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PeriodisationandPhysicalPerformanceinEliteFemaleSoccerPlayers
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“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Note. This article will be published in a forthcoming issue of the
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance. The
article appears here in its accepted, peer-reviewed form, as it was
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Section: Original Investigation
Article Title: Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players
Authors: Jocelyn K. Mara, Kevin G. Thompson, Kate L. Pumpa, and Nick B. Ball
Affiliations: The authors are with the University of Canberra, Research Institute for Sport
and Exercise (UC-RISE), Bruce, ACT, Australia.
Journal: International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
Acceptance Date: January 8, 2015
©2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1123/ijspp.2014-0345
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
TITLE PAGE
1. Title: Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players
2. Submission Type: Original Investigation
3. Authors:
1. Jocelyn K. Mara, University of Canberra, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise
(UC-RISE)
2. Kevin G. Thompson, University of Canberra, Research Institute for Sport and
Exercise (UC-RISE)
3. Kate L. Pumpa, University of Canberra, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise
(UC-RISE)
4. Nick B. Ball, University of Canberra, Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UC-
RISE)
4. Contact Details:
Name: Jocelyn Mara
Institution: University of Canberra
Mail Address: University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, 2617, Australia
Telephone: +61 401 282 123
Email: [email protected]
5. Preferred Running Head: Periodisation & Performance in Soccer
6. Abstract Word Count: 220
7. Text-Only Word Count: 3252
8. Number of Figures and Tables: 2 figures, 0 tables
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
ABSTRACT
Purpose: To investigate the variation in training demands, physical performance and player
wellbeing across a female soccer season. Methods: Seventeen elite female players wore GPS
tracking devices during every training session (n = 90) throughout one national league
season. Intermittent high-speed running capacity, 5, 15 and 25m sprint testing were
conducted at the beginning of preseason, end of preseason, midseason and end of season. In
addition, subjective wellbeing measures were self-reported daily by players over the course
of the season. Results: Time over 5m was lowest at the end of preseason (mean = 1.148s, SE
= 0.017s), but then progressively deteriorated to the end of the season (p < 0.001). Sprint
performance over 15m improved by 2.8% (p = 0.013) following preseason training; while
25m sprint performance peaked at midseason, with a 3.1% (p = 0.05) improvement from the
start of preseason, before declining at the end of season (p = 0.023). Training demands varied
between phases with total distance and high-speed distance greatest during preseason before
decreasing (p < 0.001) during the early and late season phases. Endurance capacity and
wellbeing measures did not change across training phases. Conclusions: Monitoring training
demands and subsequent physical performance in elite female soccer players allow coaches
to ensure training periodisation goals are being met, and related positive training adaptations
are being elicited.
KEYWORDS: Women’s football, training, seasonal variation, sprint, endurance
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
INTRODUCTION
Periodisation is the systematic planning and variation of training demands, with the
aim of optimising physical condition and minimising injury (1). A typical periodisation plan
involves phases or cycles of varying training demands and goals (power, endurance)
programmed across pre-season, early competition, late competition and transition phases. A
purposeful change in training volume and intensity between training phases subsequently
alters the physical condition of players, warranting the need for regular monitoring of both
external (training prescribed by coaches) and internal (the physiological response elicited by
training) training loads (2). The concept of periodising training into phases is widely accepted
and implemented within elite female soccer, despite a lack of scientific evidence to support
its application.
Training demands can be quantified objectively by player tracking systems (such as
global and local positioning devices) and heart rate monitors, and subjectively through self-
report scales such as rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and muscle soreness (3). Tracking
devices provide comprehensive information related to physical performance such as distances
covered, velocities, accelerations and decelerations. Coupled with match data, inferences can
be made regarding the relative physical demand of training sessions, whether training
stimulus targets were achieved and to avoid overtraining. In addition to objective measures
of training demands, subjective questionnaires that encompass perceived muscle soreness,
fatigue and sleep patterns are economical methods to monitor player wellbeing and thus
provide a holistic approach to elite athlete monitoring (3).
Testing protocols have been designed to mimic and monitor the specific movements
and qualities that are related to high performance in soccer games, such as acceleration,
maximal speed and repeated high-speed running ability. Acceleration and maximal speed are
considered independent characteristics of sprint performance in both male (4) and female (5)
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
soccer players. As such, typical testing protocols include sprint tests of varying distance (e.g.
5m and 20m) to adequately measure both qualities (6), as well as to represent the typical
distances of sprints observed in elite women’s soccer matches (7). High-speed running
performance, and more notably, the ability to recover from high-speed running bouts, are
considered to be the most distinguishable physical characteristic between playing levels, and
are directly related to training status (8,9). The Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery (YYIR) tests
(Level 1 and level 2) are commonly used in elite soccer to assess players’ ability to repeat
bouts of intense exercise. The distance achieved by players in the YYIR2 has been shown to
reflect the amount of running performed during the peak five-minute period in elite men’s
matches (10).
The use of field tests to determine match-specific capabilities provide a practical
alternative for laboratory tests and can be easily implemented within the training
environment. It is commonplace for elite teams to undergo baseline testing at the beginning
and end of preseason and then on a number of occasions during the season to determine if a
high physical level is being maintained (11). Research that has investigated the seasonal
variation in physical performance measures of elite and semi-elite male players have shown
improvements in maximal aerobic capacity, multi-stage fitness test performance (MSFT), and
sprint performance from the beginning of pre-season to mid-season (11–13). Following mid-
season, MSFT performance tends to decline (12), while V̇O2max and sprint have remained
stable to the end of the season (11,12). On the other hand, acceleration and sprint
characteristics in youth female players have been shown to decline across the course of the
season (14). From these studies it would appear that there could be sex differences in
seasonal variations for sprint performance, which highlights the need for sex-specific
research.
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Despite investigations into the seasonal changes in physical measures, changes in
physical performance and wellbeing that occur from purposeful variation in training demands
have yet to be thoroughly explored, particularly in female players across an entire season. As
such, the main aim of the current study was to investigate the variation in training demands,
physical performance and player wellbeing according to training phase in female soccer
players. A secondary aim of this study was to examine the relationships between training
demands, physical performance and player wellbeing.
METHODS
Subjects
Seventeen elite female soccer players (mean height = 172.9cm ± 5.5cm, mean body
mass = 64.3kg ± 5.9kg) from the same national league team participated in this study.
Goalkeepers were excluded from this study. Prior to commencing the study, institutional
ethical approval was granted and subjects were thoroughly informed of the procedures of the
study by verbal and written communication. All players that participated in the study
provided written informed consent.
Methodology
This study was an observational study. Training periodisation was implemented by
the club’s coaching staff and the training season was divided into three training phases
consisting six weeks each of pre-season, early season and late season (Figure 1). Testing
sessions occurred at the transition of each training phase:
1. At the start of pre-season training (START-PRE)
2. At the end of pre-season training and at the start of the competition (END-PRE)
3. At the midpoint of the season (MS)
4. At the end of the season (ES)
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
During the competition phases, fitness testing sessions were performed no sooner than
72 hours post-match to allow for adequate recovery from neuromuscular fatigue (15).
Body Composition
Body composition testing was conducted at START-PRE and ES and was determined
by a Dual X-Ray Absorptiometry (DXA) scan (16). All DXA scans were conducted in the
morning between 7am and 9am, and participants were instructed not to eat or drink prior to
being scanned. Total body mass, percent body fat, and percent lean muscle were collected.
Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test
The YYIR2 is an intermittent running test, consisting 2x20m shuttle runs separated by
a 10 second active recovery interval. The test begins at an average running speed of 13 km/h
and progressively increases in speed until participants fail to reach the line by the required
audio bleep (17). Participants’ scores were recorded as the equivalent distance achieved,
excluding the active recovery phase. To analyse the variation in YYIR2 performance
throughout the season, participants were grouped into “high” and “low” YYIR2 scores by a
median split of the equivalent distance achieved at START-PRE. The validity and reliability
of the YYIR2 for measuring the intermittent high-speed running capacity of soccer players
has been reported elsewhere (17,18).
Acceleration and Sprint Testing
Acceleration and sprint speed were assessed by individual 5m, 15m and 25m sprint
tests using electronic timing gates (Smartspeed, Fusion Sport, Cardiff, UK) accurate to 0.01
seconds. Participants were instructed to begin the sprint from a stand-still position half a
meter behind the first timing gate to ensure the timing gate beam was not broken prematurely
(12). Participants completed the test twice each, with adequate active recovery
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
(approximately 5 minutes) between repetitions. The participants’ fastest times were included
in the data analysis.
Player Wellbeing Questionnaire
Participants were asked to electronically record subjective scores related to their
current wellbeing each morning during preseason, early season and late season using a cloud-
based spreadsheet interface (Google Drive, Google, California, USA). Participants recorded
perceived muscle soreness and fatigue on a scale of 1-10 adapted from the Borg CR-10,
where 1 equals minimal muscle soreness and fatigue and 10 equals maximum muscle
soreness and fatigue (3). The Borg CR-10 has been shown to be a valid method for the
subjective assessment of muscle soreness and fatigue (19). Participants also recorded the
number of hours they had slept the previous night.
Training Demands
Participants wore 15Hz global positioning devices (SPI HPU, GPSports Systems,
Canberra, Australia) during all (n = 90) training sessions across the course of the season.
Total distance (m), high-speed distance (>3.4m/s) (HSD) sprinting (>5.4m/s), high-intensity
acceleration (>2m/s2) and deceleration (<-2m/s2) counts were collected for all training
sessions and were compared based on training phase (preseason, early season and late
season). Velocity thresholds were chosen based on recommendations for determining high-
speed running thresholds in female soccer players (20) and were similar to recently used
thresholds in previous research (21).
Match and Training Schedule
The team played a total of five friendly matches during the pre-season phase and 11
matches (10 round games and a semi-final game) in the competitive season. A typical weekly
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
in-season training structure consisted of one game, followed by two recovery days, one
conditioning, one skill and two tactical sessions.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS version 21.0 (SPSS Inc, Chicago, IL).
A paired-samples t-test was used to determine any changes in body composition from
START-PRE to ES. Repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) tests were conducted
to determine the variation in YYIR2 and sprint performance across the course of the season.
A one-way ANOVA examined the differences in training variables between training phases,.
Where appropriate, Bonferroni post-hoc analyses were conducted to examine pairwise
comparisons. Friedman’s test assessed the difference in self-report wellbeing scores between
training phases. Pearson’s r and spearman’s rho correlations were used to determine the
relationship between training demands, player wellbeing and physical performance tests. In
addition to acquiring statistical significance (p < 0.05), Cohen’s d and r (small = 0.2; medium
= 0.5, large = 0.8) effect size and partial eta-squared (η2) (small = 0.01; medium = 0.06; large
= 0.14) statistics were also used to measure the magnitude of difference (22).
RESULTS
Body Composition
Mean total body mass was 64.38kg (SD = 5.94kg) at START-PRE and 65.16kg (SD =
6.79kg) at ES (p = 0.432, d = 0.12). Percent body fat was 21.45% (SD = 6.03) at START-
PRE and 22.36% (SD = 6.37) at ES (p = 0.300, d = 0.15), while percent lean muscle was
73.77% (SD = 6.17) at START-PRE and 72.82% (SD = 6.52, d = 0.15) at ES.
Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery Test
The mean distance achieved during the YYIR2 was 425m (SD = 122m) at START-
PRE, 400m (SD = 95m) at END-PRE, 420m (SD = 122m) at MS, and 450m (SD = 118m) at
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
ES. However, there were no differences shown in YYIR2 performance between training
phases (p = 0.195, partial η2 = 0.197). The mean distance achieved by “high” YYIR2
performers was 600m (SD = 57m), 520m (SD = 11m), 580m (SD = 85m) and 560m (SD =
57m) for START-PRE, END-PRE, MS and ES, respectively. In addition, “low” YYIR2
performers achieved 392m (SD = 18m), 384m (SD = 46m), 392m (SD = 52m) and 440m (SD
= 102m) for the respective training phases. There were no differences in YYIR2 performance
between training phases for the “high” YYIR2 performers (p = 0.314, partial η2 = 0.648) or
“low” YYIR2 performers (p = 0.313, partial η2 = 0.248).
Acceleration and Sprint Performance
There were differences in 5m (p = 0.001, partial η2 = 0.711), 15m (p = 0.002, partial
η2 = 0.700) and 25m (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.775) sprint performance between training
phases (Figures 2a-2c).
Player Wellbeing
There were no differences (p > 0.05, d = 0.00 – 0.14) in mean hours of sleep between
preseason (mean = 7.8, SD = 0.8), early season (mean = 7.8, SD = 0.5) and late season (mean
= 7.7, SD = 0.6). Median fatigue scores were reported to be 3.5, 3.1 and 3.2 for preseason,
early season and late season, respectively (p = 0.056, r = 0.36 - 0.56). Similarly, median
muscle soreness scores were reported to be 3.8, 3.3 and 3.5 for the respective training phases
(p = 0.269. r = 0.31 – 0.41).
Training Demands
The mean distance covered during training sessions were 6646m (SD = 111m) during
preseason, 5437m (SD = 106m) during early season and 4604m (SD = 110m) during late
season (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.38). In addition, the mean high-speed running distance was
1415m (SD = 42m) during preseason, 1027m (SD= 40m) during early season and 742m (SD
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
= 41m) during late season (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.32). Similarly, there was a decline in
sprint, acceleration and deceleration counts between training phases. It was observed that
mean sprint counts during training sessions were 27 (SD = 15) for preseason, 24 (SD = 9) for
early season and 15 (SD = 9) for late season. Acceleration counts were 56 (SD = 19) for
preseason, 49 (SD = 14) for early season and 32 (SD = 18) for late season. Deceleration
counts were 22 (SD = 10) during preseason, 20 (SD = 10) during early season and 12 (SD =
9) during late season. A multivariate ANOVA with Bonferroni post-hoc analyses showed
differences in all counts (p < 0.001) between all phases, with the exception of sprint and
Relationships between Training Demands, Wellbeing and Physical Performance
Pearson’s r correlations showed relationships between training variables and YYIR2
performance during the preseason and early season phases, but not the late season phase.
YYIR2 performance at START-PRE was shown to have relationships with total distance (r =
0.599, p = 0.03) high-speed distance (r = 0.708, p = 0.01) and acceleration count (r = 0.554, p
= 0.05) during training sessions in preseason. In addition, Spearman’s rho tests revealed
negative correlations between total distance covered in training and muscle soreness in the
early season phase (r = -0.571, p = 0.041) and high speed distance covered in training and
muscle soreness in the late season phase (r = -0.577, p = 0.039). However, there were no
correlations between training and wellbeing variables in the preseason phase, or wellbeing
and physical testing variables across the season.
DISCUSSION
This is the first study to examine the seasonal variations in physical performance,
body composition and player wellbeing with respect to training demands. The main findings
were 1) Total distance, high-speed distance and acceleration counts during training sessions
declined across all phases from preseason to late season; 2) 5m acceleration peaked following
preseason and then declined at the end of season; 15m sprint performance improved from the
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
start to the end of preseason and then remained stable throughout the season; and 25m sprint
performance improved from the start of preseason to midseason and then declined at the end
of season; 3) YYIR2 performance and player wellbeing remained stable across the course of
the season. The secondary aim of this study was to examine the relationship between training
demands, physical performance and player wellbeing. It was found that players that
performed better in the YYIR2 at the start of preseason also covered greater total distances,
high-speed distances and performed more acceleration counts during preseason.
Training demands fluctuated between preseason and early season, with observed
declines in all training variables following preseason. These findings were expected as a
traditional preseason phase aims to improve the physical condition of players following the
transition period (i.e. the off-season) in which a detraining effect commonly occurs (12).
Decreasing the training demands during the season can be explained by the increase in
competitive match-play, and thus, an attempt by the coach to taper players in the training
sessions preceding a match and provide adequate recovery in the days following. It can also
be suggested that travelling for away games may have interfered with the regular training
schedule, and may have also influenced the training demands during the early and late season
phases.
Both 5m and 15m sprint performance peaked following the preseason training phase,
with improvements identified between the start and end of preseason for 15m. These results
are in line with previous findings (12) however unlike the current study, 15m sprint
performance has been shown to improve until the middle of season, whilst the present
findings showed decrements in 5m and 15m performance following preseason. Despite this,
25m sprint performance improved and peaked during the middle of season and the greatest
decrements were shown at the end of season. This finding was in line with previous results in
youth (under 13 and under 15 years) female soccer players (14). The varying degrees of
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
improvement between the shorter (5m and 15m) and longer distance sprint tests (25m)
support the concept that acceleration and maximum speed are specific characteristics, and are
relatively unrelated (4). In light of this, acceleration and maximum speed should be trained
and tested accordingly.
In the current study YYIR2 performance did not improve following preseason
training, which is in contrast to previous research reporting increases in male soccer players
following preseason training before stabilising during the season phases (18). However, the
seasonal changes in YYIR2 performance have not been previously established in female
soccer players and as such comparisons are difficult to draw upon. One study has found that
following the preseason training phase Yo-Yo Intermittent Endurance (YYIE2) test
performance improved in elite female soccer players (23). Similarly, in elite male players
multi-stage fitness test performance (12), YYIR1 performance (18) and V̇O2 max (11) have
been shown to improve following preseason. However, it should be noted that the YYIE2 and
YYIR1 tests begin at a lower intensity than the YYIR2 and the incremental progression in
running intensity is different between tests. As such, this may be a potential reason for the
conflicting findings between previous literature and the current findings. Future research
should examine the training stimulus through heart rate measures to more thoroughly
examine the cardiovascular demands experienced by players and the impact on performance
outcomes. In addition, while 72 hours was allowed between a training session or game and a
testing session, future research should also consider the optimal time to implement a testing
session to ensure full recovery and training adaptations to occur.
Body composition (total body mass, percent body fat and percent lean muscle) did
not change from the start of preseason to the end of the season. This finding is in contrast to a
number of observations made by previous researchers in elite male soccer players which
percent body fat decreased from the beginning to the end of the training season (11–13,24).
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
However, there are no previously reported information regarding the seasonal changes in
body composition using DXA scans in female soccer players. Future research in this area is
warranted to determine any sex-specific differences in the way body composition changes as
a result of a soccer season.
Subjective player wellbeing scores remained steady throughout the season, with the
exception of a trend (p = 0.056, r = 0.56) showing that fatigue scores decreased from
preseason to early season. A negative moderate relationship was found between total distance
covered in training and muscle soreness during the early season phase and between high-
speed distance and muscle soreness during the late season phase. These findings indicated
that higher muscle soreness values were associated with lower total distance covered at
training sessions earlier in the season, and as players were exposed to prolonged levels of
muscle soreness, decrements were shown more so in high-speed distance.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
The physical demands of training sessions declined from preseason to the early
competition phase. This coincided with a decrease in acceleration and sprint performance
suggesting a decrease in power output throughout the season which has been shown
previously. There was a lack of improvement in YYIR2 performance between the preseason
and early season phase, which may indicate training was not providing the desired training
stimulus, and modifying the preseason conditioning plan may be warranted. It is exceedingly
important for coaches to approach athlete monitoring holistically, as these results demonstrate
that declines in training demands following preseason are not always accompanied by a
decrease in muscle soreness and fatigue levels in players. Monitoring training demands and
subsequent physical performance in elite female soccer players allow coaches to ensure
training periodisation goals are being met, and related positive training adaptations are being
elicited.
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
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“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Figure 1. Training demands, periodisation and physical testing structure. Distance and high-
speed distance are represented as mean training values per session for each week.
“Periodisation and Physical Performance in Elite Female Soccer Players” by Mara JK, Thompson KG, Pumpa KL, Ball NB
International Journal of Sports Physiology and Performance
© 2015 Human Kinetics, Inc.
Figure 2a. 5m acceleration performance during the season
Figure 2b. 15m sprint performance during the season
Figure 2c. 25m sprint performance during the season
* Difference (p < 0.05) compared with END-PRE; # Difference (p < 0.05) compared to
START-PRE; ^ Difference (p < 0.05) compared to ES