their pro-totypes the fish and birds. One was adorned with thefinest ultramarine blue above, and below white, so ex-quisitely polished that it resembled the purest porcelainin brightness and tint. Nothing can exceed the beautyof these submarine gardens, covered with delicate sea-weeds and corallines, and tenanted by such beautifulcreatures. None of these bright coloured fish orcrustacea, however, are edible ; but the Cray- fish,crab, and lobster, which are edible, are found plenti-fully at certain seasons in all parts of Australia—thesehaving the homely hues of those in Europe.

Of insects an infinite variety was found, especiallybutterflies, where one species appeared in millions,filling the air and covering the trees over an area oftwo to three acres. These clouds of lepidoptera provedesolating in their progress, where they lay their eggson the vegetation, which in due season produce larvae

sufficient to eat up the grass to its very roots, over


many square miles of land, in a few days. Flightsof white butterflies have been seen on the east coast,estimated at half a mile wide, which continued tofly southward for ten hours, like a thick shower ofsnow ; and in the following season the land theypassed over was denuded of its vegetation. Equallydestructive are the flights of locusts, which resemblethose of Egypt, and prove a plague to the country,stripping it bare in a day or two of its luxuriant grass.Sometimes a pestilence arises from their rotting in avalley, where they have been driven by a cold windand killed, lying many inches deep on the ground.

But the coleoptera or beetle tribe surpass all thebright-coloured crabs, fish, and birds in the brilliancyof their elytra or wing-cases. To see them flying amongthe bushes or feeding on the flowers, one would imaginethat the gems of a jeweller's shop had suddenly takento flight in the sunshine. Not so beautiful, but evenmore interesting are the strangely formed insects ofthe phasma and mantis genera, some of which soclosely resemble decayed leaves and rotten twigs ofshrubs, as to deceive the eyes of man, and voraciousanimals which would feed upon them.

Equally curious and unknown were the plants thatMr. Banks and Dr. Solander (a learned Swiss naturalistwho accompanied Captain Cook in this expedition) dis-covered in this strange region ; which being scientifi-cally described by them in Europe, so upset the pre-vious classifications of theoretical botanists, that theirjealous spirit cast doubt upon the reports of the dis-coverers. So disgusted were Mr. Banks and his

Mr. Brown at the reception of their views,that they refrained from completing the prodromusthey had prepared. Since that time, however, their

TREES AND SHRUBS. 29

researches and profound knowledge of the science havebeen fully appreciated.

The great characteristic of Australian trees andshrubs is that they are all evergreen. Hence, al-though the leaves decay and fall off continuously,there is no general stripping of the foliage in winter,as in Europe, where the trees are deciduous. Hence,also, there is no budding in Spring, so that the forestspresent a leafy aspect all the year round. This givesa monotonous appearanCe to the landscape, comparedwith northern regions, where the fresh verdure clothesthe woods every Spring, and in the Autumn exhibittheir charming varied tints. In this strange southernland " the fall of the year," which is a household ex-pression in America., is unknown. In like manner theterm " umbrageous," which we apply to our groves andwoods where the oak and sycamore prevail, is in-applicable. The eucalyptus or gum tree forms nine-tenths of the forest trees. It has a leaf like themistletoe, having no distinct upper and under surface,and hangs from the leaf-stalk with its edge upwards.Thus it does not intercept the light, or the sun's rays ;consequently, the grass and other small plants grow asluxuriantly-in the forest as in the open plain. It istrue that there are dense " scrubs " or thickets, wherethe underwood spreads gloom around, but such areexceptional and occur in patches. Australian forestsgenerally are less thickly timbered than our openparks, and the sunlight and breeze can always pene-trate them.

Among the flowering plants, those of the heath kindpredominate, and though the flowers are small theyare brightly coloured. Few of any species have scent,with the exception of the acacias, which grow in groves


that perfume the air for miles. The fern-trees, whichattain twenty feet in height, present a more gracefulappearance in their long hanging fronds, than the leavesof the palm or cocoa-nut trees. Everywhere to the eyeof the botanist the flora of Australia presents some-thing strange, yet peculiarly adapted to the climate.Even the grasses are not like those in Europe, wherethe stems are hollow and the leaves succulent. Thestems have a pith like a rush, and the leaves are brownand dry ; yet they contain a large amount of nourish-ment, and stand the hot blasts of summer, whereEuropean grasses would' crumble into dust.

Very little more remains to be told concerning thisvoyage of scientific as well as maritime discovery which,at the time, was the theme of the civilized world, andwill be handed down to posterity as unexampled in thehistory of exploration on this terraqueous globe.

It must not be omitted, however, to mention thateven after Captain Cook had patched up the Endeavoursufficiently to warrant his prosecution of the voyage,further dangers and tribulations were in store, amongthe rocks and shoals of the Coral Sea. On this headhe remarks in his journal :—" Rocks and shoals arealways dangerous to the mariner, even where their situa-tion has been ascertained. They are more dangerousin those seas which have never been navigated ; and inthis part of the globe they are more dangerous thanany other ; for here they are reefs of coral rock, risinglike a wall almost perpendicularly out of the unfathom-able deep ; always overflowed at high water, and at lowwater dry in many places. And here the enormouswaves of the vast Southern Ocean, meeting with soabrupt a resistance, break, with inconceivable violence,in a surf which no rocks or storms in the northern

DANGERS OF THE CORAL SEA. 31

hemisphere can produce. The danger of navigatingunknown parts of this ocean was now greatly increasedby our having a crazy ship, and being short of pro-visions and every other necessary ; yet the distinctionof a first discoverer made us cheerfully encounter everydanger, and submit to every inconvenience ; and wechose rather to incur the censure of imprudence andtemerity, which the idle and voluptuous so liberallybestow upon successful fortitude and perseverance, thanleave a country which we had discovered, unexplored,and give colour to a charge of timidity and irreso-lution."

After many hair-breadth escapes, this courageousnavigator and his officers piloted the crazy _Endeavoursafely through the Great Barrier Reefs of the CoralSea, and sailed round Cape York, anchoring in safetyamong a cluster of isles to the westward. On one ofthese they landed, as Cook relates :—" We immediatelyclimbed the highest hill, which was not more thanthree times as high as the mast head, and the mostbarren of any we had seen. From this hill no landcould be seen between the S.W. and W.S.W., so thatI had no doubt of finding a channel through. As Iwas now about to quit the eastern coast of NewHolland, (which I had coasted from latitude 38° to thisplace, and which I am confident no European had everseen before), I once more hoisted English colours ; andthough I had taken possession already of several parti-cular parts, I now took possession of the whole easterncoast, from latitude 38° to this place 10° 30 ! south,in right of his Majesty King George III., by thename of New South Wales, with all its bays, harbours,rivers and islands situated upon it. We then firedthree volleys of small arms, which were answered by


the same number from the ship. Having performedthis ceremony upon the island, we called it PossessionIsland."

When these facts were published in London, to-gether with the long roll of discoveries, accompaniedby charts of the most correct character, determiningthe great geographical problem in which every mari-time state was interested, the whole of Europe, bytacit consent, acknowledged England's claim to theterritory, comprising nearly one-half of this vastisland-continent.

CHAPTER II.

EXPLORATION OF THE INTERIOR.

Surgeon Bass determines the Island of Tasmania, and the strait namedafter him in 1798—Survey of the Coast of Australia—Twenty-five yearsexploration around Sydney—The Duck-billed Water Mole—The Lyre-tail Pheasant—The Australian Eagle—The Emu—Evans crosses the BlueMountains in 1813— Bathurst Plains—Rivers with large fish—Oxleydetermines the Australian Cordillera—Explorations by Hume,Cunningham,Sturt, Mitchell, Strzlecki, Leichhardt, and Kennedy —Pine-trees of theTropic—The Sea-cow, Alligator, and Buffalo found in Tropical Aus-tralia—Attempts to reach the Central Region—Gregory from the Westand North fails—Stuart succeeds in 1858; and in 1862 crosses the Con-tinent from South to North—Burke and Wills succeed also in 1861, batperish in the attempt—Leroy and Gregory explore the Western sectiort-Geographical character of that region—Numerous Salt Lakes in CentralAustralia—Eyre explores the South Shore from Spencer Gulf to KingGeorge Sound—Physical Geography of Australia; divided between theTemperate and Tropical zones—Altitude of the Mountain Chains—Variedcharacter.of the land; its sterility and fertility—Universal salubrity ofthe Climate—Geology of Australia; showing the character of its Gold-bearing Rocks—Great Plateaux of Basalt, intersected with Granite andPorphyry—Carboniferous formation in the East Region—Tertiary For-mation in the South-east, Central and West Regions—Australian Alps—Evidence of this Island Continent having been an Archipelago duringthe Tertiary Epoch.

IF the reader had a dissected map of Australia withthe coast line in sections, as described in the chrono-logical order of discovery in the preceding chapter,and dove-tailed them together, a tolerably well definedconfiguration of this vast island-continent would beobtained. The only difference would be, an hiatus atBass Strait, between the island of Tasmania and themainland. This portion was filled in with a dotted

34 EXPLORATION OF THE INTERIOR.

line on the earlier charts, as if that space were hindinstead of water. The island (under the name ofVan Diemen's Land) was, by Tasman, laid down aspart of the mainland. This erroneous conjecture washeld until the year 1798—twenty-eight years afterCook's first voyage of discovery, and ten years afterthe formation of the settlement at Sydney. Betweenthese periods, Captain Cook twice visited Tasmania,and his coadjutor, Captain Tobias Furneaux, once.At each time a few new headlands and bays wereadded to the chart of its eastern coast, also agroup of islands in the strait that bears the latternavigator's name. But strange to say, neither of themventured far enough to the westward, to determinewhether there was a passage or not in that direction.This unusual oversight on the part of Cook, can onlybe accounted for by the fact that Furneaux, who sailedfarthest into the strait, (but in thick and stormyweather.) had given it as his decided opinion that therewas "no strait between New Holland and b ran Diemen'sLand, but a very deep bay." Acting on this supposition,ships bound for Sydney, made the voyage round theisland of Tasmania, thereby lengthening the routeseveral hundred miles ; which could have been saved ifthey had known of the existence of Bass Strait.

This strait was named by Philip Gedley King, thesecond governor of New South Wales, in the year 1798,in honour of Mr. Bass, surgeon of His Majesty's shipReliance, who discovered its existence and was the firstto circumnavigate Tasmania. This he performed in asmall decked sloop called the NOVolle, built of the pinefrom Norfolk Island. It was his second attempt toexplore that part of the coast. In the first he wasfrustrated by not having a boat large enough to

DISCOVERY OF BASS STRAIT. 35

encounter the heavy sea and swell west of Cape Bowe ;but he was confirmed in his opinion that an openpassage of considerable width existed be yond. After acruise of three months he returned and solicited thegovernor to grant him a suitable craft to prosecute hisvoyage further. This was acceded to, and his requestthat Lieutenant Flinders of the Reliance, with a pickedcrew from that and other of the king's ships in harbour,should accompany him, was likewise granted ; with in-structions to both officers that they should examinecarefully as to the existence of a strait, or otherwise.Bass was successful, and his companion Flinders after-wards became famous as a maritime surveyor of thecoast discovered by Cook, and the navigators that pre-ceded him. From this circumstance, some writers haverendered to Flinders the honour of first discovery, whichwithout any evidence, he is represented to have named.Bass Strait, out of courtesy to his companion and fellowofficer. To Bass is due the whole credit, as his journalamply testifies—a narrative which exhibits the superiorknowledge of a university graduate conversant withthe physical sciences, as compared with that of a merelynaval education. It does not detract from the subse-quent reputation of Flinders to say that he was only afellow voyager of Bass during his successful determina-tion of the geographical problem.

The general outline of Australia being properlydefined, it now became a matter of importance tosurvey correctly the indentations and sinuosities ofthe coast in detail. This desideratum was the constantstudy of the British Government, after the country hadbeen practically taken possession of by establishing thepenal settlement at Sydney, in the harbour of PortJackson. Instructions were sent out to the governors


to forward the progress of discovery by fitting outlocal expeditions to explore the adjacent bays andrivers ; while surveying ships were dispatched fromtime to time to ascertain correctly the latitude andlongitude of every cape, point, or headland, with a boatsurvey of the shore, so that the outlet of no rivershould escape them. Soundings of all channels andharbours were also to be made. Some idea of the her-culean task before these hydrographers may be formedfrom the fact that the coast line of Australia, followingits sinuosities, is not less than ten thousand miles inextent. Upwards of half a century was devoted tothis work ; and it has been efficiently carried out,regardless of cost, by the Admiralty under everygovernment ; so that the charts published by themare unequalled for correctness of detail, and are used topilot the ships of every maritime nation through theseseas. To furnish even a slight sketch of what ourhydrographic surveyors have accomplished would bechiefly of technical interest, and would take up toomuch space. But the reader will glean sufficient fromthe map to comprehend the nature and variety of thisextensive fringe of coast. At the same time, as thehistory progresses, the details of navigable harbourswill be given in chronological order, as they lead tothe formation of new settlements and colonies.

Having thus far traced the progress of maritimediscovery to a satisfactory solution of the general con-figuration of Australia, it is necessary now to followthe footsteps of the undaunted explorers of its terraincognita, who personally encountered dangers andprivations which none of the navigators experienced.Many of them have fallen a sacrifice to theirenthusiasm in the cause of geographical discovery.

FIRST ATTEMPTS. 37

When the first expedition landed on the shores ofBotany Bay, to take practical possession of the wholecountry, the map they had for their guidance was anentire blank. Even the land they first located them-selves on, after abandoning the spot originally markedout, was perfectly unknown, and it was by mereaccident that it turned out more suitable for theirpurpose than could have been expected. From neces-sity they were the first explorers of the interior, andslow indeed was their progress, in consequence of morepressing duties requiring all their time and attention.Even after a residence on shore of fifteen years, theextent of country actually traversed by successiveparties sent out to explore the land, was not muchlarger than an English county.

In contemplating the position of England, only sixtyyears since, in her Australian dominions, it seems almostludicrous to find that infant colony—a bad and feeblechild of the Anglo-Saxon stock—assuming the task ofexploring the vast undiscovered regions beyond. Itwas as if a party of a thousand people locating them-selves at Lisbon, had attempted to explore the wholeof Europe, from that city to the farthest confines ofRussia, and from the regions bordering on the NorthSea to the Mediterranean. Nevertheless, a territory ofmore than half the extent of Europe has been exploredby the unflinching pluck, and indomitable perseveranceof these travellers through the wilderness.

Sydney, the foundation of our Australian ColonialEmpire, stands on the bays and coves of Port Jack-son, where the points of land rise into rocky sandstonehills. The highest of these, some 200 feet, was clearedof timber, and a windmill erected on it, from whence

the country could be seen for a considerable distance

38 EXPLORATION OF TIIE INTERIOR.

north and south, with the ocean to the eastward.In the far west, a glimpse was obtained of some highmountains, which were distinguished from the inter-vening hills by a cerulean hue in the landscape. Hencethey were familiarly termed the Blue Mountains. Fortwenty-five years after the formation of the settle-ment, these mountains were the object of continualspeculation as to what they contained, and the aspectof the country beyond. To reach them was the am-bition of every one in the colony. As the excursionsof the parties already alluded to gradually extended,they became more familiar with the country, and manyglimpses of this mountain barrier were obtained whichthe more incited the enterprising to ascend it. Likethe circles in a pool of water after a pebble is thrownin, so did the known boundary of the settlement widenin circuit from year to year. Still, it was not to beexpected that the military and civil officers on the es-tablishment could spare much time from their regularduties for exploration. Hence the governors urged thehome government, from time to time, to send out com-petent surveyors with an efficient staff to explore theinterior.

Meanwhile, as the colonists penetrated inland, theydiscovered animals and plants of different genera andspecies from those found near the coast. So slow,however, were the additions to the fauna and flora ofthe country, that ten years after the settlement wasestablished on the shores of Port Jackson, scarcelyanything had been added to the stock of naturalhistory since the time of Captain Cook. In 1797 oneof the strangest of all the strange animals in thatcountry, was discovered on the banks of a lake near theHawkesbury liver. This animal, of from twelve to

THE DUCK-BILLED WATER MOLE. 39

eighteen inches long, had been frequently observed risingto the surface of the water and blowing like a turtle ;after which, it descended to the bottom, where it fedupon something in the muddy places, and then crepton shore, and burrowed in the soft ground like a mole.Some of them being caught, they were found to have aflattened body and tail covered with soft fur, like abeaver ; and the feet were webbed between the claws.But the most extraordinary part of its structure wasthe head, with very small eyes, and instead of themouth of a quadruped, it had the upper and lowermandibles of a duck. Other peculiar parts of thisamphibious creature were described, and specimenssent to Sir Everard Home, the famous anatomist ofthe day, who described it as a lusus naturw, giving itthe name of ornithorynehus paradoxus. Since thenanother species has been discovered, and they areclassed by naturalists as monotrematous edentate mam-mals, the body covered with hair, a bill like a duck,teeth planted in a kind of gums, webbed feet, and onthe hinder leg a venomous spur connected with areservoir of poison in the soles of the feet, which issupplied by glands situated by the side of the spine,above the pelvis. Thus in this animal we have a linkin creation between the reptile, quadruped and bird.

In the month of February, 179S, a beautiful additionwas made to the birds hitherto known, by an acci-dental circumstance peculiar to the settlement. Threerunaway convicts returned exhausted with fatigue, afterendeavouring to live in the interior without labour,having travelled in a westerly direction about 140miles, which was further than any one had previouslygone. In their weary travels they heard a bird singdelightfully in the morning for an hour and more,


imitating the notes of other birds ; and on following upthe sound, discovered the songster standing on a smallhillock. It was about the size of a pheasant, but hada beautiful spreading tail like a peacock. These menbrought some of the skins with them which were muchadmired. This induced others to capture or shootspecimens, so as to observe the true characteristics ofthis newly discovered bird. It was the lyre-tail, ormenura superba Lyra of naturalists, belonging to thefamily megapodina. of which this is the only knownspecies. " Its size is a little less than that of acommon pheasant. The tail of the male is remark-able for the three sorts of feathers that compose it,and notwithstanding the sombre hues of this bird,the magnificence and peculiar structure of the tail,which imitates the form of an ancient Grecian lyre,give it a superb appearance." The female has not thisappendage, her tail being plainly composed of twelvefeathers a little curved and plumed, having the upperside dark, rufous, and grey, and the under of a pearlycolour.

Another splendid addition to the feathered tribe wasmade in January 1800, when the Australian eagle wasfirst seen, and a specimen captured. This occurred atBroken Bay, a short distance north of Port Jackson,where he pounced down upon a convict (who was lyingin the bottom of a boat with his legs tied together,)and struck his talons through the man's foot. " Itstood three feet high, and during the ten days that itwas a prisoner, was remarkable for refusing to be fed byany but one particular person. Among the natives itwas an object of wonder and fear, and they could neverbe prevailed upon to go near it. They asserted that it

would carry off a middling-sized kangaroo. It had

NEW SURVEYING STAFF. 41

been intended to be sent to England ; but one morning

it was found to have divided the strands of a ropewith which it was fastened, and escaped."

This unsuccessful capture was shortly followed bythe crowning ornithological discovery of the Australianostrich, which has been erroneously called the emu,after the cassowary of the Eastern archipelago, towhich it bears resemblance, only it has not the helmeton its head by which that bird is distinguished. Thesebirds are, however, all closely allied to each other,having only the rudiments of wings, without the powerto raise their heavy bodies from the ground ; but bytheir aid they can run as fast as a swift horse. Theemu differs from the ostrich in having only three toes.Its eggs are about the size of a cocoa-nut, indentedlike orange-peel, and of a dark green colour. They aresimply laid on the grass ; and as many as eleven arehatched without any nest to protect them. Thefeathers are small considering the size of the bird, andare joined together in pairs ; those round the neck aremore like hair than feathers.

It was not until the year 1812, that an efficientsurveying staff was formed in the colony of New SouthWales, with Mr. Oxley, as Surveyor-General, andMr. Evans as the Deputy Surveyor of Lands. Thelatter gentleman arrived first in the settlement, andset about his business "with alacrity, ascertaining towhat extent the country had been explored, and whatwere the difficulties to be overcome in its further ex-ploration. On enquiry he found that two enterprisingcolonists named Wentworth and Blaxland, the formera native of the colony, had penetrated into the interior,

and discovered fine grassy plains, beyond the great

mountain barrier. All agreed that it was of paramount


importance to ascend and cross the Blue Mountainsto explore the western country, in order to find apath to these new pastures for the sheep and cattleof the free settlers, which were increasing so fast thatthe feed was becoming insufficient on the east side ofthe range. Mr. Evans thereupon formed a strong

party, well equipped for the task, and started on hisjourney into the interior, on the 15th March, 1813.On reaching the mountains they presented a mostformidable barrier to his progress ; precipices rose inmural grandeur composed of granite and basalt, tower-ing in many places to a perpendicular height of 1500feet, and in others forming wild, rocky, impassableglens and ravines of many miles in extent. Whatsurprised him most was to find that everywhere thesemountains were covered with trees, chiefly of the gum-tree kind, most of them of gigantic growth, and grow-ing where the soil was scanty, among the clefts of theocks or on the steep mountain slope. These gave

a sombreness and grandeur to the forest scenery, whichstruck the pioneers with a feeling of awe, as theytoiled up the ascent. Occasionally, however, theywere charmed by the contrast of some pleasing spotwith a verdant mead, through which trickled tinyrivulets, flowing into some stream in the undiscoveredcountry beyond.

After travelling upwards of fifty miles among theserocky defiles, Mr. Evans and his party successfullyaccomplished the ascent, through a narrow pass ; whenthey suddenly emerged from a dense forest on to anopen plain, thinly wooded with stunted and small trees,but covered with high and luxuriant grass. To thewest, south and north, the plain extended, formingnearly a level horizon to the eye, from which it was

SITE OF BATHURST. 43

evident that they had reached a table land, like thesavannahs of America, or the steppes of Tartary ; onlythese lands had the pleasant appearance of an Englishpark in some places, and in others were as if in a stateof cultivation. Through these plains a beautiful clearstream ran over a pebbly bed, in which fish, weighingfrom twenty-five to fifty pounds, were caught, whileabundance of ducks, black swans, and wild geese floatedon its surface. On the grassy plains were seen nume-mns kangaroos, emus, bustards, wild turkeys, quails,and in the trees, bronzed-winged pigeons and otherkinds of birds. After passing through the inhospita-ble barrier that divided this region from that on thecoast, it seemed to these explorers a Garden of Eden.Two years afterwards, this spot was visited by GovernorMacquarie and suite, which they reached on a goodroad formed by convict labour. Here the Governorfixed the site for the town of Bathurst, near which,thirty-eight years subsequently, the great gold dis-covery of Australia was first made.

During the latter part of 1813, Mr. Evans madefurther explorations in the western country, and tracedthe river at Bathurst for 140 miles. He found itflowing in a general north-west direction ; from whichhe concluded that it was the upper part of a river aslong as any of the great American rivers, traversingthe entire continent, with its outlet in the IndianOcean, or somewhere on the far northern coast. Inthis supposition he was mistaken, as it proved to beonly one of the affluents of the Darling River, itselfa tributary of the Murray, which debouches onthe south coast. There is nothing so uncertain ingeography as the probable course of unexplored rivers,and those of Australia turned out to be most deceiving.


Mr. Oxley, the Surveyor-General, followed up theexplorations of Mr. Evans in 1816-17; when hetraced the Ma‘:;quarie and Lachlan rivers, until theywere apparently absorbed in the extensive marshes ofthe interior. But the chief point he determined wasthe fact that the Blue Mountains were only a smallsection of the great dividing range, trending northand south to the extreme latitudes of Eastern Aus-tralia, and forming the great system of rivers upon itseast and west flanks, which will be seen on referring tothe map. There it may be observed that the easternstreams are very numerous and none of any great ex-tent, as their general course is direct to the sea ; con-sequently, having on an average not more than ahundred miles to run from their sources, at an eleva-tion of 1200 to 1800 feet, they are all rapid streams.On the other hand, the western rivers, have to runfrom ten to twenty times that distance before theyreach the sea level, hence they are sluggish in thegreater part of their course, and form, by the way, ex-tensive marshes and marshy lagoons. Although thereis no river in this system of waters to be compared tothe Amazon or the Mississippi, yet the Murray Riverand its affluents drain an area as large as the wholeof France : and the length of its course from thefurthest source is not far short of 1500 miles.

To explore this region and define its mountainsand rivers, together with those that flow down theopposite flanks of the dividing range, all the effortsof the local government and the skill of the sur-veying staff, were directed for thirty years afterEvans and Oxley had determined the general physical:geography of that region. At the time, as each freshdiscovery of a river, a chain of mountains, or, what was

EARLY EXPLORERS. 45

more important, new pastoral and agricultural landswas made known to the world, the interest of theBritish nation became centred therein for the timebeing, until subsequent explorations eclipsed their pre-decessors. Many volumes have been written by thesetravellers, detailing their daily march through thewilderness, with a minuteness and fidelity that standsin favourable contrast with the romantic and incorrectnarratives of the early discoverers on the west coast.

Among these, the names most conspicuous are thoseof Hove11 and Hume, two enterprising settlers, whofollowed down the Murrumbidgee and Y ass rivers totheir junction with the great Murray River, and thenceto the western shores of Port Phillip, now the wealthycolony of Victoria ; of Allan Cunningham, who, afterdiscovering extensive grazing downs and plains west ofthe dividing range, was lost, and died somewhere inthe wilderness ; of Captain Sturt, who has been de-signated the "Father of Australian exploration," ashe was the first to penetrate furthest inland, towardsthe central part of the continent, and point out theposition of the colony of South Australia in 1829 ; ofSir Thomas Mitchell, who, in 1832-36, traced thecourse of the Lachlan River and its tributaries, whichflow into the Murray, and the extensive grazing landsthrough which they run ; and of Count Strzlecki, anadventurous Polish nobleman and exile, who penetratedthe dense forests of the Australian Alps, and deter-mined the height of the highest mountain in Australiaamong these peaks at 6,500 feet, which he namedMount Kosciusko, in memory of the renowned nationalpatriot of his native country.

On referring to the map, it will be seen that thisarea of exploration is within the temperate zone of


the Southern Hemisphere ; and although the countrywas almost or entirely unoccupied, still the ex-plorers, by judicious management, could return tothe settlement at Port Jackson for succour, if distressbefel them. From the salubrity of the climate noneof them fell victims to disease, though at timesthey were reduced to great straits for want of food.Those, on the contrary, who explored the northernsystem of waters, were so far removed from the settleddistricts, and suffered so much from the humid heat ofthe tropical zone, that few survived to tell the tale ofthe difficulties they had to encounter, and live to enjoythe fame of their discoveries. Among these martyrsto geographical science, was Ludwig Leichhardt, aGerman doctor of medicine, an enthusiast in the studyof botany and kindred natural sciences.. Had alonging desire, amounting to a passion, to explore theunknown regions of Australia. For this purpose hesaved what little money lie could, and aided by thebounty of an English physician of Bath, named Nicol-son, he arrived in New South Wales, to undertake theherculean task of crossing from the east to the westcoast. The local government having faith in his ability,and several wealthy colonists being persuaded by hisenthusiasm, supplemented his means ; whereby heformed a party of volunteer explorers, but still withslender equipment. They started on their journey inSeptember 1814, and, although the object of crossingthe west coast was not accomplished, they exploredtropical Australia for a distance of 1500 miles to thecentral northern coast, at Port Essington, reachingthat haven in December 1845, after being given up bythe colonists as lost. Note ithstanding the dangers en-countered, especially from hostile aborigines—who killed

ANOTHER GOVERNMENT EXPEDITION. 47

one of his little band—he resolved on making anotherattempt to penetrate as far as the shores of the IndianOcean, and again started with a volunteer party, thistime well equipped, in March 1S4S. He and his bravecompanions never returned, and no tidings of their fateor their remains have transpired.

In the same year, a government expedition, formedunder the direction of Edmund Kennedy of the surveydepartment, endeavoured to explore the eastern flankof the Australian cordillera within the tropics, but itcame to a disastrous termination before anything im-portant could be accomplished. Out of a party ofthirteen, including an aboriginal guide, only three sur-vived, and the native guide was the only one whotravelled the whole projected route. Six of the partydied from starvation, and four fell victims to theferocity of the natives, among whom was Mr. Kennedy,the leader. The friendly native who saw him die, afterthe spear was drawn that caused. his death wound, re-lated the circumstance, and how he buried him, in thefollowing simple and affecting words : " He then said,Jackey give me paper, and I will write.' I gave him

paper and pencil, and he tried to write ; and he thenfell back and died. And I caught him as he fell back,and held him, and I then turned round myself 'andcried ; I was crying a good while until I got well ; thatwas about an hour, and then I buried him ; I diggedup the ground with a tomahawk, and covered him overwith logs, grass, and my shirt and trousers ; that nightI left him near dark."

The fauna and flora of Eastern tropical Australia,though presenting the same general characteristics asthe • temperate region, yet include additional generaand species peculiar to the higher range of temperature.


In the botanical field, there are many rare trees andshrubs, which give a diversity to the forest scenerynot found in the south. Of the former, the most con-spicuous is the auracaria, belonging to the familyof coniferm, and analagous to the pines of Europe. Itis obvious, however, that those which grow in equa-torial latitudes, must be very different in their habitto their congeners which flourish up to the Arctic circle.Either species die if transplanted to the region ofthe other. And what is also strange, eminent botanistshave discovered that these auracarias are preciselysimilar in structure to the extinct fossil conifers foundin the coal formation of Europe. As an ornamentaltree of the pine family, there are none to equal thegraceful beauty of the Moreton Bay pine, (auracariaCunninghanzii), or the Norfolk Island pine (A. excelsa).But the largest in height, size of leaf and cone, is thebunya-bunya tree (A. Bidwellii), found in Queens-land only, within a circumscribed limit of a few

degrees in area, between 26° and 28° S. lat., and 152°and 153° E. longitude. This magnificent pine reaches200 feet in height, branching only within a third ofthe top, on which grow the cones as large as a man'shead. These cones contain from fifty to a hundredseeds, which are edible and very nutritious. In tasteand size they resemble the chestnut. The aboriginesare very fond of them, and grow sleek and fat upon thisdiet. It is remarkable that the trees bear these conesonly once in four years, then lasting a period of sixmonths. At this season the natives assemble from farand near, frequently coming from a distance of 200miles, to hold what they term the great " bunya-hunya" festival, when a larger number congregate thanat any other place or occasion known on the con-

BIRDS AND ANIMALS OF THE TROPICS. 49

tinent. The demolition of these trees is prohibitedby an act of the legislature, under heavy penalties.

Among the birds in this tropical region is a crane,from three to four feet high, with beautiful metallic-tinted plumage, and a bill twelve inches long. Severallarge and bright feathered parrots, paroquets, andcockatoos, and some of the smallest and most beau-tiful doves in the world, roost in the trees. Tortoises,and sometimes crocodiles, are found in the rivers,and turtle in the bays ; here, also, an animal fami-liarly named the sea-cow, is seen feeding on thegrassy sea-weed. This creature is cetaceous, and weighsfrom ten to thirteen hundred weight. Its flesh istolerably good eating, something like beef. Betweenthe skin and flesh is a rich blubber, from which an oil isextracted, which has proved efficacious in arresting con-sumption, by strengthening the patient, and is now anarticle of commerce. Leichhardt, in crossing the streamsthat flow into the Gulf of Carpentaria, came uponcrocodiles ; and as he travelled through the forests tothe extreme north, he found buffalos. As no indica-tions of the buffalo are met with beyond a small dis-tance from the northern shore, it is doubtful whetherthat animal is indigenous to Australia. Moreover it isexceptional to the peculiar marsupial character thatdistinguishes the fauna of that country. The sameexception applies to the dingo, which is not unlikethe jackal of Asia ; so that it is not unscientific toconclude that these animals have migrated from thatquarter of the globe, having crossed by the chain ofislands from the great Eastern Archipelago.

The failure of the expeditions under Leichhardt andKennedy, in 1848, seemed to damp the energies of thelocal government and colonists in prosecuting further


explorations. The home government, however, had theirattention drawn to the advisability of endeavouring toascertain the true nature of central Australia ; whichwas supposed to be a desert, in consequence of the hotwinds proceeding from that quarter in the summertowards the east and south coasts. It was first mootedat the Royal Geographical Society, and brought for-mally before the head of the administration, who,without hesitation, gave his assent to a small grant ofmoney for the purpose. At this time (1854) a gentle-man named Gregory was in England, who had someexperience in Australian exploration, and he was en-trusted with the command of an expedition to try andreach central Australia from the north-west coast. Inthe following year he ascended the Victoria River ofStokes, and penetrated upwards of three hundred milesinto the interior. His discoveries confirmed all pre-

.viotil suppositions that it was desert land.iprs is expedition to determine the nature of the central

fief a Australis incognita, which still appeared on theMaps, revived the dormant desire of the colonists toknow the best or the worst of their adopted country—a feeling in which the local authorities agreed ; and theVictoria Government, in order to encourage enterprisingmen, offered a reward of a thousand pounds to the firstparty that should cross the central region from southto north, or vice versa. Meanwhile, a South Australiancolonist named John McDouall Stuart, in 1858, pene-trated to a distance of about 500 miles in a north-westdirection from the head of Spencer Gulf, making a detourthrough the country, when he discovered some goodgrazing land, several mountain ranges, and numeroussmall streams and salt lagoons. Being an intrepidbushman, he ventured almost alone in exploring the

STUART CROSSES FROM SOUTH TO NORTH. 51

country. He concluded that such expeditions mightbe extended to any distance, provided he could getcompanions like himself, who would be content to sub-sist on the smallest possible quantity of food, withouthampering themselves with baggage. He succeeded,in 1860, in getting two companions of this kind, withwhom he crossed the centre of the country ; andreached as far north as lat. 18° 40', when he was com-pelled to retrace his steps, on account of meeting ahostile tribe of natives, who barred his further progress.When Stuart returned to Adelaide, announcing that hehad discovered a comparatively fine tract of country,extending even to the centre, (where a mountain standsnamed after him, in commemoration of the event) theGovernment at once acceded to his request to send himforth again with a stronger party, properly equipped.This was done in March 1861, and with four compa-nions inured to bush travelling, lie started on his jour-ney, keeping the same route as he had done previously.He penetrated beyond his former farthest point, anddid not meet with the same hostility from the natives ;still the party had to use their firearms to keep themat bay. Without any serious mishap, the journey wassuccessfully accomplished on the 19th July, 1862, whenhe and his little band of explorers stood upon the shoresof Van Diemen Gulf, which is washed by the waves ofthe Arafura Sea. It was upwards of fifteen hundredmiles, in a straight line, from their starting point at thehead of Spencer Gulf, where the swell of the SouthernOcean rolls with tremendous force into its open estuary.

These intrepid explorers were, however, not the firstto travel from sea to sea, across this vast island-con-tinent. That geographical exploit was achieved twelvemonths previous to their arrival at Van Diemen Gulf,

52 EXPLORXTION OF THE INTERIOlt.

by a party of explorers from Melbourne, under theleadership of Robert O'Hara Burke, a superintendentof the Victorian mounted police ; who was accompaniedby William Wills as surveyor and astronomer; HermanHeckler, medical officer and geologist ; Ludwig Becker,artist and naturalist ; John King, and eight associates;Purcell and Gray, working men ; and three IndianSepoys in charge of six camels. It was a cumbrousand expensive expedition, and though the object wasattained, yet the whole party suffered disaster. Thecamels were lost and the majority of the men turnedback or were left behind, ere they reached half wayacross, while three died of scurvy. Out of the re-mainder, only four had strength and courage to pro-secute the journey. They crossed the central regionbetween 300 and 400 miles east of Stuart's track, andreached the head of the Gulf of Carpentaria on the11th February, 1861—a month previous to the depar-ture of the more compact South Australian expedition.Stuart returned to enjoy the fame of his explorations.But it is painful to relate the fate of the other party.Burke and Wills, with the men Gray and King, reachedthe northern coast ; but of this remnant of a greatparty, only King returned to give an account of itssuccess, and the fate of its gallant leader ; who, withhis no less worthy coadjutor Wills, died on theirreturn to the south, within 150 miles of the settleddistricts. The result of these latest and most famousof Australian explorations proves that a small lightlyequipped party is better for such expeditions thanthose that are large and heavily furnished. It is amelancholy satisfaction to add that the remains ofBurke and Wills were afterwards conveyed to Mel-bourne and buried with all possible honour at the

SAD FATE OF BURKE AND WILLS. 53

public expense ; and that an appropriate monumenthas been erected in that city to the memory of thesemartyrs to the cause of Australian exploration.

While the fate of these explorers remained uncertain,the governments of Victoria and New South Walessent expeditions to the head of Carpentaria Gulf, tosuccour them if possible, and return overland. Accord-ingly one party under Landsborough, followed upFlinder's River in 1862, which Burke and Wills hadcrossed in the previous year. In returning he tracedthat river up to its source in the mountains of Queens-land, and then discovered the source of the ThomsonRiver flowing south, which added considerably to thegeographical knowledge of that country. Another party,under McKinlay, started in the same year from theLeichhardt River, about 100 miles west of the Flinder's,and traversed a great tract of unknown country incentral Australia. While these parties started froma northern point, one under Howitt proceeded fromthe south, and were fortunate in rescuing King froman untimely fate at Cooper Creek, but too late to savethe lives of Burke and Wills, whose remains werefound on the banks of that stream.

To complete this sketch of the subject it onlyremains to glance briefly at the progress of discoveryin West Australia. Here a comparatively small partof the terra incognita has been explored ; still that issufficient to furnish data, approximately correct, todetermine the general character of the remainder.The most indefatigable of travellers through thisregion has been Gregory, now Surveyor-General ofQueensland ; who, after his fruitless

1journey towards

the interior in 1856, from the north coast, made asecond effort from the western shore, where ten years


previously he had opened up the country, whichhitherto had been but imperfectly known. Nor mustthe name of Lefroy be omitted, who, in 1863, pene-trated to a distance of 400 miles in a north-eastdirection towards the interior, from the Swan Riversettlement at Perth. These and numerous shortexplorations, indicate the existence of better de-scriptions of land and herbage inland, than thatsituated near the coast. The general character of thecountry is, however, not so uniform as that in theeastern colonies. No great mountain chain has beenobserved to correspond with the one on the east coast.The mountain ranges are short and isolated, with saltlakes between, sometimes at an elevation of 1400 feetabove the level of the sea ; apparently a continuationof the extensive salt lakes in South Australia, at alower level. Between these lagoons, the country hasnot been explored, but the coast line was traversed onfoot in 1840 by Edward John Eyre and a small party,who encountered the greatest privations, under whichseveral succumbed ; but this undaunted explorerarrived at Albany, King George Sound, after ajourney of 1400 miles from the head of Spencer Gulf.In all that distance he did not meet with the outlet ofa river worth mentioning, so that he concluded thedrainage of the water sheds was inland. Along thegreat Australian Bight, a precipitous ridge of cliffsrises to a height of 400 feet close to the sea, whichforms an effectual barrier to the encroachments of theocean on the one hand, and the waters of the land uponthe other. The aspect of the country, as far as hecould see from the limited range of his track, was ofthe most sterile character, in many places appearinglike a turbulent sea of drift sand.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE. 55

Presuming that the foregoing concise account ofmaritime discovery and inland exploration has renderedthe reader familiar with the contour and superfices ofAustralia, a summary of its physical geography andgeology will complete the description. It is importantto observe, that its meteorological position in thesouthern hemi-atmosphere is very nearly dividedbetween the tropical and temperate zones. A linedrawn along the parallel of 26° latitude nearly bisectsthe island, and divides the influence of these solarbelts pretty equally. Its extreme length is upwards of2500 miles from east to west ; the greatest breadthfrom north to south, 1960 miles ; with an averagewidth of about 1000 miles, and forming an areaestimated at 2,967,500 square miles—equal to aboutthree-fourths the extent of the European continent,and thirty-two times the size of England. Its greatmountain chain, or Cordillera, possesses all the varietiesof climate incident to its position between 10° and 40°of south latitude, which is further influenced by thealtitudes varying from the sea-level in the tropicalregion to the snowy alps in the temperate clime. Sothat to speak of the climate of Australia as one wouldof England or Scotland, would be more erroneous thanan estimate of the whole of Europe from this smallisland of Great Britain.

Moreover, under these atmospheric influences, theland presents no one great distinguishable feature.We see in its varied surface of mountains, valleys andplains, a congeries of lands, intersected by rivers andlakes, and alternating between the most barren andfertile soils, often side by side. Its physical geography,being of this chequered character, will account in somedegree for the contradictory statements concerning the


weather and the qualities of the soil, which haveappeared in the public journals from settlers writingin different localities. There is, however, amongstall accounts—good, bad, and indifferent—a generalacquiescence in praising the purity of the atmosphere,the dryness of the climate, the intense brightness ofthe sky, and its extraordinary salubrity, even in thetropics.

Of its geological structure not so much is known asof its fauna and flora. There is, however, sufficient todetermine the general character of its rocks and pri-meval history. There is a remarkable uniformity inthe general direction of the mountain chains, whichtrend north and south ; a character which Sir RoderickMurchison, the eminent geographer and geologist,compared with the Ooral Mountains in Russia asgold-bearing rocks, and suggested to him the predic-tion, long before the gold discovery, that they wouldbe found auriferous. However, it must be observedthat the general direction of the richest gold-bearingmountains in Victoria, trend east and west ; although,be it noticed, the spurs from that chain strike gene-rally along the meridian lines. It is with no desire todetract from Murchison's renown that this exceptionis pointed out, but simply to show that such an ex-ception exists to the general rule advanced.

The nature of the rocks composing this back-boneof Australia is chiefly basalt, with alternate sections ofgranitic, porphyritic, and palmozoic rocks ; the wholeforming an immense plateau sloping gradually inlandto the central meridian, from an elevation averaging1800 feet above the sea. Between that ridge and theeast coast occur 'sandstones of the palxozoic period,and superimposed at intervals with carboniferous

CHARACTER OF AUSTRALIAN GEOLOGY. 57

strata, as in the valley of Hunter River. Amongstthe fossil remains found in these strata, it is remarkablehow similar are the genera to those of living species.This is exemplified in the coniferm and ferns, the formerof which are seen in the auracarias, and the latter inthe arborescent ferns, while these, as already observed,are analogous to the fossil plants of the coal formationin Europe. Tertiary rocks are found extending overthe south-east region inland from the alpine range,where the Murray, and its affluent the Darling, traversean immense plain before they disembogue in LakeAlexandrina. Another immense plateau of the sameformation is calculated to extend from the bluff coaston the Great Australian Bight, far inland ; and asimilar description of table-land forms the countrysouth of the Gulf of Carpentaria for an unknowndistance. As far as has been ascertained, the rocks inWest Australia are chiefly tertiary, but broken upinto small mountain ranges.

From the absence of any great mountains commen-surate with the enormous extent of country, and fromthe general horizontal formation of its rocks, it has beeninferred that the convulsions of the globe have been lessactive in this region than on the other continents. NoOttive volcanoes are seen among its many mountains,nor do recent strata indicate their existence ; its surfacegeology therefore presents a region undisturbed sincethe tertiary epoch ; at the same time it is evident thatthe upheaval of the country has been regular, thoughslow, and some geologists have observed that it is stillgoing on in certain localities. Be that as it may,Australia may be regarded as representing an extinctArchipelago, with its sea-bed upheaved beneath therays of a burning sun, which through ages has dried up


its superincumbent waters. The sea became shallowerfroth evaporation and continued upheaval, until it hasdisappeared ; except in the chasms and depressions ofthe old ocean-bed, where it still remains, forming thesalt lakes of the west and central parts—the formerabove the level of the present sea, and some of thelatter with the adjacent land below it. During thatepoch, those streams which now flow through themarshy interior, from the mountain chains, oncemingled their floods with the tide that rippled upontheir shores, when they were islands studding theextinct Australian Sea.

CHAPTER III.

NATURAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA.

Differs from Europe in its Fauna and Flora—Seasons in opposite Monthsof the Year—Their division irregular—Trees and Shrubs evergreen—Australian plants brought to Europe blossom in Winter—Anomalousnature of the native Pear-tree—Native Cherry-tree—Affinity betweenAustralian Flora and extinct fossil plants of Europe—The She-oak orCasuarina tree—Virgin's Bower climber—Vegetation generally low inscale of plants—Vast extent of primeval forests—The Wattle-tree-Eucalyptus comprises the mass of vegetation White-gum tree —Decortication of Gum-trees—Geographical distribution and limits ofthe Eucalyptus—Economy of evergreen forests—Extensive tribe of Pha-langers—Opossum ; Flying-squirrel ; Opossum-mouse—Native Bear orSloth—Mode of cooking and eating animals by Aborigines—Huntingamong the trees for game—How they ascend the trees by notching thebark—Variety of Marsupials in form and habits—Kangaroo a biped inlocomotion—How the colonists hunt the great Kangaroo—How theAborigines hunt the Brake Kangaroo or Wallaby—A Battue of Game—Marsupials a link in Creation between Mammals and Reptiles—Marsupialremains of Animals found in the Coal formation—Shells of the secondaryformation still found in Australia—Natural History of Australia exhibitsgeneral harmony through Creation.

THROUGHOUT the preceding chapters, a brief notice ofeach important discovery has been given, as the dis-coverers by sea or land found novel objects in naturalhistory to attract their attention. But, as the general.characteristics of the fauna and flora of Australia differso widely in many respects from those of Europe, aglance at their leading characteristics will be instruc-tive and interesting. The strange features of thecountry, its climate, vegetation, and indigenous animals,have been the theme of every traveller since the days

60 NATURAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA.

of Tasman. Of the seasons, we learn that Australiabeing situated in the opposite hemisphere to Britain,its seasons are exactly the reverse of ours. July is themiddle of winter, and January of summer. Thefestivities of Christmas and of the new year arecelebrated here, not, as in the old country, with doorsand windows shut, and a cheerful fire to dispel thewinter cold, but amid the oppression and the heat ofsummer, with doors and windows thrown open to invitethe refreshing breeze. We no longer hear, in thisAustralian climate, of the gentle south wind, nor of" Rude Boreas, blustering railer." The north is herethe region of heat, as the south is of cold. Thesummer extends from the first of December to theend of February.

While the extremes of heat and cold occur in theopposite months of the year, the division of theseasons into spring, summer, autumn, and winter, isby no means so clearly defined as in this country. InTasmania, where the climate approaches more to thatof England than the mainland of Australia, when thesnow falls on the mountains it remains for weeks, andthere is a decided winter. The spring and autumnare short and indefinite ; while the summer begins inOctober, and lasts from five to six months. In Victoria,the winter prevails in a milder degree. Northwards,within the temperate zone, the spring and autumnbecome less marked towards the Tropic of Capricornat Queensland. There the cold season is so mild thatit cannot be called winter in the sense known inEurope ; and as vegetation is luxuriant all the yearround, the seasons may be divided into six monthssummer, and six months autumn.

The anomaly of this division of the seasons is, to a

TREES AND SIIRTIRS EVERGREEN. 61

certain extent, more apparent than real. Their sepa-ration in the northern hemisphere is plain and obvious,in consequence of the deciduous vegetation thatprevails—the budding in spring, the blossoming insummer, the fall of the leaf in autumn, and the denu-dation of foliage in winter. Without these markedchanges in the vegetable kingdom, we should be ata loss to divide the seasons. In Australia the treesand shrubs are evergreen. There the foliage appa-rently never dies ; and it is only by the flowering ofplants and the appearance of small animals and grasses,that even the indefinite divisions of seasons can befixed. Of course, deciduous trees and shrubs fromEurope, when.transplanted, shed their leaves and shootforth buds at periods analagous to their seasons ; buteven these remain longer on the boughs than in theirnative country, with a shorter season of denudation.As they become acclimatized, this retention of the leafincreases, in some trees more than others, such as theoak : and there is reason to conclude that in time thistree and others may become evergreens, like the SouthAfrican oak, which was imported many centuries agofrom Europe, where it was deciduous.

It has been observed that plants from Europe, andpther exotic regions in the north, rapidly become ac-climatized in Australia ; while the contrary is the caseamong Australian plants brought to Europe. Thehorticulturalist has not yet succeeded in changing theflowering season of many species from their indigenou'Ssummer in December and January, to June and July.Hence the Australian heaths are the gems of ourwinter gardens. Thus it would appear that theAustralian flora clings to its own climatic habits in astrange clime with greater tenacity than most others.

G2 NATURAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA.

Thismay arise from the hard woody fibre that prevails,and the essential oils that pervade the foliage. Thougheasily destroyed by frost, they will stand the greatestheat without injury, from possessing these properties.Hence the eucalyptus, or gum-tree, can stand the hotblasts of the sirocco, while the cold damp air of winterin England would destroy that monarch of the Aus-tralian forest.

Among the curiosities of vegetation which the Aus-tralian settler points out to the new-comer, is thenative pear-tree, with the fruit springing from its stalkat the thick end, and the cherry-tree, having the stonesoutside the pulp. The former is of the size, shape, andcolour of the ordinary pear ; but it is as deceitful asthose apples of the Dead Sea, which, when a man bitesthem, fill his mouth with ashes. This native pear-treeof the colonists, is as distinct from the pear-tree ofEurope, as a pine-tree, with its hard resinous cones, isdistinct from the juicy fruit of the jargonel. They haveno affinity whatever to each other. This is a woodyseed vessel that splits up and discloses two beautifullyformed black-winged seeds, like the wings of a butter-fly, which are protected by their strong shell untilthey attain maturity. The tree received its namefrom the first settlers, on account of the shape of thiiseed vessel resembling a pear inverted.

In like manner, the native cherry-tree, " grows tothe height of ten or twelve feet, forming an elegantshrub, and a scarlet or yellow fruit, rather larger thana big pea and of a dry and acrid flavour. The sin-gularity of this fruit is, that instead of having itsstone, or seed, in the core, like the fruits of the oldworld, it has turned it out of doors, and carries it onthe outer and inferior side, opposite the stalk." There

CONTRAST OF AUSTRALIAN AND EUROPEAN FLORA. 63

is just as great a difference between this tree andthe cherry-tree of Europe, as in the case of the so-called pear-tree ; and it received its name from theearly settlers for want of a better. So, also, thereare the native currant-trees ; native mulberry ; nativeapple-tree ; the Moreton Bay chestnut, and so on.But in every instance they bear only the most distantresemblance to the true species of this country. Itwas a feeling of home association that caused thesepioneers of the Australian wilderness to give familiarnames to the trees and shrubs of their adopted country;in the same manner that they gave names to the streamsmountains, valleys, and plains, to remind them of theirbeloved mother country. Few, if any, had the requi-site knowledge of botany to classify the strange typesof vegetation that surrounded them, further thandistinguishing the most prominent anomalies, to excitethe sentiment of wonder.

To fully understand the great disparity between theflora of Australia and Europe, it must be borne inmind that of the many thousand species of plantsenumerated, only one, the fern-brake, is common toboth. To the eye of the botanist, every tree, everyshrub, every flowpr,.,present characteristics differenttr the indigenous plants of Europe. And if he has

avelled in Asia, Africa, or America, there is even thesame disparity between the flora of these quarters ofthe globe and that of this unique region. What,however, is most remarkable, is the affinity that existsbetween the living flora of Australia, and the extinctflora of Europe, the remains of which are found in thecoal formation. It is well known that the fossilconifers found in that strata, are distinct from existingpines, yet they are almost specifically the same as the

G4 NATURAL HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA.

Australian auracarias. There is another class of treesin Australia, named casuarina by botanists, which bearsgreat resemblance to the sigillaria and lepidodendronof the coal measures. This curious tree is abundant,and named the she-oak by the colonists, being a cor-ruption of the American word sheack, applied to a tree,in that country. It has no leaves proper, the pendulousarticulations which serve for that purpose are formedin the same manner as the whorls of the commonmare's tail. They are long, green and wiry, and hangdroopingly from the branches. The "average heightis about twenty feet, the trunks disproportionatelythick compared to their height, and spreading out atthe butt with firmly embedded roots. The colour ofits scanty foliage is of the darkest green, which, togetherwith the dark hue of its rough bark, renders a clumpof those trees like a black patch in the landscape. Itsfrequent habitat is by the borders of running streams,and hence it is looked out for especially by the pioneersof this arid country. But its most characteristiclocation is by the seaside, where it flourishes in densegroves. Here, upon the poorest soil, and at the utmostverge of the land, these hardy trees brave the salt spraywhich showers upon them from the surf.

While the forest scenery of Australia presentgenerally a cheerful character, like that of a park inEngland, these casuarina groves may, with equal pro-priety be designated melancholy. Seated under the darkcanopy of thread-like foliage, the wind sighs overheadas it creates a stridulous murmur amongst the fronds,producing a mournful sound, which is heightenedby the distant surge of the ocean. These strangethread-like leaves are nourishing, and relished byhorses and cattle. On the ground where they fall they

AUSTRALIAN VIRGIN BOWER. 65

are slow in decomposition and prevent the vegetationof grasses and herbs. The timber is of a hard andtough kind, and is much prized by the aborigines, whocut their boomerangs and clubs from portions of thebutt, while the tree is growing.

In contrast to the gloomy aspect of these casuarinagroves, are the beautiful climbing plants that entwinethemselves over their branches Of these, the finestis the Australian Virgin Bower (Clematis Mossmana),which was discovered amongst the scrub forests onthe Australian Alps by the botanist after whom it isnamed. It has a four-leaved, white, waxy calyx, fromtwo to three inches in diameter, inclosing a profusion ofyellow stamens and styles, which give forth a deliciousorange perfume. The flowers blossom from Octoberuntil January. Towards March and April its beautyis scarcely diminished, although the flowers are gone ;for these are succeeded by fascieulm of long featheryawns, depending from the pericarp, like bundles offloss-silk. In the locality named, it climbs up thetrunks and between the branches of casuarina andauracaria trees, hanging in festoons from tree to tree.Its climbing stem is sometimes f fty feet long, withtrifoliateleaves and serrated cordato-ovate leaflets.Nothing can exceed the delicacy of contrast betweenthe form and colour of this climber and that of thefoliage of the darkest of the dark-hued Australiantrees. Even the aborigines of the country are notinsensible to the beauty of its silky hair at seed-time.The dusky children of the forest at that time adornthemselves with these vines, by entwining them severaltimes round their heads. This silvery wreath uponthe jet-black hair of the young women has a mostpleasing effect.


As a rule, the vegetation of Australia is low in theclassification of plants. There, are very few roots orfruits suitable for human food, though the herbage,and even the trees, furnish a plentiful supply of fodderfor the lower animals, indigenous and exotic. This isexemplified in the abundance of pasture land for thefeed of sheep and cattle, which made the first steptowards prosperity in the country. At the same time,whenever any explorers have unfortunately had todepend upon supplies of food in the wilderness, wherenothing but vegetation could be procured, they havedied of inanition. Even the natives fail to procuremuch in the shape of vegetable food, and dependchiefly upon animal. In the southern zone there isa small orchid that yields a tuber, and in the north akind of yam is dug out of the ground ; but both arescarce, and contain very little nourishment. Thecabbage palm yields an edible farinaceous bud ; theseeds of the ey-cas are roasted and eaten, as also theseeds of the bunya cone in Queensland. These and afew others comprise all the indigenous edible roots andfruits in Australia.

The extent of the Australian forest-lands is incon-ceivable to an inhabitant of this country, where theprimitive woods have almost disappeared before thehand of man. There they stretch along the plainsand valleys, and even across the summits of thehighest mountains, in one unbroken line for hundredsof miles. When the grass is luxuriant, and the brightcoloured heaths sprinkle the pastures, with the treesin blossom, it is like travelling through a vast park.There are few plants in Australia that possess muchperfume, and some flowers have a disagreeable odour;but when the acacia trees are in blossom, the air is

ACACIA AND GUM-TREE FORESTS. 67

fragrant with the scent from their beautiful yellowapetalous flowers. Of this class of plants there areupwards of a hundred species, and these comprisea large section of the vegetation. One species, theWattle tree (Acacia dealbata), exceeds the others inbeauty and usefulness in commerce. It is a handsome-tree, from fifteen to thirty feet high, with minutelypinnate leaves, like the mim osa plant, from which cir-cumstance its bark is called the mimosa bark, andforms an article of export, from containing a larger per-centage of the principle tannin than any other bark.It also yields a gelatinous gum, of little or no valuefor the purpose of commerce ; but another species,(Acacia implexa,) furnishes a soluble gum, not muchinferior to gum Arabic. Another species is remarkablefor having branches of pinnate leaves, alternate withlanceolate foliage, on the same stem.

But the largest, both in size and in number, of thetrees in these vast forests are the gum trees, or euca-lypti. They frequently attain the height of 150 feet,with a girth of 24 feet at about a yard from the ground.One in Tasmania was found to measure 260 feet inlength, and 16 feet in diameter at the base. How-ever, the butts of such enormous trees are seldom, ornever, solid ; the co re becomes decayed, and the trunksupported by the external wood ; so that a dozenpeople, or three or four on horseback, 'can stand inside.The gum exuding from those trees is not soluble in.water, and is, properly spea king, a gum resin. Fromthe colour of the wood caused by this resinous m atter,the colonists name the principal species, blue, red,and white gum. The timber is hard, and sink s inwater. It is very durable for shipbuilding and ordi-nary purposes.


The appearance of a white gum-tree forest has nocounterpart in Europe. From the base of the trunkup to the minutest branches, the bark of the tree iswhite, as if it had been brushed with white paint.The leaves are of a leek-green hue. What is remark-able, also, with this and other species of eucalyptus, istheir annually undergoing a natural process of decor-tication ; as if nature made this provision for itsrenovation instead of the denudation of the leaves.The stripping of the outer lamina of the bark takesplace in autumn. It peels of the tree in long flakes,which hang from the trunk and branches until theydrop off. The extraordinary ragged appearance of thetrees at this period, as these ribbon-like streamers witha rustling noise are waving in the wind, is somethingunique in forest scenery.

Under the name of gum trees are included all speciesof eucalyptus ; such as iron-bark and stringy-barktrees, which the colonists distinguish from the ordinaryblue, red, and white gum trees. In that case it maybe said, at an approximate calculation, that nearly one-half of the mass of vegetation in Australia is comprisedin this genus of plants, trees, or shrubs, of which thereare no species indigenous to any other part of the globe.Yet, as already remarked, the whole family shrink froma cold climate, thereby indicating the mildness of theAustralian atmosphere. They become gradually scareaup the mountain flanks, until, on attaining a certainaltitude, they disappear. On the elevated plateauxeven with the thinnest forest, they seldom cover theland to so great an extent as on the sea level in thecoldest latitudes. On the bleak plains of Maneroo,they cluster in the hollows where the land is brokeninto gullies, as if grouping together for shelter from the

BELTS OF VEGETATION. 69

inclemency of the weather. The external appearanceof these trees suggests the idea of extreme hardinessin their constitution instead of delicacy. The roughhard bark of some species, and the leathery structureof their leaves, would seem to close their inner fibreswith a coat of mail that might defy all climates andseasons. At the best, however, these giants of theAustralian forest are most tender to rear in a coldregion. They are rarely met with where snow lieson the ground, although they grow tallest at themost rigid latitude in Tasmania. They are seldomfound at an altitude of 3000 feet. An interestinginstance of this is seen on Mount Wellington, nearHobart Town, which rears its summit 4200 feet abovethe level of the sea. Rather more than half wayup, there is a belt of dead gum trees ; the leaflessskeletons of a giant forest, which flourished before theisland was discovered. So conspicuous is this deadforest from the luxuriant woods around, as seen fromthe city six miles below, that it is a prominent featurein the aspect of this picturesque mountain. Theinference is, that some unusually cold season killedthem ; and as there is no appearance of the forestrenewing itself, it may be that the climate has becomepermanently cooler. The maximum of their altitudemay also be seen on the Australian Alps, where theycease to grow at a similar elevation.

These evergreen forests provide food for the nume-rous animals that inhabit them, and these againfurnish the staple diet of the aboriginal inhabitants.There is no other region on the globe where the treesand shrubs are so prolific of indigenous animals. Ofthese the tribe of phalangers is most numerous, asexemplified in the opossum. They are so named from


the hind feet having a large opposable thumb, enablingthem to spring from branch to branch and tree to tree,while many have prehensile tails by which they swingto and fro on the branches. Others, such as theflying squirrel (Phalangista), have the skin betweenthe fore and hind paws so pliable and thin, that theycan stretch it out like the membrane of a bat's wing,and leap from one tree to another at the distance offrom twenty to thirty yards. Its food consists ofthe tender buds of trees and flowers, honey andinsects. Like all the other members of the tribe,it is nocturnal in its habits. All day long it sleepsin the hollow of a tree, or lies hid among the foliage,drowsy and almost unable to open its eyes. Nosooner, however, does the sun go down than it rousesitself up to forage for provender. If it is a moon-light night, these pretty little creatures gambol amongthe trees in the most lively manner, filling the airwith their noise, which is more like the grunt ofa pig than any other sound. The smallest of thistribe of animals is the opossum mouse (Acrobatespygm,Tus), not more than three inches long in thebody, and two and a half in the tail ; yet, like all itscongeners, it is marsupial, the female having a pouchto nurture its tiny offspring before leaping into inde-pendent life. Nothing can exceed the perfect form ofthis interesting pygmy of an animal, as it is seenleaping among the trees perfectly fearless of danger.Probably, from its diminutive size, it is not soughtafter by the aborigines, and therefore does not requireto protect itself. At all events, it is not scared bythe presence of man ; and if found asleep in itshiding-place during the day, it will quietly fold itselfup and resume its slumbers in the hand of its captor.

NATIVE BEAR. 71

If taken when young, these phalangers are so easilydomesticated as to remain about the huts withoutrunning away, and in time they become pets of thesettlers. The only drawback is their nocturnal habits ;they disturb the slumbers of the inmates by screamingand leaping about the rooms. To keep them in cagesis cruel, for they soon pine away and die.

Allied to the phalangers is a curious animal calledthe native bear (Phascolarctos fuscus), from its havingsome resemblance to a bear, though not more thantwo feet high. From its sluggish movements andhabits, it is more of a sloth than a bear. It isherbiverous and lives entirely among the gum treeson the leaves, which seem to afford it abundance ofnourishment. Australian animals, as a rule, displaymore muscle and sinew than fat, but the sloth isan exception. When killed and skinned, a youngone looks not unlike a sucking-pig ; and whenroasted in a ground-oven, it is tolerable eating evenfor a white man, if he be hungry after a day'shunting ; but at other times the strong flavour ofthe gum tree in the flesh turns his stomach. Notso the native denizen of the woods ; this is his choicefood, and when he catches one he hails it as a greatprize. His messmates assemble round the fire to partakeof the repast. They do not trouble themselves muchabout gutting and skinning the animal, but plunge itbodily into the fire, and rub the skin with a boomerangas the hair is singed off. Without waiting until it isthoroughly cooked, the captor of the bear pulls it outof the flames and with his teeth tears away at the legsuntil he gets one off ; or probably he will take a daintybite from the car. He then hands it to his wife, whopasses it on to the rest of the family. Thus they


proceed until the raw flesh is laid bare, then it is againthrust into the fire, half roasted, withdrawn, and asecond time goes the round of the domestic circle ; andso on, until everything but the bones is consumed.

As the native bear, opossum, and flying squirrelform the principal food of the aborigines, it is in-teresting to observe their mode of hunting thesecreatures among the trees. Not being visible duringthe day, the savage strains his powers of observationto the utmost, in order to detect the smallest in-dication of their presence The slightest scratch ofan opossum's claws on the bark is sufficient to guidehis keen eyesight to the hiding-place of his prey.A decayed trunk, with a hollow where some limbhas dropped off, is a favourite haunt ; and the nativestrikes the tree with his hatchet or club to ascertainthe fact, by rousing any lurkers from their sleep.Having satisfied himself that there is game at hand,he prepares to ascend the smooth trunk of the highestand thickest tree, by cutting notches in the soft thickbark, wherein to place his fingers and toes while as-cending. Before the country was settled, this opera-tion was tediously effected by means of a rude stoneimplement, shaped like an adze ; but these were soondiscarded for the steel hatchet of the white ma Thefirst notch is cut on a level with the thigh, on the leftside, and the second opposite the right shoulder. Thesenotches are formed by two cuts, one slanting, the otherhorizontal, and about an inch deep, when the bark issufficiently thick. Into these, the big toe of each footis inserted, where the native supports himself withsufficient firmness to cut two similar notches higher,and so ascending until he climbs to the requisite height,which may be sixty or eighty feet before he reaches

THE KANGAROO. 73

the branches. Sometimes when he ascends a tree, hefinds it hollow at the top, with his game so far downthat he cannot reach it. In that ease he cuts one ormore holes into the trunk, inserts some burning sticksor dry bark, to smoke out his prey, and lying in waitat the top, he captures him without any difficulty.Frequently these hollow trees, when thus set on fire,will blaze away for a whole day and night, sendingforth sparks and flames which often kindles the sur-rounding grass and trees, and thus causes those bushconflagrations so much dreaded by the settlers.

While this class of animals inhabit the evergreentrees of Australia, the kangaroo tribe feeds exclusivelyon the grass, and roams over the wide domain of itsvast wilderness, disappearing at the approach of thecolonists and their live stock. Although the femalepossesses the remarkable characteristic of externalpouches on the abdomen for sheltering her young,there is a marked difference between the kangaroo andopossum. While the flying squirrel can bound fromtree to tree like a bird without touching the ground,and the opossum swing like a monkey with its prehen-sile tail, the kangaroo depends entirely for locomotionon its hind feet and legs, with a great clumsy tail tobalance its body. The kangaroo cannot be considereda quadruped in the ordinary acceptation of the term.At no time are the small fore-paws of the kangarooused in walking or running. Indeed it may be saidthat it never rims or walks, for its movements aresimply a series of jumps. In this respect, therefore,the kangaroo is a biped ; and the carcass of the largeforester (Macropus major), when skinned and hungup, has haunches resembling those of a human being.The strength of the muscles and sinews in these limbs,


together with the long sinewy feet, enables them tomake leaps at a standing jump of greater length thanany acrobat ; and springing, bound after bound, fromfifteen to twenty- feet, they can soon distance anordinary horse and his rider. They are hunted bythe settlers with a pack of dogs of the stag-houndbreed, and it is not until after a good day's run thatthey can close upon their game. The male animalsgenerally stand at bay, and defend themselves withtheir hind paws against the dogs with such strength,

that 'frequently the latter are ripped up by the sharpclaws. In the herds of twenty or thirty, it is in-teresting to observe at such a time the anxiety of thefemales to save their offspring. They place them inthe pouch, and, though wounded or overcome byfatigue, hasten without stopping till some safe spot isreached to deposit them out of the way of danger.

Besides the gigantic kangaroo of the plains and openforest country, which attains a height of six feet, thereare numerous other species, from the size of a grey-hound to a rat, which inhabit the thickets and denserwoods. Of these the brush kangaroo is most nume-rous ; and, next to the opossum, is most eagerlyhunted by the aborigines, not only for food, but fortheir skins, which are excellent for making the rugsworn in the cold season.

Although the dingo has been domesticated yet ithas not the instinct of the hound to chase the kan-garoo. The natives are therefore obliged to adoptsome stratagem to capture those active leapers in thebrushwood. For this purpose, a number congregatetogether and surround a place where it has beenascertained that game is plentiful. All are armed,either with spears, clubs, or boomerangs, and station

MARSUPIAL LINK IN CREATION. 75

themselves in a circle, far apart at the outset, but asthey gradually close in, they set up a loud shout, andthus drive the animals into a centre. In this respectit is similar to a battue in deer-stalking ; only thesavage occasionally surpasses the murderous stratagemof his civilized brother by surrounding his victimswith a circle of blazing bushes, so that much of thegame is suffocated before yielding to the spear or clubthat causes its death-blow.

Before the discovery of Australia and its uniquefauna and flora, there was a wide gap in the classifica-tion of animals, between the reptilia and the mammalia,

which was unsatisfactorily filled up by the marsupialopossum of America, and a few Asiatic species. Themagnificent additions to this class of animals by SirJoseph Banks, who accompanied Captain Cook, fur-nished ample data to fill the gap in natural history.This the eminent French naturalist, Cuvier, satisfac-torily arranged as a fourth order of mammals, forming

a link, as it were, between that division of the animalkingdom and reptiles, while it rendered the chain ofcreation more complete. Moreover, the strange formsof the kangaroo and the duck-billed platypus (noticedelsewhere) furnished the geologists with data to deter-mine the nature of many of those extinct animals whosefossil remains are found in the various geological form-ations of this country, which resemble. the skeletonsof these Australian animals. This circumstance isanother proof of the affinity between the living plantsand animals of Australia, and the extinct races of theeocene period. Further illustration of this wondrouschapter in creation is found in the seas of that region.Among the fishes that frequent the harbours on the

east coast is a shark that belongs to the cestracionte

76 N1TURA.L HISTORY OF AUSTRALIA.

fishes, whose remains are found in the oolite formation,and have not been ascertained to exist anywhere elsein the world. Some of the shells, also, are of a struc-ture extinct in Europe : the bivalves are divided acrossthe shells, as in the terebratula of the secondary andtertiary formations. Other striking examples mightbe given, tending further to illustrate this remarkableaffinity between the existing natural history of Aus-tralia and the extinct fossils of Europe ; but these willsuffice. It must be understood, however, that thesevariations are not mere luszcs natures, as old writerscalled them—no deviation from the general harmonyof creation—but, on the contrary, they exhibit stillfurther the sublime blending of the works of theCreator, throughout this globe, and show the unityof plan and design which pervade all his works.Wherever we turn, we find the same Almighty hand,the same omniscient wisdom at work. Amidst infinitediversities of outward form, it is One God who workethall in all, and who has created for each age of theworld's history, and for each spot of the earth's sur-face, beings in which his wisdom, his power, his good-ness may be displayed. " 0 Lord, how manifold arethy works ! in wisdom hast thou made them all : theearth is full of thy riches."

CHAPTER IV.

NEW SOUTH WALES.

Transportation to America in 1619—Cessation in 1783—Renewed from GreatBritain-to New South Wales in 1787—Arrival of flip first fleet at BotanyBay in January, 1788, and abandoned for Port Jackson—La Perouse-Governor Phillip forms the Settlement of Sydney—First Census of Aus-tralia—First Sabbath Worship held—The Governor kind to the Natives—Depravity of the Convicts—Alleged Gold Discovery—Dearth of Provisions—Famine in 1790—Loss of the Cattle—Stray Convicts—Governor Grose,1792—Macarthur imports Merino Sheep, 1797—Grain Stores in the Rocks

—Road-making—Cultivation—General Progress begins, 1800—Sydney aStone Quarry—Tyranny of Governor filigh, 1806—Mildness of GovernorMacquarie—Prosperity of the Colony due alone to the Settlers—Export ofWool in 1815—Pastoral Era—Prisoners assigned as Servants—ConvictShepherds—Export of Wool in 1835—Rapid increase of Pastoral Settlers—Fruit and Vegetables—The Grape Vine—Condition of the Colony in 1835—Emigration from England—Missions among the Aborigines—Religionand Education attended to—Statistics of 1810—Gold Discovery at Bathurst,1851—Excitement and Confusion throughout the Colony—Desertion offlocks and herds in the Country, and avocations in Towns—Ships desertedin Harbour—Government alarmqd at the anarchy—Proclamations andLicences to dig fdr Gold issued— Gold Fields tranquil —Favourablereaction in Trade and Pastoral Pursuits—Emigration from Europe—Providential period for the Gold Discovery — Disappointed Diggersreturn to old Occupations—Novelty of Gold-mining passes away—NewSouth Wales overgrown, breaks up into four Colonies—Its present Areaand Material Condition—Picturesque Beauties of Port Jackson and theCity of Sydney.

FROM the contemplation of the wondrous works of theGreat Creator, as manifested in the formation of thisvast region of Australia, and in the organization ofhis creatures, so beautifully adapted to the country andclime, we must now turn to the arrival and settlementof civilized man upon its shores ; but, alas ! in his

78 NEW SOUTH WALES.

most depraved state, and as a punishment for the crimescommitted against his fellow men. However, at theoutset of these annals, be it observed, that an all-wiseProvidence foresaw in these men the pioneers of futureGod-fearing communities : and designed that ultimategood should come out of evil. If the foundation ofthe Australian colonies, and the arduous unprofitabletask of clearing the wilderness had depended upon freeemigrant labour and private capital, in all probabilitythe pioneer settlers would have abandoned the barrenshore of New South Wales within a year or two oftheir landing. From the privation and famine thatsubsequently befel the convict population, it was onlyby the strong arm of the law, the stern duty of thelocal authorities, and the supply of means from theBritish treasury, that the infant colony could havebeen maintained. If the reader, therefore, looks uponthe early history of New South Wales from this pointof view, not only will he arrive at a correct estimate ofthe importance of this undertaking by the governmentof the day, but it will incline him to consider, in acharitable spirit, the backslidings of the felons, andthe mistakes of the rulers, who first cleared the pathsto prosperity for this portion of our colonial empire.

Prior to the transportation of convicts to New SouthWales, offenders against the laws, liable to this sen-tence, were banished to America. The memorableepoch of its origin was the year 1619, during thereign of James I. of England. At that time theywere sent to Virginia, where the planters, during itsfirst settlement were greatly in want of labourersto clear away the impenetrable forests which im-peded cultivation. These were chiefly criminals whomthe courts of law deemed not sufficiently guilty for

TRANSPORTATION TO AMERIC.A. CEASES. 79

capital punishment. The planters hired their servicesfor a limited term, under the superintendence of con-tractors, who were obliged to prove that they wereproperly disposed of; they received a remunerationof twenty pounds each convict from the employer.This system, with various modifications, was continuedamong the other settlements as the colonists requiredlabour ; but there not being a sufficient supply oflabour of that class, the colonists adopted the cruelsystem of enforced negro slave labour.

The contest between the American colonies and themother country issued in their separation from GreatBritain, and the traffic in felons ceased after the decla-ration of Independence on the 4th of July, 1783. Themother country having been relieved from the burthenof subjects who were not only useless but pernicious athome, by this system of transportation, it became animportant object to know where they should next besent to. Parliament discussed the question in muchthe same temper and spirit as it has recently done onthe kindred question as to what should be done withincorrigible or highly guilty criminals. All kinds ofexpedients were proposed, and several tried, amongwhich was the transportation of some convicts to thecoast of Africa ; but this expedient was abandoned onthe humane consideration " that what was meant asan alleviation of punishment, too frequently ended indeath." Consequently, one of the chief reasons thatrecommended New South Wales to the Parliamentand Government, was Captain Cook's report of thesalubrity of the climate of that part of Australia.

That renowned navigator also pointed out BotanyBay as the most eligible spot for the first settlement.The government lost no time in carrying out the

80 NEW SOUTH WALES.

recommendation. It was a matter of urgent policyto take practical possession of a desirable country,where that had only been nominally performed bythe discoverer hoisting the British flag, which mightbe supplanted by rival nations covetous of the land.Accordingly, in May 1787, the first fleet of convict-ships, bound for New South Wales, started on thevoyage to Botany Bay. It must not be supposedthat this expedition was got up hurriedly, and thefelons banished from their native land indiscrimi-nately. On the contrary, the greatest care wasexercised in choosing the convicts, of whom a dueproportion were females, and the major part of themales were mechanics and husbandmen, selected onpurpose by order of the government. The greatestdiscrimination was also displayed in the appointmentof the civil and military officers and men, into whosehands were placed the success or failure of this greatnational experiment upon a vital question affectingthe body politic. From the governor downwards, ,men of the highest probity, the greater numberremarkable for their moral and religious sentiments,were the chosen directors of these people. An atten-tive perusal of the documents and accounts connectedtherewith, prove the .earnest solicitude of all con-cerned, to carry out the instructions of the govern-ment, for the honour of their country ; in which, afterencountering great obstacles, they were eminentlysuccessful.

On the 20th January, 1788, the whole fleet was safeat anchor in Botany Bay. " Thus," writes Collins," under the blessing of God, was happily completed ineight months and one week, a voyage which, before itwas undertaken, the mind hardly dared venture to

ARRIVAL OF EXPEDITION IN BOTANY BAY. 81

contemplate, and on which it was impossible to reflectwithout some apprehension as to its termination."" Heavily, in clouds, came on the day which usheredin our arrival." Tench remarks, " To us it was a great,an important day, though I hope the foundation, notthe fall of an empire will be dated from it." Thedeaths in the fleet on the way out were few, being onemarine out of two hundred and twelve ; and twenty-four convicts out of the seven hundred and seventy-fivewhich were put on board in England.

Without delay, the country around Botany Bay wasexamined, when, to the grievous disappointment ofevery one, the spot so much recommended by Cook wasfound to be almost a sandy waste, without water. Itmust be observed, however, that they arrived in thevery middle of summer, when, in that antipodal cli-mate, the country is parched up, while the navigatorsaw it in May, which is at the beginning of the mildwinter, when all is green. However, no time was lostin looking about elsewhere for an eligible spot ; and inexploring what was supposed to be a mere boat har-bour, they found in Port Jackson all, and more thancould have been expected, to suit their purpose. Thisprovidential discovery animated the responsible leadersof the expedition with buoyant hopes of success inevery way, though the sterile aspect of the land theywere originally destined to occupy had made them fullof apprehension. Some idea of its unfitness for asettlement may be gathered from the fact, that,although only about six or eight miles from Sydney,the shores of the bay (with the exception of a smalltownship and a hotel for visitors, on the eastern shore)where Cook landed, are as wild and barren at thepresent day, as when the first fleet sailed into it.

82 NEW SOUTH WALES.

A curious circumstance happened just as the fleetwas getting under sail for this new destination. TwoFrench ships of war were seen in the offing endeavour-ing to enter the bay, but were unable to do so until anofficer and boat's crew boarded one of them and pointedout the channel. These were two surveying ships, theAstrolabe and Boussole, under the command of Com-modore La Perouse, who was circumnavigating theglobe, and knowing before he left France that theBritish intended forming a penal settlement at BotanyBay, he looked in on his route to get wood and water.After remaining several weeks in harbour, he took hisdeparture to explore some of the islands in the Pacific,but neither he, his officers, crew, or ships were everheard of afterwards. An obelisk to his memory hasbeen erected by his countrymen on the spot where hefirst landed.

The 2Gth of January is to this day a great holiday inSydney, in commemoration of the landing of GovernorPhillip and staff on the shores of Port Jackson, as thefounders of the colony of New South Wales. Lieu-tenant-Colonel Collins, of the Marines, describes thisevent in the following language :—" The spot chosenfor this purpose was at the head of a cove, near arun of fresh water, which stole silently through avery thick wood, the stillness of which had then, forthe first time since the creation, been interrupted bythe rude sound of the labourer's axe, and the downfallof its ancient inhabitants—a stillness and tranquillitywhich, from that day, were to give place to the noiseof labour, the confusion of camps and towns, andthe busy hum of its new possessors. That the.greater part of these did not bring with them ' mindsnot to be changed by time or place,' was fervently to

FIRST CENSUS OF THE COLONY. 83

have been wished, and if it were possible, that ontaking possession of Nature in her simplest garb, asthey had thus done, they might not sully that purityby the introduction of vice. In the evening of this daythe whole of the party then present were assembled atthe point where they had first landed in the morning,and on which a flagstaff had been purposely erected,and an union jack displayed ; when the marines firedseveral volleys, between which the healths of HisMajesty and the Royal Family, with success to thenew colony, were most cordially drunk."

The new colony consisted of the following elements :—Captain Arthur Phillip, of the navy, Governor andCommander-in-Chief, &c. ; Major Robert Ross, Lieu-tenant-Governor ; Richard Johnson, Chaplain ; Lieu-tenant-Colonel Collins, Judge Advocate ; and sevenother officials on the staff belonging to the civildepartments. The military forming the garrison, allbelonging to the Royal Marines, consisted of a major-commandant and staff, four captains, twelve subalterns,twenty-four sergeants and corporals, and 160 privates—less one who died on the passage. The convicts consistedof 565 men,192 women, and eighteen children, makinga total of 775, less twenty-four who died on the voyage.So that this nucleus of the future colony consisted of973 persons; but as there were ladies, private servants,and others not included in the public returns, everyperson 'belonging to the settlement being landed, theyamounted to 1030. Of live stock they had one bull,four cows, one bull-calf, one stallion, three mares, andthree colts, which were for breeding only, as also were

a supply of fowls for the farm-yard ; but all wereintended for the general benefit, when they should

have increased sufficiently. As the government had

NEW SOUTII WALES.

judiciously placed no dependence on obtaining suppliesof food in the country at the beginning, three storeships laden with provisions, besides implements ofhusbandry and clothing, formed the commissariat fortwo years, and it was arranged that before the expira-tion of that time fresh supplies would arrive.

If a spectator could have stood on one of the ad-jacent heights and observed the pioneers of Australiancolonization locating themselves, the sight would havebeen fraught with intense interest. The disembarkingof the troops and convicts at first would have presenteda scene of confusion, as they stepped from the boatsliterally into a forest. Parties of people might havebeen seen or heard scattered among the trees andshrubs, employed in necessary occupations. Somehewing down trees to clear the ground for the differ.ent encampments ; others pitching tents, or bringingup such stores as were more immediately wanted.The spot which had so recently been the abode ofsilence and tranquillity, save the wild coo-oo-è of theaborigines, was now changed to a perfect babel of noiseand clamour. But it must not be supposed that thegovernor and his staff indiscriminately landed theircharge broadcast upon the country ; this apparentconfusion was the necessary consequence of a thousandpeople being safely placed on terra firma after a voyageof nearly nine months, and who for the first timemingled all together. A few days sufficed to restoreorder, and as the woods were opened and the groundcleared, the various encampments were extended, andall wore the appearance of regularity and decorum.

Nor were the spiritual wants of the communityneglected, for they were accompanied by an ableChristian minister. This was the Rev. Mr. Johnson,

THE FIRST SERMON IN AUSTRALIA. 85

who was appointed chaplain to the settlement onaccount of his eminent religious and benevolent qua-lities, which he exercised on every occasion among themeanest sheep of his flock that had gone astray fromour Saviour's path. On the voyage out he distributedplentifully amongst the convicts such tracts andbooks as were applicable to their lost condition, andfailed not to impress on them the duty of repentancein the new land they were proceeding to, where theycould throw off their old habits of iniquity and enteron those of righteousness. The Sabbath was observedregularly on board the ships ; and when they were inport he exhorted his charge to repentance and faithby preaching, and pleaded for them in prayer. Onthe Sunday, after the people had landed, the whole ofthe community assembled in the open air, and Mr.Johnson conducted Divine service under a great tree,improving the occasion by delivering an impressivesermon, at which, it is recorded, the behaviour of theconvicts was " regular and attentive."

In this careful manner the sickly child of colo-nization was cradled in the lap of that region sofar distant from the mother country. Fortunately,Governor Phillip was a man pre-eminently qualifiedfor the task by his superior natural abilities, which hadraised him, like his great contemporary Captain Cook,from the forecastle to the command of the quarter-deck.While displaying the higher qualities of administrativetalent and decision, he exhibited the rare combina-tion with it of a gentle and benevolent disposition.The latter qualities were especially manifested in hisorders that the natives should be treated with everykindness, their persons and property, however trifling,respected, and that all should endeavour to gain their

86 NEW SOUTH WALES.

confidence and esteem. Notwithstanding his laudableattempts to civilize these savages, they shunned thespot wherever the people went. Several collisionsbetween them and the convicts ended in disaster toboth parties, which on investigation showed that thewhite men were the first offenders. At last he adoptedthe expedient of capturing some of them, and by kindtreatment endeavoured to show their fellows that noinjury would be done to them. Out of three thuscaught only one was prevented from escaping, and hebecame so attached to the governor that he remainedwith him until he went to England. But all effortswere fruitless in the attempt to preserve amity betweenthe natives and the convicts ; strifes constantly arosewhich ended in many being killed on both sides.

Efforts were made to induce the convict populationto turn to the paths of virtue, by offering rewards,abridging sentences, and even granting freedom forgood conduct ; but few, if any, made a step in thatdirection. While on board the transports the sexeswere rigidly kept apart, but, on landing, their separa-tion was impracticable, and the unavoidable consequencewas a return to their old habits of depravity. Tocounteract the evil effects of a state of licentiousness,the governor promoted marriage among them, holdingout special advantages to those who followed his advice,which had the effect of lessening the evil. One wouldhave supposed that in so small a community, wheredetection was certain, and property, if stolen, of littlevalue, that theft and robbery could scarcely happen.Alas ! for the depravity of human nature, this dispo-sition to steal was so engrained in these people, thatcrimes of this character were the first to be complainedof. As the articles stolen were chiefly food, on which.

FALSE REPORT OF A GOLD MINE. 87

the very existence of the settlement depended, thepunishments were severe, and the lash and gibbet hadto be employed.

Not only was the disposition to theft incorrigible,but the old habits of cunning and deception werepractised to avoid labour or secure any temporaryadvantage. Among many schemes, one is worthy ofrecord, as it anticipated the gold discovery more thansixty years afterwards. One day the settlement wasamused by a convict announcing his discovery of agold mine down the harbour. Guiding an officer tothe spot, there he left him and fled into the woods,but was soon caught and punished with 150 lashes forhis imposition, in fabricating what appeared to benatural ore out of a guinea and a brass buckle. Inafter times the convicts came upon the precious metalwithout knowing it, when they broke up some gold-bearing quartz at Bathurst, and metalled part of theroad with it, as was subsequently ascertained. It isalso worthy of remark that Governor Phillip enter-tained the conviction that there were valuable metal-liferous minerals in the country, but he strongly dis-couraged any search for them, as he considered " thediscovery of a mine would be the greatest evil thatcould befal the settlement." This feeling was enter-tained by every governor, even up to the real discoveryin 1851 ; and there can be no doubt that if that eventhad occurred when New South Wales was purely apenal colony, the anarchy would have been infinitelygreater, than, as it happened, during the peaceableadministration of a free community, possessed ofabundance of food and labour.

Time wore on, and the provisions were being con-sumed, yet there was no appearance of fresh supplies

88 NEW SOUTH WALES.

from the mother country, so that the food of thecommunity was diminishing to an alarming extent.The settlement at this time became like a crew ofshipwrecked mariners on a barren coast with faminestaring them in the face. In vain the natural re-sources of the country were tried to supplement theirstock of food, but an occasional haul of fish was allthat could be procured ; while rats and other verminwere destroying their stores. One ship did arrive, butto their dismay another was lost, laden with thelargest supply of provisions for their relief that hadyet been sent ; and that happened at a time when thepopulation was increased by a fresh arrival of femaleconvicts in a ship that brought no stores. In thisemergency the weekly ration was reduced to 21- lbs.flour, 2 lbs. pork, and 2 lbs. rice, which was served outto free and bond alike, from the governor downwards—that generous-hearted man refusing to receive morethan any convict under his charge. To relieve theconsumption of food, 200 convicts and marines weresent to Norfolk Island, situated at 1,200 miles dis-tance, in the Pacific Ocean ; who only escaped beingstarved to death by the providential supply of foodfrom an immense number of sea-fowl alighting on theisland to lay their eggs. To add to their miseries,

.scurvy broke out among the people, from being so longfed on salt provisions, of which many died, whiledysentery added to the list of mortality. In theirenfeebled condition, had the climate not been of themost salubrious character, and the country free frommalarious diseases, from want of proper food, fewwould have survived the terrible straits of the colony.In June, 17J0, succour happily came ; and althoughdearths occurred afterwards, yet these were unimpor-tant compared with this famine time.

SERVICE REGULARLY HELD ON SUNDAYS. 89

During this trying period, the governor, with theheads and subordinates of the various public depart-ments, nobly supported the maintenance of law andorder ; while the chaplain was among the most activein endeavouring to ameliorate the condition of thepeople. " Notwithstanding the pressure of importantbusiness," writes Collins, " the discharge of religiousduties was never omitted ; Divine service being per-formed every Sunday that the weather would permit ;at which time the detachment of marines paraded withtheir arms. The whole body of convicts attended, andwere observed to conduct themselves in general withthe respect and attention due to the occasion on whichthey were assembled." " On one occasion a shiparrived with female convicts, who attended Divine ser-vice on the first Sunday after their landing ; whenMr. Johnson, with much propriety, in his discourse,touched upon their situation so forcibly as to drawtears from many of these unfortunates, who were notyet so hardened as to be insensible of truth."

Among the mishaps of the colony at this time wasthe loss of two bulls and four cows, belonging to thepublic stock for breeding ; the herdsman who had themin charge having left them for a time, they took advan-tage of his absence and strayed, no one knew whither.As will appear afterwards, these animals instinctivelyreached the finest pasture land in the colony, and werevirtually the first practical discoverers of those vastgrazing lands of Australia, which will remain for alltime its most certain wealth.

Not so fortunate were many of the convicts whoattempted to explore the far interior of the country,with a view to escape. An impression prevailed amongthem that the nearest place was China, so that if they

90 NEW SOUTH WALES.

could only get upon the right track to it, they wouldsoon reach that land of tea. At one time forty-fourmen and nine women were lost in endeavouring to findthis path, or to seek for some imaginary settlement.Many of these people, after wandering about thewoods and existing on roots or anything that woulddeaden the pangs of hunger, perished miserably.Others found their way back to the settlement, afterbeing absent several weeks, and reported the fate oftheir wretched companions. One instance is recordedof an "Irish convict who had wandered about forseveral days in search of a road to China, or the colonywhere no labour was required. On being questionedhow he found his way back, he said : that a papercompass which had been given to him was of nouse at all at all ; he therefore kept his face towardsthe place where the sun came from ; but if theLord had not been on his side, he should havebeen lost." To show the absurdity of this attempt,the nearest point of China to Sydney, in a straightline, is 4,550 miles, while Paddy's greatest distancewas but fifteen.

From this time forward the colony progressed withrapidity, and soon left its leading strings to walk alone.Governor Phillip, who had nursed it from the cradlewith the most anxious solicitude, was the first torejoice at the success of this infant dependency of themother country ; and seeing that his presence was noturgently required, while his health had suffered fromthe cares and responsibilities of his post, he determined,after a service of five years in the colony, to returnto England. Without detracting from the meritsof succeeding governors, it is only just to statethat no one, under the trying circumstances, could so

GOVERNOR PIIILLIP LEAVES THE COLONY. 91

courageously yet so kindly—so strictly and yet so bene-volently—have performed the arduous task of foundingthe present flourishing colony of New South Wales.

On his departure, in December, 1792, the reins ofgovernment were handed over to Lieutenant-GovernorGrose, who administered the affairs of the colonywith caution and prudence for two years. MeanwhileGovernor Philip arrived in England, and representedto the government the necessity of sending out freesettlers, both as affording the best means of controllingand superintending the convicts, by the formation ofa magistracy and police ; and likewise of creatingwithin the colony the first elements of constitutionalgovernment. He showed that as there were none butfelons to fill offices of trust, in whose eyes property hadnever previously been sacred, it was manifest thatmoral anarchy must prevail. But many difficultiesopposed themselves to a compliance with GovernorPhillip's suggestions. Amongst others may be enume-rated the extreme length of the voyage, which at thatperiod frequently occupied from eight to twelve months—now reduced to an average of three months by sailingships, and two months by steamers. Besides this theunfavourable accounts of the soil around Sydney, thefailure of the crops, together with the great hardshipsand privations, (which we have seen amounted almostto starvation at one period,) naturally operated asserious discouragement to voluntary emigration. Con-sequently, while ship after ship discharged its freightof felonry on the shores of Port Jackson, there was nocounteracting force of honest and industrious emi-grants to share the work of colonization, and by theirpresence to neutralize the evil effects of the convictelement. The only free settlers who obtained grants

92 NEW SOUTH WALES.

of lands for many years, were those transports who,through lapse of time or special good conduct, hadbecome emancipated, and a few of the military whosetime of service had expired. The latter accepted thegovernment offer to remain in the country on advan-tageous terms to employ convict labour in agriculture.

Among these was Captain Macarthur, who com-menced farming about fifty miles beyond the settlement—not far from the Cowpastures, as the place was namedwhere the lost cattle and their progeny were found.On his farm he had a few sheep selected from the publicstock for breeding purposes ; and although he knewnothing previously of the different breeds of sheep forquality of wool or weight of carcass, he observed that,though the latter was inferior to what he had seen inEnglish sheep, the former possessed a softness andsuperiority of texture that surprised him. On inquiry,he found that these sheep came from the Cape of GoodHope, where the Dutch had imported them fromHolland, and these were the produce of Merino sheeporiginally brought from Spain. Notwithstanding thisroundabout descent, the wool of these sheep had butslightly deteriorated from that of the parent stock,although the animal was much thinner in the body,and had an unusually large fatty tail. CaptainMacarthur concluded from these indications that theclimate and pasturage of Australia was eminentlyadapted for the production of fine wools, and thepropagation of Spanish sheep. Accordingly, in 1797,he procured three rams and five ewes from the purestbreed in Spain, free from any deterioration in carcass.This enterprising settler had the satisfaction of seeinghis little flock thriving and increasing with wonderfulrapidity, having twin lambs frequently from the ewes,

MACARTIIT.TH TIIE FOUNDER OF WOOL-GROWING. 93

while the fleeces augmented in weight, and the woolvery visibly improved in quality. His next experimentwas to cross these pure bred rams with the mixed andinferior breed imported from the Cape and elsewhere.The lambs produced from this cross were much im-proved ; but when they were again crossed, the changefar exceeded his most sanguine expectations, as thequality of the wool approached that of the Spanishbreed.

In this manner he continued his experiments incrossing the pure stock and their progeny with everykind of breed he could find. He considered himselffortunate in purchasing thirty ewes out of a ship fromIndia, which visited the settlement in 1798. Afterthis he picked up some eight or ten Spanish and Irishsheep, making a total of forty-five imported. Fromthese his breeding stock had increased in eight yearsto upwards of 4,000 sheep, amongst which there wereno rams but of the Spanish breed. These apparentlytrifling details may seem uncalled for in this briefhistory of Australia, but the intelligent reader will notthink so, when he considers that this small flock wasthe precursor of the pastoral era. Wool remains tothis day the staple product of the country, and willcontinue so when other sources of wealth are exhausted.The names of the benefactors to this country from thediscovery of its natural resources, will doubtless behanded down to posterity with honour ; but none moredeservedly so than that of JOHN AlACARTIITJR, thefather of its pastoral pursuits.

While this public-spirited colonist was improving thelive stock of the settlement, others were attempting toproduce cereals ; but their efforts were not so fortunate,as the land proved unsuitable for grain. The most

94 NEW SOTJTII WALES.

successful farms were at Parramatta, now the site of alarge town. These, from the continued influx of con-victs without sufficient supplies, however, were notsufficient to meet the wants of an increasing commu-nity ; so that, in 1795, great distress prevailed, whichwas only relieved by the opportune arrival of a store-ship. On the arrival, in that year, of Governor Hunter,as the successor of Governor Phillip, this precarioussupply of provisions occupied his chief attention, andlarge stores of maize and foreign grain were husbandedto prevent the recurrence of famine. Even in afteryears, when there was scarcely a chance of it (from theincrease of live stock) the dread of such an eventcaused the governors to increase the store of grain, andpreserve it in deep pits excavated out of the solid rockon an island in the harbour. These were plasteredround with compost and hermetically sealed, after themanner in which the ancient Egyptians constructedtheir siloes, or underground granaries.

Hitherto the convicts were chiefly employed in andaround the settlements of Sydney and Parramatta,between which places there grew up considerable trafficboth by land and water. Passage boats were used onthe river, or rather inlet, leading from the Cove ; andas the intervening lands became settled, it was foundnecessary to make a good road. This was themain route into the interior. Hence large parties ofthe convicts were employed laying out a turnpikeroad, which in time equalled that of any in the mothercountry. This was the commencement of the roadsystem in Australia, which, up to this day, is deemedthe most important and expensive of all the publicworks. Those who live in old countries where the

highways are the growth of centuries, have no con-

DIFFICULTY OF CONSTRUCTING ROADS. 95

ception of what it is to want them. Our readers mayhave seen a picture, by an eminent artist, showing the"Queen's highway in the reign of Elizabeth," where acarriage is stuck in the mud, with men prizing it out bylevers, while the ladies have to walk forward to a betterspot, to which the " hinds " convey the vehicle. This isbut a faint picture of the roads through the bush ofAustralia, before they are metalled and kerbed. To dothis, in the first instance requires more labour than onEnglish roads, as the foundation has to be laid on thevirgin soil, or the rock hewn away through which theroad passes. The labour, also, is of the most toilsomedescription in that hot climate ; consequently, it couldnot have been expected that free emigrants—had therebeen such at the foundation of the colony—would havevoluntarily set to work to construct roads into theinterior, without which the best lands were notaccessible to the seaport and city, from whence theychiefly derived their value.

The construction of roads throughout New SouthWales, by convict labour, at the expense of the parentstate, prepared the way for free colonization. It is aquestion, whether so much would have been done byfree emigrant hands, at the cost of the colonies, evenup to the present day. As it was, the task was onlyaccomplished by forced labour, under the most stringentpenalties of the law. The "road gangs " were com-posed principally of felons re-convicted in the colony,and who were obliged to be manacled with leg-irons toprevent them escaping from their keepers. To besentenced to " work on the roads " was considered bythe convicts themselves one of the severest punish-ments; especially when it was known that the " tri-angles " accompanied each gang, to which delinquents

96 NEW SOUTH WALES.

were fastened when undergoing the penalty of fiftyor a hundred lashes. Under such circumstances whatcould have been done in this most essential publicwork, if the colony had depended upon voluntaryfree labour ? In all, probability it would have beenabandoned in disgust, or, at the best, have been feeblyand intermittingly carried forward. In that case,it is hardly too much to say that one of the greatestboons Australia received from the mother country atits first settlement, was the introduction of convictlabour ; so that transportation then not only benefittedthe nation by relieving it of its refractory subjects,but at the same time the colony that received themwas made by their labour.

The question next arises—Were the convicts im-proved by transportation ? Morally they were not so,as long as they continued to form the majority of thepopulation ; but materially, banishment was to a largeproportion, the road to fortune and independence.Indeed, so strongly did the wealthy section of eman-cipated felons feel on this point, that on the arrivalof free settlers afterwards, they looked upon them asinterlopers, for they considered that the colony wastheirs by right. A government commission inju-diciously reported that, " New South Wales wasa convict colony, established for their benefit, andhad been brought into its state of prosperity by theirmeans." Be it so. The Australian colonist of freedescent can afford to admit as much at this day, ashe sees the last lingering effects of the convict leavendisappear from the social sphere. To the historian itappears the first link in the chain of civilization, that-has led Australia to rank amongst the foremost risingnationalities of the age, Writout which it is just

PROGRESS OF PUBLIC WORKS. 97

possible that the succeeding links of freedom, inde-pendence, and a golden prosperity might not havebeen attained.

With roads came traffic ; with traffic came commerce,industrial pursuits, and manufactures. With roadscame markets for the sale of live stock and agriculturalproduce. Towns sprung up from the facilities of com-munication thus afforded. With roads came the occu-pation of the far interior ; and the formidable barrierof the. Blue Mountain range, at last succumbed to thepick and hammer. The lines of traffic were graduallyrendered easy and safe ; while they all converged tothe first settlement, and made Sydney a flourishingcity. Under successive governors this capital of thenew colony grew in importance externally ; and inter-nally edifices of elegant structure arose, built out ofthe native stone. Fortunately, its very site was afreestone quarry, out of which a vast metropolis couldbe reared. The builder had only to excavate a founda-tion in the rock to erect a house, when he obtainedthe material for half-a-dozen, in doing so. Streets,therefore, of white stone buildings soon displaced thehuts of the pioneers. Warehouses and shops wereopened, and all the bustle and traffic of an Englishcity was seen in Sydney. And last, though not least,a printing-press was established in 1795 by GovernorHunter, and in March, 1803, in the time of GovernorKing, the Government published the first newspaper,under the title of the Sydney Gazette.

It has been a pleasing task hitherto, to applaud theacts of the first governor, Captain Phillip, and underhis care to see the administration of the colony carriedout with effect under tke most trying circumstances.This brief history now arrives at a period when the

98 NEW SOUTH WALES.

supreme government of the colony fell into the handsof a governor of a different character. This wasCaptain William Bligh, R.N., who commanded II.M.S.Bounty, when the crew mutinied and escaped to Pit-cairn Island. At that time (1806), and for a longtime afterwards, the governors of the colony werearmed with extraordinary powers, having all the legis-lative and executive authority centred in themselves.Bligh used these powers in such a manner that themilitary, naval, and civil officers under his authoritycombined to depose him, after eighteen months' ser-vice, and sent him back to England in a sloop ofwar. The chief act which made him so obnoxious tothe free community was the persecution of CaptainMacarthur, the enterprising introducer of Spanishsheep, whom he endeavoured to ruin. " He was atyrant to the weak and a coward to the strong ;" forwhen he learned the approach to Government-houseof the exasperated military under the command of •Colonel Johnson, he went and hid himself beneatha feather bed, from whence he was taken with his coatsprinkled with down ; and with a craven though sulkydemeanour he was marched down to the ship.

He was succeeded in 1810 by Governor Macquarie,a man of quite an opposite character, whose amiabilityand sympathy for the bond, rather than the free, led himto commit questionable acts in rewarding the convicts,while he neglected the interests of the colonists. Inregulating the discipline of the convicts, GovernorMacquarie's humane disposition led him to view theircrimes in the light of misfortunes, which they were torepair in New South Wales by success, rather than asviolations of the law, for which they were to atone totheir country by the bitteiness of exile, or by the

CHARACTERS OF VARIOUS GOVERNORS. 90

severities of toil and privation. In the dispensationof early indulgences to the convicts, he appears tohave been guided partly by this feeling and partly bythe recommendations of persons in England in whomhe felt he could place confidence ; but he seems tohave forgotten that however just on other principlesthis consideration might be, it was a violation of thatwhich he professed to make his only rule in givingrewards, viz. : good conduct in the colony. However,compared with his predecessor he was an estimableruler, and the colony continued to progress during hisgovernorship of twelve years.

In reviewing the subsequent history of the colony,it will not be necessary to record the arrivals anddepartures of each governor or his term of officechronologically, as these events did not materiallyaffect the material and social progress of the com-munity. It will be sufficient to notice any specialacts of theirs, or of the administration, where itindicated any important change in the condition ofthe body politic. As to the real development ofthe country and its resources, few after GovernorMacquarie's time stretched forth a helping hand tothe enterprising settlers employed in the brave workof colonization, except where duty compelled them torender aid. It would appear, from an impartial digestof the annals handed down, that instead of being anassistance to the free settlers in their labours to raisethe colony from the slough of convictism, and introduceliberal institutions, the governors were frequently moreobstructive than otherwise. They clung to theirresponsibility of office, and opposed the formation ofany legislative body with power to control their acts.Moreover, as long as the colony was supported entirely

100 NEW SOIXT11 WILES.

by money and means sent from the mother country,they considered themselves amenable only to theimperial government and parliament for their conductof affairs. It was not until five millions sterling(R5,301,023) had been thrown into this " SerbonianBog," that a revenue was derived from the colony tomeet the expenses of its government ; for thirty-fiveyears after its first settlement it was more or lessdependent on the money and supplies of the parentstate for its existence. It was in the year 1823, thatthe ,:,Secretary of State for the colonies intimated toparliament that there would be a considerable reductionin 'ate estim- ales for maintaining the penal colony ofNeouth Wales, as it was gradually becoming self-depeudent.

Meanwhil-the flocks of Macarthur increased andhis . ,exa,mille was followed by other enterprisingcoloinsts, among whom the names of Blaxland, Lawsonand Wentworth should be recorded, the latter being ason of the •first staff-surgeon, Dr. Arcy Wentworth, andborn in the colony. The rapid increase of sheep sosurprised these settlers that they had to go far intothe country, beyond the Blue Mountains for pasture.Not only did the increase serve to relieve the supply ofimported salt meat, but the fine wool, samples of whichwere sent to England in 1807-11, was valued atprices higher than the finest Spanish wools, for whilethe latter was quoted at 4s. 6d. per lb., the Australianwool, from Macarthur's pure bred stock, was valued at6s., and the fleeces of cross-bred animals 3s. These,however, must have been fancy prices, as the articlewas a novelty in the English wool markets and ofcourse could not be maintained after a large quantitywas imported, which first took place in the year 1815.

RAPID INCREASE OF WOOL. 101

Before that period, Australia contributed no more tothe wealth and progress of the world than it wouldhave done if its shores had been submerged beneaththe waves of the South Pacific Ocean.

Now commenced the export of an article of producethat was as marketable as gold throughout the civilizedworld. This is the essential point in the productionsof a new country ; they must bear an extrinsic valueto the producer, to give in exchange for the foreigncommodities he consumes; If the articles he producesare only valuable within the community, then externalcommerce is checked for want of an export ; andalthough the people in such a country may live, yetthey cannot become prosperous. This was the positionof New South Wales before the export of wool, whenthe balance of trade against the colony was met bya subsidy from the mother country.

In illustration of the importance of this valuablearticle of export, it is only necessary to quote a fewfigures to show its rapid increase. The quantityexported in 1815 weighed 32,721 lbs. ; in 1835,3,776,191 lbs. ; and in 1865 it was not less than50,000,000 lbs. from all the Australian colonies.

It soon became generally understood that, after all,the despised "Botany Bay" country was a place pecu-liarly suitable for the increase of Spanish 'sheep, andthe growth of fine wools ; and that by the investmentof capital in the proper description .of live stock, largeprofits could be realized. This practical result ofcolonizing came home to the self-interest of peoplewho otherwise would not have moved a step for theregeneration of a convict community. When theyfound that government would assign the delinquentsas shepherds to sheep-masters, without cost, this was a

102 NEW SOUTH WALES.

still more attractive view of the matter ; and manypersons of wealth ventured to convey their familiesand fortunes to the penal colony of New South Wales.

The system of sheep-farming pursued by the colo-nists was very different from anything of the kind inEngland ; and, of course, adapted to the circumstancesof the country. In the first instance the governmentgranted a licence to depasture sheep on waste lands,which the settlers had themselves selected and occupiedwithout survey, defining the boundaries by any naturalfeature of the country, such as a river, a creek, a lake,or a range of hills. In some cases the proprietor ofstock possessed the fee-simple of the lands, on paymentof a trifling annual quit-rent ; but, as the flocks in-creased, the tracts of country required were of suchlarge extent, that the crown retained the fee-simple andcharged an annual rent, according to the number ofstock on the " run "—as these tracts of land weretermed. The renters were also named " squatters,"to distinguish them from landowners, and they calledtheir homesteads " stations." As their flocks in-creased they established " out-stations " on their runs.On application to the local government, the squattercould select the shepherds and hutkeepers he requiredat the convict depot ; when the persons selected were"assigned to him—that is, he had them entrusted tohis care as prisoners of the crown, who were bound toperform all lawful service on penalty of being returnedto the government prisons. In case of disobedienceor other offence to his master, the assigned servant wasliable to severe punishment at the nearest magisterialcourt. At first the government clothed these pri-soners, and allowed them food out of the public stores,but the latter allowance was discontinued, and in time

CONVICT ASSIGNMENT SYSTEM. 103

the clothing also. As the demand for such labour in-creased, the master employing them was bound to givea stipulated yearly wage of £9. Where the assignedconvict was skilled at any mechanical work, his masterreceived all the earnings, but allowed him better wagesthan that fixed by law. It may be as well to notice

in this place that the assignment system was generalthroughout the colony ; so that all the female as wellas male servants and skilled labourers were of thisclass. Many evils attended the system, especiallywhen convicts were assigned to emancipated felonsand disreputable free emigrants ; and the homes ofthe virtuous portion of the community also becamedemoralized by the presence of female prisoners amongthe young people, who frequently corrupted them bytheir conversation.

While evils arose from the assignment of convicts tothe townspeople, who looked upon it as a mode ofobtaining profit, without reference to the punishmentof crime or the improvement of the convicts, thoseassigned to the sheep-farmers were of great benefit to

their masters, and, in the end, were generally benefittedthemselves. This arose from the sheep requiringconstant attention on the part of the shepherd, so

that his mind was fully employed ; while in the un-tenanted pasture lands there was a seclusion from thetemptations to crime, which was well calculated toproduce reformation. Like many other anomalies inthis strange land of contrarieties, these rough convictshepherds presented a very different picture from theDamons of the pastoral classics, or even the shepherdsof England and Scotland. While following his flockthe Australian shepherd was armed with a musketinstead of a crook, for the purpose of defending himself

104 NEW SOITTIT WALES.

from hostile aborigines, or guarding his flock fromthe attacks of the dingo. Instead of playing upon theshepherd's pipe to while away the time, as his flockswere feeding, he indulged in smoking a short blackpipe, when he was fortunate enough to obtain sometobacco.

Not only are the Australian pastures excellent for pro-ducing fine wool, but the climate is eminently adaptedfor the increase of the flocks. So salubrious and mildis it, that during the lambing season the ewes droptheir lambs in the open air, and the lambkins almostimmediately have strength enough to follow their dams ;so that the shepherd has not the same care and anxietyin looking after his flock as in more rigid northernclimes, while the flock-master has rarely, except incontinued droughts, more than a small per centage ofmortality to calculate upon. Twin lambs are also morecommon ; and hence the increase is frequently cent.per cent. and sometimes more, while few stations

reckon less than ninety per cent. increase from ewes.It is a remarkable fact that in the year 1820, at whichperiod the wool of the colony first began to assumeimportance in the English market, yarn spun fromthe finer description of combing wools first became an

article of export from Great Britain to the continentof Europe. The import of Australian wool in thatyear was 99,416 lbs. ; the export of yarn from GreatBritain was 3,294 lbs. Progressively increasing witheach other, the import of wool from New South Walesand Van Diemen's Land in 1835 was 4,347,640 lbs. ;the export of yarn in the same year, 2,357,336 lbs.The average annual importation of wool from Spain,during the three years 1833 to 1835, was also 2,428,605lbs. This is exclusive of what our manufacturers of

SALUBRITY AND MILDNESS OF CLIMATE. 105

fine woollen cloths imported from Germany. At thepresent day the largest buyers at the periodical salesof Australian wools, held in London and Liverpool, arefrom Spain, Portugal, France, and Germany—whoconsider that there is no class of wool better adaptedfor the manufacture of their finest woollen fabrics.

The climate and pasture were also found to be pecu-liarly favourable to horses and cattle, and great painswere taken to introduce the best breeds. Horses soon

became plentiful in the colony, both for saddle anddraught ; and they increased so rapidly that the sur-plus stock was exported to India for the use of thecavalry regiments, which could not be reared in thattropical climate. In like manner cattle became soabundant that surplus meat was salted down and ex-ported ; while the tallow and hides became importantitems on the export sheet. As beasts of burden intraversing the bush-tracks in the far interior, the oxenbecame more useful to the squatters than their horses ;so that in time these denizens of the " bush," as theytermed the country, lived in rude plenty, and enjoyedperfect dependence on their own resources. Here wasrealized in its material aspect the life and occupationof the patriarchs of Israel. The yoke was hung aboutthe necks of the oxen, and they dragged their heavyburdens far into the wilderness. The bullock-driversbaked their unleavened bread in the wood-ashes of theirfires by the way-side, which they called " damper." Inaddition to these primitive cakes, the ordinary fare ofmaster and man alike consisted of beef, mutton, andstrong tea. They built their own huts out of the twigsof the bushes, wattled and plastered, or with slabs fromthe gum trees, roofed with shingles. These affordedsufficient shelter in a climate where the traveller can

100 NEW SOEITTI WALES.

sleep with impunity in the open air. In this mannerthe country became rapidly settled ; and as newarrivals raised the demand for grazing lands, theadventurous squatters explored the country to thewestward, and discovered the finest of all pasture lands,around Port Phillip. In fine, the colony became a greatpastoral province, comparatively free and independent.

The climate and soil were also found well adapted forthe production of fruit in the highest perfection andof all varieties, from the currant and gooseberry of colderclimes to the banana and pine-apple of the tropics.Even within the immediate vicinity of Sydney, apples,pears, plums, strawberries, cherries, raspberries, mul-berries, medlars, apricots, lemons, citrons, loquats,olives, pomegranates, grew intermingled on the lightsoil, and produced fruit each of its kind abundantly,and of the richest flavour. In the neighbourhood ofParramatta the orange tree took kindly to the situationand produced fine fruit. One orange grove in courseof time covered sixteen acres, and its produce yieldedthe proprietor upwards of a thousand pounds a year.His neighbours participated in his success ; for thebees which they reared fed upon the orange blossoms,and thus produced the most delicious honey, in suchabundance that it became cheaper than sugar.

Of vegetables the same holds good ; so mild is theclimate, that green peas are gathered in winter as wellas in summer, and the potato produces two crops inthe year. In certain situations the vine flourishedamazingly, and produced abundance of fruit for thetable, as well as for the manufacture of wine. SomeGreek convicts, assigned to Captain Macarthur, atCamden, being skilled in making wine, were the firstto produce this important article of commerce.

TRADE AND POPULATION IN 1836. 107

Although the culture of the vine was checked inconsequence of the gold discovery, it is now pursuedwith vigour, chiefly in the valley of the Hunter River,where the best wine is made. So great is the demandfor native wines, that the production, though consider-able, is not sufficient to meet the local consumption,and in time Australia will be a wine-exporting country.

To enumerate every article that the colony of NewSouth Wales produced for the necessaries and luxuries oflife, through the energy dnd enterprise of the free set-tlers, would occupy too much space. Suffice it to state,that in 1835, before the settlement of Port Phillip,now Victoria, was formed, the population of the colonywas nearly independent of foreign supplies, and the ex-port and import trade afforded large profits to the mer-chants and bankers who had established themselves atSydney. In that year the imports amounted to £945,127,and the exports to £630,881. The excess of the formerover the latter was attributable, in a great degree, tothe amount of capital introduced in the shape ofmachinery and other articles, not for consumption, butto be applied to permanent improvements within thecolony. The balance was paid partly in treasury bills,drawn on account of the military and convict establish-ments, and partly from the capital introduced byprivate individuals. At this time (1836) the numberof free inhabitants was 30;285 males, 18,680 females,a total of 48,965, and the convict population 25,254males, 2,577 females, a total of 27,831, altogether76,796. The colony was no longer dependent uponthe mother country for its support, as the revenuederived from customs duties, the sale of crown landsand other sources, was more than sufficient to meet theexpenditure ; the land sales being applied to aid free


immigration, by giving bounties to eligible personsinclined to emigrate. In 1837, upwards of £100,000was applied to the latter purpose, besides the estimatedincome of £284,545 from other sources. Land soldin the country at 5s. per acre, in many cases wasresold at the same number of pounds sterling ; whiletown allotments in Sydney, which had originally beengranted free, realized in the principal street £10,000an acre.

Thus although Australia originally possessed buta minimum of animal and vegetable food for humansustenance, barely maintaining a sparse population ofattenuated aborigines, yet it contained the elementsfor the production of every description of human foodin the highest degree. So that we have seen thisregion of barrenness and famine turned, by the skilland energy which God has given man, into a land" flowing with milk and honey." Shall it be said thenthat this fair and fertile portion of our common motherearth was destined by the Almighty to be perpetuallyoccupied by the indolent savage ? Such a conclusionwould be contrary to His mandate, where He commandsus to " multiply and replenish the earth."

Still it is a duty that is incumbent upon the civilizedpossessor of these lands to improve and ameliorate thecondition of the indigenous inhabitants. In this good.work the devout Missionary has been the most activeinstrument. From the reports of the Rev. W. Watson,and the Rev. J. C. T. Handt, at Wellington Valley,and the Rev. L. C. Threlkeld, of Lake Macquarie, wegather some interesting details of the success of themissions under their charge.

After a residence of three years in that neigh-bourhood, which is about 180 miles from Sydney, and

MISSIONARIES AMONG THE ABORIGINES. 109

beyond the Blue Mountains, they had reason tobelieve that many of the aboriginal natives wereimproving in Scriptural knowledge. The great difficultywas to keep these wandering people around them.Sometimes a few would remain for months, but themost only for a few weeks or even days, when theyagain rambled into the bush. The girls proved moretractable than the boys, while the attention of adultswas not easily gained, as their thoughts were divertedeven while listening to the exhortations of themissionaries. When the children were spoken to onreligious subjects, their minds appeared seriouslyimpressed ; but no real spiritual-mindedness wasmanifested. They did not want ability to learn, butlacked steadiness and a desire to improve. Themissionaries discoursed to the adults in their ownlanguage ; though at the time they could converse inbroken English. Their memories were good and theycould recollect what had been said. As an instance :while one of the missionaries was addressing a companyof females, forty miles from Wellington, one of them,whom he did not remember seeing before that time,said ;—" You talk that way at Wellington." Andwhen asked to what place she expected to go at death,she replied, " to Heaven, I believe." When it wassuggested that that was very questionable, sheanswered, "No, I believe when want to go, devil, devil,pull down again, not let go."

It was found extremely difficult to form an accurateidea of their opinions in reference to the creation ofthe world, the Creator, the immortality of the soul, anda future state of existence. They have a general ideaof a Creator who is himself uncreated, and a vaguebelief in the immortality the soul, but no notion of


their state after death. They attribute all theirtroubles and afflictions to an evil being who is said tobe only visible to the doctors of the tribe. Their lawschiefly relate to abstaining from food at certain ages;and they had no punishment for the murder of wife,child or relation. Human life they disregard, and sportwith the sufferings of man and beast. The motherkills her offspring without regret. Even at that timeit was observed that their numbers were diminishing.Since then they have constantly and rapidly diminishedfrom some mysterious cause that renders the femalesbarren. The last of the Sydney tribe died in 1840.

During this period, whilst the colony was arriving byrapid strides at a degree of prosperity in its materialcondition that its most sanguine friends never dreamedof, it is satisfactory to find that the religious welfare ofthe community and the instruction of the rising gene-ration were not altogether neglected. Still the meanswere inadequate to meet the growing wants of thepeople—free as well as bond—and the active interven-tion of the government and ecclesiastical authoritieswere found requisite.

Sir Richard Bourke assumed the governorship in1831, and while he held office for a term of sevenyears, he administered the affairs of the colony withimpartial justice to both classes, and with a wise,enlightened policy that compares favourably withthe obstructiveness of some of his predecessors.Under his government especial care was paid to thespiritual and educational wants of the community, inwhich he was ably seconded by the Bishop of Australia.Sir Richard said,—" In no part of the world is thegeneral education of the people a more sacred or neces-sary duty of the Government than in New South

PROGRESS OF RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS. 111

Wa!es. The more I see of the colony, the strongeris the impression that a general system of education,provided by the Government on an extensive scale, andconducted by able teachers, is absolutely required bythis people." Bishop Broughton addressed the inhabit-ants of Maitland thus—"I am every day more confirmedin the persuasion, that to the operation and influenceof a religious education alone we must look for any con-firmed and satisfactory improvement of morals in thecommunity." With two such zealous advocates, aidedby the votes of the Legislative Council, places of worshipand schools rapidly sprung up in all parts of the colony.An Act was passed in July, 1S36, to promote the build-ing of churches and chapels, and to provide for themaintenance of ministers of religion, whereby thecolonial treasurer was authorized to pay an equal sumtowards private contributions for building to the extentof £1000, and issue stipends to officiating ministersfrom £100 to £200 per annum, which were also sup-plemented by £50 annually from the Society for thePropagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts, in ad-dition to a free passage and outfit from the ColonialOffice. Endowments were liberally bestowed uponministers of all denominations.

A census of the population was taken on the 2ndSeptember, 1836, which furnishes the following returnsunder the head " Religion " :—Protestants, 51,621 ;Roman Catholics, 21,895 ; Jews, 477 ; and Pagans, 100.Among the Protestant sects, the followers of the Churchof England were most numerous, while Sir RichardBourke remarks that " The members of the Church ofScotland form a small proportion, but are amongst themost respectable of the inhabitants, and are to be found,with few exceptions, in the class of free immigrants."


The educational institutions were at first placedunder the control of a body called " The Church andSchool Corporation," to whom lands were granted forthe support of schools. This association was dissolvedand the lands vested in the crown. In the animateddiscussion upon the various systems of educationpursued in the United Kingdom, the Irish NationalSystem was strongly advocated, but the Denomina-tional System of Education was ultimately adopted.

Thus have we traced the rise and progress of thematerial, political, social and religious condition ofNew South Wales to 1836, when it had reachedsuch a state of maturity as to decide the futureprosperity of the colony, and exhibited to the worldresources that only required to be developed bythe Anglo-Saxon race to rival the United Statesof America. Its history from that date, for the nextfifteen years, exhibits no special feature to call formuch notice, it was simply a period of expansion, whenthe various elements of ' constitution multiplied andiltextended. The pastorall .: tem increased in a com-pound ratio with the prolific character of the live stock;so that at the close of 1850 there were in the colony5,660,819 sheep, 952,852 horned cattle, 63,895 horses,and 23,890 pigs, while the pasture lands were extendedto the Port Phillip country, from 600 to 800 milesdistant from Sydney, so that it was formed intoa separate colony. Agriculture progressed until thenumber of acres under cultivation amounted to 69,219,besides 995 acres of vineyards, producing 103,606gallons of wine. Commerce flourished with a list 'ofimports amounting to £1,333,413, and the exports£1,357,784, being larger than the imports for the firsttime and comprising 14,270,622 lbs. of wool, valued at

COMMERCIAL AND POPULATION STATISTICS. 113

£788,051, besides 128,090 cwt. of tallow, worth£167,858. The revenue reached the large sum of£248,613, and the bankers, with a paper currencyof £266,602, held specie to the amount of £690,582.The shipping trade numbered 421 square-rigged vesselsinwards, measuring in the aggregate 126,185 tons, andoutwards 506 ships of 176,762 tons. Manufactoriesfor weaving native wool had been established, pro-ducing 200,000 yards of tweed. cloths ; there were alsofive distilleries, twenty breweries, three sugar-refineries;sixteen establishments for the manufacture of soap andcandles, fifteen for tobacco and snuff, four for hats,thirty-six tanneries, five salting and preserved-meatestablishments, ninety-three for tallow-melting, gas-works, seven potteries, glass-works, smelting works,thirteen iron and brass foundries, and five ship-build-ing yards ; sixty-four steam-mills, thirty-eight water-mills, twenty-six wind-mills, and thirty horse-mills,chiefly for grinding corn.

In that time the pop n, with the civil andreligious institutions of t 16olony, had progressed inproportion. On the 31st March, 1851, a census wastaken, which showed the population to be 106,229males, and 81,014 females, forming a total of 187,243,exclusive of Port Phillip, which was separated fromNew South Wales in that year, and received itspresent name of Victoria.

After the division of the two colonies, a new consti-tution was granted to New South Wales in 1858,whereby the political privileges of the colonists areassimilated with those of the mother country, butwith even greater advantages. A local parliament iselected by manhood suffrage and vote by ballot. Theexecutive ministers are selected from the upper and


lower houses forming the legislature, the members ofthe former being nominees of the Governor.

In like manner, the religious and educational insti-tutions were formed on broad basis of liberty andfreedom of conscience. Members of all Christian sectsenjoyed equal rights, and none were disqualified frompublic posts on account of their creed. The censusreturn of the above date classified them as follows :-Church of England.93,137; Church of Scotland,18,156;Wesleyan and Methodists, 10,008 ; other Protestants,6,472 ; Roman Catholics, 56,899 ; Jews, 970 ; Mahom-medans and Pagans, 852; other persuasions, 740. Theschools had increased to 423, educating 21,120 scholars,of whom 11,118 were boys and 10,002 girls. InSydney a University was established upon the mostliberal principles ; and professors of all denominationswere admitted without being subject to sectariantest. Mechanics' institutions were also establishedboth at Sydney and throughout the colony, besidespublic libraries, botanic prdens, museums, horticul-tural societies, and various other organizations con-nected with literature, science and religion. Lastly,the newspaper press, as supplying the general infor-mation that circulates daily through the body politic,had its representative journals in the capital andlargest provincial towns, comprising two daily andeight weekly newspapers at Sydney, besides a Govern-ment Gazette, and two others twice and thrice a week ;also one in Goulburn, two in Maitland, one at Brisbane,and two in Bathurst.

From the foregoing data, it will be seen that NewSouth Wales possessed all the vital elements of avigorous state at this period (1851) ; and that, in thenatural course of events, it would continue to flourish

EARLY GOLD DISCOVERY. 115

and expand its pastoral, agricultural, and manufac-turing resources. In that year, however, the golddiscovery in Australia occurred. This for a seasoninterfered with its steady industrial progress, but ulti-mately gave an impetus to its further colonization byfree immigrants, so that in a few years the wholecountry was advanced fully half a century on the trackof nations.

The account of the first indications of auriferousmines in the Blue Mountain regions around theBathurst Plains dates many years before 1851; butthese are too general or too vague to command muchattention in recording the practical development of thisdiscovery by an emigrant named Edward HammondHargreaves. Mr. Hargreaves had been resident forsome time in the Bathurst country, when the announce-ment, in 1848, of the gold discovery in California reachedhim. The accounts were so attractive to young menbent on bettering their fortunes, that a great manywent for this purpose from New South Wales tothe "diggings,"—as the American miners familiarlynamed the alluvial workings. Among them was Mr.Hargreaves. While working among the hills andvalleys of the Sierra Nevada, he observed that thepeculiar soil in which the gold dust was found veryMuch resembled what he had often seen on thebanks of the streams near Bathurst, and that theadjacent rocks presented a familiar structure to hiseye. it does not appear that he was at all versed ingeology or mineralogy, but from his intuitive facultiesof observation, he concluded that, where there was sogreat a similarity, there might also be auriferousdeposits. With this impression strong in his mind,he made his way back to New South Wales about the

116 NEW SOUTH WILES.

end of 1850, and at once proceeded, but with greatcaution and reticence, to " prospect " the localities hedeemed the most likely to contain the coveted metal.This was on the banks of a small stream about twentymiles inland from Bathurst, named Summer Hill Creek.Here his most sanguine anticipations were realized,by finding some grains of gold after trying a few pansof the soil, which he knew from his Californian expe-rience was that in which it existed.

How to divulge the secret to the best advantagewas his next consideration. As he did not over-estimate the importance of the discovery, as likely toaffect injuriously the social and settled condition ofthe colony, from what he had witnessed in California,he judiciously made it known privately at first to thelocal government. At that time, the Colonial Secretary,Mr. Deas Thomson, an official of long standing in thecolony, was acquainted with some previous commu-nications on the subject that ended in no practicalresult ; consequently, he advised the Governor, SirCharles Fitzroy, to decline giving any special benefitor premium to Mr. Hargreaves until the value of thediscovery was ascertained. Under these circum-stances, he proceeded to Bathurst, where he assembledthe inhabitants of that secluded pastoral township,and exhibited the gold he had washed from the banksof Summer Hill Creek, offering to escort a properlyequipped party to the spot, to prove his assertions.This was done by a number of the more enterprisingsettlers, and in a few days they were enabled toaffirm the truth of the discovery, which had the effectof attracting every man in the place, who could leaveto seek his fortune at the diggings. These pioneersof the gold-fields, impressed with a sense of wonder

GOLD FIELD OF OPHIR. 117

at the astounding fact, called the picturesque spot thevalley of Ophir, after the region mentioned in Scrip-ture as a place from whence gold was extracted. Otherlocalities in this vicinity were examined, and several ofthem found to be richer in the size and quantity of thegold—pieces weighing one, two, three, and four ouncesbeing dug up, which were named " nuggets," after aterm in use at California. This mode of workingcontinued for some time, until at last the richness andextent of the deposits were evidenced by the discoveryof a mass of quartz containing 106 lbs. of gold, by anative, who knew nothing previously of its value.

The news of the discovery and richness of theBathurst gold-fields spread through the colony withthe most exciting effect upon all classes of the com-munity. As predicted and dreaded by the Govern-ment, should a discovery occur, the whole fabric ofsociety was unhinged. The male population hithertoplodding at their steady vocations in the office or thefields, whether in town or country, with almost oneaccord ceased to work and prepared to join the gold-diggers in their exciting occupation, each desirous ofbecoming the fortunate owner of a lump of gold thatwould render him independent for life. Those who firstleft their old employment were the shepherds tending thesheep that produced the " golden fleece," which hadadvanced the colony to its prosperity. It may well besupposed that the squatters who owned these flockssaw with dismay their desertion by the shepherds.They considered that ruin must inevitably follow tothe pastoral interests by this " accursed discovery ofthe gifts of Mammon !" Like many other short-sighted calculations of man, not only was such an evilaverted, but it proved in the end an increased source


of wealth. Before this period, the flock-master wasobliged to boil down his surplus stock for the sakeof the tallow, skin, and wool, which realized not morethan 3s. Gd. ; while large flocks of sheep were sold at2s. Gd. per head, and legs of mutton sold at less thanld. per pound. The influx of new corners to the gold-fields, which yielded the means to pay for supplies, soonraised the value of a sheep double, treble,—until itbecame ten-fold, and the frightened squatters thusbecame the wealthiest and most independent colonists.

In the towns the social confusion was more apparentthan in the country. Labourers and mechanics leftoff work, and he who had some previous knowledge ofmining was looked up to as the leader of a party.Clerks left their counting-houses, and shopmen theiremployers' shops, heedless of warning that theywould lose their situations. Many civil servants ingovernment offices, and the book-keepers of bankersand merchants threw up good appointments, rangingfrom £200 to £500, and even £1000 a year, for theglittering chances of the gold fields. Even trades-men closed their places of business, and howeverunfitted for a life in the bush, equipped themselveswith pick and spade for their new pursuit. Whilethe trade in ordinary merchandise was at a stand-still,ironmongers and store-keepers having a stock of im-plements suitable for gold-digging obtained fabulousprices for them in consequence of the demand. Thosealso who dealt in flour, sugar, tea and portableprovisions, benefited likewise by the rush to thediggings ; and consequently they remained at hometo lay in fresh supplies. On the other hand, thetraders in commodities not in request shut up theirshops, and went to participate in the general scramble.

RUSH TO THE DIGGINGS. 119

Nor did the gold. mania alone seize the people on shore,the sailors afloat in the ships in harbour deserted,leaving their pay behind, and made their journey onfoot across the Blue Mountains, where a crowd ofpeople unceasingly thronged the road by day, orawakened the echoes of the forest by night, singingand rejoicing in drunken ecstacy around their bushfires. Many of the captains of these vessels, seeinghow they were being deserted, arranged to go withtheir sailors and form parties, while the ships weredismantled until their return. Thus for a time theregular trade of the colony was paralyzed, until thetraders found new channels of business in the alteredstate of affairs, and that more profitable than before.

The Government had now a practical demonstrationof Mr. Hargreaves' discovery, much to its consternationand alarm ; so he was appointed a Commissioner ofGold-fields, under Mr. Hardy, Chief Commissioner,with a promise of further pecuniary reward. In thisemergency the utmost promptitude and judgment wasrequired to prevent a state of lawlessness and anarchy,such as prevailed at California during the first years ofits gold discovery. At once a proclamation was pub-lished according to the old English laws relating tothe precious metals on crown lands, which were declaredto be the property of Her Majesty ; but these weremodified, so that only a royalty of thirty shillings permonth was demanded from every person on the goldfields, each one having a license to that effect. Tocollect this license fee, and maintain order among thediggers, all the available police and military forces weresent up the country. Although there were greater causesthan usual for people committing breaches of the peaceamidst the confusion that prevailed, yet, it is satis-


factory to state, that during the subsequent eighteenmonths, the returns of crime in New South Walesshow no increase on the previous ratio, which isrecorded to the credit of the population. The licensingsystem, however, proved to be unfair for the diggerswho were not successful, and obnoxious to them gene-rally ; consequently it was rescinded, and a duty on theexport of gold substituted. By the close of 1851, thequantity of gold exported to England amounted to144,120 ounces, valued at £468,336. Here was actualevidence before the people of the mother country, thatthe Australian _El Dorado was no fiction or imposture,but a region teeming with the coveted treasure. Thencommenced a rush of emigration unexampled in history;but, as the stream was chiefly directed to the still richergold-fields of Victoria, it will be more appropriate totreat of it in relating the history of the gold discoveryin that colony.

The effects of the gold discovery in Australia are notmerely matters of local consideration, because thesecolonies have been benefited by the addition of a newarticle of export from their resources ; but they haveproduced results of the greatest national importanceto the British Empire, and to the progress of the worldat large. The discovery in this hitherto neglectedregion of such a mass of treasure, which the policy,custom and interest of mankind has set up to regulatethe value of his industry and other prc lucts, is asubject of interest to the historian and statesman.After the occupation of that vast territory, doubtlessfrom a very remote period, by a keen, observing,though socially degraded race of aborigines, and formore than sixty years inhabited by no mean classof observers amongst our own countrymen, it is

PROVIDENTIAL CIRCUMSTANCES OF GOLD DISCOVERY.121

remarkable, to say the least of it, that this discoveryshould have been made so late in the day. If the firstspecimens of the precious metal had been found inunexplored and less accessible localities than theywere, we should have wondered the less. But Mr.Hargreaves, to whom all credit is due for being thefirst demonstrator of the great fact, discovered it nearthe surface of the ground, and subsequently otherspicked out loose grains of gold from their garden soil ;while the stones which formed part of the foundationof a bridge, and the metal on the adjacent road, werepieces of gold-bearing quartz striated with featheryveins of virgin gold.

When the fact of these auriferous deposits was madepatent to the world, credible statements were put forththat the local authorities had been apprised of the ex-istence of gold in the Australian mountains at variousperiods anterior to Hargreaves's discovery, and that theysuppressed the information, fearful of its consequenceson the industrial progress of the colony. These pru-dential motives on the part of the earlier local govern-ments are commendable, for the condition of thecolony, then composed chiefly of a convict population,was not prepared to receive intelligence of such bound-less treasure lying open to their hands. Moreover,the gradual increase of live stock, which furnished somuch animal food to the people at the time of thediscovery, was in itself a providential circumstance,when so little of other kinds of provisions could behad upon that emergency. Therefore, although latein the history of this remarkable southern continent,the discovery of its auriferous deposits could not havebeen made at a more propitious time.

Notwithstanding these favourable circumstances of


time and place, we Lave seen that much social andcommercial confusion prevailed during the first year ortwo ; and, with the exception of occasional outbreaks ofinsubordination on the gold-fields,where the diggers mal-treated the Chinese and other aliens attracted to thediggings, no extraordinary increase of crime resultedfrom the discovery. In a few years the first excitementhad not only subsided, cooling the fevered imaginationsof the colonists, but many, especially among the edu-cated classes, returned to their former occupations.They were lucky men whose services were againengaged at the salaries they had thrown up ;. thegreater number had to work up the ladder of pro-motion once more, as " wiser but sadder men." Inlike manner, shepherds, stockmen and bullock-drivers,gradually returned to their old employments, asthey found that large gold nuggets were as rare asprizes in a lottery. They preferred steady pastoralpursuits, with increased wages, to the fickle freaksof fortune at the gold fields. To those unaccus-tomed to hard labour the romance of gold-miningwas soon dissipated, when they found that the mostarduous toil was necessary in procuring the covetedmetal, and when obtained rapidly disappeared in payingextravagant prices for the most ordinary necessaries oflife. A reaction in favour of industrial occupationswas the consequence ; and there was a want of handsto develope the numerous fresh discoveries of gold allover the country. Moreover, the greater attractionsof Ballarat and Bendigo, in Victoria, drew away themost skilful miners from the Bathurst and otherdiggings. At the present day, and for the future, thedevelopment of the golden resources of New SouthWales is, and promises to be, conducted in the same

THE COLONY DIVIDED INTO FOUR PROVINCES. 123

steady manner as the other remunerative employ-ments of the colonists are pursued.

Fourteen years have elapsed since the advent of thisliterally golden era in the annals of New South Wales,and the strides of colonization over its auriferousmountains, its pastoral plains, and agricultural valleys,have eclipsed anything of the kind in the history ofnations. The original boundaries of the colony, asdefined by the British Government in their instruc-tions to Governor Phillip, which comprised the easternhalf of Australia, or a territory nearly as large as amoiety of Europe, has become peopled, more or less,throughout its length and breadth by industrious andenterprising colonists. From its immense area itbecame in time too unwieldy for the efficient controlof the central Government and Legislature at Sydney.Hence New South Wales proper has been largely shornof its proportions—first, by the formation of the inde-pendent free colony of South Australia, in 1836; second,by the separation of the district of Port Phillip, underthe title of Victoria, in 1851 ; and third, the separationof the Moreton Bay district, with all the territory northof that, and its formation into the colony of Queens-land, in 1859. Notwithstanding this curtailment of itsjurisdiction, the colony of New South Wales has anarea of 323,437 square miles—nearly as large as thesuperficies of France and the United Kingdom together.The population on the 30th June, 1864, amounted to385,893, of whom 213,290 were males and 172,603females. The extent of land under culture in 1862was 260,798 acres, yielding 1,581,597 bushels of wheat,and 1,484,467 of Indian corn, 39,801 of barley, 98,814of oats, 28,127 tons of potatoes, 9,704 cwt. of tobacco,50,927 tons of hay, 99,791 gallons of wine, besides

124 NEW SOUTII WALES.

other produce. The value of the fruit exported, chieflyoranges, was £61,466. In the same year there were6,119,163 sheep, 2,408,586 head of cattle, and 251,497horses. The pastoral products of that year exportedwere—wool, 12,000,000 lbs., valued at £1,250,000;hides to the value of £68,576 ; and tallow, 13,647 cwt.The value of gold exported was £1,876,049, and thequantity of that new product raised in the first tenyears was 3,281,000 ounces, valued at £11,683,857.A mint was established in 1855 to coin sovereigns andhalf-sovereigns, which are a legal tender in India andHongkong, but not yet in other British possessions.In 1863, 1,334,500 of the former and 556,500 of thelatter were issued. The imports for 1860 were valuedat £7,519,000, and the exports at £5,072,090. Theshipping inwards consisted of 1424 vessels of 427,835tons, and outwards 1438 ships. For the same yearthe public revenue amounted to £1,309,000 ; expendi-ture, £1,312,777 ; and the public debt, £3,820,000.This last-named item was contracted for the con-struction of railways throughout the country by theGovernment. Already 36 miles have been laid downin the north, 34 to the westward of Sydney, and51 from the same terminus to the south, which willshortly be extended to Goulburn, 120 miles distant onthe Great Victoria line.

Other public works of utility and adornment havebeen erected in the chief towns of the colony.Amongst these towns may be enumerated Paramatta„Bathurst, Goulburn, Braidwood, and Maitland, in theinland counties ; and Newcastle, Wollongong, Eden,with other places, with the harbours of Two-foldBay, Jervis Bay, Broken Bay, the Hunter River,and Port Stephens in the maritime districts, the

EXCELLENCE OF SYDNEY HARBOUR. 125

localities of which may be found on the general mapof Australia.

But none of these towns and harbours, or, indeed,any in the Australian colonies, can compare to themagnificent harbour of Port Jackson, and the metro-politan city of Sydney. It is the sailor's delight to besnugly moored in Sydney Cove at the present day,as it was to the captains of the first fleet that enteredPort Jackson. As the traveller or emigrant passesbetween the perpendicular and overhanging precipicesthat stand at its entrance like the portals of some giantedifice, he is struck with feelings of dread at the swellof the Pacific Ocean and the rocky desolation around.This is suddenly changed to pleasure, as the picturesquescenery of the inner harbour opens up its panoramicbeauties, and he sails along a lake-like inlet where theagitation of the sea ceases. As the ship passes betweena succession of bays and coves, indented by picturesquepoints of land and guarded by small islets, he ischarmed with the fairy-like aspect of the scenery ;and when the captain informs him that each of thesebays is deep enough to float a line-of-battle ship, withsufficient room to hold all the navies of Europe, hecannot but marvel at the maritime advantages ofSydney Harbour. Then, as the ship comes to anchorin the cove, the city appears the perfection of a greatseaport. It has landing facilities at quays where thelargest merchantmen moor alongside, and there is nocurrent or impetuous tide to endanger the shippingand boats. No dirty, muddy, stream around the ship,nor dingy-looking warehouses on shore to offend theeye and nostrils, as too frequently happens in seaporttowns. All is bright, clean, and wholesome, spreadinga cheerful aspect around the haven. The clear waters

1. Government-house.2. Town-hall.3. Legislative Council-

chambers.4. Fort Phillip.5. Jail.6. Barracks.7. Railway-station.8. St. Mary's Cathedral.9. St. Andrew's Cathedral

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NEW SOUTH WALES. 127

below, and the blue sky overhead, throw out in boldretief the white freestone buildings that compose thecity. The public edifices are perched on the surround-ing heights, and the church spires arise out of thedensely packed streets beyond. Sydney is admirablysituated for a city in a hot climate, as it is built uponhills where the natural drainage is flushed by the rainsthat clear the streets of anything that otherwise wouldcreate malaria. Extensive suburbs spread in everydirection as far as the eye can reach from any ofthese- elevated points, and numerous villas dot thelandscape to the extreme horizon. Within this areadwells a population of 93,686, surrounded by all theluxuries, adornments, and amenities of life ; and thearchitectural designs of Greece and Rome have a habi-tation and a name beneath a sky that surpasses inpurity and intensity of hue the far-famed skies ofItalia.

The annexed chart of Sydney and Port Jackson willserve to illustrate the foregoing description.

CHAPTER V.

TAS

Formerly Van Diemen's Land—Suspicions of French oeenpation—Firstsettlement under Bowen—Unexpected arrival of a large expedition—Settlement formed at Hobart Town—Death of Governor Collins—Topo-graphical aspect of the Dement and the Island generally—Land Regu-lations—Officers induced to become Settlers—Rapid occupation of PastureLands from increase of Sheep—Names of Localities curious—System ofBartering—Private Paper-currency—Colony dependent on Government—Social condition during Governor Sore11's time—Colonel Arthur suc-ceeds— Subsidiary Penal Settlements established — Escaped Convictsbecome Bushrangers—Their exploits—Harsh treatment of Convict-servants—Cruel attack upon friendly Natives—Their number and physical appear-ance —Native Tiger—War of extermination —Quixotic expedition tocapture Aborigines—Decrease and extinction—Suppression of Bushrangers—Sir John Franklin Governor—Sir Eard , ey WilmotGovernor—Sir WilliamDenison Governor—Cessation of Transportation—Gold Discovery andexodus of Population, free and bond—Rewards offered—Colonel Brownarrives—Statistics for the year 1863.

IN the first chapter, treating of maritime discovery inAustralia, it is mentioned that Captain Abel JansenTasman, sailing on a voyage of discovery from Batavia,rounded the southern coast of this island in December1642, and concluding that it was part of the southerncontinent, he named it Van Diemen's Land, in honourof his master, the Governor-general of the Dutch EastIndies, Anthony Van Diemen. Further, it has beenrelated how Mr. Bass, the surgeon of H.M.S. Reliance,discovered, in 1798, that it was an island, dividedfrom the mainland by a strait 130 miles wide, whichGovernor King named after him. On that occasion

FRENCH ATTEMPTS AT DISCOVERY. 129

he was accompanied by Lieutenant Flinders of thesame ship, who afterwards made a correct survey ofthe coast, besides many portions of Australia, whichjustly entitle him to the highest position as a hydro-grapher of the country, but not to the exclusion ofother eminent marine surveyors. What brought himchiefly into notice, was his detention in the Isle ofFrance (Mauritius) during the war between Englandand France ; when his charts were scandalously copiedby the authorities, and French names prefixed to allthe discoveries he and his predecessors had made.These were repudiated by the world at large, thoughthe few additions to the topography by CaptainsBaudin, D'Entrecasteaux and Hamelin, have been re-tained. With a more generous spirit, and by commonconsent of the local authorities and settlers, imme-diately after Bass's exploration, this island was namedTasmania, in recognition of the eminent services whichAbel Jansen Tasman rendered to maritime discovery ;but it was not until the year 1852 that the homegovernment adopted it, on the petition of the colo-nists, at the period of the cessation of transportationto its shores.

Apparently these questionable efforts of a rivalnation (with whom this country was then at war) toadd maritime renown to the annals of the first Empire,awakened the suspicions of the British Government thatthey might form a settlement or naval station in oneof the harbours on the south-east coast of Tasmania.Accordingly they communicated with the Governor ofNew South Wales, in 1802, instructing him to lose notime in forming a subsidiary penal settlement, on aneligible spot in that locality; accompanied with a secretdispatch from the Secretary of State for the colonies,

130 TASMANIA.

furnishing him with the reasons for this step. Imme-diately an expedition was formed under the command ofCaptain John Bowen, R.N., of Sa'sate, con-sisting of a small detachment of marines, and a suffi-cient number of convicts to clear land and erect houses.This pioneer band arrived at the Derwent River inJune 1803, after a boisterous voyage. In that regionit was mid-winter ; and being so far south, the climatewas much colder than the one they had left. Aftersurmounting numerous difficulties, and encounteringmuch privation in taking a survey of the surroundingcountry, they fixed on what was deemed an eligiblespot on the left bank of the river, about eighteen milesfrom its entrance, and fifty-five miles from the extremesouth cape of the island. Here Captain Bowen, fatignedwith his survey and anxious to commence the form-ation of the first settlement, called it more feelinglythan appropriately " Rest-down," which subsequentlyresolved itself into Risdon, which name it retains tothis day.

During the remainder of the year the embryo settle-ment progressed considerably, especially towards Sep-tember, when the fine weather set in. Captain Bowenproved himself to be a most able man for his post, ashe possessed an ardent and enterprising disposition, aswell as a clear and discriminating judgment. Had hecontinued to rear up the colony he had planted, thereis every reason for concluding that he would haveproved a competent and popular governor. He was,however, unexpectedly superseded by Colonel Collins,R.M., in the following year. This officer was JudgeAdvocate of New South Wales during the foundationof that colony, and secretary to Governor Philip.To his pen we are indebted for the best detailed

EXPEDITION -UNDER COLLINS. 131

accounts of its early history. He arrived in Englandin 1801 and published an " Account of the Colony ofNew South Wales," which, combined with his servicesduring a trying period, recommended him so stronglyto the notice of Government, that- he was appointedto the command of an expedition, which it was deemedadvisable should form a settlement on the shores ofPort Phillip, for the same reasons that the one on thebanks of the Dement was established.

Colonel Collins arrived within the Heads of thatwell-known harbour during the summer of 1801, witha fleet of convict ships, having on board all thenecessary staff and appliances for the foundation of apenal settlement distinct from, yet in a measure subor-dinate to, the Government at Sydney. After his fleethad passed safely through the narrow entrance of thisspacious harbour, he steered to the eastward, wherethe channel is narrow and surrounded by shoals, onwhich two of the ships, the Calcutta and the Oceangrounded. He then landed on the adjacent shore,which is sterile and sandy, and penetrated some dis-tance inland towards Western Port. The isthmusbetween presented no promising lands for agriculture,and suffered from scarcity of fresh water. Like his pre-decessor, Captain Phillip, when he abandoned BotanyBay for similar reasons, Colonel Collins left PortPhillip in disgust without disembarking his people,and sailed for the Derwent, where he knew therewas good land and plenty of fresh water.

It does not appear that Colonel Collins was cognisantof Captain Bowen's expedition to the same locality, orthat the latter knew anything concerning the expe-dition of the former, until he saw his fleet enter theriver. Of course it was a mutual surprise. As two

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132

TASMANIA.

settlements could not be formed in one place, thesmaller became merged in the larger ; so Bowen left,and Collins assumed the position of Lieutenant-Governor of Van Diemen's Land. On examining thesite fixed on by his predecessor, he deemed it not thebest—overlooking the magnificent harbour ; conse-quently, without breaking up the establishment atitisdon, he fixed on the opposite side of the Derwent

FOUNDATION OF HOBART TOWN. 133

as a more eligible spot. This was at the foot of amountain 4,320 feet high, where a perpetual streamof limpid water flows down from its highest springs.Here he laid the foundation of Hobart Town—whichwas named in honour of Lord Hobart, at that time amember of the British ministry—in April, 1804. Forsix years the settlement made rapid progress, and atown was gradually rising under the eye of GovernorCollins, when, in the early part of 1810, he died, tothe regret of all who had the interests of the youngcolony at heart.

Meanwhile, as very little was known of the countrybeyond the coast line, it was necessary to explore theinterior, to ascertain its capabilities for agricultureand pastoral purposes. As it happened, the land inthe immediate neighbourhood of Hobart Town wasnot much better than that around Sydney ; conse-quently, the first inhabitants were subject to manyprivations from the want of fresh meat ; game how-ever was plentiful, especially kangaroos. It is remark-able that, at the outset, the first settlement shouldhave been fixed on the least fertile part of the coun-try ; for Hobart Town, like Sydney, to this day isdependent for its supplies of beef, mutton, and grain,upon other parts of the colony. To the traveller andartist, however, in search of the picturesque, the sur-rounding scenery is of the most attractive description,rising into Alpine sublimity, and intersected by gorgesof the most varied and fantastic forms. The viewfrom the summit of Mount Wellington, which stretchesaway to the westward in a level plateau, is unsurpassedfor its prospect in the whole Australian colonies. Herefrom a height of 4,320 feet, after an ascent of tenmiles from Hobart Town, the climber may look down

134 TASMANIA.

on the city and harbour, and see their forms as dis-tinctly as in a map. If the day be clear, he candescry the shipping and houses below, through thepure atmosphere as distinctly, with the naked eye,as if he were looking down on some toy model withina few yards of his gaze. Around, on the flanks of thisvenerable mountain—whose hoary head is snow-coveredhalf the year round—are forests of primeval trees ofgigantic growth. Amongst these the fern-trees formthe underwood—more graceful than tropical palms.

This mountainous character prevails, more or less,throughout the whole island, so that it has been appro-priately named the Highlands of Australia, from theresemblance of its scenery to thp Highlands of Scot-land. Its area is only one-eighth less in extent thanthe whole of that division of the United Kingdom ;not a few of its mountains are named after BenLomond and others, and the chief settlers in Tasmaniaare Scotchmen. So anxious were some of the emigrantsto realize home associations in their adopted country,that they imported seeds of the Scotch thistle, whichhave taken root so readily and spread so rapidly thatthe fields are overrun with the weed, and it costs an-nually some thousand pounds to keep down the growthof this, the farmer's pest and Scotchman's pride.

Unlike its neighbour, the island of Tasmania risestowards its centre to an average height of 1500 feet ;whereas Australia is depressed in some parts below thesea level. On referring to the map, it will be seenthat all the rivers flow from some central sourcetowards the sea on every side ; the two largeststreams being the Derwent and the Tamar, the formerrunning south and the latter north ; while there areinland lakes at a high elevation, which feed these and

PUBLIC WORKS. 135

many other streams. It will be readily supposed thatthis mountainous character of the country presentedgreat obstacles, at the beginning, to open up theinterior for colonization. Here again convict labourbecame most beneficial, in clearing the wilderness andmaking roads into the interior. As it happened inmaking the road from Sydney to Bathurst, across theBlue Mountains, so did it prove in the construction ofa turnpike road across the island, from Hobart Town toLaunceston, a distance of 121 miles. Here is a publicwork that would have required half a million sterling,with the employment of all the available free emigrantsfor not less than ten years, to complete. The Govern-ment accomplished, with convict labour, off-handthis public work, which was of paramount necessityin opening up the rich lands of the interior to free-settlers and traders. The individual most prejudicedagainst transportation to the Australian colonies cannotbut admit this fact, if he travels from Hobart Townto Launceston by the road, where the engineeringdifficulties overcome, and the bridges constructed, areof such a formidable nature, as no free community ofpioneer settlers would attempt to accomplish. It iswith no desire to question the grievances of thecolonists with regard to transportation that theseremarks are made. On the contrary, it will serve toshow what material benefits were sacrificed by the freecommunity in securing its cessation. At the sametime, the impartial historian is bound to record thefacts which assisted in developing the material pros-perity of the colony and colonists.

Although this mountainous aspect denotes the pre-vailing character of Tasmanian topography, still theinterior of the country is interspersed with some of the

136 TASMANIA.

most fertile valleys and plains in the world, where thealluvial soils suitable for culture were found in theirvirgin state by the first settlers, with depths varyingfrom three feet to nineteen feet, and covered with themost luxuriant meadows of indigenous grasses. More-over, if the mountains limit the area of land availablefor pasturage and cultivation, they supply a mostvaluable equivalent in the shape of never-failingstreams that flow from their summits, where theprimeval forests collect the moisture denied to theopen plains below. Hence there is no section ofAustralia, equal in extent, so well watered as thepicturesque and fertile island of Tasmania. As thetraveller leaves behind the rugged scenery near thecoast, the face of the country in the upland districtsis richly variegated and diversified by ranges of mode-rately-sized hills and gently undulating valleys, formingthe most exquisitely beautiful amphitheatres, fertilewith whatever a rich soil and salubrious climate canyield. The hills, whose ridges generally form irregularcircles, are for the most part well wooded, and fromtheir summits may be seen an expanding area of levelpasture land, with but few trees, the grass growing inthe utmost luxuriance, while their beauty and richnessare heightened by the various streams and ponds, withwhich the plains are everywhere profusely watered.

As these rich tracts of country were discovered bythe early settlers they were immediately taken up forfuture cultivation or pastoral pursuits. Here the sameland regulations were in force that prevailed in NewSouth Wales. According to the means of the personapplying for a grant of land, a proportionate tract wasallotted, reckoned upon a fixed scale, which was limitedto a maximum of four square miles, or 2,560 acres, and

LA_ND SYSTEM. 137

not less than 320 acres, or half a square mile. Theratio of capital to land was in the proportion of onesquare mile, or 640 acres, for every £500 sterling.But an important clause in the act was the definitionof what was capital, namely : stock of every description,implements of husbandry, and other articles which maybe applicable to agricultural purposes ; likewise, anyhalf-pay or pension, which the applicant received fromthe Government.

Upon these liberal terms many retired officers inthe army and navy availed themselves of the regu-lations, and became the leading settlers in the work ofcolonization. Indeed, long after their pioneer labourswere over, this element in the body-politic prepon-derated above any other in Tasmania, and distinguishedits social condition from that of the other colonies ofNew South Wales. From this circumstance also thetone of the upper class of society was rigidly main-tained, especially where there was no medium class toblend them with the convict community, as in Aus-tralia. Between the ex-military or ex-naval officer andthe convict labourer there was a wide gap. Hencethe discipline of the one was intolerable to the other,which led ultimately to a state of outlawry andbrigandage among escaped felons unexampled in thehistory of Australian colonization.

The manner in which these officers turned their"swords into ploughshares " was very simple, and willbe best described by one of themselves, LieutenantJeffreys, R.N., in his account of the country :—" Theauthor, having fixed upon a spot, was supplied by thegovernor with three or four convicts (labourers), towhom were added a ploughman and overseer, bothfree men. The site of his intended farm was previously

138 TASMANIA.

well known to his overseer. These men were providedwith three weeks' provisions, and such tools and im-plements as were necessary to their labour. Having acart to carry their tools, &c., they arrived at the spotabout four o'clock in the afternoon. It was out of theauthor's power to accompany them, but as they them-selves relate the story, the ploughman was appointedcook, and whilst he was making the necessary arrange-ments for refreshment, the rest, with their axes, cutdown such timber as was requisite to erect a tempo-rary hut. This they completed, and rendered perfectlywater-tight, before sunset, when they all sat down tosuch a repast as the cook had provided for them. Theirmeal consisted of the hind-quarters of a kangaroo cutinto mince-meat, stewed in its own gravy, with a fewrashers of salt pork—this dish is called a steamer.'They added to that a sufficient quantity of potatoesand a large cake (damper) baked in the wood-ashes ofthe fire. These people have often declared that theynever in their lives ate a meal with greater relish andappetite than they did this supper. Afterwards thegrog went merrily round, and the plains and valleysrang with three times three, in 'Success to the Cap-tain's farm !' A small fire having been made at thefoot of the hut, they retired to rest, and after a re-freshing sleep, rose at daylight to renew their labours.In a few days the plan and foundation of a gardenwere laid out, after which they all set to work to builda more commodious house for themselves and theirmaster. This house consisted of two rooms, occupiedby the overseer when his master was not there, and alarge kitchen and sleeping place for themselves. In avery short time the author had the satisfaction to seetwenty acres of land broken up, and about two hundred

NATAL AND MILITARY SETTLERS. 139

acres fit for the plough. In doing this it was notnecessary to cut down more than five hundred trees.In this manner it is possible for hundreds of settlers, ata very moderate expense, to establish themselves inthis delightful tart of the globe, the abode of peace,plenty, and rural happiness." Upwards of half a cen-tury . has passed away since this incident occurred onthe banks of Pittwater, and although the conditionof the colony has gone through many phases, social,political and material, the farms have continued theirprogress without alteration as the abodes of peace andplenty, with a hospitable welcome to the traveller.

While the retired naval officers verified the prover-bial saying that " sailors being accustomed to ploughthe deep invariably take to ploughing the land," sothe military officers seemed to prefer sheep and cattle-grazing. For these purposes they had to import stock,at first from New South Wales, and afterwards fromEurope. The average temperature of Tasmania beingcolder than any part of Australia (except on theManeroo Plains, near the Australian Alps,) this eon-

, sideration affected the quality of wool and the breed ofsheep. Consequently English-bred ewes—chiefly Tees-water—were crossed with Spanish rams, producing amoderately fine wool, with a larger fleece, which madeup in quantity for deterioration in quality. Althoughthe climate affected the wool in this manner, the in-crease was not diminished ; if anything the sheep weremore prolific than on the mainland, as they regularlydropped their lambs within the seven months, seldomhaving less than two, frequently three at a birth, butthey were not allowed to rear more than two. Thisrapidity of increase soon spread the settlers' flocksover the limited pasture lands of Tasmania ; and

140 TASMANIA.

notwithstanding the fact that the grass was richerand denser than on the pastures of the older colony,they had to sow English grasses in moist places, tofeed their stock. It must be understood that how-ever well adapted the Australian grasses are to theclimate, they afford but small nourishment dio pro-portion to the area as compared with those of jutope.Where the latter may feed three sheep to an acre, theformer often requires three acres to a sheep. Theresult was that sheep fell in value, and pasture landsrose, until at last not an available spot was to befound for increase on the island. Hence the settlerswere forced to cross Bass Straits for new pastures inAustralia.

As these pioneers of Tasmanian colonization pene-trated into the interior, they were the discoverers ofnew streams, hills, valleys and plains ; and, like theirmore renowned predecessors in exploration, they, eachin his way, gave these geographical features a " localhabitation and a name." There is much room forcriticising the incongruity of local names in thesecountries, where there is no affinity with the plaosthey are named after. On this head, howtwer, writerssometimes make mistakes, as in the case of NewSouth Wales, as though named in fancied resemblanceto old South Wales. This is an erroneous conclusion,and contrary to Captain Cook's custom of naminghis discoveries after individuals, especially those inhigh authority. In this he has not departed &Althe general rule—that colony was named after thePrince of Wales ; New from its being first known, andSouth from being in the southern hemisphere. Thepractice of using the adjective new so frequently ispuerile, and the repetition of common and familiar

NAMES OF PLACES. 141

names shows a meagreness of invention. Native namesare preferable, which in Australia are both euphoniousand characteristic of the indigenous people.

In Tasmania it would appear that the early settlerswere sadly at a Toss to find names for new places. Itis related in the country that within a certain districtthey had recourse to the only two books the communitycould boast. One of these was the Bible, and from itthey named the Plains of Jericho, the River Jordan, andJerusalem Plains. The other book was the ArabianNights' Entertainments, from which the Valley ofBagdad was named. So that-the traveller in Tasmaniamay traverse the delightful Plains of Jericho until hecomes to the River Jordan, and passes through theValle3agdad on his way to Jerusalem.

Besides the " gentlemen farmers," as they werecalled, many non-commissioned officers, free emigrantfarmers of small means, and emancipated convictssettled upon small grants of land, and succeeded aswell as their wealthier neighbours. Those who hada previous knowledge of agriculture or grazing not onlyoutstripped the amateur farmers, but many laid thefoundations of large fortunes by their practical know-ledge. As an instance :—for many years the value ofthe wool was so depreciated, from its bad conditionand want of attention to the sheep, that few thought

' it worth while to clip the fleeces, often throwing skinand fleece away, or using them as litter for pigs.At last one practical sheep-farmer collected these skins,took off the wool and washed it ; he was thus enabledto give fourpence per pound for greasy wool. Whenit was cleaned and properly packed in bales, it fetchedfrom a shilling to one shilling and sixpence per lb. inthe English market. This enterprising settler amassed

142 TASMANIA.

a large fortune, and by his example encouraged othersto wash the fleece on the sheep's back, after usingmedicine to cure the cutaneous disease. This largelyincreased the profit from stock, which previously hadno value save for the carcass. Even that value wasonly comparative, as actual money in the shape ofgold or silver coin was rarely seen ; for a system ofbarter prevailed in the early days of the colony. Somany sheep, bullocks or pigs, were bartered for a horse,or served to liquidate a merchant's bills. Six sheepwere at one time equivalent to a gallon of rum, anda horse was worth two or three hundred acres of land,valued at half-a-crown an acre.

During this rude system of commerce, where themetallic currency was scarce, a paper currency wasin circulation, of promissory notes from sixpence totwenty shillings, issued by any person who thoughthis credit good enough to warrant this attempt atbanking. This kind of money was called " currency,"to distinguish it from His Majesty King George M.'scoin, and was of a depreciated standard, however goodthe issuer's credit. From lack of specie, during the timeof war with France, when gold was at a high premiumin England, Spanish dollars became a standard cur-rency both in notes and metal, and at one time thelatter grew so scarce that a piece was struck out of themiddle, about the size of a shilling, for which sum itpassed, and was called a " dump," while the mutilatedcoin was called a " ring-dollar," as legal tender for fourshillings, both stamped with the king's head. Thisbastard money was not plentiful, as the only sourcefrom whence it could be obtained was at the commis-sariat, where the supplies to that department weremonopolized by four or five contractors.

GOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE SOURCE OF WEALTH. 143

This was the largest and most lucrative business in thecolony, and it increased in proportion as the convictpopulation was augmented from the mother country.It was through the fostering means sent for the main-tenance of her delinquent children that the mercantilecommunity of Hobart Town became at one time thewealthiest in Australia. As already pointed out, thatlocality had very limited sources of wealth within itself;it was the government expenditure, derived from theBritish treasury, that enriched the free settlers, whilethe labour of the convict population made the streetsand roads of the capital of Tasmania. The proofof this may be seen at the present day ; for thatbustling city and port, since the cessation of trans-portation, has dwindled down into a secondary townand harbour.

While the material prosperity of the colony wasthus advancing with rapid strides, the moral and socialcondition of the community was retrograding ; not onlyamong the felon portion, assigned or emancipated, butamongst the free settlers, not excluding those who hadheld the king's commission. Profligacy was toleratedeven within the walls of the Government House ; andas few of these retired officers were married men, theyselected mistresses from among the female convicts.No doubt the absence of virtuous women, in theirown station of life, led to this state of demoralization,for it is recorded that Mrs. Fry, that good and bene-volent woman, hearing of the disparity of the sexesamong the free population, sent out twelve respect-able, though poor ladies, who were married imme-diately on landing, and became the most exemplarywives and mothers in the colony.

This lax state of society existed during the gover-

144 TASMANIA.

norship of Colonel Sorel], who was removed from hispost in 1823. He was succeeded by Colonel Arthur, anable and energetic officer, who cleared out the AugeanStable left by his predecessor, and restored the characterof the colony to a more respectable status. In per-forming this task he encountered much opposition fromthose who preferred a loose state of society. Of thesewere many influential individuals, who carried theiropposition into politics, and banded together to thwartGovernor Arthur in carrying out his stringent mea-sures for the better government of the colony.Among his opponents was the editor of a newspaper—a man skilled in writing satirical and abusivearticles. The columns of his journal were filled withlibellous leaders, which caused the Governor to bringhim before the court, where he was sentenced tofine and imprisonment. Unfortunately GovernorArthur leagued himself with other colonists of smallability, whom he appointed to posts they were notqualified to fill, simply because they sided with himagainst the bitter faction opposed to him. Neverthelessunder his energetic rule the public works progressed,and the business of the colony was ably administered.Prison discipline was regulated with greater efficiencythan it had ever been before.

About three years previous to Governor Arthur'saccession to office, coal was discovered on TasmanPeninsula, and it was determined to form a penalsettlement at the spot, for the purpose of workingthe coal, and at the same time establish a place ofsecondary punishment for crimes committed by trans-ported offenders in the colony. Another settlement ofthe same character was formed at Macquarie Harbouron the west coast, where these pioneers were employed

B US H RANGERS. 145

cutting timber for building purposes. Notwithstandingthe stringent measures adopted at these places, manyof the convicts endeavoured to make their escape, andreach the settled districts, where they lived as outlawsin the fastnesses of the country ; their hands againstevery man, and every man's against theirs. Thiswas the commencement of a system of brigandagethroughout the country, known as " bushranging,"which carried terror into the homes of every 'settler.To relate the exploits and evil deeds of these brigandsor bushrangers would fill a large volume, so that we canonly cite a few instances in illustration of their daring,and the lawless condition of the colony.

Fourteen of these men escaped from MacquarieHarbour in a boat, and landed on the coast abouttwelve miles from Hobart Town, where they formed asecret retreat, from whence they could issue and pounceupon the settlers, whom they robbed, and in manyinstances murdered. Two of the most daring wereselected as leaders, from whom they were known asBrady and McCabe's gang of bushrangers. Their firstdepredations were for the purpose of obtaining armsand ammunition, which they succeeded in doing, andsoon became the terror of the island. In their san-guinary career they were most cruel towards thosemasters who were severe upon their assigned servantsand had them flogged for misconduct ; consequentlythe prisoner population sympathized with them, andaided them with provisions and timely information.There was a dash of romance about many of their acts,that showed an inclination to imitate the exploits offamous highwaymen in England.

On one occasion a party of eight soldiers of the 40th

regiment of infantry, quartered at Hobart Town, were

110 TASMANIA..

dispatched under the command of Lieutenant Gunn,of the Madras infantry, to go in quest of Brady andhis gang. This appears to have been known to thatredoubtable bushranger, for he had the effrontery tointimate that he would be at Sorell Town on a certainday and a certain hour.

Lieutenant Gunn—who was a very tall man, stand-ing, it is said, six feet seven inches—paid little heedto this piece of bravado, and on that day scoured theneighbouring country with his men, but could notget a glimpse of the enemy. The soldiers returnedwet and weary to their temporary quarters in thegaol, and Mr. Gunn went to a friend's house. In lessthan an hour a man came to the door and requested.to see him concerning the bushrangers. Suspicious offoul play, he approached the man with a loaded musketin his hand, when the villain discharged the contentsof a rifle at him, shattering his arm from the wristto the shoulder, and he fell apparently lifeless. Theman, supposed to be Brady himself, thereupon pro-ceeded with his gang to a house where a party often gentlemen were dining. They marched in andcaptured them, ordering them, upon pain of death,to walk before them to the gaol, where the soldierswere, calculating that they would not fire upon theirhostages. When they reached the gaol the soldierswere taken by surprise, their hands and legs tied, andthe whole party kept in durance for two hours, underan armed sentinel at the gate, who was told to shootthem if they moved, while others of the gang robbed thestores. This they effected, and decamped with severalpack-horses laden with supplies. One gentleman atlast ventured to the door, but on looking round ob-served the armed bushranger. An hour afterwards one

INFLICTION OF THE LASH. 147

of the townspeople, ignorant of the affitir, was passing,and walked up to the sentry asking him what was thematter, but received no answer after repeating thequestion. On closer examination of this formidable-looking personage, he discovered he had been addressinga post dressed up as a dummy, standing " at ease,"with musket and fixed bayonet. The captives thenventured out, laughing heartily at the bushrangers'exploit in so successfully deceiving them.

The foregoing account of an exploit by these lawlessmen illustrates the better side of the picture ; butthere is a fearful list of crimes on the records ofTasmania against the bushrangers, who roamed theisland from 1820 to 1840, at many of which humanityshudders, and to detail in these pages would serve nogood purpose. On the other hand, it is only fair tostate that many of the men became outlaws in con-sequence of retaliation for cruelties they had sufferedat the hands of severe masters. In those days thelash was the instrument of punishment resorted to,often on the slightest occasion, for chastising offenders,especially by the retired military and naval officers,who were so accustomed to its use, in keeping updiscipline in the services to which they belonged,that they did not spare it on the prisoner populationunder their irresponsible control. The slightest pro-vocation, or saucy answer, from an assigned servant,was the signal for his conveyance handcuffed to theadjoining magistrate, who almost invariably sentencedthe wretched prisoner to twenty-five or fifty lashesthere and then, with a lash of heavy-knotted whip-cord, that drew blood from his bare shoulders at everywale, until the victim presented a sickening sight.As there was seldom any discrimination in awarding

148 TASMANIA.

this punishment, frequently on the bare assertion ofthe master, without inquiry into the cause of offence,the educated and more intelligent class of prisonerssuffered equally with the boorish and ignorant. Itwas men of the former stamp that chiefly formed thegangs of bushrangers, and hence they were a match forthe cleverest of the police and military, whose effortsto capture them they eluded not only for months butyears.

The circumstance which chiefly favoured them wasthe mountainous nature of the country, covered withalmost impenetrable forests, affording secure and secretfastnesses for their abode, while the fears in somecases and sympathies in others of the convicts, ser-vants on the farms and stations, secured them fromtheir pursuers and furnished them with food. Besidesa feeling of revenge against the free community gene-rally, and a desire to retaliate on certain task-masters,the motive which first led many to become bushrangerswas that of trying to escape from the island altogether.Very few, however, perhaps , not one in fifty, succeededin doing this, and many were given up by the mastersof the vessels on board of which they managed tosecrete themselves. The difficulty of escaping, andthe stringent laws of Governor Arthur, which em-powered any settler to shoot down a prisoner in arms,rendered these desperadoes utterly reckless ; so thatfor many years no one travelled without being armed,and every farm throughout the country was barri-caded at night in case of attack. Thus while onthe one hand the free colonists benefited from convictlabour, on the other the moral and personal evils coun-terbalanced the material good. At the same time it isonly justice to state, that where the convict servant of

TIIE ABORIGINES. 149

ordinary character was assigned as shepherd, plough-man, or mechanic, to a discriminating master of kindlydisposition, no employer could be better served ; and,in case of danger, he or his family were protected byhis people from the depredations of the bushranger.Many cases have been recorded by such colonists, ofdevotion and disinterestedness by both male and femaleconvicts to them in times of emergency, when life andproperty were imperilled, not only at the hands ofbushrangers, Lut hostile aborigines.

This allusion to the native inhabitants of Tasmanianaturally leads to sonic account of that interestingpeople, who are now to be reckoned amongst theextinct races of humanity. All that was known ofthem to the discoverers of the island has been men-tioned already, and that is but meagre, as it wasevident that they rarely came to the coast from theirinland places of abode, living upon the produce oftheir hunting grounds in preference to fishing in thebays. The little known of them was of a morefavourable character than that of the tribes of New

South Wales. Such being the case, when the firstparty settled down to form the colony its leaders wereinstructed to use every means of conciliation towardsthem by Governor Bowen. However, he had no op-portunity of showing his intentions of treating themwell or ill, as none made their appearance at Bisdonfor some months after he landed, and his plans werefrustrated by the cruel and inconsiderate conduct ofan officer belonging to the New South Wales corpsattached to his small military contingent.

It appears that one day while the governor was onan exploring tour in the interior, and this officer wason duty, a considerable number of natives were seen'

150 TASMANIA.

descending from the neighbouring hills. Immediatelythe soldiers were turned out, with loaded muskets andfixed bayonets, ready to repel any attack upon theembryo settlement. After descending the hills thenatives approached the camp along the plain, eachone holding a green bough in his hand, and all of themsinging a plaintive corrobboree song, according to theircustom when anything new excited their curiosity.Whether these signs of amity were misunderstood, bythe officer in command, as signals for attack, does notappear. But the unsuspecting visitors had just comewit-hiltgun-shot when he ordered the troops to fire.The v011oy took effect, many of them fell, and the

mainder :,fled from the invaders of their country,egrrying their wounded comrades with them to thePHs. atiething can justify the perpetration of thisihot,lacl.ti it is not creditable to the colonel of thatciaianded corps—notable in its day for many ques-tionable acts unworthy of a British regiment—thatthe officer was not tried by Court-martial. Thereis no record of any official inquiry into this outrageon the part of the Government, but it is presumedthat the officer was severely reprimanded.

From that day these innocent and well-disposedpeople never again approached the settlement or farmsin the interior with tokens of friendship. The con-fidence they had displayed at their first interviews withthe white man, was completely destroyed by thiscowardly attack upon a defenceless, unarmed tribe,bearing the signs of amity and peace. Apparently the ac-count spread from north to south, and from east to west,throughout the island, for wherever they were encoun-tered afterwards by the settlers the natives showedalways a hostile front. This led to further ill-usage

PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. 151

by the vagabond convicts, until at last the spirit ofrevenge and retaliation was aroused in these otherwisefriendly natives. This caused a conflict to arise betweenthe two races, which became a war of exterminationagainst the black aborigine. From what subsequentlytranspired, as the character of these children of naturewas better understood, there is reason to believe thatthe most friendly intercourse would have followed thefirst interview, if this 'foolish officer had restrained thesoldiers from firing.

Under the most favourable circumstances it is alwaysdifficult to make even an approximate calculation ofthe erratic population in these savage countries. Thisunpardonable act rendered it still more difficult todo so. From the most authentic source the nativesof Tasmania were computed, at the foundation of thecolony, to be between 5000 and 6000, or about oneindividual to four square miles of territory. As far asgeneral physical character is concerned they resembledthe aborigines of New South Wales, although theydiffered in some respects. The hair of the men in-clined to the woolly hair of the negro, which they cutshort, and it became curly. There was, however, nodifference in the harsh straight hair of the women.Both sexes were jet black, like the Australian abo-rigine, while the women were much better propor-tioned in their limbs, their features were moreagreeable, and they were cleaner in their personsthan their sisters at Port Jackson. Although themales exhibited the greatest hatred to the white men,the females held them in the highest regard, andnumbers abandoned their own tribes and native hauntsto consort with them; attaching themselves to Englishsailors, who were stationed on different parts of the

152 TASMANIA.

island engaged in seal hunting. The children of theseEuropean fathers and native mothers were a remarkablyhandsome race. They are described as being a lightcopper-colour, many of them with rosy cheeks, largeblack eyes, the white tinged with blue, long fringed eye-lashes, teeth pearly white, and limbs admirably formed.

From the colder character of the climate, thenatives in the winter season clothed themselves inlarge rugs, made of kangaroo and opossum skins, wellsewn together by the tendons of the former animal,and the smooth parts of the skins ornamented byscratching on them rude designs with a sharp-pointedbone. Their habitations also were built to keep outthe rigorous weather at that season ; being more likethe wigwam of an Indian than the mere " break-weather " of the Australian. Thus necessity becomesthe mother of invention, and man improves in hissocial condition when he has to overcome the obstaclesthat surround him. But the most marked circumstancein their manners and customs was the absence of theboomerang from amongst them—a piece of handiworkthat distinguishes the Australian aborigine from allother races on the habitable globe. It is a proof thatthere could have been little or no intercourse betweenthe Tasmanian savage and his brother on the mainlandfrom the time of his first migration, or at all eventssince the invention of that curious weapon.

Here it may be stated also, that a carnivorousanimal exists in Tasmania, about the size of a wolf,with its skin striped like a tiger, but of a dull browncolour, and which has not been found anywherein Australia. In other respects there is no markeddifference between the fauna and flora of the islandand the continent.

INHUMAN TREATMENT OF THE NATIVES. 153

In addition to the hostile reception and bad usagewhich the aborigines of Tasmania met with at the handsof the free settlers and the military, they were subjectto the most ruffianly treatment from the convict popu-lation, who at different times attacked these poorcreatures, many of whom they basely murdered. Somehorrible accounts are related of the inhuman barba-rities committed by the more brutal bushrangers uponthe males, whom they incensed by their familiaritieswith the females. Froin a proclamation issued byLieutenant-Governor Collins in 1810, it appears thatmany were murdered in cold blood, and it was enactedthat the perpetrators, if found, should suffer the extremepenalty of the law. Yet a wretch who exhibited theears of a native he had mutilated only received a fewlashes, and the same punishment was allotted to an-other who had cut off a finger to make a tobacco-stopperfor his pipe. After the death of Collins, the maltreat-ment of the natives became even worse, under the laxgovernments of Davey and Sorel], and the perse-cuted creatures retaliated upon the white inhabitantswithout discrimination. Cases continually occurred oftravellers along the roads being suddenly set upon bythem in ambush, throwing their spears with deadlyaim, while the flocks and herds of the settlers likewisesuffered from their attacks. On the other hand, partiesof police, military, and volunteers, were frequently madeup to punish a tribe that had committed some depredationmore important than usual. Like the contest betweenthe authorities and the bushrangers, every man's handwas directed against the natives to shoot them downand exterminate them wherever found. Altogether itwas a state of affairs unparalleled in the social historyof our colonies, and shows what trials the early settlers

154 TASMANIA.

and their families passed through during its conti-nuance. Everywhere surrounded by an atmosphere ofcrime, the homesteads of the industrious and high-minded colonists appeared like as many oases in themoral desert, but for which the land of fair Tasmaniawould have become accursed of God and man.

When Colonel Arthur assumed the post of governor,in 1823, it was expected that among the stringentmeasures he initiated, something would be done to sup-press the war of races going on between the settlers,convicts, and natives. But these expectations weredisappointed, and for seven years the colony continuedto be in a state of anarchy. At last it became neces-sary for the government to take some decisive measurefor the suppression of this native warfare and therestoration of peace to the island. After consultingwith his advisers, Governor Arthur projected a schemeof a Quixotic character, to try and drive the wholesurviving native race from the interior of the countryto Tasman Peninsula, as if he were driving a battueof deer. For this purpose he called upon all thecolonists, capable of bearing arms, to join the availablemilitary and police force, and form an army stretchingacross the country inhabited by the natives and drivethem before it. By this means a force of about 4850men was mustered, armed with guns and ammunitionfrom the public stores, while the expenses of the ex-pedition were to be disbursed out of the commissariattreasury. This was in 1830, when the 'commercialaffairs of the colony were very dull. All the colonistsreadily engaged in the affair, as it would circulate agood deal of money amongst them.

On the first of October in that year the force wasmarched into the interior of the island, sufficiently far

EXPEDITION AGAINST THE NATIVES. 155

from Hobart Town to be north of the districts occupiedby the hostile natives. Here they were formed into aline, stretching east and west, over hill and dale, moun-tain and valley, forest and plain, until they formed acomplete cordon of military posts moving towards acommon centre. As they advanced, this line extendedsometimes to sixty miles, where the country was suf-ficiently open to admit of their spreading. At others itbecame narrowed to half that width, when they had topass through dense forests and thickets. It was esti-mated that there were at least 1800 natives in theisland, and that this mixed army had surrounded nearlythe whole of them.

On they marched towards their goal almost surethat the enemy would be captured on the penin-sula. Scattered over such an extent of country, it wasno easy matter • to provision this motley army, whilethe rough country they had to traverse wofullydamaged their boots and clothing. Excepting a fewfaint-hearted volunteers, the colonists stuck to themain body ; and after six weeks' toil and privationby flood and fell, this cordon narrowed to the rally-ing point at East Bay neck, where the peninsula isonly half-a-mile wide. Here the regulars were sent onto secure their game after such a formidable battue,which cost about £30,000, never doubting but thatthey would find the frightened aborigines crowdedtowards the extreme point of land. They returnedwith one old woman and a sick man. Of course thenatives slipped through their lines while they advanced,and returned to their camping grounds after the grandarmy had passed on. Great ridicule was bestowed onthe result of this expedition, which realized the oldadage of the mountain labouring and bringing forth

15G TASMANIA,.

a mouse. The ragged appearance of the army, withtoes and elbows peeping out in their nakedness, causedmuch amusement. But all agreed that it was a capitalcampaign, as so much money had been spent, andthe fortunes of many previously needy colonists were

laid.The failure of this expedition rendered the aborigines

bolder than before, and they committed depredationson the settlers in the rear of the army sent out tocapture them. In this emergency an English emigrantnamed Robinson, who earned his weekly wages as abuilder, came forward and proposed to Governor Arthura scheme of winning over the natives by gentle means,promising them food and clothing if they would comeinto Hobart Town, where they might be safely guardedor sent to some place of security. All lie wanted fromthe government was supplies of necessaries to equiphimself and two half-civilized natives, from whom hehad acquired a knowledge of their language. With butfaint hopes of his success his terms were acceded to,and he departed on his mission, which was deemed oneof danger and difficulty, accompanied by the aboriginalman and woman dressed up with gewgaws and ribbons,as guides and persuasive interpreters. Mr. Robinsonwas a man of deep and fervent religious character.His faith in God's special providence was very strong,and it rendered him perfectly fearless in mdertakingthe dangerous task of penetrating into the fastnessesof these exasperated aborigines. Prompted by love toGod and man, he had great faith in using gentle meansto subdue the natives, and thereby showed that he wasa better judge of their character than those who believedonly in harsh measures. The result proved the correct-ness of his views, for in a very short time he returned

ROBINSON'S SUCCESSFUL MISSION. 157

to Hobart Town accompanied by a whole tribe of men,women and children, from the vicinity of Oyster Bay,who were considered. the most ferocious in the island.The surprise and gratification of the Governor andcolonists at this unexpected success was very great,and Mr. Robinson was looked upon as a public bene-factor.

Following up this mission he proceeded again intothe interior and returned with another tribe, and re-peated his journeys until in a few years he brought inupwards of three hundred, which was found to benearly the entire population of these aboriginal pos-sessors of the country. What to do with them wasthe next question. As they came into Hobart Townthe government fulfilled Mr. Robinson's promises togive them food, blankets and clothing, with a liberalhand, so that these poor creatures became quite docile.It was deemed expedient to remove them from theirold hunting grounds, and deprive them of the oppor-tunity of again reaching them ; consequently theywere removed by a pardonable piece of stratagem onboard a ship, which sailed with them to Flinder'sIsland, the largest of the Furneaux group, at theeastern entrance to Bass Strait. Here they were wellcared for, possessing a flock of sheep and abundantsupplies of provisions, dispensed to them by a regularestablishment under the superintendence of Mr. Robin-son, who was appointed Protector of Aborigines at asalary of x;150 per annum, which was afterwards raisedto £500 ; and as a reward for his services he sub-sequently received an annual pension for life of£150. His mode of treating the natives proved quitesatisfactory to the government, while the aboriginesregarded him with affection and esteem.

158 T AS MANIA.

Notwithstanding this kind treatment, they pined anddied in their island prison, until in 1838 only eighty-sixwere left ; and it is a remarkable fact that no childrenwere born during their captivity. In that year it wasproposed by the government to remove them to PortPhillip, which was afterwards done ; but they werealways quarrelling with the Australian aborigines,so the remnant of them were sent back to HobartTown, where they dwindled down to eight males andten females, all adults. They were located at comfort-able quarters near Hobart Town, where all,their wantswere supplied. Nevertheless they continued to die out,without any progeny being born to prolong theexistence of the race. In November, 1861, a ball wasgiven at Government House, where the last man andthree women of the tribe were present ; and as thelatter were of an age not likely to add to theirnumber, the Tasmanian race of aborigines became vir-tually extinct. Thus in sixty years did this family ofthe human race disappear before the encroachments ofthe white man. The chronicler of the foregoing in-cident remarks :—" There is only one man left. Withwhom does the blame rest ? most assuredly not alto-gether with the natives themselves. No one can saywith truth that they were not as much sinned againstas sinning in the disasters that befell them. But theyare gone, and their extinction, as a race, was probablyas inevitable as it is inscrutable. As savages theywere found, as savages they lived, and as savages theyperished !"

Having disposed of this aboriginal difficulty, thegovernment next applied themselves to get rid of thebushranger pest. Large rewards were offered for thecapture of these outlaws, and when the captors were

SUPPRESSION OF BUSHRANGERS. 159

convicts they received their freedom. This plan hadthe desired effect. In a very short time the gangswere broken up, and their leaders brought to condignpunishment ; several of them being delivered up tojustice by their quondam followers. Instances alsooccurred of bushrangers giving themselves up, in con-sequence of the difficulty of obtaining means of sub-sistence or clothing. Many of these men lived byhunting, shooting and fishing, only occasionally plun-dering the settlers when in want of ammunition.Some continued to evade pursuit for the space ofthree years and more. They made their clothingout of kangaroo and opossum skins, displaying furjackets, waistcoats, trousers, shoes, hats, and rugslike the dress described by De Foe in his tale of" Robinson Crusoe." Their thread was made from thesinews of the kangaroo, and their needles from thebones. .Of course they were subject to numerous pri-vations from the want of such articles. as tea, sugar,

tobacco and bread. As a substitute for bread they atethe wild yam, and for tea they drank a decoction ofsassafras and other shrubs, especially one known as.Captain Cook's tea-tree (Leptospermum seopariunb),which that circumnavigator gave to his sailors as apreveiNtive of scurvy.

----TrirOligh considerable relief was felt by the freecommunity at the suppression of these bushrangers,still the convict element continued to increase by theinflux of transported felons from the mother country,so that robberies and petty offences increased. At oneperiod, when the population reached about 25,000, itwas calculated that two-thirds were convicts. Thecondition of the colony became so alarming that the

colonists petitioned again and again for the government

160 TASMANIA.

to cease transportation, while many of the wealthierclass left the country in dread, taking up their abodein the neighbouring colonies or in England. Atlast, in 1836, Governor Arthur left the colony, andwas succeeded by Sir John Franklin, the celebratedArctic navigator, accompanied by Lady Franklin.Great rejoicing was manifested on the occasion, espe-cially by those colonists to whom Lieutenant-GovernorArthur was obnoxious. Unfortunately that energeticGovernor, while administering the affairs of the colonywith a stringent hand, raised such a hostile feelingamong some of the influential settlers that the pros-perity of the country was in a great measure retardedby political warfare ; so that his departure subdued thediscontented, and advanced the public welfare. Atthe same time, it is only just to record the fact thathis acts were approved by the Home Government, andin appreciation of his services he received the honour ofknighthood on arriving in England.

Sir John Franklin, immediately after his arrival,made a tour of the settled districts of the island, inorder to acquaint himself personally with the conditionof the colony under his charge. He was surprised atthe progress made on the farms in the interior, espe-cially those near the main line of road from HobartTown to Launceston; with a turnpike road whichin its finished parts compared favourably with anylie had seen in England. When he reached Launcestonlie was astonished to see the large number of respect-able inhabitants who turned out to welcome him,and the flourishing aspect of a town that he scarcelyhad heard of before. Hitherto almost everythingin the way of government patronage and assist-ance had been granted to Hobart Town, while a few.

PROGRESS OF LAUNCESTON. 161

coasting vessels from there supplied the wants of theLaunceston people. The surrounding country wasfound to contain the finest and most extensive tractsof land for agricultural and pastoral purposes in theisland ; so that in a short time it supplied the HobartTown market with grain and mutton. At the time ofSir John Franklin's visit the comparative resources ofthe two districts in this respect were as follows :-Launceston, 11,731 acres under cultivation, and 95,852sheep ; Hobart Town, 2,769 acres, and 3,107 sheep.The total live stock in the colony numbered 745,556sheep, 82,249 cattle, and 6,459 horses ; with 69,662acres in crop. Immediately the resources of Laun-ceston were known, its trade increased so rapidly thatit exceeded that of Hobart Town, notwithstanding itsbeing the seat of government. In 1838 the shippingnumbered 188 vessels of 22,135 tons, carrying importsvalued at £230,399, and exports, £262,183. At thistime the population of Launceston was upwards of8,000; the town contained two English churches, oneScotch church, one Wesleyan chapel, one Independentchapel, and one Roman Catholic chapel, besides twoschools for boors, two for girls, and one infant school.The total population of Tasmania in the same yearwas, in round numbers, free, 23,040 ; convicts, 16,000.The former were classed religiously as 16,000 Churchof England ; 2,500 Church of Scotland ; 2,250 Churchof Rome ; Wesleyans, 1,280 ; Independents, 630 ;Baptists, 170 ; Quakers, SO ; and Jews, 130.

During Sir John Franklin's term of Governorship,which lasted seven years, the material prosperity ofTasmania progressed steadily ; but there was not muchimprovement in the feeling subsisting between thegovernment officials and the free colonists. He was

162 TASMANIA.

not blamed for any harsh measures like his prede-cessor ; on the contrary, his faults were said to be onthe side of undue leniency. It is hard to judge insuch a case, but it appears from an impartial view ofthe conduct of the leading men in the colony at thistime that they indulged in bitter personal animosities,which, occasionally, produced disgraceful scenes in theLegislature and Courts of Justice. The newspapersbecame partisans of the contending parties, and ftnnedthe flame of contention. Angry vituperation becamethe order of the day ; all parties had forgotten that" A soft answer turneth away wrath, but grievouswords stir up anger." Sir John tried to soothe thecommunity by throwing oil upon the troubled waters,and Lady Franklin assisted him in that desirableobject.

Lady Franklin took a great interest in the naturalhistory of Tasmania, and with her ample purse andbenevolent disposition forwarded every movement forthe public good. Among other acts of the kind shewas the means of almost extirpating the black snakefrom Tasmania, which had previously caused seriousdanger to human life as well as that of live stock,from its poisonous nature. Out of her private purseshe gave so much a head for every one decapitated andburnt ; and to give an idea of the number killed at ashilling each, in one year she spent £750. The sub-sequent career of Sir John Franklin is a matter ofworld-wide history—how he renewed his arctic explo-rations, and fell a martyr to his zeal for geographicaldiscovery.

Meanwhile the colony was relapsing into its oldbushranger condition, and the influx of convictsthreatened to drive the free population away. This

DEATH OF SIR EARDLEY WILMOT. 163

unsatisfactory state of society continued undiminishedunder the governorship of Sir Eardley Wilmot, whosucceeded Sir John Franklin. His conduct and policywere offensive to a large section of the community.Public and private meetings were held, and the stateof affairs was discussed in strong language. Thisexasperated the Governor to such a degree, that heopenly set his enemies at defiance. This course servedto increase public animosity. A petition was got upand signed by a large number of influential colonists

and dispatched to the Home Government, requestingthat Sir Eardley Wilmot be recalled without delay.The prayer of the petition had weight with theSecretary of State for the Colonies, who sent out theorder for his recall. But the effect of these proceed-ings was more than he could bear in his declining stateof health ; he at last succumbed to the painful excite-ment, and died at Hobart Town in 1846.

He was succeeded by Sir William Denison, an officerof the corps of Royal Engineers, and a man of highreputation and administrative capacity. His presence

and that of his lady and family were welcomed bythe better class of colonists as the inauguration of anew state of society, which continues during his termof office. But even he had his failings in the eyes ofthat captious community. From his profession as anengineer, acquainted with the construction as well asdemolition of public works, be directed his attentionchiefly to the improvement of Hobart Town and otherpenal establishments throughout the island, so as toemploy the convict labour which was being rejectedby the free colonists for emigrant bands that werearriving in considerable numbers. In his efforts hewas most successful in utilizing that labour, not only

164 TASMANIA.

for the benefit of the colony but for the convictsthemselves. For example :—In Hobart Town heplanned some docks, to be cut out of the governmentreserved lands, and regulated the labour of the pri-soners so that the active and well disposed men could

lessen their term of punishment by industry. For thispurpose he estimated what was a fair amount of workto be done in a day, under the old system, and allabove that went to the credit of the labourer in reducing

his time of imprisonment or labour on governmentworks. Moreover he gave those men a certificate ofgood character, if they were entitled to a ticket ofleave, so that they might the sooner obtain remu-nerative employment. The effect of this system wasto get on with such works as the docks quicker thanit could have been executed by free paid labour. Thematerial result was beneficial to the colony at large,and the government in particular, who thereby soonergot rid of the men who were consuming the publicstores.

The reports sent to England of the success attendingthis improved system of convict discipline, encouragedthe government to increase rather than diminishtransportation to Tasmania ; so that the free settlersrose in opposition to Sir William Denison, andpublicly branded him as the curse of the colony.Again were meetings convened to remonstrate withthe governor, and petitions got up earnestly entreatingthe British Government, and even the Queen in person,to stay the flood of demoralization cast upon the shoresof their adopted country. After several years of con-sideration, the requisition of the colorists was agreed,to, by an Order in Council terminating transportation

to the colony on the expiry of three years, when the

EXODUS TO VICTORIA.. 165

numbers sent out would gradually diminish. This tookeffect in 1853, about the same time that the name ofthe island was changed from Van Diemen's Land toTasmania. From this date may be traced a retrogrademovement in the material condition of the colony,especially in Hobart Town, which was no longer sup-ported by the government expenditure.

Meanwhile the gold discoveries in New South Walesand Victoria attracted both free and bond from thecolony, which subtracted further elements of capitaland labour from its resources. Many of the mostwealthy and enterprising merchants left Hobart Townand Launceston for Melbourne, where they ultimatelybecame leading men in commercial circles. The prox-imity of Launceston to Port Phillip rendered thecommunication quicker and easier than with the neigh-bouring chief ports on the mainland. Moreover as itwas the port of the grain districts of Tasmania, andthe demand increased in Melbourne beyond all localsupplies, the farmers in the surrounding countryobtained high prices for their produce, and the trafficacross Bass Strait was daily increased, both by sailingvessels and steamers. Besides agricultural produce,there was a large traffic in timber for building purposesand the construction of wharves, railways, and otherworks going on in Victoria, so that an unusual amountof shipping was employed by the Tasmanian traders.In these vessels there was likewise a large passengertraffic, and that almost exclusively in one direction,towards the region of gold. From 1851, an exodusof the population has taken place which continues upto the present day.

At first, in the confusion produced by that event,there was not much discrimination in the class of

166 TASMANIA.

people who migrated, and many convicts escaped invessels from want of proper supervision. The respect-

able class who remained behind did not object totheir departure, or show any desire to direct theattention of the authorities to the fact. Indeed thereis reason to conclude that many ruffians were assistedin crossing the straits by a liberal allowance of cheapor free passages. Be that as it may, there are proofsthat tickets-of-leave were seldom refused to any appli-cants who could show that they were eligible for • itsextension to Port Phillip, a privilege that was seldomgranted in former times. Thus, while Tasmania waslessening her population and her resources, society wasbeing purged of the convict leaven that previously hadpoisoned it. But Victoria rebelled against the influxof these depraved people, who carried rapine andbloodshed through the province, and augmented thestate of anarchy -which the gold discoveries had pro-duced on her quiet pastoral home. So frightful wasthe increase of crime from this cause that the Victoriancolonists, in defiance of the imperial laws of the mothercountry, boldly refused to allow these Tasmanian felonsto land on their shores. Notwithstanding their effortsin that direction, an immense number of the most in-corrigible villains left Tasmania never to return. Theeffects of this voluntary deportation upon the socialcondition of that regenerated colony has been of themost beneficial description. A more peaceful and betterbehaved community does not exist in the Australiancolonies. The huge gaols and penitentiaries in Hobartand Launceston are either empty or turned into ware-houses, while the interior of the country is as freefrom bushrangers as Hounslow Heath is now fromhighwaymen.

MATERIAL CONDITION RETROGRADES. 167

This continued withdrawal of capital and labour ina few years so impoverished the colony, by reducingthe value of landed property and raising the rate ofwages, that a revulsion ensued in • the state of publicfeeling, and the loss of material prosperity counter-acted the moral advantages obtained. Those whocontended formerly for the continuance of . transporta-tion, as the chief source of their wealth, now pointedto the ruinous condition of their once flourishing towns.Hobart Town especially illustrated the altered stateof affairs. Whole streets of houses became untenantedand deserted, and the splendid harbour with its docksand jetties no longer presented the bustle of commerce,consequent on the arrival of transport ships, and vesselswith supplies for the government establishments.Launceston fared better, as it shipped its produce tothe gold colonies, and kept up a profitable traffic withMelbourne. In the interior, " the thirst of gold "withdrew many of the enterprising settlers from theirfarms to try their fortunes in the neighbouring colony.A stagnation prevailed in town and country, whichaffected the pecuniary interests of every one who re-mained in the island ; so that those who had rejoicedmost at the circumstances which had combined topurge the community of its moral evils, looked back withregret to the " old times " when the cause of theseevils had enriched them, and, as they had calculated,made them independent for life. Now, however, houseproperty was a d! ug, and the small rents, with difficultyobtained, could no longer meet their expenditure.Many landlords not only had to reduce their establish-ments, but again to put their shoulders to the wheeland work for a living. In these days of humility,many who had condemned Sir William Denison for

168 TASMANIA.

fostering the convict system, now withdrew theircensures, and looked to him for government assistanceto restore prosperity to the country. But his powerswere no longer of that irresponsible and unlimitedcharacter they had been ; the advent of the golddiscovery and the cessation of transportation cameat the time when a new constitution had been grantedto the Australian colonies, conferring self-governmentupon them. Consequently the real power of thegovernor was placed in the hands of his responsibleadvisers and the two houses of legislature, elected bypopular suffrage and vote by ballot, in whose powerthe control of the public purse and framing of locallaws was centred.

This local Parliament, seeing the exodus of thecolonists to the Australian gold fields, endeavoured toarrest it by offering rewards for the discovery of thecoveted metal in Tasmania. They argued generally,that as the formation of the country approximated tothat of Victoria, it was logical to suppose that someportion of the island would prove to be auriferous. Inorder to ascertain the exact geological character of thedistricts which seemed to promise the existence ofgold-bearing rocks, an invitation was sent to the Rev.Mr. Clarke, of Sydney, a skilful geologist, who hadwritten a pamphlet to prove that he was aware of thegold deposits in the Bathurst country long beforeMr. Hargreaves' discovery, who evidently had profitedby what Mr. Clarke had written about it in his printedstatements. After diligent survey, many places werepointed out as auriferous, and small specks of goldwere washed out of auriferous soil, but no sufficientquantity was found to encourage people to ventureworking long at the diggings. For upwards of ten

SEARCH FOR GOLD FIELDS. 169

years this "prospecting," as it is technically called bygold miners, was carried on by parties fitted out atthe cost of the colony, and their exertions met withvariable success. 'The most promising district wasfound at Fingal, some distance from Launceston, wherea good many ounces of gold have been washed out ofthe soil, and gold-bearing quartz found to yield a fairper centage on being crushed. But even these indi-cations failed to rouse .the settlers from their apathy.At last Mr. Hargreaves, the first discoverer, wasinvited over from New South Wales to explore theseregions, and he arrived in November, 1864. On ex-amining the districts already " prospected," he reportedfavourably concerning the quartz-mining resources, andby experiment showed that with proper machinery itmight yield a good profit. This has buoyed up thehopes of the Tasmanians that their island has itspayable gold mines, and they look forward to renewedprosperity from that source.

Meanwhile, Sir William Denison left the colony,in 1854, and was succeeded by Sir Henry Young,formerly governor of South Australia. In 1862,Colonel Gore Brown, from New Zealand, was appointedas his successor.

" Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown," is an oldadage peculiarly applicable to the post of Governor inthat colony. Throughout this narrative it has beenseen that the worst feature in its history has beenthat tendency to party strife and animosity which hasso often prevailed. Those whose province it was toaid and direct the humbler class of industrious colonistsin developing the resources of their adopted country,rarely gave an helping hand. Energies and abilitieswhich might have been usefully employed have been

170 TASMANIA.

too frequently wasted in criticising the conduct ofthe rulers.

In the face of these drawbacks, it is satisfactory tofind that Tasmania is again progressing, and developingthe natural advantages it possesses for the support of anumerous and contented population. It has splendidharbours for the extension of commerce and whale-fisheries, rich indications of mineral wealth, andfacilities in the shape of fuel and water-power for theestablishment of manufactures which none of theother colonies can equal. The latest published statis-tical returns for the year 1863 show that the importsamounted in value to £902,940, being an increase of£45,527 over the previous year ; and the exportsreached £999,511, an increase of £79,862. There wasalso a marked increase in the shipping, the entriesinwards amounting to 107,664 tons in 1862, and117,681 in 1863 ; while the clearances outwards wererespectively 108,915 tons and 116,143. The stock ofsheep, 1,661,225 at the end of the previous year, wasreturned as 1,800,811 at the close of 1863. Of thelands under cultivation the total average had increasedfrom 253,050 acres to 267,173 acres. But no corre-sponding increase appears in the population returns ;the great want was, and is, more people. The birthrate of the year was nearly 3 . 3 per cent., and the deathrate only 1 . 5 per cent., but the estimated populationon the 31st December, 1863, was only 791 more thanon the 1st January, numbering 91,519. The goldfields of the neighbouring colonies continued to attractmore to leave the island than the number of arrivalscould counterbalance, so that half the natural increaseof population was lost by the migration of the adults.By the census of 1861 the religious division of the

TIIE COLONY RECOVERING ITSELF. 171

inhabitants was as follows : — Church of England,49,233 ; Church of Scotland, 6,616 ; WesleyanMethodists, 6,169 ; other Protestants, 6,450 ; RomanCatholics, 19,454 ; Jews, 456. Although Tasmaniacannot compete with its younger but more prosperousand powerful colony, Victoria, in the construction ofrailways, yet it possesses a most complete system ofelectric telegraphic communication from one end of theisland to the other. • At the cost of the colony a sub-marine telegraph cable was also laid, in 1859, across

Bass Strait, but it was worked only a few months. TheTasmanians are united in intercourse with the Vic-torians, whose magnificent colony they were the firstto develope, by carrying their live stock and experienceto lay its foundations. A superstructure of prosperityhas hence arisen whose rapidity is unexampled in thehistory of the world. In that prosperity and progressthey must ultimately share. if Tasmania has made aless rapid advance than its sister colonies, it may lookforward to a happy and prosperous future.

CHAPTER VI.

VICTORIA.

Grant's Survey—Port Phillip—Arrival of Collins—Hume travels overlandto its shores—Whaling Station established—Batman and Fawkncr con-tract with natives to colonize the Country—Repudiated by Government—Buckley becomes a savage—The Aborigines friendly—Influx of Settlers—Physical Geography—Sheep-farming—Arrival of Capitalists—A PastoralMania—High Cost of Living—Land Speculations—Government Neglect—Superintendent Latrobe—His system of Government superseded—Increase of Live Stock—Climate Peculiarities—Sheep Runs—Rich Agri-cultural Lands—Prosperity of the Colony previous to Gold Discovery—Statistics in 1851— Plethora of Food—Banking—Separation of PortPhillip—Statistics of Prosperity—Effects of Gold Discovery—Discoveryof Gold at Ballarat, &c.—Latrobe's Dispatches—Extraordinary increasein amount of Gold—Re-emigration of Miners—List of Ships laid onfrom England—Melbourne—Crowded state of the City—Canvas Town—Destitution —Anarchy and crime—Statistics of Arrivals—Governor Latrobeleaves—Sir Charles Hotham succeeds—Convicts prohibited from landing-Licence-fee on gold fields obnoxious, and Export duty substituted—Squatters' Land claims—Gipps Larid—Governor Hotham dies—Macarthurassumes office—New Constitution proclaimed—Statistics of Progress—Sir Henry Barkly—Responsible Government—Ministers from all classes—State Aid to Religion—Increase of Revenue—Expenditure on Roads—Railways and Telegraphs constructed—Gold resources of Ballarat—Melbourne and Suburbs.

WHEN the account of the discovery of Bass Straitreached England, and the want of a proper boat forsurveying purposes and making further discoveries wasmade known through the representations of GovernorKing, the chief Lord of the Admiralty, the Duke ofPortland, directed Lieutenant James Grant to proceedin the Lady Nelson, an armed surveying vessel of sixtytons, to New South Wales. Much interest was excited

GRANT'S FLYING SITRVEY. 173

by the departure of such a small craft on so long avoyage ; her commander, however, was an officer ofskill, not only as a navigator but in the construction ofboats ; and his crew had great confidence in him. Aftera successful voyage of eight months and a half, whichwas considered a good passage in those days, she madethe Australian coast on the 3rd December, 1800, ata point hitherto unknown. The first prominent objectsLieutenant Grant saw were two mountains, which henamed Mount Gambier and Mount Schanck; and a con-spicuous jut of land, Cape Northumberland, after theDuke of Northumberland, who then commanded theBritish army. These geographical features form theextreme southern boundary of South Australia. Sailingalong the coast in an easterly direction, he named theheadlands and bays as he passed along, such as CapeBridgewater, Cape Nelson, Portland Bay, Lady JuliaPercy Island, and Cape Otway. When he reached theheight at the entrance to Port Phillip, he consideredit to be a bay, so he named it Governor King's Bay,after the Governor of New South Wales. KingIsland, situated to the south of Cape Otway, was namedafter the same governor by the captain of the mer-chant ship Harbinger, the first trading vessel thatsailed through Bass Strait.

After a fortnight's cruise on this flying survey,Lieutenant Grant sailed for Sydney, where the LadyNelson was employed during the whole of 1801, insurveying more carefully the coast and harbours ofNew South Wales proper, from Cape Howe to HunterRiver. This enterprising surveyor and discoverer ofnew headlands and bays in Australia has been com-pletely overlooked in the accounts of the country, andyet he was the first who discovered the seaboard of

174 VICTORIA.

Victoria, which leads to its finest harbours and boundsthe richest agricultural, pastoral, and gold regions ofthe whole island continent. It is, therefore, only an actof justice that the historian should record his name inthe annals of discovery, especially as it is only recentlythat one island has been named after him, at theentrance to Port Western, previously named PhillipIsland. Had he remained in the country he would have

continued his maritime survey, and doubtless discoveredthe spacious harbour of Port Phillip, which was madeby his successor in command of the Lady Nelson,Lieutenant John Murray, on the 10th January, 1802,just one month after the departure of Grant forEngland. On the report reaching Sydney of thisfurther discovery of a harbour, even of greater extentthan Port Jackson, Governor Philip Gidley King namedit after his friend the first governor of New SouthWales, Captain Arthur Phillip, and not after his ownfirst Christian name, as some writers erroneously state.Hence the various spelling of this famous port, some-times with one 1, and at others with two. The lattermode is the correct orthography. These details mayappear trifling, but they add interest to the early historyof Victoria, by showing the accidental circumstanceswhich prevented the development of her resources untila late period, and mark the general character of herannals.

At that time Matthew Flinders, late of H.M.S.Reliance, who had accompanied Dr. Bass in hiscircumnavigation of Tasmania, was promoted to becaptain of H.M.S. Investigator, specially fitted out tomake accurate surveys of the Australian coast, fromwhich to construct sailing charts. Among the firstpublished by that eminent hydrographer was one of

COLLINS ABANDONS PORT PHILLIP. 175

Port Phillip harbour. He entered in his vessel betweenthe Heads in March, 1502, and sounded the channelsleading up to Hobson Bay and Geelong Harbour, wherehe ascended a granite mountain 1100 feet high, andnamed it Station Peak, upon the summit of which thesurrounding country could be viewed for a circuit offorty miles. A chart with sailing directions for thisnew port was dispatched to the Admiralty withoutdelay, and arrived in time to determine the Govern-ment in sending out the second nucleus of a penalcolony, under command of Lieutenant-Colonel Collins,previously Judge-Advocate at Sydney, and the besthistorian of New South Wales up to that time. liearrived safely with his fleet of convict ships andanchored them within the eastern head of the harbour,as already stated (page 131), where the Calcutta andthe Ocean, touched on the sand banks that form thechannel on that side. This accident apparently pre-judiced him against the harbour, and as the adjacentshore is the most barren part he could have landedupon, especially in the summer season when it is parchedup by the hot blasts from the interior, he left thismagnificent locality in disgust and settled on theDement in Tasmania. This was another of the acci-dents that turned the current of events in the futurecareer of Victoria. Had Colonel Collins crossed tothe western shore of the harbour, and examined thecountry pointed out by Flinders on his chart, in allprobability he would have come upon the BarwonRiver and the richly grassed lands between it andCorio Bay, and founded a penal colony where the cityof Geelong now stands ; or if he had directed hisexplorations on the eastern shore, northwards up theharbour, instead of going in an easterly direction

176

towards Port Western, a day's travel by boat and onfoot would have brought him to the Yarra, River atMelbourne, where, in all probability, he would havefixed his settlement. It is recorded that a party didsail to the head of the bay, and up what is called theSalt-water River, where that inlet becomes a cul-de-sac.They returned and reported that no fresh-water streamexisted in that direction, having passed up and downwithout noticing that the Yarra River joins theother at right angles. These circumstances showon what trifling points the destiny of a new countryhinges. Had either of these sites been reached, therecan be no doubt that Collins would have landed hisconvicts and formed as large a penal settlement on theshores of Port Philip as that on the heights of PortJackson, and the subsequent history of strife and con-tention in Tasmania in all probability would have beenenacted in Victoria. Even thirteen years after Collinsabandoned Port Philip there was still a chance ofthat colony becoming a penal settlement, for a partyof soldiers, under the command of Captain Wright, ofthe New South Wales corps, landed at Port Westernto reconnoitre for the foundation of a penal settlement,under the jurisdiction of Captain Weatherall, whichwas also abandoned, and with it all attempts on thepart of Government to colonize Port Phillip.

It was reserved by Providence that the riches of thatmagnificent country should be gathered by the handsof free settlers, and that the wealth secured by theirindustry should furnish them with ample means to payhonest labour in developing its resources, without theaid of the Imperial Government or the felon-labourersfrom the mother country. This is the light in whichthe progress and prosperity of Victoria must be viewed

IIUME AND IIOVELL'S EXPLORATION. 177

from the outset ; there never was a penal settlementestablished within its boundaries, and its colonizationwas by private enterprise alone.

The first pioneer of the Australian wilderness, whopenetrated through its park-like pasture lands to theshores of Port Phillip, was a native-born colonist,named Hamilton Hume. Being a good bushman, hefound pleasure in exploring new tracts of country, andhad offered his services to the Governor at Sydneyto aid him in his praiseworthy efforts at opening upthe colony. In repeated applications for the forma-tion of a party he met with poor reception, and allthe additional equipment lie could get from thegovernment consisted of a few pack-saddles. ACaptain Hovel1, hearing that Hume was in want ofmeans, joined him, and equipped three men andhorses, with two carts and horses, for an expedition tothe south of the Murrumbidgee liver, the furthestpoint explored in that direction.

On the 17th October, 1521, Hume and his partystarted from his station near Yass, and after much toilreached a large river which is now called the Murray,but which the colonists in early days named theHume, and on some maps this name is still appliedto the upper portion of that river, which may beconsidered the Mississippi of Australia. From thencehe continued in a south-westerly direction, and tra-velled for two months through a finely watered region,of the most varied character, surpassing anything tobe seen in the northern part of the colony. In hisnarrative he says, — " On the 17th December, wereached the shores of Port Phillip, and camped on thespot where the town of Geelong now stands." Thisexploring expedition is not mentioned in most accounts

178 VICTORIA.

of the country, as it was considered merely to be asquatter's journey in search of a new run for his stock.Compared with the exploits of other Australian ex-plorers, Hume's journey may appear to some insignifi-

cant. But it must be borne in mind that the formerwere conducted by men of science, well equipped, andwith instruments to guide them in their travels ; whileHume, with his seven companions, and a cart con-taining a few bags of flour, a little tea and sugar, atarpaulin and frying-pan, had no more science at hiscommand than enabled him to steer by compass ; yethe opened the way to the splendid province andpastures of the famed Australia Felix. Mitchell, Sturt,Leichhardt, Stuart, Burke and others, were great ex-plorers, and their services can never be too muchappreciated ; but still, the native-born colonist was assuccessful with his exploration as the best of them,and may be allowed to stand in as honourable aposition as his successors. In commemoration of hisjourney, a tablet has been erected by his fellow-colonists near the present town of Albany, at the spotwhere Hume crossed the Murray, into the territory ofthe now flourishing colony of Victoria. Subsequently,Captain Sturt and Major Mitchell followed on thetrack of this enterprising bushman, and many settlerspushed on with their flocks towards the banks of theMurray or Hume River ; but none from the Sydneyside attempted to go and settle on the distant pasturelands he had discovered around Port Phillip, becausethey were between 600 and 700 miles away from their

base of operations.In Hume's narrative of this first overland expedition

to the shores of Port Phillip, he mentions an interviewhe had with the aborigines of Geelong, who seemed to

ITENTY'S STATION AT PORTLAND BAY. 179

be familiar with the appearance of white men. Theyintimated by signs that they " had seen ships andsailors in a south-westerly direction, where they hadlanded on the coast, and were engaged in sawing timber,representing this by see-saw movements. They de-scribed the sailors, and vessels under sail, and madeuse of some English expressions." These shipS provedto be whalers, which frequented the harbours on thecoast for the purpose of obtaining wood' and water.it was observed, also, that whales entered the bays atcertain seasons, where the natives succeeded in cap-turing them. This suggested, to some enterprisingowners of whale ships, the desirability of establish-ing a station for the whale fishery on the coast.Accordingly, in 1831, three gentlemen, named Henty,established a whaling station at Portland Bay, inconnection with their extensive business as merchantsat Launceston, Tasmania. This was the first boncifide

settlement in the colony of Victoria; and, althoughit has not risen into importance, still it is the site of apleasant town, named Portland.

By this time the accounts of the whaling crews whohad visited these harbours dispelled the erroneousimpression entertained for more than twenty years,that Port Phillip was a harbour without fresh wateror pasture land. Consequently the graziers and sheep-farmers in Tasmania, whose flocks and herds hadincreased beyond their grazing lands, resolved onmaking a thorough exploration of the surroundingcountry. For this purpose an association was got upat Launceston, by an active newspaper editor andfarmer, named John Pascoe Fawkner.

Meanwhile a bold adventurer and native-borncolonist, named John Batman, sailed from Hobart

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Town, arrived in Port Philip harbour May, 1835, andlanded on the western shore. Here he entered into acontract with the natives to cede a thousand squaremiles of territory for a few blankets and gew-gaws tobe given to them every year. With this aboriginal con-veyance of land he returned to Hobart Town, wherehe was joined in the enterprise by fifteen others, whosent over with him live stock and farming implementsto take practical possession of this noble estate—which,if they had been allowed to retain in fee-simple, wouldhave been worth many millions sterling. Of course,the government afterwards ignored the validity ofBatman's enormous territorial claim, but compensatedhim with a grant of some town and country lots, anda sum of money. In like manner, Fawkner, whofollowed Batman in November of the same year,entered into a contract with the Yarra natives for aconcession of their land, which the government did notrecognise, but allowed a claim for compensation inland and mone y , as in Batman's case.

In these dealings between the pioneer settlers ofVictoria and the aborigines, whom they looked uponas the rightful owners of the soil, it is worthy ofremark, that however much they took advantage oftheir ignorance in the value of the land, they werealways on the most friendly terms. This arose in agreat measure from the circumstance that an English-man bad been living amongst the natives for thirty-twoyears, and hence they learned a good deal concerningwhite men, which disarmed them of that timidity orhostile feeling savages commonly entertain towards thewhite man at seeing him for the first time. ThisEnglishman was a convict named Buckley, who, withthree others, escaped from Colonel Collins' fleet of

BUCKLEY AMONG THE ABORIGINES. 181

transports when he abandoned the design of forminga penal settlement at Port Phillip, in 1803. He wasthe only survivor of the runaways, and a man of extra-ordinary stature, measuring six feet nine inches, but ofweak intellect. The party, in effecting their escape,landed on the west shore, opposite to where Collinsreconnoitered the country, and thus they discoveredthe Barwon River at Geelong, where they took uptheir abode among the Barrabool tribe of natives,located on the banks of that river. Here Buckley'scomrades died, and he associated himself with thattribe, joining in all their fights against other tribes,and taking a black wife or two. One would supposethat any civilized man of ordinary activity of intellect,would. have improved the occasion and taught thesesimple people how to improve their condition. Insteadof doing so, or even retaining his position in the scaleof civilization, he adopted their savage habits, andlived like the beasts of the field, until he virtuallyforgot that he had been born in the foremost countryof the age. When he was rescued from this state ofsavage apathy, he had almost forgotten his mothertongue, and jabbered some incoherent sentences ofEnglish to those who first encountered him. He wasclad in opossum and kangaroo skins, with spear, club,and boomerang, like his adopted countrymen, and likethem, was covered with the dirt of years. This case is amelancholy instance of the depravity of human nature,notwithstanding the material advantages of a civilizedbirthright, when the individual is deficient in moraland religious principle. Those who conversed withhim afterwards, describe his mental deficiencies asbordering on idiotcy, which is the only charitable wayof accounting for his indolence and stupidity.

182 -VICTORIA.

In contrast to the conduct of this European savage,there are many pleasing records of the benefits conferredby God-fearing men on the aborigines, showing that" godliness is profitable unto all things, having promiseof the life that now is, and of that which is to come."Among the pioneer settlers from Tasmania was a medicalman named Thomson. On one occasion, while address-ing a meeting in that town, upon his reminiscences ofthe early struggles of the colonists, he dwelt upon thefriendly connection and intercourse which existedbetween the settlers and the aborigines. He said heshould never forget the first Sunday he spent in PortPhillip, upon the banks of the Yarra River, where thecity of Melbourne now stands, and which, in those days,was covered by a few huts and tents, which they calledthe " Settlement," in the absCnce of any proper name.He had twelve Sydney blacks with him, who had beendomesticated for a long time in the family of Batman. Hesent them round to give notice to all the white peoplein the settlement that he would conduct service at histent at eleven o'clock. There was a very good muster.Almost every person in the settlement attended, andto his surprise, there were more blacks than whites.They came, quietly took their places and listenedattentively to all that passed. Six weeks afterwards,the Hey. Mr. Arthur preached in this settlement. Hewas the first ordained minister that ever preached inVictoria. The blacks on that occasion again out-numbered the whites. The settlers commissioned Mr.Arthur to write to his society in London to send outtwo missionaries exclusively for the aborigines. Twogentlemen came out in due course, and for years devotedtheir energies towards the natives. The settlers con-tributed liberally to the expense of this establishment,

ARRIVAL OF THE FIRST SETTLERS. 183

which was continued as long as there was any prospectof success in the mission.

The accounts of the rich lands for culture and

pasture in the vicinity of Port Phillip soon spreadthroughout New South Wales, as well as Tasmania,so that there were new settlers arriving overland, to

get their share of the country. Fortunately, therewas abundance of good land for all corners, and thenearest sites occupied by those who came overlandwere fifty miles apart' from those who came by sea.Hence all that section of country from Geelongharbour to Portland Bay, back to the mountainranges, was first taken up by " Nrandemonians," andthe country north of the Yarra occupied by " Syd-neyites,"—which were the colloquial names for theseearly settlers. A good deal of jealousy subsisted be-tween the rival colonists, which might have broughtthem into collision, if their race in the field of coloniza-tion had been over the same tract of land, but, asalready shown, they were wide apart. As it was, agood deal of altercation ensued as to the rights of thetwo old colonies over this embryo colony which had beenplanted by private enterprise. On the one hand, theVandemonians claimed it by right of occupation andcompact with the aboriginal lords of the soil ; and onthe other, the Sydneyites held it as a section of NewSouth Wales, which had been explored by one ofthemselves eleven years before. These rival claims werenot merely urged by the settlers, but the governorsentertained similar views. Colonel Arthur endeavouredto annex the new territory to his jurisdiction in Tas-mania, while Sir Richard Bourke pointed to his imperialinstructions that gave him control over half the con-tinent of Australia. Of course, the legal jurisdiction

181 VICTORIA.

lay in the hands of that energetic Governor of NewSouth Wales, and he lost no time in issuing a procla-mation to that effect, defining its boundaries, and desig-nating the territory as the " District of Port Phillip,"subject to the laws, and in every way a dependency ofNew South Wales. This was carried out by the arrival

of Captain Lonsdale, with a small military detachmentfrom Sydney, who'assumed the position of chief magis-trate of the district. Shortly afterwards, GovernorBourke visited the place with a surveyor, andfixed upon the sites of the chief towns—Melbourne,on the Yarra, named after the British premier of thatday ; and William Town, in honour of His MajestyKing William IV. Geelong is a native name ; butthis town was named at first Coraiya, also aboriginal.These native names are very pretty and have a localsignificance, as Zarra,Yarra, means " flowing, flowing,"from the perennial flow of the stream.

As these pioneer settlers drove their sheep andcattle into the pastures of this " Land of Grass,"they were surprised at its luxuriance, and the extent

of open forest land clothed with verdure. Theseagain were intersected by the most refreshing streams,with here and there beautiful lakes and romanticwaterfalls. But they had no time to spare in con-templating the poetry of nature in the wilderness:They had an eye to the useful more than the orna-mental ; those were deemed the most charming spotswhich furnished their worn out live stock with the bestprovender, after a long journey by land, or a stiflingvoyage by water. They were all experienced in thework of colonization, from having passed an appren-ticeship in that art in the parent colonies. They wereaccustomed to the roughness of a bush life, and they

MATERIAL PROGRESS. 185

knew how to overcome those obstacles which the newly-arrived emigrant from the mother country could notaccomplish without several years' training. Moreover,their bases of operations were comparatively close athand, and what had been forgotten at the outset couldbe easily obtained afterwards. Hence the countrybecame occupied in a marvellously short time, com-pared with the tedious settlement of the first coloniesfrom England.

In 1537, just two years after the Launceston partylanded on the site of Melbourne, there were few spotsof a suitable character for a " run," as the grazinglands are termed, unoccupied within sixty miles ofPort Phillip, and the live stock comprised 140,000sheep, 2,500 cattle, and 150 horses, with a populationof 450. As there was no authority to restrict theboundary of these runs, the settlers had to come to anunderstanding on that point, according to the numberof sheep or cattle they possessed, and their estimatedincrease for three or four years. Of course, some weregreedy and claimed more land than they could stock,so that they had to give up their surplus pastures tofresh corners. As they took possession of their runsby rule of thumb, and without the leave of any autho-rity, they called themselves "squatters," and theirhomesteads " stations," after the backwoodsmen. ofAmerica, who derive their title from the characteristicbut not elegant phrase, " to squat " on the ground.Afterwards,. when the government staff of officials wasstrong enough to carry out the regulations of NewSouth Wales, these runs were defined, and their occu-pants received licences to depature live stock, bypaying ten pounds for 4,000 sheep or 400 head ofcattle, so that they were " grazier " tenants of the

186 VICTORIA.

crown, and " stockholders." But they preferred theirown cognomen and have retained it to the presentday; and, strange to say, the most aristocratic title aVictorian colonist aspires to is that of " squatter."" What's in a name," when we find the signification ofthis one reversed by change of location.

The system of sheep-farming introduced into Victoriaby these pioneer squatters, was based upon the expe-rience of the pasture and climate on the runs in NewSouth Wales and Tasmania. Those from the formercolony were accustomed to feed their flocks upon openplains, where the herbage was scanty, water scarce anduncertain, and subject to periodical visitations of deso-lating droughts that decimated their live stock. TheTasmanian settlers, on the other hand, were accus-tomed to a more humid climate, with a limited pasturein the valleys of a mountainous country, where thepeaks are covered with snow in the winter. Thereis no animal so sensitive to these influences of climateand food as the sheep, and even the growth of itsfleece is affected by them. The warm dry region pro-duced a small carcass and light fleece, but of finequality ; while the cold humid region produced a coarserwool and larger breed of sheep. It was found after afew seasons' trial that the Port Phillip country combinedthe advantages of both climates, being favourable forthe growth of an abundant and good staple, with asuperior quality of mutton.

This section of south-eastern Australia,—so denomi-nated from its compass-direction from the centre of thecontinent,—will be seen, on reference to the map, tohave a larger area of riverine territory than any other.Throughout its longitudinal extent it is divided by the'Western continuation of the great Australian cordillera,

GEOGRAPHICAL ADVANTAGES. 187

from which numerous streams have their source. Thewatershed passes through the rich lands to the southernshore, and on the other side slopes through equallyfertile country to the river Murray, where the streamsare intercepted, and the watershed is carried into theprovince of South Australia. At its eastern boundarythe Australian Alps rise in all their majesty of snow-capped peaks, which not only moderates the tempera-ture during the heats of summer, but, by the meltingof the snow, affords a supply of water throughoutthat season to many streams which would otherwisebe dried up. The great Southern Ocean beyond,throws up clouds of moisture which descend in abun-dant rains at all seasons ; so that although the greatestrain-fall is in the winter months, there is no particularlydry season, for it is showery every month of the yearas in England.

It is worthy of notice as conveying to the reader'smind some idea of the superficies of Victoria, that ifa map of England be placed over one of the colony,on the same scale, they are nearly of the same shapeand extent. From an intimate knowledge of theresources of the colony, it may be confidently affirmedthat it is capable of supporting as large a populationas England, with means and appliances at hand for theprosecution of every species of industry, even moreabundantly, than the parent state possesses.

The enterprising squatters very soon discoveredand appreciated the value of the runs in this newcountry, for the improvement and the increase of theirsheep. Of these, the best breed and cleanest stockcame overland, as the flocks that crossed the straitwere in bad condition. Being huddled in the shipduring the voyage, many of them were afflicted with

185 TICTORIA.

cutaneous disease, which became contagious, and causedthe wool to fall off. Much loss and trouble were causedby this disease, but it was the only one the sheep weresubject to, and remedies were applied which mitigatedit, although it is not even yet thoroughly eradicated.Otherwise, circumstances were most favourable forrendering sheep-farming a most profitable pursuit inPort Phillip. Its advantages were put fully beforethe public of the United Kingdom. This attractedthe attention of capitalists intending to emigrate tosome of the British Colonies. Not•the least of its ad-vantages was the fact that sheep-farming in that genialclime did not require the intimate practical knowledgerequisite in this country. Of the squatters who firstoccupied Port Phillip from the adjacent colonies, onlya few were practically conversant with the method ofbreeding live stock in Europe, and they were not themost successful. To a certain extent, it was againstthem if they pursued this costly and unnecessarysystem in Australia. At home the flocks are small, andgraze either on fields fenced in, or are followed overthe downs of England, and the hills and valleys ofWales and Scotland, with a shepherd to every one ortwo hundred, who has much care and anxiety at thelambing and shearing seasons. There, sheep graze onthe plains or open forest lands in flocks, numbering notless than 500, and frequently as many as 1000 up to1500. The lambs are dropped in warm weather, as theewes are feeding in the wilderness, without fear ofdying from cold, while the fleeces are clipped at aseason that requires no one to " temper the wind tothe shorn lamb." The only danger to be apprehendedwas from the attacks of the wild dogs or dingoesof Australia, which necessitated the flocks being

CHARACTER OF THE SQUATTERS. 189

surrounded by hurdles at night, to form a temporarysheepfold ; beside which the hut-keeper slept in awatch-box with a loaded musket, ready to turn outand shoot this voracious nocturnal visitor. In time,these have been hunted down and destroyed, so thatthey have disappeared from the old settled districts.

So different, therefore, was the occupation of sheep-farming in Port Phillip from what it was at home,that gentlemen with means. or educated for the learnedprofessions, but having no occupation, were induced totry their fortunes in this new pursuit. Of coursethey did not venture blindfold into it, but read up allsorts of books upon the ovine and bovine races ofanimals, and on arrival in the colony, many spent ashort apprenticeship on the stations formed by theearly settlers. Here the " new-corners," as they werecalled, fbund a class of colonial gentlemen much likethemselves, as they chiefly consisted of the sons ofthe retired naval and military officers in Tasmania, orthe bankers and merchants of New South Wales.Consequently, though the Victorian squatters are,strictly speaking, the graziers of the country, stillthey are very different in their antecedents from thesame class in this country ; for, as a body, they maybe considered gentlemen of good education, many ofthem having previously practised the liberal professions.Compared with the English graziers, they are more likeamateur wool-growers and cattle-breeders : fer.v, if any,ever bred a lamb or a calf until they set foot in Australia.The majority of them have been private gentlemen,doctors, lawyers, bankers, merchants, retired militaryand naval officers or their sons, who have investedcapital in sheep and cattle, as a means of obtaininggood interest for the money employed, by selling the

190 VICTORIA.

annual crop of' wool; besides filling up their time by anot unpleasing pursuit, and living a life of freedomand independence. Hence, in society the squattersand their families are, as before observed, rankedamong the first class of colonists.

As these immigrant capitalists from the mothercountry arrived, they became eager purchasers of sheepand cattle, so that their value rapidly rose in price.As the natural increase was not sufficient to supplythe demand, all the available stock was driven over-land from the Sydney side, or conveyed across fromLaunceston. A pastoral mania seemed to possessall corners to the shores of Port Phillip, up to 1841;at that time it presented an aspect of colonizing adven-ture , second only to the gold mania that followed tenyears afterwards. Even at this period the " settle-ment " at Melbourne had grown into a considerabletown, for the business consequent on the pastoraloccupation of the country was transacted there.Sheep which were valued at from three to five shillingsin the old colonies, were sold at thirty, forty, and some-times as high as fifty shillings. Cattle, in the samemanner, valued at fifteen shillings to a pound perhead, rose to twelve and fifteen pounds ; while a horseof ten pounds value would fetch from eighty to ahundred pounds. In like manner all kinds of pro-visions required at the stations rose in proportion—flour from fifteen pounds to eighty pounds per ton,tea from three pounds to eighteen pounds per chest,sugar from threepence to one shilling per pound,and the ordinary two-pound loaf from sixpenceto one shilling and ninepence. So that the costof maintaining the people necessary for conductingthese pastoral establishments became a heavy item

AND-JOBBERS AND AUCTIONEERS. 191

on the debit column of the profit and loss returns.This was further augmented by the demands of theshepherds, stockmen, hut-keepers, and bullock-drivers,for double and in many cases treble their former ratesof wages, and even then there was a scarcity of hands.It will be concluded, therefore, that these pioneersettlers of the now flourishing colony of Victoriahad much to contend with in their early struggles.

During this rapid advance of the value of stock andstations in the interior, Melbourne and the surround-ing country participated in the run of prosperity by theincreased value of the land. After the plan of the townwas laid out, and the streets surveyed, the first sale ofallotments took place in Sydney, at the upset price ofthirty-seven pounds ten shillings per half acre, manyof which were bought at that sum, and the others ata trilling advance, where situated on an eligible frontageto a main street or on the river bank. In 1837, a saleof the remaining lots took place in Melbourne, at upsetprices of £150 to £300, most of them realizing doubleand treble these sums. Then set in a land mania farmore speculative and exciting than the pastoral fever.Although the community was not more numerous thanthat of an English village, the bustle and excitementwas equal to that of a considerable town on the dayswhen any large sale of land took place by auction in theopen air or under a spacious marquee. Thus, a classof land-jobbers and land-auctioneers grew up thatformed a marked feature of the time. It exists to thisday in all the towns of Victoria, although it is notso prominent in society. As an illustration of thisphase in colonial life, it will be interesting to perusethe following extract from an advertisement in thePort Phillip Patriot, the first newspaper started there,

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wherein an auctioneer, who affected the grandiloquentstyle of the famous George Robins, announced to thepublic that lie would sell a suburban allotment of landon December 31st, 1839 :—

" Is Melbourne likely to become a place of greatimportance ?' was a question put the other day bya gentleman recently arrived from India, to an intel-ligent townsman. The answer was, My friend, threeyears ago, the allotments on which we now standwere purchased for forty pounds each ; three monthssince, they were sold by public auction for TENTHOUSAND POUNDS. Six months ago, the first mer-chant ship from Britain dropped anchor in HobsonBay ; at this moment limn/ g square-rigged vessels,besides smaller craft, are riding in the bay. Twoyears since, the population of Melbourne did notexceed 300, and now it numbers more than 3000.Looking to the surrounding country, who can speakin sober praise ? Behold the beautiful banks of theVarra, the Salt-water River, the country on theMoonee Moonee Ponds, possessing virgin soil of thebest quality, capable of producing food for a numerouspopulation, of which Melbourne must be the em-porium.' For the benefit of newly arrived emigrants,and for the consideration of the inhabitants of Mel-bourne generally, Mr. has deemed it advisableto make these remarks, having been directed to submit' Suburban Allotment No. 24' to public competition byauction. Its commanding views, its gentle undulatingfertile grounds, ornamental trees, and delightful south-easterly exposure, all—all combine to make it suchthat oft We cannot hope to look upon its like again.'Gentlemen who prefer riding to walking, shall beaccommodated with seats in carriages, which will start

EARLY DAYS OF MELBOURNE. 193

from Mr. 's auction rooms at eleven o'clock pre-cisely, and upon arrival at the ground can refresh them-selves with the choicest wine and a splendid dejeliner."

On these occasions, the concluding invitation wasgenerally liberally responded to by the bidders beforethe sale commenced,. so that competition was lively,and after the sale the auctioneer himself quaffed manya glass of champagne with the purchasers, sometimesbecoming oblivious of the day's proceedings, until thereckoning of the morrow.

In this irregular manner the district of PortPhillip progressed with astonishing rapidity, withoutany settled plan of colonization, or the fosteringcare of government. In fact the connection withNew South Wales and its administration tended toretard its progress, as all the money derived from theland sales was merged into the general treasury atSydney, without an equivalent being given in the shapeof expenditure on roads, bridges, and other publicworks. For many years after its foundation, the chiefstreets of Melbourne had the giant gum-trees of theforest still standing in them, they were without gutteror pavement, the rains rushed down them with such ve-locity that they were converted into temporary rivers ;belated people were occasionally drowned in the darkunlighted thoroughfares. The roads through the in-terior were not much better, and the tracks over therich lands were utterly impassable at times for wheeledvehicles, so that the drays of the squatters taking upsupplies to the stations, and returning with wool,would be frequently three months on the way fromMelbourne to the Murray River, a distance which maybe done by railway at the present day in three hours.Notwithstanding these drawbacks, and the neglect of

0

194 VICTORIA.

the parent colony, the free colonists overcame all ob-stacles, and prospered in a manner unknown in thepenal settlements, though established under carefulsupervision and receiving help in men and moneyfrom the mother country.

However, as the population increased, the SydneyGovernment deemed it necessary to appoint a repre-sentative with more extended powers, and a largerofficial staff than a police magistrate and a few clerks.Accordingly, Charles Joseph Latrobe, a gentleman ofCanadian descent, and favourably known as an authorof books of travel, arrived in 1838, as Superintendentof the district. In his private capacity he was a goodand amiable man, much respected by all who knew himpersonally, but he was thought deficient in adminis-trative talent. This was excusable in the early daysof the colony, as his functions were prescribed by theGovernor of New South Wales, to whom the mosttrifling transaction must be referred for his sanctionbefore being allowed ; so that Latrobe had no inde-pendent executive or legislative power. But eventhose who most severely censure his administrationadmit that his faults were those of omission and notof commission. That he was a good servant of theGovernment is shown by the length of time he heldthe reins of power in Victoria. But as far as theadvancement of the colony was concerned, he is notgenerally considered. to have been entitled to muchcredit.

This absence of a fostering care for the embryocolony, on the part of the local or home governments,was not much felt so long as the colonists individuallywere prospering. But adversity came upon them in1841, and continued for several years afterwards, to

ADVERSE STATE OF TIIE COLONY. 195

an extent which required all the assistance a liberalGovernment could bestow, to prevent a general col-lapse from which the colony might not recover. Inthe year above mentioned, the rapid rise in the valueof land and live-stock reached its culminating point :a depreciation in the value of all these kinds of pro-perty then set in and prices fell with greater rapiditythan they had risen. The land speculators, who hadsold on credit for bills at long dates, found thattheir profits were merely nominal, and although choicebuilding-lots maintained a fair price, yet where thesewere not situated favourably, or the soil was indifferentfor cultivation, they were worth little more than theoriginal upset price, and even unsaleable at that. Inlike manner, sheep, cattle, and horses returned to thevaluation of the first importations from the neigh-bouring colonies. The capabilities of the country forgrazing purposes proved the very cause of their depre-ciation in the market. So rapid was the increase, thatthe squatters' runs became overstocked, as there wasnot sufficient population to consume the surplus, or newruns to be had for establishing new stations. Thesepioneer settlers became embarrassed by the richness ofthe country.

In this dilemma it occurred to some who were moreshrewd than others to boil down their surplus stock forthe sake of the tallow, hides, horns, and fleeces. Thissimple expedient arrested the downward progress of live-stock, which had reached the low valuation, in the saleof flocks and herds by auction, of two shillings andsixpence each for sheep, and twelve shillings for cattle.Under the new process these prices were respectivelyraised to six shillings and thirty shillings, and formany years these were the ruling rates for selling large

196 VICTORIA.

numbers. Breeders now paid as much attention tothe fattening of stock as to the growth of wool, whichalso had declined in the market from two shillings perpound, to one shilling and sixpence, for clean washedof best quality. "Boiling-down establishments," as theywere termed, for rendering the tallow on a large scale,became a new and profitable occupation for the colonists,many of which had steam power, with boilers capableof holding the carcasses of four hundred sheep, or fortyhead of cattle, cut up and denuded of their extremitiesand offal. As the legs contained little or no fat, thesewere sold to the butchers, who retailed rump-steaks ata penny a pound, and gigots of mutton, weighing eightto ten pounds, at sixpence a-piece.

This abundance and cheapness of animal food causedit to be consumed in large quantities. Though pricesare not so low at the present day, this is still charac-teristic of the style . of living among the colonists. Atthree meals a day, breakfast, luncheon, and dinner—suppers are rarely indulged in—meat is eaten by men,women, and children. A robust man will eat fromhalf a pound to three-quarters at each meal. Suchheavy meals of animal food could not be indulged inwith impunity in any country but Australia, where ithas no had effect on a sound constitution. On thecontrary, it is beneficial, and seems to be necessary forits support, where the climate is of that peculiar cha-racter that makes great and exhausting demands onthe system. From whatever cause this may arise—whether from a larger proportion of oxygen andcarbonic acid gas in the, atmosphere—has not yetbeen determined ; however, the dry and salubrious airbreathed in that region, gives persons such an appetitefor animal food as they would seldom feel anywhere

DESCRIPTION OF A SHEEP STATION. 197

else. The lamp of life seems to require replenishingfrom this source more than from vegetation, as itburns quickly in that sunny land.

The buoyant atmosphere and salubrious climate hada beneficial effect, in those days of adversity, upon thehardy bushmen, who roamed through the fine pasturelands ; and notwithstanding the gloomy prospects ofsheep and cattle-breeding, none of them desponded.Under these genial influences they saw their flocksincrease ; and, from the open nature of the country,they were kept larger on their runs than in those of theolder colonies. The general plan of a sheep-run may bedescribed thus :—About its most central part, (providedthere is a good soil and a convenient supply of woodand water,) the homestead is built. From this, atdistances of five or six miles, and about the same apartfrom each other, out-stations are placed, where twoshepherds and a hut-keeper reside, who have the chargeof two . flocks, each consisting of twelve or fifteenhundred sheep. The business of the shepherd is toproceed with his flock every day, soon after sunrise,to the feeding-ground pointed out to him by the over-seer, with injunctions to let them feed at their leisure,and be well spread over the ground. Before noon theytravel in this manner a distance of four or five miles,when they are brought to rest under the shade of sometrees. This gives the shepherd an opportunity of eatinghis dinner, which he carries in his wallet, making tea,and eating damper and mutton in the usual •bushfashion. After an hour or so, he resumes his task,rousing the sheep with the aid of his dog, and returningto the out-station by a different route, contriving toreach it before sunset, and watering his sheep on theway. On his arrival, he meets his fellow-shepherd

198 'VICTORIA.

similarly engaged. Each then drives his flock into ayard of hurdles—which the hut-keeper shifts dailyduring their absence—sometimes counting the sheep,to see if any are missing, for which the shepherds areheld responsible. These men have a weekly rationallowed them of ten pounds of meat, ten pounds offlour, two pounds of sugar, and a quarter of a poundof tea, with an annual wage of twenty pounds to thirtypounds, varying according to circumstances. Theduties of a hut-keeper are less important, and hiswages are from three pounds to five pounds less, butwith the same ration of food. In the morning hecooks breakfast for all hands, and after the shepherdsdepart, he sweeps out the yards, if fixed, or shifts thehurdles, if moveable. This over, he puts on his meatto boil, and bakes a damper. Sometimes the shepherdsmanage to come home to dinner. By the time theflocks return in the evening he has everything snug,and supper ready for the shepherds ; who, after thesheep are safe in the yards, are supposed to resign thecharge of them to the hut-keeper, as watchman for thenight, to guard the sheep‘from the attacks of the nativedogs. For this purpose he is armed with a musket,and sleeps in a moveable watch-box close by the sheep-yard. When the morning sun peeps out, he gets up,lights a fire, awakes his companions, and makes breakfastas before. When the shepherds are married, one of thewives often acts as hut-keeper. In this manner, the20,000,000 of sheep in Australia are reared. Nearly one-half of the whole number are grazing on the pasturelands of Victoria. The number on each run varies ac-cording to the extent and richness of pasture, and rarelyexceeds 30,000, or is less than 10,000. In some cases,where the run admits of very large flocks, the cost of

AGRICULTURAL RESOURCES. 199

management is not much more for maintaining thelarger than the lesser number. As a rule, it does notpay to farm sheep on a small scale in Australia. Somewealthy squatters,have several runs of cattle as well assheep. A few have been known in this way to possessfrom 100,000 to 150,000 sheep, valued at twenty-fiveshillings a head, and others 5000 or 6000 head of cattleat ten pounds per head.

Besides its pastoral resources, this favoured regionis rich in arable lands, where, on the banks of riversand in fertile valleys, extensive areas of virgin soil arefound from five to twenty feet deep. While the spiritof speculation in buying land existed, very few settlerstook the trouble to ascertain its productive powers,and for many years the community was dependentupon Tasmania for their chief supplies of grain andpotatoes. The season of adversity caused them toturn their attention to cultivation, and herein theyreaped the reward of their industry from a generoussoil and climate, that yielded from twenty to thirtybushels of wheat to the acre. These returns soonrendered the colony independent of imported bread-stuff's. In like manner, others turned their attentionto dairy produce, and the articles of cheese and buttersoon disappeared from the import list. The pro-duction of every description of garden produce andfruit speedily followed, until the people were in acondition of self-dependence for food. This is the truesystem of colonization, nay, of national prosperity, allover the world. No nation can be prospefous thatdoes not produce the food of its inhabitants, or anequivalent saleable in a foreign market to pay for thesame. Thus, while the speculative land and live-stockjobbers raised these to a fictitious price, it was merely

200 VICTORIA.

a nominal value, confined to the limits of the colony.When these dealings were abandoned for legitimateand industrial pursuits, the season of adversity soonpassed away, and the prospects of the colony were asbright, and certainly of a more substantial characterthan they had been in the palmiest days of the firstsettlement.

Under these favourable circumstances the colonistsin town and country pursued the even tenor of theirway, each year increasing in numbers and materialprosperity. For ten years its march in the pathof colonization was steady and progressive, untilihefliumble dependency of New South Wales grewinto *te colony of VICTORIA—so named after ourbeloved Queen. The reader will best understand thismateri,31 progress by a comparison of the statisticsat they periods. In 1841 the total number of in-

* fits, exclusive of aborigines, was 11,738. Thisincreased in 1846 to 32,879, and on the 2nd

March, 1851, to 77,345. The proportions of the sexesat these periods were as follow :—For every 100females there were, in 1841, 239 males ; in 1846, 159males ; and in 1851, 148 males—showing a return tothe comforts of a home and family life, in which thepresence of woman is indispensable. The disparitybetween the sexes has always been, and still is, thechief drawback in the social progress of the Australiancolonies. Hence the governments there vote largesums of money to pay the passages out of families witha certain proportion of females and single women,a fact which cannot be too widely known for thebenefit of all concerned.

In consequence of the returns of live-stock for 1841being included in those of New South Wales, we cannot

RAPID INCREASE OF LITE-STOCK. 201

give trustworthy statistics under this head. But theenormous and rapid increase will be seen by comparingthe returns of 1851 with the estimate, in round numbers;made in 1837—a period of fourteen years. In the latteryear there were as follows :—Horses, 150 ; cattle,2500 ; and sheep, 140,000. On the first January,1851—Horses, 21,219 ; cattle, 378,806 ; pigs, 9,260 ;and sheep, 6,032,783. A curious fact may be pointedout here, that whereas the greater portion of the sheepand cattle in the early days were imported from Tas-mania, this young offshoot from that colony actuallyexported part of its surplus stock back to the parentfold. In 1851 these numbered 69,224 sheep and 6,281cattle. For the twelve months preceding the 1st ofJanuary of the same year, the wool exported toEngland weighed 18,091,207 lbs. ; tallow, 4489 tons ;salted beef, 975 tons ; and gold, nil.

At this day, knowing the extraordinary revolutionin these items on the export list of the colony, it isinteresting to contemplate its condition on the eve ofthe gold discovery. Here was a plethora of food forthe limited population, who literally ran the surplusto waste out of the boiling pots ; all the refusemeat and its nourishing juices being thrown on theland and into the rivers. It was a waste of God'smercies that food should be so disposed of, when thestarving population of the mother country would havebeen so glad to get it. At this rate of increase theevil would, in a few years, have reached such giganticproportions that the settlers would have been obligedto stop breeding sheep and cattle altogether. Theyurgently called across the vast world of waters foremigrants to come and help them to eat of their abun-dance : but the call was only feebly responded to. If

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the hungry mouths in the manufacturing districts ofEngland had been within easy reach, it would havebeen an immense relief to them to purchase animalfood at a cheap rate, while the exchange would havebeen scarcely less profitable to the seller. So scarcewas the metallic currency of the realm in that dis-tant part of Her Majesty's dominions that a goldsovereign was rarely seen in the towns, and in thecountry even a penny or a shilling was a curiosity.The squatters conducted their business transactionswith the merchants by a system of cash orders thatcompletely superseded the use of coin, while the banksissued notes by which the heavy dealings in the townswere settled. How strange! while all this time untoldgold lay under the pastures over which their sheep andcattle grazed, and these were destined to be food for thehungry immigrants who would come to dig it up. Sothat it was ordained, if the plethora of food did not goto the mouths, the mouths came to the food.

Another remarkable circumstance that happened on

the eve of the gold discovery in Victoria, was theseparation of the district from New South Wales,and its erection into an independent province of GreatBritairi, with a Lieutenant-Governor, Executive Coun-cil, and Legislative Chambers. This event took placeon the first day of July, 1851, to the great joy of thecolonists, who were almost in open rebellion againstthe government of the older colony. Hitherto, themeasure of political self-government accorded to the

district was of the most meagre description, whilethe proceeds of the land sales, as previously noticed,flowed into the Sydney treasury. It was representedin the parliament held in that city by six members,who were obliged to live half the year six hundred

SEPARATION FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 203

miles away from Melbourne. This, combined with thesmall minority they formed in the House of Assembly,prevented local candidates standing for the consti-tuency, and members were elected from New SouthWales, who therefore could feel but little sympathyfor the grievances of the Port Phillipians. So feeblewas the representation of this constituency that, onseveral occasions, they elected men who could notattend at all, and turned the elections into a farce byvoting for the Duke of Wellington and Earl Grey.Very earnestly they petitioned the Queen and herministers to grant them separation from the oldcolony. The prayer was acceded to, but not untilthe finances of the district had suffered much depletionfrom the sale of 365,543 acres of land up to the 30thJune, 1851.

Notwithstanding this, the colony was in a flourish-ing condition, as illustrated by the external commercein that year, which amounted to £1,056,437 of im-ports, and £1,422,909 of exports, or £366,472 infavour of the balance of trade. The shipping inwardsnumbered 669 square-rigged vessels, having 126,411aggregate tonnage. The total revenue amounted to£379,824, and there were three banks with a circula-tion of £180,058 ; specie, £310,724, and deposits,£822,254. The -valuation of Melbourne at this timewas set down at £174,723. The streets were beingpaved and kerbed, and the city was under the activecontrol of a mayor and corporation. Moreover, Geelongon the bay, and Williamstown, had progressed consi-derably, while numerous towns were scattered overthe interior, each with its municipality. Altogether,Victoria, on the eve of the gold discovery, was in aflourishing condition, and if that event had never

204 VICTORIA.

happened, there is no doubt but that her progresswould have continued to surpass that of all the otherAustralian colonies.

When the announcement of the discovery of goldin the Bathurst district reached the inhabitants ofthe newly formed colony, about a month before theformal ceremony of naming it and swearing-in theLieutenant-Governor and his Executive Council, a feel-ing . of chagrin was felt by some at the "luck" of theelder colony, while the public mind generally becameunsettled, as the glowing accounts reached them fromtime to time. It so happened that it was the winterseason, when the roads, at that time, were unsuitedfor travelling so great a distance. This prevented thelabouring classes undertaking the journey by land.A good many, however, went by sea to Sydney, andfrom thence travelled to Bathurst, so 'that a markedand immediate effect took place in the labour marketand the prices of provisions. There followed a generalpreparation amongst the male adults, especially of thelabouring classes, to start in the spring-time, whichbegins there in August, for this Australian El Dorado.Landholders and house-proprietors in Melbourne andGeelong, anticipated upon ruin at the departure ofthe inhabitants, and a sudden depreciation in pro-perty took place. In the country, stockholders andfarmers were likewise affected by the threatened de-parture of the bone and sinew, on which the prosperityof their farms and stations depended, and an immediaterise took place in the rates of wages. Therefore, whilehopes of the adventurers were buoyant, the prospectsof the proprietors, who were obliged to remain behind,were of the most gloomy character.

At this juncture, some shrewd colonists calculated

GOLD DISCOVERY AT BALLARAT. 205

that it was just possible that gold existed in Victoriaas abundantly as in New South Wales, the geologicalformation of the rocks being precisely the same.Moreover, some three years previously, an Italianjeweller had bought in Melbourne a mass of gold,weighing upwards of thirty ounces, which he statedhad been found at a station near Mount Buninyong,seventy miles to the west of Melbourne, by a sailorlad who was a shepherd there. Other shepherds hadpicked up small grains also in the same district, sothat the report of a gold-field having been discoveredin the colony got wind ; and as it was shortly after thediscovery of gold in California, there existed a pre-disposition to believe in the fact. Consequently, alarge number of persons went to Buninyong, but asthe jeweller had no exact information of the locality,and the young sailor had apparently left the colony,their adventure was fruitless. After two or threemonths' scraping around the flanks of the mountain,they returned to their homes disappointed. Now, how-ever, that the fact of large auriferous deposits havingbeen found in Australia was unquestionable, renewedsearch was made in the neighbourhood of Buninyong,and this time with success, in the world-famed goldfields of Ballarat, (or Bal-Brat, as it should be pro-nounced after the native name,) which, at -that time,was a sheep-station. Almost simultaneously with thisdiscovery—within the second week of August, 1851—and by separate gold-seekers, deposits were found atAnderson Creek, sixteen miles from Melbourne, and atthe Clunes station on the Loddon river, about a hun-dred miles to the north-west of the city, over therange that divides the north and south shed of waters.Thus did it happen, that within the short space of

206 VICTORIA.

three months, the district of Port Phillip—hitherto adependency of a dependency—became the independentColony of Victoria, with its own Governor and Council ;and its growth into a nation was greatly acceleratedby the discovery of its gold-fields.

As day by day news arrived that these depositsequalled, if they did not surpass in richness, thosefound near Bathurst, the colonists at first were struckdumb with amazement at their good fortune, whichwas followed by a state of excitement and turmoil inMelbourne and Geelong that eclipsed all that hadhappened in Sydney. Those who had prepared tostart for Bathurst, were now the first to be off toBallarat and their own diggings. Many having takenpassages to Sydney, forfeited their deposit money, andeven some who had landed there returned to Melbourne.No account of the state of the colony at this eventfulperiod of its history, can equal that of the Governor,who has described every phase of society in the mostgraphic manner, in a voluminous dispatch, with enclo-sures, to Earl Grey, dated October 10, 1851, fromwhich the following is an extract :—" It is quite im-possible for me to describe to your lordship the effectwhich these discoveries have had upon the whole com-munity, and the influences which their consequencesexercise at this time upon the position of everyone,high and low. The discoveries within our own bounds,coming as they do at the close of the wet season, inlocalities in comparative proximity to our towns, ex-ercise a far wider influence upon our excitable popu-lation, than did the discoveries of New South Walesupon that colony, under the advantages of a largerpopulation, and the greater remoteness of the gold-field.Within the last three weeks the towns of Melbourne

LATROBE'S ACCOUNT OF THE COLONY. 207

and Geelong, and their large suburbs have been inappearance almost emptied of many classes of theirmale inhabitants, the streets, which for a week or tendays were crowded by drays loading with the outfit forthe workings, are now seemingly deserted. Not onlyhave the idlers, to be found in every community, andday labourers in the town and the adjacent country,shopmen, artisans, and mechanics of every description,thrown up their employments, and in most cases,leaving their employers and their wives and familiesto take care of themselves, run off to the workings,but responsible tradesmen, farmers, clerks of everygrade, and not a few of the superior classes have fol-lowed ; some, unable to withstand the mania and forceof the stream, or because they were really disposed toventure time and money on the chance ; but others,because they were, as employers of labour, left in thelurch and had no other alternative. Cottages aredeserted, houses to let, business is at a stand-still, andeven schools are closed. In some of the suburbs nota man is left, and the women are known for self-protection to forget neighbours' jars, and to grouptogether to keep house. The ships in the harbour arein a great measure deserted, and we hear of instanceswhere not only farmers but respectable agriculturistshave found that the only way, as those employed bythem deserted, was to leave their farms, join them, andform a band, and go shares ; but even masters ofvessels, foreseeing the impossibility of maintaining anycontrol over their men otherwise, have made up partiesamong them to do the same. Fortunate the family,whatever its position, which retains its servants at anysacrifice, and can further secure the supplies for theirhouseholds from the few .tradesmen who remain, and

208 VICTORIA.

retain the means of supplying their customers at anyaugmentation of price. Drained of its labouring popu-lation, the price of provisions in the towns is naturallyon the increase, for although there may be an abundantsupply within reach, there are not sufficient hands toturn it to account. Both here and at Geelong, allbuildings and contract works, public and private,almost without exception, are at a stand-still. Nocontract can be insisted upon under the circumstances.

"In the country your lordship will easily conceive thatviewing the season at which these circumstances haveoccurred, and the agricultural and, particularly, thepastoral interests at stake, that this is the commence-ment of the shearing season, and that shortly theharvest will call for labour, great embarrassment andanxiety prevails. Convinced as I am that a reactionmust very shortly take place, I cannot but be alive tothe difficulty and anxiety under which all are labour-ing, and should have been glad if it had been in anymeasure in the power of the government to alleviate it.Some would wish to see the government decline tosanction the issue of gold licences, and to forbid theworking, at this season of the year, till the shearingand harvest are over. Your lordship may, however,readily conceive that, if really held expedient, it wouldbe quite impossible to withstand such a general popularmovement, excited by such a cause, by any practicablemeasures whatever. There is but one way, and that is,to let the current spend itself', and, meanwhile, see that,as far as possible, it is kept within proper bounds."

Weeks and months rolled on, and still the quantitiesof gold, dug out of the alluvial soil and broken fromthe quartz-matrix, increased, while new fields wereopening up to the astonished eyes of the diggers. In

GREAT INFLUX OF IMMIGRANTS. 209

the neighbourhood of Mount Alexander, situated tothe north-west of Melbourne, distant about seventymiles, an area of many thousand acres was foundmore or less impregnated with deposits ; and the dis-coverers were enriched with " nuggets" (i. e. large piecesof gold) of clean solid metal, weighing hundreds ofounces ; so that a temporary exodus took place fromBallarat. When the news reached those who hadmigrated to Bathurst, most of them returned to thecolony where their interests were centred ; largenumbers of New South Wales diggers abandoned theworkings in that colony and travelled to Victoria,where the yield was richer to the experienced miner.We have alread y alluded to the emigration from Tas-mania to this attractive region. In like manner, thegold mania spread to South Australia, Western Aus-tralia, and New Zealand. There were daily arrivalsoverland from the first-named colony, and by sea fromthe others. Even California could .no longer lay claimto the first place in auriferous production, and numbersof miners left the diggings in that country for Aus-tralia. The gold discovery agitated the subjects of theCelestial Empire about Hong Kong and Canton, somuch that the ships that brought tea to the colonyadded their quota of Chinese adventurers. This ulti-mately increased to considerable emigration from thence—to add to the motley population on the gold fields.From these sources the community, in twelve monthsafter the date of the gold discovery in Victoria,'hadreceived an accession of about 65,000 to its numbers.

Up to September, 1852, very few emigrants fromthe United Kingdom had arrived, beyond the usualimmigration. It took nine months to inform andconvince the British public of the great fact that

210 VICTORIA.

Victoria was the richest gold region in the world, andto induce the adventurous to risk their fortunes at herdiggings. By that time, ship after ship had arrivedin England from Port Phillip, with its gold freight of£30,000, £50,000, and even £100,000. Then a thirstfor the coveted metal seized all classes of the people,as it had done in the colonies. A tide of emigrantsset in from all parts of the three kingdoms to thegreat shipping ports of London and Liverpool. Theenergies of ship-owners and agents failed to find suf-ficient accommodation for applicants. A better ideaof the emigration to Australia at this time cannotbe given than that which the following extract fromThe Times of August 9, 1852, conveys :—" Notwith-standing the thousands of fortune seekers ' who havesailed during the last few months for the goldenregions ' of Australia, from the ports of London,Liverpool, Glasgow, &c., the tide of emigration does notappear to have much subsided, as from thirty to fortyfirst-class ships, varying from 500 to 2000 tons, areentered to sail during the present month from London,Plymouth, or Liverpool, for Melbourne, Geelong,Adelaide, and Sydney. The greatest activity prevailsin the St. Katharine, London, and West and EastIndia Docks, in fitting up the vessels for the accom-modation of the adventurers. The following are thenames of the ships that leave the port of London thisand the next week :—For Port Phillip, Victoria: theSouth Sea, 2000 tons; Waterloo, 900; Atalanta, 1300;_Moselle, 1200 ; Gloriana, 1200 ; Bru, 1050 ; Velore,1100 ; Wandsworth, 896 ; Countess of Elgin, 1200 ;Ballarat, 1100; Blackwall, 1000 ; Prince Alfred,1400; Cornelius, 850; Hyderabad, 850; Windermere,850 ; Prince of Wales, 850; Victory, 800; Louise, 800;

EMIGRATION FROM GREAT BRITAIN. 211

Bloronge, SOO; Tulloch Castle, SOO; Syria, SOO;British Isle, 800; Galway Ark, 800 ; Duke ofNoe folk, 800; Eliza, SOO; Enchanter, SOO ; Bright-man, 600; Sir Walter Raleigh, 600; Beulah, 500 ;and Sea Park, 835. For Sydney, New South Wales :Catherine Jamieson, 1100; Robert, 950; Ifermione,830 ; Sarah Illetcalfe, 800; Hydaspes, 700 ; andWashington Irving, 600. The Australian SteamScrew Navigation Company's packet Formosa, sailedfrom Southampton on Saturday last. The followingare a few of the principal vessels to sail from Liver-pool: Una, 1500; Orestes, 1100 ; Eldorado, 2000 ;Ben Nevis, 3000 ; South Sea, 1800; Great Britain,iron screw-steamer, of 3500 tons and 500 horse-power, with berths for 1000 passengers ; and theSarah Sands, steamer of 1300 tons ; besides severalothers. So great is the emigration enterprise, that aconsiderable number of clerks who had excellent situa-tions in the Bank of England, South-Sea House, EastIndia House, the Post Office, Customs and Excise,banking houses, merchants' counting houses, solicitors'offices, &c., have resigned and set off to 'the diggings.'"

This magnificent fleet of forty-five merchantmen,making an aggregate of fifty thousand tons, sailingwithin a fortnight, with not less than fifteen thousandpassengers bound for Australia, each of whom paid anaverage passage-money of twenty-pounds, or a total of£300,000, is unparalleled in the annals of shipping.Nineteen-twentieths of these emigrants were males,and a considerable proportion of them married menwho had left their wives and families behind, with aview to make money and send it home for them . to paytheir passages out. The first of the remittances sentfor this purpose show that a hundred and thirty-six

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persons could afford nearly £3000 from their earningsafter a few months' residence. On the other hand,many were unsuccessful, and at one period it was cal-culated that upwards of eleven thousand wives andfamilies so forsaken received out-door relief from theirparish funds. Many also were left destitute in theworld from the death or desertion of their protectorson arriving in the colony. These evils, however, wereonly transient and small in proportion to the benefitsresulting to the community at large ; for so great amigration had the effect of improving the wages andsalaries of those who were left behind.

The first batch of British gold-seekers arrived inHobson Bay (the port of Melbourne in the extensiveharbour of Port Phillip), during the month of Sep-tember, 1832. It augmented the arrivals of theprevious month from 6552 to 15,855. This increasedto 19,162 in October ; after which the number fell offto 10,947 in November, and rose in December to14,255, making a total of 60,219 arrivals. Therewere 15,621 departures, however, to be deducted fromthese numbers, giving an accession to the populationof 44,598, being at the average rate of 2623 per week,or 375 daily. Although the number slackened at,times during the following year, yet this average givesa fair criterion of the influx of people into Victoriaduring the early days of the gold discovery. As anatural consequence, on the arrival at Melbourne ofsuch a concourse of people, where the house accom-modation was barely sufficient for the settled popu-lation, a state of privation and social anarchy wasproduced which no pen can describe. In reviewingthe material progress of Melbourne before the adventof the gold discovery, we have drawn a favourable and

PRIVATION AND DISTRESS. 213

true picture of its material resources, public andprivate, but that was in view of its gradual develop-ment as the out-port of a pastoral colony. The newera of gold had entirely changed that stateof things.It withdrew the greater part of the male populationfrom their homes. This though it made temporaryroom for a portion of the newly-arrived immigrants,yet disorganized the whole fabric of commerce. Evenfacilities for traffic were no longer afforded. Themass of the English immigrants being unused tothe rough life they were entering upon, it is not sur-prising that great privations and much distress hadto be encountered from the moment they landed atPort Phillip. 3

Indeed, it may be said, that their troubles com-menced before they landed, for when the ships whichbrought them out anchored in Hobson Bay, the captainsinformed their passengers that the voyage was ended,and they must get ashore the best way they could.As Melbourne was nine miles distant by the riverYarra, they had to pay exorbitant charges for them-selves and baggage to reach that point, which deceptiveagents had told them in England they would be con-veyed to at the ship's expense. Those who hadluggage or merchandise had to pay a wharfage rateat the town of forty-shillings per ton. This transit ofnine miles cost as much as the charge from England—sixteen thousand miles altogether. Few of theseimmigrants had much spare cash after paying for theiroutfit and passage. These, and corresponding chargesfor cartage, food and house accommodation, soondrained them of their surplus moneys. The activeand prudent lost no time in the town, but started atonce, with pick and shovel, for the golden goal they had

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come so far to reach. This was accomplished withoutmuch difficulty, as long as the weather continued dry,but when the heavy rains came on it was a matter ofthe greatest toil for man or beast to travel along themuddy roads. At one time the charge for carryingprovisions and other merchandise reached twentyshillings a mile per ton ; so that at Bendigo, a goldfield distant a hundred miles, the diggers had to payone hundred pounds for the carriage only of a ton offlour.

At that season many were deterred from, or foundthemselves physically incapable of, undertaking ajourney to the gold fields. The consequence was, thatas the tide of immigration continued, and the cry was"Still they come, not in single files, but in battalions,"the city and suburbs of Melbourne became so crowdedthat fears were entertained by the authorities of anarchyor pestilence arising from the densely packed com-munity—such as arose at San Francisco on the golddiscovery in California. Although the utmost turmoiland confusion prevailed, happily the salubrity of theAustralian climate and the genial weather warded offany special disease or mortality accruing from thisexceptional state of society. There is no betterevidence of the salubrity of the climate than this im-munity from epidemic disease of that badly:sheltered,ill-fed mass of humanity located on the banks of theYarra during the year 1853. We have all read of thedisease and mortality that decimated the Britishtroops in the Crimea during the Russian war, notwith-standing their military discipline and the services of acommissariat staff—an army of not more than fortythousand men, landed during a couple of years. Herewas an immigrant army one hundred and fifty thousand

CAN-VAS-TOWN AT MELBOURNE. 215

strong, landed in sixteen months, on the shores of PortPhillip, without any discipline, very slender equipment,one hundred thousand of whom had gone to battle onthe gold fields, removed from seventy to one hundredmiles from their city base of operations, encounteringthe greatest privations from irregular supplies of food,and exposed to all the changes of weather, and yet theamount of disease and mortality was not appreciablygreater than the natural deaths and illness of such acommunity. Even that was at a minimum rate amongsections of it living in every stage of squalor anddestitution.

A most characteristic sight was the population of" Canvas-town," which was so named from being com-posed entirely of tents. It arose from the immigrantscontinuing to arrive after every room and cellar in thecity was crammed with people. They were thereforeobliged to pitch the tents they had provided them-selves with, and live in them until they were able toproceed up the country, or occupy some temporarybarracks the government was electing to meet theemergency. A spot easily accessible to the passengersas they landed was marked out for this purpose, onthe opposite side of the river to that on which thecity is built, and about three miles from the beach,where they could land by boat. Notwithstanding theoutward prosperity that existed and the profuse expen-diture of money that went on in the city, there weremany, very many cases of terrible destitution in Canvas-town, where every necessary of life was sold at famineprices.

The tents were arranged so as to form streets andsquares, each with some familiar name given to it, andsuggestive of the localities from whence the emigrants

216 VICTORIA.

came. Evidently not a few were Londoners. RegentStreet was the name of the principal thoroughfare, atone corner of which was a round tent of a military cut,having a flag that directed the stranger into Picca-dilly. Other thoroughfares were named Oxford Street,Holborn, the Strand, &e. Tents for refreshment werenamed after many well known London hotels, as if thename could bring back to the distressed cockney thecomforts and pleasures of his native city. Many ofthe tents were pretentious marquees in quality and size,set off with blue and silver or green and gold fringes,and hoisting gay flags ; others were coarse and small.When first set up, they presented an appearance ofcleanliness and comfort, very different to that whichthey offered before they were removed. The occupants,likewise, changed from decently dressed though despond-ing immigrants to be like the scum and offscouring ofthe purlieus of Whitechapel. Peeping into the tents,each displayed some articles for sale, and these fre-quently told a mournful tale. A pianoforte might beseen in one, which spoke of happy days gone by in theold country, and of wrecked hopes } in this golden land.Books were exposed for sale in many tents, many ofthem standard and classic works, evincing the tasteand education of the owners, who were forced todispose of their literary treasures to obtain the meansof subsistence. In others were furniture and finedresses, which had been brought half round the globe,now sacrificed to buy daily bread. The majoritywere of that class of emigrants unfitted for a newcolony, and who often leave a small certainty at homefor an uncertainty abroad, repining because theirtalents are of less avail than the hands of the commonlabourer in the work of primary colonization.

CANVAS-TOWN SWEPT AWAY. 217

In time these gay tents became ragged and dirty,and the lazy occupants, or others of a lower gradethat succeeded them, allowed Canvas-town to becomethe abode of filth and misery, thick with dust indry weather and deep in mud when it rained. Inmany of these canvas dwellings there was only onecommon space, where two or three families of bothsexes were huddled promiscuously together. In themorning, clustering swarms of half-dressed womenand children gathered before the various tents, busilycooking breakfasts at their small stoves ; while aroundthem were all the discomforts that mark the hovelsof an Irish village. But the worst feature of thelocality was that it became and long remained thehot-bed of crime and immorality, where the viciousinhabitants went to spend their ill-earned gains in thesly grog-shops with no publican's licence. Thenceused to emanate those night prowlers, whose occupa-tion it was to stop and rob the wayfarer quietlyreturning to his home. At last the government re-solved on sweeping away this intolerable nuisance, andthe last tent disappeared in April, 1864.

During this time the state of society was completelyunhinged, and neither person nor property was safefrom the gangs of marauders and robbers in town andcountry. As already noticed, the increase of this classwas chiefly from Tasmania, the government of whichallowed every facility for doubly and trebly convictedfelons to cross over to Victoria, where they becamethe terror of the peaceable inhabitants, and defied theauthorities. On one occasion a gang of ruffians tookpossession of a suburban road for a whole day, robbingand maltreating every traveller that passed ; anothergang had the audacity to seize and rob the chief

218 'VICTORIA.

constable of Melbourne, who was accounted one of thestrongest men in the colony. The diggers, returningwith their gold from the mines, were the chief sufferersfrom this state of anarchy, when they were pouncedupon, and frequently tortured and murdered whenshowing resistance. For the safety of the conveyanceof gold to the towns of Melbourne and Geelong, thegovernment organized a corps of mounted police, thatformed an armed escort travelling at stated periods toand from the mines. Even these were attacked androbbed by formidable gangs, when many lives werelost, and thousands of ounces of gold stolen. So daringwere these villains, that a ship loading for London,with twenty thousand ounces of gold on board, wassuccessfully plundered, and nearly the whole of thegold abstracted and carried away. For a time theworst state of anarchy prevailed.

While crime was thus stalking rampant throughthe towns and suburbs, and along the roads of thecountry, the social and political affairs of the miners onthe gold fields were assuming an alarming aspect, thatadded to the confusion which prevailed. GovernorLatrobe in his proclamation for the regulation of theseworkings, at first levied a licence fee of thirty shillingsper month, which yielded the very large sum of£580,616. With a view to increase that amount, soas to meet the greatly increased expenditure for policeand gaols, and also to induce the less fortunategold diggers to return to the ordinary industrial occu-pations, which were suffering from want of labour, hecontemplated at one time doubling the fee. Had hedone so, in all probability the miners would haverisen en masse in open rebellion to the constitutedauthority. As it was, the policy of Latrobe rendered

INCREASE OF CRIME AND CONFUSION. 219

him so unpopular, that his acts were assailed by thepublic press in the most forcible language, and hehimself went in dread of bodily harm. Conscious ofhis inability to administer the laws by the authorityinvested in him under the colonial system as it thenexisted, he sent home his resignation, which wasaccepted. In June, 1851, his successor, Sir CharlesHotham, arrived in the colony.

The daring acts of robbers so paralyzed the policeauthorities, in consequence of the inefficient staff ofconstables, that the London police were applied to, andan experienced body of constables and detectives weresent out, who were paid high wages for their services.Numerous captures of the highwaymen and burglarsfollowed the strengthening of this arm of public autho-rity, and many of the most daring and blood-thirstyvillains were tried and punished. On inquiry, it wasfound that the majority of these were convicts andemancipated felons from Tasmania, whom the laxityof the laws allowed to arrive in Victoria on tickets ofleave and free pardons. Immediately this was foundout, the legislature passed an act to prevent the landingof these felons on their shores, with power to searchall vessels arriving from thence, and to deport doubtfulcharacters. As this act infringed on the Royal Pre-rogative, the Lieutenant-Governor referred it to thePrivy Council, who advised the Queen to dissent fromthe measure, as contrary to the spirit of the BritishConstitution. During this reference the provisions ofthe act were carried out, and many convicts preventedfrom landing in Victoria. On receiving the Imperialdissent to the measure, the legislative body, nothingdaunted, passed it again with slight modifications ;and the respectable colonists sent a petition at the

220 ICT0 11.

same time to Her Majesty, praying for her assent tothe act, as one absolutely necessary for the maintenanceof law and order in the community. These were sub-mitted. to her ministers, and without complying withthis request, it was resolved that a new and liberalconstitution should be granted to all the Australiancolonies, based on that of the parent state, whichsatisfied the colonists for the time ; but in order towatch the question, an anti-convict league was formedto prevent transportation altogether.

Notwithstanding the highly productive character ofthe gold fields, great discontent existed amongst theminers at the licence fee. In the first place it was notan equable tax, as the miner who was unsuccessful,securing only an ounce a month paid the same fee asthe lucky digger who found a prize of a hundred ora thousand ounces. Some did not find enough topay the fee. In the second place, the mode of levy-ing it and collecting payment by armed troopers andpolice was obnoxious to every one, and the unscru-pulous took every occasion to avoid payment. Asit was collected in advance, at the beginning of everymonth, the flame of . discontent was fanned at thefrequent appearance of the gold commissioner andhis staff, and collisions between them and the minerstook place. At Bendigo several thousand diggers wentin a body to the commissioner and said they would nolonger pay thirty shillings, but would have no objec-tions to give ten, which they tendered to him. Ofcourse he could not accept what he had no power totake. Thereupon they declared that they would notpay any licence fee, which led to many being takenup and fined.

At Ballarat a more determined feeling existed against

LICENCE RIOT AT BALLARAT. 221

the obnoxious tax, which reached its climax at the endof November, 1854, as the commissioner went hisrounds to collect for the following month. Upwardsof eight hundred men united together, declaring thatthey would pay no licence fee, armed themselves withrifles and revolvers, formed an intrenched camp, with astockade in the middle of the gold field, and resolvedto resist the collection of the tax at the risk of theirlives, called the spot " Eureka," and raised the flag ofindependence, while they made a bonfire of their licencepapers.

This defiance of authority raised the ire of GovernorHotham, and he at once issued a proclamation de-claring the disturbed district under martial law ;ordering out all the available force from Melbourne toproceed to Ballarat and quell the insurrection. Atthat time H.M.S. Electra was in harbour, so a bodyof marines and blue-jackets was added to the military,forming a force six hundred strong, with six guns.Before they arrived at the scene of action, the mountedtroopers, infantry, and armed foot police in the districthad turned out to the number of two hundred andseventy-six, and attacked the camp with a sharp fusil-lade, which took effect, for in ten minutes the enemysurrendered, the ringleaders were captured, and onehundred and twenty-five prisoners taken. In thisaffair about fifty of the miners were killed and wounded,and fifteen of the attacking force. On the arrival ofthe forces from Melbourne peace was restored, andthe miners saw that physical resistance was not theway to obtain their ends. Although this unfortunatecollision between the government and the diggers wasmuch deplored at the time, yet it had a wholesomeeffect upon many lawless men, aliens from California,

222 VICTORIA.

who thought they could do in a British colony whatthey had done there, in defiance of all authority.Ultimately, however, this demonstration against thelicence fee had its desired effect. The Governorappointed a commission to inquire into the grievancesof the mining population, which furnished a reportconfirming their complaints, suggesting a code ofminers' rights, the abolition of the personal tax, andsubstituting an export duty on the gold, which wasadopted at the rate of two shillings and sixpence perounce.

While this gold discovery was working a social andpolitical revolution in the body politic, the interestsand position of the squatters and other pioneer settlerswere apparently ignored, and thrown into the back-ground by the exciting events of the time. This wasnot really the case, for they were quietly influencingthe action of the government in the important matterof disposing of the crown lands, while they were ac-quiring immense wealth from the sale of their surplusstock for food to the diggers. On the one hand theystood upon the leases of their runs, contending thatthe government could not dispossess them until theterm of lease expired. Governor Latrobe believed them,and prevented the sale of land in fee-simple. Theconsequence was that those who were anxious to investtheir golden earnings in the soil became disgusted, andleft Victoria for the neighbouring colonies, where itcould be had cheaply and freely. Doubtless the landregulations would have been in a more satisfactorystate for the agriculturist or small landholder if, in thefirst instance, the export of grain had yielded as profit-.able a return to the settler as the export of wool. Thedistance, however, from any great market for bread-

DEMAND FOR AGRICULTURAL LAND. 223

stuffs, and the high rate of labour, had almost pro-hibited the cultivation of grain beyond the wants of the

scanty population. After the gold discovery a changecame over the prospects of the farmers, when the influxof immigrants had created such a demand for theirproduce, at the highest remunerative prices, that theunited efforts of all in Australia could not supply one-half the consumption. Consequently there was apressing demand for small sections of good land, bythe more prudent and fortunate labouring classes whohad saved money.

In cultivating the soil to produce the goldengrain, they saw not only a steadier description ofemployment, than the fitful, exciting and often dis-appointing toil of looking for gold-dust, but one whichgave them a territorial holding in their adoptedcountry. It would appear at this time, the Govern-ment of Victoria was not prepared with a sufficiencyof surveyed lands of the description required to meetthe wants of the colonists, and when the surveyorswent in quest of new tracts, they found that therichest soil, what were termed the " eyes of thecountry," were locked up in the pastoral leases grantedto the squatters ; moreover, that the regulations forthe disposal of crown lands prohibited the sale of anysection less than a square mile, or 640 acres, beyondthe town and suburban allotments. Hence there wasa unanimous cry amongst the non-squatting populationfor the Government to "unlock the lands," and disposeof them in small lots to meet the applications of thosewho wanted them for immediate tillage. This was notaccorded until sometime afterwards, when the colonyobtained its new constitution. On the other hand thesquatters claimed the right of pre-emption should the

224

TICTORIA.

lands be put up for sale. This right secured to themthe choice of the best lands at the upset price of £1per acre, which in most cases were worth from five toten times that value. There was, however, a limit tothis right, as only a certain quantity could be selectedin one name. But this was overcome by every memberof a family being a claimant, and happy the manwhose " quiver was full of arrows." Thus the squattersbecame the largest land-owners, and remain so to thisday.

During 1854 the disturbances on the gold fieldsaffected the production of gold materially, as shown inthe returns of value exported, according to the sub-sequent calculations of the Registrar-General. In1852 the amount was £10,899,733; 1853, £12,600,083,and in 1854, £9,568,262. A return to a more settledcondition in 1855 raised the value to £11,172,261.There were fifteen gold fields in full operation, namedas follows : Mount William, Avoca, Maryborough,Tarrengower, Ballan, Anderson's Creek, Plenty Ranges,Mount Alexander, Bendigo, Ballarat, McIvor, Goul-burn, Ovens, and Omeo. This last mentioned goldfield is situated in the midst of a magnificent countrynamed Gipps Land, after one of the Governors of NewSouth Wales, which, previous to that event, was almostunknown excepting to the few squatters who monopo-lized its pasture lands with their flocks and herds.As in the case of the colony itself, the golden keyunlocked these lands, and they were soon opened tothe enterprising colonists, who have founded there anew province that bids fair, in time, to become therichest in the country.

Thus the colony continued to expand in everydirection, while the governor and his imperfect system

GOV. HOTHAM DIES IN THE COLONY. 225

of administration was unable to cope with the rapidprogress of colonization. Moreover, while his prede-cessor erred in omitting to provide for the publicsafety, Sir Charles Hotham rushed into the oppositeextreme of endeavouring to control the miners byharsh measures. The difficulties of his position, actingupon an irritable disposition, brought on paralysis, ofwhich he died on the 31st December, 1855.

According to the regulations provided by the im-perial government in such cases, the commander of theforces assumed the reins of power during the inter-regnum, until the arrival of a new governor. Theacting governor in this instance was Major-GeneralMacarthur, eldest son of the first introducer of theMerino sheep into Australia. He continued in officeexactly one year. It so happened that in his time thenew constitution, granted by the British parliamentand assented to by the Queen, was inaugurated, andthe colony received its full measure of self-government,which it retains, with still further liberal modifications,to the present day. Under its provisions every maleadult has a vote for the members of the LegislativeAssembly, equivalent to the House of Commons,there is no property qualification, and the votingfor members is conducted by ballot. There is anUpper House, where both voters and members musthave a property qualification. Out of this parliamentthe Governor selects a chief secretary, as Her Majestychooses a premier, and he forms the ministry. Thusthe colony is governed in a similar manner to themother country, with the representatives of the threeestates of Queen, Lords and Commons, but havingmanhood suffrage and vote by ballot.

From this year (1855), when the new constitution

226 VICTORIA.

was inaugurated, it may be said that the settledhistory, not only of Victoria but all the Australiancolonies, begins. Though the youngest" in point oftime of actual settlement, that colony has taken thelead of the whole group in the march of civilization,and she bids fair to be the queen of the richest statesin the southern hemisphere. Exactly twenty yearshad passed when her majority was attained, and thepioneer colonists who first tenanted the wildernesswere men still in the prime of life. Such a rapid pro-gress in the foundation and building of the permanentfabric of a future nation is unparalleled in the historyof the world. Here we have, in the short space oftime which barely gives man his majority, a landpeopled with the most highly civilized branch ofhumanity—a land which at his birth was the abodeof a few poverty-stricken and degraded aborigines. Toset forth that progress it is necessary to have recourseto the statistical returns which the government andlegislature deemed it one of their first duties to placebefore the world, as a monument of the industry andperseverance of the workers who assisted in rearingthis extraordinary fabric.

As pastoral pursuits were those which led to thesettlement of Victoria, they demand our first attention.On the 31st December, 1855, the returns of live stockwere as follow Horses, 33,430 ; horned cattle, 531,113 ;pigs, 20,686 ; and sheep, 4,577,872. The last itemshows a diminution of 454,911 from the return in1851, which was caused by the consumption of muttonby the influx of immigrants, who supplied the long-cherished wish of the squatters for mouths to consumetheir surplus stock. That the increase of sheep wasvery little affected by this is shown in the increased

STATISTICS OF PROGRESS. 227

export of wool, notwithstanding the disturbing in-fluences which affected its production. In 1851, thequantity of wool exported was 16,345,468 lbs. ; and,in 1855, the total was 22,353,373 lbs. Some alarmwas expressed at the time that the consumption ofbutcher's meat in Australia was trenching on the powersof production, but this fear has proved fallacious. Itwas found that the stock on purchased lands wasrapidly increasing, and that any deficiency on squattingruns was compensated by this. It was found also thatby cultivation the products of the land may be almostindefinitely increased in Victoria, where upwards ofsixty million acres of virgin soil remain untilled. Sothat there will be abundance of provender for allanimals for many generations to come ; and it will betime to discuss the artificial increase of meat for con-sumption a hundred years hence. The cultivation ofarable land was in a great measure stopped during thefirst years of the gold discovery, as the chief suppliesof bread-stuffs came from Tasmania, South Australia,and California. These returns show, in ten districts,that in 1855 there were 1040 cultivators, and 23,893acres cultivated—a very small quantity in proportionto the consumption of cereals. With the return ofsettled habits, however, there was a rapid increase ofthis important branch of industry, as exhibited by thereturns in the following year ; in the same number ofdistricts the cultivators had increased to 1854, and thenumber of acres cultivated to 43,077.

Next comes the new product, which had such arevolutionizing effect upon the destiny of the colony.Gold was discovered at Ballarat in August, 1851, andthe estimated quantity dug up during the remainderof the year was valued at £845,523. During 1852, the

228 VICTORIA.

average per month was greater by sixty per cent.,amounting to £1,324,974, or a total for the year of£15,899,733. Allowing seventy thousand miners tohave been employed (which is a fair calculation) thiswould give £227 to each digger. This is the largestamount taken in one year since the discovery, and maybe attributed to the large numbers actually employedat the first, and the fact that these gold mines, like allothers, must gradually diminish in their yield untilthey become exhausted. It took two centuries to ex-haust the gold mines of South America, and it is onlyreasonable to compute that with the improvement inmachinery and other appliances the gold fields of Aus-tralia will be much sooner impoverished. In 1853, thevalue of the gold produce was £14,100,083 ; in 1854,£9,568,262, a considerable falling off, as we havenoticed, resulting from the disturbances on the goldfields ; in 1855, £11,172,261; and in 1856, £11,942,783—from which date there has been a gradual decreaseto £6,685,192 in 1862.

The progress of commerce and manufactures wasequally rapid during that period. In 1851, the ship-ping inwards was 712, of 129,426 tons ; 1852, ships1657, tonnage 408,216 ; 1853, ships 2594, tonnage721,473 ; 1854, ships 2596, tonnage 794,601; and1855, ships 1907, tonnage 551,726. At times fromthree hundred to four hundred large square-riggedvessels were at anchor in Hobson Bay, and sometimesone-third of them abandoned by their crews, who hadgone to the gold mines. The value of the merchandisebrought by these within that time, and the producewhich they carried away, is stated as follows : 1851,imports £1,050,437, exports £1,422,909 ; 1852, im-ports £4,069,742, exports £7,451,549 ; 1853, imports

PROGRESSITE STATISTICS. 229

£15,842,037, exports £11,001,544 ; 1854, imports£17,659,051, exports £11,775,204 ; and in 1855, im-ports £12,007,939, exports £13,493,338. It must beremarked that where the exports are less than thevalue of the product of gold, the whole of that producedoes not appear, as at the time there was no duty ongold, and hence the customs returns make no mentionof the large quantities taken by private hand. More-over the value of that shipped was put at the localprices, varying from £3 to £3 15s. per ounce, whenits actual value was £4, from the quality being so finethat some Ballarat gold was valued at £4 ls. per ounce.

The number of passengers brought by these ships toVictoria was not less than 300,000 ; and it is one ofthe most wonderful facts in the history of the colonythat these people were accommodated with houses,with employment, with food, and that no permanentdisorganization of society took place. At the close of1851, the population was estimated at 97,489 ; in 1852,at 168,321; in 1853, at 222,436 ; in 1854, at 312,307 ;and in 1855, at 364,324. The proportion of the sexesin the last year being 234,450 males and 129,874females. On the 31st December, 1855, there were inthe colony 349 churches or chapels, which were esti-mated to accommodate 76,549 persons, and which weregenerally attended by 65,242 persons ; and 438 schools,attended by 24,478 scholars. For that year the divi-sion of the people into their denominations is onlyapproximate, so that it does not give a correct view ofthe religious elements of the community. However,on the 29th March, 1857, a detailed census was taken,when the population had reached 410,766, in whichthe religious condition of the colony is given as follows :Church of England, 175,418--including 15,520 sub-

230 "VICTORIA.

scribing themselves simply as " Protestants ;" Presby-terians, 65,935 ; Wesleyan Methodists, 20,395 ; otherProtestants, 27,521—including Independents, 10,858 ;Baptists, 6484 ; Lutherans, 6574 ; Unitarians, 1480 ;Roman Catholics, 77,351 ; Jews, 2208 ; Mohammedansand Pagans, 27,254 ; 6774 furnished no return.

The most remarkable figures in this return are thoseunder the last head, who were chiefly Chinese. Muchalarm was created by the influx of these peculiar people,especially as they were all males. Their appearancewas not in their favour, as they were almost all of thelower class, from the province of Quang-tung, and pre-sented a most forbidding aspect as they landed in theirstrange garb. In order to check the influx a poll-taxof £10 was levied upon every Chinese immigrant, andan annual fee of £2, with a licence giving him privilegeto remain. The poll-tax was in a measure evaded, asthe ships from China landed them in South Australia,where no such tax existed, and they trudged overlandto Victoria. After some years' experience it was foundthat the Chinese were the most harmless people in thecommunity and at the same time the most industrious,so that the legislature struck off the taxes, and theyare now tolerated as any other people. Many of themhave become wealthy, and intermarried with emigrantwomen from the United Kingdom, chiefly Irish orphangirls.

We have no account of mills, manufactories, or otherindustrial works in Victoria in 1851; but they werein truth scarcely worth enumerating. In 1855,however, the Registrar-General reported the followingas an active operation. Flour-mills thirty-nine steam,six water, two wind, four horse, total fifty-one. Alsothirty saw-mills, three foundries, three water-works,

MACHINERY AND FACTORIES. 231

thirty-two breweries, twenty-one candle and soapmanufactories, four vinegar manufactories, twenty-five soda-water and lemonade manufactories, onehair-carding manufactory, four potteries, one stovemanufactory, one hundred and fifty-nine quartz-crushingmachines, one gasometer, four cordial manufactories,fifteen fellmongers, seven tanneries, three curriers, onebone-dust manufactory, two planing machines, onethousand five hundred and seven puddling machines,six moulding mills, one sash and door manufactory,one tobacco and snuff manufactory, eleven coffee-roasting and grinding mills, fourteen machinists,twenty-three coach-builders, one organ-builder, oneturning-machine, four boiler-makers, one pianofortemanufactory, one steam chaff-cutting machine, fiveboat-builders—in all, 1893 manufactories. It is properto explain that the quartz-crushing and puddlingmachines are used on the mines for the production ofgold.

From these statistics the reader will derive a clearidea of the rapid progress of the colony made in thefirst five years of its golden era. Ten years haveelapsed since then, and every year marks the onwardprogress of Victoria, but it may be considered only theexpansion of its previous condition. No essentialchange has taken place in its institutions. As far ashuman foresight can penetrate, it will remain the samein general character for many generations to come,when the pursuit of gold-mining has been abandonedfor others more profitable, and the supply of goldbecome exhausted. That this consummation is nearerat hand than the sanguine miners anticipated in earlytimes is shown by the government statistics of 1862,where, the value of gold exported, amounted only to

232 VICTORIA.

£6,685,192, or little more than half the export of1855. The exports generally have not diminished,however, being £13,039,422, or about the same,while the imports are a million and a half greater, or£13,487,787. The shipping is about the same, num-bering 1715 ships, of 556,188 tons, and the wool theycarry away is nearly double the value, or £2,350,956 ;tallow, £66,515; hides and skins, £130.350. The livestock has increased to 86,067 horses ; 576,601 hornedcattle ; 6,764,851 sheep, and 52,991 pigs. The numberof acres under cultivation, 465,430 ; so that the colonyis perfectly independent of external supplies of bread-stuffs, thereby saving in this item a large withdrawal ofmoney for farm produce. In the same year the popu-lation was 555,744, of whom 325,768 were males, and229,976 females ; births, 24,391 ; deaths, 10,080 ;marriages, 4525 ; immigration, 37,836 ; emigration,38,203. These two last items show that more peoplewent away from the colony in that year than thosewho arrived, and but for the increase by upwards of14,000 births over deaths, there would be a diminutionin the population. Since that time the increase issmall but steady from this natural cause, and thearrivals and departures which are pretty equal. Onthe 30th September, 1864, the total population was596,529, of whom 343,525 were males, and 253,004females.

A brief glance at the leading events which happenedduring that period, will suffice to fill up the intersticesof history between these statistical pieces of network.The first Governor appointed to Victoria, under thenew constitution, was Sir Henry Barkly, who arrivedon 23rd December, 1856, after an interregnum oftwelve months from the demise of Sir Charles Hotham,

GOVERNOR Silt HENRY BAItKLY. 233

when the administration of affairs devolved upon thecommander of the forces. As the colonists had agitated,in parliament, and through the public press, thequestion of the unfitness of naval or military men togovern a purely mercantile colony, these opinions hadweight with the Secretary of State for the Coloniesand Her Majesty's Government, and Sir Henry waschosen because he had previously been a West Indiamerchant and was conversant with business. Moreover,the colonists, in 'order to secure the services of atiefficient governor, raised the salary from £5000 a yearto £10,000, and £5000 staff expenses, together with ahouse to live in, and other advantages, making his payequivalent to some £20,000 a year. These pecuniaryemoluments were by no means overlooked by SirHenry I3arkly, who had just left the governorship ofa West India colony, where the salary was not a titheof that paid by this colony. On his arrival he producedthe most favourable impression upon all classes of colo-nists. He was comparatively a young man, just in theprime of life, and accompanied by his lady, who onlylived long enough to make herself beloved by all whoknew her.

The task of the new governor was easy and pleasantas compared to that which had devolved on his pre-decessors. They had to bear undivided respon-sibility,to discharge all the duties of the post, and on theirshoulders all the odium of failure was thrown. Now,these onerous duties devolved upon his responsibleadvisers, chosen from the parliament, while he stoodin the calm irresponsible atmosphere above them,acting simply as the representative of royalty. Thenfollowed the natural contention for the power andsweets of office, among a class of politicians as active

234 VICTORIA.

as any in the mother country. Men aspired to thehighest positions, and succeeded in attaining them,who had risen from the humblest ranks of colonialsociety, with obscure home antecedents ; while nume-rous political agitators emigrated to this El Dorado ofpolitical freedom as well as material prosperity. Atone time the post of chief secretary or premier wasfilled by a self-educated English tradesman, who sweptout his own little shop as a grocer at the time ofthe gold discovery ; at another, by a publican who hadbeen a butcher's clerk ; before that period, a Scottishstone-mason was elected a member of the LegislativeAssembly, who worked at his trade throughout theday and attended his place in parliament at night ; anIrish political refugee acted as one of the ministers formany years, and retired with a pension for his servicesof £900 a year.

These examples are not cited in order to cast odiumupon the individuals or the parliament of which theywere members, but to illustrate the democratic con-dition of the new political constitution. All honourto those self-educated men who were the architects oftheir own fortunes and position in the colony. Theknowledge of these facts among the aspiring colonistsspread an honourable feeling of emulation in the com-munity.

The great business of the Victorian parliament wasto dispose of the large revenue which the new actplaced under their control. In one item of the expen-diture, and that the most important for the materialprogress of the colony, all members and constituencieswere unanimous ; namely, the construction of roadsand bridges and the promotion of facilities of convey-ance throughout the colony. In the history of New

RAPID INCREASE OF REVENUE. 235

South Wales and Tasmania it has been shown that thisgreat desideratum was accomplished by convict labour,chiefly at the expense of the mother country. As thecolonists had rejected that objectionable class of emi-grants, they had to perform this gigantic task withfree labour at their own cost ; and cheerfully did theirrepresentatives vote the required means. Indeed,before the inauguration of the new legislature, orbefore the separation of the colony from New SouthWales, the public works formed one of the largestitems in the expenditure, and it was the chief grievanceof the colonists that the governor did not spend enough.The advent of the gold discovery raised the revenue tosuch a sum as the dreams of the most sanguine couldnot reasonably have calculated upon. In 1850 thegross revenue amounted to £259,433 ; in 1851 it roseto the respectable sum of £486,332 ; 1852 sent it upto £1,577,181 ; which was increased in 1853 to£3,490,932. But what financier could have calcu-lated upon a revenue of £6,154,928 in 1854 ; or even£4,716,696 in 1855. In the former case it is actuallyan increase of one hundred-fold in ten years from 1844.It must be stated, however, thht these items includesales of land in 1853 for £1,548,441; 1854, 1,357,965,and in 1855, £763,554.

With such a swollen public purse to draw upon, itmay be imagined that no one regretted the absence ofpatronage and supplies from the British treasury,while the expenditure of the money on free labourgave employment to the influx of immigrants whopreferred working on the roads ; and the numerouscontracts were profitable to capitalists. Although therevenue fell to an average of three millions sterlingper annum during the subsequent ten years, yet

236 VICTORIA.

upwards of one-third of that income has been ex-pended on roads, bridges, and other public works ;so that the cost of these up to the present time hasbeen not less than twenty millions sterling—everyshilling of which has come out of the pockets of thecolonists. It is upon this monetary independence andfreedom of labour that the Victorian colonists withjustice pride themselves ; and in receiving the militaryprotection of England they supplemented the pay ofthe soldiers, while a vessel of war was built and con-tinues to be maintained at the public expense. So far,therefore, as the parent state is pecuniarily concerned,she is not re''iired to pay for a single regiment or shipof war in protecting this richest gem in her colonialdiadem.

But the government and parliament were not evensatisfied with this enormous expenditure on the ordi-nary highways of the country—they must have rail-ways and electric telegraphs to unite the chief centresof population. As any trenching on the revenue toconstruct railways was met with opposition by everydistrict in the colony—especially as the scheme in-volved a costly system of construction—it was resolvedthat money should be borrowed for this purpose, andthe interest paid out of the revenue. One companyhad already been established to lay down a line betweenMelbourne and Geelong ; and there were three othershort lines to the suburbs of the capital city. Severalprojects were put before the government of an econo-mical nature, whereby the greatest number of milescould be constructed at the least possible cost. Butthese were rejected for the most expensive mode ofconstruction, at an average of £40,000 per mile. The

sum of £8,000,000 was borrowed and expended upon

COLD-MINING AT BALLARAT. 237

the construction of some 200 miles in six years—fromMelbourne to the westward and to the northward ; sothat a traveller or intending gold miner now-a-dayscan proceed to Ballarat or Bendigo, and witness thefamous " diggings," with the same ease and expeditionthat he could travel by railway from London to Bir-mingham. The old name is no longer applicable tothese gold mines, especially the former, where theworkings are almost entirely by machinery, blasting andcrushing the auriferous quartz-rock. No description canportray the extraordinary aspect of the Ballarat valley,which was a quiet pasture land only fourteen years ago ;where formerly the bleating of sheep or the tinklingof a cattle bell were all that disturbed the solitude.Now the sound of grinding and stamping machinery,amidst the shrill scream of steam-engines, fills the air.Where a few shepherds strolled through its silentglades, the hum of a busy population of 50,000 indus-trious people working at their avocations may be heard ;where the alluvial soil and rocky heights yielded nomore value than the herbage for a few thousand sheep,gold to the value of twenty-five millions sterling hasbeen extracted since the discovery in 1851, and still ityields its annual quota.

But Melbourne with its magnificent harbour formsthe most remarkable feature in the colony of Victoria.The traveller arriving in Hobson Bay is particularlystruck with its animated appearance, where a fleet oflarge merchantmen may be seen at anchor or loadingand discharging at the railway pier and other jetties.It looks more like a harbour in old England than oneat the other end of the globe, not thirty years inexistence. To the British emigrant there is nothingstrange about it, as he lands upon the pier there is

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238 'VICTORIA.

nothing foreign to his eye, all seems familiar, and hemay wonder how he has journeyed fifteen thousandmiles, during three or four long months, finding at theend a place similar to that which he left, and peoplespeaking his own mother tongue. From the pier hearrives in ten minutes by railway at the city, and findsthe streets just like those in England. Melbourne

THE CITY OF MELBOURNE. 239

in itself is quite a little London, with all the con-veniences and luxuries of the great metropolis. CollinsStreet presents a style of street architecture, withbanks and public edifices, that will compare favourablywith some of the best streets in London, while theshops are not inferior to those at the West-end. Toenumerate the public buildings of this city wouldoccupy more space than this little volume can afford ;but to overlook the Parliament House would be unpar-donable. Here are two chambers, one for the Assemblyand the other for the Council ; the former is a modestlydecorated apartment, consonant with the business cha-racter of its members, but the latter is one of the mosthighly ornamented chambers one could conceive forlegislative purposes, and, though different in style,equals the House of Lords in elegance and richness ofornamentation. It is more after the style of the Hallof the Senate in Paris, and has a most cheerful andagreeable aspect. It stands on the highest part of thecity. From here the eye takes in the whole panoramaof the town and suburbs, with Port Phillip harbour inthe distance. To the westward lies the mass of build-ings, with numerous church spires betokening the housesof worship of various denominations. Northwards isCollingwood, now a considerable town in itself, stretch-ing away down to the banks of the Yarra (which maybe seen skirting the landscape to the eastward), wherethe heights are dotted with beautiful villas and gardens.The eye then ranges over the suburb of South Yarraand Prahran, with the Botanic Gardens intervening,between which and the Zoological Gardens the " ever-flowing" river winds its way, crossed by half-a-dozenbridges. Beyond, to the south, lies St. Kilda, on thebay, the favourite resort of the townspeople when in

240 -VICTORIA.

quest of cool breezes from the south and the in-vigorating walks on the beach. Here at one glanceare seen the homes of one hundred and thirty thousandcolonists, who have daily to encounter the " battle oflife" in search of affluence or a maintenance in thisbusy city and port. And here is the most wonderfulmonument of Anglo-Saxon enterprise and genius forcolonization on the habitable globe, and the type ofprogress in this remarkable COLONY OF VICTORIA.

It is impossible to read such a narrative as thiswithout tracing the workings of Divine providence init, or without coming to the conclusion that God hassome noble purpose in planting a great colony ofEnglishmen in that great southern continent. Mayour brethren carry with them the Christianity towhich our mother country owes all her greatness ;thus advancing the glory of God and securing theirown prosperity.

CHAPTER VII.

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

Wakefield Theory of Colonization—South Australian Association formed—Colony founded—Site of Adelaide—Hindmarsh quarrels with the Sur-veyor-General and Commissioner—Distress among Immigrants—GovernorGawler— State of the Colony in 1839 — Lands Surveyed —Expenditureon Public Works—Scarcity of Bread-stuffs—Recall of Gawler, succeededby Grey—Able Administration—Labouring Class murmurs—Prosperityof Country Settlers—Progress in 1843 — Discovery of Copper Ore—German Settlers — Mines — Statistics of 1850 — Effects of the GoldDiscovery — Cultivation of the Vine — Cultivation of Wheat—Flourlargely exported—Statistical Returns—Government Immigration—TheAborigines — Governor Daly's despatch—Mission Stations—ReligiousInstruction without State Aid—Statistics—Schools and Scholars—SouthAustralia free from evils of a Convict Colony—System of Land Conveyanceby Mr. Torrens—Real Property Act of 1862—Exploration of NorthAustralia by Stuart—Occupation at Van Diemen's Gulf—New Settlementunder South Australian Government—General Progress.

ABOUT the same period that the Tasmanian settlerswere engaged in colonizing Port Phillip, and thepioneer associations were bargaining with the aboriginesfor the possession of their land, considerable agitationwas going on in England among a body of theoreticalcolonizers, who were bargaining with the BritishGovernment for the colonization of SOUTH AUSTRALIA

on a new and untried principle. These gentlemen hadbeen impressed with the unexpected success attendingthe penal colonies of New South Wales and Tasmania,and with the opening which Australia presented forthe employment of capital and labour. They calculatedthat if so much could be done under a demoralizing

It

242 SOUTH AtSTRALIA.

convict system, a vast deal more could be accomplishedby establishing settlements formed only of free immi-grants, and thereby rescuing some portion of theAustralian continent from the contamination of felonsfrom the mother country. With this praiseworthyobject in view, a committee was formed in 1834, com-posed of thirty-two gentlemen, of whom eighteen wereMembers of Parliament, with a chairman, treasurer,and secretary, to carry out their views in a practicalform. At first they projected schemes of the mostfallacious character, under the direction of a politicaleconomist named Edward Gibbon Wakefield. Theypetitioned the Secretary of State for the Colonies togrant them a charter, which would virtually transfer tothe association the sovereignty of a vast unexploredterritory, under a republican system of government ;a proposal which that minister rejected as contrary tothe spirit of the British Constitution.

After many alterations in their scheme, in order tomake it acceptable to the government, it was ulti-mately acceded to. The basis of this new theory ofcolonization was the assumed principle that land is ofno value without labour ; it was proposed, therefore,to create a revenue by the sale of land at a pricesufficiently high to pay for the passages of free emi-grant labourers to cultivate it. It was argued by theseexperimentalists, that if the fixed price of land in thenew colony was one pound per acre, it would preventlabourers from becoming proprietors, and the capitalistwould have a fair return for his investment from theproduce of that labour. Then, the emigrants were tobe chosen with a view to the greatest benefit of thosecapitalists who should be induced to go and resideupon their property. In the opinion of Whately, who

WAKEFIELD COLONIZATION SCHEME. 243

commended the scheme, " A colony so founded wouldfairly represent English society : every new cornerwould have his own class to fall into, and to what-ever class he belonged, he would find its relation tothe others, and the support derived from the others,much the same as in the parent country. There wouldbe little more revolting to the feelings of an immigrantthan if he had merely shifted his residence from Sussex,to Cumberland or Devonshire." Moreover, it was

considered by Mr. Wakefield as an essential elementin the success of his colonization theory, that thereshould be a centralization of the community in towns,farms, and factories ; so that the colony should spreadfrom its nucleus, and in time gradually reclaim theprimeval wilderness, without weakening its centralpower.

To those who have no experience of the foundationof a colony, these arguments will even at the presentday carry weight ; and a fresh project on the Wake-field system of colonization would in all probabilityhave its followers, although the scheme has repeatedly

been tried and failed.The South Australian Association having obtained

the sanction of the Government to their scheme, abill was passed through Parliament in August, 1834,forming South Australia into a British province. ThisAct fixed the boundaries of the colony, provided forthe appointment of a board of commissioners to carryit into effect, and enacted that convicts shall at notime be transported there, The Act was not to comeinto force until the sum of £35,000 should be raisedby the sale of land, and £20,000 of bonds were to be

invested as a guarantee that the colony would atno time be a charge on the mother country. The

244 SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

projectors found these monetary conditions difficult tocomply with, until a new association was formed,entitled " The South Australian Company," whichsettled the matter by purchasing land to the requiredamount, at the rate of £81 for one acre of town land,and one hundred and thirty-four acres in the country.The money being deposited, the Government appointedeight commissioners to carry out the provisions of theAct, in May, 1835.

In the meantime the propounders of the new theoryof colonization propagated their views with untiringactivity, and met with great success. The applicants forland, and for passages to South Australia were more nu-merous than they had the means of providing for. Onthe 19th August, 183G, the surveying staff arrived inNepean Bay, Gulf St. Vincent, to plan out the settle-ment. Here they found three ships belonging to theSouth Australian Company, which had brought out alarge number of emigrants and landed them on Kan-garoo Island, at the entrance of the gulf. Notwith-standing the many years of talking and writing aboutthe new free colony, there was nothing practically donein the real work of colonization ; and the first batchof emigrants actually arrived before the site of thesettlement was fixed upon; so that these poor creatureswere left upon a barren, sandy, and inhospitable island.All that Colonel Light and his surveying staff knew ofthe country was from Captain Sturt's exploration downthe Murray, when he obtained a cursory glance of theMount Lofty range that trends along the shore ofthe gulf ; and Captain Flinders' flying survey of GulfSt. Vincent, Investigator Strait, Kangaroo Island, andSpencer Gulf.

According to the Act 4 and 5 William IV., the

SITE OF ADELAIDE. 245

colony extended from the 26° latitude south, to thesea-coast, and from 132° to 141° E. longitude ; com-prising an area of not less than 300,000 square miles,equal to twice the superficies of the British Isles. Butthis was only on paper, for these pioneer colonists andsurveyors had no knowledge of the existence of a safeand convenient harbour when they arrived in GulfSt. Vincent. Fortunately they found one in a narrowinlet, among some mangrove swamps, and fixed thesite of the future city of Adelaide on some risingground, seven miles inland, across drift sand, on thebanks of a watercourse which is nearly dry in summer.When the first Governor, Captain Hindmarsh,arrived, this inconvenient site, so far from good an-chorage, was a subject of dispute between him and theSurveyor-General, which led to unseemly quarrels andcontroversies. This had the effect of delaying thesurvey of the public lands for the immigrants whowere demanding to be put in possession of their sec-tions, and thus led to much distress and misery amongthe pioneer colonists. As ship after ship arrived withtheir freights, these were in a measure cast upon adesolate shore, to trust to the chapter of accidents ortheir own energies for a bare living in the colony.Fortunately the climate is of the most genial kind,and the locality healthy, otherwise disease would havedecimated their ranks at the outset, and probably ledto the abandonment of the enterprise.

Another fatal blunder, committed at the outset ofthe colony, was the anomalous and divided authorityof a resident Commissioner besides a Governor, theformer representing the interests of the promoters ofthe colony, and the latter His Majesty's Government.When Governor Ilindmarsh endeavoured to change


the site of the future capital, this functionary opposedit, and held that his appointment gave him no powerto interfere with the officers empowered to execute thesurveys and to dispose of the lands. This differencebetween the chief authorities created a party feelingamong the officials and leading colonists, who arrayedthemselves as partisans on each side, until the matterassumed such scandalous proportions that the ColonialMinister of the day, Lord Glenelg, deemed it advisableto recall both Governor and Commissioner, and appointa successor invested with full authority to supersedethis unsatisfactory division of functions in the ad-ministration. Accordingly, Captain Hindmarsh wasrelieved of his duties on the 12th October, 1838, bythe arrival of Colonel Gawler, K.H , uniting in himselfthe two offices of Governor and Resident Commissioner.

Notwithstanding the continued representations ofthe immigrants, that there was no provision made fortheir settlement on the unsurveyed lands, and that theywere spending their substance in the newly-createdtown of Adelaide, the colonization commissioners andthe South Australian Company were flooding thesettlement with settlers. After a time the first immi-grants ceased to complain, as they benefited by theexpenditure of the subsequent arrivals, in providingthem with food and house accommodation at enormouscharges.

The despatch of Governor Gawler to the ColonialMinister, descriptive of the state of affairs on hisbecoming acquainted with them, gives a graphic accountof the settlement at the time, two years after itsfoundation. On the 23rd January, 1839, he writes :-" The affairs of this province are involved in most

aggravated and complicated difficulties. On arriving

GOVERNOR GA.WLER'S DESPATCH. 247

here, about three months ago, I found the publicoffices with scarcely a pretension to system ; every mandid as he would, and got on as he could. There werescarcely any records of past proceedings, of publicaccounts, or of issue of stores. The non-fulfilment ofone of the leading principles on which the regulationsmade for the disposal of land were based, that thesurveys should be in advance of the demand, hadproduced a number of complicated questions withregard to leasing of pasturage, order of selection, andso forth, which the letter of the law, as it stood, couldnot rectify. Sections for occupation were only laidout in the plain about Adelaide, in a district notexceeding a square of ten miles on the side. Scarcelyany settlers in the country, no tillage, very little sheepor cattle pasturing, and this only by a few enterprisingindividuals risking their chance as squatters. The twolanding places, Holdfast Bay and the Old Port, of themost indifferent description ; the expense of transportto and from them to Adelaide, most ruinous. Thepopulation, shut up in Adelaide, existing principallyupon the unhealthy and uncertain profits of land-jobbing. Capital flowing out, for the necessaries oflife, to Sydney and Van Diemen's Land, almost as fastas it was brought in by passengers from England.The colonial finances in a state of thorough confusionand defalcation. This, my Lord, is certainly not acomplete, and I can conscientiously affirm, to the bestof my judgment, not an overdrawn statement of thedifficulties in which I found the colony. If to these,your Lordship will add those serious dangers whichmust accompany a new population of persons unre-strained by mutual acquaintance, or old habits andassociations, flowing in with what may be called fearful


rapidity, upon a colony which stands alone, at thebreadth of the world from its only point of assistanceor reference, I think that your Lordship will justifythe persuasion that is on my mind, that, of humanagency, nothing but a strong and steady hand at thehelm of government can guide this colony through itsearly dangers."

In endeavouring to remedy these evils, credit is dueto Governor Gawler for at once placing the variousdepartments on an efficient footing, dismissing corruptor incapable officials, and ordering the immediate surveyof land in sufficient quantities to meet the land ordersissued in England. Colonel Light, the first Surveyor-General, had resigned, and was succeeded in that officeby Captain Frome, of the Royal Engineers, who wasaccompanied to the colony by a party of sappers andminers. With an efficient and powerful staff, thesurveys were now rapidly proceeded with, the colonistswere put in possession of their land, which, by directingtheir attention to agricultural operations put an endto the discontents, which had been engendered bythe delay in the surveys. Up to August, 1839, 7412settlers had arrived, and 250,320 acres of land hadbeen sold, producing £229,756.

So far, this energetic opening up the lands for occu-pation was satisfactory, but the colonists showed littleor no desire to render them productive, while theGovernor, in ignorance of the true principles of coloni-zation, adopted the most effectual means to preventthe labouring class from cultivating the lands, by givingthem plenty of work, at high wages, in the unnecessaryimprovement and adornment of Adelaide. At the closeof the year 1840, out of a population of 14,610 in thewhole colony, 8489 were located within the municipal

STATE OF ADELAIDE IN 1840. 249

district of the town, and 6121 in the environs andrural districts. The city was planned out on a scaleof metropolitan magnitude, and nearly all sold inbuilding lots ; yet the people lived chiefly in hutsmade of pise, or rammed earth, and portable iron orwooden houses imported from England; some even livedin tents. As the immigrants arrived, numbers fell intothe ranks of idleness and dissipation in Adelaide, whereseventy public-houses were established, driving themost flourishing trade in the place. Few of themattempted to go ten miles beyond its boundary, andthe country beyond the Mount Lofty range, whichbounds the sandy plain on which Adelaide stands, wasa terra incognita to the majority of the inhabitants.Moreover, the class of immigrants sent out by the com-missioners, were not all of that character suitable fora country life and occupation ; while most, if notall, who paid their own passage out, were towns-people, a large proportion Londoners, chiefly fromthe middle class of society, and unused to manuallabour. Among these unassisted immigrants wereyoung men, sent out by their relatives, with a fewhundred pounds and an outfit, to try their fortune inthe new colony; many of whom squandered their slenderpatrimony in a few months, and were obliged, fromsheer necessity, to earn their daily bread at labourer'swork. At the same time the government had erectedimmigrant's barracks, for the accommodation of thebona fide labourers and their families, who had beenbrought out under the commissioner's regulations,according to which they were promised employmenton the government public works at remunerativewages, until such time as they should be hired by thefarmers in the country.


As the ranks of the unemployed were increased bysuccessive arrivals, it was necessary to project extensivepublic works to meet the emergency. If these hadbeen of a character to open up the interior by roadsand bridges, they would soon have led to the morerapid cultivation of the soil, but this was not done.The immigrants were employed in little but erecting afine government-house, public offices, &c., in Adelaide.Even this mode of employing the people on orna-mental government works would have been more ex-cusable if the cost came out of the colonial revenue.But no such resource existed. It had all been absorbedin the debts contracted for similar purposes by thefitst.,Governor, who had exceeded his instructions byborrowing money at a ruinous rate of interest, afterexpending the small income of £12,000, in 1838,during the first quarter. Without taking warningfrom Ulf tnaneial errors of his predecessor, and actingnpoivspAe vague " general authority," to deviate fromhidnstructions under circumstances of undoubted ne-cessity, he launched into an expenditure of £169,966in 1840, with a revenue of £30,199 ; and in 1841,of £104,471, and income of £26,720. The mode inwhich Governor Gawler raised money to meet this ex-penditure was by drawing on the British Treasury, hisdrafts being freely taken by the contractors and otherswho benefited by the contracts for the public works.

Of course during this lavish circulation of papermoney, Adelaide for the time being, was, apparently,the most prosperous city in Australia. As the labourof the people was employed on non-productive works,and the whole extent of land under cultivation in 1840was only 2503 acres, (chiefly in kitchen gardens, orr the"reed-beds " around the city,) they had to send their

IIE BUBBLE BURSTS. 251

money away to Launceston and elsewhere in exchangefor flour. The amount thus expended in that yearwas £277,000, consequently bread rose up to famineprices, and in January, 1840, one hundred sovereignswere paid for one ton of flour, being the surplus storesof an emigrant ship. On one occasion, also, the bakers'shops were besieged by eager purchasers of bread atthree shillings and sixpence the four-pound loaf, as itwas known that only a day's consumption existed.

It was impossible that this unnatural state of affairscould last long. The bubble burst by the BritishGovernment repudiating the drafts of the Governor,who was recalled from his post in May, 1841, andsuperseded by Captain Grey, of the 83rd Regiment.This officer had acquired colonial experience in WestAustralia, and had published an account of his expe-ditions in that colony, which had brought him underfavourable notice of the Secretary of State for theColonies. The subsequent career of this able Governorplaces him in the highest rank of administrativecapacity for ruling a colony. In illustration of this,an extract from one of his despatches upon the erro-neous views of his predecessors may be quoted. Hewrites :—" In the early stage of a colony (as has beenthe case here up to a very recent date) there are noproducers either of the necessaries of life, or of articlesof export. Under such circumstances, a large outlayupon extensive public buildings and town improve-ments is no further benefit to the colony than thatthese improvements are obtained. The whole of thesum expended in labour is carried out of the colonyto purchase every article of consumption and clothing.The colony thus depending altogether upon imports,and the demand being uncertain, the necessaries of


life fluctuate extraordinarily in value, and are generallyextremely high. This circumstance, combined withthe great employment of labour by the government,raises inordinately the price of labour. The countrysettler cannot thus become a producer of food orarticles of export. His agricultural operations arelimited, his capital eaten up by the high rate of wages,and unless the necessaries of life retain an exorbitantvalue, he is soon ruined. It is impossible under suchcircumstances for the settler to compete with othercolonies, when the price of labour and of provisions isonly half what it is in the colony where he resides.He could not do this if his farm was actually brokenup and enclosed, so that in this respect he stood onan equality with agriculturalists in other colonies,much less then can he do it, when he has a farm tocreate from an untrodden wilderness."

Governor Grey not only perceived the financialerrors committed by Governor Gawler, but he wasprepared to carry a rigid system of retrenchment intoeffect, in the face of undeserved obloquy, which at onetime bordered on open rebellion among the labourerimmigrants. His first step was to reduce the estimatesfrom £94,000, as the actual expenditure of 1841, to£34,000 in 1842 ; the principal reduction being inthe storekeeper's department, which was lowered from£23,748, to £340. The effects of this excision of theunhealthy excrescences on the body politic, was animmediate collapse of all the inflated and fictitiousprosperity of the land speculators. Then followedbankruptcy among employers and difficulty of ob-taining employment among the labouring classes, sothat in the latter part of 1841, nearly two thousandmen, women, and children, were thrown upon the

GOVERNOR GREY'S ADMINISTRATION. 253

Government for support, as absolute paupers, num-bering about one-fourth the inhabitants of Adelaide.

Affairs now began to assume a threatening aspect.The unemployed people used violent language, threat-ening that unless they were relieved, or obtained wagessufficient for their subsistence at government work, theywould support themselves by rapine and pillage. "Thatwhich had been at first conceded to them as an indul-gence they now demanded as a right," according to adespatch of Governor Grey. He was urged, by petitionsfrom the contractors and others, to finish the buildingscommenced in Adelaide, on which he calculated that£150,000 had been expended in twelve months beforehis arrival, equivalent to £10 per head for every man,woman and child, in the colony, or an average of £32per adult male, paid out of the British exchequer.These petitions he would not entertain, but he met thecase by employing the people on constructing roadsand bridges, to open up the country and wean themfrom the town. This had the desired effect, and hedrew upon home for funds to meet the expenditure,notwithstanding the contrary tenor of his instructions.As it was however, his duty to be economical in thatexpenditure, he reduced the wages of these immigrantsfrom one shilling and sixpence per diem, with rations,which they had been receiving under Gawler's adminis-tration, to one shilling and twopence per day, withoutrations. This bold step towards further retrenchmentrenewed the feeling of discontent : " tumultuous meet-ings were held, seditious language was used ; on oneoccasion several hundred men, in an organized body,marched up to the government-house, threateningpersonal violence ; and a popular outbref k was morethan once anticipated, which the total absence of amilitary force would have made serious."


What a contrast this state of anarchy presents tothe Utopia pictured by the projectors of the colonyHappily this chapter in the history of South Australiais one of brief duration, for the colony has in the mostpraiseworthy manner secured a reputation for industryand honourable dealing, with the most loyal feelingsfor law and order towards the constituted authorities.But it would be a grave oversight to omit these pas-sages in her annals, which were the result of a fallacioustheory, carried out by incompetent governors andcorrupt officials.

While this was the unsatisfactory state of affairs inthe town, those who had settled in the country wereprosperous beyond their highest expectations, especiallythose who had cultivated wheat, and obtained theenormous prices for flour. They found the land ofthe richest description, yielding, without manure, thegreatest average per acre, and producing wheat of thefinest quality in Australia. This being ascertainedby many of the townspeople who had land or moneyleft out of the wreck of their fortunes, they abandonedtheir homes in Adelaide, went into the country, andcommenced agricultural pursuits. These settlers foundoccupation for such of the immigrants as preferredbeing farm servants to working on the roads; the road-makers only continued at the low rate of wages until theycould get better from private employers. In this mannerthe exodus from town to country progressed so rapidly,that in December, 1842, the emigration barracks wereempty, and one-third, or 642 houses out of 1915, thenin Adelaide, were totally deserted, while rents hadfallen from exorbitant to moderate rates. Out ofsixty-seven nublic-houres, twenty-three were shut up,while the others were not paying expenses for lack of

SUCCESS OF GOVERNOR GREY'S POLICY. 253

customers. Ships with grain and flour were no longerseen in port. Provisions of all kinds continued low inprice, and general merchandise was at a discount,excepting ploughs, harrows and other implements ofhusbandry, which were in great demand. Then com-menced the true success of the colony-, proving thesoundness of Governor Grey's policy, and the fact thatdispersion and not centralization is the first elementof colonization.

In the language of a successful colonist, when com-menting upon the measures which led to this desertionand apparent ruin of Adelaide :—" To the colony,however, this reduction in the expenditure was for atime necessarily full of trial. It may well be likenedto a young fruit tree, which had been allowed to shootup with straggling branches of luxuriant growth, but

barren of fruit. The careful gardener saw that to makeit produce fruit, it was absolutely necessary to applythe pruning knife with an unsparing though kindlyhand. Stripped of its gaudy and unprofitable branches,the spectator looked with pity and contempt upon thebare stump that was left ; he, not knowing the powerleft in the roots, thought the poor tree ruined by suchtreatment, and was inclined to think ill of the gardenerfor his reckless destruction of the leafy branches. Butbehold that self-same tree once more, the resourcesconcentrated in its healthy roots, in time throw forthbranches as luxuriant as ever, covered with smilingblossoms and golden fruit, whilst the gardener, towhom this result appeared as a matter of course. now

received praise for his foresight from him who at first

felt inclined to censure him." Even so it was whenGovernor Grey was leaving South Australia to conductthe still more difficult administration of New Zealand,


which was also a colony based on the Wakefieldsystem, and the history of whose settlement had beenno less disastrous. On the occasion of his departure, adeputation of the colonists waited upon him and grate-fully thanked him for inaugurating a new and prosperousera, by his able, zealous and diligent administration, notforgetting the cares, anxieties and responsibilities, in hisconscientious discharge of the functions of a governorand worthy delegate of sovereign power.

By December, 1842, the settlers from the city,who had taken to farming, increased the number ofacres under cultivation—from 2503 in 1840,, and 6722in 1841—to 19,790. This area was further extended to28.690 acres in 1843, when the population in the ruraldistricts numbered 11,259, against 6107 within theprecincts of the municipality of Adelaide. The cropsfrom this extent of land were so abundant, that notonly was there sufficient for the inhabitants, but thesurplus was exported to Port Phillip, New South Wales,and Tasmania. When samples of wheat were sent toLondon, the Mark-lane authorities pronounced it equalto the finest in the world.

With this plethora of corn, there was a dearth ofhands to garner it. So great was the deficiency oflabour to reap the abundant harvest, and the dangerof losing a large portion of it, that the governorallowed the soldiers and all government einplogs whocould be spared to render their assistance whereverit was required. Owing to the aridity of the climate,and the dry weather that prevails when the cornripens, it is of great importance that it should bereaped and thrashed speedily, or the loss is great.By the ordinary hand system this entailed much ex-pense. The reapers demanded from fifteen shillings to

SUCCESS OF AGRICULTURE. 257

twenty shillings per acre, with an allowance of wine orbeer. The farmers therefore offered a premium for areaping machine, which should be effectual in its opera-ti:-.41s, and be generally applicable to the wants of thecolony. Various plans were exhibited after Englishmodels, but none were accepted. In the meantime, afarmer named Ridley, of an ingenious turn of mind,invented the very description of machine that was re-quired, and the first his fellow-colonists knew of it wasan invitation to see it at work on his farm, where itreaped and thrashed seventy acres of wheat in sevendays. The saving of labour and expense by thismachine made up for the want of hands, and the in-ventor became a public benefactor, as it was univer-sally adopted by those who could afford to buy it.

Peace and plenty now prevailed in the towns andrural districts. The farms produced grain and vege-tables of all kinds, the pasture lands furnished asufficiency of animal food ; and wool, hides, and skins,were becoming items of importance in the total ex-ports of £66,140 in 1843. The live-stock in the colonywas as follows :—

Year. Sheep. Horned Cattle. Horses. Goats & Pigs.

1838 28,000 2,500 480 „ „J839 108,700 '7,600 800 „ „1840 200,160 15,100 1060 „ „1841 300,000 20.000 1850 „ „1843 350,00') 25.000 2000 „ „184-1 450,000 30,000 2150 12,000

The exports during the last-mentioned yearamounted to £82,268, a favourable increase on thepreceding year. But what is most notable in the

S


annals of South Australia, among the items appearsthat of a new export, namely, COPPER ORE.

The discovery of copper in South Australia was butthe precursor of the still more important gold discoveryin New South Wales, which led to a complete revo-lution in the destinies of Australia, forming a new andpermanent era in the annals of her history. Froma sparse population scattered over the pasture lands,shunning the rocky regions in their selection of spotsfor farms and agricultural pursuits, the colonists werechanged into a mining community, concentrating roundthe metalliferous strata they had discovered, andforming centres of population on localities hithertoneglected, because barren. To this cause must beascribed, in a great measure, the length of time thatelapsed before the mineral wealth of the country wasdiscovered. Those who had come to settle on thelands looked for fertile soil and good pasture ; moreover,few, if any of the English immigrants and capitalistsknew much about mineral ores. They followed theirflocks over plains and valleys from sunrise to sunset,avoiding the rocky places, and if perchance a shepherdsaw a stone more curious than usual, he would proba-bly pick it up and throw it away as only a plaything,although it might have led to the discovery of themetallic riches of this inexhaustible region of mines.

The first discovery of its metalliferous resourcesmay be attributed to the German immigrants whoform an important section of the inhabitants. Thefirst body of these people were religious refugees fromPrussia, belonging to the Evangelical Lutheran per-suasion, who had expatriated themselves from theirbeloved "Fatherland" on account of persecution. Theyarrived at the end of 1838, in two ships, one of which,

GEMMAN SETTLEMENT OF ILUINDORF. 259

the Zebra, was commanded by Captain Hahn, whobehaved with so much kindness to his passengers onthe voyage, that the settlement formed by them w isnamed Hahndorf, now one of the prettiest and mostflourishing towns in the country, about fourteen milessouth-east from Adelaide, across the Mount Loftyrange. In the lap of those mountains these persecutedbelievers worshipped God in the wilderness, underthe care of their'spiritual pastor, the Rev. Mr. Kavel;thankful to their Maker for the religious liberty theypossessed in that free, though far-off land. To thosewho visited that simple industrious community in theearly days of South Australia, as the writer of thisvolume did, nothing was so striking as the conditionof this noble-hearted pastor, and his God-fearing, law-abiding flock. While the people in Adelaide wererebelling against the authorities, or living in riot anddissipation, those in Hahndorf obeyed their minister,as children their father, without the interference ofany legal authority in , their few disputes, and thegreatest punishment was a rebuke from the pulpit afterdivine service. And while the improvident immigrantswere wasting their substance in buying imported pro-visions and strong drinks, these abstemious peoplegrew their own food, and supplied the Adelaide marketwith garden and dairy produce. Hahndorf, with itslittle primitive church, and the trim gardens of theinhabitants, appeared then an oasis of industry andpiety to the traveller coming from the desert plain and.riotous city of Adelaide, which can never be effacedfrom the memory.

Among these German immigrants were some menwho had worked in the mines of their native country,and consequently had a knowledge of minerals and

260

SOUTH AUSTRALIA.

metalliferous rocks. As they frequently crossed therocky mountains on their way to and from Adelaidewith their produce, they naturally cast inquisitiveglances at them. In this way some were led to explorethe sides of Mount Lofty, which slopes up from theplain to a height of 2334 feet, and the result was thatnear its base, pieces of lead ore (galena) were found.Whether these indications of the metalliferous natureof the rocks induced one of their number to devote histime to the pursuit, or whether the accounts trans-mitted by these people to their friends in Germanyprompted an experienced mineralogist to emigrate,is not certain, but the fact that a German, namedMenge, was engaged in mineralogical explorations asearly as the latter part of 1839, shows that they werealive to something of the kind, and we find that heeven publicly affirmed his conviction that there wasabundance of mineral wealth in the colony. Hisopinions were pooh-poohed by the land-jobbers andspeculators, who were too busy with their bubble paper-system to heed the substantial indications of metallictreasure. However, some, more acute than their neigh-bours, purchased a section where these specimens oflead ore were most abundant, and sent to England, in1841, a quantity for analysis. The returns were mostfavourable, as some of the ore (Argentiferous Galena)was found to contain silver. They raised two or threetons, but the times were so bad, and they being with-out means to prosecute the working of this mine, itwas left in abeyance for better days.

No doubt this discovery of lead caused many of thepeople living in the interior to look about them inhopes that some more valuable metal might be found.Many brilliant specimens of iron pyrites were picked

DISCO-VERY OF COPPER. 261

up in this way, in expectation that the nobler metalsmight be part of the ore, but these only proved thegreat extent of iron ore in the country. This could notbe profitably worked without coal, capital, and cheaplabour ; none of which they had. Besides these glit-tering iron ores, many heavy pieces of stone werepicked up with dull blue and green streaks as if coveredwith moss or lichens. The son of a sheep-farmer onthe river Light, was out gathering wild flowers oneday in the summer of 1842, and came upon somepieces, which he brought home to his father, who, asusual, put them on the chimney-piece as ornaments.Shortly after this, the overseer, while looking for somelost sheep, dispersed during a thunder-storm, ascendeda slight eminence to survey the surrounding country,when, as he got off his horse, he kicked against someof the same kind of stones. On breaking them he foundthat green streaks, like moss, intersected the matrix ;and having some knowledge of mineralogy from hisearly education at an institute in Switzerland, wherethe master gave practical lessons in the study, amongthe Alps, he concluded that it was copper ore, and hewas not mistaken.

On returning to the station he communicated thediscovery to his employer, who thereupon referred tothe specimens his son had brought home, and on goingto the two places where the stones were picked up theywere found to be contiguous, while the ground in everydirection showed that it was a great deposit of copperore. Of course they kept the matter secret, andbecame partners in its development and profit. Theselucky settlers, who had struggled with the times, wereCaptain Bagot, the squatter. and Francis Dutton, hisfriend and overseer, both of whom subsequently amassed

262 SOUT II AUSTRA LTA..

fortunes out of the Kapunda Mine, as it was called,and the latter has given the world an interestingvolume on " South Australia and its Mines," relatingthe history of his discovery.

Thus, although indications of metalliferous mineralswere met with occasionally during the early settlementof the penal colonies, yet the attention of the Govern-ment wad the settlers was not seriously drawn toinvestigate their nature up to 1843. It was reservedfor the enterprising colonists of this free province toestablish the fact that Australia was possessed of greatmineral wealth. It was not, however, until the dis-covery and working of the famous Burra Burra coppermine in 1844, that the extent of these mineral sourceswas patent to the world. The rich deposits of copper oreit yielded, close to the surface of the ground, surpassedeverything experienced in Cornish mining. It wasliterally quarrying the ore, (green and blue carbonatedcopper ore) containing from forty to fifty per cent ofpure metal. During the first three years' workingof this mine, 33,386 tons of ore were raised, whichproduced upwards of 10,000 tons of pure copper, valuedat £700,000. For several years afterwards this mineyielded an average of 18,000 tons annually, and woulddoubtless have continued to do so, but the effect orthe gold discovery was to check the pursuit, by drawingthe miners away to the neighbouring colony. Thefact, however, is significant, that the quantity ofcopper, and copper ore exported from South Australia

during 1850 was valued at £275,000, or more thanhalf the total exports, amounting to £453,668.

When it was full y ascertained, beyond a doubt, that

the despised stony ridges contained so much wealth,there was a general search for copper and lead mines,

THE BURRA. BURRA COPPER MINE. 263

and those who had previously laughed at the suggestion,were the most zealous with their hammers among therocks. Toiling up hill and down dale with heavy bagsof stones, in their anxiety to hit upon malachite orgreen carbonate, they heeded neither the scorchingsun, the hot blast, or the cold rains. Some were lucky,but the mass of explorers were unsuccessful. Others,less honest, strewed specimens of good ore in placeswhere none was to be found, and claimed the rewardsoffered by a mining association. Of course the landwhere these were found rose to fabulous prices. TheKapunda proprietors had bought their lot at the upsetprice of £1 per acre, although it was kept open for onemonth after selection, and might have been pounced onby the holder of a land order of previous date.

When the Burra mine w gs discovered by the acci-dental turning up of the ore by the wheel of a bullockdray, the whole colony knew it, and in order that everyone should have a chance of getting a share of theprize, a special survey of 20,000 acres was demanded,for which the Governor would accept nothing but hardcash. It is said that the scarcity of coin in Adelaidewas so great, that the claimants of the survey had toscrape up the money by giving notes-of-hand for afew sovereigns, at a premium, to those who wouldadvance them for the occasion, and that many ahousewife yielded up her secret store, saved out ofher husband's earnings, to his surprise and delight.Then the land was divided into two portions, andwhile the proprietors of the one-half of 10,000 acresscarcely realized their outlay from the Princess Royalmine, those holding the other moiety, the Burra'Burn mine, made their fortunes. While the £50scrip of the former was not worth £12 in 1850, the

264 SOUTLI AUSTRALIA.

£5 shares of the latter were saleable at £293. Thiswas all legitimate in the pursuit of mining, but a caseoccurred where the owner of a tract of land, combinedwith accomplices to strew the ground so ingeniouslywith rich ore that it deceived practical surveyors. Theowner was in Tasmania at the moment of the allegeddiscovery by a shepherd : he returned immediately tosecure an offer from a company, who never obtaineda pound weight of ore from the ground, beyond the

ton or two strewed over it. By the close of 1850, notless than fifty-two mining associations were before thepublic in England, as well as in the colony, of whichthirty-nine never paid a dividend.

The effect of the discovery of copper upon theneighbouring colonies was scarcely perceptible, thoughmany colonists were tempted thither to take advan-tage of the new excitement. Few of these, how-ever, were workmen skilled in copper-mining, so thatthe various companies had to apply to the mothercountry for competent miners. By offering liberalwages a large number of Cornishmen and their familieswere induced to go out, and they became a valuableacquisition to the colony, not only in bringing skilledlabour for the new product, but by the consumptionof bread-stuffs and animal food, they supported theagricultural and pastoral interests. Then came a largeinflux of English capital to work the mines, so thatevery branch of trade and banking flourished, andgeneral business in Adelaide assumed a livelier aspectthan in the palmiest days of Governor Gawler, butwith this difference, that instead of the colonygetting into debt with the public creditor, the localgovernment paid principal and interest contracted atthat period.

PROSPEROUS CONDITION IN 1850. 265

Under this mining impetus the colony progressedwith wonderful rapidity, so that on the eve of the golddiscovery it was beginning to rival Port Phillip andthe older colonies in its material prosperity, and butfor that event it is very probable that it would havepassed them in the race of colonization. The followingstatistics will illustrate its position in 1850 :--Popu-lation : 63,900, of whom about 7000 were Germans.Live-stock : cattle, 100,000 ; sheep, 1,200,000 ; andhorses, 6000: these figures are, however, only ap-proximate as there were no correct returns. Theimports amounted to £887,423, being nearly doublethe exports, on account of the large quantity of ma-chinery imported for working the mines. The exportsamounted to £453,668, of which £211,361 was incopper ore ; £63,729 in ingots of copper ; £113,259 inwool; £20,279 in flour; £11,212 in wheat; and £8,188in tallow. In the same year there were 61,728 acresunder cultivation ; of which 41,807 acres were in wheat ;13,000 hay ; 1780 potatoes ; 1370 gardens ; and 282in vineyards. Unimportant as this last item appears,it was the forerunner of an industry that nowcommands great attention in the colony—the cul-tivation of the vine. No gold deposits of a profitablecharacter have been discovered, yet the extraordinarycapabilities of the soil and climate for the growth of awine-grape, bid fair to make up for this deficiency bythe production of a new and valuable export.

At the first blush of the gold discovery in NewSouth Wales, very few South Australians were inclinedto undertake the long journey overland to Bathurst.But when the still richer gold-fields of the colonyof Victoria were found, the western portions of which

were within a hundred and fifty miles of the eastern

266 SOUTH AUSTRALIA..

boundary of South Australia, nearly the whole commu-nity was attacked with the gold-mania. If they could,they would have migrated across the border in a body.As it was, fifteen thousand men, or more than half theadult population, abandoned their occupations in town,at the mines, and on the farms and pastures, for the gold-fields of Ballarat, Mount Alexander and Bendigo, withinsix months. The majority were married men, withfamilies ; they considered that it was only a temporaryremoval, and that they should return soon, to spendtheir earnings in their own colony. A large proportionbeing practical miners, they considered that they werebest able to work the gold diggings. The result wasjust as they calculated. The Cornish and Germanminers were quite at home in their new operations, andit was in a great measure to their superior skill andknowledge of mining that the deep-sinking andquartz-crushing at Ballarat came to such perfection.While others were wasting their time and means uponbarren ground, these men were rarely mistaken, andstruck the richest lodes in the mines. When theywere successful in " making their pile," they returnedto South Australia and spent their rich gains liberally.The Government with a judgment that does themcredit, never attempted to throw any obstacle in theway of this migration. On the contrary, they appointedan efficient officer to strike through the country, bythe shortest route, to the gold-fields, making wells andbridges by the way, so that an easy communicationcould be kept up, to and fro. This had the desiredeffect, many returned who otherwise would have re-mained away. Moreover, a gold-escort was established,which brought the produce of the South Australianminers safe to Adelaide, where it was melted into

JUDICIOUS POLICY OF GOVERNMENT. 267

ingots, assayed and stamped, making it a legal tenderin the purchase of lands, or payment of duties andtaxes. These judicious arrangements for meeting thedrain upon the country succeeded admirably, andprevented any considerable retrograde movement.

By this time, also, the province had a LegislativeCouncil, preparatory to the constitution of an electedparliament, on the same basis as those in the neigh-bouring colonies. That body promptly aided thegovernment in their measures to maintain the pros-perity of the country during this emergency, by passingresolutions offering a reward of one thousand poundsto the first discoverer of gold within the territory ofSouth Australia, in sufficient quantity to become avaluable export : in the event of success, the auriferousground was to be rented at the rate of ten shillingsper acre, in advance, in leases not exceeding fourteenyears. These resolutions were assented to by GovernorYoung, and immediately carried into effect, whichpartially assisted in checking the migration. In hopesof securing the reward, numbers roamed through thecountry " prospecting " for gold, and there were scien-tific grounds for success, as the Mount Lofty rangetrends in a general north and south direction over fiveor six degrees of latitude, bearing out the principle laiddown by geologists, that all gold-bearing mountainstrend along the meridian lines. Several alleged dis-coveries were soon reported ; but when the officersappointed to examine them reached the places, theypronounced the reports to be attempts to mislead theGovernment and public, and that the particles of goldfirst produced were not the natural deposits of the soil.The government explorers, however, succeeded inJanuary, 1852, in finding some genuine specks of gold


near the Onkaparinga River, at its embouchure sometwenty miles south of Adelaide, but the discovery wasconsidered not of sufficient importance to render neces-sary the issuing of licences to dig.

Six mouths after this, a spot was found sufficientlypromising for the issue of these at Echunga, a pastoralstation about twenty miles in a south-eastern directionfrom Adelaide. For several months a number ofdiggers ventured their time and means in digging forthe precious metal, but their labours were so poorlyrewarded that most of them soon left for the Victoriagold-fields, while the Government, seeing that it wasnot found in paying quantities, did not consider them-selves warranted in giving the reward, as the resolutionhad a proviso, that there should be " bona fide raisedand produced from the said tract or field, within twomonths of the date of the issue of the same licences,an amount in gold equal in value to not less than tenthousand pounds." From time to time further explo-rations were made by the government officers andprivate individuals, who succeeded in discovering in-dications of auriferous ground, but on close examinationand a large expenditure of time and means, none provedsufficiently remunerative to attract either people fromtheir ordinary industrial pursuits, or the practisedminers from the rich eastern gold-fields. This went onfor twelve years without any spot being found richerthan Echunga. At last the Government invitedMr. Hargreaves, in 1864, to survey the northern as wellas the southern parts of the colony, hoping that thefirst discoverer of gold in New South Wales might beas fortunate in South Australia. After a careful ex-amination of many promising localities during halfa year, for which lie was handsomely remunerated, he

FAILURE OF GOLD RESEARCHES. 269

brought his search to a close in June, 1864, reportingthat he had made no discoveries in the northern partof the colony, and that the most likely locality at whichto look for a remunerative gold-field would be in theneighbourhood of the Onkaparinga, to the east ofAdelaide. Since then the search has been abandoned,and South Australia cannot rank as a gold-producingcolony.

This want of a remunerative gold-field, though,in one sense, retarding the expansion of the colony,has benefited the colonists in another way, by fixingtheir attention upon the productions and fertility of thesoil. While every branch of agriculture has progressedsatisfactorily from year to year, the new source of profitderived from the vintage at once exhibits the nume-rous resources of Australia, in producing the luxuriesas well as the necessaries of life, and specially pointsto the enterprise of the South Australian colonists.The attention of the farmers was first drawn to plantingvineyards, by the splendid grapes grown on the fewvines brought from Germany by the Hahndorf colonists.Their size and flavour were fully appreciated in theAdelaide market, where they brought a good price forthe consumption of the table. Some of these Germanshad been acquainted with wine production in their owncountry, and it was natural for them to try andproduce some of their favourite beverage, if only toremind themselves of the famous Rhine wines. So,many of these industrious settlers began to extendtheir little vineyards, and to press the grape in thesimplest manner ; they found that they produced awine not much inferior to the light wines of Germanyand France.

The English settlers soon followed their example,

270 SO UTII AUSTRALIA.

prompted by the fact that the best ground for a vine-yard was the least suitable for growing cereals, conse-quently they profited by what was otherwise waste land.At first the kinds of grape they cultivated were chieflyfor the table, but the supply increased so far beyondthe demand, that their value was reduced below thecost of production ; they therefore turned their atten-tion to the growth of the choicest wine-grapes. Alreadythe colonists of New South Wales had shown thatgood wine could be produced in localities correspondingto those in South Australia, and James Macarthurhad produced a wine at the Great Exhibition of 1851,nearly equal in strength and flavour to the richHungarian Tokay. With these facts before them,the planting of vineyards was prosecuted with greatenergy, until there was scarcely a farm in the colonywithout its vineyard and wine-press, and when flourand wheat barely remunerated the farmer for hisoutlay, he supplemented his income by a few hogsheadsof wine sold in Adelaide. In that city merchants con-versant with the quality of these growths, pronounced

them to be superior to the best Catawba wines inSydney, and to compare favourably with Sauterne,Chablis, Macon and other favourite wines of Europe.Indeed they surpassed these white and red light wines,as they possessed greater body from being the purejuice of the grape, unadulterated and unsophisticatedby any artificial means. Some soils and localities werefound to produce better wines than others. Thesewere selected by the wine merchants, some of whomwent into the vatting of wines extensively, classifyingthe growths according to the grape from which they

were produced, or the locality of the vineyard ; onemerchant called several sorts after his own name. A

MANUFACTURE OF WINE, 271

small export of the choice kinds to the neighbouringcolonies is carried on at a good profit, for the localconsumption is not equal to the supply, nor likely tobe for some time to come. Ultimately there is everyprobability of South Australia being an extensive wine-exporting country, and it may pay to ship the bestqualities to England.

In 1862, the quantity shipped was 20,574 gallons, orsevenfold that of the previous year. In 1863, 27,705gallons. The acreage under vines is returned as 1777acres, against 3918 in the previous season, and thenumber of bearing vines, 2,929,756, with 2,920,941 notin bearing. The former produced 472,797 gallons ofwine, and 26,551 cwt. of grapes were ' disposed of inAdelaide, or sent to Melbourne and Tasmania. So abun-dant are grapes that they are retailed during the heightof the season at one penny or twopence per pound.

Other branches of agriculture progressed steadilyduring the period subsequent to the gold discovery.As the cultivation of wheat was almost abandonedin Victoria, that proved the best market for flour andgrain, enriching the farmers beyond their most sanguineexpectations. The land under tillage in 1862-3 amountedto 491,511 acres, or 7844 acres more than in theprevious season, of which no less than 323,160 acreswas under wheat ; the harvest producing 3,841,824bushels, against 3,410,756 bushels in 1861-2. Thearea of country and suburban land sold by the crownduring 1862 amounted to 129,803 acres, making atotal of 2,508,851 acres alienated to that date, or 18'6acres per head of the population. Enclosed pastureland is returned at 1,611,366 acres. The number ofhorses is stated at 56,251, against 52,597 in theprevious year ; an increase of 3654 chiefly in the

272 SOUTII AUSTRALIA.

counties, where horses are displacing bullocks onfarms ; the number of cattle being 258,342. A consi-derable increase appears in the number of sheep, being3,431,000, against 3,038,356, or an addition of 12*per cent, producing 13,229,009 lbs. of wool, against13,164,391 lbs. in 1861, the declared value being£635,270 and £623,007 respectively. The total ship-ment during five years was 55,396,289 lbs., or anaverage of 11,079,342 lbs. per annum.

In like manner, the export and production of leadand copper, with their ores, gradually recovered afterthe first blush of the gold discovery. During theten years ending 1862 the value of the mineral pro-duce amounted to £3,524,641 ; the first half ofthat period being £1,294,013, and the second half,£2,230,628 ; or nearly double the amount. The valueof the export in the last year was £547,619, or£95,447 more than in the previous year ; of which85,872 cwt. was fine copper, smelted and cast intoingots, and shipped to Great Britain, Melbourne,and India, in nearly equal proportions. The rapidstrides made in the export of produce during thatdecennial period are shown in the following returns :-1853, £731,595 ; 1857, £1,744,184 ; and in 1862,£1,920,487—the latter comprising : bread-stuffs, grain,&c., £633,241 ; wool, £635,270 ; copper and otherminerals, £547,619 ; and miscellaneous products,£104,357. There are other exports not the produceof the colony, chiefly gold from Victoria, which raisedthe total to £2,145,796, against £1,145,796 in 1861;and imports, £1,820,656 and £1,976,018, making acombined export and import trade amounting in theseyears to £4,008,329, and £3,966,452 respectively. Thefalling of occurs in the imports, showing an increase

STATISTICS OF PROGRESS. 273

in 1862 of £81,848 of exports—one of the healthiestsigns in the commerce of nations. From the UnitedKingdom the colony received £1,178,963 worth ofmerchandise, being an excess of £235,422 over theexports ; showing a direct trade with the mothercountry of nearly two millions sterling.

With Victoria the trade fell to £754,696, from£1,191,803 in 1861 ; showing that the consump-tion of bread-stuffs by that colony had decreased.This general progress in the trade of the province isseen in the returns for 1864, which amounted to£2,412,931 value of imports, and £3,305,545 of ex-ports, or a total external commerce of £5,718,476.The public revenue during the same year amountedto £766,635, and the expenditure to £612,078 ; therebeing in the hands of the treasurer, on the 31stDecember, a total balance of a quarter of a million.The receipts from the customs, and the revenue gene-rally, were in a most satisfactory condition.

As the Government found that, without a continuousstream of well-selected emigrants from the mothercountry, the working power of the population couldnot be maintained, a large portion of the revenue wasvoted to pay for their passages. In 1864, the sumvoted was £60,000, and was subsequently raised to£70,000. During the five years-1853-7--38,457 per-sons were added to the population by immigration, ofwhom 33,420 were introduced at the public expense.The immigration diminished in the next five years-1858-62—to 7,168 government-immigrants. In the lastyear of this term the population numbered 135,329,composed of 69,608 males, and 65,721 females. In thisrespect, South Australia shows the least disproportionof the sexes among the whole Australian colonies. The


number of immigrants that arrived at Port Adelaide,from the commencement of the year 1804, to the 17thDecember, was 5,517 ; and 2,471 emigrants departed,exhibiting an accession of 3016 to the population ofthe colony, which was computed in round numbers at150,000. The statistical tables for 1862 show thatthe native-born amount to 3835 per cent. ; English,35 . 36 per cent. ; Irish, 10 per cent. ; German, 6.98per cent.; and Scotch, 6 . 03 per cent. There was one-sixth more English men than women, and one-thirdmore Irish women than men.

At the general census in 1801 the total aboriginalpopulation in this province was 5,046. In the pastoraldistricts the proportion of the sexes was found to benearly equal, but in the counties or settled districts,the males considerably exceeded the females—theformer being 1,022 in number and the latter, 799.The children throughout the colony numbered only850. The behaviour of the South Australian coloniststowards these aboriginal possessors of the country ismost praiseworthy. On their general condition anddisappearance before colonization, the following re-marks by Governor Daly are very appropriate :—" Itis the melancholy and all but unanimous testimony ofthe early settlers and of others best qualified to form acorrect opinion, that the aboriginal population is fastdying out ; but there are no records from which toascertain the rate of decrease. The causes of thedecrease are disease, sterility of the females, and in-fanticide, which, it is believed, is a crime of veryfrequent occurrence. Opinions are very conflicting asto how far their social condition is affected by thenew settlements. From evidence given before a selectcommittee of the Legislative Council in 1860, it

CONDITION OF THE ABORIGINES. 275

appears that the natives in general have been in noway benefited by being brought into contact withEuropeans. But I think this view is open to modifi-cation, since it cannot be denied that the squatters,who are justly called the ' pioneers of civilization,'treat them with much forbearance and kindness, andencourage the natives to remain upon their ' runs 'for the sake of their services. The young men,especially, soon becoming useful as shepherds, shearers,reapers, stock-keepers, colt-breakers, &c., and thelubras as washerwomen, and in other domestic occu-pations. About a fourth of the able-bodied males wereemployed by the settlers in 1861, and the proportionis now (1863) probably greater. Generally, they arewell remunerated, and some of them obtain as highwages as the best white labourers. It is pleasing tobe able to inform your grace, (the Duke of Newcastle),that the reports of the missionary establishments atPoonindie and Point Macleay are encouraging. AtPoonindie there are thirty-six natives who receivecareful religious and moral instruction, and who aretrained to habits of industry. The experiment theremay prove in its results the possibility of the civiliza-tion of the race, and confirms the opinion so oftenexpressed by missionaries, that Christianity is the onlyefficient instrument for its accomplishment. Furtherevidence is afforded by the success of the missionaryinstitution at Point Macleay. Dr. Walter, the Pro-tector of Aborigines, to whom I am chiefly indebtedfor this information, informs me that the beneficialeffects of the religious instruction imparted to thenatives is apparent without, as well as within theestablishment. Many of their superstitions have beenabandoned, their character for honesty has improved,

276 SOUTH AUSTRALIA..

they observe the Sabbath as a day of rest ; and aconsiderable number appear at morning and eveningservice, neat and clean, and conduct themselves withgreat propriety ; that the capacity of the young toreceive education is beyond dispute, and that fromfrequent and personal examination, he is of opinionthat they make as rapid progress as the average ofwhite children. The crime of infanticide is also lessprevalent, and this is the only locality in the provincewhere the aboriginal population, instead of graduallydeclining, is evidently increasing. The extension ofsuch agencies affords the only hope of the social aswell as the moral and spiritual elevation of the race.A sum of money is annually put on the estimates, andvoted by the Legislature for provision s, blankets, medicalattendance, &c., for the aborigines. The amount votedlast year (1861), was £3195 5s., and this year a furthersum of £500 has been added. DepOts have been formedin the localities where the natives are most numerous,and flour, tea, blankets, &c., are distributed amongstthe infirm and destitute, according to their necessities."This kindly spirit towards the benighted native popu-lation is highly praiseworthy.

A high regard for religion, and attendance at pub-lic worship, is manifested by the South Australians.Throughout the colony there are churches and chapelswith sittings sufficient to accommodate three-fifths ofthe whole population. With but few exceptions, thesewere erected in the early days of the colony, by the un-aided voluntary efforts of the colonists ; and there neverhas been any state-aid to religion. Perfect religiousequality exists in the eyes of the law. In 1862, thenumber of churches and chapels was 410, besides which172 rooms were used by congregations ; with sittings for

RELIGION AND EDUCATION. 277

72,816 and 5,800 hearers respectively ; making a totalof 582 places of worship, and 78,616 sittings, providedfor a population of 135,329 souls. Of the 410 churchesand chapels, 359 have Sunday schools connected withthem, at which 20,705 scholars attend, or more thanhalf the children in the colony from five to fifteen yearsof age. The number of teachers was 2,840, of whom1,348 were males and 1,492 females ; or nearly oneteacher for every eight scholars. Every year school-houses are enlarged, ministers' residences erected, andhandsome edifices constructed for public worship,showing marked activity in this respect amongst theleading denominations.

While religious training is left entirely to the volun-tary efforts of the people, secular education receivespecuniary support from an annual vote of the legisla-ture ; and the schools and schoolmasters are licensedunder the supervision of a Central Board of Education.During the ten years ending in 1862, the money devotedto the cause of education amounted to £133,828 ; ofwhich £16,179 were expended in that year upon 227licensed schools, 155 schoolmasters, and 72 school-mistresses. The number of scholars on the rolls was11,417, with an average attendance of 8,810—an in-crease of 504 on the previous year ; of whom the pro-portion of boys to girls was 53 . 7 to 46'3 respectively—nearly the same as in the three previous years. Inaddition to the regular expenditure in that year, thesum of £860 12s. was paid by the Government in theshape of fees for the education of destitute children andorphans, giving an average of £1 19s. for each child.There are twenty-seven educational institutes, receivinga government-grant of £1500, in addition to voluntarysubscriptions from 2,157 subscribers ; making an annual

278

SOUTH AUSTItALtA.

income of £2228. The total number of books in theirrespective libraries being 24,166 in 1862. Besidesthese public schools, there are a considerable numberof private seminaries not receiving state-aid, raisingthe proportion of scholars to the whole population to1 in 7.6.

To the circumstance of this province never havingbeen a receptacle for transported 'offenders, is to beattributed its comparative immunity from attacksupon life and property—serious offences being of un-frequent occurrence. After an interval of eight years,during which period no white person suffered the ex-treme penalty of the law, two offenders were convictedin 1862 of the crime of murder, and the sentencesof death were carried into execution. With theseexceptions the number of convictions in the SupremeCourt, for offences against the person, during that andthe two preceding years, were only eight in each year ;whilst the offences against property brought to a con-viction were only thirty-six' in 1862, and forty in 1861.The total number of offenders convicted before a jurywas sixty-four, being two more than in 1861 ; but manyless than in either of the nine years preceding. Thesefacts go to prove that crime diminishes with the in-crepe of population, which is one of the best evidencesof a prosperous and law-abiding community.

Amongst the most important legal institutions ofthe colony, is one for the conveyance of land upona cheap, easy, and effective principle, which placesSouth Australia far above all the other colonies inHer Majesty's dominions in that respect, and evenholds up a praiseworthy example to the parent stateitself. This is due to the indefatigable exertions ofMr. Torrens. In 1858 that gentleman succeeded in

TORRENS' LAND SYSTEM. 279

passing a Real Property Act for the registrationand transfer of titles to land, in lieu of the old cum-brous and costly system of conveyance. Based onthis act, a Lands Title Registration Office was esta-blished, wherein the purchaser of land gave up hisparchment title-deeds, that cost from £5 to £50, andhad his name registered in a book, from which thetransfer was copied on a certificate, that cost only afew shillings. The great benefit conferred by this actis, that it fixes, by the stamp of official authority,every transaction in land under its provisions, thusdoing away with the necessity for the investigation ofthe prior title, and the long and expensive abstracts oftitle which are the result of the old system. It isobviously of great advantage to those landowners,whose titles, though good for holding, are not market-able, on account of some technical defect, or throughthe absence of the means of strict legal proof, whichthe principles of the old system rendered necessary.All the title-deeds are preserved in a fire-proof apart-ment, to be consulted in the event of a title being dis-puted ; and should the transfer be wrong, an assurancefund is provided to meet the loss, which amounted to£4329 in 1862, when no demand had been made on it,although the act had been five years in operation.The total number of transactions in the office duringthat year was 2,891, and the value of the land broughtunder the operation of the act was £477,502 ; in 1861the transactions were 2,183, and the money value,£451,475. The facilities for borrowing money onlanded property by this act are likewise most advan-tageous, and held so high in public estimation thatthere is a general disposition not to lend money onany property which is not under it. The amount lent


on mortgage under the Real Property Act in 1862,was £213,829, against £53,719 in 1859. It is im-possible to estimate the saving to the colonists by thisadmirable institution. In October, 1864, both Housesof Parliament in South Australia voted thanks toMr. Torrens for his exertions as to the Real PropertyAct. This admirable land system and conveyance hasbeen introduced into Victoria, New South Wales, andTasmania.

Ever active in developing the resources of thecountry under their control, the South Australianslost no time in extending their boundary to thenorthern shores of Australia, including all the countrydiscovered by Mr. Stuart. Under the name of NORTII

AUSTRALIA, that immense tract of territory is placedunder the provisional government of South Australia,and a government-resident, with a staff of officials, islocated on the shores of Van Diemen's Gulf, to founda new colony. A competent surveyor fixed on a sitefor the future capital of the colony at Adam Bay, nearthe mouth of Adelaide River. This stream is describedas being navigable for vessels of the largest tonnage,at least sixty miles inland, flowing through a richalluvial country, well watered everywhere, aboundingin good timber and abundance of pasturage for cattleand sheep. Although the climate is tropical, there isevidence that it is neither so hot nor so humid as coun-tries within the corresponding latitudes north of theequator ; and there is every reason to conclude that itwill partake of that general salubrity which charac-terises the southern regions of Australia. When oncethis new colony is fully organized and matured, a largeinflux of Malays and Chinese may be expected, sincethey value British rule above all others, as a government

SETTLEMENT IN NORTH AUSTRALIA. 281

under which to live in peace and security. So soon asthey learn that the land is good for cultivating tropicalproducts, and that the flag of England flies there toprotect them, they will come in large numbers, to settleas coolies, or as small cultivators of rice and cotton.Already the natives of Timor and the adjacent islandsvisit the bays on the coast to fish for trepang, or sea-slug, so much prized in the East as an article of food.These people used to call at the settlement of PortEssington, in these parts, before it was abandoned bythe British in 1849, and they evinced a great desire totrade with the naval and military depOt there. Thereis every probability, therefore, of considerable trafficarising between the colonists of North Australia andthe inhabitants of these isles, many of whom areChristians. Moreover, many French creoles, from theIsland of Bourbon or Reunion, are desirous of emi-grating from that over-peopled little isle, and ofsettling in the northern territory of Australia ascultivators of tropical produce.

In view of these advantages for the successful colo-nization of this newly-acquired territory, a number ofenterprising colonists and settlers have formed them-selves into a company for the purpose of developing thescheme, which promises to he a profitable investment.The first and main object of the North AustralianCompany's proprietary was to secure large tracts offreehold land at the public sales established in London,in March, 1864, under the auspices of the Agent-general for South Australia. At this sale 124,960country acres, and 781 half-acre town lots, were soldat seven shillings and sixpence per acre, which realized£47,006. In June of the same year a sale took placein Adelaide, at which 118,880 acres of country land,

282 SOUTII AUSTRALIA.

and 743 half-acre town lots, were disposed of at thesame rate, realizing £44,719 ; making an income forthis embryo settlement, including £2000 interest, of£93,725, with an expenditure of £17,900 during itsfirst financial year.

Thus have these South Australian colonists by theirindomitable energy and perseverance colonized theextreme latitudes of this vast island-continent, and intime, doubtless, will have a pathway across the centralwilderness. They are proposing to extend the tele-graph wires across it, and a railway is in contemplationfrom Port Augusta, at the head of Spencer Gulf, tosome point 150 or 200 miles northward, which may beextended the whole way. Already upwards of a thou-sand miles of telegraph have been constructed through-out the colony, and fifty-seven miles of railway. Theformer connected with the Victorian, New South Wales,and Queensland lines, and the latter extending fromPort Adelaide to the Kapunda mines. Thus, also,with resources slender when compared to the otherAustralian colonies, South Australia is advancing withrapid strides in the grand work of colonization. Andit may be said, that where fortuitous circumstances, andextraneous aid in men and means, in a great measureassisted in the development of New South Wales,Victoria, and Tasmania, South Australia has progressedchiefly through the skill, public spirit, and indomitableenergy of her colonists.

CHAPTER VIII.

WEST AUSTRALIA.

Intentions of the French—Free Settlement projected—Stirling arrives withEmigrants at Swan River—Delay in Surveying Land—Distress—PoorPasture Land—Address to Governor—Absurd •ystem of computing Capital—Destruction of Property for lack of Store-room—Preferential Land-claims held by Military and Naval Officers—Fertile Country not availableto Farmers—stirling, leaves--Successive Governors to Fitzgerald in 1849—Condition of Colony in 1834, 1839, and 1848—Memorial to the HomeGovernment to send over Convicts—Religious Denominations—Occu-pations of the Colonists—Aborigines well cared for—Wesleyan NativeMission—Government accedes to Memorial—Prosperity ensues fromImperial Expenditure—Public Works constructed—Reformatory System—Effects of Gold Discovery—Statistics, 1850—Departure of Expirees toGold Colonies—Victoria suffers—Anti-Convict Agitation—Petition fordiscontinuance of Transportation—Governor Hampton—Free Settlersleave—Exploration of North Territory—Squatters from Eastern Coloniesbring Stock—Copper Mines—Timber—Statistics up to 1864—Martin'sDescription of Perth and Swan River Country.

EASTERN AUSTRALIA having been successfully colo-nized by the British, other European nations began tocast an eye upon the western territory of this greatsouth land. One moiety of the continent, designatedNew Holland by the Dutch, having been abandoned byits discoverers, was open for any European power tooccupy, that was bold enough to plant its flag upon theshores, and form a settlement. Some years after thepeace of 1815, when France had recovered from herdesolating wars, her ambitious sons finding themselvessgut out from territorial acquisitions in Europe andAmerica, thought it desirable to look for new possessions

284 WEST AUSTRALIA..

in the far East and South. Accordingly, among otherprojects, an expedition was proposed to the FrenchGovernment, in 1S25, to colonize some part of thesouth-west coast of Australia. This coming to theknowledge of the British Government, instructionswere sent out to the Governor of New South Walesto forestall the French by sending a military party totake formal possession in the King's name, and to hoistthe British standard. In 1826 this was effected byMajor Lockyer and Captain Barker, of the 39th Regi-ment of Infantry, with a detachment of their corps,and a commissariat staff. They fixed upon the southshore, at King George Sound, an inlet f'rom the IndianOcean, discovered by Captain Vancouver in 1792. Thisis one of the finest roadsteads in Australia as a portof refuge. It opens the land-locked waters of PrincessRoyal Harbour, where the entrance is only two hundredyards wide, yet deep enough to float a thousand-tonship. When the French heard of this new Englishpossession, they abandoned their Australian scheme forother localities of better promise.

The military settlement was located on the northshore of this inner harbour, where the town of Albanynow stands. Although the port was found to beunexceptional for shipping traffic, yet the surroundingcountry presented the most sterile aspect. Here therivers King and Kalagon flow into the roadsteadthrough an arid country, destitute of pasture or agri-cultural lands sufficient to make it a self-supportingcolony. However, the climate and soil were foundfavourable for garden produce and all kinds of Europeanfruits, so that in time the soldiers grew their ownvegetables, but for all other supplies of provisions theywere dependent on Sydney or Hobart Town. From

SETTLEMENT AT KING GEORGE SOUND. 285

the latter settlement many whaling-ships visited theharbour for wood and water, or to refit. Consequentlythis military post was not entirely shut off from con-nection with the settlers in the old colonies at theoutset. It served its political purpose by holdingpossession of the country for three years, when it wassupplanted by a new settlement from England, formedon the banks of Swan River, round Cape Leeuwin, onthe west coast.

About this time, the success of the Australian penalsettlements, and their capabilities for the increase oflive-stock and the growth of wool, created much interestand discussion among the wealthy, as well as the in-dustrial classes in the mother country. From time totime, if the subject flagged, there were several zealoussuccessful Australian colonists at home, who publishedglowing accounts of New South Wales and Tasmania,to encourage free, or bounty emigration. In reviewingthese attractive statements of material prosperity, therewas always the moral blackness in the picture, thatthey were convict communities, and those who hada dread of Botany Bay life relinquished the prospectsof wealth on that account. Then it occurred to someenterprising men that there were no reasons why anew colony, based upon free labour, should not succeedas well as a penal colony. This idea gained ground asit was discussed in the public press, until it was takenup by some Members of Parliament, and even gen-tlemen belonging to the aristocracy. Among thelatter, the Peel family and Sir Francis Vincent tookan active part in the question. Large capitalists, withconsiderable influence, thought it a good scheme toacquire large tracts of land at a small cost in thesecolonial possessions, as others had previously done in

286 WEST AUSTRALIA.

the American colonies. The British Governmentencouraged these views, as such a colony would bethe means of keeping possession of other parts ofAustralia without the cost of a penal or militarysettlement, and pointed out the west coast as thebest for all purposes, as it would be farthest from thedreaded Botany Bay, and at the same time relievethe military post at King George .Sound.

As soon as the Government entertained this newproject of free colonization in Australia, a commissionwas appointed to draw up the principles upon whichthe colony should be founded, how emigration shouldbe carried out, and where was the most eligible site forthe first settlement. On this last point Captain(afterwards Sir James) Stirling, R.N., was consulted,as he had surveyed a part of the west coast ; so, at hisrecommendation the commissioners fixedupon MelvilleHarbour, into which the " Swan River " flows, sonamed by the discoverer Vlaming, in 1697. In orderto encourage people with property to emigrate, theyadopted a system of free grants of land at the nominalrate of one shilling and sixpence per acre, to all whobrought live-stock or agricultural implements, or whopaid the passages of labourers to cultivate the land inthe colony. In fact, grants of land were to be given as anequivalent for part of what otherwise would have beenpaid in money on government account. The surveyorswho parcelled out the land were partly paid in grants,and the builders who erected public works were to betreated in the same way. Even the Governor himselfand the employes in the various departments were tohave part of their salaries in land. This land-holdingprinciple was most attractive in theory, and inducedmany to emigrate who had not the slightest notion of

SWAN RIVER SETTLEMENT. 287

what the land was like. All they thought of was tobe on the spot early to get the first selection. Soeager were these emigrants to go out, that they didnot wait for the departure of Governor Stirling andhis staff of surveyors to fix upon the site of the firsttown, but many sailed a couple of months beforehand.He found on his arrival, in August, 1829, several shipsat anchor, with anxious settlers on board, who wereseriously disappointed at . the barren aspect of thecountry. A spot up the Swan River was fixed on forthe settlement, where the immigrants landed with theirTares and penates.

Unforeseen delays prevented the surveyors parcelling,out the land, so that the immigrants settled down any-where, and erected their tents in the wilderness. Mostof them were unaccustomed to manual labour, and nota few were persons from the upper ranks of society,who had never done a day's work in their lives.Disastrous results soon followed, and the greatestprivations were endured from want of house accom-modation, as the immigrants arrived in the Australianwinter, which was unusually rigorous. No adequateprovision had been made for regular supplies of food,while there was a scarcity of money in the community,to pay for cargoes of provisions brought from NewSouth Wales and Tasmania for sale. In six monthstwenty-five ships arrived in the new port, and 850immigrants had landed, with 1096 sheep, 204 cattle,57 horses, and property to the value of £41,550, givingclaims to land, but which was of small avail in openingup the resources of that poor country ; so that many ofthe implements were exchanged for flour, and the hardcash was paid away to non-residents for sheep andcattle.

288 WEST AUSTRALIA.

Had the adjacent country possessed anything likegood pasture, the live-stock would soon have multipliedand enriched the settlers. But the grass was so sparse,and the soil so sandy, that there was little herbage,excepting some small bushes which sheep would nottouch, while they fed upon a plant that killed them.This was a grievous discovery, for the pasture landswere looked to as the future source of their prosperity.The existence of this poisonous plant, and the scarcityof pasture in the neighbourhood of Swan River, nodoubt has prevented the colony advancing. But thesettlers lacked the enterprise of those in New SouthWales, who crossed the Blue Mountains, and reachedthe shores of Port Phillip, in search of fresh pastures.Some squatters have recently penetrated to the northand north-east of the Swan River, and discovered asgood grazing lands as any on the south and east partsof Australia. It would appear, therefore, that thesepioneer-colonists of the west were not very well quali-fied for the great work of colonization.

During 1830 the arrival of ships with immigrantsincreased to thirty vessels, landing 1,125 settlers, repre-senting a proportionate amount of property entitled toits equivalent in land. These ships also brought car-goes of merchandise for sale, to the value of Z144,177.As it was inconvenient to take the cargoes up tothe first settlement, named Perth, a seaport was esta-blished at the entrance to the harbour, fourteen milesdistant by water, on a barren sandy shore, and namedFreemantle ; here, and at the town-site of Clarence, thegoods were landed. In 1831 the number of vesselsgradually diminished, and emigrants were deterredfrom sailing by the disastrous accounts transmittedhome, so that only seventeen ships arrived during that

DEPLORABLE STATE OF THE COLONISTS. 289

year ; and before the expiration of the first quarter of1832, immigration was confined to a few individUalswho went out to join their families or friends. Aperiod of only one year and nine months, therefore,had elapsed from the time of the first arrivals, whenthis colonizing bubble burst, and the unfortunatesettlers had no other alternative but to remain anddeplore the wreck of their hopes and fortunes.

The account of their hardships and misfortunes isembodied in an address to Governor Stirling, signed byevery non-official settler, together with the magistrates,of which the following is an extract :—" The entirematerial for a settlement, the official staff, settlers,property, and live-stock, were hurried out to an un-known wilderness, before one acre of land was surveyed,before one building had been erected, before even a guesshad been formed as to the proper scene of their labours,and before the slightest knowledge had been obtained ofthe soil, climate, products or inhabitants. Nay, fur-ther, it was absolutely made a condition of the grantsof land, that the emigrant should not only arrive, butbring his family, dependents and property, into thecolony while in this state. The ghastly spectacle ofthe town-site of Clarence—its sole edifices crowded,hurried, and neglected tombs—its only inhabitantscorpses, the victims of disease, starvation and despair—the sea-beach strewed with wrecks—the hills andborders of the rivers studded with deserted and half-finished buildings—bear witness to these consequences,and speak of brave men, delicate females, and helplesschildren, perishing by hundreds on a desert coast, fromwant of food, of shelter, and even of water, and sur-rounded by armed hordes of angry savages. It werewholly impossible, sir, to estimate the vast amount of

290 WEST AUSTRALIA.

property of every sort buried for safety in the sands ofthe shore, and never again recovered ; cr the multitudeof most valuable and high-bred stock of all descriptions,whose skeletons whitened the beach, or filled the morassesthey had been forced to enter in the desperate searcheven for fresh water. Can we wonder, then, that thou-sands rushed from such a scene with the relics of theircapital, to people other colonies ; or even that numberssat down in the frenzy of despair beside the spirit-cask,never to rise from it alive ? Can we wonder that thename of Swan River should, throughout the civilizedworld, become identified with failure and ruin, and thatthe survivors of such carnage should. be left alone bytheir fellow men to carry on an enterprise so dreadfullybegun ? Or, may we not rather indulge in a justifiablepride in the resources of a country, and the energies ofa people, who, from the commencement, have, underProvidence, elaborated even the civilization which yourExcellency may already see around you ? But theseterrible scenes, brought on by the unjustifiable attemptto hurry a colony into existence, before steps had beentaken for its security, are far from being the termi-nation, or even the most injurious, of the errors whichhave plunged us into our present difficulties. At thetime when the unhappy immigrants were crowding onthe beach, wasting and losing all their means, the con-ditions of their immigration told them that they hadbut a limited time to select and improve their grants.And more monstrous still, this time had actually ex-pired before those grants were surveyed."

From the use of such phrases as " armed hordesof angry savages," " the multitude of most valuableand high-bred stock," and " that thousands rushedfrom such a scene," the address may be taken as an

EXAGGERATED STATEMENT. 291

exaggerated statement. There were not a hundrednatives within the vicinity of the settlement, and thestock consisted of only an ordinary flock of sheep, aherd of cattle, and a few horses, while the population,resident and non-resident, barely numbered two thou-sand. It was written and endorsed by settlers smart-ing under heavy losses in consequence of the blundersof an ill-planned scheme.

In another portion of the address a less sensationalparagraph describes the grants of land as follows:—"Aminor, but yet very ruinous error, consisted in limitingthe investments of capital, which produced a vast accu-mulation of the same articles, and total want of others,and of money. The majority of the imported articlescould not be of use for some years, and each settlerwas induced to bring more than he required, in hopesof sale. The want of storehouses caused the destruc-tion of all these. As if sufficient means bad not beenused to destroy our capital, the system of location-duties was added ; by which the settler was compelledto prove that he had wasted ls. 6d. per acre in per-manent improvements. The result was, the erectionof multitudes of cottages, fences, &e., in remote,and at the time, wholly uninhabitable places, whichwere, of course, allowed to become the prey of theelements, as soon as the expensive farce had beenperformed."

Another act of the authorities, much complained of,was, granting preferential claims of land to militaryaed naval officers, and others connected with theGovernment, the recipients often being not settlersin the country, but absentees. The bond fide farmer,

when applying for land, found that the surveyors hadreserved the best lots of arable soil convenient to the

292 WEST AUSTRALIA.

settlement, to people who knew nothing of farming, andto land-jobbers, who entered into it as a speculation. Inthis manner, according to a parliamentary document,eleven military officers had 30,862 acres assigned tothem; sixteen naval officers, 33,680 acres; and nineteencivil officers of the crown, 162,062 acres. There werealso private individuals who had prior assignments tothe extent of 60,880 acres ; making a total of 287,484acres, amongst sixty-one individuals. Moreover, therewere reserves for townships of an equally extensivecharacter, which precluded the farmer from acquiringarable land near the settlements. The site for Perthhad 3,840 acres ; for Clarence, 7,680 ; for Plantagenet,17,000; and for York, 38,400; besides others, makingin all, 98,500 acres. Such a system of dealing withthe land in West Australia could not last long, andthe sale by auction at twenty shillings per acre upsetprice, adopted by the other colonies, was substituted.The land alienated in the whole colony on this system,in 1848, averaged 350 acres for every man, woman, andchild.

Under these circumstances, if the land about the SwanRiver settlement had been the richest in the world,and the plan of colonization carefully carried out, theindustrious practical settler could not make a living.But when it is considered that ninety-nine acres out ofa hundred were unfit for cultivation, and the remainderwith scarcely any grass, it was evident that the colonywas a failure. Those who could gather up the wreckof their property emigrated to Tasmania and NewSouth Wales, and many returned to England, wherethey made their complaints known, and of coursedeterred further emigration to the colony. Its historytherefore. up to 1849, is that of a small, poor, struggling

A STRUGGLING COLONY TO 1849. 293

community, endeavouring to obtain the bare means ofsubsistence from the stubborn soil; isolated and almostforgotten by the flourishing colonists of the eastern andsouthern shores of Australia, which the projectors ofthis western settlement had despised. To the creditof the few who remained, they rose up from theirdespondency after a time, and manfully endeavouredto develope the resources of the country, whateverthese might be. After exploring the unknown partsto the north, east, and south, they were gratified tofind that better lands, well watered, lay in the interior.Overland communication was made with King GeorgeSound, as the Government of the settlement of Albanyreverted to the authorities at Swan River in 1831.Governor Stirling left the colony in September, 1832,for the purpose of rendering an account of the disastrousfailure to the Home Government, which he appears tohave done satisfactorily for himself, as he received thehonour of knighthood. He was absent two years,during which the Government of the petty settlementdevolved upon Captain Irwin, of the 63rd Regiment,in the first year, and Captain Daniel, of the 21st Regi-ment, in the second. Sir James Stirling returned inAugust, 1834, and, to his credit be it recorded, infusednew vigour into the colonists, by surmounting theerrors committed in the early proceedings of the settle-ment. But for him, the colony would have beenabandoned ; and it made satisfactory progress duringhis further tenure of office, when he again left in 1838.He was succeeded by Governor Hutt, a civilian, inJanuary, 1839, who administered the affairs of thecolony, with credit, up to February, 1846, whenLieutenant-Colonel Clarke assumed the reins of govern-ment, which he was destined not to hold long, as he

294 'WEST AUSTRALIA.

died in February, 1847. Major Irwin resumed hispost as acting-governor, and continued to do so forupwards of two years, when his successor, CaptainFitzgerald, arrived in September, 1849.

The material condition of the colony, during thefifteen years before the arrival of that Governor, maybe briefly shown by the following statistical returns :-In 1831, the European population numbered only1,600 ; land under cultivation, 918 acres, of which 564were in wheat ; live-stock—horses, 162 ; cattle, 500 ;sheep, 3,500 ; exports valued at £1,020 ; shipping in-wards, 3,120 tons. These details prove that the colonyof West Australia, the intended free model-settlement,after five years' existence, was not equal in populationand material prosperity to one of the small townshipsin New South Wales. No statistics have been furnishedof the condition of the settlement previous to thatyear, excepting the amount of property introduced byimmigrants, on which applications for land were based,valued at £120,000, and consisting of live-sto,ck, im-plements of husbandry, provisions, wearing apparel,furniture, and other goods. If we double this amountfrom the value of merchandise landed for sale, whichwas either consumed or destroyed, we have a fair

statement of the capital expended in bringing aboutthe condition in 1831. Thus it may be said thatnearly a quarter of a million sterling was absorbed inthis lamentable experiment. However, from that yeara period of prosperity began ; the progress, thoughtrifling compared with the rapid strides of Port Phillip,was satisfactory. In 1839 we find the population in-creased to 2,151—males, 1,302, and females, 852 ; landunder cultivation, 2,725 acres—wheat, 1,471; other crops,1,254; live-stock, 23,948—comprising 367 horses, 1,308

PROGREFSIITE STATISTICS. 295

horned cattle, 21,038 sheep, and 1,235 swine; commerce—imports valued at £40,000, exports, £5,448; shippinginwards, 16,805 tons ; wool, 36,450 lbs. : revenue,£3,912; parliamentary grant, £7,008; military expend-iture, £13,199. Thus it will be seen that upwards of£20,000 was disbursed in the colony out of the im-perial treasury, of which one-third was a grant fromthe House of Commons, to maintain the survey andjudicial departments, the salary of the Governor,Secretary, Chaplains, &c., while the other two-thirdswere commissariat disbursements, for which no equiva-lent service was required. But for this expenditure,there is no doubt that the settlement would havelanguished and died out from financial inanition.

During the fourteen years, 1835-48 inclusive, themoney expended by the British Government to nourishthis weak colonial offshoot amounted to £233,271,of which £96,279 was a parliamentary grant, and£136,992 commissariat expenditure. Had the influxof new settlers with capital and labour been propor-tionate to this, a healthy recovery might have ensued.An effort of this kind was made in 1835, by a com-pany, called the " Western Australian Association," forthe purpose of forming a settlement at LeschenhaultBay, to be named " Australind ;" but the scheme wasabandoned just as the first ship had arrived with thepioneer-staff of officials and emigrants. Perhaps thiswas judicious, for the promoters of the project do notappear to have made adequate preparation for foundingthe settlement, and similar disasters to those of Swanlaver might have taken place.

During the ten years, from 1839 to 1849, theprogress of West Australia was steady ; so that in1848 the population was 4,622—males, 2,818 ; females,

296 WEST AUSTRALIA.

1,804 ; land under cultivation, 7,047 acres-3,316in wheat, 1,411 in barley, oats, rye, &c., and 2,320in green crops ; live-stock, 157,855—comprising 2,095horses, 10,919 horned cattle, 141,123 sheep, 2,287swine, and 1,431 goats ; revenue, £10,723 ; parlia-mentary grant, £7,695; military expenditure, £11,545 ;trade—imports valued at £45,411 ; exports (including301,965 lbs. of wool, valued at £9,666) £29,598 ; andshipping inwards, 15,494 tons. Thus we have a glanceat the progress and material condition of the colony upto the 1st January, 1849.

From that date a new era dawned upon the colony,and a complete revulsion of feeling came over thecolonists with regard to penal settlements. Aftertwenty years' experience as a free community, theynow petitioned the Government to be made a convictcolony. During that period they found that landwithout labour is worthless, and that free emigrantsshunned their shores. They came to the conclusion thatif they had convict-labour, with its imperial expendi-ture, prosperity might come, and their expectationsmight not be disappointed. This is worthy of remark,that after the old penal colonies became free, repellingwith indignation the landing of felons on their shores,this feeble settlement craved for that labour as a bless-ing, which in its youth was looked upon as a curse.Such is the mutability of human foresight. And it isjust possible, that if the government-commissioners in1829 had sent out a body of pioneer convicts to clearthe wilderness around Swan River, and constructroads and bridges to the arable lands, at the Govern-ment cost, instead of sending out a body of emigrantswithout means even to cultivate small patches of landfor their subsistence, West Australia might at this

BECOMES A CGNVICT SETTLEMENT. 297

day have rivalled her eastern sisters in wealth. Frombeing a colony remarkable for its high moral tone, andimmunity from serious crimes, it now became a greatgaol with a depraved population, a nursery of desperatecriminals, who carried terror into the gold colonies,and excited their colonists to acts of rebellion againstthe parent state.

To ascertain the social and religious condition ofthe community, prior to this era, we mwt againrefer to the statistical returns. We find in October,1848, nearly three-fourths of the inhabitants membersof the Church of England, or 3,063; Independents, 187;Wesleyan Methodists, 276; other Protestants, 311;Protestant dissenters, 188; and Roman Catholics, 337;with 90 Mohammedans and Pagans, and 170 notspecified. There were seven clergymen and an arch-deacon of the English church, who were partly main-tained out of a bishopric-fund created by 8,000 acresof land, the gift of the colonists, who had also builtby subscription a church at Perth, which cost £3,500,capable of seating a thousand persons; one at Freemantlewhich cost £1,500, and eight others throughout thecountry ; besides dissenting chapels, with three minis-ters ; and three priests under a Roman Catholic bishop.There were also twelve public schools, with 444scholars-238 male, and 206 female ; three of theseschools were in connection with the Romish church,with 166 scholars, and the others governmental schoolsfor secular instruction, under a board of education.The occupations of the colonists are classified as fol-lows :—agriculturists, 300; labourers and gardeners,476 ; employed on sheep farms, 121 ; on cattle stations,24 ; trades—shopkeepers, 64 ; bricklayers and masons,32 ; smiths, 22 ; carpehters, joiners, plumbers, and

298 WEST AUSTRALIA.

glaziers, 98 ; tailors and shoemakers, 39 ; sawyersand splitters, 49 ; others, such as capitalists, bankers,professional men, &c., 44 ; civil officers, 69 ; labourers,not agricultural, 241 ; domestic servants, male, 55 ;military, 103 ; all other males above fourteen, 106 ;women, children, and others not specified, 2,779 ;making a total of 4,622, besides 1,960 aborigines.

The condition of the aboriginal population comparesfavourably with that of the natives in the eastern andsouthern colonies ; this has arisen chiefly from thekindness and consideration in their treatment of thefirst settlers in Swan River. It is true that at firstthe immigrants occasionally came into collision withthem, but as immigration ceased, and the class ofsettlers who remained were mostly from the educatedranks of society, they, with praiseworthy conduct,not only treated the natives kindly, but strove toreclaim them from their savage mode of life by givingthem employment, and by instilling into them thetruths of the Christian religion. Their efforts in thisdirection were attended with success, and numbersentered the services of the settlers, both in town andcountry, while others were ready to undertake anycasual employment. Not the least important feature inthis utilization of native labour consisted in the liberalwages given, and the conscientious fulfilment of abargain with them, as it would have been with a whiteman. The latter consideration is of the first impor-tance in dealing with these children of nature, andwe speak from much experience on the subject, whenwe aver, that the non-fulfilment of bargains enteredinto with the aborigines has led to most of the san-guinary feuds between them and unscrupulous settlers,who have cheated them of their promised pay or reward.

ABORIGINES WELL CARED FOR. 299

On the other hand, if the liberal colonist gives a littleover the stipulated sum, or an extra ration of food,they clap their hands with glee, and become his swornfriends, even protecting him and his property fromattacks by the neighbouring tribes. Acting upon thisprinciple, the West Australians have always liberallyremunerated the original possessors of the soil, somuch so, that many of them are hired as shepherdsand stockmen, getting the same wages as the whitemen, while their wives are useful as hut-keepers, andin rough domestic work. They are also employed onthe farms, especially at harvest time ; making ex-cellent reapers. The number of natives thus employedin 1848, out of a population of 1,960, was 541, com-prising 418 males, and 123 females. They are notto be depended upon, however, for steady labour, andoften return to their wild life, with its filthy clothingand lodging, revelling in laziness, and gorged with half-raw meat, after having spent some years in the clean-liness and comfort of a civilized home. There areexceptions to this picture, where the religious teachersat mission stations have induced them to cultivate thesoil, for the support of themselves and families, havingpreviously gone through the marriage ceremony. TheWesleyans have been most active in this respect, andhave succeeded in teaching the children the principlesof religion, and the rudiments of secular instruction.These zealous missionaries report extraordinary pro-gress, stating that not only do their scholars show anaptitude for learning, but in some instances are quickerof apprehension than the ordinary run of white children.In the same liberal spirit the Government gives theaborigines the same rights as British subjects, whichthey fully appreciate, referring their disputes with the

300 WEST AUSTRA.LIA.

settlers to the courts of law, and even bringing dis-agreements between each other to be settled by theEnglish authorities. Strong hopes are entertainedthat they may be preserved from the extinction whichthreatens their race elsewhere.

Notwithstanding this appreciation of British lawand justice, the natives have a strong propensity forstealing, especially sheep. The number of thefts forwhich they were convicted in 1848, was forty-seven,against fourteen among the white population. Onthe other hand only four natives were punished foroffences of other kinds, against fourteen whites con-victed ir, 1 the same period. At the same time onlytwenty-fiVe'convictions of settlers, in a community of4,622;-is a verz small per centage ; and, if we are notmisty 0, up to thatyear no execution had taken placein We.stAustrMia.

Here;thenOve have a poor, but virtuous community,ro,yaetl...mpun'the principle of excluding convicts fromtbeishOi.es, becoming anxious to receive the worstcriminals for the sake of the government expenditure.A majority of the influential colonists petitioned theHome Government to send a small batch of convictsout to them as an experiment. This was previous to1849, when the eastern colonies so energetically pro-tested against transportation to their shores, andsecured its final cessation in 1851. In lieu of banish-ment from the mother-country to the colonies, asystem of penal servitude, with tickets of leave, wasadopted, which resulted in a serious increase of crime.Under these circumstances the Government were onlytoo glad to accede to the requisition from WestAustralia; so a few ships were sent out in that year,with prisohers stated to have been selected for good

NEW CONVICT SYSTEM INTRODUCED. 301

conduct, and having to undergo but a short periodof imprisonment prior to becoming qualified for agreater degree of freedom.

The system on which these convicts were to bedealt with in the colony, did not include assignmentto the settlers, as was formerly the case in New SouthWales and Tasmania. They were to be employed atfirst on making roads and bridges, cutting timber, andconstructing jetties in the harbours, and other publicworks, at the expense of the Government. As theirsentences expired, or they became entitled to ticketsof leave for good conduct, they were then at liberty tohire themselves to the colonists. It was also under-stood that the free constitution of the colony shouldbe in no way interfered with. The original charter,however, explicitly declared against the reception ofconvicted felons, so that this introduction of them wasin direct contravention of its constitution. Forgetfulof all old antipathies to penal settlements, the colonists,immediately benefiting by the contracts for maintain-ing the convicts, and the sale of material for publicworks, rejoiced as their material prosperity increasedwith the arrival of convict ships, which brought on anaverage five hundred annually.

During the first five years of this importation ofconvicts, before any large number were free from ex-piry of sentence, or had obtained tickets of leave, thecommunity saw very little evil accruing from the influxof criminals. They were, on the contrary, enriched byan expenditure to which they were not called upon tocontribute ; while the public works constructed byconvict labour were of a nature to facilitate the de-velopment of the country. As long as the criminalswere within the precincts of the gaols, and well

302 WEST AUSTRALIA.

watched when in gangs on the public works, there waslittle to fear from them ; consequently the colonistsdeemed all apprehension of increased crime a merebugbear, and held meetings to request the Govern-ment to double the number sent out annually. Itwas stated that—" The system adopted in this colonyhas been marvellously successful, and if it is carried outin its full integrity, it will be a wonder to succeedinggenerations ; it will effect a wonderful revolution inthe criminal world ; it will solve the problem whichhas long been agitating the wisest and best of ourstatesmen and philanthropists ; it will, by the combi-nation of punishment and reformation, check crime,and people wild countries with men reclaimed fromvice, saved from the prison and the gallows, hereafterto contribute to the world's wealth, and add to thepower and riches of the country from whence theywere sent."

These hopes were fallacious. The real state of thecase was, an increase of crime, and repeated re-con-victions of the convict class. It was stated by theUnder Secretary for the Colonies in the House ofCommons, that the "reformatory system attempted inWest Australia ran a chance of breaking down underthe public discontent, which was growing up in con-sequence of the increase of crime." Moreover, theemancipated convicts, or ticket-of-leave men, turnedadrift into the community, had the effect of loweringthe rates of wages, so that free labourers and skilledworkmen could not make a living, and many beganto leave for the neighbouring colonies. A favourablememorial was nevertheless prepared by the largestlandholders, who found their previously-unsaleableallotments in the country enhanced in value, and

FREE WORKING CLASS DISSATISFIED. 303

rendered marketable, by the formation of highwaysfrom the chief city to them. Instead of the limitfixed by the Home Government of five hundred con-victs, they prayed for a thousand to be sent annually.On the other hand, a memorial from the tradesmenand employers of free labourers, stated that —" Byadmitting convict-labour we have allowed our freemechanic's, artisans, and labourers, to be graduallydriven out of the field, and our labouring populationmay . now be stated to be of a far inferior descriptionto that which originally existed here." Subsequently,a third memorial was presented to the Governor, pray-ing for the discontinuance of transportation; forabolishing the penal settlement altogether ; and forsubstituting, at government expense, a great sanita-rium in its place, for the resort of military invalidsfrom India and other parts of the world to that trulysalubrious climate. It will be seen that this com-munity, hitherto unanimous in the time of adversity,was set by the ears in its material prosperity. Whiledesirous of getting rid of the moral evil, they clung tothe material good. The memorials had no effect uponthe local or imperial authorities ; and the Secretary ofState for the Colonies, in reply to the first memorial,stated that Her Majesty's Government, while notadopting " the proposal for a large increase of trans-portation, contemplated no change in the numberof convicts which had for fourteen years been annuallybanished to West Australia." The number sent duringthe first ten years, ending 1859, was 5,465, arid theircost to the British exchequer £987,573, averagingupwards of £180 per convict.

Meanwhile the gold discoveries in the eastern colo-nies affected this western settlement, as they had done

304 WEST AUSTRALIA.

the southern colonies. All the able-bodied immigrantswho could afford to leave, emigrated, or made a tem-porary sojourn in Victoria and New South Wales, totry their fortunes at the gold-fields. At one time,fears were entertained that all the free labourers andartisans would depart, from the colony, leaving thesettlers, who remained, with nothing but a convictpopulation. It was found, however, that the latter,as soon as they obtained tickets of leave, or their termof sentence expired, were off to the diggings also. Infact, it was only the stringent measures adopted tokeep them in penal servitude, that prevented a wholesaledesertion of prisoners. The convicts saw that the bestway to secure their end, was by patience and good be-haviour for a short time, when they would be at libertyto pursue their criminal course in the neighbouringwealthy and populous colonies, where there was abun-dance of prey for the highwayman and burglar. Accord-ingly, it was found that amongst those who left thecolony, a large proportion were emancipated convicts orticket-of-leave men. It appears that in the year 1850,the population of West Australia was 5,886 ; between1850 and 1859, there were introduced—convicts, 5,169 ;emigrants or families of prisoners, 6,364; total 17,419.At the end of 1859 the population was only 14,837, ofwhom 9,522 were males, and 5,315 females. Thesereturns include the excess of births over deaths, whichin that colony reaches the maximum of Australia, itbeing the healthiest region in the world. In spite ofthis it will be seen that there was a decrease of 2,582persons who had left, as ascertained, for South Aus-tralia, Victoria, and New South Wales. Of thatnumber it was estimated that about one-half were ofthe convict class.

BANEFUL EFFECTS OF TRANSPORTATION. 305

This was a contingency which the Home Govern-ment did not anticipate. They seem to have taken forgranted that all the convicts sent out to West Aus-tralia would remain there, and that the only questionas to the propriety of sending them, lay between themother country and that colony for whose benefit theywere transported ; ignoring the interests of the easterncolonies who had just purged themselves of the convictimmigration. But Victoria and South Australia, onwhose shores this vitiated tide of humanity chieflyflowed, did not remain supine. The Government andLegislature of the former colony passed an Anti-convictAct, prohibiting any felon from landing in the country.This was annulled by the Queen in Council, as an actbeyond their power ; nevertheless it was repeated inanother form ; and so far as Tasmania was concerned,had a beneficial effect in checking the arrival of ticket-of-leave men from that colony. In like mariner theimmigration of convicts and ex-convicts into SouthAustralia created so great an excitement, and crimeso much increased, that the Legislature and Governorpassed an Extradition Act, restraining all convictedcriminals from coming in, and inflicting upon themthe penalty of three years penal servitude, or to beSent back to West Australia, if found in the colony.It was stated in evidence by the Police Magistrate atPort Adelaide, that from the year 1855 to 1860, 1,559persons came there from West Australia, the greaternumber of whom were expirees, and conditional-pardonmen ; and the crimes which were committed in thecolony were found on examination to be chiefly bySwan River immigrants of the convict class ; the of-fences being mostly assaults, robberies, and burglaries.

This unsatisfactory state of affairs between the east

306 WEST AUSTRALIA.

and west colonies continued up to 1863, without theevil diminishing, for it was found that the expireesresumed their old criminal habits shortly after theirarrival, instead of endeavouring to earn an honest live-lihood. Consequently a feeling of intense indignationwas roused among the comparatively populous andwealthy communities of the aggrieved colonies, againstthe colonists in that poor petty settlement, for havingrenewed all the evils of convict contamination, whichthey had fondly hoped were banished for ever. See-ing, also, that their Acts of Parliament were powerlessin preventing the influx of expirees, the whole groupof eastern colonies, led on by Victoria, simultaneouslycombined to have their grievances remedied, by appealto the Imperial Government. Inside the legislativechambers resolutions were passed ; and outside publicdemonstrations were made, to remonstrate with thecolonial minister, and to petition the Queen in Councilto rescind the obnoxious law that made West Aus-tralia a place of banishment for English felons. Thisled to the appointment of a Royal Commission toinquire into the grievance, and take evidence uponthe question. Excepting one member of that com-mission, who had been in Victoria, all the othersendeavoured to elicit information from the witnessesto prove that the evils complained of were imaginary.Hence in their report they actually recommended anincrease of transportation to West Australia. Some-thing of this kind was foreshadowed in Parliamentby Sir George Grey, and by the Duke of Newcastlein his dispatches as Secretary of State for the Colonies ;which, on reaching Melbourne, roused the people andParliament into a state of indignation that borderedon treason against the parent state, political separation

13ANISHAnNT TO CEASE IN 1868. 307

being openly advocated. Even the advisers of theGovernor met in secret conclave and passed strongresolutions ; and were only prevented publishing themby a motion that they should await the reply to theirremonstrance. The public showed their earnestnessto resist the further importation of convicts from themother country, by subscribing a sum sufficient to paythe passages to England of two hundred expirees ofthe worst class ; and the ship sailed with them fromMelbourne in February, 1865.

During this interval better councils prevailed withHer Majesty's Government ; and the Queen was advisedto discontinue transportation to West Australia, bya gradual diminution of banishment, in three years,commencing with January, 1865. On the receipt ofthis intelligence the utmost satisfaction prevailedamong the aggrieved colonists, and even those in SwanRiver felt relief, as any other course would haveestranged them entirely from commercial or friendlyrelationship with their rich neighbours in Victoria,who threatened to lay an embargo upon ships fromone colony to the other, and to discontinue the subsidyfor the mail steamers calling at King George Sound.

While this political and social agitation was goingon in the eastern colonies, West Australia was pro-gressing in her material condition, and retrogradingin her moral career. Governor Fitzgerald, who assumedoffice at the inauguration of the convict era in 1849,was succeeded by Governor Kennedy in 1856. Duringhis term of office he opened the first Parliament underthe new constitution for the Australian colonies ; butfrom the sparsity of the free population, and thelimited revenue of the colony, the measures they passedwere feeble in their effect. On the other hand, the

308 WEST AUSTRALIA.

administration of the convict department, and thelarge imperial expenditure, had become of paramountimportance ; so that the colony assumed the executiveof a penal Government, with the aspect of the earlydays of Van Diemen's Land and New South Wales.All its pristine freedom and simplicity was gone ;and, as if to mark its degradation, Mr. Hampton, thesuccessor to Governor Kennedy, was the oldest andmost able superintendent of convicts in the formercolony during the worst periods of its history.

It must be stated also that the system planned outby the Government was not so severe as in the oldpenal colonies. Though strict discipline was main-tained, it was more with a view to the reformation thanthe punishment of the convicts. Though they weresubject to severer penalties than under the ordinarycriminal laws, yet the infliction of the lash was rarelyresorted to. Nevertheless, the herding together ofmale prisoners in gangs of twenty and thirty led tothe most disastrous consequences. As no female con-victs were sent out, the disparity of the sexes reachedan alarming preponderance on the male side. In1863, the proportion of single men to single womenwas 4,550 to 801, giving a surplus of 3,749. Thetotal number of convicts received up to that date was7,781, of whom about 2,300 had left for the easterncolonies, so that scarcely a thousand of this class weremarried men with their wives and families in thecountry. The want of female domestic servants washere, as elsewhere in the Australian colonies, a greatsocial grievance, and the colonists managed to getout several hundred free emigrant girls in 1862-4,but owing to the convict character of the commu-nity, and the higher wages ruling in the eastern

EXODUS OF COLONISTS. 309

colonies, they re-emigrated thither in a few monthsafter landing.

This exodus of the free inhabitants was not confinedto the male and female immigrants. Many of the edu-cated settlers, who had remained from the foundationof the colony, took their departure as soon as theycould dispose of their property, or leave it as an in-vestment yielding an income to spend in the mothercountry, or to try their fortunes in the other coloniesof the British crown, where their families would be freefrom convict contamination. Throughout 1863-4,scarcely a month elapsed but the departure of suchcolonists was recorded, as will be seen by the following

extract from the Perth Inquirer : " Our social intel-ligence, never too lively, is this month more lugubriousthan usual. At this season of the year (December)when our export laden ships take their departure, wegenerally lose, temporarily or permanently, some ofthose who have been long residents in the colony.This year (1863) our loss has been unusually heavy,and several whom we could ill spare have left us, wefear, never to return." Thus it appeared that the veryexpenditure that had enriched the colonists was themeans by which they were enabled to abandon thecolony. To those who remained, preferring moderatewealth with a virtuous population, to riches producedby convict labour, the prospect of the speedy cessationof transportation proved a boon, and with characteristicenergy they applied themselves to the task of stillfurther exploring and developing the resources of thecountry beyond the settlements of Swan River andKing George Sound.

Hitherto very little was known of this vast territorybearing the name of West Australia, and subject to the

310 WEST AUSTRALIA.

jurisdiction of the authorities at Swan River. Whenwe look at the map and calculate its extent, with theslender means at the disposal of a feeble settlement,barely able to support itself or explore the immediateneighbourhood, we are not surprised that it shouldremain undiscovered beyond the coast line, or thatthree-fourths of the interior is still a terra incognita.Its extent north and south is nearly thirteen hundredmiles, with an average width of about eight hundredmiles, containing an estimated area of 978,000 squaremiles, or about one-third of the Australian continent.The belt of land along the coast for fifty or sixty milesis generally of a barren and sandy character, with occa-sionally patches of grass land or fertile soil, where therivers give fertility. None of these streams are navi-gable for large vessels, even for a short distance, likethose on the east coast. Although the mountain rangesfrom which they derive their source are not elevatedabove the sea, nor so continuous in their line as theAustralian cordillera from Wilson Promontory to CapeYork, yet they present similar geographical featuresin trending parallel with the coast, and having a greatinland watershed. As in the case of the Blue Moun-tains, near Sydney, forming a barrier between the barrensandy coast region and the fertile plains of Bathurst,so do these ranges in West Australia divide the grassyplains and valleys in the interior from the sandycountry around Swan River and along the coast.

It was not until Gregory, in 1846, Roe, in 1848,and Lefroy, in 1863, penetrated beyond these moun-tains that the interior was known to possess wellgrassed and arable lands, similar to those in the eastand south provinces. Farther north, on the bordersof the tropic of Capricorn, at an elevation of from

PASTURE LANDS TO THE NORTH. 311

1,000 to 1,500 feet, extensive grassy downs have beendiscovered, capable of depasturing many millions ofsheep and cattle. Experienced squatters in the easterncolonies, dissatisfied with the altered conditions onwhich they held their runs, visited these pasture lands,and considered them equal to the sheep-walks in NewSouth Wales. As an inducement to have this countrystocked by land communication, the Government offeredthe first " Overlander " arriving in the colony withsheep or cattle, a hundred thousand acres, free of rent,for twelve years from his arrival. Companies for theshipment of live-stock were formed in 1864, in Mel-bourne and Sydney, under the management of mostexperienced squatters. Under these circumstancesthere is great probability that in a short time WestAustralia may become an extensive pastoral colonylike its neighbours. The question of success or failuredepends upon the presence of the poison plant, whichhas not yet been seen on these inland downs, or if atall, not to a great extent.

When the early settlers found that pastoral pursuitscould not be carried out to such an extent as to yieldsufficient wool, tallow, and hides, to pay for their im-ports from England, they turned their attention to thebarren rocky lands to discover what mineral exportsthey contained. This idea did not, however, occur tothem until the discovery of copper and lead in SouthAustralia in 1841. With renewed hopes of prosperity,and much enthusiasm, they found on the banks ofCanning River, a tributary of Swan River, flowinginto Melville Water, ores of lead, copper, zinc andiron ; but, unfortunately, after much time and moneyhad been expended on working a mine in that locality,it was abandoned as unprofitable. Several other places

312 WEST AUSTRALIA.

were tried with similar results, and it was not untildiscoveries of copper and lead ores in large quantitieswere made in the vicinity of Champion Bay, about twohundred miles to the north of Swan River, that miningwas found to be in any degree profitable. Here severallodes of copper and lead ores were opened in 1849, andcontinue to yield a quantity sufficient to form an itemof importance on the list of exports ; but the com-panies working them have hitherto failed to makethem remunerative.

With these proofs of the existence of mineral wealthin the rocky regions of the colony, it may be supposedthat on the discovery of gold they formed sanguinehopes of having auriferous deposits in some part ofthe district. Many were the anxious eyes thatgazed upon every glittering stone as they searched thespots likely to contain the coveted metal ; and manywere the reports that such had been found, as thecountry people brought in scales of mica, and pieces ofiron or copper pyrites that looked like gold, but whichon examination were found not to be so. Months andyears passed away, and some grains of gold wereactually discovered, but these were only tantalizingindications, that though there, it was not in sufficientquantities to form a profitable gold-field.

In 1863, Mr. Hargreaves, the first discoverer of goldin Australia, was invited to explore the country andreport upon these indications. He crossed from KingGeorge Sound overland to Swan River, but saw nothingthat would warrant his pronouncing it an auriferousregion. From Perth he travelled north to the Geraldinemines at Champion Bay, and far beyond that locality ;traversing, and retraversing places presenting the mostfavourable features, until he had gone over a course of

SEARCII FOR GOLD A FAILURE. 313

2,220 miles, and returned without success. Thus themineral riches of West Australia have proved of verylittle profit to the settlers, and delusive to the colony.

Although deficient in the ordinary staple productswhich have raised the eastern and southern colonies ofAustralia to rank with the richest colonies of theBritish nation, West Australia possesses in an eminentdegree some of the minor natural productions suitablefor export. Of these, timber is the most important,and a kind of mahogany, named jarrah by the natives,belonging to the genus eucalyptus of botanists, thegum-tree of the colonists. This timber is prized inship-building, as it resists the perforations of theteredo navalis and other destructive marine worms orinsects. It is found in abundance, within eighteenmiles of Perth, where a forest, twenty miles wide, ex-tends for more than two hundred miles north andsouth. Sandal-wood is also found, and forms anarticle of export to China and other eastern coun-tries, where it is valued for its odour and fine texturein the manufacture of articles of ornament. Thevalue of the latter as an article of export is shownin the returns for 1801, where it figures for £22,429;against copper ore, £7,554 ; timber, £2,835 ; whale oiland whalebone, £1,390; wool, £55,781 ; making atotal of £96,640. In 1862, this total amount hadincreased to £119,313 ; but was still insufficient tomeet the balance of trade shown by imports to thevalue of £172,991. The revenue in that year,£69,406, showed a deficiency in endeavouring tomeet the expenditure of £72,267, though it in-cluded imperial disbursements for civil and militarypurposes amounting to £37,221. • In 1864 theseitems were in round numbers, £98,000 expenditure,

314 WEST AUSTRALIA.

while the colonial revenue was only £57,000, so that£41,000 of the money expendea in the colony wasprovided by the Imperial Government. Besides thatannual expenditure, the Government EmigrationBoard sent out, between the years 1840 and 1862,4,926 emigrants, the passage money of whom amountedto £67,478 ; the total population on the 1st January,1862, being 17,246. Of these, 3,186 resided in Perth—1,647 males, and 1,539 females ; and in Freemantle,2,386-1,301 males, and 1,085 females, exclusive ofconvicts in prison. The returns for those towns in1863 show a decrease in Freemantle to 2,331, ofwhom 1,201 were males, and 1,130 females, while inPerth they had increased to 3,321; of whom 1,695were males, and 1,626 females—a result as respectsequality of the sexes, not equalled by any other townin Australia. Consequently the traveller or immigrantvisiting Perth sees a community similar to that of asmall country town in England; but the streets, houses,and gardens, are of a different aspect, as the followinggraphic description by Montgomery Martin so faith-fully portrays :-

" Generally speaking, however, the aspect of thiscountry (Perth) is discouraging to the farmer. Onarriving, the prospect from the sea naturally gives riseto the exclamation, Sand ! sand ! is there nothing butsand ? ' Little evidence of active life or prosperousindustry greets the eye of the immigrant, save in thetowns of Freemantle and Perth, and the craft on theriver. For twelve miles inland he does not see a farm.Looking back from the top of Greenmount, the firsthill of the range on the road to York, the eye wandersover an apparently unbroken forest plain, the greatheight of the trees effectually concealing all signs of

DESCRIPTION OF PERTH. 315

farms or houses. The first view of the town of Perthis, however, singularly pleasing. Situated about elevenmiles from the sea-coast, on the bank of the prettysheet of water (formed by the Swan River) whichbears its name ; with the wooded shores opposite ; theforest plain stretches away to the east, and the range'rises in the distance, while the air, although so clear asto render the very stems on the trees distinctly percep-tible, has yet all the charm of the soft haze, the manytinted lights and shades of a semi-tropical climate.Gazing on this tranquil panorama from the top ofMount Eliza, the English immigrant views with sur-prise, in the gardens lying between the cliff and theestuary, the banana, peach, nectarine, apple and pear ;the lemon, orange, guava, loquat and pomegranate.;the almond, fig and mulberry ; while the melon andits fellows creep among their stems. But yet morepleasing is the effect of the endless interlacing of trel-lised vines, beneath which the people are pursuingtheir avocations, and the successive terraces of vines-and olives, rising almost to his feet ; yet the question,Where are the farms ? still remains unanswered."

CHAPTER IX.

QUEENSLAND.

Moreton Bay District—Brisbane—Tropical Climate—Rich Pasture Land inthe Interior—Colony opened to Free Settlers in 1812—Neglect by SydneyGovernment—Petition for separation—Proclaimed Queensland in 1859—Governor Sir George Bowen arrives—Statistical Statement after separa-tion—Progress up to 1861—Extensive Immigration—Land Grants to'Unassisted Immigrants—Assisted Emigration from the United Kingdom—Distress at Brisbane among Educated Immigrants—Climate not suitablefor growing Wheat—Statistics to 1864—Cotton grown and exported--Maize chiefly cultivated—Municipalities—Condition of Public Worship—Educational institutions— Small percentage of serious crimes—Largeproportion of misdemeanor cases—Aboriginal Population most indepen-dent in Australia—Abundance of Fish and Indigenous Animals--Sea-cowFishery — Pine Timber of superior quality — Prospects of Queenslandfavourable.

FROM the circumstance of this colony having beenproclaimed Queensland, in honour of Her MajestyQueen Victoria, on the 3rd June, 1S59, an impressionprevails that it was then first colonized by Britishsubjects. Instead of being one of the youngest coloniesin Australia, as this would imply, it is one of the oldestsettlements. Under the name of the Moreton BayDistrict, the southern section, where it forms theboundary with New South Wales, was flourishing as apastoral region, after a progress of twenty-five years ;while the middle section, with Port Curtis as a centralpoint, had been established as a gold region for elevenyears before that date. And if the first penal settle-ment at Brisbane be taken into account, its foundation

OEOGRAPIIY OF MORETON BAY. 317

goes as far back as 1825. At that period GovernorSir Thomas Brisbane administered the affairs of NewSouth Wales, and, as usual, the first settlement wasnamed after him, as well as the river on which itstands, which had been discovered by Surveyor-GeneralOxley two years previously. Moreton Bay, into whichthe Brisbane river flows, is one of the largest bays inAustralia, being second only to Port Phillip. It isformed by two narrow islands parallel with the coast, andhas three entrances, whereas Port Phillip is an inleton the mainland with only one entrance. However, itis important to note that Moreton Bay stands in geo-graphical position to Port Jackson and Sydney, to thenorth, what Port Phillip does to the south of the oldseat of government ; the former being five hundredmiles, and the latter six hundred miles distant, eitherby land or water. Both are navigable and safe har-bours, with fertile country around, and are good forcentres of population.

When the penal settlement was formed in 1825, itwas with a view to re-transport new offenders and in-corrigible convicts from the establishments at Sydneyand Paramatta. It was considered so far distant, atthat time, that there was little chance of any of thedoubly and trebly-convicted felons sent there, re-turning to the head settlement from whence they werebanished ; so that Moreton Bay was a sort of supple-mental Botany Bay. It may be hence conjecturedthat this class of convicts was of the most desperatecharacter. If the annals of that period were given, itwould disclose a list of crime and punishment thateven the darkest records of Van Diemen's Land couldnot equal. Suffice it to say that the gibbet had itsmonthly crop of criminals, and the hangman, with his

318

QUEENSLAND.

cat-o'-nine-tails and triangles, daily went his rounds,even into the fields where the convicts were at work,and plied his avocation.

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a tropical climate, whilst the summer heats are renderedoppressive to the constitution by periodical heavy rains,almost continuous during that season. The climate atBrisbane was, in consequence, found to be unsuitable

BRISBANE AN OLD PENAL SETTLEMENT. 319

for the growth of wheat and other European cereals ;so the cultivation of maize was substituted, whichformed the chief food of the convicts, made into a kindof porridge, called hominy.

Besides labouring in the fields, the convicts wereemployed in erecting public works at Brisbane, and inconstructing roads and bridges into the country. Asthere were from 2,000 to 3,000 in the settlement, duringthe greater part of the seventeen years it remained underpenal jurisdiction, and at least half that number wereso employed, considerable improvements and materialprogress was made by these pioneer convicts, prior toits being thrown open to free settlers in 1342. Inconsideration of the outlay on these public works, theGovernment put up the allotments in the town ofBrisbane at the high upset price of £100 per acre ;in consideration of the value of the many sub-stantial stone buildings, erected as barracks and officesthereon.

This site is a high ridge on the left bank ofthe river, sixteen miles from its mouth, where thewindings form the letter S ; a deep flowing stream,three hundred yards wide ; the surrounding scenery ismost picturesque. Across the river the suburbanallotments could be purchased at a fourth of the abovesum, and here the first free settlers, who could notafford to buy the town lots, located themselves atKangaroo Point, to the east, and in the suburb to thesouth of Brisbane. The consequences were thatBrisbane, as the chief settlement of the Moreton BayDistrict, made very little progress beyond that of astraggling village during its early occupation by freesettlers.

But this important district did not depend on the

320 QUEENSLAND.

town and suburbs for its prosperity; its wealth lay inthe extensive pasture lands of the interior. Thesewere occupied by squatters with their herds andflocks some time before the opening of the place tocolonists, and its final abandonment as a penal settle-ment. A glance at the map will show where theDarling Downs spread over a very large tract ofcountry. They form a plateau fifteen hundred feetabove the sea level, consisting of open undulating land,thinly timbered, but well grassed, and adapted fordepasturing sheep of the finest fleece. As LiverpoolPlains and the New England District, further south,became occupied, the squatters drove their flocks intothis territory, and for some years carted their wool tothe Hunter River as their port, from the circum-stances of there being no accessible track known downthe precipitous range on the east side, and of the portat Moreton Bay not yet being open for commerce.

On the formation of Moreton Bay into a harbour,these enterprising pioneers of civilization in thewilderness of Australia soon found a way down tothe coast ; and the whole of the unoccupied land onthe east side of the main range was quickly taken upfor cattle runs, as experience taught them it was notso well fitted for sheep as the downs. This arises fromthe coarseness of the grass, caused by the humidityand heat, which is not felt so much on the elevatedland, where in winter it is comparatively cool. Stillthe sheep here have much lighter fleeces than in themore southern districts, but the quality is of thefinest staple grown, which makes up for deficiency inquantity, Moreover, where the grass was too coarsefor sheep, it was found to have great fattening pro-perties for cattle, and Moreton Bay became one of

SEARCH FOR GOLD AT BRISBANE. 321

the chief districts for tallow, which was produced on alarge scale. There was a very limited population toeat the surplus animal food, so a large trade was donein salting rounds of beef, and manufacturing muttonhams,

In this manner the district progressed as a pastoralsettlement, up to the period of the gold discovery,almost equally with its southern rival, Port Phillip ;it had not however a tithe of the population. Theeffect of the discovery of gold was to inconveniencethe squatters by withdrawing some of their men fromthe stations to the gold fields, and to increase theirexpenses from the high wages demanded by thosewho remained. Otherwise it did not much retardthe progress of pastoral pursuits. At the same timethe settlers were not behind their southern neighboursin " prospecting" for gold deposits. In this they werealmost confident of success, even on the very town-siteof Brisbane, where the geological formation is chieflyquartz rock, and externally, to all appearance, like theveins of gold-bearing mineral quartz in the Bathurstcountry. However, after much expense and loss oftime not an ounce of the precious metal could be ex-tracted from the tons of rock crushed and smelted. Inthe country all the likely localities were examined, andinquiries made by anxious prospectors. At one place,many years previously, a shepherd had picked up someglittering specks, which he took to be gold, andactually fell sick from the thoughts of having dis-covered a gold mine. He communicated the supposeddiscovery to his master, who looked at the yellowspecks he had washed out of a creek, and, knowingsomething of mineralogy, pronounced them to be mica,from the disintegration of the granite rock through

322 QUEENSLAND.

which the stream passed. The shepherd recovered hishealth and spirits, and nothing in the shape of realgold was found until 1858, when it was discovered nearRockhampton, about four hundred miles north ofBrisbane.

Some years previous to that discovery, and subse-quent to the separation of the Port Phillip Districtfrom New South Wales, and its erection into the inde-pendent colony of Victoria, the leading settlers of theMoreton Bay District had associated themselves toge-ther with a view to follow the example of their southernfellow-citizens. Their grievances against the centralGovernment at Sydney were of the same nature,namely, geographical distance, neglect of interests,impoverishment of revenue, and inadequate representa-tion in the Legislature. In like manner, also, theirpetitions and representations to the Governor and Par-liament were rejected, and they had no other alternativebut to petition the Queen and the Home Governmentfor separation from the parent colony. After muchdelay this was acceded to, and the whole of that vastterritory to the north of latitude 28° on the coast, and29° inland, as far as the boundary of South Australia,was erected into the colony of Queensland. This largearea of country comprises 678,000 square miles, beingnearly twice as large as Canada, and equal to six timesthe superficies of the United Kingdom. The Governorappointed to administer the affairs of the colony at itsoutset was Sir George Ferguson Bowen, a man of liberaland enlightened views, previously secretary of theIonian Islands. He arrived at Brisbane on the 10thDecember, 1859, when he inaugurated the openingof the colony, stating that " the name of Queenslandwas entirely the happy thought and inspiration of Her

SEPARATION FROM NEW SOUTH WALES. 323

Majesty herself." Without delay he set himself to thetask of organizing his Government and Legislature,which is not based upon the democratic principles ofVictoria, but sufficiently liberal for all purposes untilthe colony has a greater population.

The rapidity with which that was augmented duringthe first four years by immigration will be seen by thefollowing extracts from the statistical returns, pub-lished by the Registrar-General of the colony. By thecensus of 1846 the Moreton Bay District had a popu-lation of 2,257. In 1851, at the time of the golddiscovery, the number of settlers located north of theboundary line since adopted was 8,575 ; and in 1856it had increased to 17,082. No census had been re-turned for 1859, when Governor Bowen assumed officein Queensland, but there is a return to the 31st Decem-ber, 1860, a year after it had been separated from NewSouth Wales. This gives a total of 28,056, of whom16,817 were males, and 11,239 females ; from which ithas been estimated in round numbers that at the dateof separation the population was not more than 25,000.What follows on this head, and other branches ofstatistical information, show the progress of this sec-tion of Australia, under a free and independent Govern-ment ; not equal of course to Victoria, but all thingsconsidered, .nothing behind the progress of South Aus-tralia ; thereby practically illustrating the advantagesof self-government and circumscribed jurisdiction. Theestimated number of the white population, on the 31stDecember, 1861, was 31,367, comprising 20,811 males,and 13,556 females ; in 1862, 45,077, of whom 27,186were males, and 17,891 females, showing an increaseduring that year of 10,710 individuals, 6,375 males,and 4,335 females, of whom 8,080 were by direct

324 QUEENSLAND.

European immigration, 1,725 from the neighbouringcolonies, and 905 natural increase. On the 31stDecember, 1864, the numbers calculated were 45,516males, and 28,520 females, making a total of 74,036souls, showing that the population had more thandoubled itself in three years, chiefly by immigration.

The greater portion of this immigration was fromthe United Kingdom, under specified regulations. Thechief points in these regulations appear in the followingextracts, which may serve to show the inducements heldout by the Government :—"A land order for £18 will begiven on arrival to every adult male or female steerage-immigrant, proceeding from the United Kingdom toQueensland, who shall in every respect have satisfiedthe requirements of the regulations. All cabin and inter-mediate passengers qualified under these requirementswill be allowed to select thirty acres of surveyed countryland, in one block ; and will receive the deed of grantof such land after two years continuous residence inthe colony." These immigrants were to pay theirown passages, and the "requirements of the regulations"were very trifling, and did not relate to occupations.The consequence was, that the majority of this classof immigrants were unsuited to menial or laboriousemployment, and the old cases recurred of educatedpeople being in distress at Brisbane, and in the othertowns, as they spent the little they had, and soldtheir land orders for a trifle. To suppose that theseunassisted immigrants would be able to cultivate thelands allotted to them was a fallacy. Nine-tenthsof them knew nothing of farming, and the agentwho induced the people to emigrate was not clearin informing them that they were proceeding to atropical climate, where no wheat can be grown except

PROGRESSIVE STATISTICS. 325

on the mountain ranges away from any market. Butthe agent and the regulations were specific on grantingassisted passages ; the only persons eligible for whichwere domestic servants, farm or other labourers, andmechanics, and half the passage money paid, exceptthe first, where three-fourths was added. Of this classthe numbers were not sufficient to meet the demandsof the colony in 1864.

The pastoral resources of this territory may beestimated from the following returns for the firstthree years of its independent existence, made on the31st December of each year. In 1860 there were inthe colony :—horses, 23,504 ; cattle, 432,890 ; sheep,3,166,802 ; pigs, 7,147-1861: horses, 28,983 ; cattle,560,196; sheep, 4,093,381 ; pigs, 7,465-1862: horses,35,625 ; cattle, 610,204 ; sheep, 4,345,901; pigs, 7,019.The export of the staple product, wool, from the abovelarge numbers of sheep was equally progressive ; but itmust be noted that it did not come entirely from thenatural increase, as the influx of docks from New SouthWales was considerable, and spread over about 400miles of unoccupied country to the north. In the aboveyears the quantities of wool shipped were, 5,007,167lbs.,6,994,033 lbs., 8,063,612 lbs. In the value of exportsgenerally, there was in successive years a correspond-ing increase of £523,476, £709,598, and £748,519 ;imports, £742,023, £967,950, £1,320,225 ; and totalsof £1,265,499, £1,677,548, £2,068,744, showing animportant external trade during that short period. Itmust be observed, however, that the imports weregreatly in excess of the exports, which is not a healthycommercial sign. In 1863 this disproportion continued,when the imports were nearly double the value of theexports, being for the former £1,713,263, and the

326 QUE ENSLAND.

latter £888,381. This external commerce was carriedon in imports from Great Britain, £365,093 ; fromother Australian colonies, £1,335,606 ; from Germany,£12,539 ; sea fishery, £25. Exports to Great Britain,£233,392 ; to other Australian colonies, £649,299 ; toIndia, Ceylon, and China, £1,169 ; and to Batavia,£4,521. In 1861 the exports had increased to£1,213;000; wool constituting £1,037,663 of theamount ; gold dust, £83,292 ; tallow, £33,009 ; hidesand skins, £24,999 ; cotton, £4,186 ; while the importsreached £2,267,954, including £67,629 in specie.

Thus in five years the sparsely populated districtsof Moreton Bay and Port Curtis had risen into exist-ence as one of the most prosperous of the Australiancolonies ; during which period the value of its importsamounted to £7,011,415; and its exports £4,113,877,making a total of £11,125,292. It is by such an indexthat we can estimate the material and social progressof the colony. These items suggest great activity inthat hitherto quiet region. Glancing at the map ofQueensland we see richly laden emigrant ships sailinginto the Spacious estuary of Moreton Bay, and landingtheir anxious passengers on the banks of Brisbaneriver, or Cleveland point, wirere they find their way toBrisbane or Ipswich. From thence the labouringportion proceed into the far interior, where they findoccupation on the squatters' stations. These enter-prising pioneers of colonization have now occupied300 miles of the coast, to a depth of 500 milesinland ; where the elevation of the land tempers theatmosphere in these tropical latitudes. Yet the heatis sometimes excessive, as in the month of January,1865, when the thermometer reached 104° Fahrenheitfor a whole week, and on several occasions rose to

RELIGIOUS ./..ND EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS. 327

108 degrees. In this climate tropical products growso abundantly that pine-apples are cultivated likecabbages, and are cheaper. It is also well adaptedfor the culture of cotton, as will be seen from thatarticle appearing on the export list to the value of£4,186 in 1864. The quantity of land under cultiva-tion in 1863 was about 6,100 acres, of which 739 wereunder wheat, 2,767 maize, 977 dry and green fodder,392 cotton, 70 sugar-cane, 61 vineyards, 715 in fieldsand orchards, and 396 in gardens ; illustrating theagricultural resources of the country.

With this material progress, it is satisfactory to findthat the vital interests of religion and education aresupported liberally, both publicly and privately. Thenumber of places of worship, including several hand-somely-built churches in the municipal towns ofBrisbane, Ipswich, Toowoomba, Rockhampton, Mary-borough, Warwick, Drayton, Gladstone, Dalby, Bowen,and Port Denison, is large in proportion to the numberof inhabitants. These are chiefly built by privatesubscription, and the officiating clergymen of theprincipal denominations are maintained in the samemanner, and also by Government aid. There is aBishop of the Church of England, and also of theRoman Catholic Church. There are likewise thirtySunday schools attached to the churches, with compe-tent male and female teachers, attended, in 1862, by1,865 scholars. For secular instruction there is aBoard of General Education, having supervision overthirteen public schools, with a daily average attendanceof 1,214 scholars, who have a thoroughly good Englisheducation imparted to them, at a rate that is withinthe reach of the poorest classes. Besides these, therewere five Church of-England schools, with 469 scholars,

328 QUEENSLAND.

and thirty-six private schools, with 1,377 pupils, whoreceived a good classical and general education, such asfitted them for the English Universities. In thegrammar schools there are scholarships for which boyswho have distinguished themselves at the primaryschools are eligible, while exhibitions of specified sumsare given to the best scholars at those seminaries,available at any British or Australian University.The youth of Queensland thus have facilities affordedthem of growing up in education and intelligenceequal to the best provinces in the mother country.

The benefit of these and kindred institutions, forthe reclamation of those who have wandered hithertoin the ways of ignorance and sin, is illustrated in aremarkable manner by the decrease of crimes of aserious nature, during the first three years of the in-dependent existence of Queensland. It has been shownat the beginning of this brief history that the convictleaven entered into the social constitution at a veryearly period. Subsequently, when the settlement wasopened to free settlers, the remainder of the convictsin prison were sent to Sydney and Norfolk Island,where the last penal establishment existed. Althoughthis cleared out all the prisoners, still the ticket-of-leave men and expirees remained, and for many yearsthe settlers had only that description of' labour todepend on. The consequences were, that crime of aserious nature maintained a high percentage amongthe population. In 1859, this is given by the Regis-trar-General at twenty-three per cent., which in 1860dropped to fourteen per cent., and to five per cent. in1862 ; showing that offences against person and pro-perty were confined to the old offenders, while theimmigrants maintained their honesty of character.

CONDITION OF THE ABORIGINES. 329

On the other hand, misdemeanors, such as drunkennessand vagrancy, increased to an alarming degree, causedno doubt by the disappointment of those immigrantswho were not suited for the rough labour required ina new country, and who gave way to despondency.This is shown by the fact that one-half of thoseconvicted at the petty sessions could both read andwrite.

In no other colony of Australia is the condition ofthe aboriginal population so independent as it is inQueensland. They are naturally superior in mind andbody to the tribes in the south and west. Towardsthe northern extremity of the continent, their physicalaspect indicates an admixture of the copper-colourednatives of Polynesia.

The abundance of animal food throughout thecountry, and the tropical character of the climate,allow them to live in savage ease and nakedness.Queensland is the paradise of the aboriginal possessorof Australia, and if he had but the smallest spark ofenergy, such as the Maori of New Zealand possesses,the British would have found immense difficulty intaking possession of the territory. But the "Black-fellow," as he is called, revels in the enjoyment of turtleand other luxuries, almost without exertion, while allhe requires.for his toilet in the summer is to grease hisskin to prevent it cracking in the sun. Of coursewhere they come into contact with the settlers theyhave shirts and blankets, but clothing to these childrenof nature is irksome. This may be seen among the114 black troopers maintained and clothed in finetrappings by the Government, which they take thefirst opportunity of throwing off at their barracks.This is the only way in which the natives are cared

330 QUEENSLAND.

for in the colony, and they do ample duty for their pay.Generally speaking, the aborigines are left to look outfor themselves, and earn a subsistence by working forthe settlers, or hunting and fishing on their ownaccount.

At Moreton Bay it is a most interesting sight tosee how expertly they fish for the poodenbak, one ofthe best fish in Australia. Twenty or thirty form awide circle in shallow water, which they graduallycontract, driving the fish before them into the centre,when they thrust in two landing nets, one in eachhand, and fish up their game. In turtle-fishing theyapproach the turtle silently in their canoes ; watchingwhen it rises, they dive into the water, seizing him bythe shell and turning the unwieldy creature, weighingsometimes five hundred weight, into their boat. Butthe grandest fishing is for the yanyan, an amphibiousanimal of the whale tribe, but much smaller. Likethe manatee of America and the dugong of the EastIndies, it lives on marine vegetation, chews the cudwith molar teeth, and may well be named the sea-cow,as it is about the size and weight of its land pro-totype. The flesh of this marine animal, especiallythe head, is not bad eating, but it is chiefly prized forthe oil extracted from its blubber, which has all themedicinal properties of cod-liver oil, and now forms anarticle of export. For preparing this, two establish-ments are formed at Moreton Bay, where the nativesare supplied with boats and proper gear for capturingthe animals.

While the waters of this favoured region possesssuch valuable resources, which the southern bays andinlets are without, the land possesses several kindsof timber not found in the temperate region. The

TROPICAL FAUNA. AND FLORA. 331

principal of these is the Moreton Bay pine, (AuracariaOunninghamii) which is equal to the best Americanpine, and is used for building purposes as it is mucheasier sawn than the gum trees. Another is theBunya Bunya pine, (Auracaria Bidivellii) which is alarger tree but not so plentiful ; it is remarkable for theedible seeds of its cone, which are of the size and tasteof the chestnut. There is also a red cedar timber,which is made into furniture, nearly as handsome asmahogany, but much lighter. Altogether the naturalproducts of Queensland are superior to those of anyother Australian colony, and will in time add largelyto its articles of export. In the luxuriance of itstropical vegetation, clothing the mountain sides thatslope down precipitously to the Pacific Ocean, thereis a grandeur in the scenery which is not to be metwith farther south, while the birds, animals and insects,are not only more abundant, but excel all others intheir beauty of form and colour. Nowhere on thisisland-continent is there a more extensive field for thestudent of natural history than in this magnificentcountry. Hitherto only a narrow fringe on the coasthas been explored, and as the settlers spread over thegreat dividing range, every year will open up new re-sources of pastoral, agricultural or native wealth. Itis only since it became an independent colony thatthese facts have been made patent to the world.

Under the administration of Governor Bowen, theprogress of its colonization is being carried out withgreat spirit. In order to colonize the ultima thule ofhis jurisdiction, a new settlement was established onthe main land at Port Albany, in September, 1864,opposite Albany Island, near the extreme point ofthe Cape York Peninsula, at the entrance to Torres

332 QUEENSLAND.

Strait. Here the site of a town, named Somerset,has been chosen, on an elevation of from sixty toseventy feet above the level of the sea, and exposedto the sea breezes, which are refreshing in that lowlatitude, within ten degrees of the equator. To thewestward it has a constant stream of fresh water, soessential for towns in the arid regions of Australia.To the north it commands an extensive view of TorresStrait, with the adjoining islands ; and all ships passingthrough, after having navigated the dangerous coralsea where Captain Cook nearly lost his ship theEndeavour, will be within signal distance, so as to com-municate any information without anchoring. As soonas this nucleus of a settlement is found to succeed, atown will ere long adorn the eminence near which thatgreat circumnavigator proclaimed and determined thegeographical position of his discoveries, and solved thegeographical problem of the age in which he lived, asto the existence of a great south continent. It is nowverging on a century since then, and his most sanguinepredictions of the colonization of Australia are morethan realized ; while yet it may be said, we of thisgeneration are only on the threshold of its futuregreatness.

CHAPTER X.

PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY.

Pastoral Settlers, the true Pioneers of Australian Free Colonization—Evidence of Industry among the Colonists—Retrospective Glance atearly History of Australia—The reproduction of Vegetable and Animalproducts more permanent than Mineral wealth—Prospects of Manufac-tures—Trade Protection mooted—Abundance of Iron Ores—Manual Skilland Labour pre-eminent—Busy Occupations—Work, the order of the day—No place for the indolent—People in reduced circumstances often notto be pitied—Ne'er-do-wells reach their natural level—Political Prospectsof Independence— Religious Condition and Prospects satisfactory—Zealous efforts of the Missionaries to reclaim the Aborigines.

THE success which has attended the transplantation ofBritish capital and labour to the distant fields ofoperation in Australia conveys many instructive lessonsto the colonizers of new lands. There are proofs herethat the natural productions of a virgin country maybe of the most meagre description for the support ofcivilized communities, and yet possess the elementsof industrial wealth, even though the soil may beoccasionally barren and poor. For the climate andherbage may be well adapted to the support of non-indigenous animals yielding food and clothing to man,or favourable for the growth of exotic vegetation forthe same purposes. To these causes may be attributedthe unexampled increase of live-stock in the thinly-tenanted pastures of the Kangaroo, and the abundantproduction of cereals and esculent roots for supportof a civilized population that will soon be counted by

334 PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE SU3IMA1ti.

millions, where originally only a few thousand savagesobtained but a precarious existence.

In this successful work of colonization, the firstplace must be given to the pastoral pioneer settlers,who by their indomitable perseverance overcame thenatural obstacles in their way ; and the next toto the farmers, who raised their crops of grain inthe wilderness, which, through unsuspected guidanceof a beneficent Providence, furnished the miners andcitizens with abundance of food at a time when adearth would have been an awful calamity. All,indeed, of these industrious Australian colonists havein their vocations and capacities contributed to theprosperity of the country. And the results to be seenscattered over the surface of that sunny south land,prove that there have been few idlers amongst them.Every seaport and city, town and hamlet, mansion andcottage, station and farm, garden and field, which thetraveller meets with, presents a monument of the skilland industry of our enterprising countrymen, so manythousand miles away from " home." The very sterilityof some districts called forth more than usual exer-tion on their part, and verified the observation, that" it seldom happens that the richest countries are themost productive, or that the bounty of nature, whereit has been most profusely lavished, is improved bycorresponding exertions on the part of man. Repug-nant to labour, where labour can be dispensed with, itis necessity alone which compels him to earn his breadby the sweat of his brow, and to torture the ungratefulsoil for its scanty products."

It is a maxim of political economists that thebasis of national prosperity rests upon the abundanceof food to be obtained for the sustenance of the people.

PERMANENCY OF PASTORAL WEALTH. 335

If the country be old in its constitution, a dearthcreates rebellion and disease ; if it is young, a scarcityof provisions retards its progress. Looking back overthe foregoing history of Australia, we see that suchwas the case in the early days of the far distant settle-ment on the barren shores of Port Jackson. There,famine threatened to annihilate the embryo colonybefore the settlers and Government could ascertain thecapabilities of other localities for the growth of vege-table food or the pasturage of live-stock. When a moregrateful soil was discovered, not only were the colonistsindependent of foreign supplies of food, but they pro-duced the valuable exports of wool and tallow, whichcreated wealth in foreign markets. It is upon thereproduction of these and similar commodities of uni-versal consumption that the great future in store forthe Australian empire depends. Notwithstanding theapparently inexhaustible mineral resources of the coun-try, we infer from the experience of other nations thatin time, copper mines become worked out, and goldfields exhausted ; but the same causes which producethe fleece on the sheeps' back, and fatten the beeves ofto-day, will continue to " multiply and replenish theearth," when the auriferous treasures of the mountainshave become matters of history.

Besides the development of the indigenous andexotic resources of Australia as a field for raw produc-tions, we must not overlook the advantages she pos-sesses as a future seat for manufactures ; her probabledestiny as the Great Britain of the southern hemis-phere. Hitherto the merchants in the mother countryhave considered the marts of these colonies as themost profitable and permanent markets for their mer-chandise. This will gradually diminish as colonial

336 PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY.

manufactures of raw materials increase, so that in timethey may become articles of export. The average rateof imports per head of population varies in the differentcolonies from £10 to £20, in round numbers, perannum ; in some cases, as in Queensland, temporarilyreaching the large estimate of £33 per head. This isa great drain of capital, when paid for out of the exports,which if husbanded would be highly reproductive. Intime, however, these rates will decrease, and in theolder colonies are decreasing towards the average ofother British settlements ; some being one-half, othersone-third, and even a fourth of these high rates.

Amongst the British emigrants there has been agoodly proportion of the manufacturing population,many of them skilled in working the staple productsof Australia, and who will form the nucleus of simi-lar classes there. These becoming dissatisfied withthe rude occupations of producing the raw mate-rials, wool, tallow, gold, copper, &c., readily assembleround the manufacturing capitalists at the loom, theanvil, or the workshop. Indeed, so numerous are theartizans and handicraftsmen in the older colonies thatthey combine to protect their trades, endeavouring toforce the Legislature by political action to imposeheavy duties, which would be almost prohibitory, uponimported merchandise. This retrograde step in freetrade has not yet been taken, but it may in time.Meanwhile, in the cities of Sydney, Melbourne,Adelaide and Hobart Town, there are manufactoriesof every description of merchandise suitable for thewants of the colonists, and it is only the high wagesand cost of living that prevents their increase so as toshut out the importation of many important articles ofmerchandise. As a nation of workers in the inferior

WANT OF LABOUR. 337

metals, especially iron, here is a new field for thesurplus labour of the United Kingdom. The ores ofiron are found abundantly in every mineral district,and it is only the large expense of working thatpostpones their being smelted.

Nowhere do manual skill and labour stand so pre-eminent, or secure for the worker so high a reward asin Australia. The newly-arrived immigrant, launchedinto the vortex of Australian life, is bewildered fora time by the bustle and activity of the colonistspursuing their avocations in the towns or mining dis-tricts. From morn till night the hum and noise oflabour resounds from busy populations. He that doesnot work is a blot in the community, for the cry isstill, " Send us more men and women, but they mustbe workers." If they are of the right sort, and indus-trious, they will obtain employment at high wages thefirst day they land. If, from pride or laziness, theyfail to put their shoulders to the wheel, they will lingerabout the highways of industry, jostled and unpitiedby the crowd of workers.

Many people are inclined to think ill of these Aus-tralian colonies, when they learn the privations theirfriends or acquaintance have encountered in earningan honest living. Much sympathy is sometimes feltfor the improvident man, who kept his vehicle andhorses at home, but is obliged to drive a team of oxenthere. And those friends who used to dine on luxuriousviands at the spendthrift's table pity him, with a sighat his position in the bush of Australia, where hehas to subsist on damper, tea and mutton. Better,far better, is it for such non-workers and ne'er-do-wellsat home, that circumstances have compelled them toperform the tasks which produce them an independent.

338 PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY.

subsistence abroad. Surely there is more honour dueto the man who lives upon rough bush fare, and earnsit, than he who dines superbly at the expense of others.If, in their home career, they displayed nothing ofnative nobleness, or moral or religious excellence, theystood in a false position. When we find them toilingas unskilled labourers in these colonies, they have onlytaken to those employments for which their want ofcapacity or ignorance of skilled labour fitted them best.Mere idlers and loungers who contribute nothing tothe welfare of society are worse than useless ; they arepositively an evil element in the social fabric, since theyadd nothing to its stability or wealth, but drain it ofresources. Whereas in the rough-and-ready commu-nities of these colonies they become in time useful,and frequently independent men. Such being the case,there is not the evil in the poorer educated classesemigrating to Australia which many are apt to infer.Their presence in those young communities assistsmaterially in maintaining the educational standard ofsociety among the mass, which the preponderance of anuneducated labouring population tends to depreciate.

The conviction is gaining ground that the future em-pire of Australia will rival that of America. Whetherit will raise the standard of independence, or retain itsfealty to the British crown is a matter which time onlycan disclose. The statesmen of the day, in view ofsuch contingencies, have enlarged the measure of poli-tical freedom, so that the colonists have equal or evengreater privileges than their fellow subjects in theUnited Kingdom. By this policy the chances of arupture are indefinitely postponed, and there is everyprobability that if a political separation takes placein the fulness of time, the Federal States of Australia

RELIGIOUS OBSERVANCE. 339

will hoist their standard in peace and loyal affectiontowards Great Britain.

Whatever may be the political aspect of the future,there exist on all sides the most cheering prospectsfor the diffusion of education and religion through-out the Australian colonies. Earnest endeavours aremaking to add to that material prosperity which theyso abundantly enjoy, the higher prosperity, which con-sists in the possession of an enlightened, moral, andChristian population. To this end the voluntaryenergies of the colonists, the generous sympathies ofthe British public, the permanent sanctions of Govern-ment, and the zealous exertions of ministers of theGospel, are consentaneously working for the spread ofreligion over the land. Nowhere in the British domi-nions is the Sabbath kept so strictly in the towns, orthe places of public worship so well attended. Fromthe scattered nature of the population over such a vastextent of country, there are sections of the communitydeprived of the privilege of attending a church orchapel. But there are few of the well-regulatedstations in the interior where the master or super-intendent does not gather his people on the Lord'sday, and read a chapter of the Bible, or offer a prayer.

The paucity of places of worship, however, and thesparseness of the population, make religious decisionpre-eminently essential to the colonist. At home hehas numerous influences at work to keep him in thepath of propriety and virtue. Society watches overhim, friends counsel him for his good, teachers andministers ply him with wholesome advice, the house ofGod is open for his reception. Though none of thesethings avail to secure his salvation apart from theHoly Spirit, they yet may serve to keep him from

3t0 PROSPECTIVE AND RETROSPECTIVE SUMMARY.

open profligacy. In a new settlement many of theseinfluences are withdrawn. The young colonist is leftto choose his own course, with none to speak thewarning word or arrest him in his downward career.Temptations of every kind abound, and the restraintsof society are weakened or removed. " The fear ofthe Lord, which is the beginning of wisdom," istherefore supremely important here. Cut off, to agreat extent, from religious- ordinances and Christiansociety, the settler should more than ever strive tolive under the sense of God's presence, rememberingthat " the eyes of the Lord are in every place, beholdingthe evil and the good."

Though the aboriginal inhabitants are fast disap-pearing, it is satisfactory to find missionaries endea-vouring to instil into the remnant that remain someknowledge of true religion, as shown in the followingextract from the report of the church mission stationat Yelta, in Victoria :—" The mission station bearsfruits of righteousness to the praise of the Lord Jesus,for whose sake, by whose command, and through whosegrace, a work is being daily carried forward whichabounds in good to many, and must cause every im-partial beholder to confess that the followers of Christare unrivalled in the work of bringing blessings to themost degraded and despised amongst the fallen familiesof the earth."

It is in this spirit that the work of colonizationought ever to be conducted. By the providence ofGod, England has been made " a great mother ofnations." Not only does her flag fly on every sea,and her commerce explore every port, but on everycontinent her language is spoken by colonists who havethere founded for themselves a new home. The design

OUR DUTY TO THE COLONIES 341

of the Most High in this could not have been merelyto aggrandize and enrich us with material wealth andpower. The great colonizing nation of the world isthe land of free Bibles, and religious privileges, andGospel truth in its purity. We cannot err in con-cluding that it was for the diffusion of these throughoutthe world, that we were placed in this position ofpre-eminence amongst the nations of the earth. Ourcolonies and our commerce are—

"Charged with a freight transcending in its worthThe gems of India, Nature's rarest birth;That flies, like Gabriel on his Lord's commands,A herald of God's love to pagan lands."

No common guilt will be ours if we transfer thevices of European civilization to those distant shores,without ' the .great antidote to human misery, thegrand panacea for all human wants and woes—theknowledge of our Lord and Saviour Jesus Christ,through whom we have not only pardon, but strengthto sustain, and wisdom which is profitable to direct ;blessings for the life that now is and for that which isto come. If in this evangelical and missionary spiritour colonization be carried on, then, in more sensesthan one, " The wilderness and the solitary place shallbe glad for them, and the desert shall rejoice, andblossom as the rose." " For ye shall go out with joy,and be led forth with peace ; the mountains and thehills shall break forth before you into singing, and allthe trees of the field shall clap their hands. Insteadof the thorn shall come up the fir tree, and instead ofthe briar shall come up the myrtle tree ; and it shallbe to the Lord for a name, for an everlasting size tkatshall not be cut off."

INDEX.

• Aborigines, description of, by Dam-pier, 13; strange apathy of, 17;friendly at Endeavour river, 23;quarrels with, 86 ; capability of,108; extinction of, in some parts,110, 159; treatment of, 153; inSouth Australia, 274; GovernorDaly's opinion, 274; in West Aus-tralia, 298; propensity to steal,300; in Queensland, 329; mode offishing, 330.

Adam Bay, 280.Adelaide, 247; state in 1840, 249;

Government works, 250; successof agriculturists, 254.

Animal life, 24-28; 49, 69.Animal food cheap, 195.Anti - convict Act, 305 ; agitation, 306.Arthur, Governor Col., 144; Quixotic

scheme of, 154; leaves, 160.Arable land, 199.AUSTRALIA, derivation of name, 4;

physical geography, 55; geology,56; natural history, 59; seasons,60; probable destiny, 335 ; imports,336 ; activity in, 337.

AUSTRALIA, SOUTH, 241; extent, 211.AUSTRALIA FELIX, 178.Australian dog, description of, 14.Auctioneer's advertisement, 192.

Ballarat, 205, 237 ; riot, 221.Barkly, Sir Henry, 232.Bass's Strait, 34.Bathurst discovered, 43.Batman, John, 179.Bear or Sloth, 71.Bligh, Captain William, 99.Blue Mountains, speculation about,

38 ; exploration of, 41.Boomerang, 152.Botany Bay discovered, 18 ; descrip-

tion, 19; convicts sent thither, 79.Bourke, Governor Sir Richard, 110.Bowen, Captain, 130.Bowen, Sir G. F., 322, 331.Brigands or bushrangers, 145, 158.Brisbane, Sir Thomas, 317.Brisbane, map of, 318; climate, 318;

river, 319.

Britain the colonizing nation, 341.Broughton, Bishop of Australia, 110.Brown, Colonel Gore, 169.Buckley among the natives, 180.Buildings begun in Australia, 97.Burke's expedition, 52.Barra Burra copper mine, 263.

Canvas Town, 215.Carpentaria, Gulf of, discovered, 10.Casuarina groves, t 4.Cattle-breeding in N. S. Wales, 105.Census first taken, 83. .Cereals, growth of, 91.Charts of Australia, 36.Chinese gold-diggers, 230.Church and Chapel building, 111.Clematis Arossmana, 65.Coal in Tasmania, 144.Coining, 121.Collins, Colonel, 130, 175.Collins and Tench on the convict

expedition, 80.Continent in Southern Hemisphere,

speculations concerning, 1.Convicts first sent to America, 78;

ceased in 1783, 79; sent to NewSouth Wales, 79; behaviour offirst, 86; attempt to escape, 89;their labour a boon, 96, 135.

Convict - assignment system, 102 ;convict shepherds, 103.

Cook, Capt., starts in the Endeavour,15 ; perseverance of, ;E.O.

Coral Sea, danger of, 30.Cunningham, Allan, 45.

Dalrymple, 3.Dampier Land discovered, 11.Denison, Sir William, 163.Derwent River, 133.De Witt sent out by Dutch East

India Company, 5.Dingo, the, 188.Discoveries kept secret by the Dutch,

Spanish and Portuguese. 12.Distress of first settlers, 88.Duck-billed water mole, 38.Dutton, Francis, 261.Duty on Gold, 222.

INDEX. 343

Eagle, Australian, 40.Echunga diggings, 268.Edels Land, 5.Edible plants of Australia, 66.Education, 112.Bendraght;The, arrives in 1616, 4.Emigration from England, 210.Evergreen trees, 61.Exploration, difficult task, 37.Eyre, Edward John, 54.

Fauna and Flora of Eastern TropicalAustralia, 47.

Fawkner, John Pascoe, 179.Flinders, Lieutenant, 35. 174.Flogging, 147.Forest lands, vast extent of, 66.Franklin, sir John, 160; Lady, 162.Frederick Hendrick Bay, 8.Frome, Captain, 248.Fruits & vegetables, N.S.Wales, 106.Furneaux, Captain Tobias, 34.

Gawler, Governor, 246.Geelong, 175.Geology of Australia, 56.German immigrants, 258.Gold discovery, 115-117, 201, 204 ;

providential circumstance, 121 ;reaction from, 122; effects of, 206 ;statistics, 221-229.

Gold-fields in Victoria, 224.Grant, Lieutenant, 112.Gregory's explorations, 50, 53, 310.Grey, Captain, 251 ; financial mea-

sures, 252 ; ill-feeling towards,253; success of policy. 255.

Grose, Lieutenant-Governor, 91.Gum tree, 29, 62.

Hahndorf, 259.Hakluyt Society, 2.Hargreaves, Edward Hammond,

115, 119; surveys South Australia,268; surveys West Australia, 312.

Hindmarsh, Governor, 245.Hobart Town founded, 133 ; scenery

round, 133.Hotham, Sir Charles, 219, 225.Hovel/ and Hume, early explorations

of, 45, 177.Hunter, Governor, 94.Hutt, Governor, 293.

Interior, exploration of, 33.

Jackson, Port. discovered, 20.Jeffreys, Lieutenant, 137.Johnson, Rev. Richard, 84.

Kangaroo, 24, 73,Kennedy, Edm., explorations of, 47.

Kennedy, Governor. 307.King George Sound, 284.

Land jobbers, 191.Landsborigh's expedition, 53.La Perouse, 82.Latrobe, Charles Joseph, 194, 218.Launceston. 160.Lefroy's explorations, 54.Leichardt, explorations of, 46.Licence fee, 218, 220.Lyre bird, 40.

Macarthur, Captain John, 92.Macquarie, Governor, 98.Major, Mr. R. H.. 2.Marsupials a link in creation, 75.Melbourne, 193, 203, 214, 237 ; anar-

chy, 217 ; map, 238; parliamenthouse, 239.

Missions in New South Wales, 108;in South Australia, 275.

Money, scarcity of in Tasmania, 142.Moreton Bay. 316.Murchison, Sir Roderick, opinion

on gold-bearing rocks, 56.Murray, Lieutenant John, 174.Murray River, 177.

Natural History., 59.New Guinea, 3.New Holland, 10, 283.Naw SOUTH WALES, 77, 82; formally

taken possession of by CaptainCook for George ill., 31; cat tle in,105; fruits of. 106; population andcondition of, in 1836, 107, 112;statistics for 1850-1, 112 ; gov-ernment of, 113 ; statistics, 18114,123.

Nomenclature of Australia, 140.NORTH AUSTRALIA, 280.Nuts Land, discovery of, 5.

Officer, cruel conduct of, 149.Opossum, mode of hunting, 9, 69.Ostrich, Australian, 41.

Pear tree of Australia. 62.Pelsart, Commodore, quoted, 6.Perth, 314.-Petition from Tasmania, 164.Phillip, Governor, founder of the

colony of N. S. Wales, 82 ; chara,-ter of, 85 ; return to England, 90.

Physical geography, 55.Plants of Australia, Mr. Banks' and

Dr. Solander's description of, 28;cherry tree, 62 ; ferns, 63.

Political aspirants, 234.Port Jackson, harbour of, 125.Portland Bay whaling station, 179.

344

INDEX.

Portuguese, first discoverers, 2.Printing Press set up in Sydney, 97.Prospecting, 169.Provisions, high price of, 190, 251.

QUEENSLAND, 316 ; wool-growing,320; " prospecting" for gold, 321 ;separation of, 322 ; statistics, 323 ;emigration regulations, 324; trade,325 ; religion and education, 327 ;crime, 328 ; timber, 330.

Quiros, Don Pedro de, 3.

Railways, 236.Religious Denominations, 111, 114.Rifiley's reaping machine, 257./tiot at Ballarat, 221.Rivert characteristics of, 44.RqbinSon's plan for winning the

natives, T56.Road-making, 94.

Sabbath Atirattanee, 89.Scotchmen WHobart Town, 134.Sea-cow,Seasops in Australia, 60.

boteding of, 92 ; sheep-.6-Prajteng, 102, 186, 188, 197.Shepherds, wages of, 198,Somerset, 332.Sorell, Governor Colonel, 144.SOUTH AUSTRALIA, 241 ; extent of,

244 ; wheat, 256 ; statistics, 257,265 ; discovery of copper and lead,258, 260 ; legislative council, 267 ;agricultural and other statistics,271 ; regard to religion, 276 ; edu-cation in, 277 ; immunity fromcrime, 278.

South Australian Association, 243.Spanish, Dutch and Portuguese en-

terprising in discovery, 2-4.Squatters, 185, 189.Station Peak, 175.Stirling, Governor, 286, 293; ad-

dress to, 289.Stuart's explorations, 1858-61, 50.Sturt. Captain, 43.Summary, 333.Surveying staff, under Messrs. Oxley

and Evans, in 1812, 41.

Swan River, 285 ; distress, 288 ; sta-tistics, 294 ; petition for convictlabour, 296, 302 ; religion andeducation, 297 ; mining, 311 ; tim-ber, 313 ; trade, 313.

Sydney, 37, 97 ; public buildings,127 ; map of, 126.

Sydney Gazette, 97.Sydney Cove, 125.

Tasman, Abel Jansen, 7 ; account ofhis discoveries, 9.

TASMANIA, formerly named VanDiemen's Land, 9 ; considered aspart of continent till 1798, 34;history, 128 ; topography, 136 ;sheep breeding, 139 ; money, 142 ;aborigines, 149; trade with themainland. 165 ; departure of con-victs, 165 ; declension, 167 ; statis-tics, 1863, 170 ; prospects, 171.

Telegraph, 282.Thomson, Dr., 182.Tierra del Espiritu Santo, 3.Torrens' land system, :.78.Torres. Lois Vaez de. 3.Tribulation, Cape, 22.

Van Diemen, Governor-General, 7, 9.Vandemonians and Sydneyites, 183.VicroatA, 172, '200 ; a free colony,

176 ; size, 187 ; separation of, 202 ;government, f.02, 225; statisticsof progress, 200, 203, 226-233 ;revenue, 235 ; railwa∎ s, 236.

Volcanoes, absence of, 57.

Wakefield, Edward Gibbon, 242.WEST AUSTRALIA, 283 ;/free settle.

ment, 285 ; distress, 288 ; prefer-ential land-clauns; 291 ; statistics,294, 313 ; public works, 301; crime,302 ; population, 304; exodus offree inhabitants, 309.

Wilmot, Sir Eardly. 163.Wine-making, 106, 269.Wool, price of first Australian, 100;

amounts exported, 101, 104.Wright, Captain, 176.

York, Cape, 3.Young, Sir Henry, 169.

-f-r,- *"Aliii.K.N " 11,ALITUD CO., PRINTERS, CAIIIDEN N.W.

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