(Proceedings) - GSCM NIDA

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ISBN : 978-974-231-886-4

e-Proceedings

The 1st International Conference on Innovative Communication and

Sustainable Development in ASEAN

9-10 August 2015

Wichian Lattipongpun, Editor

ISBN (E-book) : 978-974-231-886-4

Copyright © 2015

by

Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation,

National Institute of Development Administration

All right Reserved

Authors are responsible for the accuracy of citations, quotations, diagrams,

tables, and map.

1st Published 2015

By

Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation,

National Institute of Development Administration

i

Editorial Board

Editor in Chief:

Dr. Wichian Lattipongpun, National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand

Members:

Assoc.Prof. Ubolwan Premsrirat National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Prof. Yubol Benjarongkij, Ph.D. National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Dr. Pornpun Prajaknate National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Asst.Prof. Dianlin Huang, Ph.D. Communication University of China, China

Suhaini Muda Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia

Dr. Nik Adzrieman Abdul Rahman Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia Asst.Prof. Aida Binti Mokhtar, Ph.D. International Islamic University Malaysia, Malaysia

International Advisory Board Members

Assoc.Prof. Jitraporn Sudhivoraseth, Ph.D. National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Assoc.Prof. Patchanee Cheyjunya National Institute of Development Administration, Thailand Prof. Naren Chitty, Ph.D. Macquarie University, Australia Prof. Howard Comb, Ph.D. San Jose State University, United State of America Prof. Che Su Mustaffa, Ph.D. Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia

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Assistants to the Editor:

Wasin Praditsin Thanchanok Junrungrueng

Important Notes:

1. In regards to the cultural diversities, all contributors are endured to express on their voices. Therefore, the abstracts/papers are presented as the original manuscripts. The contributors are entirely accountable for plagiarism and copyrights.

2. Twenty-five-percent (25%) of the Editorial Board from aboard meets the requirement of the Office for National Education Standard and Quality Assessment (ONESQA)’s Guidelines and Assessment Methods for an International Conference.

Contents

1. The Innovation of Internet Memes in Thai Political Communication: A Case Study of Opposition to the Amnesty Bill in 2013

Karit Limtrakul and Kullatip Satararuji

1

2. Islam and Advertising: The Ideal Stakeholder Perspective Aida Mokhtar and Sofiah Samsudin

12

3. Interpersonal Communication Pattern of Student Working as Commercial Sex Workers in Padang West Sumatra Province, Indonesia

Elva Ronaning Roem

37

4. Learners’ Acceptance toward Flipped Classroom Pradit Songsangyos and Namon Jeerungsuwan

51

5. Chat and Share: Digital Learning for Thai Teens Kullatip Satararuji and Bhubate Samutachak

56

6. The Implementation of Online Promotion on Small and Medium Enterprises in Creating Buying Interest

Meilani Dhamayanti

63

7. Thai medium sized newspapers under the technological change Sukanlaya Kongpradit

78

8. A Study on New Media Literacy of University Students as Online Video Users

Yiqun Geng and Yan Ruan

89

9. Facebook Journalism: The Influences of Social Media on Journalistic Work in Taiwan

Liu, Chang-de

107

10. Celebrity, Youth, and New Media on Human Trafficking Issues: The Case of MTV EXIT’s Social Campaign

Lidwina Mutia Sadasri

119

11. The Development of a Structural Equation Model of the Communication Factors in Promoting the Participation in Accepting the Potential for Tourism in the Area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River

Kirati Kachentawa, Jaruwan Kittinaraporn,

Pimnara Banjong, Puntarika Rawikul,

Sunantiga Pangchuti, and Chatchawee Kongdee

141

12. Destination Branding: Brand Management and Brand Engagement of Health and Wellness Tourism in Thailand and the ASEAN region

Jiraporn Prommaha

159

13. Pieces of Me: Selfie Culture Trends Dian Arymami

184

14. Convergent Aims of Collaborative Partnership in a Sustainable Community Service Organisation to Empower Underprivileged Children

Suhaini Muda

197

15. The Theory of Sustainability Transformation in Social-Ecological System (SES): The Triple Morphogenesis Approach

Qiyan Wang, Masakazu Yamashita, and Hiroshi Takeda

212

16. Cultural Industries in China ZHU Zhenming

226

17. Systematic Review: Marketing Communication of Thai Herbal Products to Enhance Potential in Becoming Global Products

Malinee Sompopcharoen and Vanvisa Sresumatchai

243

18. Perception of Teenagers in Padang city about Messages in Public Service Advertising of BKKBN “Ideal Age of Marriage and Pregnancy” version Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu

Ghina Novarisa

254

19. Academic Use of Forums in eLearning - Perceptions, Findings and Truths Kuldeep Nagi

263

20. The Creation of a Live Performance Project for Visually Impaired People in Thailand: A Case Study of “The Dreamer: Senses of Dream, Sounds of Infinity” Live Performance

Chonlathip Poonsirivong

278

The 1st International Conference on Innovative Communication and Sustainable Development in ASEAN

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The Innovation of Internet Memes in Thai Political Communication: A Case Study of

Opposition to the Amnesty Bill in 20131

Karit Limtrakul2

Kullatip Satararuji3

Abstract

This study has 3 important objectives, namely: 1) to study patterns and types of the Internet memes used in Thai political communication for the objection against the draft Amnesty Bill in 2013, 2) to study online channels through which the Internet memes were used in political communication to oppose the Amnesty Bill in 2013, and 3) to study impacts of the innovation of Internet meme in political communication on the opposition to the Amnesty Bill in 2013. Qualitative methodology was applied to collect data from academic papers as well as a survey of Facebook postings and websites during October 18, to December 19, 2013, from 10 sources such as https://th-th.facebook.com/antiamnesty and www.anticorruption.in.th/ etc. which were used in the communication for a common objection against the Amnesty Bill in 2013. An interview was also conducted with Mr. Kunuch Chutmongkolporn, a developer of the application that eventually turned to be a number of Internet memes used extensively in the objection against the Amnesty Bill in 2013.

The study found that the posting of comments/opinions on electronic media which became political Internet memes could be classified into 6 patterns, namely: self-promoting, inadvertent celebrity, urban rumors and hoaxes, advertising and marketing, image editing, and references to pop culture. Of all these 6 patterns of posting, the Internet memes could then be categorized into 4 types, as follows: text Internet meme, picture Internet meme, picture and text Internet meme and video clip Internet meme. The key channels through which the Internet memes were used in Thai political communication were websites and Facebook. There were slightly more uses of the website channel than the Facebook channel. Moreover, it was found that the picture and text Internet meme of the references to pop culture pattern was the innovative Internet meme in Thai political communication that gained high popularity, and their effects could be considered at 2 levels. The first level was the impact on online social media users who accepted and applied the innovative Internet meme to communicate their opposition to the Amnesty Bill in 2013. The second level was its success in stimulating political awareness and partly became a pressure that led to the Government’s withdrawal of the Amnesty Bill in 2013 and further to the dissolution of parliament.

Keywords: innovation, Internet meme, Amnesty Bill, Thai political communication

1 This article is a partial fulfillment of requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts Program in Communication Arts and Innovation, Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation, National Institute Development Administration. 2 Graduate Student, Innovative Communication and Information, Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation, National Institute Development Administration Thailand, email: [email protected] 3 Associate Professor, Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation, National Institute Development Administration Thailand, email: [email protected]


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Introduction

Rationale and Principle

The Royal Thai Government has been based on a constitutional monarchy quite similar to that of the United Kingdom, in which a Prime Minister serves as head of a parliamentary government and a hereditary Thai king has functioned as head of state since 1932. It is formed by a coalition of political parties headed by the Prime Minister. While Thailand has undergone numerous coups d’état since its becoming a constitutional monarchy and politics has been a contentious affair, Thai people are politically active and place high value on their arguably tenuous democracy.

The political phenomenon of the Thai people opposing the legislation of the Amnesty Bill in 2013 was campaigned partly through social networks such as websites, weblogs, Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube, and Line etc., as a device to arouse and call for participation in a systematic opposition against the Bill. During the period, this was evident from the extensively changed profile pictures by online media users to shared logos to symbolize their opposition to the Amnesty Bill, with various created media such as debates, messages, pictures, video clips etc. The shared logos reflected the acceptance and popularity among the social media users and had eventually become an identification of Amnesty Bill opposition groups under a common political ideology. The logos became group identities for those who opposed the draft Amnesty Bill, which were also communicated to other groups of people to gain alliance to widely express their standpoint on the issue.

The logos of the protesting groups against the draft Amnesty Bill were altogether called “Internet memes”, a pattern of cultural thinking, symbol, or operation that could be sent from one person to another via written messages, talking clips, actions, rituals, or various forms of mimicry. Most of them had a characteristic of a symbolic political movement, using Internet media as an important tool. It could be said that “Internet meme” was an important political Internet media innovation using progressive technologies to help copy, modify, imitate and disseminate political thoughts among the groups and those interested people because the use of this creative innovation to improve the mechanism of political management to serve political objective(s) of the related groups resulted in political grouping to jointly run political activities to achieve the common objectives as set. This had behavioral characteristics or cultural characteristics which were sent in the form of an imitation of other ideas to support political Internet meme thinking. By that time, it was expected that political communication would play an active role in the opposition to the Amnesty Bill. However, there was no systematic study to explore the patterns, channels, and outcome of the Internet innovation on political communication. Therefore, the researcher was interested to study the utilization of Internet memes to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, as a case study, to be an alternative for efficient usage of an advanced information technology system in political communication, as well as promoting all related social sectors to develop their analytical skills to cope up with the political Internet memes in the future.

Objectives

1) To study patterns, types, and channels of Internet memes used in political communication through online social media to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013.

2) To study the impacts of innovative Internet meme of online social media in political communication on the opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013.


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Research Questions

1) What are patterns, types, and channels of Internet memes employed in political communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013?

2) How innovative Internet meme affects political communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013?

Scope of the Research

This study focuses only on innovative Internet meme used in Thai political communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, the period of 18 October – 9 December 2013, totally 53 days. Data were gathered from various sources, namely: Facebook of 1 Million Names Anti-amnesty of Fraud Doing (https://th-th.facebook.com/antiamnesty), Facebook of Chulalongkorn University Students Denying Amnesty, Facebook of NIDA

United Objecting Amnesty Bill, Facebook of Kasetsart University Students Anti-Amnesty Bill, Anti-corruption Organization of Thailand’s website, and websites and Facebook postings of popular satellite TV channels (Blue Sky TV, ASTV, and T News), and the interview with Mr. Kunuch Chutmongkolporn, a computer engineering student, Kasetsart University, who developed the application to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 which eventually became popular Internet memes.

Expected Outcomes

1) To know patterns, types and channels of Internet memes employed to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013.

2) To raise awareness of using Internet memes as media for political communication and taking innovative Internet meme to be more effectively applied in political communication in similar contexts in the future.

Literature Review

Review literature on political communication, online social media, new media, Internet memes and innovation adoption, literature related to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, and conclude to obtain a research conceptual framework.

Research Methodology

Research Method

Qualitative research was employed by reviewing related documents and studying overall phenomena on innovative Internet meme, which had been used in the communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 from Facebook of 1 Million Names Anti-amnesty of Fraud Doing, Facebook of Chulalongkorn University Students Denying Amnesty, Facebook of NIDA United Objecting Amnesty Bill, Facebook of Kasetsart University Students Anti-Amnesty Bill, Anti-corruption Organization of Thailand’s website and websites and Facebook postings of popular satellite television stations (Blue Sky TV, ASTV, and T News) because those memes had been continuously and quantitatively used through online social media to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill compared to other Facebook postings and websites. The data were summarized and further studied in depth on the posting patterns until they became Internet memes to analyze the number of patterns. The most popular patterns were eventually classified by type and popularity as well as symbolic form, designer, and developer. Furthermore, an interview was employed to get information from the application designer/developer as a key informant on how to design and develop the application, as well as its success by investigating the important channels through which the said innovative Internet meme was communicated with target groups to achieve the political objective. The

https://th-th.facebook.com/antiamnesty


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last step of the study was to gather and conclude how the innovative Internet meme was applied in the communication and resulted in the opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013.

Conceptual Framework

From the literature review, a conceptual framework could be formulated as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Conceptual Framework

Figure 1 shows the advancement of information technology that gave birth to the Internet and diversified political phenomena in Thailand which created political communication among persons, groups, parties and political institutes via different channels such as Facebook and websites. The contents on Facebook expressed the social direction while websites mainly gave detailed data, as evident from the case of opposing the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 in the forms of symbol/legend and social debate texts, partly through various political communication procedures on an Internet network. Eventually, some of the posts were developed to become an innovative Internet meme in opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, which included different types and channels used in communicating among the groups. This gained high popularity among users and resulted in an extensive impact on macro/national politics. The Internet memes were applied as a symbol of communication to achieve political impact on the target groups in order to effectively achieve the objective set forth from the beginning.

Form, Method, and Study Outcome Presentation

The study was carried out in the form of qualitative research using documentary research and an in-depth interview with the key stakeholder. The criteria to select the interviewee were considered from some selected popular phenomena occurred during the study period on the media, namely: websites and Facebook, as samples. The information gained from the Internet was then reviewed through content analysis plus an interview analysis prior to being written into a study report and submitted to the people concerned.

Advancement of Information Technology

Emerging of Internet

Political Phenomena in Thailand

Political Communication on Internet Network

Innovative Internet meme 1. Patterns and Types of Internet Memes 2. Communication Channels of Memes

Political Symbols, Debates

and Video Clips

Draft Amnesty Bill in 2013

Result of Internet Meme in Thai Political Communication


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Research Results

The study on “The Innovation of Internet Memes in Thai Political Communication: A Case Study of Opposition to the Amnesty Bill in 2013” could be summarized as follows:

1. Patterns of Internet Memes

There were 6 patterns of Internet memes used in the political communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013.

1) Self-promotion: Posting one’s political opinions to intentionally create his/her popularity flow among members of online social network and disseminate the messages to other related sectors.

2) Inadvertent Celebrity: To un-intentionally present someone on the online social media to be outstanding. However, it was posted by other people in a joking, pitiful, or panegyric manner, which could be intentionally or un-intentionally posted on the online social media, and gained attention and eventually became popular.

3) Urban Rumors and Hoaxes: A form of opinion expression posted on the online social media, expecting to create a flow of rumors or hoaxes, which could intentionally or un-intentionally create some flows on the online social media. However, it was normally a fun or comedy to the one who posted rather than to the online society.

4) Advertising and Marketing: A form of message posted to express an opinion on online social media with the main objective in marketing and advertising by introducing and advertising goods and services or a business organization. The technique was to create popularity in online social media, with an expectation that the online society would be interested and talk among themselves until the goods and services of the organization gained the highest popularity. It is low cost advertising.

5) Image Editing: Another frequently found and popular form of opinion expression posted on online social media. Normally, the originally image could be modified or edited to mainly make fun. It is a form of online presentation that could be easily produced, modified or edited. Hence, after having been created, it could be further re-edited again and again for many times in order to be consistent with the current flow of the society.

6) References to Pop Culture: To express a comment or opinion on online social media by taking into consideration the ruling pop cultural trends at the moment and presenting them on online social media in order to initiate popularity which would lead to a similar political objective.

2. Types of Internet Memes

There were 4 types of Internet memes used in the political media to object the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, as follows:

1) Text Internet Meme was heavily used to express opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013. The text could be straightly expressed, funny, sarcastic, or even hate speeches. This type of Internet meme appeared in a certain amount in this study.

2) Picture Internet Meme was another type used to express an opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 in the online social media. It consisted of pictures conveying a direct, funny, sarcastic opinion, and also hate images.

3) Picture and Text Internet Meme was another type that featured a mixture of both picture and text to create a clear and straight forward message for a better


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understanding of the online social media users. There were objection comments against the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, which could be directly expressed in a politically sarcastic way, funny, or with a hate speech.

4) Video Clip Internet Meme was one of the most popular Internet memes used to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill in the direct, funny, sarcastic ways and eventually created hate for the other side.

3. Channels to Use Internet Memes

There were 2 channels used for the political communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 based on data collected from the online social media, as shown in Table 1.

Table 1: Percentage of patterns used to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill via Facebook and websites

Table 1 shows two channels of data through which Internet memes to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 were created. It was discovered that 57.2% of the Internet memes were posted through websites and 42.8% through Facebook, a difference of 14.4%. It might be possible that the clientele would like to get in-depth information and turned to search for it in websites, resulting in a higher percentage of users on websites rather than Facebook as indicated in Table 1.

4. Results of Political Communication by Innovative Internet Meme to Oppose

the Draft Amnesty Bill of 2013

From data analysis, it was found that political communication using innovative Internet meme to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 had 2 outcomes, which were:

1) Users of online social communication accepted the innovative Internet meme and would like to use it to communicate their opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 by posting in various patterns, similar to the Arab Spring to arouse Thai people to rise up against the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, like the uprisings by Arabian people to successfully rally and expel their leader. The popular Internet memes used to serve this purpose featured a picture and text as shown in Figure 2.

Source of Data

Type of Internet Meme (percentage)

Total Text Picture

Picture and Text

Video Clip

1. Facebook 40.97 38.98 46.54 40.88 42.80

2. Websites 59.03 61.02 53.46 59.12 57.20

Total 14.73 20.96 40.69 23.62 100.00


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Figure 2: A picture and text Internet meme that gained the highest popularity to be used against the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 (“Caricature Meme Gathering,” 2013).

2) The Internet memes opposing the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 were adapted to be an application and had been used extensively in the online social media to communicate the users’ opposition to the Bill. In addition, it was found that there was an extended use of the application as a symbol of the opposition to the draft Bill by the mass protesters. It eventually became a part of success in forcing the government to dissolve the parliament on 9th December 2013.

Conclusion, Discussion and Recommendation

1. Conclusion of the Study

It was found that the success in opposing the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013, resulting in the government’s withdrawal of the draft Bill and dissolution of parliament was due partly to the use of Internet meme communication within the online social network, which awakened the target groups in the society to be aware that the majority of Thai society disagreed with the government. There were many people in the online social network opposing the draft Bill through the online mechanism and innovative Internet meme, which could be summarized as in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Summary of occurring mechanism and utilization of innovative Internet meme in Thai political communication

Posting to Express Political Opinion via Online Social Media

Self-promotion Inadvertent Celebrity Urban Rumors and Hoaxes Advertising and Marketing Image Editing References to Pop Culture

Thai Communication Culture Via Online Social Media

Political Phenomenon

Inno

vativ

e Id

ea

Vir

al M

arke

ting

Acceptance and Modification


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Figure 3 shows the occurring mechanism of Thai political Internet meme. Internet meme is regarded as an international culture which can be generally found on online social media, with an origin from Western countries. However, this culture is in line with Thai social culture in which people prefer grouping for a chitchat, gossip, or ironic and sarcastic talk etc. for fun as well as learning facts from occurring phenomena in society. The culture has been expressed in different forms and has become part of Thai communication culture in the online social media. Hence, when a political phenomenon happens with too many Thai citizens becoming stakeholders, and extensive confusion and alienation of their thinking, leading to a conflict or fight on thoughts, if the context of the political phenomenon at that time gains social attention, various groups will come out and post their political opinions and thoughts via online social media in different patterns such as self-promotion, inadvertent celebrity, urban rumors and hoaxes, advertising and marketing, image editing, and references to pop culture. These online social media patterns were posted in websites, Facebook, Line groups etc. through creative thinking plus viral marketing to make the presented patterns gain a momentum of popularity from online social media users and eventually became political Internet memes. The Thai political Internet memes could be classified into 4 major types, namely: Text Internet Meme, Picture Internet Meme, Text and Picture Internet Meme, and Video Clip Internet Meme. After having been posted on online social media, it depended on online media users whether or not to appreciate and accept the memes to be further adapted and used to communicate their political opinions, or other forms of communication.

It was also found that innovative Internet meme in the communication to oppose the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 that was created, accepted and applied in this phenomenon had an easily-recognized characteristic that looked familiar and was popular among the public in general and various organizations, which made it easier to understand, especially, after applying viral marketing in online social media as well as in Thai society. It was accepted and widely and increasingly applied from time to time. Even at present, the Internet meme patterns are still applied for communication on other aspects and issues.

2. Discussion

From the study, it was found that the political communication on online social media and websites selected as samples in this study paid attention and accepted that “Internet meme is the innovation in Thai Political Communication” which complied with the study results of Rogers & Shoemaker (1971) and many studies by Thai researchers which agreed that the acceptance of an innovation depended upon 3 aspects, namely: the innovation is easy to be accepted, mechanism to support the acceptance of the innovation, and having factors in compliance with the acceptance of an innovation. The results of this study were consistent with the mentioned concepts and theories.

Regarding the channels for innovative Internet meme in Thai political communication, from the study, there were 2 channels, namely: political websites and Facebook postings. In this study, it was found that users of Internet memes for Thai political communication emphasized on political websites as the principal channel while political Facebook postings were regarded as a minor channel, which also complied with research done by modern Thai and foreign researchers.

However, when taking into consideration the differences between the two Internet meme channels in Thai political communication, it was found that there was not much difference. Faris (2010) found that a simultaneous run of information technology, in Web 2.0, resulted in the online social media being gradually and increasingly developed. In addition to the development of new smart phones and applications which can be easily operated for communication on a smart phone or tablet, resulting in even higher popularity of online


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applications such as Facebook, Line, and Twitter. This was in line with the report by Thailand’s Electronic Transactions Development Agency or ETDA, Ministry of Information and Communication Technology, in that, according to a behavioral survey of Internet users in Thailand in the year 2013, important popular programs used in online communication were Facebook, Line, and Twitter, respectively. Therefore, using an Internet meme for political communication in Thailand could hardly neglect these increasingly popular channels. Vedal (2003) saw many advantages, among which were low capital, direct communication between senders and receivers, and convenient, quick and instant reaction.

Regarding the effects of innovative Internet meme on Thai political communication in this study, it was found that, firstly, the innovative Internet meme in the case of opposing the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 which was developed by Mr. Kunuch Chutmongkolporn gained popularity and became an Internet meme and political application to object the draft Amnesty Bill. Secondly, the use of Internet meme to communicate the opposition to the draft Amnesty Bill of 2013 was successful because it became a part of the pressure that forced the then government to dissolve the parliament. This was because the Internet meme had been accepted and modified to be extensively used in the communication with target groups, resulting in nationwide political awareness.

3. Recommendation

This is a basic qualitative study only. Therefore, to use this study results for some useful purposes, users should always realize that this study will only give internal validity and can explain only the phenomenon of the opposition to the Amnesty Bill of 2013, of which the data were gathered from Facebook and websites. The major recommendations are:

1) There are still needs to study in both qualitative and quantitative manners in order to be more precise on both internal and external validity. This will result in all related sectors using Internet memes for more effective and efficient political communication with their target groups.

2) This study is a case study on the use of Internet memes for negative political communication only. It is suggested that in the future when politics become more creative, there should be a study of the patterns and types of Internet meme in creative political communication by employing the progress of information technology in this changing world.

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Islam and Advertising: The Ideal Stakeholder Perspective

Aida Mokhtar Sofiah Samsudin1

Abstract

The collective responsibility of stakeholders in the making of responsible advertisements is the essence of the multiple perspectives for responsible advertising by Polonsky & Hyman (2007) that is based on the stakeholder theory. This research study aims to contribute to current literature by defining the ideals of responsible advertisements from the Islamic perspective. The purpose of this research study is to examine the concept of Islamic advertising as what it should be rather than what is already practised as Islamic advertising. This qualitative study involves the interviewing of academicians with an Islamic background. The key findings suggest that Islamic advertising can be comparable to propagation if it adheres to the principles of da’wah, is centred on taw d, promotes alāl products and is Shari’ah compliant. The challenge was in defining Islamic advertising as there is seemingly a paradox regarding the association of advertising whose conception was inspired by commercialism, whilst Islam promotes the view of propagation and moderation in consumption. It is hoped that this research study has contributed to current studies on stakeholder theory and defined Islamic advertising in view of Malaysia’s position as the Global Halal Hub.

Keywords: Islamic advertising, Global Halal Hub in Malaysia, stakeholder theory

1 Faculty Member, Kulliyyah of Islamic Revealed Knowledge and Human Sciences, International Islamic University Malaysia


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Introduction

Advertisements are used to inform target audience members about products and persuade them making a purchase. Advertising messages are successful when they move people to action by purchasing products. The capability of advertisements in terms of influencing behaviour as espoused by social learning theory makes the making of responsible messages important. Thus, this paper is focused on the process of making responsible advertisements for alāl products targeted to the Muslim audience in a Muslim majority country like Malaysia.

The multiple perspective of responsibility in advertising is premised on the stakeholder theory. It is understood that a corporation carries out its business with the society in mind. Key stakeholders are identified by Polonsky & Hyman (2007) as being the advertisers (for-profit firms), regulatory bodies, intermediaries and consumers but not limited to these. From the Islamic perspective, there is the need to look at the multiple stakeholder perspective for responsible advertising. But who is the ideal stakeholder?

This study has the purpose of ascertaining the definition of advertising elements, advertising objectives (strategy) and the key stakeholders in the creation of Islamic advertising.

With Malaysia being a Global Halal Hub, it is necessary for us to define Islamic advertising. Comparable to the making of alāl foods, there is the need to understand the process by identifying of the key stakeholders in the making of Islamic advertisements that are responsible advertisements.

Research Questions

1. What is Islamic advertising?

1) What are the objectives of Islamic advertising?

2) What are the principles of Islamic advertising?

2. Who should be the key stakeholders in the creation of Islamic advertising?

Literature Review

There have been few studies carried out on stakeholders in advertising and other marketing communication tools and Islamic advertising. This research study will examine Islamic advertising from the stakeholders’ perspective as there are no studies found that have examined the symbiotic relationship. The marriage of stakeholder and Islamic advertising is found in this research study with the dearth of such a research study.

Stakeholder and Communication Research Studies

Brower & Mahajan (2013) studied how the characteristics of the stakeholder landscape such as an organisation’s sensitivity to stakeholders’ demands, the diversity stakeholders’ demands put on the organisation and the organisation’s exposure to stakeholder scrutiny are related in a positive manner to the breadth of an organisation’s Corporate Social Performance (CSP). The stakeholder theory was used in proposing that several factors increase the prominence and effect of stakeholders’ demands on the organisation but it can have greater breadth. Greater CSP breadth refers to the quantity of different sub-domains of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) based on which an organisation has carried out positive behaviour and this information is recorded using a dataset from Kinder, Lydenburg, & Domini (KLD). The KLD Stats database has measured the social and environmental performance of 4,000 organisations. It measures an organisation’s behaviour rather than


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perception. The findings for the longitudinal sample of 447 organisations in the US from 2000-2007 demonstrate that those which are greatly sensitive to stakeholders’ needs as a consequence of the firm’s underlining of marketing, encountering a wider diversity of stakeholders’ demands and facing a greater degree of scrutiny or risk from stakeholders’ actions have a more profound breadth on CSP in response to the stakeholder landscape.

Chang (2009) carried out a study examining how from the integrated marketing communication perspective, top corporations standardised their regional sites as online audiences are seen as homogenous. Content analysis was carried out on the websites of top brands in the USA, Taiwan and China. The study found that customers, the media, financial communities, investors, communities and channel members were the most targeted and standardised of stakeholders. Advertising was established as the most standardised marketing communication tool. Standardisation was also greatest for service brands. The study went on to develop a Web Standardisation Model from Moriarty and Duncan’s Standardisation Model.

Fam, Waller & Yang (2009) conducted a study using the stakeholder theory to examine the responses of 630 respondents from China to discover who is offended by controversial advertisements. The study also identified ways in which offensive advertisements could be alleviated in the future so that marketers carry out their social responsibilities better. A survey was carried out in the Chinese cities of Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou. The findings indicate that more offence was found on a private product like a condom compared to a public product like alcohol. Values and various generations have had greater impact on condom advertisements than alcohol advertisements. There are apparently different levels of offensiveness that could be explained by the Chinese cultural traditions more so in terms of Confucianism. Understanding the attitudes of the stakeholders is therefore important for a business to be socially responsible.

Jahdi & Acikdilli (2009) studied the role of marketing communication in communicating corporate social responsibility policies of organisations to stakeholders. The impact of the communication on an organisation’s corporate reputation and brand image was also investigated. An in-depth review of the literature was conducted. It was found that marketing communication could make major contributions creating awareness and accentuating a transparent, consistent and socially responsible image for the corporation.

Maignan, Ferrell & Ferrell (2005) provided a complete managerial framework to comprehend and presented a proportionate and integrated stakeholder orientation for applying corporate social responsibility in marketing. Existing literature on the subject was utilised to advocate a methodology to put into practice a well-integrated CSR programme that includes marketing. A grounded framework was provided, outlining the step-by-step approach for implementing CSR from a marketing perspective.

Stumberger & Golob (2015) studied the discourse of employees of advertising agencies through interviews. Different sense-making dimensions were considered when examining how employees, as stakeholders that participate in joint-meaning construction, make sense of CSR. Legitimisation approaches that employees utilise to address CSR of advertising agencies were also studied. It was apparent that there is a connection between sense-making and the legitimation perspective in CSR discourse analysis.

Islamic Advertising Research Studies

Previous research studies have focused on attitude toward advertising of controversial products, presence of religious values in advertisement executions and consumers’ reactions to advertisements containing religious cues or symbols. The latter have been followed


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modestly in the Christian context but not in the Islamic context of advertising (Naseri & Tamam, 2012).

In Malaysia, culture and religion go hand in hand. Most of the cultural values are actually shaped by various religious practices. For instance, the Advertising Code for Television and Radio (1990) was heavily influenced by the Malaysian government’s effort to promote Islamic values throughout the country (Waller & Shyan, 2000).

There have been very few research studies in recent years on Islamic advertising despite the need for the development of the discipline. Recent studies on Islamic advertising have examined advertising content guided by the dimensions of Islamic advertising (Islam & Alam, 2013), audience members’ perceptions of advertising from the Islamic perspective or recommended a framework of advertising. Other content analyses carried out on advertisements in the Arab world and the United States have found similarities and differences in the advertising of both regions (Al-Olayan & Karanda, 2000; Kalliny, Dagher, & Minor, 2008).

A qualitative study on advertising messages with offers of financial opportunities for home ownership in Saudi Arabia and in the United States of America (Perry & Motley, 2010) was conducted with banks in Saudi Arabia underscoring the Shar’iah compliant feature of their products compared to American banks that focused on interest rates.

A research study was also carried out on Malaysian Malay respondents who were Muslims. Using surveys, the study found that religiosity was an imperative variable when examining attitudes to controversial advertisements. Another research study used the Q-Methodology to gauge the perceptions of television advertising on two national television channels in Saudi Arabia (Al-Makaty, Turbergen, Whitlow, & Boyd, 1996). Three different types of respondents were found for the study.

Rice & Al-Mossawi (2002) organised Islamic values in accordance with four cultural dimensions: relationship with people, time orientation, human nature orientation (self-concept), and activity orientation by Kluckohn & Strodtbeck (1961) and Usunier (1993) cited by the writers in their managerial framework of Islamic value dimensions and advertising implications.

Theoretical Framework: Multiple Stakeholder Perspective on Responsibility in

Advertising

The multiple stakeholder perspective on responsibility in advertising by Polonsky & Hyman (2007) identifies the stakeholders and their interconnections in the advertising production process. It also highlights their collective responsibility in ensuring the production of responsible advertisements with offending advertisements being condemned by one or more stakeholders. The theory puts into perspective the importance of identifying key stakeholders and in understanding their roles in the advertising production process. The ideas of symmetrical and unsymmetrical communication are brought up by Polonsky & Hyman (2007).

The multiple stakeholder perspective was derived from the stakeholder theory. The antithesis of this theory is the shareholder theory. The shareholder model is synonymous with the works of Milton Friedman, for whom a corporation is essentially viewed as a piece of private property owned by those who hold its stocks and cannot be regarded as having responsibilities (Friedman, 1970). The directors and managers are also seen to fulfil their social obligations when they operate in the best financial interests of the shareholders, which is to maximise profits. One of the weaknesses of the shareholder model is: the inability of the model to recognise current social problems and the broader view of the organisation’s


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responsibilities. By contrast, the stakeholder model maintains that corporations are servants of the larger society and businesses are regarded as socially responsible when they act according to the needs and demands of the different stakeholders without abandoning profit-making altogether (Buono & Nichols, 1985). The application of the stakeholder theory in management has since crept into marketing (Maignan & Ferell, 2004; Maignan, Ferrell, & Ferrell, 2005; Miller & Lewis, 1991; Polonsky, Carlson, & Fry, 2003) and later, advertising (Polonsky & Hyman, 2007).

According to Freeman (1983: 38), “Organizations have stakeholders. That is, there are groups and individuals who can affect and are affected by the achievement of an organisation’s mission.” Polonsky & Hyman (2007) identify the major stakeholders in advertising as for-profit firms, regulatory bodies, intermediaries and consumers (see Figure 1). Each stakeholder is believed to have an equal role in the advertising process and all within an exchange system all bear some responsibility and are affected by the activities of other stakeholders which could influence the outcomes. For Polonsky & Hyman (2007), responsibility in advertising is when all stakeholders honour their obligations to each other. Advertising that infringes upon acceptable standards will be seen as irresponsible by one or more stakeholders. Morally fair is seen as important; firms must achieve appropriate profits.

Figure 1: Multiple Stakeholder Perspective on Responsibility in Advertising (Polonsky & Hyman, 2007)

The example of Shell highlights that all stakeholders within an exchange system assess responsibility (Polonsky & Hyman, 2007). Consumers as receivers may act (ir)responsibly. They may misinterpret ad content and thus act inappropriately; for example, medication will only be effective if patients follow usage instructions. In extreme cases, consumers may ignore ad-based warnings and misuse products. Firms thus play a primary role in ensuring that there are responsible advertisements.

advertising

for-profit firms

consumers

intermediaries

regulatory bodies


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The study used a phenomenological research design as the main focus by examining how academicians made sense of Islamic advertising. Phenomenology is a philosophy that is related to how individuals make sense of the world around them by using their common sense (Bryman, 2012). Phenomenology means “understanding the ‘constructs’ people use in everyday life to make sense of their world. Uncovering meanings contained within conversation or text” (Ritchie & Lewis, 2003: 12). The life of Muslims should be guided by the Qur’ān that contains the words of God that are lofty and transcend beyond the words of man. The Sunnah provides the actions and words of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) who was the Messenger of God and a perfect human being as the role model for man to follow. In order to interpret the Qur’ān and the Sunnah, rational thinking is used by understanding the empirical evidence presented in the sources. This agrees with the phenomenological research design characteristic of common-sense thinking used in understanding the world around us.

Interviews were carried out with 16 academicians of an institution of higher learning in Malaysia. The ideal stakeholder perspective refers to academicians as a group of stakeholders who propose ideal practices based on theories and research studies. Their role is to suggest what Islamic advertisements should ideally be. The purposive sampling technique combined with the snowballing sampling approach was used in the study. Purposive means that the respondents were selected based on their ability to answer the research questions and snowballing means respondents were then recommended by the initial respondents (Bryman, 2012). The criteria of the sample were they had to have an Islamic studies background, a PhD as the highest level of education, belief in Islam and located in Malaysia.

Most of the interviews were conducted interpersonally and were recorded. One interview was conducted through email due to the respondent’s heavy schedule. Most interviews were transcribed verbatim and checked for accuracy by another person. The interpersonal interview was note-taken. All interviews were semi-structured. The same interview guide was used for all respondents but they had a “leeway” in terms of replying and questions that were not thought of before the interview were added during the real interview day (Bryman, 2012). The objective of using the semi-structured interview technique was to provide respondents with the opportunity of giving their interpretation of Islamic advertising in their own words and adding new information. Sufficient sampling had been achieved when the saturation point was met with the profound explanations of Islamic advertising and its constructs by respondents as agreed by Corbin & Strauss (2008).

A thematic analysis was conducted on the transcriptions and interview notes using the qualitative data analysis software, NVivo version 10. The themes made up the condensed meanings of the transcriptions. According to Kvale & Brinkman (2009: 205), “Meaning condensation entails an abridgment of the meanings expressed by the interviewees into shorter formulations. Long statements are compressed into briefer statements in which the main sense of what is said is rephrased in a few word.” Multiple themes were then generated from the transcribed data.


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Table 1: Profile of Respondents

Findings

Several themes and subthemes were generated from the interview data. There are six significant themes and five subthemes: 1) Islamic advertising as a method of da’wah; 2) the main principle of Islamic advertising is enjoining good and forbidding evil (subthemes: truthful advertising messages, Shiar as symbolic Islamic representation, Islamic values, portrayal of women in a dignified manner); 3) key stakeholders in Islamic advertising production (subthemes: stakeholders are dā‘i’ who embrace the Islamic worldview, subsequently, Islamic advertising should be created with ikhlās and using the knowledge of Surah2 Al-Fāti ahh, mān, Islam and I sān); 4) standards for Islamic advertising; 5) Islamic advertising objectives and 6) Islamic advertising is Syariah-compliant.

Theme 1: Islamic Advertisements is a Method of Da’wah Islamic advertisements can be used as a method of da’wah as they could be promoting, telling, informing people, correcting, improving and calling people to Islam or the truth akin to da’wah. For one of the academicians, Borhan, the opposite of making known is to conceal. It is thus very important to make Islam known to people and this can be done through Islamic advertising as an approach of da’wah. Earlier forms of advertising were verbal and later in written form, “… the Prophet (peace be upon him) went to ‘Mount Ṣafā’

2 Surah means Chapter in the Qur’an in Arabic.

No. Pseudonym Gender Location Religion Occupation Highest Education

Level

1. Aminah Female Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

2. Ali Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

3. Ahmad Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

4. Zaid Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

5. Aziz Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

6. Azman Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

7. Sara Female Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

8. Aishah Female Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

9. Zulfkifli Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

10. Jamilah Female Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

11. Azhar Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

12. Rania Female Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

13. Borhan Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

14. Alya Female Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

15. Shamsul Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD

16. Azrul Male Malaysia Islam Academician PhD


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and announced to the Quraysh about Islam. In addition, when they are in Madina, they used verbal channel very much then later they used the medium of writing.”

Figure 1: Significant Themes & Subthemes from Islamic Advertising Study

This Qur’ānic verse provides the definition of da’wah as, “Invite (all) to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching…” (Surah An-Nahl, 16: 125). Islamic advertising as an approach of da’wah can be compared to the list of communication activities that go by the principles of da’wah, by making people know about their Creator or Allah and His attributes, doing whatever He commanded and refrained from what he prohibits are considered as methods of da’wah (Hussain, 2009). These activities include making conversations, informal talks, speeches, lectures, sermons, discussions, and dialogues. Together these activities result in a system of da’wah which play complementary roles.

What makes it as a method of da’wah is ways, means, approach grouped together as a system to make things, I mean, go right or to make things work. Yes. It (Islamic advertising) is one of the groups, one of the means to convey the message of da’wah. (Aminah, female, Malaysia)

For another academician, Shamsul, advertising messages should depict ideal behaviour in Islam as some Muslims do not demonstrate good Islamic behaviour. This is true

ISLAMIC ADVERTISING

Islamic advertising is Syariah-compliant

Main Islamic advertising objective:

to please Allah

Principle of Islamic advertising: Enjoining

Good & Forbidding Evil

Truthful advertising messages

Shi'ar as symbolic Islamic representation

Islamic values in Islamic advertising

Women should be portrayed in a dignified

manner

Standards for Islamic advertising

Key stakeholders in Islamic advertising

production

Created with ikhlas (sincerity), knowledge of Islam, Iman, ihsan &

Surah Al-Fatihah

Islamic advertising as a method of Da'wah


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in the light of terrorists who have been linked to Islam when in fact Islam does not condone their violent acts.

Theme 2: Principle of Islamic Advertising: Enjoining Good and Forbidding Evil

Several academicians in this study have mentioned that Islamic advertising should be guided by the Islamic principle of enjoining good and forbidding evil. The subthemes of this principle are: 1) truthful advertising messages; 2) promotion of Islamic values; 3) shiàr in Islam; and, 4) dignified portrayal of women.

This principle that is the essence of the Qur’ān and Sunnah is stated in the Qur’ān as, “amr bil ma’ruf” and “nahyi anil munkar” in Surah Al- mran (3:110), “Ye are the best of Peoples, evolved for mankind, enjoining what is right, forbidding what is wrong, and believing in Allah.” Promoting ma’aruf may also include promoting products that are beneficial to people and in ways that are alāl or permitted, not harām or forbidden in Islam.

Advertisements should convey messages of products to prospective customers who really need them that are known in marketing as target markets. Product information should not be placed in places where the target market will not be able to afford the products as this could stir jealousy.

We should not abuse other people’s rights because of our conduct in advertisements. It does not mean they (advertisers) should not make profit but the advertisers should not create some sort of injustice to people’s family or society (that) creates disparity. (The products should) Only (be) for people in need. People will start to be jealous because of other people. Any advertisement that may provoke injustice, fitnah, or any other form of problem should not be condoned … (Shamsul, male, Malaysia)

Advertising messages could disseminate fitnah that has been defined in the Qur’ān as “trial or temptation, or else tumult, turmoil or sedition” (The Ministry of Hajj and Endowments, n.d.: 516). Advertisements can create fitnah if they were produced with ill intentions.

Subtheme 1: Truthful Advertising Messages

As Islamic advertising enjoins good, truthful messages are therefore necessary. The definition of false advertising, instances of deceptive or untruthful advertising, a fair assessment of products, and upholding transparency are explained here.

Untruthful advertising is similar to false advertising that is a form of misleading advertising with messages that are not true (Moriarty, Mitchell, & Wells, 2015). This practice is unacceptable in Islam. The respondents used words like “honest,” “transparent,” “accurate,” and “reliable” messages when referring to truthful advertising. The words used to describe advertisements that are not Islamic were “deceptive,” “cheating,” “exaggerating,” “propaganda used to attract people to peddled wares,” “manipulative,” and “false advertising.”

Some respondents raised instances of deception in advertising when close-up images were used, making them believe that the product is of a larger size when it is not or when a store uses a poster advertisement carrying the message “70 percent off” placed outside it when in truth not all items in the store are sold with a 70 percent discount yet this is not clearly indicated. These practices are not acceptable in Islamic advertising. Instances of “brainwashing” customers by using attractive words in advertisements, increasing the prices of products before sales take place in stores and providing loyalty memberships for those who are frequent patrons of a store that promises rewards when there is none, are some of the


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issues that should be addressed by Islamic advertising. Again, these practices are not acceptable in Islam.

Exaggerated advertising messages that are not supported should not be used as the overstatements made are untruthful. According to Moriarty et al. (2015), puffery is advertising or other sales messages that compliment products with exaggerations and superlatives in an unclear manner without specific facts. The opposite to irresponsible advertisements is Islamic advertisements that contain non-manipulative selling messages, transparent messages and promises that will be fulfilled as “They (prospective customers) can make a good choice based on good and reliable information because advertisements can give reliable information,” said Borhan.

Ahmad recommends the responsible selling of products where products should supply demand and not create demand for products that are not needed. A simple ijāb is sufficient for some women without the need for an elaborate and expensive one. Customers should not be manipulated through advertising messages that persuade them to spend money they do not have, making their lifestyle unsustainable.

Transparent advertising messages should give a fair and truthful assessment of the product to audience members. Although Alya mentioned that advertising truthfully amounts to communicating the product’s good attributes, most academicians mentioned that both the good and bad attributes of the product should be communicated to consumers as this gives them a fair assessment of the product. This practice would be a just and transparent act as the advertiser does not conceal what is bad about the product to prospective customers. Negative information of the product ought to be conveyed to them so that they can make informed purchasing decisions. According to Zulkifli, the negative information of the product should be presented first before the positive information. Idioms should not to be used in advertising language as they convey hidden meanings. It is important to be clear when conveying advertising information to target audience members so that they understand the messages well.

In Islamic banking, the principle of the murāba ah contract is where the cost of the product and profit to be made are disclosed in truth by the seller to the buyer. Such openness reflects the importance of the seller as a person with integrity. By not telling the truth, the seller is cheating the buyer and this is distrustful.

Murāba ah contract is a type of “trust sale” contract under Shar ‘ah in which the purchaser relies upon the integrity of the seller to acquire the desired Shar ‘ah compliant asset at a reasonable cost. In line with the underpinning element of trust in murāba ah contract, the seller is required to disclose the breakdown of the selling price to the purchaser, which comprises the acquisition cost and the mark-up or profit margin (Bank Negara Malaysia, 2013).

There are negative implications of false advertising. Cheating in Islam is profoundly frowned upon as it is considered as the act of a disbeliever.

A Hadith narrated by Abu Hurairah (Sunan Ibn Majah) mentioned, “The Messenger of Allah (SAW) passed by a man who was selling food. He put his hand in it and saw that there was something wrong with it. The Messenger of Allah (saw) said: “He is not one of us who cheats” (Zulkifli, male, academician).

Being truthful is a characteristic of the God fearing. It is mentioned in the Qur’ān


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(Surah al-Baqara, 2: 42) how Allah SWT3 reminded the Jews with this message but this is meant for all of us:

And do not mix the truth with falsehood or conceal the truth while you know [it].

Islamic advertising is about fulfilling your promises.

What you see is what you get without over promising or under delivering because sometimes in advertisements you see something they make you believe you're buying something and then at the end you are buying something else. For example, in the advertisement of products in catalogue if you buy from a catalogue ahh when you want to buy a perfume you see the picture is very big, ohh this is a good deal for only 20 dollars. So you order it. When it arrives it is very small. (Azhar, male, Malaysia)

There are several negative implications of being untruthful or cheating customers from not receiving the blessings of Allah SWT to distrusting the advertiser leading to legal suits by customers. Aziz mentioned that the Islamic way of doing business is by providing a service which is the form of Ibadah4. There will be no blessing from Allah SWT if a businessman cheats his or her customers. Obtaining Allah’s blessing is important for Muslims. Blessing means that Allah is pleased with what we are doing and rewards us in this world and in the Hereafter. This is the ultimate goal as a slave of Allah SWT, the Master of all creations.

For Aziz, the effect of sending untruthful advertising messages has resulted in customers in developed countries suing advertisers for not providing them with the products as advertised. Cheating is sinful in Islam and the prospective customers should investigate the truthfulness of the message when in doubt of the messenger; however, it would be best if the communication was honest in the first place to make it easier for them. Surah Al- ujurāt (49: 6), “O you who have believed, if there comes to you a disobedient one with information, investigate, lest you harm a people out of ignorance and become, over what you have done, regretful.”

Subtheme 2: Shiar as Symbolic Islamic Representation

Shiar as symbols can be used in Islamic advertising but should represent the truth.

Shiar is a symbolic representation of what you are. For example, mosque is a Shiar of Islam so that when people look at the mosque they know there is a Muslim there or there must be a Muslim community (Shamsul, male, academician).

Shiar can be in the form of photographs, illustrations and words used in Islamic advertising. The Shiar of Islam includes ijāb, Islamic behavior, civilization, culture, scholars, ulama’ and other symbols. The problem with using Shiar is when the symbol is different from what it represents in truth. According to Shansul, “the kalimatul shahādah5 is a signature of ISIS (the extreme group called the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria). Is the flag (the ISIS flag with the kalimatul shahādah) there to provoke people?” The kalimatul shahādah should not be used to represent ISIS as the extreme group is not Islamic. In this case, the symbol or Shiar by ISIS does not represent the truth.

3 SWT stands for Subhanahu Wa Ta'ala or “glory be to Him.” 4 Ibadah is worship in Arabic. 5 The wording in Shahadah.


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Subtheme 3: Islamic Values should be promoted through Islamic Advertisements

Related to the principle of enjoining good and prohibiting evil and the kalimatul shahādah, are justice, humanity, love and mercy to people that make up some of the positive Islamic values, mentioned by Aminah. These values are taken from the Revelation6, the practices of the Prophet (peace be upon him), his Companions and the generation after the Prophet.

Most respondents mentioned that universal values and Islamic values are the same. Some respondents highlighted slight differences between the Western and Islamic worldview that shape values and the different specifics regarding some universal values. For them, there are similarities and differences between the Islamic and Western parameters of values.

In fact in the very beginning where our scholars realised that…knowledge…means the sciences have been developed based on the Western worldview therefore they are not universal and they are not equally applicable to all communities in the world. (Ali, male, academician)

According to Jamilah, for a value to be regarded as universal, it should not be harmful and is acceptable by the sound mind, “Freedom of speech, social justice, equality, human rights, and women’s rights” are both universal values and Islamic values. However, Islamic values have to be within Shar’iah parameters such as the case of freedom. It is a universal value that is perceived differently in Islam and the West because of its different parameters. For instance, the freedom of practising homosexuality among Muslims is forbidden. In the Qur’ān (Surah Al-A’raf, 7: 81) transgression by homosexuals is mentioned, “For ye practise your lusts on men in preference to women: ye are indeed a people transgressing beyond bounds.”

Efforts like Islamic advertising should be existent in order to deter negative practices leading to moral decadence and the corruption of universal values.

If we do bad things without prevention or using steps to try to deter negative things, it will spread. It will become, it is strange at the beginning but then after some time when many people do it, it becomes norms and after some time if you do not do it, you are considered as abnormal. Even though, it is negative values [sic] like homosexuality; in the past it is considered very negative. Now if you do not do it, you are homophobic. You are considered as something wrong [sic] with you, you are sick. So this is very important. (Aminah, female, academician)

Subtheme 4: Women should be portrayed in a Dignified Manner in Islamic

Advertisements

The tendency for women to be negatively portrayed in advertisements was mentioned by several respondents. The way how some females were scantily dressed and their role as sex objects to attract men to advertisements were the concerns raised. As Islamic advertising is guided by the principle of enjoining good and forbidding evil, it was agreed that women should be portrayed in a dignified manner by being decently dressed as opposed to being scantily dressed.

And say to the believing women, that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands their fathers, their

6 The Revelation is the Qur’an.


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husbands’ fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, their brothers or their brothers’ sons or their sisters’ sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male attendants free of sexual desires, or small children who have no carnal knowledge of women (Surah An-Nur, 24:31).

Women are found in many advertisements and they are sometimes not related to the product but are there to attract male target audiences. This is an exploitation of women and forbidden in Islam.

What is the role of women in Islam? It seems that the role of women in Malaysia has moved away from what is preferred in Islam. This matter was brought up by Alya who recommended a re-examination of the roles of women and men in Islam. It is important to include images of the ideal role of women in Islamic advertising. Women should be protected and not used in immoral ways in advertisements, even with their approval.

Muslim and non-Muslim stakeholders in advertising should come to an agreement regarding the decent portrayal of women in Islamic advertisements.

Theme 3: Key Stakeholders of Islamic Advertising

The respondents had outlined the key stakeholders in the making of Islamic advertisements as the advertisers, the consumers, the advertising agencies, the ummah (the whole community of Muslims), the government, regulatory bodies, Shar ’ah scholars (or ulama’), academic experts on advertising, consumer associations, the media, the industry of the product and society at large.

In general, we mention something about Ulama’. And yeah, these are the group, that very important group as for the people, each institution, each organization, agency the leaders of each group leaders. Should be doing this job, yeah, should be responsible. (Aminah, female, academician)

The demands of the stakeholder consumer should not be fulfilled if they are against Shar ‘ah rules and regulations.

You are trying to entertain the client and you’re going to that level giving services and all that. Sometimes they ask for something you know un-Islamic thing, you cannot entertain. Advertisement goes with some ethical principles. So you can do business but you cannot do harām business, promoting certain thing that is doing promotion, promoting certain thing which is not allowed in Islam. (Aziz, male, academician)

The stakeholders have to apply Shar ’ah principles in their discussions otherwise it would be blind following, mentioned Azman. We have to have standards and fatwa from time to time like in Islamic finance where there are round table discussions among experts from time to time and they have the decisions printed and distributed among Shari’ah advisors which can be accessed by the public.

Subtheme 1: Stakeholders are Dā‘i’ and Embrace the Islamic Worldview

The key stakeholders are also dā‘i’7 as they are involved in da’wah by making advertising messages that call to people, according to Aminah. She also said that it is important that the Muslim leaders of stakeholder groups believe in the Islamic worldview and uphold the oneness of Allah for Islamic advertising to be sustainably practised. The leaders of

7 Dā‘i’ refers to the person who does da’wah by calling people to the right path in Islam.


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all organisations have to have good personality and character8, good soft skills and high emotional intelligence9, and clear mission and vision in terms of the shahādah10 that determines the direction of the organisation.

It is a problem when stakeholders look at Islam in isolation and do not apply its principles to real life, said Ali. In Islam, it is believed that life on earth is a test that we have to pass before earning our place in the eternal goodness in the Hereafter but people are focusing on the Hereafter without considering the tests.

By embracing the Islamic worldview, one will not look at Islam as a mere religion. This worldview ought to be embraced by Muslim stakeholders. According to Aminah, much rhetoric has remained as mere rhetoric. The lack of understanding the Qur’ān has limited the scope of the Islamic worldview. “We have turned this (Islamic) worldview into a religion and a religion into certain physical/visual and ritual kind of things,” said Ali.

It is important that stakeholders realise that they are ‘abd11 and khal fah12 on this earth who should be thinking about the well-being of people and other creatures. Islamic advertising should go beyond making profits per se and promote products for the benefit of society. According to Aminah, the concept of khal fah also known as stewards, is also accepted by other world religions; Christianity and Judaism.

The truth and reality of this world which includes the recognition of man as ‘abd and khal fah…And every behaviour, every mode of living has to be guided by these two concepts, ‘abd and khal fah. Khal fah here means you are responsible for bringing more development, more beauty, and more positives to this world. (Ali, male, academician)

Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) has been mentioned as the perfect human being and a good example for Muslim stakeholder leaders to emulate. Abū Hurayrah13 related that Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) said, “I have only been sent to perfect good moral character.” The Prophet (peace be upon him) is mentioned in the Qur’ān as rahmatan lil àlamin or as a mercy for Allah’s creatures as mentioned in the Qur’ān (Surah Al-Anbiyaa, 21: 107), “We sent thee not, but as a mercy for all creatures.” All creatures here refer to all man and other creatures with spiritual responsibility (The Ministry of Hajj and Endowments, n.d.).

In the case of non-Muslims as leaders, they can make Islamic advertisements so long as they have good moral character. Stakeholders should come together by cooperating and collaborating in propagating Islamic values through Islamic advertising. “Yes, collaboration in order to bring strength to propagate Islamic values together, if only one small party or group propagates positive values and the rest just do not care, so you cannot do much.’ (Aminah, female, academician)

8 Character is akhlaq in Arabic. 9 Aminah says the human touch refers to high emotional intelligence and good soft skills. 10 The shahādah or kalimatul shahādah is a declaration when translated from Arabic into English means Islam is to testify that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah. 11 ‘Abd is slave in Arabic. 12 Khal fah is vicegerent in Arabic. 13 Abu Hurayrah was Prophet Muhammad’s (peace be upon him) companion and a narrator of his hadith.


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But it is important to look at the economics aspect of Islamic advertising as Shar ‘ah advisors would be advising from the Fiqhi point of view and leave out the philosophical ethical and economic points of view. The alāl and harām aspects of products would be their domain but not child labour for instance, mentioned Azman. The Islamic advertising expert could look at the economic role of advertising.

Subtheme 2: Stakeholders have to Create Advertising with Ikhlās and Guided by

Three Principles of Faith (Islam, Īmān, Iḥsān) and Surah Al-Fātiḥahh

Stakeholders should ensure their involvement in the making of Islamic advertisements is with ikhlās14 and good intentions as mentioned by several respondents interviewed. For the advertisements to be acceptable in Islam, they should be created with the sincerity of providing reliable information for people to make informed purchasing decisions.

When advertising, it is firstly important to seek the pleasure of Allah SWT followed by the satisfaction of human beings. Seeking Allah’s pleasure in business is in the form of His blessings as narrated by Hakim bin Hizam (Sahih Bukhār ):

The Prophet said, “The buyer and the seller have the option of cancelling or confirming the bargain unless they separate, and if they spoke the truth and made clear the defects of the goods, then they would be blessed in their bargain, and if they told lies and hid some facts, their bargain would be deprived of Allah's blessings.”

Our purpose in life is to worship Allah thus, obtaining His pleasure is important.

Actions will be judged according to intentions on Judgment Day. It is important for advertisers to carry out advertising with noble intentions for the sake of Allah. It is narrated on the authority of Amirul Mu’minin, Abu Hafs ‘Umar bin al-Khattab, radiyallahu ‘anhu, who said:

I heard the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) say: Actions are (judged) by motives (niyyah), so each man will have what he intended. Thus, he whose migration (hijrah) was to Allah and His Messenger, his migration is to Allah and His Messenger; but he whose migration was for some worldly thing he might gain, or for a wife he might marry, his migration is to that for which he migrated. (Al-Bukhār & Muslim)

The connection between action and intention underscores the connection between the physical and the spiritual components of man. We must be conscious when making our intentions and make the connection between our physical actions and their spiritual consequences. A good action coupled with the wrong intention will not earn us any reward in the Hereafter. For a respondent, understanding the Qur’ān is important before one could examine oneself according to the three principles of faith. Knowledge of Surah Al-Fāti ah as the essence of the Qur’ān is important for better guidance in the making of Islamic advertisements. It is best to read and know the Qur’ān in totality.

When understand Islam and the Qur’ān then level of faith will come. First of all they have to read the Qur’ān as a book of knowledge and guidance then they have to understand the basic, spirit of Islam. The second characteristics and third those who understand two positions of man as àbd and khal fah. I am

14 Ikhlās is sincerity in Arabic.


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emphasizing sister on khal fah here because this world is given under our custodian. We are responsible for this world. If environmental pollution, we are responsible. (Ali, male, academician)

In order to make Muslims understand what Allah SWT wants, they would have to understand Surah Al-Fāti ah. This surah is vital in the entire Muslims’ life, spiritually and physically. All Muslims should recite it 17 times when performing their five daily prayers. The repetition shows the importance of it in the life of all Muslims.

One of the Prophet’s saying was narrated by Abu Hurairah who said, “I heard the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) say:”

Allah said: “I have divided the prayer between Myself and My slave into two halves, and My slave shall have what he has asked for. When the slave says: ‘Al-hamdulillah i rabbil Alameen (All the praise is to Allah, the Lord of all that exists),’ Allah says: ‘My slave has praised Me, and My slave shall have what he has asked for.’ And when he says: ‘Ar-Rahmanir-Rahim (The Most Gracious, the Most Merciful),’ Allah says: ‘My slave has extolled Me, and My slave shall have what he has asked for.’ And when he says: ‘Maliki yawmiddin [The Only Owner (and he Ruling Judge) if the Day of Recompense],’ Allah says: ‘My slave has Glorified Me. This is for Me, and this Verse is between me and My slave in two halves.’ And when he says: 'Iyyaka na'budu wa iyyaka nastain [You (Alone) we worship, and You (Alone) we ask for help],’ He says: ‘This is between Me and My slave, and My slave shall have what he has asked for. And the end of the Surah is for My slave.’ And when he says: ‘Ihdinas-siratal-mustaqeema, siratal-alldhina an'amta alayhim a lad-dallin [Guide us to the Straight Way, the way of those on whom You have bestowed Your Grace, not (the way) of those who earned Your Anger, nor of those who went astray],’ He says: ‘This is for My slave, and My slave shall have what he has asked for’.”

From this Hadith we learn how to praise Allah which is suited for Him alone and what to ask from Him in this worldly life.

mān and Islam are defined by their pillars that could be incorporated in advertising messages. I sān in advertising means that advertising has to be carried out while being mindful of His observation. A person who goes by the highest level of faith and I sān has excellent behaviour. It can be added that the advertising message could be incorporated with the pillars of Islam, mān and the principle of I sān.

On the authority of Omer (may Allah be pleased with him), who said: One day while we were sitting with the Messenger of Allah (i.e. Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him), there appeared before us a man whose clothes were exceedingly white and whose hair was exceedingly black; no signs of journeying were to be seen on him and none of us knew him. He walked up and sat down by the Prophet (peace be upon him). Resting his knees against his (the Prophet's) and placing the palms of his hands on his thighs, he said:

O Muhammad, tell me about Islam.

The Messenger of Allah (may the blessings and peace of Allah be upon him) said: Islam is to testify that there is no God but Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah, to perform the prayers, to pay the Zākat to fast in Ramaḍān, and to make the pilgrimage to the House if you are able to do so.


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He said: You have spoken rightly, and we were amazed at him asking him (the Prophet peace be upon him) and saying that he had spoken rightly.

He said: Then, tell me about mān.

He (the Prophet) said: It is to believe in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day, and to believe in divine destiny, both the good and the evil thereof.

He said: You have spoken rightly.

He said: Then, tell me about I sān.

He (the Prophet peace be upon him) said: It is to worship Allah as if you are seeing him, and while you see Him not yet truly He sees you. (Hadith narrated by Muslim)

Theme 4: Islamic Advertisements should be Sharī’ah-Compliant

Several respondents have indicated that Islamic advertising has to be Shar ‘ah-compliant which means that only alāl products and alāl elements are featured and the way the advertisements are produced should also be alāl.

Yeah, Shar ’ah is the way of life, prescribed to Muslims by Allah (SWT). This is what Shar ‘ah is. So it should not contradict the Shar ‘ah means that it should be in compliance with the Shar ’ah. Meaning that for example…the advertisement should not be for something that is not alāl. So if you advertise for something that is not alāl, it means that it is in contradiction with the Shar ‘ah. For example, you cannot advertise for liquor, you cannot advertise any product or service, which is considered by the mainstream Islam as harām. (Zulkifli, male, academician)

Shar ’ah compliant means that if women are included in the advertisements, they should be portrayed in ways that are acceptable, said Alya.

Creativity is allowed as long as the advertisements are based on the Shar ’ah.

Islam allows us so long as it is alāl, you can experiment but you cannot go beyond the Shar ‘ah. The Shar ‘ah is everything. Shar ‘ah is like guiding principle for us. In all works of life, the Shar ‘ah is a guiding principle. The Shar ‘ah guides us, family matters with neighbours within office work, professional life and also industry and business. So, we are very, very careful with that (Aziz, male, academician).

The first elements should be in Islamic advertisement and to define what Shar ‘ah compliance is, no prohibited elements in that advertisement, in the product itself. Of course, everyone knows no alcohol, no gambling that is very cliché isn’t it? No gambling, no Riba, I mean no prohibited things in the advertisement. It can be advertising itself and product itself. Ok, that one is the first Shar ‘ah compliance. (Jamilah, female, academician)

That’s why I said no prohibited element in the making of advertisement as well as during the advertisement is published to people or public. (Jamilah, female, academician)

The products should be alāl and the advertisements themselves should be excellent, said an academician, “The Prophet (SAW) in his Hadith encourages us that if we want to do


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something, we should do it in the best way.” It is reported by Bukhār , Muslim, Abu Daud, Ibn Majah and Darimi:

What is alāl is clear. And what is harām is also clear. And in between those two is a dubious area in which many people do not know about. So whoever distanced himself from it, he has acquitted himself (from blame). And those who fall into it, he has fallen into a state of harām.

Products that are harām should not be promoted in advertisements that are Islamic.

So when we talk about Islamic marketing strategy, advertisement right, so it should be alāl compliance, the product should be alāl, the market, the manner in which you market the product should be alāl, the advertisement should have the Islamic elements. (Aziz, male, academician)

The issue of sustainability in terms of preserving the environment, ensuring sustainable lifestyles and selling products in a sustainable manner that would not manipulate the customer must always be considered. This could add on to the definition of alāl products which is the focus of Islamic advertising.

In other words, Islamic advertising should promote alāl products that are sustainable.

Of course, producing goods must be produced sustainably. Sustainability is important, ethical, sustainability. So we talked about it should not be damaging the environment, how you produce the product also should be ethical, so who you pay, your workers should be well-paid. All these add to the end product. You are not just selling a product. The product must be made responsibly. (Ahmad, male, academician)

Theme 5: Standards for Islamic Advertising

A standard guideline for Islamic advertising is necessary for determining whether advertisements are created in accordance with the Qur’ān and Sunnah or not. The standards should encompass the true meaning of Islam rather than incorporate how Muslims are currently practising Islam which may not always be Islamic.

For Alya, it is not easy to come up with standards for Islamic advertising, as it should follow the middle way, not the extreme as well as based on the level of mān or faith and the situation of the audience member and his or her akhlāq or ethics.

What I mean by ethics here is ethics from the Islamic perspective, [sic] is basically akhlāq. In fact, if you look into the term, akhlāq, it comes from the word khuluk and if you look into the dictionary, khuluk is actually the inner dimension of man. It is not what you do, it comes from within. (Alya, female, academician)

The standards ought to bring people closer to Allah and represent a symbiotic relationship of Revelation and reason. Things that are important to the stakeholders and may influence their decision on the standards should not be only considered without looking at the situation and the level of mān of audience members.

Advice on Islamic advertising should be given by the learned people of Islam and in the field. The importance of referring to the people of knowledge is clearly mentioned in Surah An-Nahl (16: 43), “If ye realise this not, ask of those who possess the Message”. A committee that does the check and balance is important to ensure that the advertisements are made according to Islamic teachings.


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Ethics and morality are defined differently by Ali. For him, ethics is a rational understanding of the Qur’ān and morals are the rights of parents and neighbours, among others.

We can apply scientific method, rational method, whatever method we want to test and verify the claims of the Qur’ān. They satisfy every kind of curiosity….So through our rational understanding, we come to this final understanding that Allah exists, who is the Creator, who is the Sustainer, who is the Master of this whole universe. We accept these based on our rational understanding and empirical evidence. Then Allah presents before us a set of morals. In the Qur’ān we find these two things clearly separate. One is rational argument that is ethical exercise ethical discourse of the Qur’ān and the other side a set of morals. (Ali, male, academician)

Theme 6: Islamic Advertising Objectives

The creation of advertising objectives is important to guide the making of advertisements and evaluate their effectiveness (Moriarty, et al., 2015). In Islam the primary objective of advertising should be to seek the pleasure of Allah before fulfilling the needs of man.

First of all, it must seek the pleasure of Allah. The advertiser, the marketer, the promoter of anything if he want it to be Islamic he must first have the pleasure of Allah and that includes ikhlās – sincerity in whatever you are doing…Secondly, I should get reward from human being by dealing with them in fairness. (Zulkifli, male, academician)

According to the respondents, advertising ideas have to be noble, correct, of good guidance for people to the right path, and convince people to buy products by giving them accurate information that would make them consider their options.

A lot of sales, attracting people to use commodity to your things is immediate goal. But that immediate goal is not the final goal which is making profit and making more and more money and becoming greedy, that is not the goal. Goal is in fact to serve. Now I said as khalifatullah, you have to make the life of man easier, more beautiful, and more enjoyable. So you are selling the things, you are producing the things; you are bringing the things which are more beautiful, more attractive, more useful, and more enjoyable. (Ali, male, academician)

The main goal or objective of Islamic advertising should be to serve Allah SWT and the second objective should be to make profit.

The purpose of our creation is mentioned in the Qur’ān (Surah Az-Zariyat, 51: 56), “I have only created Jinns15 and men, which they may serve Me.” Serving Me refers to serving Allah SWT by worshipping Him or doing Ibadah. Hence, the main goal of Islamic advertising is supported by the Qur’ānic verse.

Discussion

The study was carried out to understand the concept of Islamic advertising. The purpose of the research study was to identify Islamic advertising objectives, principles and

15 Jinn is a species of living beings that is created out of fire and covered or hidden from man’s sight. Man is created from clay (The Ministry of Hajj and Endowments, n.d.). Iblis, or devil, is one of the Jinns that refused to bow to Adam when he was asked to do so by Allah.


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stakeholders from the multiple stakeholder perspective of responsible advertising (Polonsky & Hyman, 2007) based on the stakeholder theory. Several themes and subthemes are generated from the interview data. The key themes and subthemes are: 1) Islamic advertising as a method of da’wah; 2) the main principle of Islamic advertising is enjoining good and forbidding evil (subthemes: truthful advertising messages, Shiar as symbolic Islamic representation, Islamic values, portrayal of women in a dignified manner); 3) key stakeholders in Islamic advertising production (subthemes: stakeholders are dā‘i’ and embrace the Islamic worldview and Islamic advertising should be created with ikhlās, using the knowledge of Surah16 Al-Fāti ah and by principles of faith [ mān, Islam and I sān]); 4) standards for Islamic advertising; 5) Islamic advertising objective is mainly to please Allah SWT and, 6) Islamic advertising is Syariah compliant. The theoretical implications of the study are presented in the next part.

Theoretical Implications of the Study

The stakeholder theory advocates that firms are responsible towards their stakeholders. Profits can be made by firms while being morally fair. The stakeholders of organisations are groups of people or individual persons who can influence or are influenced by the organisation’s achievement when carrying out its mission (Freeman, 1983). Stakeholders can be shareholders, suppliers of products to an organisation, customers, employees or the community. Organisations should be responsible to their stakeholders, build good relationships with them and consider their interests.

Polonsky & Hyman’s (2007) multiple stakeholder perspective on responsibility in advertising espouses that stakeholders should assess responsibility in advertising. The effort could be hampered by ineffective communication through the movement of asymmetric information (insufficient information) and symmetric information (sufficient information) that is not fully understood. For advertising to be responsible, the writers suggest that all stakeholders’ interests are considered when planning a firm’s advertising.

In this study, responsible advertising is named as Islamic advertising.

The theoretical contribution of the study is by adding to the multiple stakeholder perspective on responsibility in advertising model in terms of elements other than the identification of stakeholders themselves and the need for them to be considered in advertising strategies and tactics. The elements of the multiple stakeholder perspective on responsibility in Islamic advertising are: 1) the identification of key stakeholders in the production of Islamic advertisements and proposing of their shūrá; 2) having Islamic advertising standards; 3) adhering to the principle of Islamic advertising; 4) considering Islamic advertising as a form of da’wah; 5) putting the main Islamic advertising objective to please Allah SWT and 6) making sure Islamic advertising is Shar ’ah-compliant advertising. These elements amalgamate in the formation of Islamic advertising.

16 Surah means Chapter in the Qur’an in Arabic.


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Figure 3: Model of Multiple Stakeholder Perspective on responsibility in Islamic Advertising

Key Stakeholders in the Production of Islamic Advertisements

As a result of this study, more stakeholders were added to Polonsky & Hyman’s (2007) stakeholder list in relation to advertising: for-profit firms, regulatory bodies, intermediaries and consumers. The key stakeholders identified in addition to this list by the interviewees were: advertisers, consumers, advertising agencies, the ummah (the whole community of Muslims), government, regulatory bodies, and Shar ’ah scholars (or ulama’), academic experts on advertising, consumer associations, the media, the industry of product and society at large.

Together these experts could assess responsibility in advertising from their perspectives. This would allow more practical decisions to be made in the creation of Islamic advertisements that are morally fair. Although the salience of some stakeholders over others is not the focus of this study, the advertisers are considered to be the most important stakeholders as they initiate the advertising process and hold the funds for advertising; nevertheless, their behaviour can be changed by other stakeholders as evident in the case of Shell if the organisation were stakeholder-centric (Polonsky & Hyman, 2007).

Stakeholders should thus be involved in consultation or shūrá on Islamic advertising.

Shūrá in the Assessment of Responsibility in Advertising

Shūrá was practised by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) in private and in public. In the Qur’ān, it is mentioned in Surah As-Shūrá (42: 38), “Those who respond to their Lord, and establish regular prayer; who (conduct) their affairs by mutual consultation”. In a commentary of the Qur’ān (The Ministry of Hajj and Endowments, n.d.), a good man is said to conduct his affairs in the ideal way through shūrá so that he is not too egotistical or self-centred and lightly abandon the responsibilities that are entrusted upon him in the eyes of Allah SWT.

The Companions of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) as narrated in a Hadith also carried out shūrá when making a decision. The recommendation provided by Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) triumphed over other opinions.

Standards for Islamic advertising

Principle of Islamic advertising: enjoining good & forbidding evil

Shura by key stakeholders: advertisers, consumers, ad agencies, the ummah (the whole

community of Muslims), government, regulatory bodies, Shari’ah scholars (or ulama’), academic experts on advertising,

consumer associations, the media, the industry of product and society at

large Main Islamic Objective:

to please Allah SWT

Islamic advertising is a form of da'wah

Islamic advertising is Shari'ah-compliant


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Ibn 'Abbas (May Allah be pleased with them) reported, 'Umar bin Al- Khattab (May Allah be pleased with him) set out for Ash-Sham (the region comprising Syria, Palestine, Lebanon and Jordan). As he reached at Sargh (a town by the side of Hijaz) he came across the governor of Al-Ajnad, Abu 'Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah (May Allah be pleased with him) and his companions. They informed him that an epidemic had broken out in Syria. Ibn 'Abbas relates: 'Umar (May Allah be pleased with him) said to me: “Call to me the earliest Muhajirun (Emigrants).” So I called them. He sought their advice and told them that an epidemic had broken out in Ash-Sham. There was a difference of opinion whether they should proceed further or retreat to their homes in such a situation. Some of them said: “You have set forth to fight the enemy, and therefore you should not go back;” whereas some of them said: “As you have along with you many eminent Companions of Messenger of Allah )peace be upon him ( we would not advise you to set forth to the place of the plague (and thus expose them deliberately to a danger).” 'Umar (May Allah be pleased with him) said: “You can now go away.” He said: “Call to me the Ansar (the Helpers).” So I called them to him, and he consulted them and they differed in their opinions as well. He said: “Now, you may go.” He again said: “Call the old (wise people) of the Quraysh who had emigrated before the conquest of Makkah.” I called them. 'Umar (May Allah be pleased with him) consulted them in this issue and not even two persons among them differed in the opinions. They said: “We think that you should go back along with the people and do not take them to this scourge.” 'Umar (May Allah be pleased with him) made an announcement to the people, saying: “In the morning I intend to go back, and I want you to do the same.” Abu 'Ubaidah bin Al-Jarrah (May Allah be pleased with him) said: “Are you going to run away from the Divine Decree?” Thereupon 'Umar (May Allah be pleased with him) said: “O Abu 'Ubaidah! Had it been someone else to say this.” ['Umar (May Allah be pleased with him) did not like to differ with him]. He said: “Yes, we are running from the Divine Decree to the Divine Decree. What do you think if you have camels and you happen to get down a valley having two sides, one of them covered with foliage and the other being barren, will you not act according to the Divine Decree if you graze them in vegetative land? In case you graze them in the barren land, even then you will be doing so according to the Divine Decree.”

There happened to come 'Abdur-Rahman bin 'Auf companion-who had been absent for some of his needs. He said: I have knowledge about it. I heard the Messenger of Allah (peace be upon him) saying, "If you get wind of the outbreak of plague in a land, you should not enter it; but if it spreads in the land where you are, you should not depart from it." Thereupon 'Umar bin Khattab (May Allah be pleased with him) praised Allah and went back. (Hadith narrated by al-Bukhār and Muslim)

With the practice of shūrá, there is involvement by key stakeholders in discussions related to Islamic advertising and its production process. Issues that need solutions could be made public as in the case of Islamic banking and finance. For Islamic advertising, advertisers should make decisions based on the consideration of key stakeholders but the Qur’ān and Sunnah prevail above all. Much thought has to be put into how this could be done effectively.

For Polonsky & Hyman (2007), responsibility in advertising is when all stakeholders honour their obligations to each other. Advertising that infringes acceptable standards will be


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seen as irresponsible by one or more stakeholders. The standards for Islamic advertising should also be based on the shūrá between key stakeholders. Suffice to say here that standards could be used to ensure that there is Islamic guidance although the complexity of some advertising content may require interpersonal input from Muslim scholars.

Consensus is important in achieving when stakeholders discuss together on Islamic advertising…This is a concept of responsibility and accountability. It is very important…Yeah. They need to come together and consensus to strengthen (ties)…The concept of Ukhuwah in Islam…and if there is collaboration there will be synergy. There are all positive values; teamwork and all…We talk about respect but how to respect? How to collaborate? It is through interdisciplinary…if you are alone in this context, you cannot gain much. But if you are together, you can see things differently and you can share a lot of things. This is very positive. In order to come up with collaboration, somebody has to somewhere. (Aminah, female, academician)

Principle of Islamic Advertising

Responsible advertisements are Islamic advertisements guided by the principle of the Qur’ān and Sunnah that encourages the practice of enjoining good and forbidding evil, presenting women in a dignified manner, promoting alāl products, promoting Islamic values and disseminating truthful messages. In addition, Islamic advertising should be beneficial by increasing the knowledge and mān of audience members. Advertisements should, besides being commercial, remind audiences to prescribe Islamic values and increase positive attitudes and strong emotions in them that could lead to good behaviour.

Future Research

There should be more interviews conducted with other stakeholders in the advertising industry to develop Islamic advertising further in terms of the multiple stakeholder perspective. The current content of advertising ought to be examined from the Islamic perspective to gauge whether there are Islamic values are incorporated. The stakeholder identification and stakeholder salience theories could be looked into in future studies.

Conclusion

This qualitative research study on Islamic advertising has generated more elements to be considered in the production of Islamic advertisements from a multiple stakeholder perspective. As Islam is a way of life, Islamic principles have to be considered in everything that we do including business. A model of the multiple stakeholder perspective on responsibility in Islamic advertising has been developed based on Polonsky and Hyman’s (2007) multiple stakeholder perspective on responsibility in advertising. It is hoped that this study has made a small contribution to advertising scholarship.

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Interpersonal Communication Pattern of Student Working

as Commercial Sex Workers in Padang West Sumatra Province, Indonesia

Elva Ronaning Roem17

Abstract

This study examines the interpersonal communication forms of female university students who work secretly as commercial sex workers; it was conducted in the city of Padang, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia. The subjects of the study are female students of various universities. They were selected based on the needs and goals of the study. The research shows that forms of interpersonal communication utilized by the subjects are either open or close communication carried out by using both verbal and non-verbal communication. On the other hand, communication pattern between subjects and their customers uses the “circle” forms that can be divided into primary, circular, and non-formal one. When it comes to communicating with other member of society that are not part of their so-called contemptible extracurricular activity, subjects develop linear and formal communication pattern.

Keywords: interpersonal communication, communication patterns, sex workers

17 Doctoral Student, Communication Sciences, Universitas Padjadjaran, Lecturer, Communication Sciences Department, Universitas Andalas Indonesia, email: [email protected]


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Introduction

All sorts of social phenomenon emerge in the city of Padang, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia; lately, one that grabs a lot of attention is female university students who choose prostitution as a sideline job. Their numbers are growing exponentially due to many factors, such as economic factors, lavish lifestyle and family-related problems. There is a concern that those who were identified revealed only the tip of the iceberg. The vulnerability inflicted by the existence of the aforementioned factors on the female university students trigger them to take an easy way out.

In Padang, the term female university students prostitute is exclusively adhered to the newly-enrolled and being a prostitute. They go to universities and colleges in Padang and the majority of them are lured in having hedonistic lifestyle seen on TV and magazines. However, the allowance sent by their parents is not enough to support such lifestyle. The gap between reality and reverie led them to take the shortcut by putting themselves into the sex trade. For most of them, the old moral value of saving virginity until wedding night is pre-historic and outdated. It seemed to have become a doctrine of teenagers today to live a

western lifestyle. Therefore, a lot of young girls loss their virginity to their boyfriend and soon or later becoming a prostitute due to a realization that they have nothing to lose anyway for doing so.

A report published by Padang Ekspres Daily proves the involvement of a female student of a well-known university in the city in the sex trade. The daily paper that belongs to Jawa Post Group also mentions in its report that the student being arrested has been a prostitute since she was a sophomore. She claimed to go to meet most her clients by taxi; the usual meeting point is in a hotel room where the business is performed and ended. The release of the news is an undeniable proof that sex workers has been extended to intellectuals, especially young and beautiful female students who wish to live a glamorous life but short of resources.

In contrast to commercial sex workers who put themselves into display without reservation in the red light districts, female university students who are selling sex (called as “ayamkampus” in local terminology, or “campus chicken” literally in English), tend to choose covert operation and select their customers carefully. Security and anonymity are the reasons of such choice.

The rise of social media has made its use not limited as a communication tool with friends as well as a place to express one’s ideas, it has also become a crucial mean of finding and selecting customers and transaction place for the ayamkampus. Communication between customers and sex workers is initiated either through FB (Facebook), BBM (BlackBerry

Messenger), or YM (Yahoo Messenger); when everything seems to be fine, the next step is usually call to meet. The majority of customers are middle-aged and young men who are wealthy and lived glamorously.

It is not easy to communicate with the ayamkampus; it takes a reference from an insider to get into their circle to ensure what’s in the circle stay in the circle, it makes them almost invisible and very difficult to be identified. The researcher discovered a new fact that when communicating symbolically through social media, subjects can ask a high price to those who wish to hire them. It could be one of the advantages if the transaction is executed through social media, because it shortens the procedure that usually takes days just to agree on the date of business.

The subjects put on considerably expensive price tag for their service based on Padang standard, especially when compared to non-university student sex workers. The


39

customers can spend around USD 37–74 per booking. It excludes shopping and meal expenses taken as “foreplay” before “main course” is served. The rate depends heavily on which university the young woman go to; the more prestigious it is, the higher the rate charged. This classification differentiates subjects with sex workers in brothels.

Talking about social interaction system, ayamkampus and other female university students are surely to experience a clash one way or another. The most probable cause of clash is the effort ayamkampus put in place to make themselves appear no different than other female university students. The context of this research sees that ayamkampus will build their own social interaction.

The researcher acknowledges that various studies about commercial sex workers have been conducted, this particular study will highlight more about how information exchanged and lifestyle of female university students who plunge themselves in the sex trade. This study aims to get an in-depth insight on the interpersonal communication patterns of the research subjects and how it has shaped their life, by being a students and commercial sex workers at the same time in the city of Padang, West Sumatra Province.

Literature Review

Communication Process (Samovar & Porter, 2000)

Communication processes can be classified into two parts:

1) Verbal communication

Symbols or verbal messages are all kinds of symbols using one or more words. Almost all speech stimuli that we are aware of belongs to the intentional verbal message category; it can be defined as conscious efforts made to relate to others verbally. Language can also be considered as a system of verbal code.

2) Non-verbal communication

In a nutshell, non-verbal messages are all cues but words. According to Samovar & Porter (2000: 237), non-verbal communication covers all stimuli (except verbal stimuli) in a communication setting generated by individuals and use of the environment by individuals that has the potential message value for the message sender or recipient.

The primary communication process is the process of delivering one's thoughts or feelings to others using emblem or symbol as media. Symbol as the primary media in the communication process is verbal and non-verbal messages or languages (cue, gesture, color, drawing, etc.). Secondary communication process is a message delivering process by a communicator to the communicant using tools or means as secondary media. Personality according to Napoleon Hill (as cited in Samovar & Porter, 2000) is the overall characteristics and appearance that distinguishes someone from other people, the clothes worn, facial lines, tone of voice, and thoughts and those characters that have been developed, all that combined will form one’s personality.

Having all that said, it is not a surprise that ayamkampus went through communication process development. Being one is not for the fainted heart since it takes courage to harden oneself and mean business. In their transactions, there are several steps to follow before it is considered a deal. This is done both verbally and non-verbally in order to test the water and ensure the circumstances that entail. Verbal communication is instrumental to influence or persuade potential clients. However, the non-verbal communication is the factor that most likely sealing the deal with customers. Stimuli is sent through seductive


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words, inviting gestures, tempting poses, intimate whispers, enticing glances, coy smiles, and touches when they meet a client.

Communication patterns (De Vito, 1997)

The term “communication pattern” is commonly referred to as a communication model, a system that consists of various inter-connected components best used for community educational purposes. Pattern is a form or a model (more abstract, a set of rules) that can be used to produce one set of complete rules or part of it, especially if its effect creates a visible archetype. Communication pattern is a process designed to represent the links of elements covered along with its follow ups, in order to facilitate the systematic and logical thinking.

Communication pattern consists of several kinds (De Vito, 1997):

1) Primary Communication Pattern

Primary communication pattern is a message delivery process made by communicators to communicants using a symbol as a conduit or channel. This pattern can further be divided into two symbols; verbal and non-verbal. Verbal symbol is the language, the most used due to its ability in expressing the communicator’s thoughts. The non-verbal symbols is symbols used in communication other than language; it can be gestures of the eyes, head, lips, hands, etc.

2) Secondary Communication Pattern

Secondary communication pattern is a message delivery process made by communicators to communicants using tools or means as the second media, while the symbols is considered as the first media. Communicators might use secondary media because the communicant is in a remote area or there are more than one communicants need to be contacted. As time goes by, tools and means used will be more effective and efficient.

3) Linear Communication Pattern

The term linear implies its literal meaning, moving from one point to another in a straight line; as far as communication pattern is concerned, it means the message delivery by the communicator to the communicant as a terminal point. So, in this communication process usually occurs as face-to-face communication, sometimes it may be a mediated communication. A well planned communication steps before it is actually carried out determines the effectiveness of the message received.

4) Circular Communication Pattern

Circular literally means round, circular or roving. This pattern allows feedback given to the communicator by communicants and it can be used as indicator of the success of communication. In short, communication works when feedback exchanged between communicators and communicants.

Interpersonal Communication Concept

Interpersonal communication is the process of sending and receiving messages between two persons or a small group of people, followed by immediate effects and instant feedback (DeVito, 1997).

Interpersonal communication is communication made between a person with others in a community or organization setting (business and non-business), using certain communication media and easily understood language (informal) to achieve a certain goal. Based on this understanding, there are four important things to be considered:


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(1) Communication is done by two or more persons.

(2) Using certain media, such as mobile phone or face to face.

(3) The language used is informal (not formal), may use local language, lingua franca or mixed language. The communication goal may be personals when communication takes place in a society and duties-related when communication occurs in an organization (DeVito, 1997).

Symbolic Interaction Theory (Bulmer, as cited in Littlejohn, 1996)

This approach is based on the view and assumption that human experiences gained through the interpretation of results. Interpretation is not autonomous, but rather the meaning established is based on the context of the subject or the object interpreted. According to Littlejohn (1996), symbolic interaction contains the core of common premises about society and communication. He adds that symbolic interaction perspective views individuals as active, reflective and creative, strive to interpret whatever happens in life, displaying complicated and unpredictable behaviors. This paradigm rejects the notion that individuals are passive organism whose behavior is determined by forces beyond his means.

Therefore, individuals constantly change so does the society through interactions. Consequently, interaction is considered as an important variable in determining human behavior instead of the structure of society. The structure itself is created and changed as a result of human interaction. It happens when individuals think and act predictably about the same set of objects (Mulyana, 2001: 62). Thus the symbolic interaction assumes that human understand many things by learning from experiences. Someone’s perception is always translated into symbols. In this case, the symbolic interaction approach considers that the whole structure and social institutions are created through people interaction. Meanwhile Mead explains that human ability to respond to symbols used when interacting, may shed light on the connection between symbolic interactionism and the concept of self.

Mead expounds that socially, a person can take action on himself as well as to others, he can praise himself, blaming himself or push himself; share with himself, judge himself, etc. In other words, one can make himself as an object through the “definitions” made with others.

The concept of self has three dimensions (Littlejohn, 1996):

1) Knowledge of self, it is associated with how well one is aware of the information about himself, for example sex and appearance/outer-look, etc.

2) Hope for oneself; it is related to someone's aspiration for what would he want to be in the future.

3) Appraisal on one-self.

Despite of their reluctance to develop interpersonal communication with the general public, ayamkampus made an effort to comprehend symbolical interaction with people they deem worthy of the trouble. They can interpret the meaning of widely understood verbal and nonverbal actions. Verbal actions cover all words and language usage in everybody’s daily life; as for nonverbal actions by subjects will be seen mainly as mixed references of their daily lives as prostitutes and as someone seen to have high intellectuality.


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Theory of Dramaturgy (Goffman, 1959)

Goffman assumes that when people interact, they want to present an acceptable self-image by others. He called such effort as “impression management”; it is a technique used by actors to foster a certain impression, in certain situations to achieve certain goals. When interacting or communicating, both communicator and communicant will organize themselves to appear as the image they wanted to reflect. Having all that written, it is safe to conclude that everyone is doing shows for others on a daily basis. “People are actors,

structuring their performances to the make impressions on audiences” (Goffman, 1959).

Following this theatrical analogy, Goffman later talks about the “front stage.” The word “front” refers to part of a show that generally certain and easily visible to the people who watch the show. Goffman distinguishes front stage into settings and personal fronts. Setting refers to the landscape on stage that provide the illusion and background for the scenes; without it, the drama will lose its magic and intended effect. Personal front consists of various qualities used to inflict the audience emotion and feeling towards the actors and the audience expect these qualities owned by the actor.

Goffman further divides personal front into “appearance” and “manner.” Appearance concerns about possession of various goods associated with social status. Manner refers to the way an actor conduct themselves. The actor’s manner tells the audience what to expect from his performance in given situations. Abusive and placid behaviors will end up as completely different types of show. Generally we expect the appearance and manner to be in synch.

Goffman’s theory also talks about the so-called “back stage” where the hidden facts unseen in the front stage can be displayed out of audience prying eyes and various types of informal action may be revealed. Back stage is usually adjacent to the front stage, however there is always a short cut between the two. The actors do not expect the audience to appear at the back stage at all times. These actors are entangled in numerous impression management works to ensure such intrusion never happens. The performance would be difficult when the actors are in capable of preventing spectators to take a peek at the back stage.

It would be very interesting to observe the performance played by ayamkampus on the front stage; verbal communication through speech, dialect, tone of voice, and non-verbal communication made by facial expressions, body movements, clothes, accessories and make-up worn that follows the trends set by celebrities seen on TV; and not to forget the unforgivable amount of perfume sprayed from head to toe. Observation on the back stage will be carried out simultaneously to disclose the transformation from student to sex workers.

Methodology

Sufficient number of subjects in a research is needed so that the data collected is adequate to derive sensible and useful conclusions. In survey studies, it does not have to examine all the individuals present in the population to extract the data intended to collect; it takes only a small part of total population as representatives. The representatives of the total population is called “sample.” Therefore, the most important issue in doing a survey research is determining which sampling method to use so that the sample chosen act as proxy of each character intended to find in the population (Sugiyono, 2005).

The subject of this research is female university students aged 18-23 years who are actively involved in the sex trade in the city of Padang, West Sumatra Province, Indonesia.

The methodology used in this research is the phenomenological approach. It is a tradition in qualitative research rooted from philosophy and psychology but focused on the


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human experience (sociology). Phenomenological approach is similar to the hermeneutics

approach which uses life experience as a tool for better understanding of the social, cultural, political or historical context in which they occur.

This research will discuss about an object of the study by understanding the core experience of a phenomenon. The researcher will conduct an in depth examination on the central issue of the main structure of an object of the study and keep questioning, “What major experiences that will be described by the subjects of this research?” The researcher initiates this study by having a philosophical idea illustrating the main theme. Translation is done by getting into the subjects’ perceptions to observe how they get through an experience in their lives in order to find meaning of the subjects’ experiences.

Subjects were recruited directly by visiting locations where they were known to operate. They were selected purposively with the aim of obtaining data that has the particular characteristics or categories needed. Subjects of the study are those who fit perfectly with the criteria intended that it cannot be decided in advance. According to Miles & Huberman (1984), there are several indicators used in the selection of the subjects of the study, among others: the background or setting, actors, events, and process. The researcher makes active communication with subjects and conducted interviews openly.

Results

1. Communication patterns of female university students who are being sex

workers are primary, circular, and non-formal communication.

Primary communication is a delivery process by the communicator to the communicant using symbols as its media or channel. This pattern is divided into two symbols: verbal and non-verbal symbols. Circular and non-formal communication is the pattern that allows feedback given and its flow from communicant to communicator and back will determine the success of communication. Using it as model, communication pattern between ayamkampus and their customers goes on regularly with messages and phone calls made back and forth between the two parties and it tends to be relatively open.


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Feedback

Feedback

Figure 1: Model of Primary, Circular, and Formal Communication Patterns of Female University Students as Sex Workers in Padang city.

This research finds that students who also act as commercial sex workers are very picky in choosing the people to mingle. They do not want to be treated as ordinary commercial sex workers who are considered not on par with them. The said difference is the intellectual level between ayamkampus and ordinary sex workers. Bearing the status as university student give them the confident to declare that they are classier and better in every way than ordinary commercial sex workers. They keep themselves under radar for fear of tainted reputation if their contemptible extracurricular revealed.

The subjects interviewed admit their double roles has lasted for a year due to various reasons. Not all of the students are native Padang, some came from Java, Pekanbaru, Medan and Lampung. It is not easy to be prostitutes for most of them. The reasons behind their side job choice range from looking for additional allowance to survive, abandoned by family, practicing extra marital sex and got pregnant, go through abortion and left alone by irresponsible boyfriend to simply wish a glamorous life but do not have enough resource to back it.

In phenomenology context, high class prostitutes: the students, are the actors who perform a social action (being prostitutes) along with other actors that have similarities and bond among them. The student sex workers are actors who have motives, be it future or past-oriented.

Five (5) subjects claimed to frequently ask themselves questions that are difficult to answer without lying to themselves. They are haunted by the question whether they would be condemned by God to suffer in hell for having sex with men that are not their husbands. Some, after business is done, cannot wipe off the risk of getting sexually transmitted disease that can only be cured by death from their mind.

There is a conflict between privacy and openness in this walk of life. Openness is important in making transactions, on the other hand deciding what will be disclosed and what should be kept secret for security and anonymity reasons is not easy. Identity or commonly referred to as self-concept of student sex workers depends on the image viewed by others: family, sex workers friends, non-sex workers friends, or the communities where they live. The self-concept seen by a different person who knows them will be different too. For example, a family member may see them as who they are, a girl who could save her virginity and has good relationships with the surrounding environment.

It is also applied to how their classmates see them, female or male friends most likely consider that they are a good friend who has everything. Interpersonal communication made in the social environment is a very important form communication to connect with others.

Primary Communication

Verbal Communication

Male Customer

Commercial Sex Workers (Female

University Students)

Nonverbal Communication

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Communication between student sex workers and their classmates is certainly different from the communication occurs with their customers.

Verbal communication is communication that uses symbols or words that expressed orally or verbally (Effendi, 1997). Verbal communication is human special characteristic, no other creature that can convey a variety of meanings through words. Language plays a central role in human interactions. At the most basic level, language is our way to represent and put label for elements found in the environment and to relate to one another (Ruben & Stewart, 2013).

There are two forms of communication between student sex workers and their surrounding environment: open and closed communication. Open communication is conducted within the students sex workers daily life, such as boarding friends, classmates, and family. The language used is a mixture of local language (Minang language) and Indonesian as well as Jakarta slang words. Closed communication form is reserved to be used in night clubs and within the sex trade circle. The closed communication is carried out using local language and Indonesian.

The language they use is arbitrary and understood only by those who are part of the sex industry. In addition, the codes they use known solely by their group. One of the subjects shared some of the codes; “maya” means having sex and “sustaloe big” is the code for you

have big breasts.

Closed Communication

Figure 2: Closed Communication, the communication adhered to student sex workers when they are in their neighborhood.

Non-verbal communication is frequently used in the “front stage,” and they make the most use of visual messages, which includes:

(1) Kinesics

The term refers to the study of body movements that complement, repeat, regulate, or replace verbal messages. It includes facial expressions, eye contact (glances), hand movements and overall stature image. More than in any forms of communication, kinesics is key to delivering the intent any sex worker may convey to their potential customers as it triggers the rise of libido and leave the target horny and beg for release. Flaming red nail polish is the spice added to accentuate hand movements.

(2) Proxemics

Hall (1963) distinguishes four types of informal distances: public, social-consultative, personal/private, and intimate distance. Personal distance is common in communication between friends. Social-consultative distance is used in professional and unofficial social occasions. People from different cultural backgrounds can for example value

Student Sex Workers

Environment

46

personal space differently. Student sex workers have rules set when it comes to the space they allow to distant them from their customers in order to create suspense and mystery they deem necessary to build interest and last, get to business.

The public distance, 1, 2 to 3 meters is the space student sex workers apply to let themselves at display while at the same time screen potential buyer from the crowd. As business agreement is reached, the private distance, 40 cm - 1.2 meters was taken during early stage of the process in getting to know and being familiar with the customer. After the warming up session ended, they will typically break into the intimate distance and most likely find themselves only 10-30 cm apart from each other; the highlight of the distance is during sexual intercourse, when distance is less than 10 cm.

(3) Artefacts

Artefacts can be defined as the “material culture,” that is, how we live, what we carry with us, and how we dress. Talking about sex workers, the cloth worn is used to claim the high class prostitute identity, and in turn it directs how others behave and treat them.

According to the subjects, they always carefully select every customer they have. They must be able to decide within minutes whether they want to take the deal or leave it; should they have any slightest hunch about a customer they would instinctively reject with a variety of reasons. Within the sex industry, interpersonal skill is an asset to excel in the business but also as detector in spotting troubles.

Student sex workers interpersonal communication model is as the image below:

Public Distance

Social Distance

Interakasisimbolik COMMUNICATION Interakasisimbolik

ZonaPribadi

Intimate Distance

Figure 3: Student sex workers’ Interpersonal Communication Model in verbal and non-verbal communication.

Shy, silent, ignorant, doesn’t care about anything happened around her in the

university

Dressed casually Tend to be quiet

Choose their friends based on the potential benefit from the association

Student Sex Workers double life as college

47

2. Female university student sex workers uses linear communication pattern with

their social environment (Community and Academics)

The communication between ayamkampus with their community outside prostitution circle is more formal and considered linear (especially with hardline opposition to the work choice). The word “linear” implies the meaning straight representing the awkward and tense feeling when communication occurs. They prefer to avoid any contact with people for fear of being disclosed. Therefore, ayamkampus do the dramaturgy alternatingly from the front stage and backstage on daily basis. They act as ordinary university student in front of everybody to see and when nobody notice, they put off their mask and change cover to be sultry sex goddess.

Interacting Interacting

Shown Symbols

Figure 4: Communication Pattern Model between Female University Student Sex Workers with their social environment (Community and Academics) is Linear

Conclusion

The form of communication between ayamkampus and their customers is influenced by the symbols given by others. Symbol is used to communicate their feelings, thoughts, and intentions to communicant who later decode it. These student sex workers use different language when communicating with the sex trade circle and such language will not be understood by the civilians. Communication patterns that are used more frequently by student sex workers to build communication within their work circle are primary, circular, and non-formal. On the other hand, the pattern used with society and academic environment is linear one. It is straightforward and awkward, a communication that is best avoided if possible.

Suggestion

Padang city administration should work together with existing university in Padang to conduct a thorough investigations on the phenomenon. They are part responsible to let it happen and must take measured actions to right what has been wronged. They are also expected to provide advice and creative solution to the students in generating an income from

Shy, silent, ignorant, doesn’t care about anything happened around her

in the university

Dressed casually Tend to be quiet

Choose their friends based on the potential benefit from the association

Student Sex Workers double life as college students

College students in campus

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respectable source. All universities in Padang should seek commitment from all of students, should they got caught selling sex they will be punished severely.

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Learners’ Acceptance toward Flipped Classroom

Pradit Songsangyos18 Namon Jeerungsuwan19

Abstract

Currently, information and communication technology are applied in education. The problems may arise if leaners have different backgrounds. Therefore, flipped classroom concept allows learners to study at home before doing activities together in classroom. This research study is experiment research. The used instrument in this study was a questionnaire. The sample group is the randomly doctoral students of Division of Information and Communication Technology for Education, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok. The samples take the course of Instructional Design and Development of Information and Communication Technology for Education in the academic year of 2007 to 2014. The study finds that learners’ acceptance of flipped classroom is at a high level. Perceived ease of use and behaviour intention is at a high level. The perceived usefulness is at the highest level.

Keywords: learners’ acceptance, flipped classroom, teaching and learning

18 Head, Division of Computer Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Rajamangala University of Technology Suvarnabhumi, Thailand, email: [email protected]

19 Director, Division of Information and Communication Technology for Education, Faculty of Technical Education, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand, email: [email protected]

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Introduction

The roles of information and communication technology, particularly the Internet is widely used in education and everyday life. Currently, those involved in the educational were interested in the used of information and communication technology to support study in the 21st century skills which can be learn from anywhere at any time. For traditional learning in a classroom, if the students have a different educational background, they may not be able to follow and understanding the contents. Therefore, online learning is used to enhance learning in the classroom, but the trouble still arise when they have activities to do together. The flipped classroom concept allows learners to study at home before doing activities together in the classroom.

The Flipped Classroom refers to a form of teaching and learning which students can learn online with himself or herself, and collaboration with his or her friends at home. In the course Design and Development of Information and Communication Technology for Education, conducted by Assoc.Prof. Namon Jeerungsuwan, Ph.D. The learners tend to study by searching the knowledge from various sources, including documents and electronic media. Then, perform discussion with study group through social media (Facebook), by shifting role of a team leader in an interested topic. The homework will be done in a class, the leader of the online discussion (Chat) group then summarize and present the knowledge from collaborative discussion in the classroom. The instructor role is changing from lecturing to assistant and guide the study.

The learners’ acceptance is referred to the mental activities those occur after learning by the flipped classroom which enabling students to recognize the ease of use and perceived of the benefits. The result is changing in their attitudes, then affected to the willingness to study by the flipped classroom.

The Purpose of the Study

The purpose of the study is to study the learners’ acceptance toward the flipped classroom of the doctoral level students who experienced in learning using the flipped classroom method.


The study is an Experimental Research type. The proposed study is conducted as follows. The population are 59 doctoral students of the Information and Communication Technology for Education Division, Faculty of Industrial Education, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok.

The research instrument is the questionnaire, which divided into two parts: Part 1 is learners’ background and Part 2 is learners’ acceptance toward flipped classroom. The data are collected from the simple random sampling group. The sample group are the doctoral students of Information and Communication Technology for Education Division, Faculty of Technical Education, King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, who took the course 020017201 Design and Development of Information and Communication Technology for Education during the academic year of 2007 to 2014. Totally six classes of students, 30 respondents who experienced in studies using the flipped classroom. The analysis of data using statistical application including the arithmetic mean and standard deviation is used.

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Results

Table 1 shows that, the students’ acceptance toward learning using the flipped classroom in overall is at a high level (x 4.32, SD 0.24). The perceived ease of use is at a high level (x 4.38, SD 0.35), the largest score is “Getting start using social media is easy, just sign up on the website” at the highest level (x 4.59, SD 0.51), and the smallest score is “Learning at home then do homework at school, according to the principle of flipped classroom, helps them understand the contents easily” at a high level (x 4.11, SD 0.78). The study also indicates that the students signing up and learning how to use the flipped classroom is easy, convenience, and understandable. The perceived usefulness are at the highest level (x 4.53, SD 0.41). The highest scored of “Collaborative learning through social media enable access to knowledge from various sources” is at the highest level (x 4.74, SD 0.53), and the lowest scored of “Learning by flipped classroom provides interaction, not only between the learners, but also between learner(s) and the instructor” is at a high level (x 4.30, SD 0.77). The result also indicates that the students agree that the flipped classroom can enhance learning with resources in various formats and provided interaction and notification. The willingness to use is at a high level (x 4.09, SD 0.54). The highest score of “I intended to be a heavy user of Flipped Classroom” is at a high level (x 4.15, SD 0.66), and the lowest score of “I intended to study with Flipped Classroom” is at a high level (x 4.04, SD 0.59). The study indicated that the students do not only accept the learning using flipped classroom for this course but also are interested to use for other courses as well.

Table 1: Learners’ Acceptance toward Flipped Classroom

Descriptions x S.D.

1. Perceive Ease of Use 4.38 0.35

1.1 Getting start using social media is easy, just sign up on the website.

4.59 0.51

1.2 It is easy to learn and have skill for using social media. 4.37 0.57

1.3 Discussion by posting with a reference source, is easy for collaborative learning.

4.33 0.49

1.4 Use of social media to connect with friends is simple and fast.

4.52 0.59

1.5 To propose a common interest is appropriate for their study.

4.37 0.64

1.6 Learning at home then do homework at school, according to the principle of flipped classroom help them to understand the contents easily.

4.11 0.78

2. Perceive Usefulness 4.53 0.41

2.1 Learning by flipped classroom provides Interaction, not only between the learners, but also between learner(s) and the instructor.

4.30 0.77

2.2 Learners can review the contents of the post later on. 4.56 0.64

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Similar to the study of “Students Perceptions toward Flipped Learning: New Methods to Increase Interaction and Active Learning in Economics” by Roach (2014), he finds that students respond positively to the learning by flipped classroom. In addition, this instruction design is useful for the learners. In addition, the study of “Student Perceptions of the Impact of Using the Flipped Classroom Approach for an Introductory-level Multidisciplinary Module” by Musib (2014) is similarly. He adds that the majority of students (90 percent) prefers the flipped classroom concept. Furthermore, students who participated the flipped classroom activities prefer not only classroom activities but also learning at home. By the way, more than 90 percent agree that teachers should further develop the flipped classroom for other courses.

Discussion and Suggestions

The study finds that the students’ acceptance toward the flipped classroom in overall is at a high level. The perceived usefulness and willingness to use are at a high level. Similar

2.3 Discussion by posting on social media can be amended later on.

4.41 0.64

2.4 Social media has time and date stamp. When feeding a new post, it will alert to the user(s) immediately.

4.56 0.58

2.5 Collaborative Learning through social media enable access to knowledge from various sources.

4.74 0.53

2.6 Studying at home before discussion in the classroom, may enhance the learning effectiveness.

4.41 0.64

2.7 Collaborative learning through social media in a multimedia form is easy to study the contents.

4.63 0.49

2.8 Learning through social media can support motion picture in a various formats including video and animation.

4.67 0.68

2.9 Learning through social media can support text in various formats including Microsoft word and pdf files.

4.56 0.70

2.10 Learning and collaborating activities through social media can support learning in the classroom.

4.52 0.58

2.11 Social media is promptly used for collaborating activities and enable to respond immediately as the real time.

4.48 0.58

3. Behaviour Intention 4.09 0.54

3.1 Intend to study with "Flipped Classroom" continuously in this course.

4.04 0.59

3.2 Intend to be a heavy user of "Flipped Classroom". 4.15 0.66

3.3 Intend to study with "Flipped Classroom" in other courses.

4.06 0.56

Overall 4.32 0.24

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to Davis (1989), he finds that, the perceived usefulness are more related to the behavior than the perceived ease of use. The learners tend to study by searching the knowledge from various sources, mostly in electronic media format. Then, perform online discussion (Chat) with study group through social media (Facebook). In addition, the learners comment that learning by the flipped classroom enable them to have more time to do activities in the classroom. Furthermore, learning on their own and collaboration with friends by online system take more time than in the classroom. Therefore, any courses with the flipped classroom method may have the problems of spending more time for the study. Educators should conduct flipped classroom with other courses and also consider the appropriate number of courses and contents. Pros and cons, including privacy and ethics of social media usage, should be concerned.

For further study, the study of the factors that affect the flipped classroom learning, the barriers, and the use of media for the flipped classroom learning should be concerned.

References

Davis, F. D. (1989). Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology. MIS Quarterly, 13(3), (Sept 1989), 319-340.

Musib, M. K. (2014). Student Perceptions of the Impact of Using the Flipped Classroom Approach for an Introductory-level Multidisciplinary Module. CDTL Brief, 17(2), 15-20.

Roach, T. (2014). Students Perceptions toward Flipped Learning: New Methods to Increase Interaction and Active Learning in Economics. International Review of Economics

Education, 17(Sept 2014), 74-84.

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Chat and Share: Digital Learning for Thai Teens

Kullatip Satararuji20 Bhubate Samutachak21

Abstract

Social media today has a major influence on people’s lifestyles, particularly teenagers for whom mobile phones are an indispensable part of life. Universally available mobile phone services, affordable smartphones, and easily accessible high-speed internet and Wi-Fi have all contributed to the mobile boom among young people. Consequently, usage of social media including: Facebook, Twitter, Instagram, YouTube and Line, continues to rise steadily. “Thailand in Facebook: The Growth in AEC 2015” (2015) shows Thailand has 35 million Facebook users, equivalent to 53.74% of the country’s population, ranking in nineteenth in the world.

However, usage of social media can have both positive and negative results. This article is a part of the research study on social media for social learning. The research report presents the positive dimension, in which teenagers benefit from the multi-functional capabilities of social media such as Facebook and Line. Specifically, it looks at how these online platforms can help enhance their informal learning in line with 21st century skills. Technology-based learning in this case covers multiple facets such as computer-based learning, web-based learning, virtual classrooms, and digital collaboration (The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009)

Under the P21 (Partnership for 21st Century Skills) concept, every learner must be helped to understand academic content in order to lay a foundation for both a discrete thinking process and effective communication. Aside from learning academic content, it is important for learners to acquire essential daily living and career skills, learning and innovation skills, and skills in information technology, media and technology.

In this new social era, learning and innovation skills are vital. Learners must seek self-training and development to improve these skills. This “learning by doing” technique will prepare learners for career life. These skills comprise the 4Cs: Critical Thinking, Communication, Collaboration, and Creativity (The Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009). The teenagers in this research study group possessed skills in information technology and communication and ability to use social media effectively. These skills supported additional learning outside the classroom by ways of searching, and through collaborative learning chatrooms to develop academic content. These activities fostered continuous learning.

Keywords: social media, teen, adolescence, learning skills, education

20 Associate Professor, Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation, National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Bangkok Thailand. 21 Assistant Professor, Institute for Population and Social Research, Mahidol University, Bangkok Thailand.

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Origins and Characteristics of Facebook and Line

Facebook (originally the facebook) is the world’s largest social network service, headquartered in Menlo Park, California. Facebook was founded on February 4, 2004 by Mark Zuckerberg, his roommates, and fellow students from Harvard University. The cofounders included Eduardo Saverin, Andrew McCollum, Dustin Moskovitz and Chris Hughes. Initially, only a limited number of users within Harvard University visited the network. However, Facebook gradually expanded to other campuses in Boston, Ivy League schools on the U.S. East Coast and Stanford University in California before going online in North America and worldwide. Facebook allows users aged 13 and above from around the world to register without references. According to data from Socialbakers.com, as of May 20, 2015, Facebook had 890 million users worldwide, including 6,914,800 from Thailand (Social Bakers Editorial Team, 2011).

The main attraction of Facebook is its ability to create an online social network used for communicating within groups of friends. Users can share knowledge, opinions, photos and videos, apart from creating personal photo albums, playing games, building networks, chatting as well as introducing activities such as fan-pages. In the educational field, Facebook is used as a platform to connect teachers and students. Teachers use it to assign classroom work and homework to their students. Additionally, it can be linked to websites such as Twitter, and configured to share slides and other applications (“Thailand in Facebook: The Growth in AEC 2015,” 2015).

Line, a messaging application for mobile phones, tablets and computers, is the runaway market leader in its field in Thailand, and has won awards in several countries include: iTunes Best of 2012 (No. 1 in Japan in free applications), Top Worldwide Non-Game Apps by Monthly Revenue for iOS and Google Play for November 2012, the iF Design Award 2013 (for advertising media), the 17th AMD Digital Content Award 2013, and a Best Technology nomination from the Spanish news group el Economista, It was developed by NHN Japan Co (an online services, game, and data search specialist), Naver Japan Corp, and Livedoor Co., Ltd. Line began providing services in June 2011 (Kuljitjuawong, 2013).

The name “Line” was inspired by the 2011 Tsunami in Japan which disabled ground communication systems, causing people to wait in lines to use public phone services. Line’s strength is its function as a chat network that allows users to send text messages, photos, voice messages, stickers, and videos aside from connecting to external websites for general data and sales promotion for marketing purposes. It is two-way communication in which the recipient can respond instantly. Hence, the sender can analyze the effectiveness of the communication. From this platform, users can organize groups with a maximum number of 100 members (Chalernvanichkorn, 2013).

Moreover, Line users and recipients are able to communicate anytime. Recipients can choose to open or block any text and voice messages or video. As well, Line’s free voice and video calling functions allow users within a group to connect at no charge on both domestic and foreign networks. In addition, users can post messages, photos, stickers, videos, website links, and share messages on the timelines of Official Accounts. It supports file sharing in the form of .jpeg, .pdf, .ppt, .doc, and other popular formats (Kuljitjuawong, 2013).

Line stickers — cartoons representing different emotions, feelings and personalities to make chatting more enjoyable — have proved to be a huge drawing card, especially among young people. Businesses, meanwhile, can use stickers to make an impression as well as communicate with targeted groups. Users can download these stickers freely providing that they add the senders’ official accounts as friends (Kuljitjuawong, 2013). These stickers help

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businesses to reach an audience rapidly while data on users linked to Official Accounts provides further potentially valuable marketing information.

When examining teenagers’ communication via social networks, this research study found that they used Line to communicate with roommates and peers for tutoring outside their classrooms, and to do homework, which was categorized as collaborative learning.

Chatroom: An Online Common Room for Homework and Tutoring of Thai Teenagers

Based on the above-mentioned functionalities of Facebook and Line, teenagers who already use online services create Line and Facebook chat groups to do their homework in addition to inside-the-classroom studies. The designs of both applications’ functions can help support usage for educational purposes. This is because the two platforms are independent: there is no limit in terms of time and place. These spaces are especially open for users who are familiar with each other. They can set up an application to create a specific group in which the members have a related interest.

Members may be several individuals who want to communicate with others within the same group, for example classmates, families, and colleagues. Once a member sends out a message, the rest of the group will all receive the same message, leading to bidirectional communication.

Creating a room on Facebook and Line yields benefits in that it creates a communication channel for teenagers who are a learner in the digital era. These teenagers connect with their peers in chatroom spaces at both the personal and group communication levels. Literacy of social media is online of teenagers, for example: “Bring people closer and close people become far.”

In addition, teachers can use such chatrooms to send messages to students. Through this communication channel, teachers and students become friends; therefore, there is no more generation gap. The group members are able to send text messages, documented photos, video files, or other information depending on the sender’s objective. The information exchange results in acknowledgement and learning on topics of the senders’ and recipients’ interest. The application can be means of following how vocational student learning.

Teenagers in the research sample group shared a similar approach to learning by using social networks in each of their institutions. It begins with digital collaboration in the form of a chatroom where friends can converse as well as exchange teaching and learning information from their classes. For example, they can take photos of their lecture notes, or slides presented in the classroom, and send the files to the chatrooms which can be set up based on subjects e.g. math room, English room, or by grade (such as Junior high school or Senior High school room).

Project work from the classroom can be assigned to each group member to further search for material online or from books, from which documents or photos can be scanned, or links created and uploaded for the group’s classroom project. The chatroom also provides space for debate on any unclear topics that have come up in the classroom, at any time and in real time. Consequently, friends can help friends on those topics in question at everyone’s convenience.

Furthermore, members will know who has finished their work, and who needs help. When a member finds useful information, he or she can share it so that the rest of the group can learn instantly. Recipients can also verify and send feedback to the sender directly. Chatrooms on social networks enable members to evaluate information and project work on major subjects, such as sciences, posted by each member.

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As well, they can arrange tutoring information for major basic courses such as mathematics and English; exchange tests between classes, specifically minor tests from which students can accumulate points. Those who finish a test can take a photo via mobile phone and send it to students who haven’t taken the test yet. Many students use photos taken from mobile phones to submit projects to teachers, send mathematics solutions, or science formulas to share with friends for further self-development.

Know the Media, Know Exactly What Content Recipients Want

Based on group discussion results, the sample group observed that the outstanding elements of Facebook and Line are their ability to allow users to send multimedia messages. Line’s uniqueness is that users can send messages in various forms e.g. a video clip from YouTube containing content that normally is difficult to search for, such as physics. Websites frequently visited include search engine: Google and www.dek-d.com.

Some messages are shared from other chatrooms or from senior students’ Facebook pages. Teenagers are able to select appropriate content matching the needs of their group members, be it physics or mathematics tutoring, science projects and English learning rooms. Normally, those who are good at individual subjects will be responsible for summarizing the contents, and then posting them for the others.

Even though learners have direct access to technology via multiple channels, the teenagers from this sample group exhibit additional know-how in terms of using these technologies and ability to analyzing the content in each room. For example, they are familiar with information search channels such as the Born to be Doctor web page, from which the content can be adapted to their biology class.

The members also display the capability to organize and utilize communication channels on an individual social network to facilitate their learning. For example, they know which channels should be used to send which kinds of messages or photos. They are also capable of searching, downloading as well as sending video clips and links to connect with external websites. These activities initiate reactions, and at the same time reduce the communication gap.

Above all, Line allows users to send cartoon stickers representing different feelings e.g. sadness, happiness, humor, and several other emotions. This is enjoyable for users and hence stimulates further collaborative learning activity. In other words, the stickers make the chatting group’s communications in tutoring and homework rooms more colorful and lively.

Data and Analysis

This research employed qualitative methodology with a Focus Group Discussion technique. The respondents were students aged between 14 and 16 years from high schools and vocational schools. The sample areas were divided into two geographical regions: Bangkok and the provinces. For the latter, Chiang Mai was selected based on statistical data showing that it had the highest usage of internet services (National Statistical Office, 2011).

Each type of data was collected from four schools in each area. Sample schools were categorized as ordinary schools with: 1) middle to high social-economic status (SES) and 2) middle to low SES, and the rest were vocational schools. From each school, discussion groups were divided based on gender: one group of males and one group of females. Therefore, each of the two selected areas had 8 discussion groups, totaling 16 groups. The total number of respondents was 101: 50 males and 51 females.

Communication devices are considered as essential issue since they dictate the effectiveness and accessibility of online communication programs. The devices need to

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possess technological efficiency with processors at an advanced level to allow for efficient transmission of data. Selections of the programs, accessibility and selection of devices based on efficiency were altered in each area as follows:

According to group discussions with 50 respondents from the provinces, the most popular online program on social networks among teenagers is Facebook. The online communication methods they use to connect with their friends include chatting on Line, Twitter, Instagram, and WhatsApp. They also use other messaging programs including Skype, Tango and WeChat. The research found out that programs that are more popular internationally such as Flickr, Grindr, Jack’d and Foursquare are less known and used.

Chatrooms and Cooperative Learning

Nowadays, social media platforms have become indispensable for learning for teenagers. Johnson & Johnson (1994), Slavon (1983), and Webb (1985) defined the term “cooperative learning” as a method of teaching and learning emphasizing students’ cooperation and assistance in the learning process. Students organize a small group comprising members with different talents, different levels of competence, and different genders. Each member is responsible for one’s own learning task as well as that of fellow members.

Meanwhile, Troutman & Lichtenberg (1995) stated that cooperative learning is a method aimed at developing students’ thinking ability and social relations. It offers students opportunities to work freely and converse with a wide range of people, which helps strengthen their capability to explain as well as reason about the group’s work, aside from building skill in following working procedures as a group. The technique is, consequently, a learner-centered teaching and learning method. The Group Process ensures that learners have opportunities to cooperate for mutual benefit and the accomplishment of the group as a whole. The important elements of the Cooperative Learning are as follows:

1. Positive Interdependence. Group members share the same goal, achieve accomplishments together, and use the same devices and materials. Everyone has responsibility, believing that they need to help each other in order to carry through their work.

2. Face-to-Face Promotive Interactions. This element concerns interrelations, the exchange of opinions and ideas, and explaining knowledge content to friends in the group. This is an important feature of cooperative learning’s direct interrelationship. There should be information sharing and feedback. Importantly, members should have opportunities to present new ideas for peers to choose the most appropriate one.

3. Individual Accountability means responsibility of an individual member for learning with assistance and support from group members to achieve the group’s target. Every member must be confident and prepared for individual tests as well.

4. Interdependence and Small Group Skills. It is important that students be trained to have both of these sets of skills because they are vital for the success of group work. Students should be trained to improve communication, leadership, decision-making and problem-solving skills. Equally important is learning to trust in other people.

5. Group Process. This is a working procedure stipulating steps or methods that will help group work advance effectively. Every member must understand the target of the work, co-plan the operation, execute the operation as planned, and finally assess the outcome for improvement.

These five elements of Cooperative Learning are related to each other, which help make it progress smoothly and achieve the group’s target. In particular, it is essential that

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students receive training to build social, small-group working and group process skills for better knowledge and understanding; then they can obtain the full benefit when these skills are used.

The research has shed light on the phenomenon of social media usage among teenagers for learning via the Cooperative Learning method. Even though chatrooms on Facebook and Line cannot reflect every aspect of Cooperative Learning as stated by Johnson & Johnson (1995), it is a meaningful trend. Clearly, Thailand currently is making use of social networks in an educational environment to facilitate learning in the digital world. Furthermore, social network platforms enable students to benefit from learning, specifically interdependent and small-group skills, communication and leadership skills, apart from learning how to trust other people.

Importantly, the Group Process provides opportunities for teenage members to learn how to plan project management of major subjects. To plan for such projects, students must designate a target so that the group’s work can be carried out successfully. As for the Face-to-Face Promotive Interactions, the generation gap between teachers and students can be reduced: teachers can join in to give answers, assign homework, or even ask for late homework to be turned in. Above all, teachers’ role in chatrooms is like mentors providing students with mental support. For this reason, teenagers have to consider opening channels to welcome their teachers into the groups.

In terms of the Group Process via chatrooms and project information sharing among friends, rooms in social networks facilitate the sharing of knowledge, homework, and even tests, most of which are minor. These activities reflect group learning, sharing, work allocation, management, work projects, and homework.

Cooperative Learning corresponds to the 21st Century Learning Method. It also reflects the culture of information sharing among teenagers. Specifically, information sharing becomes a normal and desirable act. This leads to the creation of groups devoted to information-sharing, moving information “upstream”. Users with this characteristic are happy to finish homework sooner to share with group mates who can also make use of the work. The first person who posts information will be proud, especially when he or she receives plenty of likes, positive feedback, or even a colorful sticker. It is considered a way to show one’s capability. This can also form the basis for a “service mind” in teenagers.

However, there are some moral cautions to be noted, among them copying and “free riders” (people who receive data only and contribute nothing to the group). However, the Group Process in the online world has a function that can block or eject free riders. After all, it depends on the creation of systems that set out regulations, etiquette, social manners, and culture with regard to members’ online service usage.

Conclusion

According to this research, teenagers who have made mobile phone services part of their lives can creatively benefit from social media on Facebook and Line. They are capable of using these functions and technologies to support their learning outside the classroom. Social media opens space for users to share knowledge, present ideas, review subjects as well as share useful information. They can expand their knowledge from the classroom to online friends.

Moreover, it is a space where the generation gap doesn’t exist. Teachers and students alike can create a space and spark any kind of learning with no limit. Growth in technology and usage of social media leads to the experience of Cooperative Learning, Group Interrelation and tightly knit relationships. However, success depends on the quality of the

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group members, and whether the content and information are beneficial to members’ learning and sharing. In this research, the uses of social media rooms for learning created opportunities for both learners and teachers to exchange their perspectives and adjust their roles to become co-learners in the digital era.

References

Chalernvanichkorn, W. (2013). Analysis of the Different Elements of the Brand during Krating Dang vs. Red Bull. Retrieved from http://inside.cm.mahidol.ac.th/mkt/ attachments/553_KratingDang%20vs%20Red%20Bull%20Analysis.pdf.

Johnson, R. T. & Johnson, D. W. (1994). Creativity and Collaborative Learning. Creativity

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Slavon, R. E. (1983). Cooperative Learning. Retrieved from http://ascd.com/ASCD/pdf/ journals/ed_lead/el_198711_slavin.pdf.

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Webb, N. (1985). Student Interaction and Learning in Small Groups: A Research Summary. Learning to Cooperate, Cooperating to Learn, 148–172.

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The Implementation of Online Promotion on Small and Medium

Enterprises in Creating Buying Interest

Meilani Dhamayanti22

Abstract

Promotion is one of the activities of the marketing mix to introduce the product. Effective promotion will have an impact on sales. Now, many people do their business with online promotion; because, online promotion has many advantages than other media. In Indonesia, many small and medium enterprises use online promotion to introduce their products.

The researcher uses theories and concepts in the field of Communication Studies, including marketing communication, promotional mix, and the concept of promotion. In the implementation of the study, researcher used a qualitative approach in order to learn more deeply about the implementation of the promotional mix by using in-depth interviews to the informant.

The results of this study are expected to provide the inputs to small and medium enterprises in implementing the promotional mix, though with limited funds. The selection of approriate promotional media will have an impact on increasing sale.

Keywords: Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC), online promotion, advertisement

22 S.Sos., M.si

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Introduction

The improvement of communication technology has given considerable impact of human civilization. Communication technologies provide many changes for all human activities, including in the world of business. The communication technology has facilitated businesses to promote products or services.

A few decades ago, the business has facilitated by promotion through mass media such as TV, newspapers, and magazines. The existence of the mass media would make the business is able to reach more customers than without promotion through the mass media. However, it must be admitted that an ease of advertise in mass media should also be balanced with a considerable cost. In fact, advertise in newspapers or television must spend tens or even hundreds of millions of dollars.

The expanding of communication technologies influences the way people in the promotion. The rise of digital technology in fact has a huge impact on people, including the business. Digital technology has made the world more narrow, enabling people to expand its business beyond space and time. This can be seen by doing online promotion. We should recognize that promotion via mass media such as TV, newspapers, magazines, and radio are still remain survive; nevertheless, online promotion has its own role. Promotion for business has an important role in reaching customers. The using of media for promotion has a quite important role.

Promotional activities are one of the priority components of marketing communications activities. With the promotion, consumers will know the products that are offered by the company. Additionally, the promotion can also impact on impulse buying products. A business that realizes the importance of the promotion will continuously promote by using various media. Therefore, promotional activities synonymous with substantial funds and also it is not surprising that the promotional activities are generally made by a big company with large funds.

Michael Ray on Morissan’s book with the title “Komunikasi Pemasaran Terpadu” (Integrated Marketing Communications) defines the promotion as “The coordination of all seller-initiated efforts to setup channel information and persuasion to sell goods and service or promote an idea” (2010).

From the context which is presented by Michael Ray, there are some important points, namely the channel information and persuasion. It can be understood that the channel information, namely the media has a very important role in the promotion activities. Through the media, companies can communicate the ideas and information to reach the audiences. This communication channel is causing a soaring costs for the promotion.

The majority of large companies usually uses mass media such as TV, newspapers, magazines, and radio to reach the audiences which have a widespread coverage area. This is understandable considering the mass media has the advantage in outreach to the audiences with the large numbers. However, it must be recognized that the using of mass media which is mentioned before, need a very large cost.

Agus Hermawan in the book “Marketing Communications” (2013: 38-39), also explains that in the transferring of information in promotion, there are some important things that must be considered, namely:

1. Advertising program which is run. Advertising activity is the main medium for a company to support promotional activities. The promotion has the main purpose of attracting consumers in order to make purchases of products offered. The media

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which are often used in advertising today are the print and electronic media. Advertising itself has been progressing very rapidly. One is the advent of Internet advertising.

2. Promotion with emphasis on sales made in person, better known by the term “personal selling.” These promotional activities can be regarded as the spearhead of promotional activities. This is because that a personal sale has to deal with customers directly. Personal sales activity which is carried out in a professional manner will help achieving fantastic sales. Personal selling on a large scale is one of the alternative solutions that can be done by a company that has a substantial capital.

3. Promotion is done by advancing the aspects of adding the product intensity

(additional values of products), in marketing strategy is known as promotional sales (sales promotion). Sales promotion increases the intensity value of the goods/services. This covers various aspects of marketing management, ranging from improving the quality of products, quality distribution services for distributors, improve service quality for customers in order to be better, and there are many other aspects that can be improved to satisfy the customer. In particular, sales promotion programs include discounts, rebates, financing assistance of advertising, and bonuses for dealers/agents and so on.

4. Promotions by increasing the publicity. It is more likely to form a positive image towards the products offered. The formation of a positive image can be done by advertising or promotion that has certain characteristics from other marketing strategy. It could be done by creating more products that have more points, unique characteristics, or have benefits that can get a positive image from the consumer. If this can be done, the positive image in community will be formed and will bring some positive factors to boost sales.

Advertising

As stated before, the advertising (ad) plays an important role in the promotion. Kotler (2002) said Advertising can be defined as “any paid from nonpersonal communication about an organization, product, service, or an idea by an identified sponsor.”

There are some important things from that definition, namely “being paid” and “nonpersonal.” The meaning of “being paid” on the above definition is shown the fact that the space or time for a message of advertising must be purchased generally. The word of “nonpersonal” means that the sending of messages not addressed to an individual but to a large number of groups of individuals at the same time. Thus, the impersonal nature of advertising means in general is not available opportunity to get immediate feedback from the receiver of the message (except in the case of direct response advertising). Therefore, before the advertising message is sent, the advertiser should really consider how the audience will interpret and respond to the advertisement.

In conducting the promotional activities are known in the term of above the line and below the line. The difference between those terms is on the using of the media that is used to promote. The above the line are referred: promotional activities carried out by using the mass media such as TV, newspapers, radio, and tabloids etc. The below the line is promotional activities by using media such as brochures, leaflets, and events etc.

Along with the times, where technology dominates human lives, entrepreneurs prefer promotional activities by using the mass media or above the line. There are several reasons of companies to advertise in the mass media. First, advertising in mass media assessed cost-efficient to reach the audience in large numbers. Second, ads in the mass media can be used to create a brand image and symbolic appeal to a company or brand. This becomes a very

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important, especially for products that are difficult to distinguish in terms of quality and function with rival products. Third, advertising through mass media is able to attract the attention of consumers to products which is advertised become popular or known to the public.

Currently, a new medium is evolved, which can reach a wider public and even can penetrate the boundaries of space and time. New media which is called the Internet has even been used by businesses to promote their products.

With the existence of the Internet, it can be used by companies of various facilities such as web and social media (Facebook, Instagram, etc.) to promote its institution. Generally, promotion which is done through the internet is called an online promotion.

Online Promotion

The sales promotion consists of all marketing activities, other than personal selling, advertising, and public relations that stimulate consumer purchasing and dealer effectiveness. Sales promotion is usually a short-term tool that is used to stimulate an increasing in demand as soon as possible (Lamb, Hair, & McDaniel, 2001). Sales promotion is a marketing communication activities, other than advertising, personal selling, and public relations, in which short-term incentives to motivate consumers and members of the distribution channels for the purchase of goods or services immediately, either at a low price or by increasing the added value.

Online promotion is a channel that can be reached by someone via a computer and a modem. The modem connects a computer to a telephone line so that the computer can reach a variety of online information services. There are two types of online channels:

1. Commercial online channels: providing five main services for customers, such as information (news, library, education, sports trips, and references), entertainment (entertainment and games), shopping services, occasions of dialogue (bulletin board, forum, talk box) and e-mail.

2. The Internet: a global network about 45,000 computer networks that allow instant global communication and decentralized. The Internet initially formed to support research and academic exchanges. Users can send e-mail, exchange ideas, buy goods, as well as access news, recipes, information of art, and business information. The Internet itself is free, although users must pay commercial subscription to connect with the Internet.

According to Philip Kotler (2002), on the using of the Internet for online promotion, there are three main benefits to potential buyers:

a. Convenience, customers can order products 24 hours a day where they are located. They do not have to drive, look for the parking lot, and walk through the alley to search and inspect the goods. And they do not have to drive to the store, only to find that the goods have exhausted.

b. Information, customers can obtain a stack of comparative information about the company, products and competitors without leaving their offices or homes. They can focus on objective criteria such as price, performance, and availability.

c. Barriers fewer, with the online service, customers do not need to face a persuasion and emotional factors.

Online promotion has advantages. Based on book “Periklanan: Komunikasi Pemasaran Terpadu” (Advertising: Integrated Marketing Communications) (Morissan, 2010: 327):

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Segmented Target: A major advantage of the web is the ability to target very specific group of individuals with a minimum a waste coverage (Belch, 2009).

Interesting Message: Message can be designed to be interesting to reach the audience.

Interactive: online medium can build interactive communication to push custumer’s participation to involve product offered. Company can get feedback from custumers to better understanding about product.

Information Access: one of the Internet’s benefits are information access. Internet users can find any information in large quantities.

Creativity: a creative web can push or increase positive perception or image. Expose: small enterprise can use online promotion to promote their product

with limited budget. As we know, if they will promote their products in mass media like television, newspapers or magazines, they will need large budget.

Speed: The Internet is the fastest instrumen to get information.

Several factors that must be a small interprise to build business online.

(1) Developing main product that will be sold: Do analyze Internet market to know market trends. A Small and medium enterprise can use search engine, newspapers, television or other resources to find market trends.

(2) Build website or other online media: A small and medium enterprise can build interesting desain and content.

(3) Reach audience to know your online media. The more people who visit the shop online Website the more opportunities to promote products (Morissan, 2010: 330-331)

BlackBerry Messenger (BBM) as an Online Promotion Media

BlackBerry Messenger (BBM) is a specific chat application for BlackBerry mobile operating system (OS). Since October 2013, BBM can be enjoyed at the Android and iOS operating systems.

There are several advantages of BBM, namely:

1. BBM’s market has to be used not only in the BlackBerry phone but also on Android and iOS smartphones. Thus, BBM users not only among BlackBerry users.

2. According chip.co.id (2009), BlackBerry users in Indonesia reached 15 million people, or about 18% of BlackBerry users from around the world. With the entry of BBM to Android and iOS, means the more BBM users, not limited to BlackBerry users. From the data circulating on the Internet, BBM users on Android and iOS reached more than 20 million users.

3. One of the interesting features of the BBM is a broadcast message. This feature can be used by the commerce who use the BBM to market and promote products that are sold. Only by making a short message, the message is sent to all of the pins are listed on the application of BBM. This feature can be optimized as a media promotion, BBM users can display the products by installing a profile picture on the BBM, but it can also put the status of BBM as a product description which will be sold.

4. Such features should be maximized, because it is a free media promotion, and only have to pay the cost of the package only. In addition, you can also advertise your Website in the form of a link, because the whole smartphone that supports BlackBerry Messenger has been able to make browsing directly from the smartphone.

5. With a wide range of advantages of BBM, plus the large number of users, there is no harm of the commerce online to use such features as a medium of promotional business products.

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Facebook

As one of the social media, Facebook has so many followers. Based on data released by Indsight Team, in December 2012, there were approximately 50.87612 million accounts. According Indsight, Indonesia is a country which ranks fourth of density in the world. In Indonesia, almost all people who have the Internet using Facebook. Facebook account owners are variety of diserve background and ages.

Many people use Facebook to promote their product. The reason of online promotion is they can reach a lot of people in many places. Based on the observations of the research, there are several ways to do promotion in Facebook, one of the ways is to use their personal accounts that would be accessible to those who joined in friendship.

The benefits of Using Facebook for Business Applications:

1. Branding - Facebook can be a great resource for generating brand awareness. Facebook has become popular among ages and demographics. Facebook can be interception to create a point to build your relationship with your customers and prospects.

2. Customer Engagement - Using the Facebook app can be a great way to communicate for promotion, contests, and events. Once again it is another point of interception that may be used to attract consumer engagement with your brand, product, or service.

3. Web Drive of Traffic - Facebook can act as a point of portal to drive a traffic to your site and other online properties.

4. Reputation Management - can be a useful tool to see what users are saying about you and your brand. In addition, your Facebook profile can now be indexed in search results, and as a result can provide another favorable listing in the organic search results of the machine.

5. New Customer Acquisition - Facebook provides an opportunity to find your customers who might not be found.

6. Lead Generation - Similar to the previous point that Facebook can act as another tool to lead potential genes that can be used to qualify leads. Reviewing potential prospects profile can help you to build relationships with your prospects and help in the process of lead generation qualification.

7. Client Retention - provides another point of interception potential to build relationships with your customers.

8. Effect of Viral - Take the word of mouth to a new level. Nothing exciting the crowd like Facebook is interesting enough crowd.

9. Feedback mechanisms - Using Facebook and the various applications that are available can help you to understand consumer behavior based on shared content and comments on social networking sites.

10. Used to Solve Business Cases - Facebook can give you the opportunity to build a successful business plan as your target specific vertical markets with specific business goals.

On the one hand, business owners often do online promotion through the deliberate utilization Fanpage provided by Facebook for those who want to promote. Usually, Fanpage deliberately made by businesses by using an account with the name of the product they offer.

Facebook Fanpage is a special page like a blog that provides a variety of information in accordance with the wishes of their owners, ranging from corporate, education, services, physical products, artists, community, and much more. Facebook Fanpage can be utilized for certain circles, such as the online store owner to give information or event to fans or

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customers in Facebook. Thus the dissemination of information will be more readily accepted by many people.

Facebook Fanpage benefits for online business is to gather prospects (fans) as much as possible and then send marketing messages to generate sales. With the greater number of fans/Fanpage/your Facebook page, the greater the chances you get customers.

Social media consultant, Stephanie Frasco in netpreuner.co.id (2015) illustrated the seven benefits if a small and medium enterprise use Fanpage in their businesses.

Unlimited number of custumers: By making Fanpage, small and medium enterprises can earn as much consumers. Different by creating a Facebook account that can only be friends with 5,000 people.

Separating the business content and personal content: Many businessmen who do not want to bother making business Fanpage, so jumbled between personal and business information. Fanpage will make business owners more focused in separating the business information and personal informaation.

Search Engine index. Facebook Fanpage already listed in search engine. Therefore, business has a Fanpage brands will be more easily found in search engines.

Anyone can tag. By making Fanpage, all users could download tag Facebook brands owned business seller. This can not be done if the sellers using FB account. Only those people who are friends with account that you can download the brand tag business seller.

Professional Impresssion. Sellers who have Fanpage will create a professional impression than the sellers who uses the account to do business. Because it should make a Fanpage for business.

Performing at newsfeed belongs buyer. All the post that carried the seller through Fanpage will appear in newsfeed. Consumers just need like a Fanpage and beyond will receive updates for each post which carroed the seller through their Fanpage. This is called newsfeed marketing.

Check-in fitur. FB users can tag a business brand that has a Fanpage, when they were about to check in a particular location. It can not be done if sellers using FB account to brand their business.

Instagram

Instagram currently quite popular among users of social media. After declining prestige of Facebook, Instagram has enough attention of social media users. Since April 9, 2012 Instagram application is owned by Facebook and very popular among mobile phone users and smartphones with the operating system of Android. Prior to the availability of the application Instagram for Android, Instagram can only be used in iOS, but Android highly affects Instagram’s popularity.

Instagram is actually made up of two syllables Gram and Insta. Insta comes from “Instant,” first, instant photo is another name of Polaroid. Like a polaroid camera, Instagram can also produce photographs instantly. But for the word “Gram” itself is derived from the word “Telegram.” The telegram itself functions as the sender information quickly. Likewise Instagram, through this application you can upload photos and share them to the general public via the Internet that provides information quickly.

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Benefits and Tips for Using Instagram

Unlike the other social media, Instagram more focused on photos or drawings. Instagram is also a social network that can be used as a container for people who have an interest about the photo. Instagram’s benefit can help us who love to capture the moment or the events around us through photographs. Instagram is also useful for us to pour creative ideas through photos or perhaps as media promotion and information. Because relying on visual media, it would be very useful in finding information.

Besides that, this application differs from other photo editing applications on the Internet. Many people use it because easily use and also there are many additional effects. The effect can manipulate into different face from the original; however, there is also the positive impact that we can transform our photo to be a better picture. In addition, we can share our photo in Instagram to Facebook or Twitter with one easy step. We can also be a network with all our friends who are in Instagram itself. Moreover, with new features that are present on Instagram, namely “Direct Message,” which allows us to share photos and personal text without known by other people who use Instagram. For example, if we want to share a picture only to a few people, we can use this feature. But, the negative effect of using this Instagram’s feature is we can manipulate the people who see it anyway.

As a social media application, Instagram has many benefits and advantages, but also has an adverse impact as well. Here are some tips on using Instagram wisely as not too excessive in using Instagram, avoid fulfilling this social networking with photo feeds, not too often narcissistic, create a conversation. Although the basis of this social networking is an application to help us in creating an image, and this does not mean we can not have a conversation or self closure. And, more important in utilizing Instagram is experiment with using mobile phones instead of a DSLR camera.

Instagram for business

With Instagram, we can also do a business; services or products that we want to promote via social networking media. Instagram benefits:

1. Indicates a product: With Instagram, we can demonstrate a product that we will sell goods to customers. By showing a collection of photos of an item of products on Instagram, it makes our followers do a windows shopping by sharing photos from the latest items and collections that we have in Instagram.

2. Shows how to make: The most fun is to see how the product was made. Give our followers with pictures when the goods were made, does not need too much detail because the purpose is just to give knowledge of the making process to the consumer. We can also create a collection of photos from the planning to the delivery of goods via Instagram.

3. Behind the scenes of making of a product: Preparing a launch for promotion and service products is a hard work that we must respect. But it would be pleased if it could be a content in our Instagram. By sharing photos when doing a photo shoot for an ad, the making of commercial advertising, when the interview or when will be launched. That would facilitate the consumers who buy the products, so that they will be more impressed with our effort.

4. Shows the function of a Product: With Instagram we can make potential customers know what the usefulness of the products or services that we offer by posting photos of products in Instagram. We can also invite our service users to share photos while wearing our products.

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5. Give Footage of Products: By providing snippets of product making that has never been published or at least announced when opening the store will make our customers pleased when they knew that they were the first who know the information about the products we sell.

6. Shows the office: Consumers who follow their favorite brand in social media sometimes asked about the office where make the product. With Instagram, it is easier for us to take pictures of the routine in our office, such as where we do our job, sports venues, meeting place, and a dining room.

Twitter

Social media which is currently very popular is Twitter. Twitter is a Website owned and operated by Twitter Inc., which offers a form of microblogging social network that allows users to send and read messages called “Tweets.” The tweet is writing text up to 140 characters displayed on the user’s profile page. Tweet can be seen outside, but the sender can restrict delivery of messages to their friends list only. Users can see the tweets of other writers known as followers.

All users can send and receive tweets via the Twitter Website, compatible external applications (mobile phone), or with a short message (SMS) which is available in certain countries. This site is based in San Bruno, California near San Francisco, where the site was first created. Twitter also has servers and offices in San Antonio, Texas, and Boston, Massachusetts. Since its creation in 2006 by Jack Dorsey, Twitter has gained popularity worldwide and currently has more than 100 million users. It is sometimes described as the “SMS of the Internet.”

Some benefits of Twitter in Business are:

1. Participate in the Conversation industry-target audience or potential prospects can communicate or dialogue via Twitter.

2. Brand awareness - businesses can use Twitter to keep their brand top of mind. 3. Use Twitter to gain Competitive Intelligence - we can find out via Twitter who the

competitors. Twitter can be a great environment to monitor what competitors are doing.

4. Involved with the company’s target audience - Twitter allows us to interact with potential prospects and target audience.

5. Online Reputation Management - Someone will bring up not only positive but also negative experiences related to the company or the products they use. If negative thoughts broadcast through social media such as Twitter, it must be immediately addressed. Therefore, the company is required to be able to do online reputation management. Twitter is a social environment so that transparency and honesty can be a good thing.

6. Promote Blog Content - if the company has a corporate blog or blogs, we can use Twitter to promote our blog contents. We can set up feeds to automatically post the URLs of your blog posts directly to Twitter.

7. Twitter and Mobile - because Twitter is very easy to use and is limited to 140 characters, mobile use with Twitter is also easy. Twitter can be a great mobile communication tool. As we know in business, this can be a pretty powerful thing.

8. Understanding Tool - Businesses can use Twitter as a means of understanding to learn what the target wants, they say and what they are looking for. For example, if we are a brand that targets a younger target market, just by listening to their conversation through Twitter, we can learn what interests them the latest and what the next new object they are looking for.

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9. Feedback mechanisms – Do you want to launch a new product? Maybe we launched a new Website. Businesses can use Twitter to get instant feedback on these items and as a result, making the necessary changes before the official launch. This feedback can be invaluable and by using Twitter, it is free!

10. Promotions - Twitter as a promotional tool to announce offline endeavors or upcoming online events (webinars, virtual tradeshows, etc.).

11. Improve SEO - if we have great content on a Website and want to drive additional traffic to this content on a web site can use Twitter to do so.

12. Ask Questions Receive Answers -Twitter is a social community and usually social communities are tight knit. Someone is bound to answer the questions.

13. Human Resource Tools - while this may not be the best way to practice your hire, you can tweet about your HR needs and links to relevant job postings on the site via Twitter.

14. Press Release/News Management - Can be used to broadcast major announcement 15. Internal Communication Tool - You can use Twitter as an internal communication

tool in your business. Once again, the timeliness of information plays a key role in using Twitter as an internal communication tool. While we have instant messaging, using Twitter to communicate internally can be an effective way to share information. Of course there are pros and cons for this, but use your discretion.

Website

Websites like other social media has the advantage of promoting a product or service. If on the Instagram just focuses on the photos or images, or Twitter in a tweet, but the message should be short, so the Website can put articles, pictures, product details or all kinds of information even online stores and online map that can guide clients to your office (i.e. with Google Map). The Website can be an important part of enterprise promotion and marketing strategies. Website creation needs to be a serious marketing agenda. More than that can increase the reliability of the company’s Website.

In this article, the author will summarize the advantages of having a Website:

1. Publication of business, services, and products to millions (even billions) of prospective consumers - increasing sales.

2. Update the information quickly and easily. 3. Reduce the cost of communications and administration. 4. Advertise and convey information without interruption 24 hours a day. Educating

clients and prospective clients about the products or services you provide. 5. Additional Company Outlet in cyberspace can receive the order at any time. 6. Brand Awareness by advertisements in leading Website or by the link exchange. 7. Make it easier for clients to do business. Increase confidence in business that you

provide. The design and content of the Website can reflect the seriousness you or your company.

8. The prestige ride. Business cards are no longer simply contains contact address, phone and email but coupled with your Website address.

9. The risk of losing potential clients or risk losing client information can be suppressed to a minimum.

10. Establish a business with a partner from abroad.

A Website sometimes becomes a place for prospective consumers first time know about the company or product. Doing business now is difficult to develop without using internet facility like Website and email. The following advantages from using Website:

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1) Customer or prospective customers can easily find the business location or phone number of the company.

2) Delivery of information is fast and practical about a product.

3) Decrease numbers of marketing forces because marketing staff do not have to made commitment to prospective consumer just for explain the product.

4) Making relationship with customers through a program like: special sale, quiz, and contest through the Internet.

From the above explanation, it is clear how social media like Facebook, Instagram, or Twitter have a different advantages. If we combine them, it would be the power of the online media campaign.

Buying Interest

Buying interest is a tendency to settle in the subject to feel interested in a certain product (Winkell, 1999). Winkll defines interest as a high tendency towards something, the passion of desire. In doing all the activities, the individual is strongly influenced by the interest in such activities, so that the presence of considerable interest will encourage someone to devote more attention (Rustam, 1987). Interest is the motive that indicates the direction of individual attention to the objects of interest and fun (Woodworth & Marquis, 1961).

Meanwhile, according to Saladin (1991), the interest is the attention that contains the elements of feeling, then the interest determines the attitude that causes a person to act actively in a job. In other words, the interest may be the cause of an activity. Buying interest is a sense of interest experienced by consumers of a product (goods or services) which is influenced by the attitude of consumers either outside or inside the consumer itself.

According to the journal written by Triatmanto (2003), states that the promotion also influence consumer purchase decisions, this is due to the promotion of a means of identifying the manufacturer, especially concerning the products and facilities owned by the manufacturer. In addition, the promotion is also a medium of communication between producers and consumers, a consumer decides to buy when knowing full information that can be obtained through various promotional programs.

Hardjono (2001), states that interest is divided into two parts, namely the interests of subjective and objective interests. The subjective interests is feeling happy or not happy on the object based on experience, whereas interest objective is the reaction accept or reject the objects or activities in the vicinity.

Buying interest is the interest of a person to a new product, causing consumers to form their judgment among several brands incorporated in the device of choice. Consumers may also form an intent to buy and tend to buy his or her preferred brand.

Methodology

This study used a qualitative approach. The qualitative research is not concerned with mathematical logic or numbers of research. It aims to maintain the shape and content of human behavior and conduct analysis on the existing qualities.

Wimmer & Dominick (as cited in Kriyantono, 2006: 48) in “Teknik Praktis Riset Komunikasi” (Practical Communications Research Techniques) said Paradigm is a set of theories, procedures and assumptions that are believed to how reasearchers view the world. And, Creswell said:

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Qualitaive research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analizes words, report detailed views of information, and conducts the study in a natural setting (Creswell, as cited in Herdiansyah, 2010: 8).

The type of research is a qualitative descriptive. The report of reserch is describing result of research in a word. The researher got descriptive data from results of interviews and some documents.

The Technique of Data Collection

1) Primary Data:

(1) Interview - Esterberg (as cited in Sugiyono, 2012: 231) defines the interview as follow, “a meeting of two persons to exchange information and idea through question and responses, resulting in communication and joint construction of meaning about a particular topic.” He states that there are several types of interview: a) stuctured interviews (a researcher prepares questions and alternative answers), b) semi-structured interviews (a researcher implementes freed interviews and aims to find problem more openly, and c) Unstructured interview (a freed interview where the researcher does not use a systematic tructured interview guide).

In this study, the researcher used the unstructured and in-depth interviews to the informant, Yudi Winarso Basuki, the owner and founder of CV Rizky Food.

(2). Observation - it is carried out on an object. In this study, the researcher observed the implementation of online promotion in CV Rizky Food company.

2) Secondary Data: Taken from the literatures which are relevant to this study, such as books, magazines, newspapers, and so on.

Research Objectives

CV Rizky Food is a manifestation of dedication to the commitment of the world’s fisheries. Established in 2013 in Sukabumi as a product marketing company with a trademark Rizky Food. Its network marketing can be found internationally.

Rizky Food hygienically processed based on the HACCP and Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP). Product variants: Rizky Food Sumakashi, Rizky Food Serina, and Rizky Food catering. The Rizky Food products are a Halal, healthy, and nutritious food without any preservatives or artificial colors. They are good for daily family consumption.

Research Result and Discussion

The using of online promotion is conducted by SMEs (Small and Medium Enterprises). Rizky Food, for example, which produces the manufacture of various food from fish. According to Yudi (personal communication, 2015), the promotion is done online and offline, “Online promotion is done via the Website, as well as through social media like Facebook (FB), Twitter, Path, and Instagram, with the account name: NewRidzkyFood.”

Utilizing online media, according to Yudi, is very effective. Yudi also explained that the Facebook is more effective than other social media, “We are utilizing Facebook Fanpage provided by using the name: “Rizky Food.” On the other hand, the network also spreads, not only from the friends that we’ve known, but also from the people who want to know more about the Rizky Food products.”

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Yudi illustrated that online media such as Twitter, Path, and Instagram do not run optimally because of the limitations of human resources. The existing human resources do not quite understand how to optimize the promotion via these social media.

In the Website and Facebook, Rizky Food seeks optimal to deliver information to customers, in particular, society. The information includes: company profile, products, events, gallery (photos and videos), a special award, contact info, and online order.

Submission of information about the event is very important (Yudi, ibid) At least, the public knows the extent of Rizky Food in the regional and national scene. There are several events, for example:

1) Majalengka Expo, 5-25 June 2014 at Pasar Lama Majalengka

2) Investment of Indonesian Marine and Fisheries Fair, 2-5 May 2014, Mega Mall Batam Centre, Jl. Engku Putri Batam Centre.

3) Product Launching at Carefour, Lebak Bulus, 1-3 March 2014.

4) 24 November 2014. Final race innovator product development of fisheries and meeting with Minister of Marine Fisheries with caramelized processing the entire Java TugunMonas.

5) 13-15 November 2013, International Aquatic Product Processing, IPB International Convention Centre, Botanical Square, Jl. Pajajaran, Bogor.

6) 8-10 November 2013, Bazar of fishery products, Hypermart Cimanggis Square, Depok.

Similarly, the information about achieving awards are also presented in the FB and Websites. Yudi explained that Rizky Food received the awards several times. Rizky Food got the first champion in Adibakti Mina Bahari 2011 as the SME National Best Processing. And in 2012, awarded GEMARIKAN Award organized by Minister of Marine Fisheries.

Yudi said, “Information about this award is important. Because for us, it is a pride, means that our products have been recognized by the government and accepted by society (ibid).

From the above explanations, it clarifies that the using of social media can provide benefits, including:

1. Ranges (coverage areas) are wide: It could even be wider than the mass media. 2. Slightly costs: Sufficiently connected to the Internet. 3. 24/7 accessibilities. 4. Possibly communications between the customer and the seller.

In line with Kotler (2002), he also said that the benefits of online promotion, namely:

a. Convenience, customers can order products 24 hours a day where they are located. They do not have to drive, look for the parking lot, and walk through the alley to search and inspect the goods. And they do not have to drive to the store, only to find that the goods have exhausted.

b. Information, customers can obtain a stack of comparative information about the company, products and competitors without leaving their office or home. They can focus on objective criteria such as price, performance, and availability.

c. Barriers fewer, with the online service, customers do not need to face a persuasion and emotional factors.

As Yudi’s experience (ibid), there are some obstacles in online business, which are:

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1. Limited human resources that have expertise in online media. He does not have staff who is an online media expert. They only optimal promote in Facebook. “We need somebody who expert in Twitter, Website, Path and Instagram. Product promotion is not only the photos uploading.”

2. Internet connection only media is highly dependent on Internet connection. In fact, Internet connection is not always smooth. “We had the bad experience in the connection problems all day long, and we can do nothing.”

3. Payments Methods, In online business, sometime we find obstacles in payment methods. Usually, people use credit cards or bank transfer to transaction. The ease of the method of payment is the reason for conducting the online transaction. “The usual method of payment is transfer. We think bank transfer is more secure and trustworthy.” Yudi (ibid) additionally said that the company’s bank account is not listed on Facebook. They only list telphone number and BBM pin, “Normally, the transaction conducted via telephone or BBM.”

4. Uneven of online shoping cultures, Yudi knows that the promotion on online media has many advantages. Unfortunately, online shoping cultures are uneven. “In Indonesia, people have more pleasures to do shopping offline. Many people doubt the online shopping. They think offline shopping is considered more reliable and secure.”

We often find yudi-like-experience in other small company. In this technology era, people are able to adapt and handle technology. Based on the reseracher’s observation, Rizky Food needs to hire someone who knows online media well. Beside that, Rizky Food should select the best provider and internet package, and make the consideration on the payment method.

Conclusion

Rizky Food has been integrating the promotion method via both offline and online. Rizky Food also gets high benefits and profitability from the online promotions than the offline. Rizky Food utilizes the Internet as promotional channel, such as: Website, Instagram, Twitter, and Facebook.

From a variety of social media used by Ridzky Food, which is often perceived benefit of social media is Facebook (FB). Ridzky Food gets the numberous orders from Facebook because they create the multiple versions of FB Fanpage, so that the ranges of the consumers are larger. Meanwhile, online promotions through other social media are less than optimal; because, Rizky Food has a limited human resource to handle the social media entirely.

Suggestion

Rizky Food should optimize the online promotions in various media, not just FB. Empowerment other social media, like Instagram, Twitter, and also the Website will make Rizky Food be well known to the public at large and the targets will also be more spacious.

Empowerment of online social media can be done by improving the online marketing strategies by packaging the message in accordance with the type of social media when the message is delivered. It is quite important because the nature of online media is different from the conventional media. Novelty is very important in social media.

Lastly, for Rizky Food, any obstacles in online promotions must be solved, so that the business can run optimally.

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References

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Ardianto, E. (2007). Komunikasi Massa Suatu Pengantar (An Introduction to Mass Communication) (Revised ed.). Bandung: Simbiosa Rekatama.

Arifin, H. (2009). All about BlackBerry and iphone. Yogyakarta: Mediakom.

Belch, G. E. & Michael A. B. (n.d.). Advertising and Promotion: An integrated Marketing

Communication Perspective. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Buchori, M. (1991). Psikologi Umum (General Psychology). Bandung: Tarsip.

Bungin, B. (2008). Metode Penelitian Komunikasi (Communication Research Methods). Jakarta: Prenada Media Kencana.

Crow, C. (1973). An Out Line of General Psychology. New York: Lithfe Field.

Adam & Fredy. (2009). My BlackBerry: Tips dan Trik Menggunakan BlackBerry. Yogyakarta: Cemerlang Publishing.

Effendy, O. U. (2003). Ilmu, Teori dan Filisafat Komunikasi (Science, Theory and Philosophy of Communication). Bandung: Citra Aditya Bakti.

Etaswara. (2008). Think IMC! Efektifitas Komunikasi untuk meningkatkan Pelanggan dan

laba perusahaan. n.p.: Gramedia Pustaka Utama.

Hermawan, A. (2013). Komunikasi Pemasaran (Marketing Communications). Jakarta: Erlangga.

Kotler, P. (2002). Manajemen Pemasaran (Marketing management) (Millenium ed.). Jakarta: Prenhallindo.

Kotler, P. & Eduardo L. R. (1989). Social Marketing: Strategies for hanging Public

Behaviour. New York: Macmillan.

Kriyantono, R. (2008). Teknik Praktis Riset Komunikasi (Practical Communications Research Techniques). Jakarta: Kencana.

Lamb, C., Hair, F. J., & McDaniel. (2001). Pemasaran (Marketing). Jakarta: Salemba Empat.

Morissan. (2010). Komunikasi Pemasaran Terpadu (Integrated Marketing Communications). Bandung: Prenada.

Saladin, D. (2003). Manajemen Pemasaran (Marketing Management). Bandung: Linda Karya.

Shrimp, T. (n.d.). Periklanan Promosi dan aspek tambahan komunikasi Pemasaran terpadu (Advertising Promotion and additional aspects of integrated marketing communications) (5th ed.). Jakarta: Erlangga.

Smith, P. R. & Jonathan T. (2002). Marketing Communication: An Integrated Approach (3rd ed.). Glasgow: Kogan Page.

Triatmanto. (2003). Strategi Produk Melalui Media Periklanan (Product Strategy through Media Advertising). Jurnal Periklanan Online, 5(1), 1.

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Thai medium sized newspapers under the technological change23

Sukanlaya Kongpradit24

Abstract

The research aims to study 1) a business overview of medium sized newspapers, 2) an adaptation of newsrooms including a policy, a production and a distribution, and 3) trends of medium sized newspaper business in the future. The raw data was collected by in-depth interviews of a dozen people from Siamrath, Banmuang, Naewna and Thaipost. Supporting research was done before and after the interviews was completed.

Result found the rise of a smart phone and tablet has little effect on revenue because target readers prefer to read newsprint. However, the newspapers have continuously adapted to new technologies. The adaptation is slow because of a limited budget and staffing. All newspapers have cut costs and gained additional incomes by expanding platforms to website and social media. Some newspapers have expanded into other businesses.

Half of the newspapers have a proactive policy toward news distributing to websites. They have established online newsrooms. The rest have plans to develop a greater web presence, yet they are not ready to take the necessary steps to be online 24/7 days a week due to limitations of budget and proper staffing. Most of them do not have a policy to push a journalist reporting for multi-platforms. However, their young bloods ready to use their own devices to work because it is much more effective.

In the next few years, the newspapers tends to adapt themselves to distribute online news because it is only way to survive. Progressive newsrooms tend to adapt themselves to multi-platform report.

Keywords: newspaper, technological change, newsroom, journalist, convergence

23 The research was sponsored by The National Press Council of Thailand and Isra Institute, Thai Press Development Foundation under supporting by Thai Health Promotion Foundation 24 Lecturer for Communication Arts Department, Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Phranakhon Si Ayutthaya Rajabhat University

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Introduction

Digital innovation has effected on news agencies around the world including Thai newspaper companies. The worst result is about a circulation that is going deep down and makes a risk on the long-run business. The main cause comes from the behaviors change of young generation who prefers to spend more time with digital devices, including smart phone tablet and the Internet, and tend to ignore the tradition media just like newspaper.

In case of Thai giant newspaper companies, they have already responded to the effect by investing in digital platforms such as website, social media and even digital television station. They have spent a huge budget setting up news service for whomever exception existing readers. The consequence is quite different from oversea giant newspaper companies because it has occurred among a transition of digital television system in Thailand. It kinds of a great opportunity for a rich company, including newspaper company, to invest in a high profit return business.

Beside the giant newspaper companies, other sizes of newspaper companies might be affected from digital device debut too. Especially, long run medium sized newspapers that are a core business of the company and have lower budget, they suppose to be tougher for survive than the giants. Thus, the research focuses on medium sized newspapers, Siamrath Naewna, Banmuang and Thaipost; that are well-known newspapers.

Objectives

1) To study a business overview of medium sized newspapers in Thailand among the technological change.

2) To study an adaptation of newsrooms including a news policy, production and distribution.

3) To study a trend of medium sized newspaper business in the future.

Methodology

This study works on October 2013 – March 2014. It is a qualitative research that aims to understand an adaptation of medium sized newspaper in Thailand. It focuses on the newspapers that provide daily news across the country and owned by a medium firm. Moreover, it would be only daily newspaper in the firm. So far, there are four outstanding newspapers: Siamrath, Banmuang, Naewna and Thaipost. And the researcher chooses to study all of them. In-depth interview is used for gathering a data. The interview is set for key informants from each newspaper as an administrator, editor and journalist in order to cover overall data. However, the simple random sampling is used for selecting editors and journalists from each newspaper. Moreover, the study also uses a documentary research and observation for gathering other involved data. After that, content analysis is used for data analyzing and a result of the study would be presented as a descriptive account.

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Figure 1: Conceptual framework

The study based on Communication Technological Determinism theory (Kaewthep, 2000: 113-114). It describes that technology was a prime over of change. Communication technology has determined on social change in society level, institutional level and even individual level. In case of newspaper, the digital devices, particularly a smart phone and tablet, have an effect on news consumer. Young generation tends to consume news and information through the devices rather than the hard copy. Their behavior on news consumption has changed ever since. According to Pew Research Center (2013), online news consumption has risen sharply in recent years, following the rapid spread of digital platforms. In contrast to newspaper, the reader has gradually decreased. It can assume that the devices influence on news institutions and their performances including its revenue. As a result, the news company would adapt themselves to survive.

Thai Medium Sized Newspapers: From the Beginning to the Present

The medium sized newspapers have been established by a group of journalists when a newspaper is popular among news consumer. Siamrath, which has been established in 1950, is the longest run newspaper. Banmuang has been later established in 1972 and Naewna has been established in 1980. Thaipost is the newer one that has been established in 1996. At the beginning, each one had own style for news reporting. Siamrath, Naewna and Banmuang had started with a popular newspaper that provided national news. The news policies have been changing several times. Today, they are more unique and have a strong brand position. Siamrath has emphasized on news from local authorities across the country as well as articles from long famous columnists. Banmuang has highlighted on political and crime news. Naewna has focused on either political or economic news, In contrast to Thaipost, it has

Digital technology News consumption behavior change

Changing in News landscape

Platform

News production

News Format

Adaptation of newspaper

News policy News production Platform News format

News staffs

Equipment

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focused on a hard news including political and economic news since begins. Its editorial column is fierce and attracted on a reader. To compare with the giants, the mediums have more specific target readers who are interested in political and economic issues and in a middle class or higher. The average age is more than 40 years old.

Ownership

The newspapers are owned by a limited company and operated as a family business. Siamrath is owned by Siamrath Company Limited while Banmuang is owned by Nawakij Banmuang Company Limited. Naewna is owned by Naewna Company Limited and Thaipost is owned by Sarnsoo-a-nakot Company Limited. Not only the owner, other members in the family are also run a business. Siamrath, Naewna and Banmuang owners name his own son to administrate the newspaper. Young bloods become a manager director who is responsible for a newsroom and a business. Beside a newspaper, the owners also have other businesses that are separated from a newspaper exception Thaipost. It is only a newspaper that owner’s child does not involve with the newspaper and the owner is a journalist and a columnist who has no other business.

Revenue from Newspapers

From the beginning, the most of revenue has come from a printed advertisement and covered whole cost of production and operation. Even though there was some times that the newspaper lacked of advertisings due to a politic dominance. For example, Thaipost and Naewna had been denied on buying advertising from governmental organizations and some private companies because they extremely criticized on the government. Their revenue has declined for a while. However, it was not bad at all because a circulation would be higher than a normal situation. The reader really wanted to know about issues that the government tried to hide on back. Even though the politic dominance always effects on the revenue, the newspaper can get through the tough times and run the business until today.

New technologies do not have an effect on the medium sized newspapers’ revenue yet because their main readers are adult. They still read news from a hard copy. The revenue, for now, covers all expenses. The situation of medium sized newspapers in Thailand is similar to the US as Dominick (2011) mentioned that small and medium sized newspapers in the US still success even at least 100 giant newspapers decided to shut down after recession. Moreover, the World Association of Newspaper and News Publisher (2014) revealed the report on trend of global news in 2012. It found that 2,500 million adults in the world preferred to read a newspaper comparing with 600 million adults who read online news.

However, the readers and revenues of Thai medium sized newspapers do not increase in last few years because younger readers prefer to consume news from digital devices while the current readers tend to be less as their ages. Thus, the news agencies do really much concern of the business in the next 5 years. As a result, all of them conclude to adapt their policy and performance to avoid a bankruptcy.

Adaptation of Medium Sized Newspapers in Thailand

To survive, all medium newspaper in Thailand has decided on a huge change a couple years ago. They have reviewed a lot of experiences from other newsrooms both domestic and international newsrooms. Then they have turned analyzing on themselves and found that their strengthen point is a unique content while the weakness is a limited budget, staffs and tools. Thus, they have adapted on a business model, news policy, newsroom, news reporting and duty of news staffs.

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Figure 2: Adaptation of medium sized newspaper in Thailand

1. New Business Model

It seems that a future of newspaper was blurred because of the digital devices. So the news agencies have decided to: 1) cut a cost of news production such as no hiring new employee, 2) use a new printing technology instead of a man and lay off some employee, 3) not to invest in the newspaper business anymore, 4) add the supplementary sections for advertising, 5) expand to a low cost platform such as website and social media, and 6) invest in other businesses that can take advantage from newspapers.

Every news agency has agreed to renovate the existing website after they see a sign of increasing income from online advertisement. Moreover, it is a possibly solution for competition with other agencies.

The result above shows how a difference between medium sized and giant newspapers in Thailand. Meanwhile medium sized newspapers have expanded to online, giant newspapers including Thairath, Daily News and Nations Group, had decided to remodel by going to a digital television and online service because they have much more budgets to do so. Pornwasin (2015) studies on adaptation of Nation Multimedia Group and found that Nation has adapted on its business by change a business core from newspapers to broadcasting and new media.

2. News Policy has been a Bit Changed

Medium sized newspaper owners have agreed on changing a news policy to be distributed on multi-platforms, newspapers and online services. They aim that it would be reach more readers and gain more incomes from online advertising. Even though the newsrooms have to report news in multi-platforms, news policy is the one. It is the current policy that makes each newspaper be unique. They have changed a style of news that would

Digital Devices

Newsroom

News Policy

Business Model News reporting

Editor and journalist

- Go online

- Freeze investment in newspaper

- Cut a cost

- Use new innovation - Reach more online reader

- Deeper and wider story for newspaper

- Brief, general and recency for online

- 90% of online

- Communication and assignment through Line

- Newsgathering by social media

- Writing and reporting by a smart phone or tablet

- Taking a photo or video clip by a smart phone or tablet

- Establish online newsroom for update news and be apart of Newspaper newsroom

- Newspaper newsroom is responsible for newspaper and online

- Have more jobs due to report news in multi-platforms

- Become a multi-skills reporter

- Mostly use own devices for multi-platform reporting

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be reported on a hard copy, to be competitive with electronic media including social media. The news agency has decided turning a newspaper to be provided a specific content as deeper and wider issues, more critical articles and investigating news that are always ignored from electronic media. Hopefully, the contents would attract some readers. For online news, 90 percent of them come from newspaper newsrooms. News issue for online platform would be general and simply to avoid a competition with the hard copy. The issue is about what happens, without in-depth details.

3. Newsroom for Multi-platform Reporting

To support the online service, news agencies have two options. One is setting up an online section to provide online news through a website and social media. Siamrath and Naewna have set up online section for pushing the online news and their income forward. However, there is different management within online section. Siamrath has rotated an editor and 4 journalists from newspaper newsrooms to online section because of cost saving. Naewna has recruited new 6 journalists to run online news because the current journalists have no video making skills. Online journalists are responsible for a news video clip, special reports and updated news that make a website providing content as 24/7.

Figure 3: Siamrath and Naewna newsroom

Another option, the online news service is operated by Information Technology Unit as same as the past because the news agencies including Banmuang and Thaipost do not have enough journalists, budget and tools to run it separately. Nevertheless, newsroom has provided news for the website while IT staffs also provide some update news and information for an activated website. Now they become an online journalist.

Figure 4: Banmuang and Thaipost newsrooms

Editor

Political Editor

Journalist

Journalist

Economic Editor

Journalist

Journalist

Administration

IT

Editor

Political Editor

Journalist

Journalist

Economic Editor

Journalist

Journalist

Online Editor

Journalist

Journalist

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It seems the existing newsroom does not affect from the changes because there is other unit to responsible instead. In fact, it has a bit changed the news reporting and news staffs’ duties. Due to gain more depth contents, a journalist have to make much more special reports than ever while an editor has always monitored news more than newspapers. Moreover, the newsroom has to report news via website as soon as they get some news issue. They can’t spend all day long for gathering whole story as same as the past. Thus, the newsroom would be more alert for news all the time.

Furthermore, Siamrath and Naewna newsrooms become a convergence as newsroom 1.0 or the multiple media newsroom (Schantin, 2012); because, newspaper and online news don’t totally separate from each other. Online section is a part of newspaper newsrooms. A workstation for online section is the same area with the newspaper newsroom. Their staffs have worked together, share a resource and support each other. Online editor also attends a daily news meeting to provide news on website along with newspaper. Moreover, online editor and journalists share news resource including a database, information with newspaper. Sometimes, online journalists and newspaper journalists have interviewed a news resource together. Both editors also work together to choose news that suit for their platform.

4. News Reporting Using New Technology

Digital device has an effect on all steps of news reporting from data gathering to news reporting. Both editors and journalists use a smart phone and tablet for communication and news reporting. Thus, news reporting has been changed from the past as below:

Communication and assignment: Editors and journalists use Line Application for talking with each other and an editor assigns a job through Line as well. They also create a Line group to communicate within the news desk.

Newsgathering: a journalist often monitors a hot issue that was posted on social media and expands a story to be news. It is included following Facebook, Twitter or Instagram of a news source such as PM, minister, businessman and celebrity. Moreover, a journalist always uses Line and Facebook to contact public relations officers of news source. The journalist would receive an alert for news conference or other appointment. However, it would be after an official invitation would be sent to the journalist. Not only contact to news source, a journalist also creates a group of journalist, who are from other news agencies but work in a same news source, to share a news source. Thus, communication through a digital device is useful for a communication with informal levels.

Collecting a photo and video clip: In the past, a medium sized newspaper journalist is only responsible for contents that do not mean a photo or video clip. When the news agency goes online and digital devices have camera function, young journalists also take a photo or video clip from the scene and attach them with contents for online distribution and newspaper some times.

News Evaluation: Because of multi-platform reporting, a journalist has to change a way of news evaluation. It used to evaluate news value that is proper to newspapers. However, news value that is proper to online is quite different. It needs a recency for competition with other online news agencies.

Approving: An editor of medium sized newspapers in Thailand is still responsible for approving news from journalists before distribution on whether newspapers and online. It is a traditional news reporting.

Writing: Digital devices are much useful for journalists because they can write a news script from anywhere. It is different from the past few years, they have to bring a laptop with

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them everywhere. If not, they have to look for a computer to type a news script. That is uncomfortable when compared with a smart phone or tablet.

Reporting: As well as news writing, journalists can send a news script back to the news agency right away after they have done typing on a smart phone or tablet because it can be directly connected to Internet. So the editor can receive news earlier than the past and not so long, an online reader can reach for the news as well.

5. Journalist Becomes a Multi-skills Reporter

Naewna is only one agency that has a formal policy on reporting for websites since political crisis in late 2013. Their political and economic journalists were asked for reporting news either newspapers or websites. It means that journalists have more duties than the past including shooting a video clip, taking a photo and writing news for both platforms. However, they have been encouraged with a phone call and a mobile Internet service fees for every single month. Furthermore, they are financial supported by extra paid as 2,000 Thai baht per month (estimated US $66). While other agencies have no formal policy due to lack of budget for supporting. However, their young journalists have preferred to provide news with a photo or video clip that was taken by their own smart phone because they want the best news report. As a result, the journalists become multi-skills journalists. The result is similar to the study of Hauysane (2012) and Kongpradit (2013) that Nation Multimedia Groups has a formal policy on a multi-skills journalist. It is included a device support and setting a goal for KPI assessment.

Besides the multi-skills reporting, the journalist has to change a timetable on working. The traditional newspaper journalists usually spend all day to gather information and make a full report before sending to the newsroom by evening as the printing time is a late night and distribute to reader in the next morning. It contrasts to website that is a 24 hours distribution and always needs news feeding. Thus, journalists must report an updated story as soon as they get some information for providing news on websites without waiting for a whole story. Anyway, the whole story is still needed for a hard copy. So the journalist is much more jobs than ever.

However, the multi-platforms reporting usually are refused from senior journalists who are familiar to newspaper reporting. The news agency actually doesn’t force them to do so because they do realize that it is hardship to change their behaviors and performances. By the way, they are really good at a criticizing/analyzing article or a special report that is a new position of newspapers. They would be allowed to do something they have expertise.

Figure 5: Traditional journalists VS Convergent journalists

Online News

The medium sized newspapers provide online news through websites that would be linked with Facebook. Before remodeling the business, they have a website for years. It was a

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version of Web 1.0 that not quite active. After remodeling, it was upgraded to be a version of Web 2.0 that can be synchronized to social media networks. An editor or a person who get authority would select interesting news from website to share on Facebook. With this method, news has spread over the social network very fast. When Facebook users see the share and want to read out full news. They must click on a link to bring them to the original page that is on the website. As a result, the pages get increasing view as higher than the past. However, the most popular search engine, Google, is still the main gateway to enter the websites. For twitter, they do not emphasize on, so there is less news posted on twitter.

The websites have started to earn money since their upgrading. Thousands of page views per day are attractive for advertising. All of them also register on Google AdWords to manage the advertising and incomes. Apparently, the revenue from website is continuously increasing. In spite of less money comparing with revenues from newspaper advertising, the companies have some hope it would be worth in the future.

90 percent of online news comes from the newspaper newsrooms and others are gathered from other resources and made up by the online unit. Meanwhile Siamrath and Naewna online section have made video news, Banmuang and Thaipost IT unit have gathered contents from a press release and some public information such as weather forecasting and stock reporting. These supplementary contents would push websites and social media having more updates.

Convergence in Thai Medium Sized Newspapers

There are 3 types of convergence (Harrower, 2013) that found in the medium sized newspapers in Thailand. First, it is a newsroom convergence. In case of Siamrath and Naewna, Newspaper newsrooms and online newsrooms are in the same area. They also work together and share a resource with each other. Most of online news comes from newspaper newsrooms. Second, there is newsgathering convergence. Their newspaper journalists gather news and provide on either newspapers or online. Third, there is a content convergence. To report news on website and social media, the newsroom has to produce a news report that is in a multimedia format: a script and photos/video clip. The newsroom and newsgathering convergence are helpful for saving an operation cost as the news agencies wish.

The Next Days of Thai Medium Sized Newspapers

The impact from new technology would create the future of the medium sized newspapers in Thailand. It tends to be reduced sizes of production because the circulation has not increased for a while and might be going down later. Then the core business might swing to online news services through digital platforms that can make a lot of news consumers, subscribers, advertising and incomes. The newspaper will have more unique contents and similar to a magazine. The target reader will be more niche and smaller. Furthermore, the subscription will be more suitable than a newsstand. Even though the core business would change to online, news staffs would be the same one. They will become a multi-skills journalist that could report news on multi-platforms. Conclusion, the newspaper would be never ending, it just transform from a paper to online.

Discussion

When a smart phone and a tablet were invented and soon applied in general, they have revolted news industry again. The news consumer behavior, in particular young generation has changed ever. Newspapers have been rarely recognized because all news would be in their hands. Thus, all newspapers including medium sized newspapers in Thailand have to change a policy and performance to survive. It is accordance with Communication Technological Determinism theory that describes the effects from new technology.

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The digital devices have also created a new business model of newspapers. The news agencies cannot run only a hard copy anymore because it is too risk. They are expanding a business on digital platforms by sharing all possible resources with the newspaper newsroom to save a cost. Contents on the new platforms is not only text and a still image but multimedia. As a result, the newsrooms become a convergence due to provide news at least 3 platforms: newspapers, websites and Facebook, by the same staff and workplaces. It seems to be all three levels of convergence as Harrower (2013) mentioned: newsrooms, newsgathering and content convergence.

Even though the news reported by a journalist would be provided on different platforms and reach more receivers, it comes from only one sender. It also means that opinions, attitudes and values in our society would be less from the convergence. Here is a high risk that they would dominant on people and society.

The medium sized newspapers in Thailand have sought the way to survive from digital devices debut. Their decisions get along with the theory of disruptive innovation (Christensen, 2014). They do realize their own position in the whole market. They can’t compete with giant newspapers that already expand to set up a television station. So they attempt to reach a reader who has not been a target of giant companies such as state officials, middle class, and businessmans. Their stronger point is a fierce article by long run columnists. When they go online, they also have faced much more competitors, not only the giant or smaller newspapers, but also the TV programs, magazine columns and citizen reporters. Among hundreds thousand contents in the cyber space, it is not easy that the medium sized newspapers would be the winner. Nevertheless, they have to move forward as it is for the bright future.

References

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Hauysane W. (2012). Newspaper administration in a convergence. Bangkok: Dhurakij Pubdit University.

Kaewthep K. (2000). Mass Communication: Theory and study method (2nd ed.). Bangkok: Adison Press Product.

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Schantin D. (2012, May 9). Organizational types of newsrooms in a media convergent

environment. Retrieved from http://schantin.wordpress.com/2008/06/25/movingtables -is-not-enough-to-succeed-in-a-multiple-media-world.

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A Study on New Media Literacy of University Students as Online Video Users

Yiqun Geng25 Yan Ruan26

Abstract

With the development of information and communication technology, the process of social informationization has been accelerated, which also facilitates the upgrading of the media. Online video, as the representative of new media, not only excels television in its convenience, but also satisfies people’s interactive demands due to its integration of multiple functions such as searching, uploading, downloading and commenting. Meanwhile, the roles of online video users are changing accordingly from passive recipients to active participants. The authors conducted a survey to get the status quo of college students’ use of online video, which involves searching, understanding, judging, evaluating, creating, sharing and participating from the theoretical perspectives of the British school of cultural studies. Interviews are also made to provide detailed information of the online video users’ motivation and behavior when interacting with online videos.

Keywords: online video, university student, new media literacy, cultural studies

25 Associate Professor, Communication University of China 26 Editor, Weihai Press Corporation

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Introduction

With the development of media technology and the change of media environment, the role of media users has changed fundamentally—they are no longer passive recipients of information but active participants. Online video, as the representative of new media, not only excels other forms of media such as television because of its convenience, but also satisfies people’s interactive needs due to its integration of multiple functions of searching, uploading, downloading, and commenting. As an active group of recipients and participants of new media, university students find a better way to express themselves via this new type of media. In this way, their thoughts and behaviors are shared, thus they gradually form a new kind of culture which is considered as the youth participatory culture. The rapid technological and cultural changes require the corresponding changes in the research field of media literacy. The development of online video as a type of new media has connected the new media (online video), university students and the culture they reside in, and these three factors are fabricated into an interdependent triangle model (see Figure 1). Hence, new media literacy is of uttermost importance to the university students, and this is also the motivation of this study.

The core of new media literacy is to nature the competencies of young people’s critical participating in the social life in current media environment, and to help them live a meaningful life. However, engaging in and participating in media such as computer, digital camera, etc. do not ensure criticality; this remains the role of the media literacy educator in fostering media literacy of the young people (Hoechsmann et al., 2012). As researchers of media literacy, it is necessary to re-examine the present situation and characteristics of the use of media by university students in the new media environment, looking for the breakthrough point of new media literacy education, and to provide some basis and guide for practice in the future. Therefore, this study attempts to focus on the university students’ use of online video to find out their status quo of new media literacy, and analyze the problems and investigate into the reasons underlying the findings. To achieve this purpose, a triangle model of university students, new media, and the convergence culture is constructed by the authors for the study (see Figure 1).

Figure 1: The Triangle Model of University Students, New Media, and the Convergence Culture

Literature Review

Concept of new media literacy

The concept of new media literacy evolves from the concept of digital literacy. The term “digital literacy” was first introduced in 1997 by Paul Glister in A Primer on Digital

Literacy. Glister’s definition of digital literacy influenced many later works on digital literacy, and his definition was widely used as a standpoint for later developing of this

Convergence culture

University New media

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complex concept. Glister defined digital literacy as “an ability to understand and to use information in multiple formats from a wide variety of sources when it is presented via computers” (Glister, 1997). His definition is a modified form of the traditional concept of literacy, which not only includes the ability to read and write, but deals with the use of new media technologies, and it becomes an essential life skill. He advocated broadening the traditional concept of literacy to adapt to the new digital era. The world has entered into the new millennium, and with the development of the new technologies, a new concept called as “21st Century Literacy” became popular. According to the American New Media Consortium, 21st century literacy is a set of abilities and skills where aural, visual and digital literacy overlap. These include the ability to understand the power of images and sounds, to recognize and use that power, to manipulate and transform digital media, to distribute them pervasively, and to easily adapt them to new forms (New Media Consortium, 2005). With the advocate of the Internet Web 2.0, and the application of the social media, there is a shift of information flow from one direction to multiple directions. Henry Jenkins examined the concept of new media literacy from the perspective of participatory culture. He used the plural form of literacy and described the new media literacies as follows: a set of cultural competencies and social skills that young people need in the new media landscape. Participatory culture shifts the focus of literacy from that of individual expression to community involvement. The new literacies involve social skills developed through collaboration and networking. These skills build on the foundation of traditional literacy, research skills, technical skills, and critical analysis skills taught in the classroom. These new skills include play, performance, simulation, appropriation, multitasking, distributed cognition, collective intelligence, judgment, transmedia navigation, networking, and negotiation (Jenkins et. al., 2009).

No matter how the concept of new media literacy evolves, it is closely related to the social and technological development. The development of the concept of new media literacy is in parallel to the ultimate goal of media literacy, that is, the sound development of human beings. This study on new media literacy of university students as online video users aims to probe into daily life of the students. In this sense, new media literacy is considered as a set of integrated competencies embodied in the personal experience of interaction and cooperation with others. These competencies enable the individual to shift from a consumer to a prosumer, from functioning use to critical integration use of functioning and critical abilities. Individuals are no longer passive consumers, but active creators. All this wouldn’t take place naturally, individual’s new media literacy will not be accomplished at one stroke, and it should be cultivated, and this is the task of the media educators.

Literature on new media literacy by Chinese and overseas scholars

Literature on new media literacy by Chinese and overseas scholars is examined. Chinese literature databases CNKI and Wanfang database were searched by using keywords “new media literacy” and “digital literacy.” 143 relevant journal articles are selected in the research field of new media literacy (see Figure 2). From 2006 to 2013, the number of journal articles in this field increased continuously and reached a peak in 2012. Researches on new media literacy among university students are classified into two categories. The first category can be classified as descriptive research. From the interpretative perspective, the descriptive research is about the necessity of new media literacy. These papers elaborate on the new features of literacy in a totally new media environment, and further point out the importance of new media literacy education. Many scholars have tried to find the path of new media literacy education, and some combine it with students’ ideological and citizenship education. In fact, with the advent of the information age and the development of new media technology, media literacy education in colleges and universities, from content to format, from methods to carriers, all have some new changes (Ming, 2006). Therefore, in the context

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of new media, new media literacy education should follow the principle of combining school education with real word experience, cognitive education with practical education, classroom education with self-education (Zhou, 2011). The second category of research is empirical studies on new media literacy level of the university students. This kind of research is considered as the basis of policy decision-making. Based on the empirical studies, recommendations on new media literacy education are put forward by the researchers. Reviewing Chinese literature, we can find that most descriptive researches present subjective comments on the characteristics of new media and its negative effects on the students, and there is a lack of social culture perspective and consideration from the audience perspective (see Figure 2). There is little research investigating into the daily life of the students in the new media environment.

Figure 2: Chinese Journal Articles on New Media Literacy and Digital Literacy: 2006-2013

Literature by overseas scholars is searched by using the databases EBSCO, ProQuest, etc. Scholars outside of China focus their attention on the concept of new media literacy, theory on new media literacy, YouTube and new media literacy, participatory culture, etc. Many scholars discuss on basic disciplinary questions such as the concept and theoretical framework of new media literacy. In fact, in the process of transition from traditional media literacy to new media literacy, the concept of new media literacy has many different kinds of expressions, such as 21st century literacy, Internet literacy, digital literacy, new media literacy, multiliteracies, information literacy, ICT literacy, and computer literacy etc. (Coiro, 2008). Some scholars try to establish theoretical frameworks of new media literacy from specific theoretical perspective, such as linguistics (Woolsey, 2005) and social culture (Kellner, 2013) in order to explain the goals, contents and principles of new media literacy. These researches indicate interdisciplinary traits of the theoretical research of media literacy. American and British scholars have done a great number of researches on new media literacy education practice. The United Kingdom has a long history of media literacy education, and government support is institutionalized. Hence, research on practice of new media literacy is abundant. Though the history of media literacy education is relatively short in the United States, scholars and practitioners have done a lot of work and research in the field. Experimental researches have been done both in schools and outside schools. And there are many researches on the use of YouTube and new media literacy. These researches are generally anthropology research or case studies.

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Theoretical Framework and Methodology

Theoretical framework of new media literacy

This study will explore the status quo of new media literacy of online video users in the present media environment, and take the undergraduate students from five “Project 211” universities in Beijing, China, as research objects. “Project 211” is a project of National Key Universities initiated in 1995 by the Chinese government, with the intention to strengthen about 100 higher education institutions and key disciplinary areas as a national priority for the 21st century. There are 116 institutions of higher education designated as “Project 211” institutions. The reason for choosing these universities is that these institutions have met certain scientific, technical, and human resources standards which are set by the project and offer advanced degree programs.

The study tries to probe the key issues centering on the new media technology and new media environment with the intention to conclude the advantages and problems among university students when they deal with online videos, and give further suggestions as to how to enhance their new media literacy. The study will adopt the theoretical framework of the foreign scholars and make possible changes to the framework from a cultural perspective. Based on the theoretical framework, this research will conduct a survey on university students’ present situation of online video usage from the perspective of searching, understanding, evaluating, criticizing, producing/creating, and sharing/participating. With an in-depth interview of some the university students, the study aims to get a better understanding of the media culture of the students when they deal with online videos from the point of view of the theory of cultural studies.

Three scholars, Der-Thanq Chen, Jing WU, Yu-mei Wang from the Nanyang Technology University in Singapore, have analyzed and synthesized various concept of new media literacy. They propose a new media literacy theoretical framework from the points of view of new media technology and social culture. For these three scholars, the two-dimension framework for new media literacy includes four perspectives: the consumer type and the prosumer type of media literacy, and the functional and critical media literacy (see Figure 3). This framework is adopted in this study to analyze the students’ new media literacy level.

Figure 3: Two-dimension Framework for New Media Literacy (Chen et al., 2011: 85)

This framework has two kinds of values. From the micro-level, we can find out some keywords from this framework, that is, searching, understanding, analyzing, evaluating,

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synthesizing, criticizing, producing, participating, and sharing. When we examine these keywords and compare them with the concept of media literacy advocated by American scholars in 1990s, which defined media literacy as the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and communicate, we can conclude that the concept embodied in this framework has both social and cultural aspects. From the macro-level, it alerts the media literacy educators that in the process of cultivating the public new media literacy, they should try to tell the different aspects of these four kinds of media literacy. We cannot simply separate these four kinds of new media literacy, but integrate them organically.

The matrix designed by the Singaporean scholars is based on the technological, social and cultural impacts brought by new media, but the four dimensions of the matrix described are a little bit too abstract. There is a lack of cultural aspects of the media users. When we examine the characteristics of the university students as online video users from the four dimensions, we should discuss the issue by adopting culture theory. The study focuses on the youth culture of the university students, especially the interaction between the students and the media culture in their daily life. British school of cultural studies has the following unique traits: a) it exhibits a distinguished interdisciplinary characteristics in research interests and theoretical influence. It also develops various methods of analyzing, elaborating, and criticizing when dealing with media culture, for example, semiotics and textual analysis, etc., b) it researches into both high culture and popular culture, and c) it explores the relationship between mass media and social system and culture with a special attention on media production and consumption of films and television programs. In this sense, this study will adopt theories of the British school of cultural studies as analytical tools to construct the theoretical framework and explain the findings of the survey.

First, Stuart Hall considers media as a kind of public and open text with the influence of structuralism (Pan et al., 2003). He separates television itself from the process of media production, and puts forward his famous theory of coding and decoding. According to his theory, once information is coded by the form of symbols, it will be open to the audience, and the audience will decode the symbols based on their cultural and political interests and their access to a broad system of power and technologies. He further explains the three kinds of interpretation models by decoders (television viewers), that is, the dominant (hegemonic) code, the negotiated code, and the oppositional code.

As an important representative of British school of cultural studies at its turning points, John Fiske extends Hall’s theory and defines media texts as products interpreted and appreciated by the audience. On one hand, text has the characteristics of polysemy and textuality, which make the controls of the media less powerful. On the other hand, relevance is also a major distinguishing feature of text. He argues that,

“Popular texts ... are completed only when taken up by people and inserted into their everyday culture. The people make popular culture at the interface

between everyday life and the consumption of the products of the cultural

industries...Relevance can be produced only by the people, for the only they can

know which texts enable them to make the meanings that will function in their

everyday lives” (Fiske, 1989: 6)

Methodology

The study investigates into new media literacy level of the university students as online users by the methods of questionnaire and in-depth interview. 400 questionnaires are distributed to undergraduate students in five “Project 211” universities in Beijing, and 367 valid questionnaires returned for a response rate of 91.8%. Of all the respondents, male

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students account for 42.1% (n=154), female students account for 57.9% (n=212). The respondents range from freshmen to senior, the respective percent of the students is as following: freshmen 14.4% (n=52), sophomores 29.8% (n=108), junior 25.4% (n=92), and senior 30.4% (n=110). As to the distribution of majors, it goes like this: 1 philosophy student, 47 economics, 17 law, 5 pedagogy, 47 literature, 38 management, 4 history, 47 science, 133 engineering, 3 medicine, 22 art. There are 78.6% (n=275) students from family in urban area and 21.4% (n=75) from family in rural area. The questionnaire is composed of two parts. The first part is about the basic information of the students for further analysis. It’s about the information of gender, grade, major and the residence of the students. The second part is a five-point scale to measure the new media literacy of the students. It’s based on the new media literacy framework by the Singaporean scholars, and the authors make possible changes from the point view of online video and the perspective of cultural studies. The questionnaire is designed by adopting Likert scale which includes five choices ranging from “strongly agree” to “strongly disagree”. It is designed to measure new media literacy level of the students from four dimensions - searching and understanding, evaluation and criticizing, producing and creating, and sharing and participating. The study also interviews 15 undergraduates with open-ended questions. Of all the students interviewed, there are 6 freshmen, 4 sophomores, 3 junior, 2 senior. Their majors cover language, journalism and communication, management, science and information, literature, food security, and engineering, etc. The in-depth interview is designed to find out some problems in the survey, with the purpose to find out the factors that cause certain problems.

Findings

Characteristics of media environment for university students as online video users in

China

Since the birth of YouTube, which advocates the idea of “Broadcast Yourself” in 2005, the development of User Generated online video has been in existence for nine years. This has accelerated the flourish of a more interactive new media environment in which the individuals have more choices and more chances to participate in the media activities. When examining the media environment from the perspective of a broader Internet environment combining with the characteristics of university students, we can conclude that the traits of the media environment in China from two aspects.

First, the Internet environment in China has its local experience. It’s based on the principle of the central government that promotes active use, scientific development, and management according to the law, and ensuring of safety (The Information Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, 2010). According to the government principles, on one hand, the government advocates an active participation of this new technology; on the other hand, the government exerts a strict control on the harmful and unlawful information, and tries to avoid the negative influence of the Internet (Hu, 2008). As to the online video media environment of China, the government has invested a large quantity of money and human resources in the telecommunication infrastructure construction. The government also facilitates the application of different kinds of software. Owing to the policies which are favorable to the development of the Internet in China, online videos are operated in a self-organized market in a very short period of time. At the same time, the administration of Internet safety also becomes the top agenda of the central government (Su, 2010). The government issued several documents in accordance with the “The Regulation on Administration of Internet-Based Audio-Video Program Services” issued in December, 2007. To ensure the implementation of these policies, there is a dynamic administration on the

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online video programs and activities, ranging from parody of the videos to Internet micro-films. The government also establishes a strict censorship on foreign video websites.

Secondly, online videos are widely used by university students who have a very high degree of participation. They are also the most active group of Internet users of online video. Comparing to the traditional media of broadcasting, film, and television, online video is still at its infant stage in China as a new media form. The year of 2006 is considered as the first year of the era of online video in China. It grows in an amazing speed, which cannot be overlooked. With the outstanding technology and service advantages, online video penetrates into the everyday life of university students. While televisions are seldom seen on the campus in China, online video is an important channel to acquire and consume information for the students. With computer and mobile devices and internet, the students can get access to online video anywhere and anytime. There are not only TV programs from the online video, also self-producing video programs and original short videos. What’s more, online video can offer different kinds of services besides watching, for example searching, requesting programs, downloading, uploading, and commenting. It creates the opportunity of participation beyond convenience and entertainment.

Findings of the new media literacy of university students as online video users

1) Frequency of use of online videos

Online video plays an important role in students’ daily lives. When answering “Every time I log on the Internet I will get access to Online Videos”, the degree of agreement is classified in five scales, that is, strongly agree, agree, neither agree nor disagree, disagree, strongly disagree. The answers of the students are classified into three categories: the first type of students are excessive users which account for 56.4% (n=207), the second type of students are moderate users which account for 18.0% (n=66), and the third type of students are low users which account for 25.6% (n=94). In the following in-depth interview of 15 students, we found that a majority of the students (n=14, which accounts for 93.3%) expressed that they considered online videos as a kind of new media which is closely related to their everyday lives. As to if the students understand the advantages of online video comparing to other kinds of media, for example television, 95.4% of them (n=350) answered “Yes”. In the interview, the most frequent words used by the interviewees are “self-determined choice”, “anywhere and anytime”, “abound content”.

We can conclude that the university students are influenced by the convenience and rich content of the online videos, and they can tell the difference between the old media and new media from their own experience of the new media. Online video is considered as the students’ favorite media and they pay special attention to this kind of new media.

2) Online video searching ability of the students

As to the searching ability of the university students as online video users, the higher grade the students are, the higher their searching ability is.

In the questionnaire, the degree of searching ability is measured by three indicators: “the degree of the diversity of the media platform,” “the richness of the source of information,” and “the degree of the satisfaction of the searching needs”. The survey shows that 75.2% of the students agree that “they search for or watch online videos by using different kinds of media” (52% agree strongly, and 23.2% agree), 76.8% of the students agree that “watch online video by using multi-resources” (47.4% agree strongly, 29.4% agree). 35% students strongly agree to the statement that “I can find the proper online videos according to my needs”, and 38.3% students agree to this statement. Most of the students approve that their searching can meet their needs, especially those from the big cities in

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China. Data shows that there is the correlation between the grades and the searching needs of the students (r=-0.141, p=0.007), and the correlation between the Huji (the residence of the students) and the searching needs is positive (r=0.118, p=0.028). In the Interview, the study investigates into three types of “need and satisfaction”: the first type is to know the world by online news, the second type is personal socialization by acquiring knowledge through the use of MOOCs (massive open online courses), and third type is recreation by watching online TV series or films and various original videos. And these three types of needs are in coincidence with three positive functions of mass communication, which is, spreading information, educating people, and offering recreation (Hu et. al., 2008). It is important to see that of all the three types of searching needs, recreation is of the top priority. The three indicators are considered as a whole, and the result of the searching ability level is divided into three levels, the high one (3 scores), the medium one (2 scores) and the low one (1 score). Over 69.2% students’ searching ability is above high level, 30.3% of them are at medium level, and only 0.5% at low level. Then, what kinds of factors influence the searching ability of the students? Be it gender, grade, major or Huji (residence). The correlation analysis shows that the correlation between the grade and searching ability is positive (r=0.117，p=0.025). And with detailed correlation analysis, it shows that the higher the students’ grades are, the higher their searching ability is, and the fewer students’ searching ability is at the low level (see Table 1). With the increase of the years of study, the students will learn more and more learning resources from the teachers and their peers. It seems that they’ll grasp more searching skills within four years study, and their searching ability will grow with their experience.

Table 1: Cross Tabulations of the Grade and the Online Video Searching Ability

Grade Online Video Searching Ability

Low Medium High

Freshman 1.90% 38.50% 59.60%

Sophomore 0.90% 28.70% 70.40%

Junior 0.00% 37.00% 63.00%

Senior 0.00% 21.80% 78.20%

3) Online video understanding ability (the first level)

As to the first level online video understanding ability, the survey shows that over half of the students are at a higher level, though there are differences among the indicators. The study measures the first level online video understanding ability by the four indicators: “the degree of how the online video can be described,” “the degree of how the narrative style can be described,” “the degree of how camera language can be discriminated,” and “the degree of how the major groups of people the online video about can be discriminated.” 73.9% of the students express that they can describe the theme of the online video they watch, and 72.7% of them say that they can tell the group of people’s life the online video described. But only 54.7% students acknowledge that they can describe briefly the narrative style of the online video they watched, and 36% students can tell what kind of camera language of the online video (The above two indicators are mainly about TV series or films and original video programs). Though the symbols of films and videos have become the major content of the convergence media, the understanding of the symbols for the audience is still very superficial. The students can only explain the basic theme and portrait of characters

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superficially. They cannot grasp the essence of relatively professional aspects such as narrative style and lens language. And this will inevitably influence the production of online video.

The four indicators are further integrated and the data are divided into three levels as below. The result shows that 51.5% of the students’ first level of understanding of online video is relatively high, and 45.5% medium, and only 3% is low. The first level understanding of the online video and the four variables (gender, grade, major, and residence) have no correlations. The students’ grades and the two indicators “the degree of how the theme can be described” (r -0.109, p 0.039) (see Table 2) and “the degree of how the narrative style can be described” are correlated (r -0.109, p=0.038) (see Table 3). There is a correlation between the major of the students and indicator of “the degree of discrimination of the lens language used by the online video” (r -0.124, p=0.018) (see Table 4). And the survey shows that students major in art (72.8%) and literature (44.6%) have a better understanding of the lens language due to their professional expertise.

Table 2: Cross Tabulations of the Grade and the Online Video-theme Describing Degree

Grade

Be Able to Describe the Theme of the Online Video

Strongly agree Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Freshman 19.20% 25.00% 38.50% 13.50% 3.80%

Sophomore 15.90% 37.40% 31.80% 12.10% 2.80%

Junior 17.40% 29.30% 34.80% 18.50% 0.00%

Senior 19.10% 48.20% 22.70% 9.10% 0.90%

Table 3: Cross Tabulations of the Grade and the Online Video-narrative Style Describing Degree

Grade

Be Able to Describe The Narrative Style of The Online Video


Freshman 42.30% 25.00% 25.00% 7.70% 0.00%

Sophomore 22.20% 45.40% 29.60% 1.90% 0.90%

Junior 30.40% 46.70% 21.70% 1.10% 0.00%

Senior 37.30% 43.60% 17.30% 1.80% 0.00%

Table 4: Cross Tabulations of the Major and the Online Video Lens Language

Major

Be Able to Distinguish the Lens Language of The Online Video


Philosophy 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%

Economics 8.50% 25.50% 29.80% 23.40% 12.80%

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Major

Be Able to Distinguish the Lens Language of The Online Video


Law 0.00% 35.30% 23.50% 41.20% 0.00%

Pedagogy 0.00% 20.00% 60.00% 20.00% 0.00%

Literature 10.60% 34.00% 29.80% 21.30% 4.30%

Management 5.30% 23.70% 26.30% 39.50% 5.30%

History 0.00% 25.00% 25.00% 25.00% 25.00%

Science 10.60% 21.30% 23.40% 29.80% 14.90%

Engineering 7.50% 25.60% 34.60% 25.60% 6.80%

Medicine 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%

Art 45.50% 27.30% 27.30% 0.00% 0.00%

4) Online video critical ability

The online video critical thinking ability of the students is of medium level, and have a positive correlation with the grades of the students. Four indicators are used to measure the online video critical ability. 51% students can “tell the commercial motivation and values hidden in the online video.” There is a correlation between the indicator and the students’ residence (r=0.119, p=0.027). Students from the more business-oriented environment like cities are more sensitive to the commercial motives and values hidden in the online video than those from the rural areas. 37.1% students think that most of the online videos they watched reflect the social, political, economic, and cultural aspects of the society. And for those have an opposite ideas are higher than 28.8%. According to Stuart Hall, the famous scholar of school of cultural studies, there are three kinds of interpretation of media text, and most of the students have an attitude of negotiated decoding. It is true that the university students are attracted by the main stream media report, such as the Middle Autumn Festival report, the investigative report of the CCTV “Are you happy?” These programs not only invite a hot discussion on the Internet, also attract attention of the university students. An online video called “Are You Happy: University Students?” is a quick response to the CCTV news report, and it exhibits the idea of happiness of university students. The survey shows that a great many of students are cautious about the truth constructed by signs and symbols, though the video symbols provide a sense of “being present.” Take the college girls’ images as an example, many of the main stream media productions cannot present true images of the college girls. Some of the reports are about the unusual emotional and life experience of the girls in order to satisfy the curiosity of the audience, and this in turn reinforces the traditional image of women, and their real lives as independent social individuals are ignored (Ruan, 2012). 43.2% of the students “can tell that the online video information is reliable.” When facing different online videos focused on one topic, 62.4% of the students express their ideas that they “can make their own reasonable judgments.” When analyzing the reason of this kind of phenomenon, we can see that it’s not easy to discriminate what is reliable news and what is not. This is a process of verifying if the news is accurate, and it requires applying the common knowledge, logistic knowledge and daily experience in this analyzing and synthesizing process. As to the final judgment, it seems that the students with open mind tend to be more inclined to accept diverse opinions and be more confident in their decisions. The

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result of online video critical ability can also be classified into three levels, and the study shows that 59.7% students’ critical ability is well above medium level. And there is a positive correlation between the grades of the students and the level of their critical ability (r=0.125, p 0.017). The higher the students’ grades are, the higher the critical thinking ability level is (see Table 5).

Table 5: Cross Tabulations of the Grade and the Online Video Critical Ability

Grade Online Video Critical-thinking Ability

Low Medium High

Freshman 11.50% 63.50% 25.00%

Sophomore 4.60% 59.30% 36.10%

Junior 3.30% 59.80% 37.00%

Senior 1.80% 58.20% 40.00%

5) Online video production ability

The online video production ability of the students is generally at the low level, and students of different grades and different majors have different abilities. The online video production ability is measured by two indicators: “the degree of how the students know about the video production technology, such as format transferring, cutting and integrating fragments of videos, music and sound background tracking, inserting transition effects, etc.” and “the degree of how the students grasp the video production technology.” Only 26.3% of the students “know the relative online video production technology,” and fewer students can grasp the online video production technology, only accounting for 18.3%. The three levels of online video production ability show that 52% of the students’ online video production ability is at the low level, and 30% at the medium level, and 18% high level. The correlation between the students’ grades and the level of online video production ability is positive (r 0.11, p 0.037) (see Table 6). And the correlation between the students’ majors and the level of online video production ability is also positive (r=0.209, p=0.000) (see Table 7). The higher the students’ grades are, the higher their online video production ability is. Among the 11 disciplines in the survey, the levels of students’ online video production ability ranked according to their disciplines go like this: literature (low level 40.4%, medium level 42.6%, high level 17%), art (low level 51.1%, medium level 33.1%, high level 15.8%), engineering (low level 52.2%, medium level 30.5%, high level 17.3%) . Production ability of students majoring in economics, law, and management is relatively lower than the ability of students majoring in other disciplines.

Table 6: Cross Tabulations of the Grade and the Online Video Production Technical Ability

Grade Online Video Production Ability

Low Medium High

Freshman 69.20% 25.00% 5.80%

Sophomore 50.00% 31.50% 18.50%

Junior 50.00% 28.30% 21.70%

Senior 48.20% 33.60% 18.20%

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Table 7: Cross Tabulations of the Major and the Online Video Production Ability

Major Online Video Production Ability

Low Medium High

Philosophy 100% 0.00% 0.00%

Economics 68.10% 19.10% 12.80%

Law 58.80% 35.30% 5.90%

Pedagogy 60.00% 40.00% 0.00%

Literature 40.40% 42.60% 17.00%

Management 57.90% 26.30% 15.80%

History 75.00% 25.00% 0.00%

Science 59.60% 25.50% 14.90%

Engineering 51.10% 33.10% 15.80%

Medicine 100.00% 0.00% 0.00%

Art 52.20% 30.50% 17.30%

Further study on online video production ability indicates that the students prefer team work with the purpose of self-expression by borrowing other’s material. 59.1% (n 217) students respond that they have the experience of making videos in a team work or independently. And most of them prefer team work (75.1%, n=163). Their production technology may be very crude at beginning, but their skills will grow in the practice. In the interview, one of the students said that he had the experience of making a video named To

Our Glory Youth in the Next Four Years.

“We were inspired by the film by Wei Zhao’s film To Youth at first, and it was a casual small talk. Later we realized why not made a micro-film of our own. And

we interviewed some students on the campus, and then we integrated their ideas

into a love story. And one of our friends just parted with his girlfriend, and he

was depressed at the moment. We made this video to cheer him up. We didn’t ask help from professionals. What we did was to learn something from the

Internet and we discussed about the story writing and techniques. At first, the

thing went slowly, but with more team work and discussions, the ideas turned

into a clear schedule. When we finally finished the video, we were very excited.

And all of the team agreed to put it on the iTudou. And we really did it.”

When asked the reason why they participate in video production, the findings are as following: for self-expression (n=129, 59.4%), for social caring (n=115, 53%), and for recreation (n=107, 50%). This proved what the author of Film Making in Schools, Douglas Lowndes wrote in 1960s that film making permits the students express their ideas and portray their lives by imaginations. According to Lowndes, this kind of practice is in contrast to the traditional way of learning, and it empowers the youth a new kind of method to manage their lives. And in this way, the work of creation has been turned into a way of self-realization (Hoechsmann, 2012). In fact, though the main purpose of producing online video by the students is for self-expression, recreation is another very important aspect of the activity. The happiness during the video production can encourage the students probe further into this

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territory. This can be seen in the recent online music adapt trend. Many students remake the songs by themselves and upload the songs on the Internet to share, and this draws a lot attention of other students, and more students are attracted to participate in the army of online video production. When the authors search in Baidu for “Where Dad Has gone to” online videos remade by university students, there are at least 10 different versions. These versions reflect the real life of the college students in parodies.

The survey shows that students generally borrow online video production materials and adapt other TV programs, films or music pieces (n=217, 59.4%). Imitating and parody are the main way of producing online video. But the producers rarely simply copy what they see, read or hear, but recreate the textual meaning. It proves Fiske’s idea that public can discriminate and choose the point to get involved between the identification and screening of media texts and daily life. The original text is a kind of cultural resources, from which we can produce new text (Fiske, 1989).

6) Law and moral perspective of students dealing with online video

When discussing law and moral perspective of the students dealing with online videos, they have a relatively weak copyright consciousness, but a strong sense of privacy. They express that they have a better understanding of the KUSO culture related to video production. In the survey, of all the students, both having the video production experience or without, 61.3% of them (n 225) admit that “there should be a law and moral standard as to KUSO culture.” Of all the 367 students in the survey, only 16.7% of them (n=61) express that they know the regulations on digital copyright relating to online video production. Students majoring in art and law have a better understanding of these regulations and laws (see Table 8). In the interview, 12 of 15 students expressed that they did not care about the copyright of the online video they watched or produced. What they care about is the service and the fluency and clarity of the video. The students generally care about the right of portraits and privacy. 65.7% (n=240) students expressed that they will take into account the privacy and security before they upload the video (see Table 9). Students majoring in management and art have a higher degree of awareness of this. Those majoring in economics and literature have a lower degree of awareness in this respect. The interview shows that 10 students said that they only considered the privacy protection of themselves and not that of others. It is true that the line between public and private life is blurring, and the new moral challenges it brings about is also imperative for the educators.

Table 8: Cross Tabulations of the Major and the Copyright Awareness

Major

Know The Copyright Regulations

Strongly agree

Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly disagree

Philosophy 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%

Economics 4.30% 12.80% 14.90% 44.70% 23.40%

Law 5.90% 29.40% 11.80% 35.30% 17.60%

Pedagogy 0.00% 20.00% 0.00% 40.00% 40.00%

Literature 0.00% 10.60% 10.60% 46.80% 31.90%

Management 0.00% 15.80% 26.30% 39.50% 18.40%

History 0.00% 0.00% 25.00% 75.00% 0.00%

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Major

Know The Copyright Regulations

Strongly agree


Science 0.00% 15.80% 26.30% 39.50% 18.40%

Engineering 4.50% 12.10% 22.00% 40.90% 20.50%

Medicine 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 33.30% 66.70%

Art 9.10% 27.30% 45.50% 9.10% 9.10%

Table 9: Cross Tabulations of the Major and the Privacy Consciousness

Major

Have a Sense of Privacy Consciousness

Strongly agree


Philosophy 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00%

Economics 29.80% 25.50% 21.30% 14.90% 8.50%

Law 35.30% 23.50% 29.40% 0.00% 11.80%

Pedagogy 0.00% 0.00% 100.00% 0.00% 0.00%

Literature 29.80% 40.40% 8.50% 12.80% 8.50%

Management 36.80% 28.90% 28.90% 2.60% 2.60%

History 50.00% 25.00% 0.00% 25.00% 0.00%

Science 31.90% 31.90% 17.00% 14.90% 4.30%

Engineering 37.90% 28.80% 22.70% 3.00% 7.60%

Medicine 100.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00% 0.00%

Art 50.00% 40.90% 0.00% 4.50% 4.50%

7) Online video distributing and sharing ability of the students and their will of commenting on the video

The ability of sharing online video is measured by two indicators: “learning multi-approaches of distributing online video (including forwarding Weibo link, micro-video production contest, micro-film festival, website activities)” and “sharing video with others by various channels (Weibo, social media websites like Renren, original websites like iTudou, instant communication software such as QQ, WeChat etc.).” The students’ distributing ability is generally high, and 51% of them learn multi-approaches of distributing online videos; and their sharing ability is comparatively a bit lower, and 48.9% of them express that they can share different links by a variety of channels. In the interview, 60% of the students interviewed expressed that they would like to share the video with others. And two students interviewed said that online video is the best type of communication sharing, for it is short, flexible, inspiring, and the communication speed is fast, and people can get involved in the communication easily. The measuring of the three levels of distributing and sharing indicates that the students have a medium and high level of distributing the online video, 53.3% and

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32% respectively. The correlation between grades and distributing ability is significant (r 0.187, p 0.000) (see Table 10). The higher the students’ grades are, the higher their distributing ability is. Students are eager to share online video, but a majority of them would not comment on the video. Of all the students surveyed, 59.4% of them (n=218) never comment on any online video. There is a correlation between gender and the comment behavior (r=0.121, p=0.020) (see Table 11). The cross tabulations show that male students are more active in participating online commenting. The following interview indicates that of all the 6 male students interviewed, 4 of them have posted comments on the Internet. They think that commenting on videos can be taken as a way of self-expression, and it’s convenient to communicate with others in this way. When answering why some of them do not want to comment on the video, they expressed that it would take a lot of trouble to register. Of all the 9 female students interviewed, only 2 of them have participated in commenting on videos. The reason for their participation is very simple. They said that they just wanted to express their own ideas. The rest 7 of them expressed that they simply didn’t like it, or they wouldn’t take the trouble to register. All the students interviewed consider commenting as an individual activity, and the male students would like to communicate with others, and the female students tend to consider commenting as a way of expressing their feelings. Of all the 149 students who have participated commenting on the online videos, 59.2% of them (n=87) comment on the video they enjoy, and 35.5% of them respond to other’s comment. They would like to express their own ideas rather than participated in public discussion.

Table 10: Cross Tabulations of the Grade and Online Video Distributing and Sharing Ability

Grade Online Video Distributing and Sharing Ability

Low Medium High

Freshman 40.40% 36.50% 23.10%

Sophomore 8.30% 63.90% 27.80%

Junior 17.40% 44.60% 38.00%

Senior 6.40% 58.20% 35.50%

Table 11: Cross Tabulations of the Gender and Online Video-commenting Behavior

Gender

Participate in Commenting on The Online Video

Strongly agree


Male 9.10% 19.50% 17.50% 31.20% 22.70%

Female 4.20% 11.30% 20.80% 39.60% 24.10%

Conclusion and Discussion

Online video, as a representative of the new media, has become an important kind technologies and content carrier of acquiring and disseminating information for university students. We can conclude from this study that the new media literacy of the university students as online video users has the following characteristics: firstly, from the first dimension of consumer media literacy of the traditional consumption process, the new media

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literacy of university students (searching and understanding, evaluating and criticizing) is overall satisfactory. Whereas, as to the creative consumption process (production/creation, participation), the students’ presuming media literacy is relatively poor. Secondly, from the second dimension of functional media literacy and critical media literacy of the university students, the overall video production technology ability of the students is low, but with the lowering of the online video production technology requirement, more and more students are trying to make videos by themselves. At present, the students’ basic functional skills are still inadequate, and this also has an impact on the nurture of the critical new media literacy. New media literacy education is still at its infant stage in China and around the world. Both the government and educators should make efforts to foster the new media literacy of the university students. Programs of enhancing new media literacy of university students have been implemented in some countries, and there is some pioneer work by the education practitioners in China, too. Based on the present teaching courses in universities in China, we give the following suggestions for new media literacy education in universities. Firstly, redesign the present university curriculum. According to Renee Hobbs, cross-disciplinary integrated curriculum will become the new trend of new media literacy school education by explaining the relationship between media literacy education and the humanities, arts, and sciences (Hobbs et al., 2009). Secondly, media literacy educators should cooperate with media industry, social organizations and government to participate in extra-curriculum activities. Thirdly, the students can take part in community workshops, and gain more social experience and learn more about the social life by promoting new media literacy in community.

References

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Coiro, J., Knobel, M., Lankshear, & C., Leu, D. J. (2008). Handbook of Research on New

Literacies. New York: Taylor & Francis Group.

Douglas Kellner. New Media and New Literacies: Reconstructing Education for the New

Millennium [EB/OL]. Retrieved from: http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/ faculty/kellner/.

Fiske, J. (1989). Reading the Popular. Boston, MA: Unwin Hyman.

Jenkins, H., Purushotma, R., Weigel, M., Clinton, K. & Robison, A. J. (2009). Confronting

the challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education for the 21st Century. Chicago: The MacArthur Foundation.

Hobbs, R. & Jensen, A. (2009). The Past, Present, and Future of Media Literacy Education. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 1, 1-11.

Hoechsmann, M. & Poyntz, S. R. (2012). Media Literacies: A Critical Introduction. West Sussex: Blackwell Publishing.

Hu, Y. (2008). Zhongsheng xuanhua: Wangluo shidai de geren biaoda yu gonggong taolu

[Confused noise: Personal expression and public discussion in the Network era]. Guilin: Guangxi Normal University Press.

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Ming, Z. (2006). Xin meijie huanjingxia de daxuesheng meijiesuyang jiaoyu [Media Literacy Education for University Students in New Media Environment]. The News Herald. 3, 21-23.

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Ruan, Y. (2012). Shixi yi nvdaxuesheng weiduixiang de xingbiewenhua chuanbo xianzhuang [Analysis of Present Situation of Female University Students in Gender in Culture communication”]. Jiannan Literature, 10, 224-225.

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Business University, 6, 12-15.

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The New Media Consortium. (2005). A Global Imperative: The Report of the 21st Century Literacy Summit. Retrieved from: www.nmc.org/pdf/Global_ Imperative.pdf

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Zhou, T. (2011). Xin meijie suyang yujingxia de daxuesheng meijie suyang jiaoyu [College Students’ Media Education in the New Media Literacy Context], Journal of Shaoxing

University. doi: 10.16169/j.issn.1008-293x.k. 9, 106-109.

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Facebook Journalism: The Influences of Social Media

on Journalistic Work in Taiwan

Liu, Chang-de27

Abstract

As social media, especially the Facebook, have become popular among Taiwanese Internet users, news media and journalism have been altered dramatically by this emerging and dominant form of digital communication. Based on a case study of the Apple Daily, a major newspaper and well-known in its tabloid style in Taiwan, this paper aims to analyze how social media has transformed the news media, as well as the work and the labor process of journalists.

First, through a content analysis of the Apple Daily’s website, Facebook fan page, and the Line account, the differences in news topic, news sources, and media’s role are illustrated and examined. In order to attract higher viewing rates on the Internet, the Apple Daily is inclined to provide more sensational and entertaining contents with prejudiced and emotional comments on its Facebook fan page. At the same time, interactions of Internet users on the fan page or website are further utilized in the Apple Daily’s news reports and thus the use of social media has facilitated the newspaper to incorporate the labor of “prosumers.”

Second, through in-depth interviews with the management and journalists, the way that social media have influenced news production and journalistic work is analyzed. While the management of the Apple Daily enthusiastically introduce social media and digital technologies into news production process, journalists have suffered from a rapid increase in workload and pressure. However, some reporters have been compliant with rather than resist the change of labor process resulting from social media. From the perspective of political economy, this paper demonstrates how the management of news media manufacturing consent among journalists and reshaping the labor process of news production and resulting in deskilling effects on journalists during the digital era.

Keywords: social media, new technologies, labor process, news workers

27 Associate Professor, Department of Journalism, National Chengchi University, Taiwan

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Literature Review

The digital media have become a new hope for news organizations as traditional media market has declined for decades. For example, during 2003 to 2012 in the U.S. there were 16,200 job loss in newspaper and 38,000 job loss in magazine newsroom. Meanwhile, the number of job opportunities has been flourished in digital news organizations and accounted for 5,000 full-time editorial journalistic positions in 2012 (Mitchel & Page, 2014).

Recently, the rapid growth of social media has changed the landscape of the digital world, as well as the online news media. In the UK, about 30% Britain Internet users read newspaper online in 2007, and increased double in two years to nearly 60% in 2009. However, online news consumption had been slow down later—the proportion of online newspaper usage was 55% in 2011. Nevertheless, the use of social media developed relatively fast from 17% to 60% between 2007 and 2011. In 2009, more than half Internet users access social networks regularly, and the most prevailing social media is the Facebook. Many main stream news organization websites, such as the BBC, the Guardian, and the Financial Times, mainly rely on the referral from the Facebook and Twitter (Newman, 2009; 2011).

Social networks also dominate the online news consumption in the US. More than 60% Internet users flocks onto the Facebook, and half of them said that they obtain the news information from this social network. About 50% social media users, including the Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, shared and commented news stories or videos from news media (Anderson & Caumont, 2014). In Canada, a survey shows that two of every five social networks users get information of news events and share with their friends (Hermida et al., 2012).

Therefore, social media have become a new center of news consumption in the UK and the North America societies. This trend has shifted the pattern of news consumption and thus influenced news production. For Facebook users, they intend to read less and spent less time on news stories, as comparted to traditional media audience and news organization website users. Social media users are more inclined to read entertainment, sports, and local events, rather than international news or business news (Anderson & Caumont, 2014).

Not only the development of social networks, but also the spread of mobile devices has fostered the change of news media. In the US, estimated half of adults have mobile Internet devices, including smartphones and pad PC in 2012. Among these mobile devices users, about one third obtain news information by smartphones or tablets. However, these mobile news users read news stories rather than updates the headlines on App. In addition, most mobile news consumers are young adults, which attracted more and more advertisers (Rosenstiel & Mitchel, 2011; 2012). Therefore, news media organizations began to notice the expansion of news market on mobile devices and attempted to create various types of news service Apps.

During recent years, the penetration rates of traditional media—including television, newspaper, and magazine—have been in stagnation, while the Internet has become more and more important and popular. The penetration rate of the Internet has almost doubled in eight years, from 35.5% in 2005 to 61.6% in 2013, and become the second popular “mass” media in Taiwan (see Table 1). The rapid development of social media, especially the Facebook, has increased the amount of time Taiwanese users spent on the Internet. According to a governmental survey in 2011, 63.7% Taiwanese, estimated 10.64 million people, use social media regularly. The penetration rate of social media in 2009 was only 35.4%—that is, the use of social media in Taiwan has expanded nearly 80% during two years. Most social media

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users are young (more than 80% are 15 to 29 year-old) and educated (more than 70% have college degree or above). Using social media have become an important Internet activity for Taiwanese users. In 2010, using social media ranked the 6th among various online activities; and the ranking of using social media was the 5th and the 4th in 2011 and 2012 respectively. In 2013, social media use had become the 2nd important reason for Taiwanese to use the Internet, which was only second to the use of email (MAA, 2013; 2014).

Table 1: Penetration rate (PR) of media in Taiwan, 2005-2013 (unit: %)

Source: MAA (2013; 2014)

Social media have been more and more popular because of the widespread of mobile devices, such as smartphones and tablets, which allow users access online services theoretically anytime and anywhere. Official statistics by the government also shows that in 2014 nearly 60% Taiwanese above 12-year-old have smartphones. Meanwhile, in 2014 one of every four Taiwanese uses tablet computers, which has increased 37% within one year (Institute for Information Industry, 2013; 2014). As the result, the number of mobile Internet users has tripled during 2007 and 2013, from 8.8% to 37.3% (see Table 2). For mobile Internet users, social media has become the most important using activity since 2012. In 2013, more than half of mobile Internet users access social media regularly (MAA, 2013; 2014).

As traditional media declined for decades, the development of social media and mobile devices has aroused attentions from news organizations. For example, the App service on smartphones and tablets has become an emerging platform for media and business. In 2014, the most downloaded and regular using App is the LINE, a transnational instant communication appliance—more than 65% Taiwanese mobile Internet devices users accessed the LINE very often. The 2nd popular App in Taiwan is the Facebook; and surprisingly the 3rd popular App is the Apple Daily, a tabloid newspaper in Taiwan (see Table 3).

TV Newspaper Magazine Internet

PR Growth PR Growth PR Growth PR Growth

2005 95.5 -- 50.5 -- 35.2 -- 35.5 --

2006 94.5 -1.05 45.8 -9.30 31.8 -9.66 39.1 10.14

2007 94.5 0 45.1 -1.53 32.2 1.26 45.5 16.37

2008 95.5 1.06 43.9 -2.66 31.7 -1.55 48.1 5.71

2009 94.4 -1.15 42.2 -3.87 28.5 -

10.09 49.2 2.29

2010 93.4 -1.06 43.0 1.90 30.1 5.61 51.8 5.28

2011 91.1 -2.46 40.6 -5.58 30.5 1.33 52.7 1.74

2012 91.1 0 39.6 -2.46 30.5 0 57.1 8.35

2013 89.4 -1.87 35.4 -10.6 28.4 -6.89 61.6 7.88

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Table 2: Mobile Internet use in Taiwan

Source: Institute for Information Industry (2013; 2014)

Table 3: App use rate on mobile devices in Taiwan, 2014

Source: Institute for Information Industry (2014)

In order to adjust to the dramatically changes of media environment, many traditional media have reformed the organizational structure and the division of editorial labor. Digital departments and new staffs were formed and recruited, while journalists work and identity were reshaped. For example, a research found that interviewed journalists working at two newspapers’ internet departments in Slovenia and Serbia felt being discriminated and isolate by their colleagues at newsroom because they did not produce “original” news stories. These news workers even did not regard or identify themselves as “true journalists” as they only provide “copy-paste journalism” and “non-stop news” by gathering information from the Internet. Many of them complaint that they even do not have enough time and resources to verify online information which they consider as the most important part of journalistic work. As the result, one interviewee demonstrated, “what we do is not actually journalism. We sit, skim the web looking for information and reassemble it” (Vobič & Milojević, 2014).

In addition to gathering online information, journalistic culture and work, or journalism per se, also have been transformed by the introduction of social media. Many “user-generated content” (UGC) on social networks have become the routine sources of news reports. For example, the BBC organized a 20-person team to filter and select UGC materials on the Facebook and Twitter. The Guardian formed several experiment project like “Comment is Free” and “Live Blogging” to integrate abundant information on social media into the news production process (Newman, 2011; Newman et al., 2012).

By doing so, the introduction of social media has reshaped the media organization and production process. There are two major approaches for journalists to reconstruct their work process by social media. On the one hand, social networks could be a source or a channel to contact important sources. For example, a study analyzing the content form seven mainstream news media in the US shows that Twitter has become a “sole” or a primary source, mainly because of the relatively low cost of news gathering (Moon & Hadley, 2014). However, as more and more materials on social media have been exploited “opportunistically” by mainstream media, several journalism scholars advocate to converge the use of UGC into the “new journalism,” such as the “fifth estate” which emphasizes the voice of Internet users (Newman, 2011; Newman et al., 2012), the concept of “journalism as process” instead of the traditional concept of “journalism as product” (Robinson, 2011), or the importance of “share” and the construction of “ethics of participation (Lewis, 2012).

Year 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013

Penetration rate 8.8% 9.9% 11.2% 17.9% 21.3% 31.9% 37.3%

Growth rate -- 12.5% 13.1% 59.8% 19.0% 49.8% 16.9%

Rank APP Type All IOS Android

1 LINE Instant message 66.6% 64.1% 77.0%

2 Facebook Social network 48.5% 47.5% 58.7%

3 Apple Daily News media 35.6% 45.1% 58.5%

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On the other hand, social networks could be a channel for journalists to interact with audiences. A study interviewing 40 reporters of two Britain newspapers and conducting content analysis on their social media profiles found that informal, personal, and reciprocal interacting with readers though Facebook or Twitter has become an important part of their daily routines. Besides, the role of journalists in the reader-media relationship has also changed from traditionally “authoritarian gatekeeper” to newly “ordinary, fallible individual” (Canter, 2013). Besides, this new form of communication between journalists and readers transformed journalism practices. As reporters of mainstream media embrace social media to post comments on news event, they also conflict with the traditional journalistic norm that insists agents of news field should be impartial, objective, and non-partisan (Lasorsa et al., 2012).

Besides the change of newsroom and journalism, some worried that journalists are going to be “deskilled” or under control by the introduction of the “new” new technologies. From the labor process theory perspective (Braverman, 1974), the introduction of machine, such as new digital technologies, mainly serves the need of the management to reduce production costs and replace skilled workers. For instance, Braverman (ibid: 293-358) illustrated that white-collar workers had experienced trivialized, fragmented, and standardized process due to the introduction of computerized automation into their office. Not surprising that the management introduced social media, laptop, smartphone, and tablet into the workplace to improve the production efficiency, as well as the surveillance of laborers (Howcroft & Taylor, 2014). However, it is difficult for the management to introduce these technologies into the workplace for their own interests by coercion only. Sociologist Burawoy (1979) emphasized that the labor process in the workplace is disguised as a “game” that the rules are consented between the management and the workers. Thus, laborers are voluntarily compliant with the requirements from the management and consider the works as a playful activity. Therefore, journalists in probably have experienced the similar process of “manufacturing consent” in the introduction of social media into the newsroom.

Research Questions and Methods

This paper aims to understand how social media impact on Taiwanese news media reports and journalists work. As the related literature in last two sections demonstrated, the introduction of social networks into news field has reshaped the news consumption. Firstly, compared to the audience of traditional mass media, users of social media are more inclined to consume entertainment, sport, and local news—so-called “soft news” in Taiwanese media—rather than political, business, international news—so-called “hard news” in Taiwanese media. Therefore, the first research question is to examine whether and how the news media in Taiwan change their contents in order to adjust to the new media consumer’s tastes.

Secondly, while more and more Internet users post their personal activities, opinions, and all aspects of life onto social media, the abundant information and “big data” on social networks such as Facebook and Twitter have become a primary source—in some cases a “sole” source—of news reports. Besides, news organizations and journalists employ social media to interact with their readers, and the characteristics of interactions on social media—which often tends to be personal and informal way—have resulted in reshaping the role of journalists and media and changing journalistic norm of “objectivity.” The second research question is to analyze whether and how Taiwanese journalists utilize social media as primary source in their news reports as well as the difference between their interactions with readers on social media and traditional news media’s role or style.

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Following the transformation of news contents, journalists work has also been reconstructed to match the new technological change. Not only have been required to use social media in the production process, many Taiwanese journalists but also have been enforced to work faster, longer, and produce more contents in various formats for multiple media platforms. As the result, the final research question is to understand how Taiwanese journalists’ labor process have been reshaped by the introduction of social media into newsroom workplace.

The Apple Daily in Taiwan (台灣蘋果日報), a popular tabloid newspaper established by a Hong Kong media business magnate since May 2003, is selected as the case for this study. With estimated 350 thousand daily circulation nowadays and the highest amount of retailing sale among Taiwanese commercial newspapers, the Apple Daily began developing digital outlets for several years and also in a certain degree achieved online business success.

However, the newspaper industry in Taiwan has been in a sharp decline during last decade in terms of its circulation and share of advertising market. According to a governmental survey, the penetration rate of newspaper had been decreased from more than 50% in 2005 to 35% in 2013 (see Table 1). All four mainstream newspaper, the Apple Daily in Taiwan, the Liberty Times (自由時報), the United Daily (聯合報), and the China Times (中國時報) have attempted various strategies to maintain their profits. In July 2013, the Apple Daily started the “Apple Real-time News” on its website and formed a six-person team to manage and coordinate all newspaper reporters to report news event online instantly. During the “Sunflower protest” in March 2014, the Apple Real-time News initiated the “Apple Live” for live webcasting important events and breaking news. The twenty-four hours live webcast of the big student protest had successfully attracted Taiwanese Internet users’ attention, and the number of followers at the Apple Daily Facebook Fanpage had increased 110 thousand in one month. In present days, the Apple Real-time News attracts most hits among all different types of news media’s websites. In a 2013 survey, 12.3% of interviewed Internet users claimed accessing the Apple Daily website yesterday, while the second highest rate of news media website was only 8.4% (MAA, 2014). In the management aspect of social media, the followers number of Apple Daily Facebook Fanpage reached 2 million in the beginning of 2015, which were as quadruple as that of the second highest Taiwanese news media with 0.52 million followers. The Apple Daily have been successful in other social networks; for example, the number of followers at the Apple Daily’s official account on the LINE, the most popular instant text/audio/video communication App in Taiwan, were 1.8 million, which were more than triple as that of the second news media with 0.5 million.

This research, first, conducted primitive content analysis, as well as demonstrated the characteristics of the news writing or online discussion. News reports or online posts at the online “prime time” between 10:00 am and 4:00 pm on May 3rd (Sunday), 4th (Monday) and 5th (Tuesday) on the Apple Real-time News and the Apple Daily Facebook Fanpage were collected and analyzed. There were 585 news stories on the Apple Real-time News (118, 217, and 250 on the three consecutive days respectively) and 74 posts on the Apple Daily Fanpage (18, 27, and 29 respectively). Meanwhile, all posts for these three days on the Apple Daily’s official account on the LINE—a total of 12 “links” of news stories on six messages, as the Apple Daily’s LINE account provides users two messages at around 10:00 am and 5:00 pm every day and each message contains two headlines with website’s link—were documented.

All online news stories were coded by its topic, according to the category that the Apple Real-time News marked. There are fifteen topics on the Apple Real-time News website, and this research further re-grouped these fifteen topics into two major categories: (1) Hard news, including “Politics” (政治), “International” (國際), “Commentaries” (論壇) and

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“Business” (財經); (2) Soft news, including “Entertainment” (娛樂), “Sport” (運動), “Life” (生活), “Crime” (社會), “Fashion” (時尚), “Real Estate” (地產), “Hot Chicks”(正妹), etc. The sources of news stories on the Apple Real-time News were coded as either “From the Internet”—which means that the journalist mainly rewrite the story from the Facebook, Twitter, PTT (a popular online forum at the Bulletin Board System), or YouTube; or “From original interviews”—which means that the journalist write the story based on personal contacts with sources. In addition, the headlines on the Apple Real-time News and the posts on the Apple Daily Facebook Fanpage were coded as either “Informative/Traditional,” which means that the headline or the discussion provided substantial information or details of the news story or play as the traditional role of news media; or the “Not-informative/Non-traditional,” which means that the major function of the headline or the discussion is emotionally mobilizing readers to “hit” the links of news story.

In addition to the content analysis of the Apple Daily’s digital platform, this research also conducted several semi-structured interviews with journalists working at the Apple Daily. The researcher interviewed four journalists face-to-face between April 2014 and April 2015. Interviewee Y was under 30 year-old with one-year journalistic experience and working as a “social media reporter/editor”; Interviewee H, C, T were all between 30 and 40 year-old with more than five-year journalistic experience and working as reporters of the Apple Daily. The latter two interviewees (C and T) were both the Apple Daily Labor Union leaders when they were interviewed.

Research Findings and Discussions

Firstly, the topics of news stories that the Apple Daily provided on various digital platforms is compared (see Table 4). As the related studies demonstrated, the Apple Daily also offered its Internet users more “Soft news” than “Hard news.” For the Real-time News on the website, there were 404 soft news stories in a total of 585 stories in the sampled three days, which represented almost 7 out of every 10 instant news reports. Soft news were even more dominated on the Facebook Fanpage and the LINE account. Almost 90% stories on the Facebook Fanpage and all stories on the LINE were soft news (see Table 4). Therefore, the result shows that Taiwanese news media produced more soft news to social media users, compared to these topic to the website users.

Furthermore, the sub-topics of new stories on each platform also shows more about the differences among different digital outlets. There were four sub-topics of “hard news” on the Real-time News website: Politics (12.8%), International (7.7%), Business (7.0%) and Commentaries (3.4%). Although there were still hard news on the Facebook Fanpage—Politics (9.5%) and International (1.4%)—none of posts selected by the Fanpage managers (so-called “online reporters” in the Apple Daily) related to Business and Commentaries. Besides, there were even differences in choosing “Soft News” among three digital outlets. On the LINE the Apple Daily concentrated on Life (25%) and Crime (50%) news, while its website and Facebook provided more diversified sub-topics of soft news, including sport (see Table 4-1, 4-2, and 4-3).

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Table 4: Topics on various platform

Table 4-1: Topics of news stories on the Apple Real-time News

Hard News Soft News Total

Politic

s

Internationa

l

Business

Commentaries

Life Crime Entertainme

nt Sport

Fashion

Real Estat

e

Hot Chick

s FUN Pets Weird Crazy

# 75 45 41 20 136 124 38 29 19 18 3 14 13 8 2

% 12.8 7.7 7.0 3.4 23.2 21.2 6.5 5.0 3.2 3.1 0.5 2.4 2.2 1.4 0.3

181 (30.9%) 404 (69.1%) 585

Table 4-2: Topics of news stories on the Apple Daily Facebook Fanpage


Politic

s

Inter nation

al Life Crime

Entertainment

Sport Weird Photo Webcas

t

News-in-

Motion Sex Ad.

#

%

7

9.5

1

1.4

12

16.2

18

24.3

3

4.1

1

1.4

1

1.4

2

2.7

7

9.5

18

24.3

3

4.1

1

1.4

Total 8 (10.9%) 66 (89.1%) 74

Table 4-3: Topics of news stories on the Apple Daily LINE

Secondly, the results about the primary sources of news stories on the Apple Real-time News and the headline/discussion types on website and Facebook Fanpage demonstrated that the introduction of social media has changed the primary sources journalists accessing and the role news media and reporters playing. There were 81 news stories on the Real-time News mainly based on Internet sources, which represented nearly 15% of all news stories. Moreover, among various Internet sources, information or interactions on social networks—Facebook and Twitter—were the most important, which had a total of 41 stories which represented more than half of those stories relying on Internet sources (see Table 5).

The results about the types of website headlines and Fanpage posts implied a significant shift in the news value or how news media appeal their audience. For traditional role of news media, the function of headline is basically offering or summarizing information


Real-time News 181 (30.9%) 404 (69.1%) 585

Facebook Fanpage 8 (10.9%) 66 (89.1%) 74

LINE 0 (00.0%) 12 (100.0%) 12

Life Crime Entertainment FUN Total

3(25.0%) 6(50.0%) 2(16.7%) 1(8.3%) 12

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of news events. However, many headlines in the Apple Real-time News did not provide substantial information; instead, the practical principle of website headline had changed into arousing the reader’s curiosity. Therefore, many headlines of the website were “unfinished sentence” (such as “In the end the result is…; “Her colleague says: It seems that I saw your ____”; etc.) or “exclamatory sentence” (such as “We are astonished”; “That’s too much”; etc.). On the Facebook Fanpage, many online reporter/editor attempted to post informal messages with their own opinions on news event (such as “This bad guy go to hell” etc.) or personal emotion as posting Facebook messages (such as “I am so sad”; “Let’s go lottery later”; etc.). There were 32 headlines on the Real-time News website were “Non-informative” headlines, which represented only slightly more than 5% of all instant news reports. However, there were 52 posts on the Facebook Fanpage were “Non-informative;” that is, more than 70% of Facebook posts were full of individual opinions or personal emotions (see Table 6).

Table 5: Primary Sources on the Apple Real-time News

Table 6: Types of Headlines and Posts

Because the practice of journalism has been shifted, journalists have experienced the transformation of labor process, including the change of required skills on the workplace, the longer working hours and the increase of workload, and the reconstruction of work identity. All interviewed journalists at the Apple Daily expressed the change of skills as the management introducing the social media into the production process. Interviewee Y, who was taking charge of monitoring online information including the Facebook and PTT, stated,

What I have been asked to do every working day is to skim the politicians’ Facebook accounts and online discussions on the PTT. All day long. … That’s not the work what I thought as a real reporter. … I did not really contact people, you know, to talk to those people face-to-face or through phone. For a “true” reporter, you should write stories after interviewing people directly. But I didn’t conduct any interview. I just copy what they said on Facebook and BBS and paste onto the website. (Interviewee Y, personal communication, April, 2014-2015)

Nevertheless, the “true” reporter also experienced significant transformation of their work. Before the Apple Daily launched the Apple Real-time News in July 2013, the management had held several meetings negotiating with journalists. The interviewed union leaders, Interviewee C and T, recalled that the management emphasized the Real-time News

From original interview

From the Internet Total

FB/Twitter PTT YouTube Others

(In-group)

--

--

41

50.6%

8

9.8%

18

22.2%

14

17.3% 81

Total 504 (86.2%) 81 (13.8%) 585

Informative Non-informative Total

Real-time News 553 (94.5%) 32 (5.5%) 585

Facebook Fanpage 22 (29.7%) 52 (70.3%) 74

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would not increase workload on reporter’s shoulders. “He (the Chief Editor) explained that reporters won’t be asked to do much more, since we (reporters) had been on duty any time when there is a breaking news. What we would be asked to do more is to finish two short stories in real-time, and that’s not a big deal for most of us” (Interviewee C, personal communication, April, 2014-2015).

However, the “only two short stories” workload due to the introduction of Real-time News increased much more than reporters had thought and the management had claimed. Although keeping update the latest development of news events was not mandate, most of the Apple Daily reporters had been experienced the increasing workload by constantly providing news reports as a few new information coming in. Interviewee H stated,

I knew the management did not ask me to do the “non-stop” instant news reporting. But I couldn’t help to stop updating the latest information on the website (when I took in charge of the “Sunflower protest” in March 2014). I had worked not less than 36 hours after students broke the glass door of the parliament (which is the breaking point of the one-month long protest occupying Taiwanese parliament building) without any rest—except taking a nap sitting in the chair. … Though not working for such a big event now, I also felt more workload and stress due to updating instant report online every day. (Interviewee H, personal communication, April, 2014-2015)

The two interviewed union leaders also felt similar anxieties in working for the Real-time News, though both of them understood that “should not become new duties for workers because it brought damages to working rights that the union against” (Interviewee C, personal communication, April, 2014-2015). The labor union had requested the increase of staffs to handle new works generated from the Real-time News and the Facebook Fanpage, which had been accepted by the management and recruited twelve staffs for those matters. Nevertheless, most reporters voluntarily worked longer and wrote more after the launch of new digital outlets, as what Burawoy (1979) described workers in factory voluntarily join the “the game of making-out” and comply with the working rules that serve the interests of capitalists.

While taking charge in more workload like instant news reporting, interviewees stressed emerging difficulties for journalists to complete “traditionally fundamental journalistic job” such as interviewing and verifying. Interviewee T explained,

It became very difficult for me to interview when I was in hurry to post the newest development of that event on the Real-time News in ten minutes later. I think good news stories usually happened after the press conference to talk to those sources personally. But I don’t have time to think and to do “after-interview” due to the instant news report online. And don’t even think about verifying information within ten minutes. (Interviewee T, personal communication, April, 2014-2015)

The introduction of new digital outlets to the Apple Daily, therefore, has resulted in what Braverman (1974) called “de-skilling” effect on interviewed reporters as these news workers thought being unable to maintain what they consider as the “core skill” of journalistic work.

Conclusions

Under the pressure of market decline during last decade, Taiwanese news media have considered new digital outlets, especially the social media, as a possible approach to attract young audiences and solve their financial crisis. Through analyzing the characteristics of contents on various digital platforms (the website, Facebook Fanpage, and LINE) of the

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Apple Daily—a popular tabloid newspaper in Taiwan which has developed several online services successfully in a certain degree—this paper argues that the journalism practices and the role of news media in Taiwan have been shifted from traditionally “informative and objective providers of hard news” to “emotional and prejudiced disseminator of soft news.” However, in the process of introducing new digital technologies into the traditional media, journalists have suffered from more workload and bad working conditions. Interviewees working at the Apple Daily complained about longer working hours for producing more news stories at a faster pace, and questioned that whether they are still regarded as “true” reporters if they are not encouraged to interview sources or verify information.

As the result, these negative effects on journalism and journalists have to be taken into account when traditional news media embrace the social media and other new digital technologies enthusiastically. The management of news media and journalists have to negotiate feasible approaches to balance the need of generating profits from social media and the protection of professional value and working rights of news workers. Nevertheless, this study only conducted primary analysis on this issue, and further researches employing more systematical methods are necessary for us to understand how journalism and journalists were and will be impact by social media.

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Celebrity, Youth, and New Media on Human Trafficking Issues:

The Case of MTV EXIT’s Social Campaign

Lidwina Mutia Sadasri28

Abstract

As an international-scale organization, ASEAN has so many issues that they brought up to every meeting and conference, such as political and security, economic and social development, and socio-cultural issues that come from all of its members. Those issues are also becomes ASEAN’s big concern right now, especially in identifying the challenges and opportunities of ASEAN Community 2015. ASEAN Community gives some hints for its members to make some integrations, either in a large scale as if all Southeast Asia countries or just some of them.

The implementation of the plan is manifested on several collaborative projects that each country has had. For example, looking back for few years, ASEAN, USAID, AUSAID, and MTV have made a collaborative program on human trafficking issue and slavery. The program is called MTV EXIT and it holds at some countries worldwide. In 2011 until 2014, Indonesia had the opportunity to deliver that program with the help of some outstanding celebrities as a hand to spread the messages to the youth as the audience.

As far as the observation, MTV EXIT got public’s responses and feedback especially on online social media. Celebrity that being performed on the stage to held some music event became the magnet to gather audience’s attention. Celebrities who involved in MTV EXIT have the power to reach young people’s attention, through the media. Celebrities and MTV also used online social media as the tools to gather young people as digital natives. Young people also actively use online social media to access the message that their idols are delivered to. Moreover, some of them actively participate in the social campaign as a volunteer. However, the heavy usage of online social media is on MTV as the event organizer instead of the celebrity as the sender of the message. The social campaign is actually has its opportunity to be continued based on the power of relations between popular people, digital native, and new media but in Indonesia itself, the program has ended last year.

Keywords: celebrity, youth, new media, human trafficking

28 Lecturer, Communication Science, Faculty of Social and Political Science, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta Indonesia, email: [email protected]

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Introduction

Celebrities are important popular culture icons and have a wide reach towards audiences that would otherwise neglect the topic (Mezouar, 2013: 17). If celebrities, both local and regional, were to get involved in campaigns that promote awareness on the issue, the grasp would be able to reach further. The cooperation between celebrity and event organizers in conducting a campaign is a common thing, regarding with the importance of celebrity with their power in delivering message to the audiences. MTV EXIT (End Exploitation and Human Trafficking) is an example of collaborations between some institutions, including funding, MTV as the organizer, celebrity as the performer and young people as the target audiences. Human trafficking itself is a big issue that being concern in both local and global context.

MTV EXIT project in Burma on December 2009 employed Burmese pop star Phyu Phyu Kyaw Thein to host an MTV EXIT Special, delivering “Traffic,” a hard-hitting documentary to raise awareness about human trafficking in Asia and the Pacific (MTV EXIT, 2009). In Thailand, MTV has joined a cooperation with Super Junior M on April 2011 coincided with Chiang Mai’s 700th Anniversary Stadium (MTV EXIT, 2011). The concert’s mission is not only to raise awareness young people about human trafficking but also in increasing its prevention.

MTV EXIT is just one case of celebrity involvement on a social campaign. However, the thing that we should give underline is that the existence of celebrity in a campaign is pervasive and thus become an interesting phenomenon to be analyzed. Furthermore, the environment nowadays that engaging in communication technology makes the information diffusion is more pervasive. The online platform has its own characteristic, one of that is interactive, that also has similar feature to young people’s dynamics.

The usage of new media, such as online social media by celebrity on a social campaign that is targeted to digital native is becoming a remarkable object of study. Literature review is employed to examine the relations among popular figures, young people, and online media. The analysis about MTV EXIT Indonesia will be presented by describing the context and using some concept and theories regarding celebrity, youth, and new media.

Celebrity and Campaign

Celebrity as in practice or as status is interesting to be analyzed, including its history, production and consumption process, also a range of relations in between. Celebrity itself is closely related as a commodity; commercial property that should be managed with the strategy to make profits. Celebrity’s content also became the basis of media in 21st century on its capacity to gain attention and directing to consumption (Turner, 2010: 14). Even though, celebrity also has its social function and placed as a representation, discourse, and cultural industries; thus, celebrities providing textual body that rich in semiotic and discourse.

There are three perspectives to view celebrity, first, by columnists and public intellectuals who stated that modern celebrity is a symptom of cultural dynamics that are liberated, concise, and sensational. Second, by consumer, celebrity is defined as a natural quality that only owned through extraordinary individual and is discovered via talent manager. Third, on an academic literature, celebrity is focused as a product of a certain economy and cultural processes (Turner, 2004: 4). Those three perspectives also developing until now, besides with the advent of various definitions and labelling process that someone can get on a social phenomenon.

In a note from Max Weber, celebrities are stated as an omnipresent feature of contemporary society, blazing lasting impressions in the memories of all who cross its path

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(Kurzman et al., 2007: 347). Celebrities have come to dominate status “honour”, celebrity status also have the capability to generate economic benefits, and lay claim to certain legal privileges. The “honour” that they can achieve also marks one of interesting point in time, which is its speed that they don’t have to wait until at least one generation to be a famous person. The process or the cycle of celebrity status is in a very dynamic and flexible case. It also shown on Andy Warhol’s statement that in the future, every people will be worldly popular in fifteen minutes. This sentence’s meaning is that today, celebrities have a modern culture and state-of-the-art technology which could create “temporary” celebrity (Riley, 2010: 1). In the end of 1970’s, James Monaco called that type of celebrity as quasars.

The process of labelling someone to be a celebrity also has diverse interpretations. Breese revealed that celebrity is not found out, but is constructed by entertainment industry and mass media, particularly the executives on entertainment industry and magazine editor as a co-conspirator (Breese, 2010: 340). Similar with Alexander’s statement that press agent worked as a protector of sacred side from celebrity label with its news coverage and many kinds of celebration events (Alexander, 2010: 329). Celebrity is managed through the acknowledgement of different power between fans and celebrity and its management of fan-base that are conducted is showing the proximity, affiliation, and public response. With their central position on the network, celebrities become a political tool that is significant to reach attention personally and limited in a fast and easier way (Monaco, 1978: 4). Celebrities have the control of territory, at least on the context of their fans.

Celebrities draw powerful meanings from the roles they assume in their television, film, military, athletic, and other careers. Celebrity label actually is not only from a movie, modern celebrities also presented on television, through sport events, on Internet, also in a political context (Breese, 2010: 397). Janet (2003:175) also stated that despite the star system on Hollywood movie is existed since 1920s and 1930s, on latest decade, celebrities also exist from sports icon and rock groups that are grouped consciously. Those phenomena increasingly showed that popularity structure become pervasive.

The role of celebrities on campaigns is not a new thing. Nevertheless, the phenomenon nowadays is more massive, so that we have to dig deeper and try to analyze if that contains any changes compared with previous practice. In a context of political, for the example, we can identify easily that a celebrity spokesperson is existed (Majic, 2015: 2). In Indonesia, there are so many actors, actresses, musicians, and comedians who become the members of legislatives. And it is not an unusual thing that a sport star is spotted to be a speaker on a conference or a representative on a socialization program.

Celebrities also associatively linked with endorsing products or services. Communication theory describes celebrities endorsement as a one-way communication and persuasion process where factors residing within the endorsers are deemed important include sources (endorsers), credibilities (Hovland & Weiss, 1951; Tripp et al., 1994) and attractiveness (Erdogan et al., 2001; McCracken, 1989), which consists of familiarity and likeability. On the other hand, the effectiveness of an endorser depends on the meanings and associations he brings with him to the endorsement process from other areas of his life such as film roles in the case of an actor.

However, there is also a potential risk to use celebrity endorsers to support a brand, program, event, or another means of marketing program. Till & Shimp (1998: 80) points that advertisers has no controls over the celebrity’s future behaviour. Even the use of celebrity endorsers also is increasing, the experts report stated that return on that investment can be modest or even backfire (Biswas, Hussain & O’Donnell, 2009). It can be happened if the celebrity endorser got any negative news about themselves, it may reduce the celebrity’s

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allure, even if it has nothing to do with the brand directly, it can be give negative impact to the brand.

In a context of campaign of MTV EXIT, it employs celebrities to use celebrity messages to deliver key messages29. However, there is a concern that they are inadequately briefing the celebrities that they employ/promote. The doubt also similar with later statement some celebrities are hailed as “serious” and “dedicated”, others are dismissed as lightweights and opportunists (Hart & Tindall, 2009: 260 as cited in Haynes, 2013: 435). In that case, celebrities themselves have different activist styles and make different claims, which makes the project creator should be taking it seriously when choosing celebrities to be collaborate with.

In a context of Indonesia, actually in 2003, a national celebrity is employed to be the trafficking-in-person spokesperson. Dewi Hughes as a hugely popular television personality was recruited by the Indonesian government to be the official spokesperson and she was capable to reach millions of Indonesians through television radio, and newspaper interviews as well as public appearances at events30. Furthermore, Mrs. Hughes also develops a foundation in collaboration with donor organization and ministry to conduct anti-trafficking training.

Youth and Media

Young people nowadays become the focus of potential target audiences in many cases. United Nations believes that youth can provide innovative tools to raise awareness about trafficking among their peers, teachers, parents, and their communities in a very effective ways (United Nations, 2008). Young people is seen not as the vulnerable and in need of rescue anymore, but become a part of solution as a creative creator that produced many kinds of media to gather society’s attention. The quantity of young people and their activities, such as digital movement, also become some insightful things to discover. Furthermore, by mapping its generation, young people are characterized specifically as the people that tends to be more creative and adaptive. In the context of media usage, Indonesia specifically became a country that is acknowledged as a developing country that has a high level amount of online social media activists, especially the young people. The picture below is showing the statistic of Internet users in Indonesia.

Figure 1: Internet Usage, Population, and Information Statistic Facebook Indonesia (Internet World Stats, 2015: http://www.Internetworldstats.com/asia.htm#id)

29 The University of Adelaide. (2012). Griffith University MTV EXIT ASIA III: A Campaign to Increase Awareness and Prevention of Trafficking in Persons. Independent Review. 15th January 2012, p. 21. 30 USAID. Anti-trafficking in Persons Programs in Asia: A Synthesis, p. 47.

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The closeness of relations between users and technology which tends to be called as computer-mediated-communication, in the context of Indonesia, becomes a usual things. Indonesia itself, with its big population, is being the fact of the new media dynamic. The potential of individual empowerment and society at large have the opportunity by using new media and the characteristic of users that are active and interactive, even it needs some deeper investigations because the usage of new media has its diverse levels of adoption and adaptation.

Media itself is acknowledged as a powerful tool in influencing public opinions and raising awareness (United Nations, 2008). Power that relies on communication media also brings the demands from the public for its information that should be provided and updated. In the context of campaign, the usage of media allows the creator to reach more people based on the selection of the media that are appropriate with the goal, audience and the resources that have been planned before (Indiana Attorney General, 2012: 6). A good choice on media preferences with contentious material and specific targeted audience will make the creator’s job easier on delivering the message to the audiences by its effectiveness and efficiency. Therefore, the detailed knowledge about target audiences is essential on planning the program.

United Nations gives highlight to young people on their workshop’s objectives on human trafficking. The involvement of young people as seen by United Nations is to encourage young people to be advocates and involved in a movement, to give opportunities in deliver their voices and substances, to connect participants with the real story of human trafficking, and to allow young people to be the advocates (United Nations, 2008). From that objectives, the role of youth in social campaign is significantly and potentially needed to develop long term programs, for example on a grassroots movement.

Engaging with young people, for example, it should be followed by investigating every detail that youth nowadays doing. This should be done to analyze their tendencies, like their media habits, communication media preference that they frequently used. Based on Tupot’s research (2006), we can find out that there are similarities in youth culture across the globe, especially on the information that is worldwide because of the spreading technology like Internet. Consequently, the more they access the same information, the more homogeneous they appear to become. The findings also stated that youth of the world are deeply immersed in a process of “becoming” and it is facilitated by connecting to friends through social network to make them closer in “finding” their identity in a help of friends (Stock, 2006: 36). That phenomena also gives us the highlights that relate with media is crucial for young people and the ties is getting stronger as long they are being facilitated through communication media that nowadays become more pervasive.

The study in 2007 found that the Internet plays an important role among young people in Hong Kong (Chan & Fang, 2007: 253). The main reasons for Internet usage were for music and for fun. Most of respondents found useful websites through search engines and Internet also gave way to the Internet for obtaining information about sensitive issues among young people. The significance of new media related with youth also can be seen by its development. Even the Internet initially has boomed and crash-landed, on the next period the medium is flourishing. Significantly, it is the Internet that is now deeply embedded in young people’s ways of living (King, 2006: 24).

Livingstone & Bober (2003) even give a comment regarding new media, that youth and children often consider themselves to be more expert than their parents. As an enthusiastic adopters of the Internet, children and youth regard the Internet as a flexible medium, and a research has identified the following motives for using it, such as affinity with

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computers, information, entertainment, boredom avoidance, online social interaction and offline social interaction (Valkenburg & Soeters, 2001 as cited in Chan & Fang, 2007: 246). There is also a statement that young people are not all tech-savvy and 20% of them tend to actively avoid using technology, while the vast majorities are massively into communication and entertainment, with new technology merely being the facilitator (Rolfe & Gilbert, 2006: 17). That contradiction makes the study about connectedness between communication media and young people needs to be developed to get more precise insight to support any plan that are projected to the youth level.

Other research that emphasizing on the relationships between young people, music, and technology even resulted in a quite complex report. Rolfe & Gilbert (2006) stated that many respondents use the Internet to access a wider range of music than previously but are still purchasing new CDs, but, conversely, many of respondents are still accessing music in a very prosaic way. Only 12% of our online panel have iPods and many watch music TV and listen to radio rather than buy CDs (Rolfe & Gilert, 2006: 20). Thus, the Internet is not the main communication media that young media accessed when consuming distinct content with its various characteristics.

In the context of media, a social campaign about human trafficking, MTV EXIT, is a multimedia campaign to raise awareness and increase prevention of human trafficking and exploitation (MTV EXIT, 2011). The multimedia side could give the reader an insight that MTV EXIT is not only using one platform to deliver message to specific target audiences regarding with young people media habits that been researched before. MTV EXIT became the example to show the people about the media that young people choose to be integrated with. MTV EXIT Foundation itself launched in 2003 and based on charity. Their aim is clear, which is to utilize and maximize the power of MTV’s network to educate youths and adults on critical social and human rights issues31. The foundation produces multimedia programming and events aimed at raising awareness and influencing attitudes and behaviour on key issues, as well as inspiring young people to take action. In addition, the foundation seeks to support nongovernmental organizations that are working on the ground to address these issues and effect positive change.

As the popular network channel targeted to young people, MTV EXIT also makes into account the opportunity to gain benefit through this charitable program. In this context, the public relations had benefit in return of MTV air time that had been donated to the foundation (Arthurs, 2009: 303). The people that MTV EXIT’s invite to cooperate at the program also had the opportunity on reputational benefits that is good to be endorsed because of the magnitude story of the person. MTV itself as a channel program is solely targeted to young people, so that complement each other in a context of media preference to raise awareness-campaign to youth.

Human Trafficking and MTV EXIT

Human trafficking has received increasing global attention over the past decade. Human trafficking is one of the issue that been a concern in the world, and on regional perspective, human trafficking also being one of the issue that are in concern of the ASEAN organization. In a perspective of conceptual, United Nations defined human trafficking as the recruitment, transportation, and receipt of a person for sexual or economical exploitation by force, fraud, coercion, or deception in order to make a profit (MTV EXIT, 2011). The concept of human trafficking is varies, but one thing that we should pay attention is its victim

31 See more on http://www.mtvexit.org/

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is on the high level of quantity and spreading, especially in the era of new communication media.

Besides United Nations, World Health Organization (WHO) also focuses in human trafficking, especially on advocacy and assistance of women and girls who are initially trafficked for forced sex and domestic works (WHO, 2012: 1). Their report said that today there are many different forms of labours that the people are trafficked for and in a wide range of sectors, even they are forced to work as beggars or soldiers, and women and children as “wives”. International Labour Organization (ILO) also concerns about this issue. They even made a media “Warta ILO” including human trafficking issue. On Jakarta Edition, November 2007, there was a headline about the hope that ASEAN should predict the continuous growing (of labour). ILO also launched a report entitled Labour and Social

Trends in ASEAN 2007: Integration, Challenges, and Opportunities (ILO, 2007: 12). They said that they will have a cooperative agreement (ILO and ASEAN) to exchange information about labours.

As an issue, human trafficking is one of the problems that being faced by many countries. Indonesia became one of the countries that concern about that issue. In context of Indonesia, the government, authorities, NGO, and international organizations as the supportive elements in building a better condition, provide the infrastructure that tries to handle the problems of trafficking such as legal protection, media and psychosocial support, housing, shelters, recovery, return and reintegration support for victims of trafficking (UNODC, 2009: 170). From the records of United Nations, Indonesia’s State authorities also offer temporary stay permits.

According to the U.S. Department of State’s 2009 Trafficking in Persons Report, Indonesia is a source, transit, and destination country for trafficked victims of commercial sexual exploitation and forced labours (USAID, 2009: 44). The media routinely reports on trafficking cases and has expanded coverage of trafficking on television and radio as well as in newspapers, include in many cases on violence involving Indonesian women that are worked as domestic servitude. On the context of governmental, Indonesian government passed a comprehensive anti-trafficking law in April 2007 prohibiting all forms of trafficking and delineating penalties commensurate with other grave crimes and there was Jakarta’s anti-trafficking task force worked with local police and ministries and NGOs to shut down several large recruitment agencies (USAID, 2009: 44). Their cooperation also existed on investigating so many cases regarding human trafficking including paedophiles from overseas that get the society’s attention such as in Jakarta International School’s case32.

Related with the problem of human trafficking, based on the research on An Giang, awareness raising become one of the efforts on counter trafficking and it has positive result. By surveying the respondents, awareness-raising component received the highest vote among head of hamlets on what they consider to be effective in human trafficking reduction (UNIAP, 2011). Even the hamlet heads (190 of them) believe that their residents should play an active role in monitoring suspicious activities and proactively reporting these cases to the police, but on the findings, awareness raising become significant to be the highest priority to face human trafficking problem, as shown in the figure below.

32 See more on http://www.nydailynews.com/news/crime/hundreds-contact-fbi-pedophile-teacher-case-article-1.1791813

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Figure 2: How to Reduce Trafficking Incidence? (UNIAP research, 2011: 30)

In line with the findings on An Giang research before, awareness rising become the mission of the campaign in Indonesia that dedicated to public. Based on its significance of human trafficking issue in Indonesia, all support systems are trying to handle this problem by cooperate each other through any means. One of the methods is by developing social campaign to gather people attentions and turn their awareness into real action. One example that we can analyze in human trafficking campaign is MTV EXIT (End Exploitation and Trafficking). In its map of detail, MTV EXIT is stated as the largest behaviour change campaign in the fight against human trafficking and exploitation33. MTV EXIT also interesting to be researched for because based on United Nations’ report, Majority in Asia and the Pacific become the countries that has the big number of trafficked victims and part of the victims are young men and women (MTV EXIT, 2011). In relations with MTV characteristic, the category of victims is in line with each other. Therefore, it grows the assumption that young people will be easier to approach with the media that they are familiar with, such as music on MTV.

MTV EXIT launched the first MTV branded anti-trafficking awareness television program made specifically for Asia in the late 2007 (MTV EXIT, 2013). MTV EXIT has strengthened and expanded the campaign in Asia by creating long-form programming (documentaries, animation, and live concert specials) and a short-form programming (music videos and PSAs) that resonate with audiences across the region. MTV EXIT mainly brought by a collaboration of MTV, USAID, and AUSAID, even it is also open to partnership with local organizations on each countries. USAID is the United States Agency for International Development, is an independent US government agency that receives foreign-policy guidance from the US Secretary of State34. Its regional approach addresses problems that cross national boundaries, such as human and wildlife traffickings, HIV/AIDS, natural resource conservations, trade, and political and economic conflicts. AUSAID is the Australian Agency for International Development35. Australia works with NGOs, multilateral institutions and volunteers, as well as directly with national governments. Australia’s support

33 Stated in mtvexit.org. The MTV EXIT End Exploitation and Trafficking Map: The MTV EXIT Guide to Understanding Human Trafficking and Exploitation. 34 See www.usaid.gov and www.usaid.gov/rdma/ for more information 35 Australian Government. (2015). Australia’s Aid. Retrieved from http://dfat.gov.au/aid/Pages/ australias-aid-program.aspx

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to the MTV EXIT Campaign complements other anti-trafficking work AUSAID is undertaking in the region.

MTV EXIT tries to explain what motivates human trafficking. The findings from the observation shown that human trafficking is driven by demand for cheap labours and services, fueled by poverty, lacks of employment opportunities, limited access to information, gender inequality, family and social expectations (MTV EXIT, 2012: 9). While recruitment methods vary, in all cases the trafficker takes away the basic human rights of the victim: the freedom to move to make choices, and to control one’s own body and mind. The MTV EXIT campaigns itself aims to inspire young people to take action and mobilize their communities against human trafficking. This campaign is aimed at real action, so that MTV EXIT developed many programs to reach young people in one forum to facilitate them to ignite their movements. MTV EXIT had provide the map to be used by facilitators to develop the program in a detail information, such as the characteristics of the target audiences (age 18-25), the number of them, including tips to know the audiences, on the perspective of preparation the material, how to treat the participants, how to transform the ideas to actions, gives insights about anti-trafficking in the local context, also the involvement of local experts and the time allocation for each session36. Those guidelines’ goals is to make the learning process are accessible and engaging. The guidelines completed with the conceptual matters of any issue related with human trafficking but delivered in an interesting ways.

On the scale of tactics, MTV EXIT Asia specifically employs a mix of high profile concerts, road-shows, television documentaries, national and international TIP (Trafficking In Person), focused websites, public service announcements, as well as features and music videos (Griffith, 2012: 4). MTV EXIT has held 25 concerts across Asia over the past two and half years, including events in Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Nepal, Taiwan, Philippines, Vietnam, Indonesia, and Timor-Leste (MTV EXIT, 2011).The television material also delivered on MTV channel, both cable and terrestrial services. They also held youth forums and youth media capacity development camps. On each country, MTV EXIT had collaborated with local communities and celebrities to reach youth’s attention. Initially, part of the campaign will provide audiences with documentary movies about human trafficking and are presented by multiple local and international celebrities. Some points that we can highlight on MTV EXIT project are using music and celebrities to attract public’s attention. MTV EXIT Indonesia also employed some celebrities that we can breakdown in detail on analysis.

Relations in between: Celebrities, Youths, and MTV EXIT

Regarding with the human trafficking problem in a local, national, and international context, many elements are gathered to actualize the effort in coping with those problems. Human trafficking became a big issue that needs the people’s hand in decreasing the victims. One of the human trafficking campaign projects that targeted to young people is MTV EXIT (End Exploitation and Trafficking). On the context of MTV EXIT, we can see the relations of celebrity, youth, and media in social campaign. As far of the analysis, the roles of celebrities are diverse.

MTV EXIT is a continuous program that held in collaboration between ASEAN, USAID, AUSAID, and some organizations depends on the sub project where the events and activities were held. Since its initiation until last year, ASEAN still updates the information about the program, either on ASEAN sites, MTV websites, or the sites owned by donor organizations.

36 http://mtvexit.org/about/

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Technically, MTV EXIT has many programs that being held in one big project campaign. Initially, the program will have a workshop to gather people’s attention and to know more about participant’s knowledge about human trafficking, music events and documentary movie launching and discussion. Information about the event will be delivered through many kinds of communication media, one of them is conducted by online social media.

Figure 3: Facebook Account MTV EXIT Indonesia37 (MTV EXIT Indonesia, 2015)

Figure above is the picture of Facebook account of MTV EXIT Indonesia which was founded in 2004 and has 6,137 liked from friends. The discussion among the members of the community is quite outburst, particularly on photo posting about the activities of MTV EXIT campaign that involving young people with their movement or festivals that they developed.

On Twitter, the researcher found there are two accounts that is referred to MTV EXIT bases in Indonesia, but the profile picture is different with the difference also in content’s traffic. However, the tendency of the information is in line with what MTV EXIT program campaign’s proposed to. Both of them shared the information by tweeting detail information of the event, information related to human trafficking issue and exit slavery also pictures and video of the activities. Nonetheless, the usage of online social media by the administrator of the MTV EXIT in Indonesia is still low from the rate if it is compared with MTV EXIT Twitter account that is based on Thailand which actively tweeting until 10.1K. Yet, new media itself has some good characteristics to be in collaboration with social campaign.

37 https://www.facebook.com/mtvexitindonesia/info?tab=page_info

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Figure 4: Twitter Account MTV EXIT Indonesia38 (MTV EXIT ID, 2015)

Figure 5: Twitter MTV EXIT Indonesia since February 201039 (MTV EXIT INA, 2015)

Chronologically, in 2010, there was a big event that MTV EXIT brought in Indonesia with a collaboration of young people and communication media. MTV, Ministerial that coordinating public welfare, Global TV (Indonesian National Private Television Channel), USAID, Australian Government Program, Local government, local NGO, electronic media and mass media are in the collaboration to held MTV EXIT Live in Indonesia that conducted in five cities, those are Pontianak (West Borneo), Ujungpandang (South Sulawesi), Surabaya (East Java), Medan (North Sumatra), and Jakarta (Indonesia’s capital city) (Kemenkopmk, 2010). They also held a press conference to give information to the public about the details of the events and also to introduce the ambassador of MTV EXIT to end human trafficking, Indonesian artist, Agnes Monica. The music events are held with the performance of so many popular Indonesian musician, such as Hijau Daun, Agnes Monica, Superman Is Dead, The S.I.G.I.T, The Changcuters, J-Rock, Kotak, SHE, Tipe-X, Gruvi, and so many local artists.

38 https://twitter.com/mtvexitid 39 https://twitter.com/MTVEXITINA

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Figure 6: Publication of MTV EXIT Indonesia 201040 (Freaks Jakarta, 2015)

Figure 7: MTV EXIT Twitter Official Account on 2010’s event41 (MTV EXIT, 2015)

On November 2012, MTV EXIT launches the first-ever Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) Youth Sessions in Jakarta, Indonesia. In partnership with BINUS University International, the collaborative projects bring together 25 MTV EXIT Youth Ambassadors ages 19-25 from the ASEAN member states of Cambodia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Thailand, and Vietnam (ASEAN, 2013). Through this project, the strength of young people will be facilitated in exploring how social media can be used to improve human trafficking awareness campaigns. The strength of young people and the power of social media are manifested. Social media are used to promote the video, information about the events, and many thoughts about anti-trafficking. MTV EXIT also launched a youth-led digital campaign, the International Day for the abolition of slavery and also launch a powerful Public Service Announcement (PSA) that incorporates Facebook personalization technology, which embeds a viewer’s Facebook pictures and basic information into the video.

40 Image source http://freaks-jakarta.blogspot.com/2010_05_01_archive.html 41 https://twitter.com/MTVEXIT/status/237859100099231744

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Figure 8: Material Promotion of MTV EXIT Youth Session Program42 (At America, 2015)

MTV EXIT Indonesia on 2012 employed d’Masiv, Indonesian group musicians, as the MTV EXIT’s brand ambassadors. They are actively send the message about anti-trafficking and exit slavery through all media that they used, such as Facebook and Twitter account, and mainly on every stage performance in campaigning MTV EXIT.

Figure 9: d’Masiv Band’s Tweet about Human Trafficking43 (d’Masiv Band, 2015)

42 http://www.atamerica.or.id 43 https://twitter.com/dmasivband/status/275062416289705985

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Figure 10: MTV EXIT Promotional material featuring Indonesian celebrity supporting the event44 (Australian Embassy Jakarta, 2015)

MTV EXIT celebrates the final instalment of the Indonesia Roadshows, a series of events aiming to build the capacity of youth leaders to execute their own human trafficking awareness campaigns throughout the country. In partnership with the International Organization for Migration (IOM), the final stop on the MTV EXIT Indonesia Roadshows tour will be held in Sukabumi (16 January) with two days of human trafficking awareness and creative workshops for 20 local youth leaders ages 18-25 (ASEAN, 2013). The Indonesia Roadshows follow on the success of the MTV EXIT Live in Bandung concert held in September 2012, which led to 25,000 Indonesian music fans joining the movement to end exploitation and human trafficking.

In the same year, MTV EXIT Indonesia also launch a documentary movie entitled ENSLAVED that gives audiences a real-life perspective into this critical social problem affecting 2.5 million people. MTV EXIT Celebrity Ambassadors in Indonesia and the host of Enslaved: An MTV EXIT Special, Dian Sastrowardoyo, connects these experiences to the audience, shares information about how Indonesians can protect themselves and their families from being trafficked, and highlights what everyone can do to help end this devastating crime (Rudi, 2012). Video “Enslaved” that been hosted by Dian Sastrowardoyo could be seen on https://vimeo.com/ 47370075, and detailed information on http://mtvexit.org/blog/enslaved indonesia/.

44 https://www.facebook.com/australianembassyjakarta/photos/a.294500690599260.62803. 294456123937050/407379102644751/?type=1

https://vimeo.com/47370075

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Figure 11: Dian Sastrowardoyo, celebrity endorser for MTV EXIT Indonesia 201245 (MTV EXIT, 2015)

The movie “Enslaved” also broadcasted on Global TV, Indonesian National Private Television Channels, on September 2012. The content of “Enslaved” will be about human trafficking and exploitation in a perspective of victims and an exploration what are the things that people can does to end human trafficking.

Celebrities who involved in MTV EXIT have the power to reach young people’s attention. In this context, the people that categorized as youtha is the primary targeted audience of the television program MTV. Music performance could be the source that gathers audience and media’s attention. In relations with new media, social network sites, such as Facebook and Twitter have become the tools to share the information about the gig, but thorough information about the campaign has been delivered through websites. Those media are selected based in youth media habit.

Figure 12: MTV EXIT Indonesia’s logo46 (livioG, 2012)

The relation of MTV and young people was concluded that young people had a role to play in using innovative tools to raise awareness about trafficking in persons among peers, teachers, parents, and in their communities. It was also decided that the contribution of youth to fighting trafficking in persons should be showcased more often and integrated into anti-trafficking strategies (United Nations, 2008: 58). Nonetheless, in a context of MTV EXIT Indonesia, online social media as the example of new media, just to be used as a tools to attract people’s attention and with its short-style information. The main media that been used

45 http://www.mtvexit.org 46 MTV EXIT Indonesia, on https://www.behance.net/gallery/5531659/MTV-Exit-Indonesia

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by MTV EXIT is on the shoulder of documentary movie and staged music. That fact amplified the statement that the use of short films in campaigns to raise public awareness increasing as new distribution outlets have become available with firstly DVD extras and then video downloads on the web making it much easier to find an audience outside the more restrictive advertising slots on television (Arthurs, 2009: 301).

MTV Network itself as a specific channel programs, comprises three branded channels, which are MTV, Nickelodeon, and VH1 (MTV EXIT, 2011). MTV’s specific characteristics that are suitable with young people’s tone and manner also make them more attractive on its popularity that could be used to gather attention of young people.

Figure 13: Promotion Material for MTV EXIT Indonesia 201247 (MTV EXIT, 2015)

MTV EXIT Indonesia 2012’s event could show us the massiveness of employed celebrities. They bring many endorsers to make the event more sensational, but there is also the tendency that the event just focused on its magnitude but has no implication. There is a research before about MTV EXIT that emphasizes the dilemma charities face is in wanting to make an impact but without falling into the trap of sensationalism which, it can be argued, feeds a prurient interest in the sex trade and women as sex slaves48. Therefore, the repetition and depth of the social campaign’s message should be clear in briefing to the celebrity endorser so that the campaign will be right on target. Fortunately, this MTV EXIT reach global networks, and gain tens of millions of people. Historically, in 2009, more than 300,000 people attended MTV EXIT Concerts in Asia, and millions more watched them on MTV Networks and terrestrial broadcaster49. Based on that fact, we can underline the capabilities of celebrities that are skilled at making persuasive quality to the environment, especially to the communication media.

47 http://mtvexit.org/indonesia/apply/ 48 Arthurs, J. (2009). Brands, Markets, and Charitable Ethics: MTV’s EXIT Campaign.

Participations: Journal of Audience & Reception Studies, 6(2), (Nov 2009), 302. 49 http://photos.state.gov/libraries/burma/895/pdf/USAIDBurmaTrafficpremierepressreleasev 4HLMBEMB_2_ClearedRELEASEDATESCHANGED20091216_3_.pdf., on Press Release USAID and MTV EXIT Burmese Pop Star Phyu Phyu Hosts MTV EXIT Documentary to Raise Awareness about Human Trafficking. 2009. USAID Burma.

http://photos.state.gov/libraries/burma/895/pdf/USAIDBurmaTrafficpremierepressreleasev4HLMBEMB_2_ClearedRELEASEDATESCHANGED20091216_3_.pdf


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The preference of the celebrity endorser in Indonesia also follows the trend and looking at the content that fan are talking about. d’Masiv as a group musician has a large numbers of fans. On their website, approximately number of the fans that are recorded on official member is 4,450 people50. Their Twitter’s account stated that their follower is on 770,000 people51.

Figure 14: Twitter Account of d’Masiv (d’Masiv Band, 2015)

On the other hand, Agnes Monica, the prior celebrity endorser for MTV EXIT has more followers as shown below.

Agnes Monica has 13.1 M followers and actively tweeting, as she is perceived as a credible and attractive by posting many kinds of her activities, majority in art. The contents that she posted on Twitter received many feedbacks from the followers. After all, many celebrities who are involved in MTV EXIT and have the same tendency that they are categorized on Indonesian popular music trend and have many fans as a basis. Even local musicians who joined MTV EXIT is developing to gain more attention from the locals.

In a context of campaign of MTV EXIT, it employs celebrities to deliver key messages. MTV EXIT should ensure that relevant, knowledgeable and well-briefed celebrities are used to promote their TIP messages and that any such outputs prioritize a useful message (Griffith, 2012). From the analysis of the MTV EXIT’s celebrity endorser, most of them have the engagement with the issue by putting the issue up on their personal account and by giving thorough explanation in answering journalists’ questions.

50 http://www.dmasivonline.com/anggota/ 51 https://twitter.com/dmasivband

http://www.dmasivonline.com/anggota/

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Figure 15: Twitter Account of Agnes Monica52 (AGNEZ MO, 2015)

The involvement of celebrities on social campaigns is still being a powerful point of attractiveness. Specifically, young people, as audience, are on the phase that they want to actively participate in every single thing that made a closer connection with the celebrity in a map of fans-celebrity relations. Indeed, inside the fandom, celebrities and fans are exchanging value. Celebrities as celebrated individuals have the contribution to share their value that one of them is manifested on their opinion about human trafficking. This human trafficking campaign with its focus on social issue also gives good mark to celebrities as the endorser of the campaign. This event could be one of the tools that used by celebrities to develop and maintain their images, so that their personality will be strong in equity.

Some celebrities have the responsibilities to endorse the issue that been brought by MTV EXIT, but some of them have lower popularity than MTV EXIT as a program, so that the honour status that they have furthermore is developed by joining MTV EXIT. This condition is in line with a finding on a previous research that the celebrities are being endorsed by the program that they are involved in. From the description of the MTV EXIT campaign, we can point some things that there is an opportunity that a celebrity who is appointed as an endorser could be supportive in a scope of campaign with their talents, such as musical talent, or a celebrity that also supportive outside the stage, like actively tweeting about anti-human trafficking, also celebrity who has very high level of involvement with its policy’s approach in solving human-trafficking problem.

Celebrity endorsers not only can be read as financial matters but also on the issue of gaining pride. The positive image could be the output that celebrities could get when they endorsed a social campaign. Based on this MTV EXIT’s analysis, celebrity endorsers could be said that they were helping the campaign by spreading the message, at least on their circle of fans. But we need thorough analysis to know what the audiences’ thought about the campaign. Nonetheless, MTV EXIT campaign’s mission is limited on awareness-raising, so that the campaign’s goal will be achieved even if the knowledge level of audience regarding human trafficking campaign is low, as long as they are familiar with the campaign.

52 https://twitter.com/agnezmo

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However the goal of the campaign is on awareness-raising, but in 2012, the project of MTV EXIT is successful on inspiring pioneer community at Sukabumi, a youth-led non-profit organization called FIGHT BDG (From Indonesia Against Human Trafficking) that plays a key role in delivering guidance and inspiring the youth of Sukabumi (ASEAN, 2013). The event on Sukabumi brought together approximately 1,000 students from across Sukabumi, 100 sub-district representatives and village leaders, and 20 border control and police officials to learn how they can prevent human trafficking and exploitation in Indonesia.

Conclusion

Young people as digital native have their own passion on imitating their idols, which are represented on celebrities, including celeb’s work on social campaigns. Theoretically, celebrities are an effective endorser because of their symbolic inspirational reference group associations (Soloman & Assael, 1987). However, celebrities’ involvement on a campaign also is vulnerable because they have hardly managed aspect, such as images that supported by their attitudes and behaviours.

Based on my study on MTV EXIT’s phenomenon in Indonesia, by each year, MTV EXIT brought different celebrities to become the endorser of the program. Most of them are musicians and have a good reputation, both their works and behaviour. The celebrity engaged with young people in every events that held in an umbrella campaign. The way’s adult look on young people is also developing in Indonesia. Nowadays, youth is not being looked down by older people because of their radical actions but they are acknowledged and appreciated for their efforts on managing and volunteering in a campaign.

In a context of media, even I did not conduct a research on media exposure on human trafficking, but by observing the discussion inter-follower and follower-celebrity and its convention on Twitter and Facebook, shown that human trafficking issue is emerging on youth’s online conversation. Human trafficking issue become a concern surrounded by young people and tends to be the trigger to plan the action that will become a solution of human trafficking problem.

A person that is labelled as a celebrity has many risks, especially in Indonesia, the spotlight on celebrities is intense and persistent through newsfeed on television or online websites. By involving in a social campaign, celebrity itself has the opportunity on reputational benefits that good for them. So that the benefit is not on one side, but complement on each other.

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The Development of a Structural Equation Model of the Communication Factors in

Promoting the Participation in Accepting the Potential for Tourism in the Area of the

Thai-Laos Mekong River

Kirati Kachentawa Jaruwan Kittinaraporn

Pimnara Banjong Puntarika Rawikul

Sunantiga Pangchuti Chatchawee Kongdee53

Abstract

This research was a quantitative research. It aimed to: 1) to develop and validate the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River, and 2) to study the causal direct effects and indirect effects among variables in this model. The representative sample consisted of 423 villagers in Nakhon Phanom province and Khammouane community, The Laos People’s Democratic Republic, who were students and workers. The research was conducted by using questionnaires, and the Structural Equation Model technique was used in statistical analysis.

The result revealed that 1) the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River with empirical data when all path coefficients were statistically significant. The model’s fit indices were accepted; 1.1 Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = .916 (> 0.09), 1.2 Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .979 (> 0.09), 1.3 Normed Fit Index (NFI) = .969 (> 0.09), 1.4 Non-normed Fit Index (NNFI) = .969 (> 0.90), and 1.5 Root Mean Square Residual (RMR) = .040 (< 0.05), and 2) communication factors had a direct effect on satisfaction. Besides, it had an indirect effect on participation and accepting the potential for tourism.

Keywords: communication factors, satisfaction, participation, the potential for tourism

53 National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA), Thailand

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Introduction

This research studied the area of Mekong River along Nakhon Phanom province and Khammouan community being a part of two researches: the study of the social and cultural tourism management in Sakon Nakhon, Nakhon Phanom, Mukdahan towards Asian Economic Community (AEC) and the study of potential tourism of Mekong River Thai-Laos: a case study of the route from Chiang Khan to Kong Jieam. Their research fund supported by The Thailand Research Organizations Network and Thailand Research Fund in 2012-2013 which objected for developing the tourist potential in Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam, and adding values of tourism in the Northeastern of Thailand (Janmouen, 2014; Srikrachang, 2012).

The Mekong River is the center of tourism in this area. The remarkable features are historic stories of cultural and traditional lifestyle between the Thai, Laos, and Vietnamese people living along the beautiful Mekong riversides. These tourist attractions and the wonderful tourist destinations are suitable for tourists interested in 1) the history of Indochina and the stories of the famous leaders of Thailand, Laos, and Vietnam 2) the architecture and the stories of the Buddhism and Christian, and 3) the livelihood and lifestyle of the people along the Mekong Riversides.

As a result of countries in Southeast Asia being the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC), all member countries are alert to develop in various dimensions including education, social, culture, political economy and religion. The members will be able to combine with AEC to making the country into modernity and flourish, which lead to people’s physical and psychological changes. Especially, people live in the border areas, which are connected to the neighboring countries that need to communicate and exchange information with each other. The communication is important for building partnerships between the public in local and international levels.

The development of transport infrastructure is prominently reflected in a concrete preparation to establish good relations between countries such as the Thai-Laos friendship bridges which benefit the neighboring countries in terms of economy, trade, investment, tourism, cultural exchange, transportation and logistics. The bridges do not only link the two countries in the physical space but also link the mind and promote ties between the people of Thailand and Laos, which are the symbols of friendship and cooperation between the countries. Nowadays, there are six Thai-Laos friendship bridges and each bridge link between many important provinces in both Thailand and Laos. One of these bridges is the 3rd Thai-Laos Friendship Bridge, which link Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, Laos PDR, that are the major of Asian Economy Highway-linking Route of four countries, including Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, and China. Furthermore, Nakhon Phanom province, and Khammouane community will be the advantage of infrastructure area that can develop and manage tourism across the border countries.

Nakhon Phanom province is an eastern border contact with Laos along the total length of 174 kilometers and has five immigration checkpoints, which are one permanent and four temporarily permitted. Nakhon Phanom has the vision of the province “Livable city gateway to ASEAN and China”, which corresponds with the strategic development of northeastern provinces. According to Nakhon Phanom has advantages of the location with the 3rd Thai-Laos friendship bridge, it is the gateway to ASEAN and China that enhance the tourism in Indochina countries. Also the presentation of tourism activities and festival in the region disseminate to other countries.

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On the other hand, Thakhek, Khammouane community, Laos is the natural attractions of beautiful and fertile such as two sanctuaries, Phuhinpan on the west and Nakai-Namten on the east. The architecture in the city is mix of French and Vietnamese style. Thakhek is far from Vientiane to the south around 350 kilometers. The attractions, which well known to both Thai and Laos people, are “Prathat Sri Khotabong” called “That Sri Khot” in Laos. The 3rd Thai-Laos Friendship Bridge is also the new tourist path and transportation from the northeastern of Thailand to the southern of Laos and also the northern of Vietnam, Guangxi and Nanning of China.

The researchers visualized the potential route that will increase the transportation and tourism in particular, which were designed to support upcoming ASEAN official. Thailand and Laos will be able to enhance the infrastructure, which result to transfer in difference dimension such as language, culture, and belief. Consequently, the Development of a structural Equation Model of the Communication Factors in Promoting the Participation in Accepting the Potential for Tourism in the Area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River is very important to prepare the public leading to investment opportunities in the field of tourism to cover all the potential exists for the highest benefit.

Research Objectives

1. To develop and validate the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River.

2. To study the causal direct effect and indirect effect among variables in this model.

Hypothesis

The structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River, which researchers developed and validated, complied with empirical data.

Scope of Research

The Development in a Structural Equation Model of the Communication for Promoting the Participation in Accepting the Potential for Tourism in the Area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River is a quantitative research using the survey methodology by one-shot explanation and closed-ended questionnaires to collecting data from the sample population, which is approximately 400 respondents that divided into three groups:

1. Community Leaders: Ten government officials playing an important role to plan the current tourism policies in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand, and Thakhek city in Khammouane community, Laos PDR.

2. Entrepreneurs: Ten business owners, including hotel/resort and tourist guides, residing in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand, and Thakhek city in Khammouane community, Laos PDR.

3. Community: 380 people residing in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand, and Thakhek city in Khammouane community, Laos PDR.

Operational Definitions

1. Structural equation model means model of causal variables based on theories and research supports. Then, leads to a statistical test that the developed model is consistent with the empirical data. In this study, the researchers developed a structural equation model of communication to promote tourism potential of the Mekong River Thailand-Laos, then

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perform a statistical test that the developed model is consistent with the empirical data. To study the direct effects and indirect effects of the variables in the model.

2. Communication factors means communication channels and features of the sender. The communication channel is composed of five channels: 1) mass communication, 2) interpersonal, 3) specialized media, 4) media activities, and 5) the Internet. For the characteristics of the sender that the content broadcast on the attraction of the Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, Laos, has four aspects: 1) capabilities and skills to convey the content of sites, 2) good knowledge on tourist attractions, 3) positive attitude towards tourism and people in the community, and 4) taking into account the social context and culture of the area.

3. Satisfaction means the satisfaction of the people living in the Mekong River, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, Laos, with the informants in four aspects: 1) have the ability and skills to convey the tourist content, 2) have knowledge of the issues attractions, 3) have a positive attitude towards tourism and people in the community, and 4) consider to the social and cultural life of the area. In addition, satisfaction included people’s satisfaction about communication channels as follows: 1) mass communication, 2) interpersonal, 3) specialized media, 4) media activities, and 5) the Internet. They are used as the informants’ communication tools to convey the contents of sites to be able to meet the demand and expectations of the people of the area.

4. The level of participation means the participation of the people living in the Mekong River, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, Laos. They are divided into four levels: 1) to participate in the audience through various communication channels that received from the informants, 2) to participate in the co-production which involved in the media design or production of public communication in tourism, 3) to participate in the planning and policy which contribute to the plan and policy of communications of people in the tourism to the outside world, and 4) to participate in the evaluation which engage the public in the evaluation of projects related to tourism in the area that ever done in the past.

5. Potential means that the public has confidence in the tourism potential of the Mekong River, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, and Laos. The tourism potential is divided into two aspects: 1) the tourist attractions include the ability of attraction, ease of travel safety, the participation of public and private sector and etc., and 2) the community include the language, culture and so on.

Expected Benefits

1. Make a structural equation model of communication to promote participation in the tourism potential of the Mekong River, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, and Laos PDR.

2. Community leaders have the information derived from the developed structural equation model to guide the strategy to develop the communication ability for participation in the development of tourism in the Mekong River, Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, and Laos PDR.

3. This research is used as data in communication to develop the tourism potential in the Mekong River area to the Thailand Research Fund (TRF).

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Concepts and Literatures Review

1. Concept of the Sender’s characteristics and Media exposure

The characteristics of the sender can be analysed in terms of 4 factors: 1)

Communication skills: the ability to convey information to the receiver effectively, 2)

Attitudes: the receiver’s sentiment toward himself, message, and the sender, 3) Knowledge

levels: the sender’s knowledge about the message and the communication process, and 4)

Socio-culture systems: the importance of the sender’s cultural contexts and social systems (Berlo, 1963; Kaewthep, 2009; Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974; Schramm, 1973; Sothanasathien, 1990). Not only the sender but also the receiver must possess these qualities to achieve an effective communication. Likewise, the factors which influence the receiver’s exposure to media include need, attitude and values, goal, capability, and utility. Besides, local leaders’ communication factors had the effects on the gratification of the receiver, when consistent with the audience’s needs, the communication factors will affect the use of and gratification with any news received by the audience (Hunt & Ruben, 1993, as cited in Sawassuk, 1998; Satavetin, 2003).

2. Concept of Uses and Gratifications

A person requires media exposure to respond to 5 needs: 1) to know about the situations by following and observing the movements from the media in order to stay up to date, 2) to help make decisions about daily life, 3) to participate in events in society, 4) to reinforce, to add up or support the said decisions, and 5) to entertain and relax (McCombs & Becker, 1979). Media exposure provides data to a person and allows them to have information to discuss with friends or family. Furthermore, the audience in need of the tourism information would choose to receive the information that suited their own needs and this led to high levels of satisfaction (Wenner, 1982; Srikacha, 2001).

All this, each individual in the community chose one process of media exposure over another because they had a different selection process. The sender is an organization or an individual in a mass media organization, such as newspapers, radio stations, television stations, which decodes, interprets the news and codes information to mass audience. Types of channel/media have an impact on the level of access and participation of the community. For example, specialized media are more open to the community’s involvement than the mass media. Consequently, the media will create new activities and more channels to provide more access to the people in the community. As a receiver, the community will select the media and whether they will be pleased or not will depend on the background of the audience, especially the direct experience on the media itself (Buranadechachai, n.d.; Kaewthep, Gunpai, & Sthapitanonda (2000); Schramm, 1973; Sothanasathien, 1990).

3. Concept of Participation levels

The participation levels can be classified into 3 types: 1) Audience participation: to receive information through the channel that the sender has selected, 2) Sender

participation: to take part in the 3 main stages: pre-production, production and post-production, and 3) Policy maker: to plan policy on all types of the media existing in the community, such as mass media, specialized media, activity media, and personal media, and draw a link between the media types to achieve maximum efficiency. In addition, most successful participatory communication is interpersonal communication and communication through folk media (Chin, 2001; Kaewthep, 2009; Kaewthep, Nilpueng, & Chanechad, 2013).

Likewise, the satisfaction of getting the news of the community and the level of participation of the attractions of the community led to the recognition of the potential in the

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tourism and that if the community leaders can satisfy the public by allowing them to join in the planning and evaluating the tourism project, they will accept it and collaborate. In addition, the accomplishment of the development of the local tourist attractions lied mostly in the locals’ participations and roles. The potential for the participation of the community consists of two indicators: 1) the community's revenue from the sale productivity in the community or involvement in activities that are part of the tourism, and 2) the agency, community leaders or representative institutions involved in the planning of tourism by founding a club or creating a project to conserve the tourist spots (Ponboonjareanchai, 2010; Utarasakul, 2007; Witoonset, 2008).

4. Concept of Tourism potential

There are 2 types of tourism potential: 1) the potential of tourism: which was based on (1) the area component: to attract visitors with the unique natural resources or historical sites associated with the local ecology and culture. Landscape features and convenient access to attractions, such as the distance from the centre of the path-season tour in the area were also considered as important factors. (2) The management component: to ensure the security in tourism in the area and its vicinity and to provide facilities, such as roads, electricity and water, and to control tourist access to the site not to exceed the abilities to fully control the travel business in the area. And (3) the activity component and the process: to consider a variety of eco-tourism activities in the area, to create awareness and to disseminate environmental information. 2) the potential of the community participation: to review in which aspects of the tourism the local organizations get involved, if the locals are satisfied with the tourist information received from the community leaders, and in which aspects the locals would like to improve their tourist attractions. Moreover, the potential of the tourist attraction relies on the involvement of communities in tourism activities. It is necessary that individuals and communities engage in thinking, making decisions, taking action, being responsible for any subjects that may affect them, and distribute income or benefit to the community. Besides, the involvement of the community in the management of tourism arises from the brainstorming of the leaders and the people. It can be categorized into five steps: (1) problem finding, (2) the priority of the problem, (3) analysis of the cause of the problem, (4) planning and troubleshooting, and (5) conclusion for Tourism Management (Department of Tourism, 2008; Hanyuth, 2008; Klinpleedee, 1998; Poonpipat, 2002). In addition, the characteristics of the development process and effective communication which were used by the team to explain the communication to promote the community’s participation in tourism (Janjaroen, 2004; Valaisathien et al., 2005).

Summarize results from the literatures review indicated that the researcher could synthesize and confirm that the communication factors of local leaders were an effective device to apply in order to achieve the potential in tourism in Mekong Thailand-Laos border. The factors of local leaders are to be applied to achieve the tourism potential Mekong Thailand-Lao People in Nakhon Phanom and Khammouane, Laos, since they have a direct effect, indirect effect and total effect on the tourism potential of the Mekong River Thailand-Lao People in Nakhon Phanom and Khammouane, Laos. Moreover, the researchers would develop and validate the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River, and also study the causal direct effect and indirect effect among variables in this model as below in figure 1.

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Figure 1: The structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the

Thai-Laos Mekong River Conceptual Framework.


1. Sample size and representative samples

The type of research was quantitative research, conducted by employing a survey method and close-ended questionnaire to solicit information. The 423 samples were civil servants, state enterprise officers, entrepreneurs, tourism industry workers, wageworkers, students, and villagers. The samples were collected from 2 areas which located at the Basin of Mekong River; therefore, there were 323 samples who resided in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand, and 100 samples from Thakhek city, Khammouane province, The Laos People’s Democratic Republic.

Researchers used criteria of Yamane (1973) to specify sampling reliability at 95% confidence and sampling error at 5%. Therefore, according to this criteria, the researchers weren’t able to collect data less than 400 samples. However, in this research, we decided to collect from 423 samples.

Table 1: Indices to examine the congruence between the structural equation model and empirical data

Indices name Criteria

1. Goodness of Fit Index: GFI > 0.90

2. Comparative Fit Index: CFI > 0.90

3. Standardized Root Mean Square Residual: RMR < 0.07

4. Normed Fit Index: NFI < 0.90

5. Non-Normed Fit Index: NNFI > 0.90

6. Chi-Square < 0.05

7. Chi-square/df < 3.00

8. Root Mean Square Error of Approximation: RMSEA

< 0.07

Source: Kaiwan, Y. (2013: 228) and Ngadgratok, S. (2014: 7)

SENDER PARTICIPATION POTENTIAL

SATISFACTION

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2. Inferential statistics

The structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong river used structural equation model statistical analysis technique to examine the congruence between the structural equation model and empirical data by estimating parameter in model by means of maximum likelihood estimates and used Indices to examine the congruence between the structural equation model and empirical data total 8 indices (Kaiwan, 2013; Ngadgratok, 2014).

However, the structural equation model would complied with empirical data and the model fit indices were accepted on condition that there were 3 indices had to pass the criteria. (Ngadgratok, 2014). The details are as follows:

Table 2: Short titles and long titles of variables in the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River

Short titles long titles

1. SENDER The community leader’s communication factors

2. SATISFACTION The locals’ satisfaction when they received leader’s information

3. PARTICIPATION The level of participation

4. POTENTIAL The locals’ accepted the community’s potential

Results

This research was quantitative research. It aimed to 1) to develop and validate the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River, and 2) to study the causal direct effect and indirect effect among variables in this model. The representative sample consisted of 423 villagers in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, The Laos People’s Democratic Republic, who were students and workers. The research was conducted by using questionnaire and Structural Equation Model technique was used in statistical analysis.

1.1 Descriptive statistics

The 423 samples in the study were civil servants, state enterprise officers, entrepreneurs, tourism industry workers, wageworkers, students, and villagers, who resided in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane community, The Laos People’s Democratic Republic.

There were both male 204 (48.2%) samples and female 219 (51.8%) samples. The most age of respondents were 21-30 years old (37.4%) and also graduated in bachelor’s degree (35.5%). They worked as an employee as the most (26.7%) and obtained income per month around below 10,000 Thai baht (40.4%). Moreover, most of them also worked in education and agriculture state sector as the most at 21.3%.

The community leader’s communication factors were most respondents received tourist information through their leader in mass media e.g. cable TV interview, local newspaper, and local radio (Mean = 3.66).

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The locals’ attitudes to the community leader’s qualifications were most respondents strongly agreed that the community leader’s had information about tourism location well (3.63).

The locals’ satisfaction when they received leader’s information from local media e.g. cable TV interview and local newspaper (Mean = 3.57).

In the level of participation, the local villagers, as receivers, received the tourism information as the most (Mean = 3.41).

The locals’ accepted the community’s potential as it was capable of arranging various activities for tourists as the most (Mean = 3.62).

Figure 2: The structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River

SENDER PARTICIPATION POTENTIAL

SATISFACTION

0.269**

0.916**

0.826** 0.479**

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Chi-Square = 362.67, Chi-square/df = 4.591, p = 0.000, df = 79

GFI = 0.916, CFI = 0.979, NFI = 0.974, NNFI = 0.969, CN = 130.322 RMR = 0.040, RMSEA = 0.092

Figure 3: The output of the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the

Thai-Laos Mekong from LISREL

1.2 Inferential statistics

The result revealed that: 1) the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River complied with empirical data while the model’s fit indices were accepted, as a result of there are more than 3 indices (5 indices) passed the criteria from 8 indices: (1) Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) = .916 (> 0.09), (2) Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .979 (> 0.09), (3) Normed Fit Index (NFI) = .969 (> 0.09), (4) Non-normed Fit Index (NNFI) = .969 (> 0.90), and (5) Root Mean Square Residual (RMR)= .040 (< 0.07) (Ngadgratok, 2014)

When examined path coefficients of exogenous and endogenous variables in structural equation model found that all correlations of variables had a level of significance. The community leader’s communication factors (SENDER) had a direct effect on The locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information (SATISFACTION) (0.916), The locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information (SATISFACTION) had a direct effect on the level of participation (PARTICIPATION) (0.826), and also had a direct effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential (POTENTIAL) (0.479), The level of participation (PARTICIPATION) had a direct effect on The locals accepted the community’s potential (POTENTIAL) (0.269). The details are as follows:

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Table 3: Causal correlation of variables in structural equation model

No. Causal correlation Path

coefficients S.E.

C.R.

(t-value)

Summarized

results

1. SENDER SATISFACTION 0.916 0.059 15.411** Positively correlated

2. SATISFACTION PARTICIPATION 0.826 0.050 16.426** Positively correlated

3. SATISFACTION POTENTIAL 0.479 0.083 5.761** Positively correlated

4. PARTICIPATION POTENTIAL 0.269 0.077 3.492** Positively correlated

**P-value = 0.01

Table 4: Direct, Indirect, and Total effect among variables in the structural equation model of the communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River

Dependent Effect Independent

SENDER SATISFACTION PARTICIPATION POTENTIAL

SATISFACTION

DE

IE

TE

0.916**

-

0.916**

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

PARTICIPATION

DE

IE

TE

-

0.756**

0.756**

0.826**

-

0.826**

-

-

-

-

-

-

POTENTIAL

DE

IE

TE

-

0.642**

0.642**

0.479**

0.222**

0.701**

0.269**

-

0.269**

-

-

-

** P-value = 0.01

Remarks: DE = Direct effect IE = Indirect effect TE = Total effect

1.2.1 Direct effect

1) The community leader’s communication factors had a positive direct effect on the locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.916

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2) The locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information had a positive direct effect on the level of participation at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.826

3) The locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information had a positive direct effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.479

4) The level of participation had a positive direct effect on The locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.269

1.2.2 Indirect effect

1) The community leader’s communication factors had a positive indirect effect on the level of participation at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.756

2) The community leader’s communication factors had a positive indirect effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.642

3) The locals’ satisfaction when they received leader’s information had a positive indirect effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.222

1.2.3 Total effect

1) The community leader’s communication factors had a positive total effect on the locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.916

2) The community leader’s communication factors had a positive total effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.756

3) The community leader’s communication factors had a positive total effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.642

4) The locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information had a positive total effect on the level of participation at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.826

5) The locals’ satisfactions when they received leader’s information had a positive total effect on the locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.701

6) The level of participation had a positive total effect on The locals’ accepted the community’s potential at 0.01 level of significance and effect value was 0.269

Conclusion and Acknowledgement

The findings of the research were discussed on the basis of the structural equation model of communication factors in promoting the participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River and on the basis of both direct and indirect effects, and the influences of various parameters in the said model. They are detailed in the sections below.

Structural equation model of communication factors in promoting participation in accepting the potential for tourism in the area of the Thai-Laos Mekong River and direct

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effect. Indirect effect and the influence of various parameters to encourage participation in the tourism potential of the Mekong Thailand-Laos.

The structural equation model was developed and validated in accordance with the findings of Hunt & Ruben (1993, as cited in Satavetin, 2003) and Sawassuk (1998) which suggested that local leaders’ communication factors had an effect on the gratification of the receiver. When consistent with the audience’s needs, the communication factors will affect the use of and gratification with any news received by the audience. This corresponded to the study by Wenner (1982) and Srikacha (2001) who found that the audience in need of the tourist information would choose to receive the information that suited their own needs and this led to high levels of satisfaction.

Furthermore, the community’s gratification with the sender, communication skills are essential in order to achieve correct interpretation and true understanding: using the right words with correct pronunciation in the verbal communication and the right body language and gestures in the nonverbal communication (Berlo, 1963; Kaewthep, 2009; Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974; Schramm, 1973; Sothanasathien, 1990).

Articulate senders and receivers will make communication for tourism in the community successful. Good attitudes between the sender and the receiver will lead to effective communication and mutual acceptance. If the sender and the receiver possess the same level of knowledge of the community’s attractions, the communication tends to be successful. Socio-cultural Systems of the community is the primary factor which determines the behaviour of people in the community. With different traditions and cultures, Thai and Laos people are highly satisfied when their community tourism is underlined.

Apart from the sender, the gratification with the communication channel as a tool to convey tourism information also plays an important role. If the channel can give the public quick and easy access to the required information, though with varying degrees of each individual’s exposure to the media, the communication will be more effective and lead to the participation of the public Buranadechachai (n.d.), Kaewthep, Gunpai, & Sthapitanonda (2000), Schramm (1973), and Sothanasathien (1990) found that each individual in the community chose one process of media exposure over another because they had a different selection process. The sender is an organization or an individual in a mass media organization, such as newspapers, radio stations, television stations, which decodes, interprets the news and codes information to mass audience. Types of channel/media have an impact on the level of access and participation of the community. For example, specialized media are more open to the community’s involvement than the mass media. Consequently, the media will create new activities and more channels to provide more access to the people in the community. As a receiver, the community will select the media and whether they will be pleased or not will depend on the background of the audience, especially the direct experience on the media itself.

The research findings of Janjaroen (2004) and Valaisathien et al. (2005) mentioned the characteristics of the development process and effective communication which were used by the team to explain the communication to promote the community’s participation in tourism. People in the community were involved in the development process from the first until the end of the project, including problem finding, planning, making decisions, local resource mobilization, management, monitoring, and evaluation. The benefits arising from the project reflects the gratification of the community with the project which can be put to use and beneficial to the development of their area attractions while maintaining its lifestyle and culture. The benefits and satisfaction of the community, economically and socially, will encourage its existence as members of society and its participation. People in the community

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will develop knowledge along with folk wisdom. The unaffected decision-making involved people in each stage of the process. It required opinion, knowledge, competence, labour and resources in order to plan the strategies, set the targets and work plan, implement the management process and share resources.

Synthesis from past research of scholars in Thailand and International were Berlo (1963), Chin (2001), Kaewthep (2009), Kaewthep et al. (2000), Kaewthep, Nilpueng, and Chanechad (2013), McQuail (2000), McQuail, Blumler, & Brown (1972, as cited in Katz, Blumler, & Gurevitch, 1974), Satavetin (2010), Singhal (2001, as cited in Sthapitanonda, 2006), and Sothanasathien (2010) found that people living in area of the Mekong River Meuang District, Thailand and Khammouane, Laos, showed their gratification with official community leaders - the governor of Nakhon Phanom and Khammouane, Laos, and with the unofficial ones, in (1) the ability and skills to convey the content of article, (2) the extent of knowledge of the attractions, (3) the positive attitude towards tourism and people in the community and (4) the regards for social and cultural development of the community. People in both communities were satisfied with the communication channels, including: (1) mass communication, (2) interpersonal, (3) media, (4) media activities and (5) the Internet. The community leaders use these channels to discuss the content of their tourist sites which could meet the demand and expectations of the people.

The level of community participation in communication for tourism could be divided into 3 levels: (1) Audience/Receivers/Users: to receive news, such as the selected issues and the presentation from the sender via communication channels, (2) Sender/Producer/Co-producer/Performance: to participate in the pre-production of selected issues, i.e. design, and aspects to be presented, in the stage of production, and in the post-production process, such as video editing, and transmitting the content in various locations, and (3) Policy maker/planner: to formulate the plan and policy for all types of communications available in the community by interconnecting them to maximize the media use. What’s more, Kaewthep (2009) emphasized that the level of participation in the community as a mediator of the processes could be reflected in various activities, including the level of participation in community radio stations. The personnel at the station participated in 3 levels: (1) as the audience, (2) as the producer/presenter, and (3) as management. The study of Hanyuth (2008) found that the involvement of the community in the management of tourism arises from the brainstorming of the leaders and the people. It can be categorized into five steps: (1) problem finding, (2) the priority of the problem, (3) analysis of the cause of the problem, (4) planning and troubleshooting and (5) conclusion for Tourism Management.

The recognition of the development of the Mekong Tourism Thailand-Laos was studied with the 2 observe variables: 1) the potential of tourism, which was based on (1) the area component: to attract visitors with the unique natural resources or historical sites associated with the local ecology and culture. Landscape features and convenient access to attractions, such as the distance from the centre of the path-season tour in the area were also considered as important factors, (2) The management component: to ensure the security in tourism in the area and its vicinity and to provide facilities, such as roads, electricity and water, and to control tourist access to the site not to exceed the abilities to fully control the travel business in the area, and (3) the activity component and the process: to consider a variety of eco-tourism activities in the area, to create awareness and to disseminate environmental information. And 2) the potential of the community participation: to see in which aspects of the tourism the local organizations get involved, if the locals are satisfied with the tourist information received from the community leaders, and in which aspects the locals would like to improve their tourist attractions. Moreover, the potential of the tourist attraction relies on the involvement of communities in tourism activities. It is necessary that

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individuals and communities engage in thinking, making decisions, taking action, being responsible for any subjects that may affect them, and distributing income or benefits to the community (Department of Tourism, 2008; Hanyuth, 2008; Klinpleedee, 1998; Poonpipat, 2002).

In addition, the structural equation model that the researchers developed and checked in accordance with quantitative research theory was consistent with the findings by Ponboonjareanchai (2010), Utarasakul (2007), and Witoonset (2008) which stated that the satisfaction of getting the news of the community and the level of participation of the attractions of the community led to the recognition of the potential in the tourism and that if the community leaders can satisfy the public by allowing them to join in the planning and evaluating the tourism project, they will accept it and collaborate. In addition, the accomplishment of the development of the local tourist attractions lied mostly in the locals’ participation and role. The potential for the participation of the community consists of two indicators: (1) the community's revenue from the sale productivity in the community or involvement in activities that are part of the tourism, and (2) the agency, community leaders or representative institutions involved in the planning of tourism by founding a club or creating a project to conserve the tourist spots.

Summarize results indicated that the studies of past scholars, both nationally and internationally, confirmed that according to empirical evidence, the communication factors of local leaders were an effective device to apply in order to achieve the potential in tourism in Mekong Thailand-Laos border. The factors of local leaders are to be applied to achieve the tourism potential Mekong Thailand-Lao People in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane province, The Laos People’s Democratic Republic, since they have a direct effect, indirect effect and total effect on the tourism potential of the Mekong River Thailand-Lao People in Nakhon Phanom province, Thailand and Khammouane province, The Laos People’s Democratic Republic.

Suggestions

According to the research, there are 2 suggestions to be considered: the research use, and the recommendation for future research.

1. The results of the research are to be applied in communication in order to

promote participation in the tourism potential of the Mekong Thailand-Laos.

1.1 The communication to promote participation in the tourism potential of the Mekong Thailand-Laos should focus on improving the skills of community leaders as the sender in 5 areas: (1) the right channel to the right audience, (2) the communication skills, (3) the attitudes towards themselves, messages and receivers by themselves, (4) the level of knowledge, and (5) status in socio-culture systems.

1.2 The results suggested that the receivers, as part of communications to promote participation in the tourism potential of the Mekong Thailand-Laos should be encouraged to improve their ability to receive information and to be an active audience to help bolster the next step of participation.

1.3 The important variable which has a direct impact on the tourism potential Mekong Thailand-Laos is the gratification of getting the news of the community and the level of participation in the communication should be adapted as guidelines for further strategy planning and communication activities. The results found that the personal media is the channel which influences audiences a great deal. Therefore, the participation is not only to adjust the attitude and behavior of the audience, but also to enhance the communication

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factor to achieve gratification, leading to the recognition of the potential in the Mekong Tourism Thailand-Laos.

1.4 The relevant authorities should assist in disseminating knowledge regarding the potential of tourism to achieve the participation of the locals.

2. Recommendation for future research

2.1 Researchers can use this study as the guideline to develop and test the consistence of structural equation model of communication to promote participation in the tourism of other areas in order to broaden knowledge of the communication for more participation in the tourism.

2.2 Other communication factors which can affect the community should be studied as they may encourage participation in the tourism potential of the Mekong Thailand-Laos differently.

2.3 Different sample groups, other than the community leaders, such as government officials or school should be take into consideration.

2.4 Research in true experiment or quasi experiment should be conducted to measure the performance of experimental research as it can be used to help confirm the effectiveness of the means of communication.

2.5 Further interesting studies should be based on the effectiveness of the communication tools to promote participation in the tourism potential and sustainable development.

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Destination Branding: Brand Management and Brand Engagement of Health and

Wellness Tourism in Thailand and the ASEAN region

Jiraporn Prommaha54

Abstract

The 10 ASEAN countries in Southeast Asia have been united for ASEAN community in 2015. Thailand is one of the members who take health and wellness tourism responsibility about tourism and product information, and health and wellness tourism standardization. Therefore, researcher has studied in health tourism image in Thailand and ASEAN because the image is significant cost to promote health and wellness tourism. They are factors that influence image management and also image attributes about health and wellness tourism in Thailand and ASEAN countries.

In this study, we aimed at the examination of influenced factors and the attributes for Thailand’s and ASEAN’s images of health and wellness tourism management and finding out the relations between cognitive, affective, and brand engagement in Thailand and ASEAN. This research could be used as guideline information for creation of plans and governmental policies of health and wellness tourism of Thailand and ASEAN region as well.

The data obtained in this study included overall image and destination brand engagement, or personal engagement through way of life and daily life of Southeast Asian people. Southeast Asia has its uniqueness according to its slogan “ASEAN Southeast Asia: Feel the Warmth.” This is considered as one of unique activities in health and wellness tourism. Tourists can have their direct experiences with unique tradition of each nation.

Keywords: destination branding, brand management, brand engagement, health and wellness tourism

54

Jiraporn Prommaha, Faculty of Communication Arts, Dhurakij Pundit University

www.dpu.ac.th, Bangkok Thailand, email: [email protected]

http://www.dpu.ac.th/dpuic/

160

Introduction

Tourism is a high growth industry. The tourism industry is a key role for economic system and Thailand society. It brings income, money, employment, and prosperity distribution to regions. Moreover, tourism takes part of transportation infrastructure development, also business and investment. When the country had an economic crisis, tourism brought income to country and faster recovered economic than others manufacturing factor and service. However, the tourism industry tends to be more competition, fast change, and sensitive without avoiding from the country’s internal and external factors. The challenging situations and effects from changing for Thailand tourism were from many points (Ministry of Tourism and Sports, 2011: 1).

The Health and Wellness Tourism in Thailand by Kasikorn Research Center (2012) stated that, the health tourism was travelling and health activities. It was rapidly popular along a healthy trend. Many countries in Asia; included Thailand, have supported and expanded health tourism market. When the service free trade of ASEAN Economic Community starts, the health tourism will be the significant factor for plenty of income, and will expand the investment market for Thailand. The advantages are cheap medical expenses, international standard treatment, and tourism resources and services.

Nowadays, people have emphasized on health care to avoid any diseases which will cause a lot of expenses on treatment. Therefore, the health operators have extended health services to cover both physical and mental, treatment, rehabilitation, and wellness.

In Thailand, the branding, brand image management, and brand engagement have not been seriously studied. The government and private sectors in Thailand have emphasized on overall tourism studying and image promoting. The results of this study would be supported the marketing and promoting plans for the country’s image, and building and furthering selling points of health and wellness tourism in every aspect. However, the tourism market has increased competition, and the countries community has increased; such as ASEAN Community, the agencies had more responsibilities and work. Thailand even needed modern tools to cleverly access the tourists, especially the health and wellness tourists.

The destination branding related to image management and brand engagement concepts of health and wellness tourism, especially image which was associated with other factors; environmental factors. They could be personal factor in each tourist, or media factor which was inside psychological and social communications, or activated factors such as information resources, data distribution, and tourists’ experiences. Thence, the environmental studying could be a tool for more understanding and accessing to the tourists easily and clearly. The purposes of this study were as follows:

1. To study the influenced factors for Thailand’s and ASEAN’s image management.

2. To study the attributes of health and wellness tourism image of Thailand and ASEAN.

3. To study the relations between cognitive, affective, and brand engagement of Thailand and ASEAN.

4. To create plans and governmental policies of health and wellness tourism of Thailand and ASEAN.

161


Literature Review

The destination image management consisted of:

1) Destination branding, destination image and destination identity.

2) Brand management, brand association, and brand engagement.

3) The consumer choosing and behavior concepts.

Qu, Kim, & Im (2011) researched on A Model of Destination: Integrating the Concepts of the Branding and Destination image. They stated their three concepts as 1) Destination image studies, 2) Traditional branding concepts, and 3) Practices. They would like to create image theories to develop and test their tourism models. However, the branding theories were still limited.

Personal Factors

1) Psychology Factors (Value for tourism, Tourist attraction, Tourist’s personality) 2) Social Factors (Aging, Education, Status)

Intension to

Recommend

ASEAN

Cognitive Image

Affective Image

Stimulus Factors

1) Information Factors 2) Previous experience Factors 3) Distribution Factors

Attribute

And

Image

In Health and Wellness

Tourism in Thailand and

ASEAN

Tourist

Destination Image

Overall Image

Intension to

Revisit

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That research emphasized on furthering the branding developing and testing a theoretical model of destination branding. Besides, those included significant concepts of the relations between destination image and brand association.

Brand Identity Meaning

Brand identity meant the differentiation itself from its competitors (Qu et al., 2011: 466-467). It came from the image and meaning of consumers or tourists inside their minds by two main points: 1) knowledge about consumer’s brand image and 2) positive and recognizable brand identity which finally led to brand engagement. Branding identity needed to be created after realization of core identity and extended identity. Those two identities created brand’s unique and differentiation from other competitors although the products were the same.

The core identity was embedded in each brand. It was brand’s determination, standpoint, and eternity which were not changed; time could not influence its determination or standpoints to be ended. Its standpoint would be last as long as that brand existed (Mahidol University, 2015).

The importance and composition of “Brand Identity” had the significant factor; brand identity structures, which consisted of two parts. They were:

The core identity showed a core of product. It was long lasting to the product; heart of brand. It told brand position, it was hard to change brand identity. The core identity consisted of factors which made product was unique and valuable. For example, the brand identity of “Michelin” had a core identity as safe drive (Wheeler, 2009: 40). The Thai product, Jim Thompson, was number one product of Thai and foreigners when they thought about silk (Jim Thompson Fabrics, 2015).

The extended identity was component which supported brand image to be unique and perfect. It created brand’s feeling and reflected image and standpoint. For example, brand character, slogan, symbol, and product.

The profoundness of brand identity could be distinguished as two aspects; visible and tangible. The normal texts distinguished the five big frameworks (Boonyayotin, 2012):

Sight (the most efficiency sense)

Sound

Touch

Smell

Taste

For summarize, the brand identity was in-mind image of consumer in each brand which was different from other competitors or places. Their image-in-mind came from positive thinking and unforgettable realization, those made relationship and brand engagement closely.

Therefore, “Brand is connection” meant, “brand created differentiation and business advantage of good or service. It was a media of value and uniqueness mixed with basic functional of product or service in consumer’s perception.”

The in-mind image of consumers based on each brand’s differentiation; brand identity. It led to meaningful attitude perception of consumers; brand meaning. Those appeared as the clear destination image for tourists or consumers. The destination image (Qu

http://inside.cm.mahidol/

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et al., 2011: 467-468) has two parts. They were cognitive evaluation by consumers and affective evaluation by customers. When we studied deeply, those relations were brand association which had three factors:

1) Attributes were quality and appearance of brand to be recognized.

2) Benefits were usefulness or worthiness which the consumers would get.

3) Attitudes were value from brand which was evaluated by customers.

The Relation of Brand Management

The brand management was started by brand equity. It meant, the consumers value a brand, the consumers had good attitude of product’s quality, and they liked that brand. The valuable branding could be done by (Sriwattana Business Administration Technological College, 2015):

Brand Equity ultimately led to brand engagement. It could be generated based on the following elements (Siripullop, 2015):

1. Appreciation of Quality

2. Brand Association

3. Awareness

4. Brand Loyalty

5. Other Proprietary Brand Assets.

Brand Attitude of Consumers

The brand attitude which happened by consumer’s perception mainly came from internal consumer behavior or internal tourism behavior. Those related to brand image in consumer’s perception. There were two main compositions: 1) cognitive image and 2) affective image (Qu et al., 2011: 467). Nevertheless, when we considered the tourist attraction, the other factor which had to be considered was unique image; it created the perfection of overall image on that place.

Brand Engagement

Brand engagement (Fernández, 2015) is the process of forming an emotional or rational attachment between a person and a brand. It comprises one aspect of brand management. What makes the topic complex is that brand engagement is partly created by institutions and organizations, but is equally created by the perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors of those with whom these institutions and organizations are communicating or engaging with. Companies that create brand engagement get more loyal clients who are willing to pay an extra price for their products. They attract the best professionals in the market; investors interested in putting their savings in the firm and build a better brand image among the whole society.

Jumlak Kunpolkeaw (2015) stated that, the consumers would feel like a part of the organization or brand, had owner feeling, frequently spoke up for brand. The consumer behavior has fast changed, who could get the customer insight needs first, would get customers first. If the good feeling was last embedded and hard to be imbedded, those goods and services has changed the relation status; distanced to closed, to be “Engagement.” Absolutely, that would not only happen for customers and employees also.

Gallup (Kunpolkeaw, 2015), the international company which had research network in the important cities in the world, has created research questions or methodology which

164

were deep into attitude, feeling, and opinions of customers on organizations’ goods or services. Gallup was accepted around the world. It has researched, developed model, and collected data from experiences and researches for a long time; Gallup could well answer the hiring organization. The Gallup Path; the model for customer engagement research, could explain people’s decisions on each good and service. There were two main reasons; rational and emotional decision.

Thus, that tool was used to measure the relation or engagement levels between customers and services (the organization was included). There were four levels were look like pyramid. The lowest level was confidence. The customers would buy the goods or services of each brand when they were convinced that the products would be good as they hoped. The higher level was integrity. If the customers found any problems on the product, that problem needed to be solved. That good feeling would be developed to the next higher level; pride. They would proud and impressed. The highest level was passion. The customers would feel like they were part of that organization or brand. They would feel like the owner of the brand, frequently they spoke up for it when someone said something bad about the brand.

Although many organizations did not interest in feedback from customers to improve goods and services, they never noticed customers’ gestures or expressions, or never done questionnaire, some organizations have continually surveyed customers’ satisfaction and impressions on goods or organizations. Only few of these organizations have surveyed the engaged level; the most profoundly and reflection. The “engaged” would become loyalty customer in the end.

The Four Important Parts which related to brand engagement were (Coach Ampol, 2015):

1. Confidence: trust creating to target group. It was trustworthiness and reliability of customers on the organization.

2. Integrity: the morality of the organization had to be built. The customers needed to be felt and recognized that the organization was fair for them, management, administration, and treated to customers.

3. Pride: customers’ pride. This point was more important than the first two points. It was hard to be done and need a long time to create. If the organization could make this level happened, the customers would have brand loyalty.

4. Passion: customer’s passion of using product. It was the highest point which the organization needed to create. If the organization could reach this point, the customers would “love and engaged” with the organization, brand, goods, or services. The business would last long from these customers’ expenses. That was the deepest and most effective level of “engaged” to be loyalty customer.

Methodology

This study emphasizes to research the 10 ASEAN countries; Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam, by using descriptive method. The data had mainly collected by:

Documentary analysis

Qualitative research with in-depth interview

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Scope of the Research

1. Interview the administrator group of government sector from ASEAN countries who supported health and wellness tourism in each country. The 10 chief executives of organizations and departments who directly responded were chosen to be interview; high representatives of Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, Malaysia, Republic of the Union of Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam.

2. The chief executives in Thailand who run private businesses about health and wellness tourism at least five years; 10 interviewees.

3. The interview was done in October 2014 to January 2015.

Table 1: Destination Branding for Health and Wellness Tourism: In-depth Interview Scope

Tools Main informant Topics of questions

In-depth interview

1. High government officials who took responsibilities in 10 countries’ tourism.

2. Private sector and stakeholders who ran health and wellness tourism business in Thailand.

The influent factors for image management of health and wellness tourism in each country.

The health and wellness tourism policies in each country.

Attributes of health and wellness tourism image in each country.

The effective communicative way of health and wellness tourism in each country.

The effective media for health and wellness tourism in each country.

The obstructive factors of health and wellness tourism in each country.

The attribute factors of health and wellness tourism image in Thailand.

The effective communicative way of health and wellness tourism in Thailand.

The effective media for health and wellness tourism in Thailand. And

The obstructive factors for health and wellness tourism in Thailand.


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Results

Table 2: A comparison of 10 ASEAN countries in terms of their Branding of Health and Wellness Tourism

Country Strengths Weaknesses Brand identity ASEAN’s branding Communication Communicative

problem/obstacle

1. Brunei

Darussalam

1. Natural attractive places

2. Ancient cultural tourism places

3. Peaceful and easily access country

- Brunei did not have its own Brunei traditional massage, just treated massage for the citizen. That was not done seriously for tourism

- There was only one department who took responsibility on health and wellness tourism; Jerudong Park Medical Centre (JPMC)

- Good tendency

1. Roadshows

2. Seminars

- The investment in health and wellness tourism communication was not much. Brunei has emphasized on other tourisms e.g. natural and normal attractive places

- In the future, it might be serious discussions about that

2. Cambodia 1. Cambodian massage, spa, and sauna by using Cambodian herbs

2. Politeness, smiles, and gentle employees

1. The investment from other sources of investment fund was needed on health tourism and spa.

2. More trains on employees for more services

- Quality control

- Possible tendency, but the same and good standardization

1. Other media such as television and magazine

2. The real Cambodian massages demonstration to tourists

Less investment. Information was limited

3. Indonesia 1. Indonesian traditional spa

2. 9 position massages and herbal cover

3. Local knowledge e.g. massages position, herbs

1. The health and wellness tourism has not promoted nowadays, only for ‘spa’

- Indonesian spa was presented as uniqueness, traditional norms, combined with custom for value adding

Difficult tendency*. It could be happened with good methods. The refinement and punctiliousness of ASEAN were attractive

1. Every channel; printing and electronic media.

2. Online communication.

3. The association and coordination of

1. The communicative was few successful, especially the meaning of ‘Indonesian Spa.’ The tourists got confused what was the real meaning of ‘Indonesian Spa.’

2. There were many products to be presented; promoting

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problem/obstacle

governmental and entrepreneur sectors, association, private business

products to tourists was limited

4. Lao PDR 1. Laotian massages and life style

- Lack of investment in this kind of tourism. Most of them were family business

- Minded services and products

- Possible tendency. The well tourism activities would be plenty

- Depended on the government’s support.

- The health and wellness tourism coordination was good, but should clarify the detail. The clear enough communication both content and picture were needed to prevent misunderstanding of negative health and wellness tourism

5. Malaysia 1. Natural sources e.g. sky, rain forest, and clean environment; these were good.

2. The health tourism expense was valuable when compared with western countries

3. Hi-technology treatment and capable specialist

- Lack of branding

- Malaysia was trying in branding by the close discussion between governmental and private sectors

Quite difficult tendency* Each country in ASEAN had its own uniqueness

1. Social media, internet

2. Printed and electronic media

- The good branding was not widely promoted because lack of the corporation and attempt to world market

6. Republic of

the Union of

Myanmar

1. Myanmar massage with local herbs

1. Lack of realization of natural resources

2. Lack of private sector

- The health and wellness tourism branding was not created because there were other types of tourism for

- Possible tendency The high attempt to reduce differences of country development was needed

- Meeting and framework communication e.g. ASEAN, GMS, CLMV

- The tangible promotion on health and wellness tourism was not happened

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problem/obstacle

corporation tourists

7. The

Philippines 1. International standardized technology and medical innovation

2. Educated and special personnel

3. Facilities were ready for service

4. The price was reasonable when compared with other regions

1. Limited airline

2. Limited in transportation and public facility for transportation e.g. roads

- The branding was built by corporations between government, hospital, hotel, entrepreneurs, and every related group

- Possible tendency. The slogan of ASEAN was ‘ASEAN Southeast Asia Feel the Warmth’, that slogan might strengthen tourism brand


2. Entrepreneur’s network

3. Travel and agencies

1. The clear definition of health and wellness tourism was needed

2. The specific market was needed for advertisement and promotion; tangible success

3. The consensus between governmental and private sectors for the same direction was needed

8. Singapore 1. The new and international standardized medical innovation

2. Educated and specialized people; specialist

1. Lack of variety of health and wellness tourism

2. Lack of professional because the wage and reward were not attractive

1. The serious branding of health and wellness tourism was not happened because Singapore has not had a strong tradition of wellness care or treatment

2. Singapore had limited areas; resources, climate, and water, Singapore needed to develop for branding

Quite difficult tendency* Each country had different resource cost, however it could be possible because ASEAN had tourism growth latency

- Printed and electronic media

1. The obstacle would not happen with 10 countries if the country had long history, strong tradition; they would get usefulness and had plenty of communication to promote

2. The limitation might be occurred with some countries where the health and wellness tourism experiences were needed

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problem/obstacle

9. Thailand 1. Thailand was successful in traditional massage (Thai massage) for a long time

2. The mixture of local tradition and Thai wisdom

3. The reasonable price when compared with many areas

- The corporation between Thailand governments, the clarified corporation was needed

1. Thailand has been successful of health and wellness tourism branding, it because of person (Thai’s personality)

2. Tradition and custom branding was built via Thai identity and life style

- Possible tendency. Being member of ASEAN Community (AC) created support and promote information, and human development


2. Internet and social media

3. Entrepreneur’s network

4. Agent or travel agency

5. Road show in Thailand and other countries

1. The different direction and understanding of tourism that made confusing to tourists

2. International standards throughout the country were needed

10. Vietnam 1. A long health historical experiences

2. Natural country

3. Cheap expense and lot of money value

4. Effective and modern sciences and techniques

1. Vietnamese lacked of perception especially natural treatment

2. The health and wellness tourism was new for Vietnam, therefore there was not any suitable marketing strategies

1. Vietnam had natural hot springs and outstanding health products

3. The natural hot springs were not enough only for tourism, they cured and treated health especially knee arthritis patients

4. The puncture in Vietnam has increased famous around the world

- Possible tendency The extra researches were needed especially the content and carefulness of researched date

- The health and wellness tourism was new for Vietnam, therefore there was not any suitable marketing strategies

Lack of destination information of health and wellness tourism in many areas of Vietnam

2. The difficult communication with local people especially the city places

3. The facilities was needed to

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problem/obstacle

be developed

4. An inconvenient transportation/other infrastructures

5. The health insurance was not around the country

6. Some people might know that Vietnam had ‘health and wellness’ resources, however it was difficult to persuade local people or community because they lacked of medical care. The medical care services increasing were needed first for them

7. The huge investment for sale promotion and training people about health and wellness tourism were needed

* The ASEAN countries with difficult unique branding for health and wellness tourism were Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. Those three countries were outstanding in health and wellness tourism.

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Table 3: Private sectors and Stakeholders of health and wellness tourism in Thailand

Business Strengths Brand identity Communication Problem/

obstacle

Expectations

of the Government Support

1. Rarinjinda

Wellness Spa

Resort,

Chiang Mai

province

Here is health spa so we are different from Day Spa; we are completed spa. We have a fresh water pool; Hydro Therapy Pool because the area is plenty, we’ll have mineral tub also.

Apart from them, we also have Vichy shower treatment which is the new spa innovation; we complete have all. Sometimes spa also provides Body Script, Body Massage, Body Aroma Oil, but we also have modern equipment; Hydro Tub, Vichy Shower.

The customers are fond of our service. Each spa is unique but is not too different from each other, but the customers like our services. Although you can do massage well but you don’t have a good service, the customer will not come. The good product can’t keep the customers. Sometimes we can apply the service to Thai’s manners; customer treat, Wai, saying Sawasdee, giving smile when we massage too hard and say sorry politely; Land of Smile. Customers impress a lot; Body Treatment.

We provide website and agency contacts. The customer base recently is Chinese, then American.

Now Spa is well known but there are still some misunderstandings about it. I need more communication about it.

Spa is a famous word. Actually spa is from Spa the Aqua; a water treatment. Some places do not provide any water, just massage but they still use Spa. Spa needs 1) Enough area 2) Knowledge and expertise.

No matter what the name is, the behavior reflects who you are and what you do.

I’m very thankful for the governme12nt for any trainings and public health for entrepreneurs. Please keep continue doing those. However the advertising is very important.

2. Tao

Garden,

Chiang Mai

province

The philosophy does relate to Mind Spiritual; attitude adjusting, in-depth meditation, customer service, employee management, we need mind for happier.

Being Green. Spa has started from Europe and America. If they don’t live with their family, many problems would

Tao emphasizes on Thainess; we willingly take care of the customers by heart. The service providers are Thai who amiable and cheerful.

Most of our customers are foreigners because the organizers and agencies are in Europe. What customers study here?

1. Tao life styles

2. Anatomy

I think the problems are about politics, the foreigners don’t trust Thailand’s security. Actually the internal problems are meaningless; any diseases come from your living styles.

I’d like more support about the convenient transportation; visiting and services. I prefer supports on culture, ways of life, Thai herbs, conservation, and copyright registration. In the future, the service and traditional Thai medicine should be improved.

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obstacle

Expectations


happen. We suggest them to semi Buddhism and Tao; natural base, balancing, emotional control. Tao believes in energy circulation, how do we use it? How Tai Chi exercises? How to balance yourself? If you are small but you can stand still when the 10 people push you, how can use that energy? You are young and strong, you can fight with any problems and learning about yourself.

3. Massage

4. About the emotion; how could they relieve themselves

5. Emotional destroy; living by themselves.

The customer can be divided into

1. 40% is American

2. 30% is European

3. 25% is Asian and

4. 5% is Thai.

3. Oasis Spa,

Chiang Mai

province

Oasis business is legally as same as Day Spa. We open every day since 10 am to 10 pm. If we consider on destination or health and wellness tourism, we are like Tao Garden or Rarinjinda; we provide rooms and detoxification. Tao has many outstanding points; their positions transform exercising positions. It is like a treatment;

About the brand. The word Spa here (Chiang Mai) is quite strong, we have our own associations and Lanna styles. Most of spa reflects Lanna culture. I’ve been to Spa in Bangkok and Samui island, massages were different however the route is the same; Thai massage.

The Thai massage is basic of all

Customer Feedback. There are many communicative ways, we provide forms for the customers. After finish the massage, we’ll sending e-mail or thank you letter to them for feedback checking.

Actually it will be sent the day after, if the customers come here today they will get the e-mail tomorrow.

When the travel agencies provide Spa, I think it’s bad for both of us. A tour guide and massager are conservative professions for Thailand’s wisdom.

Now Spa can be done by money. They can use their own staffs, taking care of their customers, and then the massage is destroyed. Some

I’d like the government sector support about the road show, events, booths, and TTM or TTF marketing. There were many visitors in each activity; foreign spa representatives and agencies, Oasis will be last in the market.

Therapist is a conservative occupation. Some therapists learn the job well and flies

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obstacle

Expectations


retreating themselves.

Thai has significant services; Thai manners and easily smile. However the massages in each place are different; ‘characteristic’, we have various races but we have smile for every services.

massage. Many workplaces there had to adapt Thai massage to their own identity. For here, our signature massage does not exist in other places. Such as fried shrimp with tamarind sauce, many restaurants provide it but here is different.

For Oasis, the customers go back and tell others also. That’s our heart, services is our work. We expect that the customers will get 100 percent of services from here.

Oasis asks such as how’s going after massage. Does anything we have to improve? Do they have any suggestions? If the feedback is good it’s ok but if it’s not we have to think about it. For example, it’s too cold for the air-conditioner, too heavy massage, or no relaxing while massage. When the customers give us more feedback, the customer service relation will send those to spa massage. We have to find out what was going on within the next day and reply back to the customers within 24 hours. If the feedback is good, we both are happy then we do greeting welcome again.

We have many marketing; the government sector supports us events, booths, sharing us to travel agencies. The other marketing is hotel staffs; they refer customers to us. Most of the five-star hotels in Chiang Mai provide Spa in the hotel, but they still send customers to us. If the

customers said Thai massage wasn’t good; we had to ask where did you get it from?

abroad to work, the spa therapists in Thailand will be lack. Other foreigners cannot do the good job as Thai does; labor and lacking of therapists will be a high problem. If some of them come back to Thailand, we could say we’re lucky. We have to take the risk; I think every spa faces this problem, too.

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obstacle

Expectations


customers ask them where is Oasis, Dhara Dhevi Hotel refers them here. The Oasis’s never told those hotels referring us customers, but we said we’d like to be their options for Spa. If the staffs suggest customers for Spa, please recommend Oasis.

We have many marketing about travel agencies also; both of contacting them first and they contacted us first. Mostly we focus the travel agencies where used to recommend us to customers. The head office of Oasis is in Chiang Mai, but the head office of travel agencies are in Bangkok. We have our marketing representatives to visit those travel agencies in each province; we tell them the new promotions. The tourism trend is direct booking, so we provide online booking on our website.

4. Lanna

Come Spa,

Chiang Mai

Lanna spa is a story. It’s about Mon spa, the association advertises northern spa to other

Thai massage is different from other countries; more Thai behaviors. We’ve taught Thai

The road shows in other countries, hotel contracts or

In the future, we may ask tourists about what do they want except health and

In the future, I’d like the government strengthen the brand. We need budget to

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obstacle

Expectations


province countries around the world. massage to many foreigners such as German. We taught weighted massage and manners such as soft weighted massage and speed.

We have Thai massage as a culture. We’ve done advertising, spa road show in other countries. The Thai massage is provided in small shop, Thai absolute spa provides Thai treatment; Thai smells and products. The significant cultures are Thai people, aroma, Swedish massage, bamboo massage

travel agencies have done.

The tourists come back here a lot; some of them come back here every year. We’ve open the shop for 8 years, some customers continually has come back here for 7 years, they become friend and relative. She is Karen from USA. She comes here every year and bought a condominium here.

wellness activities or spa medical yoga meditation that we provide. Do they want cooking class or aerobic dance? Do you want taking therapist class? I think those can be many activities. When we talk about health and wellness, some customers have no idea what is it. Wellness is similar to medical wellness for them; beauty is also. However, the concept of Spa it does; day spa, health relaxation, or beauty, but we need to specific what level of beauty.

support booth, road show, marketing, school setting up, product line, or spa. Going abroad is an advertising for the state; road show support. We have to do approach strategy and we’ll get the specific customers.

5. The Spa

Resort,

Chiang Mai

province

This is destination resort. Most of the package are health; holistic health. Such as package fasting, juicing it which is drinking only juice, raw food is a dish which is cooked in less than 43o C. The nutrients in fruit and vegetable will last longer. It depends on the kind of fruit and juice.

Why do we famous? The answer is service mind. Although our English is not good, ‘smiling’ service or body gestures can show our pleasures to serve them. Those are our advantages, Thai’s advantages also.

The natural resource is also important. This resort is on the mountain and surrounds with nature. Green brings foreigners here.

There is a lot of word-of-mouth. Some customers tell their friends. The friends come here and they like it, all of them come here together within a year. I think it’s because the health program in Chiang Mai is not much, only for some spa. We’re small place and this is our advantage; completed spa. Word-of-mouth is plenty so we think we’re successful from it. The guests might not many but

About the human recruitment, we have nutritionists to give advices. Most of the employees are local people, therapists come from the same village. Now we want to train our employees. As I told the owner’s just changed, so the change happens to employees too. We realize that some of them are lack of knowledge, so we have to train them to be skilled employees.

- We’ll find trainers for the

The government can do whatever to support personnel development. That could be training or seminar to strengthen services and people are talented. We’ve started making our own product such as coconut oil. We’d like to have our own brand, the natural base cream with no chemical substances.

Now we can’t produce our product yet, we might have to discuss it with the producing

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obstacle

Expectations


they are walk-in guests and most of them were old guests. We also provide in the website.

professional of our staffs. The management might not as same as the old owner. We do emphasize on the employee.

factory. All products; soap or shampoo, have to be anti-SLS. We’re think about palm for next product. Actually the boutique where selling our brand as package, kit, or provide detoxification products could add value to our brand.

6.

Dalharuenspa

, Khon Kaen

province

Thai massage, oil spa massage, skin scrubbing, treatment message, and aroma massage. Our customers are both Thai and foreigner. For the foreigner tourists, they like like-home environment. Our shop designs and decorates as a home; cool and pleasant. They are European and American.

Service is our heart. Smiling staffs impress customers. Some shops do good massage but bad service, the customers will not go that place again.

The customers know this place via word-of-mouth. We also provide website for marketing.

Our employees have to practice English to explain and communicate to tourists.

Marketing support. The tourism advertising is needed for more northern east visiting.

7. Cheewatip

Spa, Khon

Kaen

province

This place provides full option of Day Spa. Our massage styles are the same for every therapist. The new employees are needed to be train for our message positions. Our therapists have Ministry of Public Health certificate and certificate from Department of

This place is a model of northern east identical spa from Ministry of Culture. The identical spa or herbal ball massage consists of five senses.

Sight is northern east traditional. You can see from the decoration and clothes or uniforms.

We also provide brochures. Most of the customers are word-of-mouth that we do health massage. Our massage is mixing between Thai and aroma massage. We also mix with northern east massage; ‘Nuad Kid Sen (push and stir nerves)’, and oil. The eight

The tour group sometimes visits us but we cannot handle with them all. Most of the customers are our members.

I’d like the clearer communication to tourists for visiting northern east. The government can promote northern east attractive places. The northern east people are kind, fun, and happy. Those are our unique for customers.

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obstacle

Expectations


Employment. Taste is rosella juice and herbal juice. The customers can feel Thainess through the drink.

-Smell is massage oil smell from northern east herbs.

-Sound is music. Our music has an enjoy rhythm. We might improve it.

-Touch is stirring nerves massage

It also comes from Thai characteristics; gentle and easily smile. Our massage is sweet because we massage carefully and focus on services and treat.

rooms for massage are prepared.

8. Sukko Spa,

Phuket

province

The outstanding advantage is a private and effective location for tourists. They can feel silence here; the first treatment. We have our own products and songs for spa. We applied both western and Thai medical knowledge. The western medicine emphasizes on curing, the eastern medicine focuses on preventing. The western one is tangible.

Cultural preventing and conservation. Thainess, Thai image, and Thai wisdom is Thai tradition which are conserved.

For Sukko Spa we have Sukhothai period concept; Phra Ruang ear.

The product marketing should have an interesting story such as Sukhothai period.

We have base customers and also provide in the website. We keep contact both Thai and foreign travel agencies.

About the target group, it depends on the tourists. They are Malaysian, Russian, and Korean. If you ask me about the customer planning, yes we’d like Japanese. Most of the customers come here

There are many Chinese tourists in Phuket, they come here a lot. For the management, I think both governmental and private sectors have to take care of the tourists together. Giving information to them for their happiness and also maintain our natural resources.

The government sector should realize about the higher tourism competition; brand standard, illegal hotels; no license. They may also focus about the personnel, migrant worker; Thai will be employed. I think Thai’s quality of education is low.

178


obstacle

Expectations


The concept was designed as Sumeru mount where was the heaven gate. The paintings on the walls are Three World.

Let our children know how importance of Thainess, being Thai, and Thai culture. The significances of Thainess are personality, sincerity, and culture reflects the image. The products are Thainess. There is no difference about the massage.

with the tour group, someone has visit here for 18 times.

9. Angsana

Laguna Spa,

Phuket

province

Our advantages are Laguna Spa; we provide bathing room after spa. We service customer by bathing them, body massage, and scrubbing. For the scrub, our scrubbed materials are nature, and create new for every scrubbing; fresh. The difference from Banyan Tree is our concept; Angsana. Angsana flower is our symbol, it blooms all year long. (In English the Angsana is flower) (Banyan tree is a symbol of Banyan Tree).

We have nail painting rooms

The service is different from other places. We keep asking customers while massaging, herbal massage, or relaxing before massage. Then we do five-acupressure, lie on the back and do herbal massage, lie prone and back massage, oil is used while massaging. Scrubbing is before the relaxing massage. After body massage is facial massage. The cost is about 8,500 baht.

We also provide Harmony; 4-hand massage. The scrubbing is done before normal massage.

We emphasize the human communication. All therapists are Thai and can communicate well in English.

The specialist teaches correct massage. There are 12 rooms, 70 employees, and 4 branches. We support employees working in other country branch and related 7 hotels. All therapists are Thai.

Now Chinese tourists are a lot that might cause reducing of European tourists. However the internal management in Angsana will be created to support other foreign tourists.

The government should support and promote tourism, and I want more peaceful politic.

179


obstacle

Expectations


and hair salon (A chair for toenail treatment can massages in the same time) The manicure can be done in lay down position.

We have products for customer’s buying.

10. Oasis Spa,

Phuket

province

The trustworthiness, quality, and standardized services are built for customers. The standard and service are entire management; internal management, and marketing. Customers can reserve via the center. We train our employees for the same standard in every branch.

Organization management. The employee could show Thainess; Thai identity, especially Thai herbs and behaviors. The employee’s personality is like 90-minute song massage.

The target group (customer) is all tourists who are interested in health and wellness. The employee standard is level. Our service standard is 93 percent which is a good standard (Conclude from the questionnaire).

The customers visiting; the group customers visit us 2-3 times a year. Most of visitors tell others to come back here. We also have every advertisement for every target group.

Recruitment: whoever has good attitude, interview, lifestyle, family, skill testing.

We have to grow, increasing branches, and to be standard as best as we can. I think our politics is an obstacle. The government might have to well manage about it.

All government agencies and departments should work at the same direction.


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Conclusion and Suggestion

1. The influenced factors for Thailand’s and ASEAN’s image management. The image management and brand engagement of Thailand and ASEAN health and wellness tourisms could be said that, the tourism images management would mainly communicate via person we can call “personal touch”. Each country’s personnel had his own identity; especially the service mind, easily smile, and kind to visitors, which created engagement to tourists and made them came back again. The using of health and wellness services again was included.

The fact findings were found from in-depth interviews of stakeholders as those within business Health and Wellness Tourism in Thailand. Feature that turns out to tourists or visitors can touching to experience the lifestyle of the local people, such as massage and pamper a million travelers can be found in the north of Thailand. The combination of wisdom Thailand using traditional life still visible today as massage kit lines (Nuad Kid-Sen) in the northeast of Thailand. The use of science and art that blends with the senses, taste, smell, sound and touch 5 which is in Thai Traditional massage nowadays.

2. The attributes of health and wellness tourism image of Thailand and ASEAN. The scope of services in health and wellness tourism is not only limited to patients but also health tourists who need wellness and recreational services. Therefore, it is believed that tourists tend to visit any places where they can touch physical and psychological health. In other words, affective perception of tourists in Thailand reflects that branding in their mind and this process is deep as cognitive perception. It can be said that four elements of brand engagement in health and wellness tourism consist of 1) Confidence: Tourists have confidence on destination branding in Thailand, 2) Integrity: Tourists can perceive clarity and integrity of service, 3) Pride: Tourists have their pride when using service, and 4) Passion: Tourists have permanent passion for destination brand in Thailand.

In Thailand, the high costs were personnel, unique and outstanding Thai identity, that were strong selling points. Thailand brand was easily recognized by tourists. Moreover, Thai used “mind” in services, it was like a magnetic to tourists. They came back again and also told others to come, too. In addition, Thailand had strong point about money value; tourists could pay and got high profit. For example, admitting to world standard hospital but cheap expenses, health care, detoxification for healthy tourists, the convalescence patients could stay in Thailand for a long period because it was cheap. The byproduct of tourists was, they were able to directly choose the various places as they wanted.

3. The relations between cognitive, affective, and brand engagement of Thailand and ASEAN. The image management and brand engagement of health and wellness tourism in Thailand and ASEAN on communication could be distinguished as 3 groups. They were:

Group 1 was Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Republic of the Union of Myanmar, and Viet Nam; CLMV. Those five countries did not emphasize on the communication nor health and wellness tourism images. They focused on the overall tourism in each country e.g. cultural tourism or natural tourism. Therefore, the health and wellness tourism was not seriously promoted. Most of their budgets were spent on the overall tourism.

Group 2 was Philippines and Thailand. They were invested and image campaigned countries for image management and brand engagement of health and wellness tourism. However, Thailand had advantages on the facilities; road, airway, hotel, resident, restaurant, and various attractive places; easily transport throughout the country. The health and wellness tourism places had their own local uniqueness; Lanna spa in the north, and spa in the south. Those were strong points for easily travelled by tourists. Nevertheless, the


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advantages of Philippines were, the personnel could well communicate in English. That was the strong point for tourists’ understanding and ready to be back. Both Philippines and Thailand the united branding for image management and brand engagement of health and wellness tourism in AEAN could possibly be happened. That would strengthen ASEAN brand. Furthermore, the development and ASEAN communication were needed for information exchange and best practice.

Group 3 was Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore. The three countries were ready and had strong points of health and wellness tourism branding for tourists to be accepted. They had their own identities of image management and brand engagement on health and wellness tourism. For example, Indonesia had Bali style spa, Malaysia had modern medical evolution. The tourists spent their money valuably in Malaysia. Singapore provided mixing puncture for treatment, and modern medical technology. Nevertheless, they stated that ASEAN branding was difficult to happen because each country had its own variety and resources. Each country had different investment costs of personnel resource, health and wellness tourism places readiness, and also technological and medical development. Therefore, the image management and brand engagement of ASEAN health and wellness tourism had to be developed.

The route of image management and brand engagement of health and wellness tourism in Thailand and ASEAN was rough. Being single brand needed long period of brand communication, because the communication investment for consumers or tourists and information stimulation were different. However, the country which had high capital on image tourism likes Thailand; tourists had good image with, could be easily developed. Moreover, health and wellness tourism in Thailand has influenced Thai health and wellness tourism’s image. In other words, Thainess reflects via “person.” The relation of cognitive image was direct experience which could be found in person, it is the main cultural factor which is transmitted from generation to generation by the word “Thais.” Thainess is the most important factor for attracting tourists. Tourists’ brand engagement derived from their affective image could reflect faith in Thainess, personal communication via Smile of Thailand, spirit to serve culture of Thai and Southeast Asian people, respect through pressing the hands together at the chest or forehead in sign of respect, showing respect and paying homage to their teachers before they commence massage, paying the respect to visitors, and Thai traditional costumes. For the image of health and wellness tourism in other Southeast Asian countries is characterized by their local massage and native herbs. Besides, important economic factors stimulating health and wellness tourism is value for money.

4. To create plans and governmental policies of health and wellness tourism of Thailand and ASEAN. For governmental planning and policies of health and wellness tourism in Thailand in national and ASEAN levels, the private data showed that the government had to establish the central department which seriously ran and administrated on image management and brand engagement of health and wellness tourism. Now the governmental sector has not have person in charge of clarifying, planning, and running plans and policies. Nevertheless, the governmental sector has worked for systematic integration. Hence, the government sector had to do was multi-people-in-charge, the associate was needed. In the future there would be discussion and established responsible department to be the center of image management and brand engagement of Thailand and ASEAN health and wellness tourism.

The suggestion for future research includes the use of mixed method, a combination of qualitative research and quantitative research. For qualitative research, Data were collected


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through in-depth interview. For quantitative research, data were collected through questionnaire. The sample was tourists in Thailand and ASEAN countries. The data about factors affecting tourists’ decision making behaviors to choose health and wellness tourism in this region would be beneficial for future research.

References

Boonyayotin, K. (2012). Brand Identity [Online]. Retrieved Mar 3, 2015 from http://www.the agent.co.th/newsdetail.aspx?id=215.

Coach Ampol. (2015, Mar 11). Brand Engagement [Online]. Retrieved from http://coach-ampol.blogspot.com/2011/11/ customer-engagement-ce.html.

Fernández, A. (2015, Mar 3). 5 Brand Engagement Lessons from La Rioja [Online]. Retrieved from http://mktfood.com/en/blog/2015/02/22/5-brand-engagement-lessons-from-la-rioja/.

Jim Thompson Fabrics (2015, Mar 3). Our Heritage [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.jim thompsonfabrics.com/about-us/our-heritage.

“Kasikorn Research Center”. (2012). Retrieved Mar 11, 2015 from https://www.kasikorn research.com.

Khunpholkaew, J. (2015, Mar 11). Brand Engagement [Online]. Retrieved from http://www. prosoftcrm.in.th/ArticleInfo.aspx?ArticleTypeID=2148&ArticleID=9562.

Mahidol University. (2015, Mar 3). Brand Identity Meaning [Online]. Retrieved from http:// inside.cm.mahidol.ac.th/mkt/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=337:-brand-identity&catid=1:mk-articles&Itemid=11.

Ministry of Tourism and Sports. (2011). National Tourism Development Plan B.E. 2556 – 2559. Bangkok: Ministry of Tourism and Sports, Thailand.

Qu, H., Kim, L. H., & Im, H. H. (2011). A Model of Destination: Integrating the Concepts of the Branding and Destination image. Tourism Management, 32(3), 467-468.

Siripullop, K. (2015, Mar 3) Brand Management [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.bus.tu. ac.th/usr/kitti/brand.doc.

Sriwattana Business Administration Technological College. (2015). Brand Management [Online]. Retrieved from http://www.stech.ac.th/blogs/0216/wp-content/uploads/ 2011/09/Brand-Management1.docx.

Wheeler, A. (2009). Designing Brand Identity. (3rd ed.). New Jersey: John Willey & Sons.

Note

1. Name Lists of Interviewee from ASEAN Countries (Interview during 25-30 January 2015)

1) Mr. Haji Khairuddin Abdul Hamid, Deputy Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources, Brunei Darussalam

2) Dr. NEB Samouth, Secretary – General, Cambodia

3) Mr. Noviendi Makalam, Director for International Relations, Ministry of Tourism, Republic of Indonesia

http://www.theagent.co.th/newsdetail.aspx?id=215

http://www.theagent.co.th/newsdetail.aspx?id=215

http://mktfood.com/en/blog/2015/02/22/5-brand-engagement-lessons-from-la-rioja/

http://mktfood.com/en/blog/2015/02/22/5-brand-engagement-lessons-from-la-rioja/


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4) Mr. Sounh Manivong, Director General, Tourism Develop Department, Ministry of Information, Culture and Tourism, The Lao People's Democratic Republic (Lao

PDR)

5) Datuk Dr. Ong Hong Peng, Secretary – General, Ministry of Tourism and Culture, Malaysia

6) Mr. Tint Twin, Director General, Ministry of Hotels and Tourism, Republic of

Union of Myanmar

7) Mr. Rolando Carnizal, Assistant Secretary Office of Tourism Planning Development, Department of Tourism, The Philippines

8) Mr. Leong Yue Khong Lawrence, Assistant Chief Executive, Singapore Tourism Board, Singapore

9) Miss Wanna Chonpravet, Expert Level 9, Department of Tourism, Ministry of Tourism and Sports, Thailand

10) Dr. Ha Van Sieu, Vice Chairman, Ministry of Culture, Sports and Tourism, Vietnam National Administration of Tourism, Vietnam

2. Name Lists of Interviewee from Health and Wellness Tourism Stakeholders in Thailand (Interview during 10-30 October 2014)

1) Wellness & Spa Resort, Chiang Mai province 2) TAO Garden, Chiang Mai province 3) Oasis Spa, Chiang Mai province 4) Lanna Come Spa, Chiang Mai province 5) The Spa Resort, Chian Mai province 6) Dalharuen Spa, Khon Kaen province 7) Cheewa Tip Spa, Khon Kaen province 8) Sukkho Spa, Phuket province 9) Angsana Laguna Spa, Phuket province 10) Oasis Spa, Phuket province


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Pieces of Me: Selfie Culture Trends

Dian Arymami55

Abstract

The concept of selfie has become a culture that creates an illusion of the self. It is a global phenomenon, in everything from users’ embrace of the activity to selfie-inspired marketing campaigns. These self-shot photographs are intensely popular among younger social media users. But it is a trend that brings up some disturbing issues and important questions, such as sexuality, objectification, and narcissism amongst the current generation.

This paper explores the selfie culture and trends in Indonesia through a small research among young netizens, investigating symbolic or cultural capital that individuals may accrue through the act. Key results are selfie has become a daily practice and a medium in gaining image as the adventurous, the young, and the elite. For many of the girls, discovering new looks are a way to contruct new personality and a new “me”. The notion of self-exploration and satisfaction through the constructed self are recognizable. Selfies have transform to be a kaleidoscope to the imaginary self, serving as a relief to see the self as the other.

It is inevitable that the selfie culture is defined by the self. It is a social behavior celebrating subjectivity. Though it may be valued as a free and autonomous individual expressions based on personal judgments, Bourdieu (1974) highlighted the concept of habitus as a strategic act in understanding social behavior. He emphasized on the presence of tactical improvisation as the means of social exchange. The selfie culture brings light not merely on what we look at, or how one looks at the self, but is an important indicator of how social relationships are proceeding.

Keywords: self photography, topical issues, tactical social exchange, symbolic/cultural capital

55 Lecturer, Department of Communication, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta Indonesia, email: [email protected]


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Introduction

The socially mediated self-produced postmodern self is a multiple one

and is more open to changes. Creation of online identities becomes a game, a

theatrical presentation of the self, allowing individuals to present themselves to

others in a variety of postures, roles, images, and activities. (Damean, 2006: 89)

The practice of self-photography is popular among current generation today. Abundant low resolution photos fill the cyber world on a daily basis and tend to reveal a new global lifestyle. The social media has become a show case of peace sign and duck face poses of the self. These still pictures we have culturally called the selfie has been one of the 10 most used buzz word in 2012 according to Time Magazine (Steinmetz, 2015a). It finally found a rightful place in the Oxford Dictionary in the year 2013 (Steinmetz, 2015b) and was defined as follows: Selfie, a self-shot photographs, typically one taken with a smartphone or webcam and uploaded to a social media website.

The practice of taking selfies has become a global phenomenon. A search on the photo sharing app Instagram retrieves over 23 million photos uploaded with the hashtag #selfie, and a whopping 51 million with the hashtag #me (BBC News, 2015). In March 2014, Time Magazine downloaded from Instagram API and compared 459 world cities for all selfies uploaded. It was concluded that Makati City and Pasig in the Philippines as the selfiest city of the world with the number of 258 selfie-takers per 100,000 people (Wilson, 2015). In Thailand, a woman who goes by "mortao maotor" has nearly 16,000 Instagram posts, almost all selfies. As of June 2014, more than 130 million user images and videos have been hashtagged with the word “selfie” on Instagram. #I, #me, #myself, #self, #selfie, #selfies, and #selfportrait account for over 439 million user images and videos (Wendt, 2014).

The rise of selfie is inevitably interconnected with the rise of ICT use globally. Over half of the worldwide mobile phone subscriptions with an approximately 3.5 billion subscriptions were to be found in the Asia Pacific region (ITU, 2014). These figures have grown and there are more than 7 billion mobile cellular subscriptions in 2015, corresponding to a penetration rate of 97%, up from 738 million in 2000 (ITU, 2015). In the year 2015, global Internet users grew 28 million in just two months between January to March, 2015 (Kemp, 2015). In the Asia Pacific countries itself, there are 180 million new Internet users since 2014, adding 1.25 million new users each month (Kemp, 2015). Significant changes in Internet usage came in Cambodia and Myanmar, where the reported number of users grew by 414% and 346%, respectively, while Papua New Guinea also saw impressive growth of 193% (Kemp, 2015). Mobile connections continue a dramatic rise too, with the number of cellular connections in the Asia Pacific region growing by more than 11% since 2014 (Kemp, 2015). The hottest digital trend in Asia Pacific had shown to be mobile social media, with the number of people in the region accessing social media from mobile devices jumping an impressive 32% in the past year, to reach 900 million (Kemp, 2015).

Development of ICT usage in Asia is impressive. This may also be correlated to the fact that four economic and geopolitical powerhouses in the Asian region have been in the vanguard of the development of mobile communication and media from the 1970s onwards (Lim & Goggin, 2014). Japan had pioneered technologies associated with cellular mobile phones, one of the first countries where the Internet were encountered on mobile phones,


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forerunners of todays’ mobile, social, and locative media, and camera phones was first shipped with mobile handsets in Japan (Ito, Okabe & Matsuda, 2005). Republic of Korea was the test bed for technical and social innovations, including mobile television, mobile games, and early social network systems (Hjorth, 2009). India and China had emerged as titans in mobile communications. India is an Asian market with mobiles at the centre of its communication (Doron & Jeffrey, 2013). China produces a fertile range of powerful yet affordable mobile devices and various applications from micro-blogging, check-in programs, and messaging programs (Hjorth & Arnold, 2013).

Communication technology and the Internet’s based image applications without doubt have triggered the explosion of the selfie on a global scale. Image-sharing applications embedded or compatible with smartphones have enabled people to capture, edit, and share images with family, friends, and even strangers. Instagram as a social image-sharing platform, designed for iPhone and Androids, is the most favored among netizens due to its accessibility, instantaneous customized effects, and simplistic commands within the program. Instagram’s tool allows users to create a stylized self-photo as well as a stylized piece of identity. The rise of selfie have given a glance of our fascination on the potentiality of self-image construction. As people change perspective and angles of the lenses, they produce versions of the self through screen construction, in some ways also creating identities, as a mark of distinction. It could be seen true today, as Wendt (2014) wrote “Instagram, it seems, has defined the look of an entire generation.”

The practice of selfies has found a place in the hearts of various parties and fulfills various interests. Industries have used the culture for commercial purpose to reach and engage with their markets. Brands compete using selfies to activate customers. Politicians and activists use it to boost their causes. Selfies as a cumulative phenomenon facilitated by smartphones are not merely revolving around individuals but at a group social scale.

Diversification of self-photographs has also raised debates and concerns. Issues range from social and moral degradation to social empowerment. Self-photographs such as those of the body have activated debates on shifts of gender gaze. Selfie-porn, for example, triggered the dual discourse of gender empowerment and gender restrains. It is difficult to overlook that there seems to be an instant wave of similar selfie contents worldwide. An example is the famous duckface pose which is massively popular among selfies everywhere. Rational consequences of our interconnection within our global ecology of information technology have been highlighted as the reason for the culture highway.

There have been assumptions that self-published pictures are a mimicry stimulated by the “settled” discourse promoted by the cultural industry through mainstream media. Sexualized culture, for instance, is thought to be the drive for identity constructions of the self. Though expressions and visual representation may be identical in selfies worldwide, its practice within the agents’ cultural scope may vary according to their social value. In “Modernity at Large,” Appadurai (1996) describes the media and immigration as the two main factors interconnecting that have created imagination as a characteristic of modern subjectivity. Appadurai (1996) explains that globalization in practice occurs as a temporal wave, hence offering a theory of rupture for the flow of global culture through different scopes within each society. Hence, we see global expressions are differentiated in cultural contexts.

In the increased rate of global information and cultural flow, the practice and culture of selfies may differ from one place to another. Various selfie trends have arisen in different


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cultures. Right after Thailand’s coup in 2014, people poured into the streets for self-portraits with soldiers. These actions of self-shot photography in front of Thailand’s Martial Law even made headlines (Globalvoices, 2015; Cripps, 2015; Tan, 2015). In Japan, women in the “Gyaru” fashion subculture began tilting their heads down during self-portraits to hide their faces to better spotlight their over-the-top hair. This previous trend swept away the “duckface” in selfies, and some called it the “hair smiles” (Ashcraft, 2015). In China, a contest for women showing self-portraits featuring their armpit hair went viral (Harvey-Jenner, 2015; Newton, 2015).

Culturally embedded, the selfie phenomenon as self-expression, are a means of self- construction that serve a certain identity and distinction fulfilling social function. Bourdieu (1974) highlighted the concept of habitus as a strategic act in understanding social behavior, emphasizing on the presence of tactical improvisation as a means of social exchange. Hence common issue interconnected to self-promotion, narcissistic culture, and validation of social relations with agents embedded culturally opens new grounds for exploration.

Indonesian Selfie Situation

The selfie culture became popular among Indonesian youth at the end of 2013. Similar to the global situation, the “duckface” poses were abundant on Facebook accounts. Through her research, Simatupang (2014) found this as the general expression among Indonesian youth’s selfies, as a method or means to look “cute” and “sexy.” Yulistara (2014) stated that the popularity of selfies among Indonesian citizens is connected to celebrities posting selfie on the social networks such as Instagram and Twitter. The practice of the selfie itself boomed in early 2014 in line with Instagram use and sales of Android in soaring Indonesian market.

As abundant selfies appeared in the cyberspace, different ratings filled the media and discourse: best Indonesian selfies, best places for selfies, best phones for selfies, and so on. Technological innovations grew to support the culture, such as the birth of narcissist sticks (else where known as selfie sticks) that rocketed in demand by the end of 2013. Examining Google trends, Indonesia hit the score of 10 by December 2013, and the term “selfie sticks” was registered in the US by January 2014 (Grazella, 2015). The craze for selfie sticks did not slow down, even as the trends spread globally. Through eBay, the search expanded in the UK with a 700% increase in December 2014 (Haslett, 2015). As the selfie stick vibe spreads to Japan, Malaysia, and the Philippines, Indonesia still held the highest score (Grazella, 2015). The Huffington Post reported Indonesia clamored for the selfie sticks (Kossof, 2015).

Related to the growth of netizens in Indonesia, the use of communication technology has increased rapidly. For example, the number of mobile phones by the end of 2010 had reached 225 million, with the increase ranging from 2 million per month (Firman, 2015). The numbers of smartphones were higher than the population of Indonesia by mid-year 2011 (Firman, 2015). Mobile phone use has increased by 160% in Indonesia and amid the accelerating use of global communications technology, a form of communications revolution is underway. By January 2014, mobile users in Indonesia had reached 308.2 million. Whilst social media use in Indonesia by 2014 had reached 72.7 million active Internet users. In this total 72 million are active in social media, and 62 million users access social media through mobile phones, with youth users making up to 30 million (Kemp, 2015). In a year there has been a growth of 16% of social media accounts from 2014-2015, with an increase of 19% of active mobile social accounts (Kemp, 2015).

http://kotaku.com/japans-latest-photo-trend-hair-smiles-1500893805

http://shanghaiist.com/2014/08/03/armpit-hair-selfies.php


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The rise of the selfie in Indonesia has triggered some industries to engage with economic market. Instagram has been a showcase for online shoppers and the market, as with other social network mediums in Indonesia. The extensive use of Instagram has created a sense of alternative market for products and also a space of self-identity, in connection to apparel or products related to sex that are taboo in society (e.g. sex toys, lingerie). Parallel to this phenomenon, there has been a rise of endorsements of products through selfies of customers as well as the sellers. A fashion endorser trend has developed rapidly with a recommended personal out-fit-of-the-day (ootd) among netizens. Visual testimony in promoting sales is most common and many people voluntarily endorse products by captioning brands of their cosmetics, clothing, or accessories. So selfies are considered to be an indicator for marketers, in rating consumer taste (Dewanto, 2015).

A market pulse has intertwined with the selfie trends among netizens. Industries use the selfie as a promotion tool to engage their market. Selfie as a marketing tool are now recognized globally. In the past year, Twitter selfie promotions rose from 252 to 780 brands (Beese, 2015). In Indonesia, selfie contests, using products or showcasing products are the most popular way to engage with the Indonesian netizens and big brands, like Nissan and XL Axiata, have joined this trend. Telecommunication brand XL for example launched a whole communication project around the hashtag #SelfieUnlimited (Satvika, 2015). Several struggling industries have also found salvation through selfie projects boosting their profile to the public.

In the socio-cultural field, selfies have stirred debates in the Indonesian society. The case of Muslim cleric, Felix Siauw, selfie statement intersecting with religious values set off controversies (Amin, 2015; Zhang, 2015). The Indonesian sizeable Muslim population reacted encounter to his statement of selfie as being sinful with selfie under hashtag “selfie4siauw.” The selfie phenomenon remain constant among the netizen regardless the controversies of the act. The practice of selfie has turned to be unseperable to daily activity among netizens. In regard to this practice, an intresting question arise upon subjective reasons of the act.

This paper explores the practice of selfie culture in Indonesia in regards to its symbolic or cultural capital that individuals may accrue through the act. The data for this paper is acquired through autoethnography. An open invitation to participate to this research gained 78 subjective perspective aged between 17-22 years old, mounting 47 narations from girls and 31 boys. The invitation to participate in the research explores question on frequency, selected medium for sharing, and subjective experience through naration on ones’ purposes and themes of the act (see Table 1). On average selfie are done weekly. Perfered medium for sharing selfies are social media mainly Instagram, Path, Facebook, and personal messaging applications between close relationships. Focus theme on appereance and beauty are dominant within the girls. Travelling themes or places as a background are both perfereable for all genders, though a dominant number of places chosen amongst girls are café or new restaurants whilst boys are dominated with outdoor activities. The reasons for the act was dominated for self documentation and a number of intimate relational reasons were found between girls.


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Table 1: Selfie Basic

Results and Discussions: Profits of The Selfie: From the eye of the users.

“I don’t really like doing selfies” - where probably the most common answer I have encountered among young netizens in both self narated stories and interviews. Regardless the fact of the high frequency in publishing their self-shot photographs through their social media accounts. Not into selfies was nearly an automatic answer. The majority of young netizen would waver and reject that they enjoy and seldom participate in the selfie culture. Whilst at the same moment on average have the habit to publish selfies at least once a week.

Encountering these first reaction, the term unconscious rushed at the top of the mind. It was either the selfie became an unconscious behavior so close to normal in netizen’s daily life that people tend to trivialize, or it was the consciousness of backlash upon the act of selfie. Entering the world of digital information, technology, in specific in this context smartphones are integrated into human lives. Information technology, media, and communication products in “second media age” (Holmes, 2005) are no longer means of communication but are embedded, immersed, and inseparable from culture, social institution, and humans. Transformation of perception and human bodies’ inter-correlation between technologies are inevitable. Idhe (1990) describes in Technology and the lifeworld, that this connection may take place through at least four forms; embodiment, hermeneutic, alterity, and background relations. Technology may range from becoming the extensions of human capability to unconscious human living ecology. Furthermore, Turkle (1995) explains four points of transformation of the self and technology, mentioning: habituation of simulation, split-consciousness of life, rise of active participation, and a space of identity experiments. Technology, in her words “is bringing postmodernism down to earth” (Turkle, 1995 as cited in Trend, 2001: 249). Such experimentation may bring positive and negative influences to daily living, still in need for further research, but it a part of a bigger cultural movement. As part of a backlash, the practice of selfie has become so popular, and has stirred discourse on personal characteristics highlighting a negative perspective on narcissism and lack of social emotions. Such negative discourses are sharpen in parallel to global and local events through the years such as the rise of plastic surgery in the US with reasons to make better selfies (The American Academy of Facial Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, n.d. as cited in Setyani, 2014), or the social critics on Barrack Obama’s selfie with Helle Thorning-Schmidt and David Cameron on the memorial of Mandela ceremony in Johannesburg in 2013

Frequency once a week Girls Boys Total

37 19 56

Theme Beauty/Appearance 24 4 28

Travelling/Places 24 28 52

Sharing Platforms

Instagram 34 24 58

Path 26 12 38

Facebook 17 14 31

Personal messaging 9 3 12


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(TEMPO.CO, 2013), or in May 2015 critics grew towards the death of an Indonesian student that climbed the peak of Merapi, Yogyakarta for a selfie and slid to the mountain crater (Najwa, 2015). The practice of selfie have gained more negative value towards personal character in social discourse. Hence, admitting to that the act itself plays no function for personal nor social advantage.

Narcissism as a term embedded to describe the selfie phenomenon is no surprise seeing the great amount of selfies produced worldwide that offer a sense of desire in capturing the self. McLuhan version to the Narcissus myth comprehends Narcissus fell in love to his reflection for he could not recognize his reflection as his own (Wendt, 2014: 7). McLuhan explains “men become fascinated by any extension of themselves in any material other than themselves” (McLuhan, 1994: 41). The act of selfie and the use of technology have amazed most of us in how we look upon ourselves. Alike to Turkle (1995) that had emphasized how technology offers the space of identity experiments, selfie technology (namely smartphone, Instagram as a platform, and other editing tools) opens the chance to produce various versions of the self, and create various identities. Many of the netizens I came across, were fascinated by their possibility of self-portraits and grew to explore more plurality of how they may look. Addinta (2015) explains how selfie offers a sense of self confidence where she is able to make a perfect picture of herself, may change and reengineer her looks as she please:

“… by doing selfie, my confidence arise. I can direct the camera to capture perfectly as I please. Different to self-portraits taken by other people. If I feel that my nose is not pointed enough, I can reengineer my nose to look pointed. If I feel part of my left cheek better than the right, I can direct the photo to cover my bad sides” (Addinta, personal communication, May 10, 2015).

Amelia in the other side found her portraits more intriguing and were filled with her own amazement. Through her own selfies, she discovered herself, introspected on how she looks, and how she would like to look. To her, selfie seems to be a constant dialogue of image values and the self:

“Top view close up. I don’t know why I like to see my face smile from above. My cheeks look full, not like fat people, but like ‘bakpao tuing-tuing’ (referring to steam stuffed dumplings, a cullinary common in Java). I prefer to take a selfie with a white background too, so I can predict how dark my skin is, and assure the perfect lighting to my portrait. I also used to like my selfie with a slight bend to the right with a big smile like those toothpaste ads, with my hair falling to my shoulders. But later I realized that it was too sweet, ‘Gak seru’ (an

expression to describe a dislike act categorized as not cool), I realized I prefer a short haircut. I started to make ‘muka jahil’ (a facial expression that can be

described funny, naughty, or weird). Sometimes, I’m frustrated on how people think I’m too serious. My round face gets bigger on the portraits, I’m not shy. Hey, it’s an asset, those slim models’ cheeks aren’t always beautiful. I think my cheeks are really cute” (Amalia, personal communication, May 12, 2015).

The plurality of the self through selfie are attractive to many. Finding possibilities on the undiscovered through photography, as explained by Flusser (1983), has grown to be embedded in the selfie phenomenon. For many, the practice offers the sense of finding the ideal version of the self. It has also form perceptions of the self-constructed purely from the portraits – what is valuable, beautiful, and distinguishing personality in their own terms.


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Selfie as an act and a product hence plays a different role. The act itself has become paradoxical, while the act plays a minor effect for distinguishing personal image, the product of selfie does the opposite. The selfie as a product by fact plays a role of distinguishing the social image among the peers or even strangers. It has become a mean to be a part of not the anonymous, an escape from anonymity, a high way to self-celebrity, and distinguishing character to one’s pleasure.

The selfie phenomenon as a cultural practice serve a medium of symbolic exchange among netizens. To share a piece of their life to the public, the self inserts him/herself to the society through the dynamics of symbolic exchange. Bourdieu (1974) has highlighted how cultural practices play a role within and in transforming social structures. His idea of genetic structuralism that was highly influenced by the underlying structure of meaning in language (and human thought) in structuralism, approaches structures in terms of the ways in which they are produced and reproduced in action. Cultural practices, hence, intertwine with power relations embedded in the tissue of everyday life. It is in the sense of everyday life that cultural practices occur and has been taken for granted. As we have seen how most people tend to disregard the fact of their selfie act consciously. Whilst cultural practices are embedded in the system of classification within social interactions are predisposed unconsciously or not in fulfilling a social function of which legitimize social differences.

The majority of netizens have focused on how to illuminate the best of ideal self through the screen are consciously nor unconsciously at play through symbolic struggles within the society. It is the act to be a part of the social world through symbolic consumption as well as struggle in creation of values through symbolic production. Creation are done through conformation of public to features such as a Like or comments in their social accounts. The field of beauty, for instance, is showcased through constant dynamics within confirmation to the mainstream and the backlash. Netizens may transform their looks as they please to meet the symbolic representation on what is beautiful in the creation of self-identity on their social accounts as well as forms of backlash in quest for conformation among their peers as well as strangers. It is a play in the dynamics of the symbolic exchange that the information era have thrust, “feel of the game” in Bourdieu’s term.

Bourdieu’s concept of habitus and filed (Bourdieu, 1993: 2) filled the notion of agent in which structuralism have excluded from social analysis and at the same time grounds the agents action in objective social relation. The habitus is a set of dispositions which generate practices and perceptions (Bourdieu, 1993: 3), sometimes described as the “feel of the game” in the practical sense where people act and react in specific situations are not always calculated not an obedience to rules. Whereas the field describe a place where people act in social situation governed by a set of objective social relations. Any social formation is structured by the way of hierarchically organized series of fields such as the economic field, the educational field, cultural field, and so on, where each has its own laws of functioning and its own relation of force. People in the given field engage in competition for control of the interests or resources which are not always material and specific to the field. Bourdieu uses the concept of symbolic power which can take diverse form and is not reducible to economic capital. All practices in each and every field deploys certain investment, where majority of people are directed towards maximizing symbolic or material profit.

A vast amount of the netizens have highlighted the importance of selfie as a part of habituation set by social demands. Images have become the main medium of communication, as practices of the visual arise. In peer discourses, it has risen the term “no picture, hoax”. Visual images are seen more accurate and valid:


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“There’s pride to be able to go to grand places and take selfies … it also proofs to all the people that I have actually been to that place” (Agung, personal communication, May 15, 2015).

“In our organization, we have to take selfie to proof to all of our members that we’re doing the tasks that we’re assigned to do. And it’s a fun way to share to our members as well as so that the public can see how our organization are great fun” (Anisa, personal communication, May 11, 2015).

Geotagging tools embedded with the selfie practice are also seen to be part of this validation of information.

Through most parts of the netizens’ perception, the selfie has been a tool of communicating their activities, emotions, and gaining attentions as well as conformation to their peers of their identity. It is no doubt the selfie phenomenon created a highway to social interaction through the mediated self. Travelling, beauty, and distinction of their subcultures are emphaized throughout the majority of the selfies. Most have stated that selfies serve as a self-satisfaction and conformation from their peers as well as conformation from strangers through “like/love” responses from viewers. Hashtagging their photos is anticipated and appreciated as additional values from their peers. These responses are in line with various opinions from the psychologist that states majority of people take selfie in fulfilling the crave of attention from their surroundings. Comments and compliments on the selfie published are expected to fill this crave. Selfies have become a mode of communication and acceptance to society.

Selfies have also been claimed to increase intimacy. Nizza (student, 12 May 2015) expressed how she often exchange silly faces with her mum just to lighten the day. Others have stated to exchange selfies with their significant others as a means of expressing intimate emotions. Houghton et al. study had described the correlation between selfies and the decrease of intimacy among the users (Houghton et al., 2013), though in particular cases this may not be the case. In this paradox, it is the sense to share that has override the generation today. Sherry Turkle (New York Times, 2013) describes the need to share private lives in this era has taken a significant role. It has become a necessity to share that individual loses their sense of self without sharing their thoughts and feelings, even though those thoughts and feelings may not be theirs. Turkle (New York Times, 2013) emphasized with the famous saying of Descartes “I think therefore I am,” in this era the saying goes “I share therefore I am.”

The selfies are expressed as a break from reality among participants. Netizens are often suprised and satisfied in glancing their own photographs. Selfies are captured idealized pieces of the self. It offers a glance of possible personalities and detachment of ones’ daily lives. In most general cases, selfie has become a kaleidoscope to the imaginary self, serving as a relief to see the self as the other. Selfie has molded to be a postmodern identity that appears much as an illusion. As Jean Baudrillard states, the autonomous subject is falling apart and disappears (Kellner, 2001: 278). The Selfie has turn to be the manifestation of the imaginary, as the detached self and social life. The imaginary of the self-have crystallized in serving self-satisfaction.

Conclusion

The practice of taking selfies has grown rapidly integrated with netizen’s culture and lifestyle. It is a play in the game of the symbolic world, done consciously and participating in


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the contestation of value in the field of social power, class, and culture. Statistics suggest that selfies in Southeast Asia are more popular than elsewhere, this trend has increased parallel with the rising communication technology demands. For Indonesian netizens, the selfie is a part of their daily lives: an act that has been habituated and taken for granted. This study indicates that young Indonesian netizens (17-22 years old) often capture their selfies to highlight their activity, and travel places that are ascociated with “the elite.” There has been an emphasis on sharpening their online personal characters gained through travel selfies, mainly related to the adventurous or the young or the elites. The addiction to share, has highlighted the need to be distinguished, “Ini lho, saya sempat berada disini!” (Look, I’ve been here) shouted Anas (student, 4 March 2015) on his Instagram account. For the majority of girls in this study, selfie experimentation has become a means to discover new looks, new personality, and a new “me” that can be shared with friends and strangers.

The notions of self-exploration and satisfaction through the constructed self are recognizable but the emphasis on the visual self, has in some ways, detached the self from reality. Indonesian young netizens capture to what to them seems extraordinary and create a narration through rows of the detached self. Selfies have been described as rows of the idealized imaginary self, which serve to entertain the self as a break from reality.

The information and digital era have amplified the imaginary, promoting the necessity to engage with the symbolic game. The postmodern identity has been created through “the pieces of me.” Today, the selfie and the practice of taking selfies are still a paradox in someways.

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Convergent Aims of Collaborative Partnership in a Sustainable

Community Service Organisation to Empower Underprivileged Children

Suhaini Muda56

Abstract

The purpose of this study is to address the issue: to what extents do different collaborative partners in a sustainable community service organisation have similar aims? The stakeholders involved in this study including the service organisation (key stakeholder), corporate and government bodies, non-governmental organisations, orphanage administrators, and volunteers. Interviews with the selected participants from each group of the stakeholders were conducted to gain the understanding regarding what they considered as their aim or focus in carrying out their collaborative efforts with the service organisation. The findings also included a review of the available documents. Based on the responses, this paper discusses various perspectives of the stakeholders which do not provide an agreement across all stakeholders on what they considered as their aims or focus of collaboration but they intersected with the key stakeholder’s aims. This challenges the notion that the partners in a collaborative partnership setting have to develop and be clear of the common aim of the collaborative partnership prior to collaboration. This case study was done in Malaysia within the context of a particular community service organisation for children. Future research may be conducted on the similar issue in different contexts.

Keywords: aim, collaborative partnership, sustainability, community service, community service organisation

56 Faculty Member, School of Multimedia Technology and Communication, College of Arts and Sciences, Universiti Utara Malaysia, Kedah Malaysia, email: [email protected]


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Introduction and Background of a Case Study

Community service organisation in this study has been set up as a non-governmental organisation (NGO). For the NGOs, collaborative partnership can be one of the mechanisms to provide services previously undertaken by the state. Yamamoto (1995) views that through collaborative activities civil societal associations are able to nurture opportunities for individuals to pursue their specific interests and societal and institutional linkages to enable community building. Moreover, inherent within the notion of civil society is the principle of civic virtue and an emphasis on rational, co-operative and moral interactions, both among the members of a society and between them and their government (Weiss & Hassan, 2003).

CyberCare, a Malaysian based community service organisation has initiated community collaborative partnerships with various stakeholders to serve the children in orphanages (also being referred as underprivileged children) through numerous programmes and activities to connect the orphanages to their aims and to include them alongside the ICT development in Malaysia since 1998. This site is selected based on its ability to sustain for twelve years (when the research was undertaken in 2010) which made it significant to study about the sustainability aspects of the collaborative partnership. Stakeholders, programmes and activities are taken into account to be studied as they make up the whole of this site. The stakeholders involved in the study of this collaborative partnership will be detailed out in the method section.

Among the programmes and activities of CyberCare are Education Excellence Programme (EEP) and Care4U. EEP refers to the programme to help the children in orphanages to reach their highest level of education by rewarding the children for every distinction achieved in the local government examinations including Primary School Assessment (Ujian Penilaian Sekolah Rendah – UPSR), Lower Secondary Assessment (Penilaian Menengah Rendah – PMR), Malaysia Certificate of Education (Sijil Pelajaran

Malaysia – SPM), and Higher School Certificate (Sijil Tinggi Pelajaran Malaysia – STPM) (CyberCare, 2011). The fund was allocated by Microsoft Malaysia, the key corporate partner at the time, through its Microsoft Unlimited Potential Scholarship Award (MUPSA). MUPSA was formerly known as Microsoft Foundation Campaign Education Excellence Programme aimed to enable recipients to further their formal education beyond secondary level into university (Microsoft Press Release, 2005). Another programme involving university students is that of Care4U, which started in 2007. Under the Care4U programme, Psychology students from a private university are recruited as interns in CyberCare for a period of fourteen weeks to complete their given assignment. During the internship, the students are trained to be personal trainers and coaches by the professional life coach who is partnering with CyberCare. These interns then coach children in their selected orphanages in life skills, and ICT skills, and guide the children through the completion of the community service project (CSP) of their choice. This coaching or training method is based on the Mengecapi

Aspirasi Diri - Living My Aspirations - (MAD) curriculum, which was first developed in 2008 by the interns from this programme. It was developed to provide a hands-on coaching to interns in particular. At the time of my fieldwork, CyberCare has had recruited five batches of university students for the internships. This is one of the programmes that was still active and seemed to receive high priority from CyberCare and its partners at the time of my fieldwork.

This article is a part of a twelve-month case study research which was conducted to investigate the issue of sustaining collaborative partnership of multiple-stakeholders in the context of community service organisation. The main focus of this article is to explore to what extent do different partners in longstanding collaborative partnerships have similar


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aims? This study gained an understanding of the participants from each group of stakeholders regarding what they considered as their aim or focus in carrying out their collaborative efforts with CyberCare. This study also seeks to understand the stakeholders’ perspectives on agreement, and whether it needs to be forged from the start or it can be done along the way. The continuing section review the literature which relevant to the study.

Definition of Collaborative Partnership

In terms of defining collaborative partnership, Gottlieb, Feeley, & Dalton’s (2005) book, The collaborative partnership approach to care: a delicate balance can serve as one of the examples of collaborative partnership in human service which is applicable to community service. In their definition, they refer to the relationship as a partnership and the way of working together as collaborative. This account of partnership is similar to how Carnwell & Carson’s (2008) distinguishes between the term “partnership” as meaning “what something

is,” and “collaborate or to work together in a joined-up way” as “what one does.” Combining the terms together, Carnwell & Carson (2008: 16) describe collaboration as the verb refers to “what we do when we engage successfully in a partnership,” in which “partnership being the

noun.” Gottlieb, Feeley, & Dalton (2005) and Carnwell & Carson (2008) view collaboration as a way of working together which include both people and organisations as the key actors.

Adapting the definitions to my study, I use both terms partnership and collaboration together to include both relationship and the way of working together. The term “relationship” in my study refers to the groups of stakeholders including individuals and organisations that come together to form a partnership, while the way of working together involves how they plan and implement the programmes. However, I do not differentiate between partnership and collaboration based on contract or agreement. The next section reviews about the aim, goal, objective, or focus (will be used interchangeably in this article) and agreement of forming partnerships.

Reaching Common Aims and Agreement

Various examples in the literature emphasise the importance of reaching agreement on common aims prior to the setup of partnership and collaboration. For examples, Frank & Smith (2006), and Carroll & Steane (2000) require the partners to have agreement between actors to do something. Wildavsky (1986: 242) also presumes the partners “to have agreed on

the project, a rough outline, and division of labour” as well as motive prior to collaborating. Melaville et al. (1996) assert the need to establish common goals and mutual agreement to share power and resources to achieve the goals prior to collaboration.

What kind of agreement is necessary? Frank & Smith (2006) clarify their view that partnerships require some official or formal agreement. They assert that the agreement does not have to satisfy legal requirements, but that it is enough to ensure that all parties involved know what the partnership is all about: who is doing what, and what outcomes are expected (Frank & Smith, 2006). In contrast, Carroll & Steane (2000) are more rigid in their expectations of agreement. They believe that agreement is very important as the basic terms of agreement are one of the essential forces influencing the partners’ beliefs about what should constitute a partnership. They argue that the agreement also determines the norms of behaviour that influence how the partners should behave within the process.

However, in practice, the varying values and interests held by different people or/and organisations may create difficulties in the process of attaining agreement on the goals of partnership and collaboration (Frank & Smith, 2006; Thomson & Perry, 2006; Walsh & Meldon, 2004). Many partnerships have reached agreement on the broad aims but the partners may not have the same understanding of the meaning of the goals due to the lack of


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details. This lack of clarity may raise the perception of other partners having a “hidden” agenda (McQuaid, 2000). Besides that, Carroll & Steane (2000) do not exclude the fact that when the agreement is practically no longer adequate, the terms of agreement can be modified or the agreement is terminated with a new one coming into effect.

In a theme-based collaborative advantage theory, Huxham & Vangen (2005; 2008) and Vangen & Huxham (2014) categorised the aims as collaborative, organisational, and individual aims. This theme-based collaborative advantage theory is paradoxical in nature and structured around collaborative advantage and collaborative inertia (Huxham & Vangen, 2005; Vangen & Huxham, 2014). The advantage of collaboration is assumed when the organisations come together, and it may seem that the stakeholders only need to be concerned with the collaborative joint aims. In fact, the organisations also bring with them different reasons for involvement as well as the aims of individuals within the organisations. These varying aims can prevent agreement as they may cause confusion, misunderstanding, and conflicts of interest. Huxham & Vangen (2008: 30) summarise this conflict as “We must have

common aims but we cannot agree on them.”

This notion is parallel to that of Wood & Gray (1991) who suggest that both common and differing interests between stakeholders may exist at the start of a collaborative venture, but as the collaboration proceeds, the interests may change or be redefined. Wildavsky (1986: 240) claims that “the feasibility of the collaborative effort need not be evident from the start

but may emerge over time,” and Thomson & Perry (2006: 27) suggest that “forging

commonalities out of differences can yield highly satisfying results” further support the suggestion. Wildavsky (1986) explains that collaboration may start with one initial interest in something, communicated to others which later leads to collaborative work. Thomson & Perry (2006) suggest that collaboration starts with differences and progress through negotiation process, and the ability of collaborators to reconcile their self-interest and collective interests can contribute to better collaboration. However, it may challenge some debates that required collaborators to agree on common aims prior to partnership or collaboration.

The reviewed of the literature demonstrates that the scholars show disagreement over the need to have a clear joint aim from the initial stage of the collaborative partnership or to let it develop along the progress. The scholars also offered a different stance on what the details and influence of agreement have on the partnership relationships. My research explores what has initially driven the stakeholders into partnership and how different stakeholders regard their aims in participating in this collaborative partnership. This study also seeks to understand the stakeholders’ perspectives on agreement, and whether it needs to be forged from the start or if it can be done along the way.

Methodology

This qualitative case study was done in Malaysia within the context of a particular community service organisation for children. Creswell (2007: 122) mentions that a researcher can include the site(s) which is a bounded system, “such as programmes, events, processes,

activities, individual or several individuals.” For my study, I chose CyberCare, an NGO, focusing in community service aiming to improve the life of the children in orphanages through the mechanism of collaborative partnership between various stakeholders.

The findings of this study are based on the data from the member-checked interviews with multiple-stakeholders, and the review of available documents, mainly newspaper articles and press releases. The objective of the interviews is to get varied perspectives from multiple-stakeholders from their knowledge and experiences working with CyberCare. Overall, the


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participants selected for interviews included five CyberCare, five government, four corporate, two other NGO, nine volunteer, and nine orphanage administrator representatives (refer Appendix 1).

Interviews with the selected participants from each group of the stakeholders were conducted to gain the understanding regarding what they considered as their aim, goal, objective or focus in carrying out their collaborative efforts with the service organisation. Findings from the interviews were compared to the findings from documents reviewed, and later placed alongside the findings of the previous studies from the literature review in the discussions. The next section begins the findings of this study.

Convergent Aims in Longstanding Collaborative Partnerships

The overarching finding around aims in a sustainable collaborative partnership is that most stakeholders came into partnership with different objectives but they intersected at some point with CyberCare’s objectives. For example, the service organisations’ main objective was to empower children in orphanages which were also shared by the volunteers and orphanage administrators. The government’s aim was to carry out its national agenda with emphasise on ICT; corporations’ aims to pursue their corporate focus; and NGOs’ aims to carry out their organisations’ interests. On the whole, orphanage administrators provided child participants (the target community) for the programmes and they welcomed volunteers to help their children.

Based on the responses, the research findings discussed the various perspectives of the stakeholders and similarities and differences between their views. Responses have been organised around participants’ comments on CyberCare’s objectives, merging objectives between stakeholders, perceived common aim, organisation focus, and government agenda as perceived collaborative partnership objectives, aims or focus.

Service Organisation Objective as Collaborative Partnership Objective

The findings showed that the majority of participants from the groups of service organisation, orphanage administrator, and volunteer regarded CyberCare’s aims as the aims they wanted to achieve in working together. All five participants from the service organisation interviewed shared the same view on the objective of the collaboration, which was to improve the lives of children in orphanages. They normally referred to the programmes that they participated in. For instance, SY-SO mentioned:

Actually at the end of the day, for CyberCare, it’s voiced (it comes) down to the improvement of the children basically on the practice. Even like Care4U project, for the past two or three times, it’s about believing in themselves …

Here, SY-SO referred to the final outcome of the programmes, emphasising the aim of CyberCare to give positive impact on the self-development of the children through collaborative programmes. In addition, YW-SO looked at the ideal change for children, as embedded in the vision of the organisation, “to let the children dream and to realise their

dreams.” He justified what he was doing with CyberCare at the moment in relation to the results that he wished to achieve in the long-term:

Ideally, CyberCare would like to see a future where there are no orphans. That means we would not like to see homes being formed artificially to house displaced children or to house single parented children or to house orphans. I like to see a future where all children will have a home, a real home. This means that if anyone is to be orphaned, he will be adopted into another home. That will be the idea …


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Instead of envisioning a long lasting existence, YW-SO appeared to anticipate the end of their collaborative efforts once this long-term aim had been achieved. This will possibly happen when orphanage no longer exists because in the current structure, CyberCare’s main role is to link orphanages with other stakeholders.

Similar to the view of the service organisation, all of the orphanage administrators referred to CyberCare’s focus when they discussed the objective of the collaborative partnership. They generally showed an understanding of what the collaborators did to bring awareness and improve the lives of the children in orphanages. An interesting finding emerged from an interview in which SLO-OA, the orphanage administrator from Orphanage4 where she showed her support for the objective of CyberCare programmes. She believed that the orphanage children who were normally viewed as “underprivileged” because they were being placed under the care of the institutions could become “privileged” children by offering them more opportunities to get involved with “good programmes” like CyberCare programmes. As CyberCare envisioned, the orphanages regarded the opportunities provided by programmes with “good objectives” as ways to develop the children in orphanages and improve their living condition. Other orphanage administrators like P-OA from Orphanage2 also shared a similar perspective, but were not as certain as SLO-OA when she based it more on her assumption. Even though both participants (SLO-OA and P-OA) showed different degrees of certainty, both assumed that there was something good in CyberCare’s objectives based on the programmes that CyberCare has done with the children at their orphanages. The differences from the service organisation’s view can be seen in the way both stakeholders view the functions of orphanages. While CyberCare members portrayed their dissatisfaction with the orphanage structure, the administrators perceived it as providing a better place for child development, better perhaps, because of the opportunities provided by projects like CyberCare, even than some “ordinary” homes.

Similar to the service organisation and orphanage administrators, most of the volunteers interviewed related the objective of the collaborative partnership to the vision and mission of CyberCare which says “every child has the right to dream, and every child has the

right to fulfil their dreams.” A majority of volunteers also linked the collaborative objective to the objectives of particular programmes of CyberCare. However, very few volunteers clearly showed their knowledge about partnerships in CyberCare, and those who did were mostly senior volunteers who had gone through the internship programmes earlier.

Despite CyberCare’s main intention to equip the children with both self-development and ICT skills, and instil their awareness to contribute to the community, what was more apparent to the orphanage administrators was the objective of changing the children’s sense of self-esteem through the programmes. In contrast, the volunteer group seemed to describe CyberCare’s aims holistically, to include all aspects of personal development, ICT skills, and community service aspects as in the Care4U programme. Such differences may be due to the degree of involvement of the stakeholders with the children’s programmes. Volunteers who have gained both theoretical understanding from the curriculum, and practical understanding from their involvement in the implementation of the programme from the beginning until its completion may be able to provide a wider interpretation of CyberCare’s objective compared to the orphanage administrator group who just based their findings on what they had been informed of, and their distant observations. Nevertheless, all three stakeholders discussed here seemed to value child participation for empowerment by explicitly mentioning “improving children’s personal development” and “self-esteem,” “giving rights to children to

achieve their dreams,” and “encouraging children’s participation” as CyberCare’s related objective. Besides recognising CyberCare’s aim as a collaborative partnership objective,


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some stakeholders were also aware of the differences between various partners, as discussed in the following subsection.

Forging Commonalities out of Differences as a Collaborative Partnership Objective

Some of the stakeholders discussed differing objectives held by various stakeholders. In dealing with these various objectives, CyberCare showed their tolerance of different views by trying to unite all objectives of the partners in collaboration. One of the corporate stakeholders, and a couple of volunteers also seemed to believe that a collaborative partnership objective can be achieved by forging commonalities out of differences. These will be shown in the following discussion.

Besides emphasising the aim of CyberCare itself, YW-SO at the same time realised that the partners in the collaboration may have different objectives to CyberCare, “So, the

collaborative partnership in other words will be trying to marry the objectives of the

corporate sponsors, right, the partners, and us.” Here, the objective of the collaborative partnership can be viewed as the objective of both CyberCare and the other stakeholders, which are viewed by YW-SO as being closely linked. This is in contrast to the other two corporate stakeholder (CJ-Corp and ML-Corp) perspectives, which focus on the needs of their own individual organisations, as will be discussed in the next subsection.

SN-Corp from LifeWorks perceived the collaborative partnership objective through a macro lens. She recognised the diverse values and objectives of different stakeholders in the collaborative partnership that they have in CyberCare, but did not believe that this prevented them from continuing their collaborative work under one objective of CyberCare. SN-Corp clarified:

I guess if you look at the context, they all have got different values and objectives but do they come together to meet the one objective that CyberCare wants to achieve? Yes! They do that, and they work very nicely in that way.

Here, SN-Corp view can be categorised as the individual organisation objective and a collaborative partnership objective they shared in common. However, other corporate stakeholders in my study did not appear to have similar agreement on what leads to satisfactory outcomes.

What is also interesting in SN-Corp’s view is that, besides emphasising the commonality they shared, she also valued the sharing of differences. SN-Corp further explained how various partners can work with their differences:

… It is like, “Okay, let us see what we can do or create, let’s see what we can do differently.” I bring some new ideas, and we share and figure out what we can create and do differently, this is the most important.

Similar to SN-Corp, two volunteer participants who have been coached by YW-SO and SN-Corp in the recent Care4U programme, related the focus of the collaborative partnership to what the founder of CyberCare, YW-SO and his partner, SN-Corp from LifeWorks, shared and wanted to do. For instance, RN-Vol looked at how the two can complement their foci:

… She’s (SN-Corp) from the coaching line and Mr. YW-SO is from the technology line. So they have the same mission, they have the same vision to contribute back to the society with the children. So they collaborate and use their expertise to contribute to society.


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These extracts showed that despite all of the members in the service organisation and volunteer groups’ agreement on the objective of CyberCare to be the objective of their collaborative partnership, they were aware of the potential differences, but those were the differences they could deal with. YW-SO simply mentioned that the different objectives will be combined but did not specify how it can be done. However, both SN-Corp and the volunteers provided clearer discussion on how the differences that the two partners have can be combined to work for what CyberCare aimed for. While SN-Corp emphasis combining different ways to achieve their aims, the volunteers’ emphasis combining different types of expertise to achieve the same vision.

Corporate Focus as Being in Common with the Aim of the Service Organisation

This section discusses the corporations’ perspectives of what was in common between their own organisations’ aims and CyberCare. The analysis of the corporate statements in the media showed that these stakeholders appeared to regard their aims as in common with CyberCare’s objective. For example, the newspaper article (Ching, 1999) reports Benedict Lee, the managing director of Microsoft Malaysia as saying, “CyberCare mission is

absolutely in tune with our own thinking and mission and we are proud to be part of it.”

In contrast to SN-Corp, who emphasised achieving CyberCare’s aim out of differences, the analyses of the available documents showed that the partnerships with other corporate partners, as with Microsoft, were being set up with the common objectives and beliefs between the key corporate stakeholders and service organisation. The findings showed that the corporations were looking for a partner that can fit with the focus of the programme of the corporations. However, this is only based on the statement in public documents.

As the founding corporate sponsor to CyberCare, it was no surprise to find out that Microsoft, through its Microsoft Foundation Campaign, shared common objectives and beliefs with CyberCare. The shared beliefs within the collaborative partnership between Microsoft and CyberCare were acknowledged by Bill Gates in his speech during a brief interaction session with children during his visit to the country. He stated as follows:

CyberCare and Microsoft share a common belief that every individual, regardless of their economic, religious, and cultural background, be empowered with IT skills and knowledge to excel in life by having access to learning tools, such as the Internet (Microsoft, 2000).

The emphasis on the word “excel” here shows a different set of language to “dreams” which may illustrate a more skills-based aspiration. It stressed on an achievement as opposed to a process based focus. Besides this, the underlying objective of the Microsoft Foundation Campaign itself was to let people know that protecting intellectual property rights will bring benefits to the community as Microsoft was returning a portion of anti-piracy settlements and damages to the communities in which it operates via charitable organisations (Ching, 1999). Another corporate partner, Samsung, awarded the grant through its DigitAll Hope programme for CyberCare to continue its collaborative work aimed at “enriching the lives of

the underprivileged through technology and technological advancement” (Yoon, 2005). This statement’s use of “enriching” is an interesting choice of word, as it literally points towards money as well as figuratively implying other things. It also showed a slightly different emphasis here as Microsoft emphasised providing information access through the usage of technology while Samsung stressed how technological advances can better contribute to children’s lives.

The findings, mainly from newspaper articles and press releases, showed that the majority of corporate participants relate their collaborative objective in the partnership with


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CyberCare with the ways they wanted to pursue their collaborative works. Overall, Microsoft was the only company that really highlighted both firm-serving (combating anti-piracy) and public serving (contributing to community) motives. The other corporate partners appeared to place greater emphasis on their public-serving motives, demonstrated in the Samsung statement of aim above. However, the findings could not confirm whether that seeming transparency contributed to the Microsoft long-term partnership with CyberCare.

Partner Organisation Focus as Collaborative Partnership Objective

While the analysis from the available documents showed that the corporate stakeholders clearly emphasised common aim between partners, interviews with recent corporate participants provided different views. When asked about the objective of their collaborative partnership with CyberCare, the two corporate partners, PIKOM and Accenture merely linked the partnership with their own programme needs or corporate objectives. For example, CJ-Corp from PIKOM suggests that CyberCare was brought into partnership to help PIKOM to achieve its own aim in MAINPC project which is “to bring the ICT credibility to the poor and the underprivileged.” This shows that CyberCare was important at that time to accommodate the needs of the corporation. In this kind of relationship, it seems likely that the collaboration continues as long as the need continues, with both partners in need of each other. ML-Corp from Accenture viewed that the change in corporate objective (e.g. from child focus to environmental focus) may also lead to a change of partners.

These two corporate participants show that partners came to have different objectives. Moreover, their responses reveal different findings from the statements of different corporate stakeholders in the available documents. What is apparent here was that the stakeholders who emphasised more on achieving their own corporate objectives were in partnership with CyberCare for a shorter duration, compared to the corporate stakeholders who make explicit their common aims with CyberCare.

The partners’ emphasis on their own organisations’ foci could also be seen from the interviews with NGO participants. When describing the objective of their collaborative partnership, both views of NGOs are relative to the focus area of their organisations’ movements. SL-NGO looked at how CyberCare was functioning as a part of the Lions Club and emphasised community inclusion in the process. SL-NGO made it clear that the aim of the club’s partnership with CyberCare was to bring its expertise and available resources to work together to raise funds and invite community participation rather than to supply direct monetary assistance. The connection of the collaborative partnership objective to the organisation’s movement can also be seen from JF-NGO who leads an environmental organisation. He regarded the objective of the specific Community Service Project (Bamboo Planting) to preserve the environment as the collaborative partnership objective. JF-NGO also acknowledged the uniqueness of the programme which attracted him lay in the element of research during the planning, where both interns and children did some research before they decided to plant bamboo.

These findings showed that both corporate and NGO stakeholders emphasised the importance of the collaborative partnership to carry out the aim of the corporations or to match with the organisations’ movements. This condition may link to what they can do with their available resources, and expertise. The final subsection will look at the perceptions of the government officials regarding what constitutes the objectives of government partnership with multiple stakeholders.


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Collaborative Partnerships’ Objectives as Set by Government

All government stakeholders insisted that the partners adopt a government agenda in carrying out their collaborative efforts. RA-Gov mentioned the purpose of the collaborative partnership in which government funded the piloted programme was used to justify future budgets and programmes plan based on the piloted project. KJ-Gov emphasised that the grant required the partners to carry out the long-term government agenda which is the National Information Technology Agenda (NITA). He explained that the Demonstrator Application Grant Scheme (DAGS) is used to carry out the agenda by covering 70% of the project cost. In return, the promoter has to show commitment by having good vision and noble project with good actors. KJ-Gov further stressed that this structure will benefit both promoter and the community.

The government through DAGS was meant to encourage more community participation with the provided fund, and created an avenue for the community to work with the corporation. The NITA aims for Malaysia, eventually, to develop into a values-based knowledge society where physical development will go alongside spiritual development by the year 2020. This aim supported government officials’ emphasis on “tripartite partnership” (government, corporation, and community) in DAGS model as a working structure of this collaborative partnership.

In the implementation, KJ-Gov who referred to the government through DAGS as the “second party” to the agreement emphasised two important criteria of DAGS: the requirement for the presenter of the project as the “first party” to be a promoter, and requirement for the partnership to bring the partners as the “third party” in the projects during the presentation. In the case of CyberCare, he referred the “third party” to the orphanage community. He repeatedly mentioned that the “government required the partnership to

include third party participation from the design stage.” KJ-Gov considered the “third party” to be represented by the managers, orphanage administrators, or the volunteers during the project proposal presentation.

This implementation model was what KJ-Gov considered to be a uniquely new effective design which he considered different from common government funding practices in Malaysia at the time. He believed this multiparty, participatory structure was a way of promoting transparency and accountability. Participants of the service organisation agreed with KJ-Gov’s analysis. MC-SO acknowledged that the transparency in their collaborative structure resulted from the monitoring process required by the government, as also discussed by the government officials.

Government participants in this collaboration seemed to imply control in various situations. For example, KJ-Gov’s explanation also showed that, CyberCare was being set up by the community which involved a bottom-up approach and process where the initiation began from the community members. However, the financial management during the award period was controlled by the government which involved top-down process in which the government allocated the fund under certain terms and conditions and having its officials to monitor the usage. These findings will be discussed and concluded in the following section.

Discussion and Conclusion

It has been argued that partners have to be clear about the aims of joint working if they wish to execute any strategy or policy. Much of the literature stresses the importance of partners reaching agreement on common aims prior to setting up of partnership and collaboration (Frank & Smith, 2006; Gottlieb, Feeley, & Dalton, 2005; Melaville et al., 1996; Wildavsky, 1986). However, the findings of this research show that merging different aims


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rather than reaching agreement on common aims was more practical in carrying out and sustaining the collaborative efforts.

This case study supports the observation that in practice, the different values and interests held by different people and/or organisations create difficulties in the process of attaining agreement on the goals of partnership and collaboration (Frank & Smith, 2006; Huxham & Vangen, 2000, 2008; Thomson & Perry, 2006; Walsh & Meldon, 2004). The findings of this study support the notion that both common and differing interests between stakeholders exist at the start of a collaborative venture. These common and differing interests may be changed or redefined as the collaboration proceeds (Wood & Gray, 1991). A few cases in this collaborative partnership indicated where the partners had common interests in the beginning, but realised they had differences later on.

As Huxham (2003) and Huxham & Vangen (2000; 2008) suggest in their discussion of practices of partnership, the findings of this study showed that the stakeholders did not wait for total consensus on aims before starting their collaborative programmes. This research also showed that rather than grieving over their different aims, stakeholders in this partnership developed their understanding, and found ways to adapt to the differences. In fact they focused on what they could work on with the resources that they had at the time.

In contrast to Vangen & Huxham (2014), Huxham & Vangen (2005; 2008), and Huxham (2003) suggestions for the collaborators to identify their individual, organisational and collaborative aims in order to focus on aligning their collaborative aims, the partners in this partnership could not identify such three types of aims clearly. Also, they could not mention clearly whose aim is considered as the collaborative aim. Different stakeholders demonstrate different views when describing their collaborative aim. In the context of my study, what made the partners successfully carry out their collaborative programmes was not mainly their clear understanding of different types of aims but what they can do with what they have, and what they aim for. For example, at the time when the corporations have their corporate responsibility fund allocation that can be used to support CyberCare’s programmes, they collaborated but when their focus changed and was not relevant with CyberCare’s cause, they ceased to collaborate. The active relationship in this collaborative partnership setting appears to be based more on a dyadic interaction between CyberCare and one partner rather than all partners coming together to the table.

Despite the findings from the available documents showing that the corporation which is reported to have common aims with CyberCare demonstrated as CyberCare’s long-term partner, it is hard to conclude that having common aims contributes to sustainable collaborative partnership. One of the NGO stakeholders (SL-NGO), for example, who regarded his organisation’s focus as the aim of joint working also had a long-term relationship with CyberCare.

This study demonstrates that CyberCare is the key partner that kept this collaborative partnership moving. Regardless of these diverse aims, the findings indicate that as long as the key player can adapt and merge these aims together, the collaborative partnership efforts will be sustained.

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Appendix: Summary characteristic of the participants interviewed

Category Participant Represent Involvement

Service Organisation JN-SO Board of Directors CyberCare Management & Administration

Service Organisation MC-SO Board of Directors CyberCare Management & Administration

Service Organisation MS-SO Fulltime staff CyberCare Management & Administration

Service Organisation SY-SO Board of Directors CyberCare Management & Administration

Service Organisation YW-SO Board of Directors CyberCare Management & Administration

Government KJ-Gov NITC Grant & policies

Government *PF-Gov DAGS Grant & policies

Government *CA-Gov DAGS Grant & policies

Government RA-Gov DAGS Grant & policies

Government SJ-Gov DAGS Grant & policies

Corporation *CJ-Corp PIKOM MAD Curriculum & Care4U

Corporation *TH-Corp PIKOM MAD Curriculum & Care4U

Corporation ML-Corp Accenture Various programmes/ activities

Corporation SN-Corp LifeWorks MAD Curriculum & Care4U

NGO JF-NGO Kota Damansara Friends Community Service Project

NGO SL-NGO The Lions Club CyberCare patron

Volunteer *YY-Vol Ex-intern & current volunteer YLM & Care4U batch 3

Volunteer *YS-Vol Ex-intern & current volunteer YLM & Care4U batch 3

Volunteer *YYi-Vol Ex-intern & current volunteer YLM & Care4U batch 3

Volunteer KS-Vol Ex-intern & current volunteer Care4U Programme batch 4

Volunteer MG-Vol Current intern & volunteer Care4U Programme batch 5


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Volunteer PQ-Vol Current intern & volunteer Care4U Programme batch 5

Volunteer RN-Vol Current intern & volunteer Care4U Programme batch 5

Volunteer DP-Vol Current intern & volunteer Care4U Programme batch 5

Volunteer J-Vol Current intern & volunteer Care4U Programme batch 5

Orphanage (administrator) JS-OA Orphanage1 Care4U Programme

Orphanage (administrator) P-OA Orphanage2 YLM Programme

Orphanage (administrator) RAI-OA Orphanage3 Care4U Programme

Orphanage (administrator) SLO-OA Orphanage4 Camp Vision Singapore

Orphanage (administrator) ER-OA Orphanage5 Care4U Programme

Orphanage (administrator) AK-OA Orphanage6 Care4U Programme

Orphanage (administrator) DZ-OA Orphanage7 Care4U & other programmes

Orphanage (administrator) AT-OA Orphanage8 YLM & other programmes

Orphanage (administrator) TT-OA Orphanage9 Camp Vision Singapore

*Joint Interview


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The Theory of Sustainability Transformation in Social-Ecological System (SES):

The Triple Morphogenesis Approach

Qiyan Wang1 Masakazu Yamashita1

Hiroshi Takeda57

Abstract

That Janus-faced human beings and society as critical reasons and outcomes shape both of unsustainability and sustainability in social-ecological system (SES) in the era of Anthropocene is an undisputable fact. Sustainability transformation as a powerful concept and approach has become “hot spot” many scholars and policy makers are paying close attention to. Although recent studies on sustainability transformation are mostly based on resilience theory and/or transition theory theoretically and empirically, its conceptual grounds, theoretical development and practical relevance are still in infancy. In this explorative theoretical paper, based on the premise of ensuring consistency between ontology, methodology and practice, we try to face these challenges to synthesize and integrate ecological resilience theory, transition theory, realist social theory, and social-ecological theory to develop and build theory on sustainability transformation in SES to uncover specific conditions, mechanisms and patterns underlying sustainability transformation. Our first step to explore this theory is to re-develop and re-conceptualize resilience thinking theory (resilience as adaptability, as transformability, and as persistence) so as to liberate resilience thinking theory from “capacity” to “dynamic process”, from “passive and negative regime shift” to “positive and active regime shift”, from “non agents of agency” to “agents of agency”. We propose Social-Ecological Transitional Resilience Thinking Framework, that is, resilience as adaptation, as transformation and as transition. The second attempt is to integrate this framework with the morphogenetic approach to construct Morphogenetic Social-Ecological System Framework (MSES) with the purpose of furnishing a theoretical framework for transformative change and process onto SES.

Keywords: Social-Ecological System (SES), resilience thinking theory, transition approach, social-ecological transformation to sustainability, Social-Ecological Morphogenesis

57 Department of Environmental Systems Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan


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Introduction

More and more scientists, scholars, policy makers, individuals and organizations have recognized that “business as usual” is not an effective approach for today’s persistent problems (Rotmans, 2005; Loorbach, 2007; Loorbach et al., 2009), and that radical systematic shifts are imperative in order to achieve “real sustainability” (Gell-Mann, 2010). The up and coming concept, sustainability transformation, as a powerful approach and even strong belief has attracted great attention from scientific research and discourse. The reason why many researchers are stormed by this concept is that not only does this concept provide a new significant channel towards sustainability, reconnecting nature, and radical systematic change in social-ecological system (SES), but also ignite people’s hope towards sustainable development.

Nonetheless, Olsson et al., (2014) indicate that, on the one hand, a clear-cut understanding of the underlying mechanisms and patterns, as well as conditions, of transformation, which might greatly promote our opportunities for “persistent problems” and successfully steering prominent transformation to sustainability, is still in infancy; on the other hand, that as resilience theory and transition management are two critical conceptual and theoretical frameworks for studying sustainability transformation so far, thus, combining and integrating with the two different research fields could provide a promising attempt for sustainability transformation theoretical building and empirical study, which will be certainly not easy due to different theoretical background and social-ecological systematic complex processes. However, we aim to come across these disciplinary boundaries and create a better understand of social-ecological transformation to sustainability.

In this explorative paper, our first step is to dismantle the conflated view rooted in resilience thinking between engineering resilience and ecological resilience after reconfirming the ontology of ecosystem resilience. A new conceptual dimension of resilience thinking is proposed, we call, social-ecological positive resilience thinking (SE-PRT); the second step is to synthesize resilience thinking based on SE-PRT dimension with transition approach into a new theoretical framework, we call, social-ecological transitional resilience

theoretical framework (SE-TR) so as to provide theoretical foundation for sustainability transformative process, centered on resilience; the third step is to integrate this framework with the morphogenetic approach (Archer, 1995) to construct Morphogenetic Social-

Ecological System Framework (MSES) in the pursuit of studying transformative change and process in SES.

The Ontology of Ecosystem Resilience

Ecosystem Resilience as a theoretical concept focusing on ecosystem dynamics and as a new paradigm for natural resources management is firstly introduced by Holling (1973). In his seminal paper Resilience and Stability of Ecological Systems, resilience is defined as measure of the persistence of systems and of their ability to absorb change and disturbance

and still maintain the same relationships between populations or state variables (Holling, 1973) or magnitude of disturbance that can be absorbed before the system changes its

structure by changing the variables and processes that control behavior (Holling and Gunderson, 2002). This concept emphasizes the existence of alternative stable regimes in ecological systems (including alternative irreversible stable regimes and alternative reversible stable regimes). On the other hand, engineering resilience (Holling and Gunderson, 2002), which emphasizes only one stable equilibrium in ecological system, is referred to the time a system takes to recover from a disturbance (Pimm’s, 1984) or as rate and speed of return to pre-existing and original conditions after disturbance (Holling and Gunderson, 2002). However, there is an unfortunate phenomenon in conceptual and practical development of


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resilience concept so as to mislead the essence of the original ecosystem resilience concept: ecosystem resilience is equal to engineering residence ontologically and epistemologically and is mistakenly regarded as returning original state and maintaining status quo. Therefore, it is imperative to reconfirm the ontological aspect of ecosystem resilience concept. It is obvious that there are two essential attributes about ecosystem resilience: persistence and collapse, both of which are as two extreme endpoints on the conceptual spectrum of ecosystem resilience, respectively. In Oxford Dictionaries (2015), persistence is defined as: 1) continuing firmly or obstinately in an opinion or course of action in spite of difficulty or opposition, 2) continuing to exist or occur over a prolonged period, 3) remaining within the environment for a long time after introduction, and 4) remaining attached instead of falling off in the normal manner. By definition, it indicates that “to continue when facing difficulties while still within critical threshold in long-time dimension” is the core meaning of persistence. Thus, we assume that the ontology of ecosystem resilience concept is the

capacity and process of positive changes and changing the changes positively between

persistence and collapse or between 0 and 1 (Strunz, 2012) with or without external

disturbances. There is no doubt that change is the core philosophy and research object in resilience research and that the place for change is system in which change have been changed or is being changed. It is easy to see that the ontology of ecosystem resilience is fundamentally positive, open, and inclusive. Thus, this concept with inter-and trans-disciplinary qualities can smoothly extend to SES research and sustainability research. In next section, we will discuss resilience thinking that matches partially to the ontology of ecosystem resilience. To say, “partially match”, there is still a need of distinguishing “ecosystem resilience-based resilience thinking” from “engineering resilience-based resilience thinking”.

Resilience Thinking: From “Bounce Back” to “Bounce Forth”

The theoretical and conceptual foundation of resilience thinking is developed from a series of papers and books (Walker et al., 2004; Walker and Salt, 2006; Folke, 2006; Walker et al., 2009; Folke et al., 2010), especially the paper, Resilience Thinking: Integrating

Resilience, Adaptability and Transformability. The significant contributions of this paper are that: 1) ecosystem resilience is extended from ecological system into SES, 2) another new two concepts, adaptation and transformation are added as essential perquisites for social-ecological resilience, 3) confusion between resilience and transformation is tactfully resolved by “multi-scalar and temporal resilience” perspective, and 4) three aspects of SES is addressed: resilience as persistence, adaptability, transformability (Folke et al., 2010). However, resilience and adaptation is, implicitly or explicitly, understood as “maintenance,” “recovering to the original state” or “business as usual” when applied in wider research field, e.g. climate change research, community research and disaster research, to name a few.

Rather than doing a state of art literature review, we will identify two basic exemplary conceptual dimensions of resilience thinking, we call, social-ecological conservative resilience thinking and social-ecological positive resilience thinking (Table 1). As shown in Table 1, social-ecological conservative resilience thinking (SE-CRT) is featured as: buffer

capacity for preserving what we have and recovering to where we have; all about absorbing

shocks; survival and bounce-back ability and process; avoiding negative regime shift and

keeping staying the “original” regime; adaptive resilience, while social-ecological positive

resilience thinking (SE-PRT) is as: the ability to change, adapt, and importantly transform

with or without external disturbance; the process to continually reinvent and innovate for

doing new things and new possibilities with hope; not necessarily about absorbing shocks;

bounce forward, to-forth and bounce beyond ability and process; to change and not to

continue doing the same thing and to be stronger and better than before; positive and active


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regime shift with intentionality of human actions; transformative resilience. It is apparent that social-ecological positive resilience thinking takes root in ecosystem resilience; social-ecological conservative resilience thinking in engineering resilience. It is social-ecological positive resilience thinking to we should turn as theoretical and conceptual foundation for sustainability transformation. The reason why we use this conceptualization, social-ecological positive resilience thinking, is that we accentuate radical change process in complex adaptive SES, not ecological system or social system. It means that SES as a unique system has independent ontology and thus differs from ecological system and social system. This proposition is also consistent with resilience perspective and sustainability science. Social-ecological positive resilience thinking as a promising conceptualization can direct development of interdisciplinary research when translating resilience thinking into, or integrating resilience thinking with other research fields. As Mcevory and Fünfgeld (2011) argue, there are two prominent inconsistences and alienations: to mostly concern with

“staying the status quo”, while to ignore transformation potential and process; to bound itself within “engineering resilience ” which underlines “bouncing back to the previous stable state as soon as possible”. Sustainability transformation is usually defined as “shifts that fundamentally alter human and environmental interactions and feedbacks” (Olsson et al., 2014) or as “physical and/or qualitative changes in form, structure, or meaning-making” (O’Brien and Sygna, 2013) or as “the capacity to create untried beginnings from which to evolve a fundamentally new way of living when existing ecological, economic, and social conditions make the current system untenable” (Westley et al., 2011). Apparently, these above definitions of sustainability transformation are consistent with social-ecological positive resilience thinking. But it is worth noting that social-ecological conservative resilience thinking and social-ecological positive resilience thinking is not completely opposite to each other. To great degree, social-ecological conservative resilience thinking only expresses naive appeal and comfort. In other words, we can return and recover, but not to the original one, only to a “new original one”; to this point, social-ecological conservative thinking is connected with social-ecological positive resilience thinking.

Table 1: Some Characters of Social-Ecological Conservative Resilience Thinking and Social-Ecological Positive Resilience Thinking

Social-Ecological Conservative Resilience

Thinking Social-Ecological Positive Resilience Thinking

- As buffer capacity for preserving what we have and recovering to where we have (Folke et al., 2010) - All about absorbing shocks - Survival and Bounce-Back ability and process (Shaw, 2012; Valikangas, 2010) - Resilience 1.0 (Hodgson, 2011) - Avoiding negative regime shift and keeping staying the “original” regime (Disturbances and shocks move SES into alternative undesirable regime within the same system or into another undesirable regime within different system.) - Conservative connotation - Adaptive resilience (Wilson et al., 2013; Robinson, 2010; Anthony et

- As the ability to change, adapt, and importantly transform with or without external disturbance and as the process to continually reinvent and innovate for doing new things and new possibilities with hope (Scheffer, 2009; Simmie and Martin, 2010; Folke et al., 2010) - Not necessarily about absorbing shocks - Bounce forward, to-forth and bounce beyond ability and process (Shaw, 2012; Leach, 2008) - Resilience 2.0 (Hodgson, 2011) - To change and not to continue doing the same thing and to be stronger and better than before (Seville, 2008) - Positive and active regime shift with intentionality of human actions (Hodgson, 2011)


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Social-Ecological Conservative Resilience

Thinking Social-Ecological Positive Resilience Thinking

al., 2015; Nilakant et al., 2014; Cutter et al., 2008)

- Radical connotation - Transformative resilience (Hodgson, 2011; Gotham and Campanella, 2010) - Evolutionary resilience (Simmie and Martin, 2010)

Two Theoretical Pillars for Sustainability Transformation: Social-Ecological

Transitional Resilience Framework (SE-TR) and Morphogenetic Social-Ecological

System Framework (MSES)

These two theoretical frameworks aim at two questions about sustainability transformation in SES: what transformative process is in SES and how transformative process happens in SES? We concur with Archer’s notion that the ontology must be addressed before methodology and explanation so as to keep the consistence between ontology, epistemology and practice. Thus, we strive to develop the theory of sustainability transformation with recognizing the tripartite connections and consistence between ontology, epistemology and practice. Archer (1995) delineates the structure of social theory as consistent three parts as follows (Fig.1). According to this, the theoretical structure of sustainability transformation in SES can be developed (Fig.2).

SO →→→→ EP →→→→ PST

Social Ontology Explanatory Programme Practical Social Theory

Figure 1: Structure of social theory (Archer 1995: 20)

SESO →→→→ EP →→→→ PST

Social-Ecological System Ontology Explanatory Programme Practical Sustainability Transformation

(Complex realism) (What is sustainability transformation?

How does sustainability transformation happen?)

Figure 2: Structure of the Theory of Sustainability Transformation in Social-Ecological System (SES)

During developing the theory of sustainability transformation in SES, we advocate an overarching ontology in which SESO is rooted in, namely, complex realism that synthesizes critical realism as philosophical ontology with complexity theory as a scientific ontology (Reed and Harvey, 1992). We argue that SES, together with social system and ecological system are all complex adaptive system and they are all unique systems and different from each other. In other words, we assume that SES has independent ontology distinguishing from the ontology of social system and ecological system. Thus, SES can be as an object of scientific research. SES focusing on linked complex systems of people and nature is first coined by (Berkes and Folke, 1998) because they did not want to treat the social or ecological dimension as a prefix, but rather give the two same weights during their analysis. The reason why the concept, sustainability transformation, is so appealing lies in that transformative process doesn’t happen in the social or the ecological, but in SES. Thus, the clarification for the ontological part of SES makes the theoretical building of sustainability transformation in


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SES feasible. Given that the theory of sustainability transformation in SES is in work-in-progress, we maintain that there are nothing in SESO, EP and PST that are self-contradictory from the beginning stage of theoretical building, and that good explanation cannot be at the level of experience (the empirical level) or at the level of events (the actual level), but needs to explore a real mechanism which, in the complex adaptive system, is responsible for sustainability transformation. That is to say, the following approaches which are all rooted in complex realism: resilience thinking, transition approach and Archer's realist theory of morphogenesis, resonate in harmony with each other. Thus, their synthesis will hold an explanatory power to uncover generative mechanism for sustainability transformation in SES.

Reframing

Olsson et al., (2014) argue that resilience theory and transition management, among others, are two promising conceptual frameworks for researching sustainability transformation. Before introducing SE-TR theoretical framework, we will make some differences between resilience theory and resilience thinking, and between transition management and transition approach. Regarding resilience theory, we assume that resilience theory is located between descriptive resilience (including two conceptual dimension: ecological resilience and engineering resilience) and resilience thinking (including two conceptual dimension: social-ecological conservative resilience thinking and social-ecological positive resilience thinking) (Fig.3) and that theoretical foundation of sustainability transformation is nearer the end-point of resilience thinking, more specifically, is based on social-ecological positive resilience thinking dimension of resilience thinking. Thus, we call one of conceptual framework, resilience thinking, instead of resilience theory.

As regards the other conceptual framework, transition management, we will use transition approach (Rotmans, 2005; Martens and Rotmans, 2005) instead of transition management. Transition approach focusing on persistent problems in societal system draw attention to a gradual, continuous and fundamental process of structural change within a society or culture, instead of treating symptoms of those problems with marginal changes and adjustments (Frantzeskaki, 2011; Rotmans et al., 2001), transition approach is also characterized as “transformative change, meaning irreversible racial change that takes a long-term to materialize (Frantzeskaki, 2011),” which perfectly coincides with the essence of ecosystem resilience and the ontology of social-ecological positive resilience thinking.


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Figure 3: Conceptualization of resilience theory

Synthesis: Theoretical Frameworks for Sustainability Transformation in SES

As marked by Hatt (2013), there are two uncomfortable mistakes when applying resilience thinking in SES: when translating resilience thinking into social system, resilience

thinking is ironically based itself on structural functionalism theory that is determined by the

assumption of social system committing itself to equilibrium and “status quo,” which is strikingly in conflict with the ontology of resilience thinking positioning itself as adaptive

equilibrium rather than mechanical equilibrium; given that resilience thinking is obsessed

with systematical level, there is no room for human agency. Hence, a new picture emerges when integrating resilience thinking with transition research: transition approach supplies human agency for resilience thinking and removes the embarrassing ontological contraction indicated by Hatt (2013), this integration makes ecological system or social system extend to SES. Otherwise, resilience thinking is just at the edge of ecological system of SES, while transition approach is completely within social system. We also argue that there are still three problematical issues in resilience thinking theoretical framework (Folke et al., 2010): 1) resilience thinking, that is, resilience as adaptability, as transformability and as persistence is too much concerned with capacity, and process is implicitly ignored, to some degree, 2) the concept, persistence, is not as the same conceptual level as the other concepts, adaptability and transformability. It means that a new concept is needed and this new concept needs to be

Social-Ecological

Conservative R

esilience T

hinking (SE-C

RT

)

Resilience Theory

Descriptive Resilience

Resilience Thinking

Engineering R

esilience

Ecological R

esilience

Social-Ecological Positive

Resilience T

hinking (SE-PR

T)

Active regime shift

Passive regime shift

The conceptual foundation of Sustainability Transformation


219

in the same conceptual level as transformability and adaptability, and 3) it remains in vague about agency itself, interaction between agency and structure as structure and agency is a critical topic in social science. Drawing on this, we propose a theoretical framework for studying what transformative process is in SES, centered on resilience: resilience as adaptation, as transformation and as transition (Fig.4).

Why does this framework center on resilience? Our biggest ambition is that we try to study transformative process in SES as a real research object in which humans and nature as an integrated whole are co-evolving within a health planet. For this reason, what resilience thinking counts is SES dynamics and interactions, and “reconnecting to the biosphere” (Folke et al., 2011; Berkes and Folke, 1998). Thus, the significance of sustainability transformation in SES is that both of the social and the ecological should be transformed through positive changes started by agency. In other words, transformative process generates further transformative process. Again, social-ecological transitional resilience framework builds on social-ecological positive resilience thinking of conceptual dimension that focuses on “positively bounce forth” instead “negatively bounce back”. As a new conceptual level, transition, is not simply and mechanically added; because, its true connotation consists in, on the one hand, producing new emergent relation between and among adaptation and transformation; on the other hand, making SES not be within current stability domain or basin of attraction, that is, adaptation (Berkes et al., 2003), but shift to an alternative regime in the same SES, or “jump” to a new kind of basin in a new SES (Walker et al., 2004). We call “shift to an alternative regime in the same SES”, adaptive transition, as one of transformative process, we call “jump to a new kind of basin in a new SES”, transformative

transition, as the other transformative process. Here, these two transformative processes, adaptive transition and transformative transition, are emergent systematic process initiated by “change agents”. How can these two transformative processes be studied in SES? We will synthesize this framework with Archer's realist theory of morphogenesis into a new theoretical framework, we call, Morphogenetic Social-Ecological System Framework (Fig.6), so as to study these two processes in SES.

Why is Archer's realist theory of morphogenesis? Archer's realist theory of morphogenesis consistently matches its ontology with the ontology of resilience thinking and transition approach; Archer's realist theory of morphogenesis (Fig.5) maintains an analytical distinction between structure and agency, which means that structure and agency is interrelated causally, but separated ontologically (Porpora, 2013). This analytical distinction liberates “change agent” from structure, which resonates with our proposition that every transformative change originates from “change agent” (Fig.6), in recent book, Social

Morphogenesis edited by Archer (2013), morphogenetic society as a theory is proposed, and it expands the morphogenetic approach as a meta-theory to a theoretical conception. The theoretical framework, Morphogenetic Social-Ecological System Framework (MSES), is inspired by both of social morphogenesis and the morphogenetic approach. MSES comprises three conceptual entities that are interconnected causally, but separated ontologically: the agential, the societal and the ecological. Three emergent levels are constituted by conditioning, interaction and elaboration. Here, we synthesize the cultural domain and the structural domain (Archer, 1995) as the societal domain. The societal domain is the emergent outcome between/among the cultural domain and the structural domain, but the cultural domain and the structural domain still maintain analytical distinction. Moreover, time dimension plays an important role in MSES as the mismatches between the social dynamic and ecosystem dynamics push life-supporting ecosystems over critical thresholds into more degraded, less productive regimes to which resilience scholars also pay great attention (Olsson et al., 2014). Thus the temporal dimension in MSES accentuates consistency of the


220

social and the ecological when transformative processes happen. In MSES, the ecological domain explicitly highlights interaction between and within slow variable and fast variable, these concepts of which originate from ecosystem resilience theory. As argued by Walker et al. (2012), it is critical to take into account the interaction between and within “slow variables”, “fast variables” and external drivers in order to successfully steer SES to a desired direction. In MSES, every transformative change starts from agential interaction. More importantly, every transformative change must involve ecological elaboration. At this point, it is different from resilience thinking, and transition approach, both of which exclusively focus on one-side elaboration, the social or the ecological. A whole morphogenesis process in SES means the realization of agential elaboration, societal elaboration and ecological elaboration simultaneously, three of which are as emergent entities, respectively. As shown in this framework, we can deduce many morphogenetic cycles, among which there are two prototypic cycles. One is the agential—the ecological cycle. In this cycle, every agential interaction is constrained by agential conditioning, societal conditioning and ecological conditioning. The outcome of this cycle is the realization of both of agential elaboration and ecological elaboration by transformative transition process or either of them by adaptive transition process; another cycle is the agential elaboration—the societal elaboration—the

ecological elaboration. This process finishes a complete cycle. In this cycle, three of them achieve elaboration through transformative transition process or two of them realize elaboration through adaptive transition process. MSES provides a good theoretical start for further discovering underlining generative mechanisms of transformative process towards sustainability. Olsson et al. (2014) propose three interconnected research areas that need a combined approach in sustainability transformation research: 1) patterns of transformation, 2) innovation and social, technological, and ecological interactions at multiple levels in relation to sustainability, and 3) agency and its role in sustainability transformations. We assume that MSES would be as a promising candidate to realize theoretical integration and collaboration in sustainability transformation research. The two prototypic morphogenetic cycles, as proposed above, the agential—the ecological cycle and the agential elaboration—the societal

elaboration—the ecological elaboration cycle focus on the emergence of new configurations of interlined SES with different sets of feedbacks (Olsson et al., 2014), it is noted that innovations can originate from the agential domain and/or the societal domain. Nevertheless, in MSES, it emphasizes on considering ecological integrity when applying innovations so as to avoid unsustainable development pathways (Olsson and Galaz, 2012), in MSES, it underlines that every transformative change should come from “change agent/s”. For example, in 1970s, many Latin American countries achieved an unsustainable level due to land degradation (as slow variable) and deceasing agriculture productivity (as fast variable). Some local framers and researchers as “change agents” are forced to use unconventional method (as innovation), no-tillage, to enhance soil organic matter and fertility (Derpsch and Friedrich, 2009). It should be noted that transformations would be conditioned by the agential conditioning (in this case, conventional plow-based agriculture users), the societal conditioning (in this case, conventional plow-based institutions and cultures), and the ecological conditioning (in this case, land degradation). Also, these three conditioning provide change opportunities and change barriers. Along with the new innovative experimental breakthroughs, the changes in land management, such as weed management, mulch-farming and green techniques, as well as new machines for direct planting will be required, which causes the transformation of the whole farming system, or social-ecological system. In this process, it finishes a complete the agential elaboration—the societal

elaboration—the ecological elaboration cycle or we can say, it jumps to a new kind of basin in a new SES through transformative transition.


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Figure 4: Social-Ecological Transitional Resilience

Figure 5: Morphogenesis with structure and culture (Archer, 1995)

Resilience as adaptation Resilience as transformation

Resilience as transition


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Figure 6: Morphogenetic Social-Ecological System Framework

Conclusion

In this paper, we aim to go beyond disciplinary limits with the ambition to synthesize resilience thinking, transition approach, and the morphogenetic approach, and to create two theoretical frameworks, social-ecological transitional resilience framework and Morphogenetic Social-Ecological System Framework, for a better understanding of sustainability transformation in SES. These efforts are, of course, just a good start toward theoretical integration and synthesis. Theory is always in work-in-progress. At least, we have already taken the first step on the journey toward that goal.

Acknowledgements

Writers would like to express their thanks to Department of Environmental Systems Science, Doshisha University, for partial financial support of this research.

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Cultural Industries in China

ZHU Zhenming58

Abstract

Since the concept of “culture industry” in singular form was proposed by Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895-1973) in the 1930s, the industrialization of cultural activity has already experienced a transition from the investigation in philosophical terms to that in political and economic terms initiated by European academics and the governments of the members states in the 1970s. From then on, culture industries have become a main actor in the economic sectors both national and international. So is the case in China. Methodologically quantitative and qualitative, this article intends to pursue the developmental track of China’s cultural industries from the angles of both politico-economy and historical sociology by exposing the promotional factors, the developing logics and its characteristics as well, hereby to discuss the possibilities of their future development.

Keywords: cultural industries, economic activities, political power, cultural preservation

58 Associate Professor, Center for International Communication Studies, Institute of Communication Studies, Communication University of China, Beijing China, email: [email protected]


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Cultural Industries as Discipline and Industry

As concisely indicated on the web 2.0 knowledge producing platform The Free

Encyclopedia, the term “culture industry” was coined by German critical theorists Theodor Adorno (1903–1969) and Max Horkheimer (1895–1973), both rather as philosophers spurred by the meditative impulse from the exiling experiences imbued in American popular culture, and was presented as critical vocabulary in the chapter “The Culture Industry: Enlightenment as Mass Deception” of the book Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944), where they proposed that popular culture was akin to a factory producing standardized cultural goods, such as films, radio programmes, magazines, etc., which were used to manipulate mass society into passivity. In their enterprise, “cultural industry” rather serves as reflexive instrument targeting the rationalization of the humanity and its activities. In 1970s, French and English scholars Bernard Miège and Peter Golding have criticized the two theorists’ notion and proposed the term “Cultural Industries” in plural form in order to replace the philosophical perspective so as to describe the cultural activities in an economic perspective, still focusing on mass media and publishing industries. This concept of “cultural industries” was adopted in the same period by European official documents, Europe, a region in face of the invasion of popular culture from North America and also having invented the mobilizing term of “Americanization” in the 1920s.

French Scholar Armand Mattelart even thought this term “cultural industries” has nothing to do with the adorning term of “culture industry” because the plural form refers to the diverse categories of cultural democratizing vectors realized through markets with global traits (Mattelart, 2005: 57). It is difficult to give a comprehensive definition of “cultural industries”, but it is possible to summarize the main scope for the term by some specialists:

(a) the impact on the public of traditional means of cultural dissemination as compared with those of cultural industries; (b) the respective importance of the different production and marketing processes according to the different media: likely predominance of one or other of these processes; and (c) the place of cultural industries in the light of creativity, cultural identity and the cultural influence of a country: alternatives to the functioning of cultural industries (UNESCO, 1982: 15).

Since the term of “cultural industries” came into being, the related activities have not only been operated as principal economic activity for the national economy but also as discipline in the academic circles, especially in China when the project of “Reform and Opening to the outside world” went into its 25th anniversary and where have been mushrooming the academic institutions since the Ministry of Education ratified in 2004 the establishment of “Cultural Industries Management” as major for the undergraduates in four Chinese universities. And from then on, most Chinese universities and colleges followed suit because the country has put one of its developmental stakes on the imaginary industrialization. But the disputes over cultural industries have been more ostentatious in the economic domain than disciplinary. As economic activity, cultural industries have been exemplified by one of the main deadlocks in the global economic exchanges talks, especially in the negotiations between member states of WTO (World Trade Organization), mainly between European Union (EU) and the United States, the latter has always been criticized


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either for its extreme support for neo-liberalism incarnated by “Washington Consensus” coined in 1989 by English economist John Williamson or having promoted this economic doctrine especially after the deregulation movement promoted by the administrations of American Regan and British Madame Thatcher in the 1980s. The movement has not only spread to other countries but also triggered off a worldwide wave of economic liberalization and political democratization with as climax the collapse of the former Soviet Union and Eastern European communist countries at the turn of the century.

That exist the deadlocks of negotiation in WTO is because of the exceptional status (Exceptionality) of cultural products which are claimed to be different from other merchandises and commercial services. Cultural information has become and been a strategic element in both socio-economic innovation, progress and governance in a country or international completive games between nation-states in which for example, culture is equal to or part of the “soft power,” term coined by Joseph Nye, Jr. in 1990 to describe the persuading forces parallel to the military and economic forces as “hard power”. Especially when the digitization has become the main channel to diffuse cultural message or information, the enterprise of cultural industries has been more emphasized than ever. Cultural industries have their time in today’s world!

China’s Cultural Industries and Its Characteristics

“Cultural industries”, rather than “culture industry”, have been developed in China at the very beginning less as an intentional strategic program than side-product of the project of “Reform and Opening to the outside World”, which just tried to save the ravaged cultural (re)production from the pernicious consequences and impact of the rampage “Cultural Revolution” (1966-1976), of course in the cadre of the socialist and proletarian culture and ideology, glimpsed in the “Guiding principles announced for the development of arts and cultural institutions in reform area” delivered by Mr. Deng Xiaoping (1904-1997) at The Fourth Arts Workers Congress in October 1979. Only when the hesitating reform designer Mr. Deng made his southern tour of Shenzhen in 1992, the indecisive road of china’s development was then decided and the Chinese socialist market economy was instituted as the objective of economic reform at the 3rd plenary session of the 14th CCP (Chinese Communist Party) national congress (October 12-18, 1992) in the document “On the decision to establish the socialist market economy system”, and arts and cultural units were asked to become self-reliant.

With the development of market economy, the cultural system has gradually become an autonomous sector which is entitled with two main functions of ideological propaganda and economic development – even though always in a situation of “double bind”. At the 6th Plenum of the 17th Central Committee of the CCP (October, 2011) the cultural industries were defined as “pillar industry of national economy” in the “CCP Resolutions on some important issues in relation to deepening cultural system reform, promoting socialist cultural development and prosperity”, which would hopefully or rather predicatively be realized in 2016, according to CAI Wu (蔡武), then minister of Culture Ministry. In China, “cultural industries” and “cultural creative industries” have been always related to the cultural system, and almost all the transformations of these industries are reflected in the range of documents


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formulated by various state organs as laws, regulations, rules, policies, measures, opinions, principles, guides, etc, among which the law is superior to the rest because it is stipulated by National People’s Congress and its Standing Committee and the rest is established by State Council and local executive or legislative sectors in line with different localities.

According to Han Yongjin, former chief of Department of policies and regulations of Chin’s Ministry of Culture, the cultural system reform started in 1978 – when was held the Third Plenum of the CCP 11th Central Committee and Mr. Deng Xiaoping was elected as the leader of the Second Generation of leadership, and the policy of reform and opening to the outside word was decided to put in practice – and has proceeded through three stages: 1) from 1978 to 1992, shift of cultural system from class struggle paradigm to that of economic construction, going back to the cultural regime before the Cultural Revolution, regime mainly characteristic of modeling on the former Soviet Union, adapting to the socialist planned economy and following the cultural system in the liberated areas before New China, but the cultural system was in contradiction with the economic reforming context; 2) from 1993 to 2002, major reforms occurred across all sectors – the emphasis in this period was on grouping and conglomeration of different cultural sections, but still in institutional nature; 3) from 2003, the focus shifted to the deepening of the transformation from institution to industry and enterprise – separation of the commercial elements from the cultural institutions, the introduction of private capitals – altogether with development of new financing and support models. These developments are summarized altogether with the progress of Economic reform agenda in Table 1, borrowed and modified from Table 1.1 (Keane, 2013: 23) made by Michael Keane.

After more than 30 years of reform, “cultural industries have become one of the economic contributions to the national economy,” and they have the following characteristics.

Confusing Definition and Categorization

The term “cultural industry” was first officially used in 1992 in an official document “Grand Strategic Decision and Policies – Accelerating the Development of Service Industries” issued by the General Office of the State Council of the People’s Republic of China, first formally used in plural form in a central government document “Recommendations of the CCP Central Committee: the 10th Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development” in October, 2000, and officially defined in “Several Opinions to Support and Promote Cultural Industries Development” issued in September, 2003 by Ministry of Culture as “lucrative activities to produce cultural goods and offer cultural services. And in the same year, the term ‘cultural industries’ is proposed against that of public institutions and both are integral parts of the project of socialist cultural construction” (Wuqiao, 2013: 11).

In 2004, the National Bureau of Statistics defined the “Cultural and Related Industries” as “a collection of activities that provide cultural entertainment products and services for the public, as well as activities associated with such events, including news services, publishing and copyright services, radio, television and movie services, arts and culture services, Internet services, recreational services, the production and sales of stationery


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and related cultural products, and other industry-specific categories”. With the continuous conception of this imaginary industrialization, in 2006 came another term of “cultural creative industries”. The term was first officially used in “The Outline of the Eleventh Five-Year Plan of Cultural Development” and defined in “Beijing Cultural Creative Industries Classification Standards” as “originating in creative industries and cultural industries, (it) refers to the assembly of intrinsically related industrial clusters which provide cultural experiences to the public by fundamental means of production, creation and innovation, take the cultural content and creative results as core values, and are characteristic of intellectual property or consumption,” including nine sectors: “1) culture and the arts, 2) press and publication, 3) radio, television and movies, 4) software, networking and computer services, 5) advertising exhibition, 6) the art trade, 7) designed to service, 8) tourism, leisure and entertainment, 9) the other complementary services.” Rather than replacing “cultural industries,” both terms are used interchangeably, almost all things called “culture” would be commercialized in China and turn into merchandises, for example, media industry in Euro-American sense (mainly media and publishing), creative industries in English sense (mainly intellectual property), cultural heritage, tourism, etc. Among them, the commercialization or industrialization of cultural heritages has always taken the lead.


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As witnessed, according to the “Annual Report of Chinese Cultural Industries” (2014), the dominant cultural industry is neither the media industry nor the creative industries, but the tourist industry (Creative Industries, 2014). Generally speaking, according to Chinese classification, the cultural industries could be exemplified in the Table 3, a categorization made by National Bureau of Statistics and other related departments in 2004, but this never has the final say in the interpretation of the concept.


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Effectively, the terms of “cultural industry,” “cultural industries,” and “cultural creative industries” were introduced (or coined) into China with the translations by researchers of the so-called world master-pieces in the political economy of media and communication. They have been confused most probably because the researchers had built, according to their own understandings, their own academic blocks and the related researches in China are possibly more representative than creative and original. The cultural system and its commercialization as a component of the opening-reforming project was promoted by Deng Xiaoping’s leadership when the national development strategy turned from the shift from class struggle to economic construction stipulated in the Third Plenum of the CCP 11th Central Committee in 1978. In such context, were flourishing the translations of the so-called world masterpieces of communication and media studies works, and as a result, was produced the polysemy of the definition.

From Public Institutions to Industries

Since the founding of new China, the culture works as institutions rather than public goods because of the structuralist Marxist ideology in which the culture and its related reproducing apparatus (such as school, university, museum, etc) are the integral parts of the so-called super-structure in opposition to economic base as lower-structure. As main part of the “cultural industries,” for example, Chinese media system from 1949 to 1978 could be characterized as a continuity of the “Yan’an tradition” which was highlighted by highly politicized and centralized configuration. This tradition can go back to the embryonic journalism of Chinese communist party, i.e. The Youth

1, which laid the foundation for the model of partisan press systematized and institutionalized in Yan’an, cradle of Chinese communist regime and revolutionary base of the People’s Republic of China. This model was extended all over the country after the communist came to power.

In such situation, culture and its related units have been employed as instruments to manipulate people’s “heart and soul” in China, culminating in the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) where the culture became masochistic. One revolutionary and proletarian culture was used against and devastated, even destroyed another one, for example Chinese traditional culture with Confucian characteristics, or later would continuously fight against another alterity, for instance the western culture incarnated by the so-called western soft power including the western style democracy, in order to prevent the invasion of the so-called “peaceful evolution” symbolized by “bourgeois liberalization” and “spiritual pollution” in the 1980s and even up to now. Basically speaking, the status of culture in China has experienced a shift from institution to industry approximately with the death of Mao as watershed.

Only until the September, 2002 when the 16th CCP National Congress made the “Planification to deepen cultural system reform,” cultural industries and cultural institutions both were claimed so as to deepen the reform. But it is difficult to tell clearly one from another and this has lead to the “double bind”: on the one hand to promote the cultural industries by respecting the commercial logic to cater for customers’ tastes and on the other to work as propagandist dispositif and mouth piece of CCP and its government, particularly the case of media system. But it seems that both aspects have been in conflict, witnessed by the experience since the culture was considered as an economic element.


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To be Pillar Industry of National Economy

Cultural industries have gradually become a main contribution to the national economy. It could be seen from the statistics collected after 2004, the year when the first statistic of national cultural industries development was realized, that up to 2013, the development of the industries has kept a growth rate of an annual double-digit: 2004-2008 with annual average growth of 23.28%, 2008-2010 with 24.19%, 2011 with 22%, 2012 with 16.5%, 2013 with 11.1%, as indicated in Table 4 by GAO Shusheng, then deputy director of the Office of Reform, affiliated with Central Propaganda Department (Shusheng, 2013). According to the national statistics, it can be seen that the cultural industries have been steadily progressing from the total value of 344 billion in 2004 to that of 2132 billion in 2013 that is 3.77 % of GDP. As indicated at a conference on cultural industries held on May 14, 2015 in Shenzhen, Liu Qibao, head of the Propaganda Department, called for efforts to make the pillar industry of national economy the cultural industries.

With the financial and policy supports, the media groups or conglomerations have been founded; the parks of cultural creative industries have been mushrooming all over the country; the tourists have been stimulated to crowdedly go out during the holidays; and more satisfyingly, “China brought in $650 million in box office revenue for February, 2015, surpassing sales in the U.S. of $640 million according to EntGroup, a Chinese entertainment research firm” (CNN, 2015).

But of course, because the different regions or provinces, even counties, have different resources and favorable or unfavorable policies, there exists the imbalanced development of the cultural industries or cultural creative industries in the country, as indicated in the following Plans A and B. Totally speaking, the eastern regions are more developed than the middle-western ones.


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According to Jin Yuanpu, professor, director of Institute of Cultural Creative Industries Studies of Renming University of China, there are three priorities to develop the cultural industries: first, to put the priority over the tourist industries because of the rich natural or historical resources, second, to promote the mass media industries in mage of so many groups of radio, press, television, film, etc. which are main vectors of cultural industries, third, to promote the so-called cultural creative industries which are characterized by high technology (mainly Internet) and globalizing context by multi-channel funding and being listed in the stock market (Yuanpu, 2015). In such analysis, cultural industries are strategically composed of “creativity first,” “content first,” “diffusion and channel first,” “e-commerce first,” “experience and leisure economy as anchor point”. All these strategies have probably adopted to push forward the industries. China is a country with large population; it is relatively easy to form the economy of scale.

Reading Grill of Cultural Activities: More Unity than Diversity

When French philosopher Michel Foucault (1926-1984) introduced the term épistémè

in his famous book The Order of Things: An Archaeology of the Human Sciences (Les Mots

et les choses: Une archéologie des sciences humaines, 1966), we know that the knowledge production and its consumption in a given period will be realized through a reading grill, because Foucault pointed out that in different periods in western society there existed different épistèmes that were considered as possible conditions for certain scientific discourses or different theories and debates; the knowledge production was organized around some principles concretized in discursive practices which altogether with these épistémès could work as “reading grill” for the knowledge understanding and production. In China, because of the special national conditions, the cultural (re)production is operated through a certain reading grill which would lead to certain culture-producing conditions that are more unique than diverse.

This kind of grill could be reflected in the key ideas of each Chinese generation of leadership, each generation approximately corresponding to the three stages of cultural system reform: in the first generation (before 1978), “class struggle” was always emphasized; in the second (1978-1990)and third (1990-2002) generation, “reform and opening to outside


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world” and “three Represents” respectively of the second and third generations were the possible culture-producing conditions and cultural activities were entangled in the distinction of cultural industries from cultural institutions; in the fourth generation (2002-2012), “scientific development and humanism” emphasizes liberating the cultural productive forces and cultural and cultural activities have been regarded as means of contribution to the national economy; in the fifth generation (2013), “China’s dream” and “Socialist core values” guide the cultural social and economic operation and more policies have been adopted to deepen the cultural system reform, the cultural operation following much more the commercial logic, for example in the year 2014, considered as “blowout year” of cultural industries according to the “China Cultural Brand Development Report” (2015), when took place 159 cases of merges and acquisition with total volume of 100 billion RMB in which 55 cases with 45% of the volume happened in the fields of films and mass media, Internets, education and training, tourism, games and animation.

With the rapid development of cultural industries, intensified are the control and censorship of the cultural production and diffusion on line and off line. Online high technologies and off line laws and regulation or mobilization are employed to censor and ensure the socialist cultural practices so as to found a unified Chinese socialist culture.

Cultural Industries as Vectors of Soft Power

To build China’s Soft power is another important stimulus to spur Chinese cultural industries. Soft power is a term used to describe the paradigmatic shift of power exercising after the Second World War from the physical forces (such as army) to the symbolic ones (such as values) with an appeal to audiences beyond the national frontiers in order to change their attitudes. “Soft power” was coined by Joseph Nye Jr. in his book Bound to Lead: The

Changing Nature of American Power (1990), to describe the ability to attract and co-opt rather than coerce, use force or give money as a means of persuasion, it being composed of three resources: “its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as legitimate and having moral authority)” (Nye, 2011: 84) . Since this term replaced the propaganda as main component of public diplomacy, it has been appreciated by many countries or organizations which want to win out in the international competition games or build its popularity in the world.

This term has certainly been appreciated very much in China which hopes to recover its glory of the ancient times. Soft power, the term was introduced into China in the first years of 1990s and attracted the attention from both academics and government. In 1993, Mr. Wang Huning, now professor and member of CCP Political Bureau had ever claimed that soft power was a kind of diffuse power of such elements as political system, national spirit, economic system, sciences and technologies, ideology, etc. (Huning, 1993) Effectively, when China exercises its soft power, usually excluded are the political aspects by particularly laying stress on the cultural and economic aspects because the political or political system reform has been too sensitive to mention since the Tiananmen Incident in 1989. In such context, cultural industries, vectors of soft power, have been regarded as main channels to diffuse Chinese soft power, usually and emphatically specified as “Chinese cultural soft


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power,” even though Chinese successful political system and its experiences could be borrowed by other countries. In consequence, “cultural industries” and “cultural creative industries” include every thing that could be regarded as less political and less sensitive and have been promoted as channels of soft power in order to attract and influence other audiences’ attitudes. As indicated by GAO Shusheng, Cultural industries will serve the national strategy, for example, the strategy of “the Silk Road Economic Belt and the 21st Century Maritime Silk Road,” in simple terms “One belt and One Road” (OBAOR).

Limitations of China’s Cultural Industries

After more than thirty years of development, cultural industries have almost finished by forming an autonomous economic system, of course an integral part of the national economy. But there still exist some limitations. Chinese cultural industries have been mainly engaged in three domains: economic operation, public services, and political ideology. Effectively and correspondingly speaking, there are three limitations of different nature are involved: cultural, economic, and political. Theses three-natured activities are not so rationally regulated and this has brought forth uncertain impacts on the cultural industries development.

One of the limitations comes from the undecided nature of cultural (re)production because even though in 2002 the categorization of the two activities was put forward, but actually it is still difficult to distinguish one from another. The logics of public services and commerce have always put the cultural industries in an embarrassing situation in which some historic relics or unrecoverable resources have been commercialized in order to cater for the economy of holidays, for example, the UNESCO immaterial heritage such as Shaolin Temple which now has almost become a commercial center. Additionally, the ideological function also becomes an obstacle to the commercial performance as mentioned above, especially in the media industry, because the mass media are the mouth pieces of the party and its government. If the media follows the commercial logic, this will certainly harness the ideological propaganda because the commercial logic is in favor of discursive diversity of liberal expression: either against the main tune of the ideological discourses or in contradiction to the positive energy advocated by CCP. How to make clear the relation between these three aspects challenges the intelligence of the academics, the government officials, and the think tanks, in other words, the de-politicization of cultural activities is relatively not easy.

Another limitation comes from the cultural (re)production as an economic activity. To develop the cultural industries and cultural creative industries implies to develop modern enterprise system and glocalizing strategies so as to be successful in cross-border exchanges. China is a new comer in the world economic games and is not yet too familiar with the games rules of cultural industries in contrast with other developed countries. The seeming boom of cultural industries is based more on its economy of scale than on the advanced management-performance and conceptions. As economic activity, the chain of conceptions, production, and distribution has to be improved, and additionally has to copy with the situation of global cultural industries. For example, as indicated in the book The Global Culture Industry (2007), Scott Lash indicates that one of the phenomena of global cultural industry is the “shift from


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commodity to brand”: “If cultural industry worked largely through the commodity, global culture industry works through brands” (Lash & Lury, 2007: 5), Chinese cultural industries for the moment depend largely on the “mediation of ideas” in lashian sense and has lacked the creativity to build their own brands, for example, concerning the social media as part of Internet industry: Weibo, Reren, WeChat, and other video-websites (Youku, Tudou) come of age from the inspiration of Twitter, Facebook, WhatsApp, and YouTube which have been blocked in China. Until now, Chinese cultural industries are still not entitled with some internationally known brands so that some researchers have made their efforts to want to know why the movies with its elements borrowed from Chinese culture have successfully been made by western well-known film-makers not the Chinese, for example, the movies of “Mulan” and “Kung-Fu Panda”. According to GAO Shusheng, now inspector, deputy director of the Bureau of Cultural System Reform and Development affiliated with Central Propaganda Department, and deputy director of the Office in charge of Supervision and Management of State-owned Assets of National Cultural Enterprises, the largest contribution of Chinese cultural industries still comes from the arts and crafts, that is from the tourism, even though the industries include other important parts as mentioned above (Shusheng, 2015).

Third limitation comes from the unfinished project of economic and political reform. Since China carried out its strategy of “reform and opening to the outside world,” one of the necessary measure has been to separate the party affairs from the executive administration which, in its turn, should be separated from the commercial activities of state-owned enterprises. With the political reform lagged far behind, the economic development has developed quickly and been deepened, but the executive forces are still strong and diffuse in the commercial landscape because China is a socialist country with public ownership of propriety and its market economy is seemingly characteristic of state capitalism where the state-owned enterprises have enjoyed superiority of financial and policy supports and exercised a certain monopoly in the national economic life. The private capitals have fewer opportunities than the national except that the government is forced to open safe valves for them. More surprisingly, in Chinese urbanizing mobilization, some local governments have been in conspiracy with the real estate developers to dismantle the houses of local residents, and pushed the latter to take extremist action to defend their own proprieties either by killing themselves or by revenging the injustice, even though the central government takes a serious surveillance over the wrongdoings of low governments. When the government still puts its nose in the daily affairs of economic activities, there will exist the unjust competitive conditions for all the enterprises and the different regions, even in the research project funding. For example, in January 2001, the central government issued the “Opinions on Strengthening and Regulating the In Being Offices of Local Governments” to dispel some In

Beijing Offices to their home town because they have exercised negative influences on the top officials in Beijing or caused the unjust distribution of national resources, etc. These offices

have bad influences because one of their functions is to seek “Guan Xi” (relations with Chinese characteristics) in the central departments so as to let the financial or policy supports incline in their own interests. Additionally, because of the strong intervention of government, even the related scientific research can not be executed normally, for example, fewer


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nationally-funding research programs or projects would be granted to the official-professors who have good “Guan Xi” in the officialdom and in their turn will ask his/her subordinates to do the job.

Perspectives as Conclusion

From the above mentioned description and analysis, we can see there exist at least several necessary perspectives to meditate a sustainable cultural industry in China because of its own special political system, special culture, and particularly its special people who have the habitude to live with an enlightened authoritarian government, as chosen much more by its long history than by the global contexts.

In such situation, it is recommended to think the cultural industries and cultural creative industries definitely in the following terms.

Firstly, it is necessary to rationally coordinate the activities between the natures ideological, economic, and cultural. For the moment, public goods are less emphasized than propagandist instruments, and the disputes have always broken out in the identification between propagandist (or ideological) and commercial. These disputes harnessed and will harness the cultural industry development. This is a big obstacle for the government because the decision is of “double bind”: if loosing the control over the media in favor of commercial logic, the government will probably be afraid of losing the battle of gaining “hearts and souls” which is considered necessary in unifying the whole Chinese people to rejuvenate the nation. For a long time, it has rarely been seen that some brave measures are taken to depoliticize the cultural production, facilitate a healthy social development, and promote a diversified expression. The political reform intended to promote by the new generation of leadership will possibly make the landscape take a new look. It would probably help the industry escape from this double bind. What Chinese government is doing is an unprecedented project!

Secondly, modern enterprise system is inevitable. Even though China has a market economy with Chinese characteristics – but still in an preliminary form – Chinese enterprises are neither skilled nor familiar with the rules of international games, and furthermore, most of the players are state-owned companies or firms, heritors of those in the single-logic-following planned economy with less efficiency in performance and the taxpayers sometime have to pay their bills of loss through central government’s economic or financial leviers. As inalienable part of economic system, the cultural industries should take into consideration the modern enterprise system, because different type of cultural industries or creative industries will follow a different logic, for example, as indicated by Bernard Miège in his book La

société conquise par la communication. I. Logiques socials (1996) in which the industrialized production of the culture and information is divided into three principal models: editorial model, flow model; and written information model. Each model distinguishably follows its own logic. Not all the cultural industries follow the same mechanism of production and distribution.

Thirdly, a sustainable development needs the corresponding reforms of economic system, cultural system, and political reform; the last one is necessary in order to dispel the


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obstacles of the first two. For example, it is ridiculous for a movie to be submitted to the discussion and censorship of a committee of more than 30 members who opinions are always absurd and unreasonable, that is, it is unjust for one already successful movie to suffer from some laypersons’ critics and wait for their judgment in 30 minutes (Chinese Economy Net, 2015). Fortunately, the new generation of leadership has made their great efforts to push forward the political reform even though it has encountered the counteraction from the people with vested interests. As claiming ZHANG Xiaoming, deputy director of the Center for Culture Studies attached to the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS), “The only way to push into a new phase of Chinese cultural industries and elevate their quality and efficiency is to have an open market” (Chinese Economy Net, 2015). The political power should less interfere in the distribution of resources than the market. A diffuse and pervasive political power in every field of social, economic, and cultural life, will harness the development of cultural industries, of course the society as a whole.

Fourthly, a better relation between economic exploitation and cultural heritage preservation is necessary. China is very rich in cultural resources; material and non-material heritages have suffered from over-exploitation by local governments because the growth rate of GDP has been regarded as a preferable index of the local government’s performances. There should exist a dialectic relation between the exploitation and the preservation, but the legitimacy of economic progress makes set light the preservation; every thing seemingly gives its way to the economic development and the urbanization.

The development of cultural industries and cultural creative industries is not only en economic project but also symbolic one. There are not only vectors of economic interests but also of national collective memory!

References

China tops U.S. at the box office for first time. (2015, March). CNN. Retrieved from http://money.cnn.com/2015/03/02/media/china-us-movies-box-office/index.html.

Cultural Industries. (2014). Annual Report of China’s Cultural Industries Development. Retrieved from http://www.hnswht.gov.cn/whcyc/ktcg/content_69477.html.

Huning, W. (1993). Soft Power: Culture as National Forces. Fudan Journal (Social Science

Edition), 3, 91-96.

Keane, M. (2013). Creative Industries in China. Malden: Polity Press.

Lash, S. & Lury, C. (2007). Global Culture Industry: The Mediation of Things. Malden: Polity Press.

Mattelart, A. (2005). Diversité culturelle et mondialisation. Paris: La Découverte.

Nye, J. S. (2011). The Future of Power. New York: Public Affairs.

Open Market is the Only Way to Develop the Cultural Industries. (2015, July 20). Chinese

Economy Net. Retrieved from http://www.ce.cn/culture/gd/201412/12/t20141212_ 4107133.shtml.


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Shusheng, G. (2013). Status Quo and Tendency of China’s Cultural Industries Development. Retrieved from http://www.sarft.net/a/149028.aspx.

Shusheng, G. (2015). Why Can’t Maintain its Developing Speed the Cultural Industries. Retrieved from http://news.xinhuanet.com/politics/2015-05/08/c_1115226646.htm.

UNESCO. (1982). Cultural Industries: A Challenge for the Future. Paris: UNESCO.

Wuqiao, Z. (2013). Origin and Value Orientation of China’s Cultural Industry. Chongqing

Social Sciences, 227(10), 10-14.

Yuanpu, J. (2015). Three Layers and Five Series of Cultural Industries Development. Retrieved from http://www.cmsa.org.cn/shownews/ehsz_2025.html.

Notes

1 In January 1912, the Republic of China was founded in Nanjing and the Qing dynasty came to its end. The Youth was created in September 1915 in Shanghai and as a progressist magazine; it attacked the feudal ideology to promote “Science” and “Democracy” in the country. In 1917, the editorial office was moved to Beijing and became an organ to diffuse the Marxism against the feudalism and imperialism. And in September 1920, the editorial office was moved to Shanghai again and became an official paper of the embryonic communist party group where Chinese earliest communist group was founded in August 1920 in Shanghai and in the next year, July 1921, Chinese Communist Part was formally founded in Shanghai. The Youth became the first official paper of Chinese communist party.


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Systematic Review: Marketing Communication of

Thai Herbal Products to Enhance Potential in Becoming Global Products

Malinee Sompopcharoen59

Vanvisa Sresumatchai60

Abstract

Thai traditional medicine (TTM) is one of the two legally-recognized systems of medicine practiced in Thailand—another one is Western medicine. TTM is a unique system of medicine based on the assimilation of elements of a complex, almost mathematical theory borrowed from Indian Ayurvedic medicine, a system which is in all probability indigenous and derived empirically. Since the first European contact with the people of central South-East Asia living in the valleys of The Chao Phraya and Mekong Rivers, reports nevertheless bear a common stamp.

Studies of historical evidence of Lao PDR, Thailand, and Cambodia about traditional medicine all show evidence of the adaptation of some aspects of Ayurvedic medical theory to local medical tradition. From Burma, Malaysia, Indonesia, and Sri Lanka come similar testimony with the emphasis on Ayurvedic medicine greatest in Sri Lanka, and the addition of Arab influences in the Islamic states of Malaysia and Indonesia. A common belief held in Thailand is that medicine was brought to that area with Buddhism 700 to 1000 years ago, but as yet we have no proof of this.

However, the aforementioned type of medicine has been insignificant over a long period of time since the emphasis was made on Western medicine. Therefore, the Department of Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine (TTAM), Ministry of Public Health, Thailand invented the slogan inviting Thais to use herbal medicine for minor illnesses before going to see a doctor. This research aims at surveying the studies of Thai herb marketing, to explore the existing patterns of Thai herb marketing and consumers’ opinions; as well as, collects recommendations on the development of Thai herbal products to become global products through the Systematic Review from Thai thesis databases. Based on guided searching, this is a research in areas of “Herbal marketing,” and “Herbs.” The research analysis has been completed and suggestions to develop marketing of Thai herbal products are explained below.

First, in terms of the government role, the public sector has clearly formulated the policies on product development i.e. 1) the policy of becoming a medical hub in 2004 and 2) guidelines of product development in 2014. Product 5 Champions has been established, which involves the development of 5 products, namely: (1) Back galingale (Kaempferia

parviflora Wallich Ex Baker), (2) Pueraria mirifica compound (Pueraria candollei Graham Ex Benth var. mirifica), (3) Thai Plai (Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Link ex Dietr), (4) Thai Herb Compress Ball, and (5) Asiatic pennywort (Centella asiatica (L.) Urban) under the supervision of TTAM. Human resource development, especially in increasing the number of TTAM medical professionals and TTM pharmacists, provides persuasive information to medicine users, and solves problems regarding the confidence to adopt Thai herbal products,

59 Assistant Professor, Department of Health Education and Behavioral Science, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Thailand 60 Ph.D. Candidate, Medical Science and Public Health Science (Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine), Department of Biostatistics, Faculty of Public Health, Mahidol University, Thailand


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in alignment with face-to-face health campaign intervention. Several studies have illustrated that the users did not have adequate knowledge of medication side effects or how to use Thai herbal medicines properly. The availability of TTM medical professions and pharmacists, who closely give advice to users, will create confidence and understanding of herbal medicine usage among the users (people receiving both western and TTM treatment). Furthermore, regarding product distribution, studies have recommended establishing outlets to display and sell herbal health products in medical centers and public areas. In addition, information of herbal products progression can be publicized by multimedia e.g. the use of medicinal plants as food was promoted through integrated media. For example, promotional information regarding symptoms of illness uses FA TA LAI JONE to indicate sore throat, or JANTALELA to indicate a cold and a temperature by both traditional and social media. Regarding how to develop global products, stakeholders have to discover the beneficial and unique identity of a drug’s efficacy and develop the Thai pharmacopoeia for Thai and international customers.

Keywords: global product, Thai herb, herbal marketing communication, Ayurvedic


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Rationale and Purpose

In 2004, the Ministry of Public Health (MPH) proposed to continually improve Thailand’s potentials to be a genuine “International Health Center for Excellence.” The national focal point was the implementation of the Medical Hub Policy—which was executed in their 2nd Strategic Plan (2012-2016). They encompassed 4 major elements: 1) medical services, 2) integrative wellness center, 3) Thai herbs development, and 4) Thai Traditional and Alternative Medicine. The MPH offers the options of reimbursement and insurance for foreign patients seeking treatment in Thailand. In addition, long stay and Climatotherapy61 services have also been particularly designed for Scandinavian patients. Thailand has various medical care promotions especially medical tourism for every foreigner who seeks medical services in world-class Thai hospitals and other alternative health-related services such as spa, Thai massage, Thai Traditional Medicine (TTM), long-term healthcare programs, and homestay services for the elderly. Because of these health policies, we have to emphasize the global alternative medical and herb marketing situations, to create effective tools to encourage Thais. In addition, we should simultaneously spur foreigners to test/use Thai herbs as health care products. Integrated Marketing Communication (IMC) is one strategic apparatus that will lead Thailand to become the “medical hub” of the world, especially in the scope of Herbal Medicine as one of Thai unique characteristics. Therefore, Thai herbs—endorsed by the Thai public sectors—have promptly turned to be treatment options for Thailand as the prepared medical hub. Some herbs can be used in every part: leaves, roots, or petals etc. According to the treatment, Thai herb can be categorized as 4 products, comprising 1) herbal Capsule (Phytopharmaceuticals), 2) herbal medicine, 3) nutraceuticals, and 4) herbal cosmeceuticals.

Presently, the MPH has determined that the Health Promoting Hospitals in Thailand have a mission for health care as part of the TTM, Thai massage, and Thai Midwifery division. It has confirmed 4 products as herbal capsules and a Thai herbal compress ball for postpartum mothers. TTM is one of the two legally recognized systems of medicine practiced in Thailand; another one is Western medicine. This particular form of traditional medicine is known as the Royal tradition62, having evolved at court. Phytopharmaceuticals are one of four herbal medicinal products related to manufacturing under pharmaceutical standards; for example, BUA BOK (Centella asiatica (L.) Urban), FA TA LAI JONE (Andrographis paniculata (Burm.f) Wall.exNees), and Curcuma longa Capsule (Curcuma

longa Linn). Nutraceuticals are a supplement food product from Thai herbs e.g. BRAHMI (Bacopa monnieri) is an herbal product to nourish the brain and useful for memory stimulation. Cosmeceuticals or Thai Herbal Nano-cosmeceuticals focus on the herbal properties affecting skin such as whitening, anti-aging, and anti-oxidant etc.

The main purposes of this research were to determine the Thai herbs marketing communication and their possibility to become popular exported goods in global markets. The researcher synthesized the herbal marketing situations from academic data and several theses from 1999 to 2013, adding the concepts of TTM development policy. The policy of Thai traditional and alternative medicine (TTAM) has distributed upstream, midstream, and downstream plans. Firstly, the upstream plan is for herbal material production, the Department of TTAM applied coordination to protect herb seeds with several government divisions such as the coordination contract with the Royal Forest Department to allocate landing and natural herbal resources under the responsibility of the Royal Forest Department.

61 Climatotherapy is an alternative of Psoriasis patient treatment. 62 Retrieved June 16, 2015 from http://thaimedicineguide.com/traditions/


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Secondly, the midstream plan is to integrate science with TTM to increase its credibility and safety. Facilitators from the upstream, who have folk wisdom and herbal materials, connect with the medicine users (who need the standardize safety). In this step the TTAM incorporates science procedures in herbal material production. The ongoing downstream plan improves the herbal products’ qualities using materials from the midstream, and provides all related services to customers. In other words, most divisions are business partners (Public Health of TTAM, 2011-2013: 25-48), strategy development, and also product standard development. Specific products are developed such as the project to research and develop model of herbal Champion Products such as WHITE KWAO KRUA (Pueraria candollei Grah. Ex Benth var. mirifica), THAI PLAI (Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Link ex Dietr), Thai Herb Compress Ball, Black galingale (Kaempferia parviflora Wall. Ex Baker), and BUA BOK (Asiatic pennywort).

Herbal product sales extensively depend on the demands or needs of customers. The National Statistical Office reports that 70% of Thais consume various kinds of herbs to treat sickness because they need to reduce their costs of medical care63.

Literature Review

Many herbal researchers found that developing and underdeveloped countries prefer to use herbs to treat themselves. For example, most Koreans who have moved to live in America always use their traditional herbs rather than the Western medicine; because, they hardly communicate in English with American doctors (Kim, Han, Kim, & Duong, 2002). Similarly, some Chinese usually use their traditional herbs while moving to a new address (Sompopcharoen, 2011).

The study of Spence & Ribeaux (2004: 113-139) found that the responses to the needs of herbs might provide so many advantages, so he classified the herbal users into 4 groups:

1. First group does not need a pharmacist or any staff for TTM, and this group usually buys herbs from a retail or specialty store where the customer can select and pick the herbs from the shelves without frequent limitations e.g. Mist Salol et Menthol, and Stomachi Mixture.

2. Second group comprises of people who use integrated medicine. This group uses herbal remedy combined with standard treatment. Combined treatment covers cancer, diabetes mellitus, and high blood pressure. Rational decisions to use herbal remedies help some people get well or experience fast recovery. The Theory of Planned Behavior can explain this group’s practice because they receive influence through informal communication called subjective norms.

3. Third group uses herbal remedies because they need to treat skin disorders or low back pain. From behavior, herbal remedies confirm the policy comprising long stay and Climatotherapy.

4. Fourth group uses herbs as food supplements such as Kariyat for anti-free radicals to support the immune system. In other words, some elderly and healthy people seek herbal extracts to prevent medical conditions and disease. Regarding this point The MPH should develop promotion program to control manufacturing standards and promote the use of herbal products properly.

For the Asian market, the four groups using Thai herbal medicine represent an important target in the next 5 years because of the high and growing number of elderly,

63 Retrieved April 24, 2014 from http://www.thaihealth.or.th/


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approximately 65 million. This is equal to the number of Thai citizens using herbal medicine to prevent and replace conventional medicine remedies (SME Thailand Editorial Team, 2015). Every group perceives that herbal medicine can treat overall or holistically. It not only cures the body, but also restores the health and improves feeling (Owen, Goldstein, Lee, Breen, & Rowland, 2010).

Furthermore, the main users integrate herbal remedy with standard treatment in kidney transplant and chronic diseases (Spence & Ribeaux, 2004; Owen, Goldstein, Lee, Breen, & Rowland, 2010). For health prevention, most of elders use the herbs for physical conditions; for example, anorexia nervosa caused from strain, and chronic disease. For those who fail to get well or enough rest, the Thai herb to relieve symptoms is “Heart Leaved Moonseed.”

The problem of using Thai herbs is related to basic knowledge because people do not understand about indication or duration for the use, including side effects in the case of long term drug use (Shreffler-Grant et al., 2013: 1193). Some studies have attempted to solve the problem by distributing warnings on red labels about timing and quantity for the use or even providing a consulting hotline about Thai herbal medicine.

Regarding distribution of suitable products with the needs of Thai marketing, the reliable study of Abhaibhubejhr herbal products found that the stores for purchasing health products such as the Golden Place or pharmacy stores of the Government Pharmaceutical Organization (GPO) could increase the value of the Abhaibhubejhr brand, including consumer trust in efficiency, safety and acceptance. Moreover, television programs present information about herbal qualifications, including herbal packaging or labels, and present by websites. In addition, social media such as Facebook Fanpage of Folk Healers Foundation can determine Thai herbal medicine qualifications stimulating new customers, especially the power of the Internet to create product brands by 3 aspects: sharing the content 12 times and moving pictures, videos, and infographics that would be shared 4.5 times. Diseases statistics are easy to apply for their own self-regulation or to launch the content during the peak of product sales (Scott, 2007). Therefore, the Internet is a useful medium for brand perception and creating positive consumer behavior towards the product by online media.

The herbal product generally needs in both provinces and the global community, according to exported products to Europe or America, are that all products must contain premium quality with low cost. The American lifestyle admires a good quality product distinguished from the general, and when anybody needs to sell cosmeceuticals in America, they must be recommended by the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) of America too. These procedures can solve the weakness of Thai herbal medicine by providing safety and acceptance of the quality of products. After receiving a standard recommendation, the products can be advertised by labels on the package or through any other media (Crawford & Leventis, 2005: 432-436).

The product distribution for purchasing should increase the product reliability. An analysis of Thai herbs used for curing found that Thai products are still less popular. Therefore, it would be hard to provide Thai herbs for treatment in Asian as well.

A study of the National Science and Technology Development Agency, Pharma Beauty Care database64 found that many cosmetic producers are small and medium enterprise (SME) businessmen who need a sufficient budget and have to follow product procedures as the standard of GMP or good manufacturing practices or the Food and Drug

64 Retrieved November 7, 2014 from http://www.nstda.or.th/industry/cosmetics-industry.


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Administration of Thailand. This research studied the marketing communication for Thai traditional medicine in order to find a supporting strategy for Thai herbal products to be accepted in the global market.

Method

Systematic Review was applied in this study. The researcher reviewed numerous data from many Thai theses and ThaiLIS, the thesis database, including analyzing strategy planning from the Department of TTAM from 2011-2013. However, the researcher selected some words for searching including herb, herbal marketing, cosmeceuticals, cosmeceutical marketing, and herbal marketing communication.

From the ThaiLIS database, the researcher used the word “herb” and found 1,338 related titles. The researcher eliminated any title regarding scientific experimental study in the laboratory. Therefore, the researcher studied about herbal product purchasing, social aspects that affected herbal medicine, marketing aspects that affected purchasing and acceptance behavior and concentrated on specific herbal products and specific areas such as “purchasing behavior and acceptance behavior of proceed herbal product of consumers in the eastern area of Thailand.”

From the keyword “herbal marketing” came one title. The keyword “Cosmeceuticals” found one title. Moreover, the results for any other keywords such as herbal marketing communication were not found. The measurement for selecting and analyzing research content from 1999-2013 was any research regarding herbal marketing or communication in herbal marketing, not including any experimental research in science laboratory such as efficiency evaluation of herbal extract on treating human disease, animal disease or agriculture.

Result and Discussion

Using the keyword “herbal marketing communication,” the researcher found nothing. However, the researcher selected similar content to the study and separated to analyze: 1) The aspect which was analyzed and 2) Channels of herbal marketing communication and suggestions. The analysis of the herbal product qualification that supported purchasing decision and consumer qualification from using herbs from this framework:

1) The aspect which was analyzed

The keyword “herbs” was the most commonly found studies. They were survey researches and independent variable included general demographics such as sex, age, education, and income etc. Independent variables regarding health included health status and health insurance. Other aspects, including the media affected herbal purchasing decision, revealed that the most popular media was informal communication.

Dependent variables were divided to 2 groups: 1) the variables affecting covert behavior e.g. attitude, satisfaction, reinforcement, and acceptance and 2) the variables affecting overt behavior such as purchasing behavior etc. The most common herbal brands for study were the Abhaibhubejhr herbs and the Wat Pho Thai massage.

2) Channels of herbal marketing communication and suggestion.

The researcher found only 1 title. However, the case study of the Abhaibhubejhr herbs was the popular studies because it was only one distinguished representative of the outstanding herbal marketing. For example, they usually distributed the knowledge of herbal qualification and several herbal products through television.


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Most new herb marketing communication launched a Thai herbal product with public relations marketing by presenting information by general print media like a brochure. The description of content always provided a qualification of medicine that was tested and proved by scientists. The brochures were also distributed on the shelf in the front of the cashier such as the pharmacy shops of the GPO or printed advertising media in a magazine like Folk Healers Magazine. However, these will not have any qualification as a medicine because of the law, except for walking in and talking to the pharmacist. They could tell the customers all descriptions. The advertising hardly provided outstanding qualifications because an herb might have multiple benefits to treat several diseases. (Spence & Ribeaux, 2004)

Many researchers found that mental health wellness results from using herbs. Patients always feel better as soon as they use herbs. That might a cause from their mental circumstances. When they believe that they were getting better, of course, their body might be refreshed (Oates, 2015)

This research did not study scientific experimental research but rather focused on the efficiency of extracts to treat diseases in humans such as using Laurel Clockvine leaves to cure the chemical accumulating in the body of agriculturists who use chemical insecticides or to treat diseases in animals such as Kariyat and garlic to cure diseases of chickens and pigs. These data can be developed into chemical products made from Thai herbal medicine and be produced using marketing procedures. In addition, the distribution channels can be developed to sell all over the ASEAN region, especially the basic economic subsistence from livestock that has become a significant income for Thailand.

Conclusion and Recommendations

According to the conclusion and recommendations, all approaches are separated as described below.

Marketing Communication Approach

The goal for supporting products was different each year. For example, the strategy in 2014 focused on Champion Products regarding 5 outstanding herbs, and promoting the advantages and acceptance of each herb. The brand building focused on benefit or function rather than emotion. New herbal medicine is created by mixing several ingredients of herbs together to make a new product such as Triphala, an herbal concoction from many ingredients. Analyzing the relationship between consumer and herbal medicine company found that Thais are extensively involved with herbal medicine. However, the product still lacks a positive image and involves emotional stimulating such as the value of purchasing, and low cost, indicating the intelligence of the customers, the modernized lifestyle of customers, packaging, product-design with a good looking style, and confidence in quality to inform people or recommend to members of a family. Moreover, Thai herbal medicine build brands by employing a number of new media like social media, including an interest in content and not concerned much for sales. That might make people recognize a brand from the key message.

Products should be suggested by Net idols or celebrities because the smart phone nowadays significantly supports the sharing of health information. Campaigns using digital media for expanding consumers’ perceptions also reach many customers effectively. The herbal content might be reliable based on media selection. Moreover, media should provide 3 aspects: information, support interaction, and distribute information to all. The campaign by digital support has expanded to customers in Thailand, especially the millennium generation including teenagers, high school students, undergraduates and the Y generation. In addition, yuppies like adolescents or the young working group always share information by social


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media. Government divisions, responsible for TTM or Thai herbal medicine, have created the contents to answer any questions or comment from readers. Herbal information will be fast distributed. Readers, who post comments, might be people who have direct experience using herbs. If the organization accesses the Internet, feedback with discussion, or appreciation posted by the readers should create positive relationships between the organization and customers who received a great experience from using products. Another strategy to increase value is word of mouth. Moreover, the organization builds feedback to show presenters a product with premium gifts. Anybody’s comments will be counted as a testimonial or marketing endorsement (Weiss, 2014: 16).

According to a study by the Journal of Advertising, the research illustrated whenever people talk about products or brands, they must use interpersonal communication (75%), by telephone (15%) and by online media at 10%. However, pharmacists using personal media should determine whether Thai herb medicine has a high efficiency. Although they do not have enough time, they can mix and match the content with the new media; for example, provide content areas for asking and answering questions by the website of the Department of TTAM.

Traditional media (e.g. radio) also play a significant role for providing Thai herbal information. The radio is perceived as a friend of people or a therapist and has the elders as a large target group. Therefore, the radio can help the elders to maintain their wellness. Similarly, television during prime time or inserting some content in TV programs can present how to use herbal extracts in every day (Ward, 2014: 118).

Traditional media and new media can be applied together, so that people might listen to some interesting content, then upload to the Internet to rerun several times. The study found that most people intend to take care of their health after receiving to the content from both radio and the Internet (Smith, Menn, & McKyer, 2011: 196).

At present, organizations use the right media such as personal media (pharmacist) and brochure; however, they should not only decorate the shelf with product displays but should also be concerned with a bottle neck tag for necessary description that most targets need to know.

Marketing Activity Approach

The National Herb Expo has exhibitions annually. It might not work for all targets because there is not everything can stimulate people. Normally, herb purchasing might occur from direct experiences of patients. For instance, marketing activity should be distributed to every area and motivate people to taste, drink, eat, or at least, to try new products. Most people believe that herbs have a bitter taste such as bitter herbs water. Many Chinese Medicine Clinics put a big pot of herbal medicine for serving in front of the store. The health harassment also is a significant aspect that has become a positive image for Thai medicine such as removing the lesson regarding the 2009 swine flu, and lacking Oseltamivir (Tamiflu) circumstances. Resources within the country are searched for treating the diseases e.g. Kariyat can be planted and applied until some hospitals have started using Kariyat to cure patients instead, including proactive public relations and risk communication while including some news effects on the reputation of Thai herb medicine.

Staff Approach

The expert pharmacists are not sufficient in Thai traditional herbal medicine. There are only few staffs who can suggest and provide knowledge individually regarding how to use current medicine together with traditional medicine. The skilled staffs spread the positive impacts on herbal literacy for the target consumers (Shreffler-Grant et al., 2013). Most


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customers still lack the knowledge and information concerning certain qualifications like what kind of herb can treat what disease, or the proper amounts of using.

Legal Approach

The problems exist concerning the protecting copyrights in herbal extract research, local knowledge, and the original raw materials that cannot be offensive to foreigners.

Thailand is not the best country regarding herbal products and health services in the ASEAN region. The study needs to adjust and to change for suitable circumstances such as policies, economics, social environment and technology, and the needs of different generations.

To expand the herbal market to Europe and America, especially to people concerned about their health and wellness, communication by clear packaging labels that describes qualifications and positive effects as well as the standard recommendations from colleges or doctors will positively affect the purchases (Prasad, Strijnev, & Zhang, 2008)

Product Approach

The attempt to adjust products to be modernized concerns the image of the product; for example, everyone realizes that green tea can decrease fat or garlic can reduce cholesterol. These products should be developed as an instant product for drinking or eating, including modern design for packaging and a marketing plan for launching new products.

Government Division Approach

Government divisions have a responsibility to support herbal products like the Department of TTAM concerned with the mission, “developing the standard of Thai traditional medicine to meet the international quality” (Journal of TTAM, 2014: Back Cover), but still does not concern the global marketing. Later, the mission was replaced as:

1) set up the direction, ongoing knowledge and belief of people to take care of their health with Thai traditional medicine, 2) develop services, support research, protect, conserve, and support knowledge about Thai traditional medicine and 3) create standard for quality and security of herbal product (Journal of TTAM, 2014: Back Cover).

Anyhow, its strength lies in marketing in the country and stimulating purchasing behaviors of herbs.

Concerning the vision, the Department of TTAM concentrates on, “Supporting Thai traditional specialists to be the main doctors of the country.” Marketing strategies should be applied for herbal product as described below.

1) Designing modern packages to reach all target groups in each segment.

2) Building product reliability

3) Expanding several distribution routes for new products and coordinating with health shops entire the country.

4) Expanding new segments of customers.

5) Planning public relations media to support knowledge, launching and trail products, and sell the product at a low cost.


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Acceptance Approach

According to the study of Messinger (2014) from PwC’s Health Research Institute, health marketing focuses on consumers with a great service in the sixth order from 8 huge businesses, It is ranked higher than the entertainment business and aviation. Therefore, businesses regarding health services, especially a message or Thai spa, are popular in abroad, might efficiently support Thai herbs products. The greatest strength of purchasing this type of product is the natural material free from contamination. Moreover, brand building focuses on standards of cleanliness, security, and quality using digital media. Online content reaches the most of customers, building acceptance and positive impression, providing experiences of patients by interpersonal media particularly between doctors and patients is a part of standard evaluation in hospitals, called HCAHPS-Hospital Consumer Assessment of Healthcare Providers and Systems Score. The power of social media attracts target groups to join together to develop their health. Any comment of targets is useful information that presents the needs of customers and can be served in time. This approach is called “right message to the right person at the right time.” The strength of digital media over the Internet is able to provide content, depending on the needs of targets, adding value of communication from the comments regarding feedback on the products and services around the bottom of the webpage. The organization can create content and involve any customer who accesses the webpage.

The study of PewInternet.org found that Internet users search health information at 80% in average and Econsultancy found that customers believe in the recommendation from the social media around 90% when that person is familiar.

Spa or Thai Traditional Medicine Approach in Hospitals

Spa or Thai traditional medicine in hospital that serve Thai traditional massage both in and out of the country should apply marketing strategies with highlight key selling points for create a satisfying and long term impression. Positive aspects include outstanding and beautiful places, clean, comfortable and enough parking spaces. Expanding the communication channels before, between, and after the service can support new experiences for customers. Moreover, suggestions about Thai traditional medicine, convenience, speed, reliability, and satisfaction are aspects that reinforce and retain repeat customers. The possibility to expand products in the global market might occur. Thailand has many resources for producing herbal products such as biodiversity and traditional culture, including methods of preparing and consuming Thai herbal products in different lifestyles. The strength of TTM involves taking care of both physical and mental health at the same time. However, the most significant goal is to support a better quality of life for the general population. Through TTM, many advantages exist for gaining the amount of income for the country in the future.

References

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promotion, public relations, display, personal selling. NJ: Prentice Hall.

Clow, E. K. & Baack, D. (2012). Integrated advertising, promotion and marketing

communications (5th ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall.

Crawford, Y. S. & Leventis, C. (2005). Herbal product claims: boundaries marketing and science. Journal of consumer marketing, 22(7), 432-436.

Information and Evaluation Bureau. (2014). Traditional medicine and alternative medicine in

2012-2014 [Report]. (25-48): Department of Thai Traditional Medicine and Alternative Medicine, Ministry of Public Health.


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Chokevivat, V. (Ed.). (2014a). Journal of Thai traditional and alternative medicine (Jan-Apr). Bangkok: The War Veterans Organization of Thailand under Royal patronage of His Majesty the King Office of Printing Mill.

Chokevivat, V. (Ed.). (2014b). Journal of Thai traditional and alternative medicine (Sep-Dec). Bangkok: The War Veterans Organization of Thailand under Royal patronage of His Majesty the King Office of Printing Mill.

Kim, M., Han, H. R., Kim, K. B., & Duong, D. N. (2002). The use of traditional and Western medicine among Korean American elderly. Journal of community health, 27(2), 109-120.

Oates, L. (2015). Complementary medicines for insomnia. Australian Pharmacist, 34(2), 53-55.

Owen, E. J., Goldstein, S. M., Lee, H. J., Breen, N., & Rowland, H. J. (2010). Use of health related online Support groups: population data from the California Health Interview Survey complementary and alternative medicine study. Journal of computer-mediated

communication, 15, 427-446.

Prasad, A., Strijnev, A., & Zhang, Q. (2008). What can grocery basket data tell us about health consciousness? International Journal of research in marketing, 25, 301-309.

Scott, M. D. (2007). The new rules of marketing & PR (4th ed.). NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

Shreffler-Grant, J., Nichols, E., Weinert, C., & Ide, B. (2013). The Montana State University conceptual model of complementary and alternative medicine health literacy. Journal

of health communication, 18, 1193-1200.

SME Thailand Editorial Team. (2015). Move on, SME Thailand magazine, 11(121). 49.

Smith, L. M., Menn, M., & McKyer, J. L. (2011). Effectiveness of the radio as a health information source. Journal of radio & audio media, 18(2), 196.

Sompopcharoen, M. (2011). Thai film as a tool in preventing disease and promoting health in public health services. Proceedings of the 2010 International Seminar and Screening

of Thai Cinema. (pp. 119-130). Bangkok: Shanghai Theatre Academy & Chulalongkorn University.

Spence, M. & Ribeaux, P. (2004). Complementary and alternative medicine: consumers in search of wellness or an expression of need by the sick? Psychology and Marketing, 21(2), 113-139.

Messinger, B. (2014). Content is king and connections are queen but patient experiences rule. Marketing health services, 34(1), 20-23.

National Science and Technology Development Agency. (2015, May 19). Natural cosmetic industrial database. Retrieved from http://www.nstda.or.th/industry/cosmetics-industry.

Hindle, H. A., Davis, R. B., Phillips, R. S., & Eisenberg, D. M. (2005). Trends in use of complementary and alternative medicine by US adults: 1997-2002. Alternative

therapies in health and medicine, 11(1), 42-49.

Ward, M. S. R. (2014). Give the winds a mighty voice: evangelical culture as radio ecology. Journal of radio & audio media, 21(1), 118.

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Perception of Teenagers in Padang city about Messages in Public Service

Advertising of BKKBN “Ideal Age of Marriage and Pregnancy” version Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu

Ghina Novarisa65

Abstract

The research was purposed to identify the perceptions of teenagers in Padang city about an advertising message of public service BKKBN “Ideal Age of Marriage and Pregnancy” in Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu’s version. In addition, this research aimed at identifying to know the perceptions of teenagers based on the social categories of place of residence.

This research used descriptive qualitative approach with focus group discussion method. The object of the research was the perceptions of high school students about an advertising message of public service BKKBN “Perkawinan dan Kehamilan Usia Ideal” in Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu’s Version. While the subject of the research was a

teenager, especially high school students in the city of Padang. This research used: concept of perception, the components of advertising, and concept of reception. The result of this research is the teenagers from urban area are more interested in advertising by its content and a source of massage, and the teenagers from sub urban are more attracted by jingle as a component of advertising. Furthermore, this research used reception analysis to find out how teenagers desire to advertising messages. The result shows that the teenagers from urban area are dominant and the teenagers from sub urban area are negotiation.

Keywords: perception, component of advertising messages, reception

65 Graduate Student, University of Indonesia, email: [email protected]


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Introduction

Advertisement (ad) is a very efficient media for promotion because it reaches a great number of audience through producers convey the information about products or services that they offer. As effective and efficient promotional media, it is also selected to convey the social messages carried by particular institutions or groups. This kind of ad is known as a public service ad that aims at giving information and explanation as well as education for society, in order to encourage the community to participate positively toward the conveyed message (Morrisam, 2010: 17).

National Planning Family Coordination Board (Badan Koordinasi Keluarga Berencana Nasional: BKKBN) is one of the Indonesian Government institutions that uses the public service (ad) to convey their educational messages to Indonesian society. BKKBN has the main task to actualize family and society welfare in Indonesia. BKKBN campaigns actively program “The planning Generation” (GenRe). This program is developed in order to prepare family life for teenagers/students, so that they are able to do well plan education, have well plan career, and get married fully plan as reproduction health cycle (Muadz et al., 2012: 4-8).

Making an ad has to consider the message of the ad itself, which is the idea or the news that will be communicated to the target or audience to get the expected response. Kotler (2000) stated that several things must be considered in creating and formulating a message: content of the message, structure of the message, format of the message, and source of the message. Next, the message from the ad will be received and translated by the target of that ad, which is called as the perception process. Perception, according to Rakhmat (2007), gives a meaning to the sensory stimulus or the way to interpret or construe the message after the sensory process. Perception also uses the experience of the object, event, or the connections that are acquired to conclude the information and interpret the message; because, the stimulus is influenced by past experience of an object (Rakhmat, 2007: 51).

Perception is influenced by an experience about the object perceived producing different perceptions by the teenagers who become the target of the public service ad. Melvin De Fleur (as cited in Rakhmat, 2007: 204) in his theory stated the result to the public with media based on the category or social groups in the society. Those social groups can be based on age, gender, income, geographic location/home, and faith in religion, which tend to show the same responses. In this research, the differences of geographical area where the teenagers live become an interesting aspect to be researched.

This research aims at exploring the perceptions of teenagers who live in urban area compared to teenagers who live in the sub urban area. The mindsets of the students who live and do most of their activities in urban area are certainly influenced by the society lifestyles and habits of lives in urban area, as well as its environments. Quick and near access to the center of social lives, economy, politics, and others, can influence people’s lifestyle, habits and environment in the urban area. The same thing also happens to the students who live in sub urban area, because of far access to the social lives, politic, and economic center, it also influences the teenagers’ perception process towards ads.

Public Service Advertisement as Socialization Media

Advertisement is a form of the most well-known promotional media, this is due to its wide reach. Ad also becomes a very important promotional instrument, especially for companies that produce goods or services for wide society. Advertising can be defined as: any paid form of nonpersonal communication about an organization, product, service, or

idea by an identified sponsor (Morrisam, 2010: 17).


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The meaning of “paid” in this definition shows the fact that spaces and times for an advertising message must be bought. The meaning of “nonpersonal” involves mass media (television, radio, magazine, and newspaper) that can deliver messages to great numbers of people (most of the individual groups) at the same time. Thus, the nonpersonal behavior of an ad is that, generally, there is no chance available to get the immediate response from the receiver, unless the advertiser must really consider how the audience will interpret and give their responses toward the message (Morrisam, 2010: 17).

Advertising is the most persuasive sales messages directed towards the most potential consumers or the cheapest goods and services (Jefkins, 2004: 5). Advertising becomes an equally important step as other steps in the marketing process. The ad has several goals such as 1) to attract potential customers to be loyal customers for a particular period of time and 2) to develop positive attitude of the customer candidates, so that they are expected to become potential customers in the future (Kasali, 1992: 48).

The same thing applies for with the goal of persuading society, BKKBN as the advertiser, using the public service ad “Ideal Age of Marriage and Pregnancy” Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu version in order to persuade their targets, especially the Indonesian teenagers, to follow their program. This public service ad has persuasive messages to invite people to act for public benefits or to change a society’s habits or behaviors. Public service ad is a part of the social marketing campaign that aims at selling the ideas for the benefits or the services for the society. Public service ad is a beneficial ad to motivate society’s solidarity when facing a social problem. This ad provides social message that aims at raising social awareness for several problems that they have to face, which are the conditions that can threat the harmony of public life (Kasali, 1992: 201).

Kasali (1992) stated that the issues which are generally presented in the public service ad are: environment (e.g. environmental hygiene), health issues (e.g. family planning), and social issues that push appreciation towards disagreements etc. Furthermore, Kasali also added the requirements of the public service ad using the right interesting, polite, and logical words. The expressions and figures of speech used in the public service ad are interesting and suggestive. They are arranged in brief and emphasizes on the important parts. In terms of content, it must be objective and honest, brief and clear, does not offend particular groups, and attract people’s attentions.

BKKBN public service ad “Ideal Age of Marriage and Pregnancy” in Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu version is an advertisement for the planning generation program (GenRe) with sub-dimension “Maturation of Marital Age.” The Maturation of Marital Age is an effort to rise the first marital age, so that in marriage, it is expected that people reach the age above 20 for women and above 25 for men. These ages are deemed ideal, due to medical reasons, physical condition that has passed the growth period of time, lower risk of death during childbirth, and enough knowledge, prepared mental, economy and spirituality (Muadz et al., 2010: 2).

Teenagers as the Socialization Target

BKKBN is one of the institutions in Indonesia that the main obligation is to implement government duty in the area of planning and welfare family according to the current law. One of their programs is the Planning generation (GenRe) which is promote the delay of marital age by prioritizing education and skill first. This program is developed in order to prepare the family life for teenagers/students so that they can finish their education and have a career as their plan, and get married with fully plan as their cycle of reproduction health.


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The GenRe has several goals: first, to improve the rise median of the first marital age of women to become 21-year-old in 2018, and rise the number of teenagers who understand and be active in teenager endurance guidance. The target of GenRe is youth (10-24) and unmarried, college students, family, and society that concerns to teenagers (Muadz et al., 2010: 3-4).

Teenager is the transition period between childhood and adulthood. In this period, child undergoes growth period, physical growth as well as psychological growth. They are not children in terms of physical form and the way they think or behave, but they have not been a mature (fully developed) adult either. According to Hurlock (1968: 12), teenage is the period between the age of 13-21 years old, which is divided into: 1) early teenage period (13-17) and 2) late teenage (17-21).

Hurlock (ibid) divided the steps of teenage years based on the psychological development to be three stages, which are: pre-teen (11-13 years old) that be known as negative period, it can be seen from their behavior which tends to be negative, so this phase is the difficult phase for the children as well as parents. Early teenage (14-17), in this period, physical changes happen rapidly and reach its peak. The imbalance and instability emotional in various things are found in this period. Teenagers try to find their identity, therefore their statuses are unclear. Furthermore, in this period, there are changes in the pattern of social relation. Last, late teen (18-21), they started to be idealistic, have high dreams, full of energy. Furthermore, they started to stabilize their identities and want to reach emotional independency.

Emotional imbalance and instability happen at these periods. Adolescents seek their identity, so their statuses are unclear. These phenomena become a background of the research that focuses on ages around 14-17 years old. The subject of the research is teenagers who are the students of high school in Padang. Teenagers in this period undergo rapid physical changes and reach the peak. Emotional imbalance and instability can be found in the teenagers in this classification.

The research subjects are high school students; because, they have the average age in accordance with the teen category. All students who become the object of this research have similarities and differences. The teenager ages in common range between 14-17 years old. All of teenagers study in high school level. They have different backgrounds. Urban teenagers have parents with a variety of professions, and the sub urban teenagers have parents that the majority group is a farmer. They also have a different mindset. The urban teenagers are close to the source of information, while the sub urban ones are opposite.

Perception’s Influence Factors

Stimulus ad received by the sensors has the different interpretations for each individual giving various results. Melvin De Fleur (as cited in Rakhmat, 2007: 204) stated the result to the public with media based on the categories or social groups in the society. Those social groups can be based on age, gender, income, geographic location, and faith in religion, which tend to show the same responses. He coins media exposure from three perspectives: 1) individual differences perspective, 2) social categories perspective, and 3) social relations perspective. Various stimuli given by mass media rise the various responses from the audience. Therefore, Melvin De Fleur (ibid) stated that to view the people’s encounter with media from various perspectives. One of them is social category, that sees the result of media exposure based on the social group or category in the society.

The classification of society is the result of the social development. The social classification based on the individual groupings that have the similar classification such as


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income, social status, and others (Liliweri, 1991: 121). This theory assumes that in society there are social groups whose reaction towards stimulus tend to be the same. Social groups based on age, gender, income, place of living, and religion, show the responses tending to be the same. The members of particular categories tend to choose the same content of communication and will give almost similar responses.

The basis of this theory is related closely with the diversity of modern society, in which stated that society that has particular characteristics will form the same behavior in responding to particular stimulus. This classification underlies the research on teenager perception as the target of BKKBN socialization towards the public service ad based on their social category, which is based on the home areas.

This research aims at analyzing the perceptions of the teenagers who live in urban area compared to the ones who live in sub urban. The urban area category that becomes the researcher’s reference is at the center of the city that nears to the social lives, economic, politic and cultural center, as well as the zone that has high accessibility level different than the rural area because it belongs to hinterland, or the village-city border. The citizens are working in the city and live in the rural area (Yunus, 2003: 79). The mindset of the students who live and do their activities in the center of the city surely influenced by the lifestyles, habits, and the environments of the people in the urban area. It appears contradictorily to the students who live in rural area, that are far from the center of those factors, influence on mindsets of the students who live in this environment.

Advertisement and Perception Process

Perception, in narrow definition, is a vision how a person sees something, while in broad definition is the view or definition how a person sees or interprets something (Levit, n.d. as cited in Sobur, 2006: 445). Similarly, Wernburg & Wilmot (as cited in Mulyana, 2008: 180) stated that perception is the way an organism gives meanings. Choen (ibid) also stated that perception is knowledge that appears about everything in the world.

Perception is the core of communication because if a perception is inaccurate, an effective communication cannot be reached. Perception determines whether someone chooses a message and ignores the others. The higher level of perception similarity between individuals, the easier and more often they communicate, and the consequences tend to be forming a cultural group or identity group (Mulyana, 2008).

Perception is also determined by functional and structural factors. Several functional factors of personal factors such as individual needs, experience, age, personality, gender, and other subjective factors. Structural factors are factors from the outside of an individual such as family environment, laws and regulation, and values in the society. Perception, including cognition, which includes the interpretation of objects and signs in the perception of the experience of the said person (Rakhmat, 2007: 51).

Another factor sharply influences the perception is “attention.” According to Kenneth (as cited in Rakhmat 2007), attention is the mental process when stimuli or a series of stimulus become prominent in the consciousness and the other stimulus become weak. To attract the attention can also be influenced by several factors, external factors and internal factors. External factors of the attention are movement, the intensity of a stimuli, novelty, and repetition, while the internal factors are biological factor and socio-psychological factor.

Perception is a process where an individual is receiving, selecting, organizing and interpreting information to form a figure of meaning. Mulyana (2008: 181-182) stated several stages that must be passed by perception. Perception is preceded by sensor or sensation. Sensation is a stimulus that received by an individual through receptor tools which is sensors.


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Sensors are the connector between individuals and the outside world, it refers to smelling, hearing, touching, tasting, and sighting. Then the individuals pay attention to the stimulus, or known as the attention process. Next, continued to the most important stage of the perception which is the interpretation of the information that they get from one or more individual sensors.

In another word, perception is a process in which individuals are exposed by information, pay attention and understand as well as interpreting the information. In this research, the perception is the perception towards the broadcasting via television in the form of public service ad. Therefore, the information in the perception are interpreted into the message of the ad. The perception process is preceded by the input of stimulus to the individual’s sensors that produces attention that will be processed and interpreted to become a meaning.

Stimulus given by advertisement is ideally the message that get attention, interesting, generating desire, and creating action. Several things that must be considered in the preparation of the messages are the content of the message, the format of the message, the structure of the message, and the source of the message that are contained into elements (Kotler, 2000). The elements that have the biggest roles are video, audio, and talent (Wells et al., 1992).

This public service ad portrays young couple played by actor and actress, Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu. Teuku Wisnu wants to marry Shireen Sungkar, she said yes, but she does not want to rush into marriage, waiting for the appropriate age. After their age are appropriate, a scene is shown in which Teuku Wisnu and Shireen Sungkar get married, and do not immediately got pregnant, after that it is shown that Shireen Sungkar is pregnant and have a child in the right time, and in the last scene they have two children with appropriate age gap between their birth. During the ad, they are smiling and showing their happy family, combined with the jingle in “dangdut genre66,” and the message said that do not rush into marriage, wait for the appropriate age, do not rush to get a child, and do not have children with the close gaps between their birth, so that the mother and the baby will be healthy, and family will be happy. The messages of the commercial are continued with the statement from Dr. Sonia Wibisono, “Marriage and Pregnancy in Ideal Age, Babies are Healthy and the Mothers are Safe,” then, closed by the catchphrase of family planning: “Two Children Are Better.”

For a teenager who lives in urban area, from the stimulus given, the talent is the most attractive element of the advertising for them comparing to the audio and the visual of the ad. Meanwhile, for the sub urban teenagers, their attentions tend to go to the audio of the ad, which is the jingle in “dangdut genre.” The stimuli given are the same, but the elements of the ad that attract their attentions are different. The talent, the source of the message, is believed to be the credible source giving information for teenagers in the urban area, so the ad gains their attentions. It is different from the sub urban teenagers when many of them do not know about the talent, but pay attention to the commercial because of its interesting and familiar jingle.

Although they have different attentions, both teenager categories have the same interpretation about the message of this advertisement. For those teenagers, the idea of the

66 Dangdut is a genre of Indonesian folk and traditional popular music that is partly derived from Hindustani, Malay, and Arabic music. Dangdut is a very popular genre in Indonesia because of its melodious instrumentation and vocals. Indonesians dance in the Ghoomar style along with the dangdut music.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indonesia

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traditional

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustani_Classical_Music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malays_(ethnic_group)

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_music

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghoomar


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message is the government program in reducing birth rate to form prosperous family, which plans the age of marriage, has children in the proper time, the age gap between children birth are not too close, and the amount of two children is maximum for a harmonic and prosperous family.

The Analysis of the Advertisement Perception

Reception analysis has the essence to place attribution and construction of meanings from media to people. The messages of the media are always open and polysemic (have various meanings), and are interpreted according to the context and culture of the audience (McQuail, 2010: 73). This analysis is focused on the individual attention to the mass communication process. The reception analysis respect the media consumers, learn more about the understanding how a person interpret the media content. Furthermore, this analysis can give an in-depth analysis on how media is used daily in the social context.

The relations between media’s messages and the audiences are initially stated by Stuart Hall (as cited in Baran & Davis, 2009), he stated that there are two factors that must be noted related to the process of message reception: first, analysis on the social political context in which the content of the media are produced (encoding). Second, the pattern of content consumption or media content (decoding). This thinking evolved into the concept that is known as the reception analysis. In Hall’s explanation, the encoding and decoding process model in the media are called as meaningful discourse. The encoding process depends on the mass media production meaning structure in this term is the production by BKKBN. Furthermore, the decoding process depends on the difference of the interpretation structure and the different background knowledge of each audience based on the difference of the geographical area concept, in which there are factors differentiating the teenager mindset from those two areas (McQuail, 2010).

Hall classified how audiences interpret the messages based on their experiences into three types: 1) preferred or dominant, 2) negotiated, and 3) oppositional. The active audiences can acquire and interpret the messages they receive well. Griffin (2003: 374-375) cited Hall’s explanation about these three kinds of interpretation:

1. Dominant, interpretation based on the dominant codes. Media produce messages and audiences consume it. The audiences consume the messages based on the meaning offered by the media. Dominant is the type of audience that interpret text according to the dominant culture.

2. Negotiated, interpretation based on the dominant culture, but refuse the application in the specific cases.

3. Oppositional, the audiences interpret the messages critically and find the bias in the delivery of the messages and try not to accept it.

The explanations of these three classifications can be defined that the audiences are in the dominant position when they completely share, accept and reprocess the message acquired, in this position the message is interpreted according to the hegemony culture. But, when the audiences started to have refusal, they are in the negotiation condition, in one hand, they accept the opinion of the hegemony culture, but, in the other hand they have their own interpretation. Next, when the audiences refuse the idea of the hegemony culture and have the perspective difference with the message received, they are in the opposition condition.

After interpreting the teenager perception towards the public service announcement from BKKBN, both teenager categories have different opinions on the message of the ad. Teenagers who live in urban area tend to be dominant in receiving the message of the ad.


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They stated that they choose to delay the marriage, prioritize their study and have a decent hob, and prepare to be more mature mentally and materially before deciding to get married. Furthermore, for planning the number of children, they are also tending to agree with the message of the commercial, which are two children is better. They argue that have many children will need more cost, they choose to have one or two kids as the maximum quality, so they can afford their children’s higher education.

Different than the teenagers in the sub urban area, they seem to be in the domination position, in which they are agree with the message of the commercial, but due to several factors, they tend not to follow the message of that commercial. One of the most dominant factors is the economic factor, in which they have planned to not continue their education. For the males, they planned to seek for jobs to help their families, and the females, they choose to marry quickly so that their parents’ burdens will be reduced. The group of teenagers in this category tends to not question an old folk saying, “many children, more fortune,” they still think that the more the merrier, each child will bring in their own fortune. Thus, they do not plan to limit the numbers of children, even there are some who think that if they have many children, they will help their parents.

Conclusion

BKKBN campaigns the GenRe program for Indonesian teenagers using public service advertising media. One of the issued ads is the BKKBN public service ad “Ideal Age of Marriage and Pregnancy” in Shireen Sungkar and Teuku Wisnu version. This advertisement campaigns the ideal marital and pregnancy age. This ad is conveyed through televisions, aims at delivering the message to teenagers as the target group. Ideally, the effective message should attract attention, interesting, generating desire, and motivating action. Therefore, the ad message must be delivered to the communication target well, and can be seen from the perceptions of the teenagers toward the ad.

According to Mulyana (2008), the perception process goes through three steps, which are: 1) sensation, a stimulus received by individual through receptor, 2) attention, individual’s preceding attention to the stimulus, and 3) interpretation the information received from one or more human sensors. The stimulus ad received by the sensors has different interpretation for each individual. The ad which is a part of mass media, gives various exposure results. Melvin De Fleur (as cited in Rakhmat, 2007) stated that the result of the exposure of media towards the audience based on the social groups and categories in the society. This research focused on the classification based on the social category—geographical areas.

With the same stimulus, teenagers with different home areas have the different attentions toward the ad. The urban teenagers tend to pay attention to the actor, while the sub urban teenagers tend to pay attention to the audio in the form of the ad’s jingle. Yet, they have the similar interpretation towards the ad, which is about the government program in reducing birth rate to form prosperous family, plan the marital age, have children in the right time, the gap of age between children are not too close, and the amount of two maximum children for harmonic and prosperous family.

Furthermore, the ways they respond to the ad differently. Although they both agree with the BKKBN messages, the urban teenagers tend to be dominant—accepting and agreeing on the commercial message. Meanwhile, the sub urban teenagers choose to negotiate with the messages of the commercial. They agree with the messages of the commercial, but not seriously want to apply it in their real lives.


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Suggestion

For the negotiated and oppositional groups, BKKBN should consider sophisticatedly on the differences of the social groups, then designs the various kinds of public service advertising for each specific social group. For example, the ad creations and message designs for the urban and sub urban teenagers must be different about the ways of living or family planning—depending on their perception and interests (e.g. the attraction of role models and familiar music). Last but not least, for the worth effectiveness and efficiency of the programs, BKKBN must generate several communication strategies (campaigns, communication channels—media, or particular messages etc.) to socialize their programs (the messages of social wellness) effectively and efficiently with the specific groups. In the future, the aggregation of each appropriate campaign will result as the prosperous livelihood to the entire Indonesian community at large.

References

Baran, J. S. & Davis, D. K. (2009). Mass Communication Theory; Foundation, Ferment and

Future (5th ed.). California: Wadsworth Publishing.

Griffin, E. (2003). A first Look at Communication Theory. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Hurlock, E. (1968). Developmental Psychology (3th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

Jefkins, F. (2004). Periklanan (Advertising). Jakarta: Erlangga.

Kasali, R. (1992). Manajemen Periklanan Konsep dan Aplikasinya di Indonesia (Advertising Management: Concepts and Applications in Indonesia). Jakarta: Pustaka Utama Grafiti.

Kotler, P. (2000). Manajemen Pemasaran Perspektif Asia Buku 3 (Asian Perspectives Marketing Management 3). Yogyakarta: Andi Yogyakarta.

Liliweri, A. (1991). Memahami Peran Komunikasi Massa Dalam Masyarakat (Understanding the Role of Mass Communication in Society). Bandung: Citra Aditya Bakti.

Morissan. (2010). Periklanan Komunikasi Pemasaran Terpadu (Integrated Marketing Communications: Advertising). Jakarta: Kencana Prenada.

McQuail, D. (2010). McQuail’s Mass Communication Theory (6th ed.). London: Sage.

Mulyana, D. (2008). Ilmu Komunikasi Suatu Pengantar (An Introduction to Communication Studies). Bandung; Remaja Rosdakarya.

Muadz, et al. (2010). Pendewasaan Usia Perkawinan dan Hak-Hak Reproduksi Bagi Remaja

Indonesia (Maturation Age Marriage and the Rights of Adolescent Reproductive for Indonesia). Jakarta: BKKBN.

Muadz, M. (2012). Grand Design Program Pembinaan Ketahanan Remaja (Grand Design Program Fostering Resilience Youth). Jakarta: BKKBN.

Rakhmat, J. (2007). Psikologi Komunikasi (Psychology of Communication). Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya.

Sobur, A. (2006). Psikologi Umum (General Psychology). Bandung: Rosdakarya

Wells, W., Burnett, J., & Moriarty S. (2005). Advertising, Principal, and Practice (7th ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

Yunus, H. (2003). Klasifikasi Kota (City Classification). Yogyakarta: Pustaka Belajar.


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Academic Use of Forums in eLearning - Perceptions, Findings and Truths

Kuldeep Nagi67

Abstract

Forums or threaded discussions are one of the most commonly used tools in online teaching. They provide a facility for asynchronous discussion on a particular topic or issue over an extended period of time. Students enrolled in eLearning courses are able to reflect upon their ideas before sharing them with others. eLearning is gradually becoming an alternate way of study for most young people who prefer to use the Internet, portable devices and digital media. While eLearning offers many advantages, it is often seen as faceless media that does very little to enhance social interaction, discussion or collaboration. Online interaction in eLearning courses becomes more restrained in countries where educational systems fail to prepare students to asking questions or sharing their ideas. This paper discusses tools for online communication, paying particular attention to the use of forums provided within a Learning Management System (LMS). This paper shares few perceptions, truths and findings about forums based on the data derived from Moodle “Reports” and logs of 4 online courses offered in a Information and Communication Technology (ICT) program at a local university. It evaluates the use of forums in terms of educational pedagogy and its advantages and limitations in a cultural context. This paper will be of use to those who value the forums as collaborative communication tool in virtual learning environments and how their usage could be measured and enhanced.

Keywords: eLearning, communication, forums, Learning Management System (LMS), logs,

usability

67 Fulbright Fellow (USA), Assistant Professor, Graduate School of eLearning, Assumption University, Bangkok Thailand, email: [email protected]


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Introduction: Perception and Truth about Forums

It is quite often mentioned that many students are reluctant to actively participate in face to face (F2F) class for any number of reasons. One of the important distinctions between F2F teaching and online learning is that online forums are much easier to instigate and manage. There is wide spread acceptance of the facts that online forums enhance engagement through new prompts, enables more student participation, thus providing every student broader and more diverse range of perspectives (Newman, Webb & Cochrane, 2009).

There are many tools and technologies which are being effectively employed to promote asynchronous discussions in eLearning courses. A few collaborative tools such as emails and discussion forums are quite common. Although many Learning Management Systems (LMSs) include facilities to upload and share documents, email is often used for informal, behind the scenes exchanges of ideas and resources in support of group work. Electronic mails, in their simplest use, provide a speedier version of traditional correspondence courses that are now extinct. More typically, emails are quite frequently used for teacher-to-student and student-to-student exchanges. Google’s Gmail and Microsoft’s Outlook can also be used to send emails to large groups along with attachments. In this new decade personal email exchanges are gradually being replaced by various new social media such as Facebook, Google+, LinkedIn, Twitter and a host of other mobile application such as Skype, Line, Whatsapp and Viber.

Discussion forums have become an integral part of eLearning courses as they provide a mechanism for discussion on specific topics as well as informal asynchronously exchanges over time-days, weeks and months. Moodle is a LMS built by the Moodle project led and coordinated by Australian company of 30 developers. Moodle forums has many built in features to attach documents, provide web links or uniform resource locators (URLs), or send email notifications when new posts are added. Threaded discussion in forums are typically indexed and organized so that the exchange of messages and responses are easily found. Common ways to group or sort postings are by date, title, author, group, or by specific topics initiated by the instructor or other participants. Very often, threaded discussions are expandable and collapsible to allow participants to manage the number of posts shown on their screen at once and to facilitate easy browsing groups of posts. Discussion forums can be extremely effective because there is a great deal of sharing of perspectives and insights among students. However, the challenge for the instructors is to encourage the right amount and type of forum participation so that learning is enhanced. Important pros and cons of using forums in eLearning classes are listed in Table 1.


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Table 1: Pros and Cons of Forums

In F2F classes, questions are almost always posed, sometimes repeatedly, to the instructor, unnecessarily tying up their time. In large classes questions and answer sessions are negligible. On the other hand, in online forums students often answer each other’s questions with little or no prompting from the instructor.

Race and gender-based bias can often creep into F2F classes more easily than it can into online forums. In a forum, the only distinguishing characteristic from which race and/or gender might be drawn from is the participant's name. In forums, the bias often exhibited towards minorities and women in F2F classes is reduced, resulting in a more congenial environment.

The primary aim of this paper is to explore academic use of forums in eLearning and share important perceptions, findings and truths with the help of a limited amount of data collected from 4 online ICT courses using LMS logs; a secondary aim of this small study is to explore reasons for student’s limited participation in the forums and whether this might be due to affective factors such as level of proficiency in English language, cultural issues, forum fatigue or insufficiently developed autonomy in eLearning courses.

Literature Review

The Internet has greatly expanded the scope of learning in educational institutions. elearning has become an alternative to F2F teaching because of its capacity to enable synchronous and asynchronous communication in text, voice, and video, as well as providing a wealth of online resources instantly accessible to anyone, from anywhere at any time. A host of studies have shown that most forums used in eLearning courses are usually reflective in nature.

Purpose Pros of Forums Cons of Forums

Instructor-Student Questions and answers are available to Dependent on records/logs Communication others ensures all information is equally to read postings email tends to

shared permanent record of all postings be more readily accessed

Student-Student Group logs gives a convenient place for In addition to the above- languageCommunication collaborative work confidence can be a barrier

Students learn from each other just hanging out can be difficult toaccessible at any time if participation is mandatoryThreads of discussion are clearcontributions can be composed and well tuned before posting

Personal One can provide a personal log to be Forums are a public space for allcontributions used as a diary some LMSs can provide an students of the course

anonymous forum if participation is mandatory

Assessment Archive of all contributions for assessing Requirements for assessment must discussion can be closed on a scheduled date be clearly stated can be difficult to

determine the authenticity of participants


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They force students to read other’s perspectives and carefully consider a response. It is also true that the social aspects of the F2F teaching and learning are very intimidating for many students, especially for English as a Second Language (ESL) speakers or students whose mother tongue is not English. In addition, to lack of proficiency in English language new students in most classes and especially those who are simply shy or quiet simply avoid any direct communication. Online forums offer such individuals a tool through which they can actively participate without the overwhelming anxiety they may feel with many sets of eyes on them in a F2F environment. Online forums provide students in such classes with a tool through which conversations may take place more easily. Because there is a greater propensity for students to interact with one another in a forum than there is in an F2F setting, class community is often shown to be enhanced. Positive growth in class community is reflected through a sense of bonding with other students, a higher degree of trust among students, an increased number of inquiries and questions between students and the instructor, and a general sense that the forums are valuable tools in meeting the students needs (Rovai, 2000). As students reflect upon what they want to write in a forum, they often integrate their research, course materials and tasks with which they are familiar. This occurs much more easily in forum postings than in F2F discussions, largely because of the extra time most students have to think about their responses.

Let us look at a few more studies which have explored other truths about the use forums in eLearning. According to Kubala (1998) and Kassop (2003) forums are an active method of learning when contrasted with the F2F lecture model which is much more passive. According these researchers active learning is more powerful than passive learning in getting students to learn, retain, and apply course content to novel and practical situations. This active engagement with course content gives students an enhanced sense of empowerment, ultimately leading to enhanced interest, motivation, engagement and participation. Conceptualizing student’s communication skills within online forums shifts the focus from individuals to collaboration and highlights the need for language proficiency and skills for clear communication. Although this author did not explore the issues of English language proficiency in students but is one of the key unknown variable in this study. Drawing on Jenkins’ (2006) notion of “participation” in a common virtual space, Hauck (2010) has suggested that the ability to collaborate online is best developed through working together to complete difficult tasks which will lead to creating and sharing new knowledge. Cormier and Siemens (2010) emphasize that “the communication and comments are what the online courses are all about.” According to Pegrum (2009) “one could therefore argue that participation in forums emerges as both the means and the end of learning and it offers an ideal environment for self-determined students to come along for the ride and develop required participatory communication skills.”

Considerable research has also been done in various eLearning platforms and a majority of them indicate that effective use of forums results in greater cognitive and exploratory learning (Haggerty, Schneberger & Carr, 2001). According to Kassop (2003) and Rovai (2004) forums lead to increased student-to-student conversations and collaborations. Other researchers have indicated that use of forums result in more developed critical thinking skills (Collison, Elbaum, Haavind, & Tinker, 2000). Findings of Eklund & Eklund (1996) and Shapley (2000) also indicate that forums do help in cultivating better communication skills. A few more research studies conducted by Hiltz & Wellman (1997), Markel (2001) and Sullivan (2002) also concluded that proper use of forums leads to an enhanced sense of race and gender-based equality into online class community. It is worth noting that majority of studies cited in this paper are conducted in countries where participants are native speakers and where the medium of instruction (MOI) in educational institution is also English.


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On the other hand, this small scale study was conducted in Bangkok, Thailand, where majority of educational institutions do not use English as the MOI. It is just not a perception but a truth that English language is not widely used outside the Thai classrooms or in the society. This author raised the issues of MOI in Thai educational institutions in an article titled “English-language improvement in Thailand: hype or a necessity” published in The Nation Newspaper (Nagi, 2012). Needleless to repeat that a small sample size of 18 students used in this study is not enough to generalize the outcomes. However, it attempts to provide an insight into the issues of MOI as well as futility of participating in another forum when most Thai students are heavily engaged in social media in their own native language.


Moodle is an open source learning platform that helps instructors create effective online teaching and learning experiences in a collaborative and private environment. It is freely available for download and can be customized to meet the needs of a particular institution for online training and education. As shown in Figure 1 the Moodle is widely used as a platform for hosting eLearning courses. For exploring the use of forums in eLearning courses a tool called “Report” was used. All 18 students enrolled in 4 courses were Thai natives. They were enrolled in 4 eLearning ICT courses with a variety of topics ranging from Computer System Organization, eCommerce to Information Security. As mentioned earlier, since the MOI in most Thai schools and college is not English, it is safe to presume that reading, writing and communication skills of students were not at par with native speakers.

These days a wide variety of terms are used for sharing information in online discussions. A web board, a bulletin board, a forum and a discussion forum implies the same thing. It is a shared space where users post messages called “posts” to be viewed by others. In an eLearning course instructors and students use this tool for communication. It is similar to an email exchanges except that the forum posts usually do not come into email inbox. The discussions are stored in the LMS and teachers and students typically need to log-on to the services to read or contribute to the discussion. However, these days many LMSs that are being used for hosting eLearning courses allow students to subscribe to a particular forum in order to receive copies of posted messages in their email inboxes. Moodle provides this feature to notify and prompt students so that can log-in and interact with the class.

Moodle Reports

In the case of Moodle, the instructor of an eLearning course can use “Reports” available under Course Administration tool to gauge how students are participating in various class activities including forums. More importantly, “Reports” can show which student did not participate in a particular activity, such as, an assignment, quiz or the forum. The night before the lecture the instructors can send out an email via News Forums about an upcoming task or event. Such postings alert students about an upcoming event or an activity. Instructors can also use “Reports” to gauge when students are logging into the course the most. For instance, say Sundays will always have twice as many views of the forums as compared to Tuesdays.

The purpose of this paper is not to show or discuss the details of how “Reports” (Figure 1) can be used as a powerful tracking tool in eLearning courses. The main objective is to show that in eLearning courses where the MOI is English the students whose English language skills are limited tend to avoid forums a tool for communication. Most Thai students succeed in passing the eLearning courses with or without participating in forums. The “Reports” tool/folder provided in Moodle allows instructors to view course logs, user activity reports, and course statistics based on users, times, or activity modules. Course logs


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allow instructors to see which resources or activities have been accessed and when. As mentioned above, they can easily check or verify if an individual student has viewed a specific resource or participated in a particular activity. Using filters, the instructors can limit their search to a specific day, specific task, or get results for a specified period of time.

Logs are particularly helpful to view an individual student's posts or level of participation during the course of the semester. There are 5 types of logs available under the “Reports” in the current version of Moodle 2.8.5. They are briefly discussed below.

Figure 1: LMS Moodle Reports

(Source: http://web.augsburg.edu/it/kb_images/moodle/2/administrationblock-reports.png)

1. Logs are activity reports of the site or course. Instructors can see the logs from the past hour, or logs of course activity. Before instructors generate a log, they will select what course, participants, date, activity and action they want the log to display. The display results can help the instructor to monitor who logged in and when.

2. Live logs are current activity reports of the site or course. Instructors can see the live logs of course activities.

3. Activity reports sum the number of views per activity and resources on Instructor’s page. If an instructor posts a homework assignment, he/she can see how many students actually opened it.

4. Course participation allows instructors to see who has completed a certain action, like a quiz. Instructors can also send a mass email to all students who have not participated.

5. Statistics allow the instructors to track the amount of posts and views from a certain time frame graphically. This can be used to see how many page views and posts have been based on factors like the day of the week, the week, or month.


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Uses of forums in eLearning

As mentioned in the first two sections, the forums provide an online message board that can be used for a variety of purposes in an eLearning course:

1) Online discussions: They are mostly started online or they can also be used to continue to supplement F2F discussions

2) Course announcements and news 3) Support either from the instructor or from participating students

Moodle provides an extensive set of modules for setting up forums within an eLearning course. Moodle provides following 6 options for setting up forums.

i. Set up multiple forums ii. Create private forums iii. Subscribe to forums to receive a copy of posts by email iv. Really Simple Syndication (RSS) feed is also available v. Rating: allows users to rate each other’s posts vi. Grading: grades are created using a scale

All logs can be accessed through the “Reports” and can be downloaded as Microsoft Excel files. After downloading as an Excel file a typical log looks like a spreadsheet as shown in Table 2. For the sake of privacy, details of students and other information such as IP address and other columns have been removed from the sample log file.

Table 2: Sample log file downloaded in Excel

All communications conducted by participants can be examined through forums. Depending on configuration or setup of forums all tasks are captured in the column titled “Action.” The last “Information” column entry provides a brief explanation of few tasks. Table 3 lists provides legends for “Actions” captured or recorded in the logs. What these entries in action column means in explained briefly through Figure 2. For example, Forum Add Discussion (FAD) means that AC Student2 clicked the post button; the title of the post “Do you know how this stuff works” is displayed in the last "Information" column. Forum

Course Date / Time Participants Action

Course_1 2013 August 20 16:09 Student1 forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 20 11:44 Instructor forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 20 11:44 Instructor forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 20 11:44 Instructor forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 20 8:31 Student1 forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 21 4:16 Student2 forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 21 4:15 Student2 forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 21 4:15 Student2 forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 22 12:17 Instructor forum add postCourse_1 2013 August 22 12:16 Instructor forum subscribeCourse_1 2013 August 22 12:12 Instructor forum update postCourse_1 2013 August 22 12:11 Instructor forum update postCourse_1 2013 August 22 9:35 Student1 forum update postCourse_1 2013 August 22 8:07 Student1 forum update postCourse_1 2013 August 22 8:07 Student1 forum update postCourse_1 2013 August 22 8:07 Student1 forum view discussionCourse_1 2013 August 22 8:07 Student1 forum view discussion


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View Forum (FVF) means the participants AC Student2 clicked the forum link; the forum name “Rumor Control” is displayed in the "Information" column.

Figure 2: Log columns-Action and Information (Source: https://www.it.umass.edu/sites/oit.umass.edu/files/2011/08/18/log-report.png)

Table 3: Moodle Forum Tasks- Legends

Moodle Forum Tasks LEGEND

Forum Add Discussion FAD

Forum Add Post FAP

Forum Search FS

Forum Update Post FUP

Forum View Discussion FVD

Forum View Forum FVF

Results and Discussion

Several researchers have found that as a learning aid, forums have shown to stimulate critical thinking, improve communication skills, foster a sense of community among students, and encourage collaborative problem solving (Gonzalez-Bueno, 1998; Warschauer & Kern, 2000; Muangsamai, 2003; Stevens, 2004). Furthermore, forums enable students to work together on projects and promote evocative dialogues centered on course content. In a typical eLearning course students will have different reactions to text based discussions. Some may be frustrated by having to type everything they want to say while those with superior writing skills will always have the advantage. Ironically, sometimes the strong writers may not be the same students who exhibit verbal superiority in the classroom. It is also assumed that those who are ignored, interrupted or shy to participate in F2F class discussions often avail themselves of the expressive opportunity and display stronger "voices" in online discussion forums.

Findings about forums in 4- eLearning Courses

The data collected through logs of 4 graduate level ICT eLearning courses with a total of 18 Thai students does not paint a very rosy picture of the utility or effectiveness of forums. The graph derived in Figure 3 from the Course1 log shows that out of 5 students in the class only Student1 was active during the whole semester. Student1 had more than 68 instances of Forum View Discussion (FVD). Others 4 students FVDs show 20-30 instances for the whole


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semester. The graph also shows that the instructor had 30 Forum Add Discussion (FAD) which simply means that instructor had 30 postings during the whole semester.

Figure 3: Forum Activities for Course-1

However, Forum View Forum (FVF) for all the 5 students ranged from 0-28 for the whole semester. Only one student (Student1) had a maximum of 28 views of the forum. Scores for Forum Add Post (FAP), Forum Search (FS), and Forum Update Post (FUP) were almost negligible for all the 5 students enrolled in this course.

The graph derived in Figure 4 from the Course2 log shows that out of 5 students in the class only one student (Studnet1) was active during the whole semester. Student1 had more than 45 instances of Forum View Discussion (FVD). Others 4 students FVD scores ranged from 2-17 for the whole semester which means that the overall participation was quite low.


The graph also shows that the instructor had 30 Forum Add Discussion (FAD) which simply means that instructor had posted 30 times during the whole semester.

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FVFs instances ranged from 2-12 for the whole semester which is very low. Scores for Forum Add Post (FAP), Forum Search (FS), and Forum Update Post (FUP) were almost negligible for all the 5 students enrolled in this course.

The graph shown in Figure 5 is derived from the Course3 log. It shows that all the 3 students in the class were relatively active with 45-70 instances of Forum View Discussion (FVD). The graph also indicates that the instructor had less than 30 Forum Add Discussion (FAD) which simply means that instructor had less than 30 postings during the whole semester. Scores for Forum Add Post (FAP), Forum Search (FS), and Forum Update Post (FUP) were almost negligible for all the 3 students enrolled in this course.


The graph derived in Figure 6 from the Course4 log shows that out of 5 students enrolled in this class only Student3 was active during the whole semester. Student3 had more than 60 instances of Forum View Discussion (FVD). Others 4 students FVDs ranged from 8-30 for the whole semester. The graph also shows that the instructor had 28 Forum Add Discussion (FAD) which simply means that instructor had 28 postings during the whole semester. However, Forum View Forum (FVF) for all the 5 students ranged from 2-28 for the whole semester. Only one student (Student3) had a maximum of 28 views of the forum. Scores for Forum Add Post (FAP), Forum Search (FS), and Forum Update Post (FUP) were almost negligible for all the 5 students enrolled in this course.

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The last graph as shown in Figure 7 is based on the forum data collected for all the 18 students enrolled in the 4 ICT courses. It compares the extent of various forum activities in these 4 courses. The data about the instructor’s participation is excluded. This graph clearly shows that total number of instances of Forum View Discussion (FVD) for all 18 students enrolled in 4 courses ranged from 87-178 for the whole semester. It is quite obvious that the average number of instances for each course was 133.25 and when the total of 533 instances are divided by 18 students the individual instances comes to 29.6. It simply means that on the average each student accessed the forums approximately 30 times during the whole semester. Course2 had relatively very low instances of all forum tasks throughout the semester. The scores for the second parameter or the task Forum View Forum (FVF) ranged between 29-93. Hence average instances of FVF for each course was 55 and when the total number of instances of 220 is divided by 18 students the individual score comes to 12 instances. This number is quite low in terms of level of engagement through forums. Course2 which had 5 students showed the least views of the forum. Scores for Forum Add Post (FAP), Forum Search (FS), and Forum Update Post (FUP) were almost negligible for all the 18 students enrolled in 4 eLearning courses.

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Figure 7: Forums Tasks-A Comparison of totals in 4-Courses

Almost every study conducted on the use of online forums in eLearning courses, especially those conducted in Australia, New Zealand, South Korea, United Kingdom, and the United States have shown positive results (Scott & Ryan, 2009). However, Sam and Lee (2008) indicate that most ASEAN schools and universities are not fully aware of how to integrate forums effectively for promoting better communication within F2F as well as eLearning courses. As purported by So (2009), the online discussion forums are some of the simplest web based communication tools that teachers can easily integrate into their teaching to extend discussions beyond F2F classrooms and virtual learning environments.

In Thai context, findings of this limited study indicate the lack of participation in academic forums. In context of the widespread use of Social Media in Thailand this important issue needs to be further explored with a large number of courses and a bigger sample size. According to Saiyasombut & Siam Voices (2002), majority of Thai students do not acquire proficiency in English language. Thai students have a very limited exposure to English language in the classrooms. Hence there is a need for teachers to encourage students to use new technologies such as online forums to gain more proficiency and skills in online communication, more so in English. On the other hand, all evidence indicates that young Thai students are very actively engaged in social media in their native Thai language. Most of the research on social media typically focuses on its benefits; considerably less is known about the harmful effects of social media sites. Lately there have been some efforts to uncover the negative psychological and relational experiences tied to the social networking and forums (Belanger, Akre, Berchtold & Michaud, 2011). Medical studies conducted these four doctors demonstrate that although social media users often experience negative emotions, they feel pressured to access such site frequently due to the fear of missing out and to keep up with relationships and demands. Such compulsions also afforded constant social comparison to other network members, which triggered jealousy, anxiety, and other negative emotions. Many Thai students are highly engaged in local social media thus indicating lack of participation in academic forums where there are no consequences on the final grade. Since forums provided in a course are inconsequential, there is no motivation, effort or compulsion to participate. This small study and its findings indicate the method used may not uncover the actual nature or scope of students’ other experiences. However, this study does indicate that when it comes to use of English, the things get tougher. Because of lack of confidence most Thai students avoid communicating in English language. Other possible

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factor could be the “forum fatigue” rising from excessive engagement in local social media. There is simply too much information in social media to access, let alone asses it. Like everywhere else young Thai students are drowned in morass of facts, figures, and opinions, many of them of questionable validity. As a result what we have is information, lots of it. Because of information overload stemming from social media, students may not have enough time and incentive to participate in academic forums?

Conclusions

In Thailand, eLearning is still at early stages of adoption. There are many factors for effective use of forums in eLearning, such as maturity level of students, cultural context of education, MOI and relevant technologies. In Thailand, education still remains a socio-cognitive process confined to campuses and classrooms. Hence not many students opt for eLearning as a preferred mode, especially if the MOI being used is English. Some students are quickly bored in front of a computer, others feel that online learning is attractive but they still prefer to go to the classroom. Use of online forums for collaboration and learning requires more maturity, self discipline, time management and language skills which explains lack of interest in courseware forums. However, this author' own experience of conducting online courses for more than 7 years indicate that “joining in” forums cannot be assumed to automatically yield positive outcomes. With increasing lure of engagement is several social media and mobile application used for communication, such as LINE, Facebook, Twitter, Google Hangout and Viber there is a possibility of suffering from forum fatigue. It is evident from this limited study that the English language skills most Thai students bring to eLearning courses are not necessarily matched by reality. Neither English is the MOI in most Thai schools and colleges nor is the overall proficiency in English very essential for passing a course. Hence understanding of this gap ought to change the way the online forums are conducted in English. The dilemma described here shows that eLearning instructors in Thailand are faced with a somewhat daunting task and confirms the need for cultivating alternative ways for enhancing communication in online courses. This limited study in some ways also challenges the assumption that eLearning courses are the place where Thai students can easily develop better English language skills.

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The Creation of a Live Performance Project for Visually Impaired People in Thailand:

A Case Study of “The Dreamer: Senses of Dream, Sounds of Infinity” Live Performance

Chonlathip Poonsirivong68

Abstract

The research used qualitative research utilizing participant observation to evaluate a live performance project. A focus group methodology was used with thirty visually impaired audience members to evaluate their perception and satisfaction with message communication during a live performance. Two research objectives were determined: to study the creation of a live performance for visually impaired people, and to study how well a live performance can be perceived by and can satisfy a visually impaired audience. The results of the research were as follows:

1) Creating a live performance project for visually impaired people requires understanding the concept of mainstreaming disability. The live performance impressed visually impaired people because they felt part of the performance without feeling discriminated against. Creating the live performance required consideration of both visually impaired people and of other audience needs, perceptions, and satisfaction. One factor of concern to production management was the seating arrangements, safety, and convenient access for visually impaired people. 2) Visually impaired audience members were able to access, perceive, and understand all narrative elements. Of seven message strategies, visually impaired audience members understood and were satisfied with: hearing sound effects and live music, dancing, holding hands, touching fabric, and floral smells but they could not decode either flying feathers, because there were too light to be perceivable, or the popping of bubbles because they didn’t understand the connotative meaning of puppy love.

Keywords: Live performance, visual impaired people

68

Chairperson of Department of Performance Communication, Albert Laurence School of Communication Arts, Assumption University Thailand, email: [email protected]


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Background and Significance

Thailand's definition of a disabled person in Persons with Disabilities Empowerment Act, B.E. 2550 (2007) is “an individual who is limited by function and/or ability to conduct activities in daily living and to participate in society through methods used by persons without disabilities due to visual, hearing, mobility, communication, psychological, emotional, behavioral, intellectual or learning impairment, and has special needs in order to live and participate in society as to others." The National Statistic Organization(NSO) reported that 1.9 million, or 2.9 % of the total Thai population are people with disabilities (2012). Reports showed that disability status, opportunities, and human rights are topics of concern in countries around the world. Disabled people are entitled to the same rights as all other human beings and to equal opportunities. Too often their lives are handicapped by physical and social barriers in society which hamper their full participation.

In March 2007, Thailand was the first country to the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) (Namsiripongpun, 2011). Since then, various laws and policies related to the equalization of opportunities for persons with disabilities have been put in place. These have helped transform our charity-based society into a rights-based society for persons with disabilities and have helped protect disabled people from discrimination in a variety of key aspects of their lives.

Under the new laws, service providers are not to discriminate against disabled people and are to give disabled people the right to access services. Service providers must do whatever is reasonable in order to ensure that a disabled person can access their services on the same terms as any other customer. “Access” is not only about transport. It encompasses a broad range of areas such as housing, employment and training, the built environment, communication and information technologies, the justice system and leisure services. Service providers would include shops, hotels, public libraries, public transport and media and entertainment providers.

Visually Impaired people are one group of people with disabilities. Therefore, it is a challenge for performance designers, practitioners, or producers in the live performance field to create live performances accessible to this type of disabled person.

Thus, for this research, visually impaired people are the focus. The objective for the live performance project was to study ways to allow visually impaired people to consume and understand theatrical works of artistic merit through their others four senses (smell, sound, taste, and touch).

The term “performing arts” usually refers to conceptual art which conveys a content-based meaning in a more drama-related sense, rather than being simple performance for its own sake or for entertainment purposes. It largely refers to a performance presented to an audience, but which does not seek to present a conventional theatrical play or a formal linear narrative, or which alternately does not seek to depict a set of fictitious characters in formal scripted interactions. It therefore can include action or spoken word as communication between the artist and audience, or even ignore expectations of an audience rather than following a script written beforehand.

The term “live performance” refers to creative activity and art forms in which artists use their body or voice to convey artistic expression. One important aspect of a live performance is communication between players and the audience. Audience understanding and satisfaction depends on the ability to decode signs, signals, and symbols in the live performance. The audience at a live performance is required to use more than one sensory motor using to perceive the show: they have to use the sense of sight for performers’ action


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and movement, the sense of hearing for dialogue, music, sounds and so on. Therefore it challenges a live performance production team if audience are unable to use some of their sensory motors.

This research focuses on visual impaired people’s perceptions and satisfaction as one group in the audience for a live performance. How do they perceive a live performance? How do they appreciate the art of acting, lighting, props, and scenery or anything else where sighted perception is required? Therefore, this research has two research objectives as stated below.

1. To study the creation of a live performance for visually impaired people

2. To study how well alive performance can be perceived by and can satisfy a visually impaired audience.

Operational Definitions

1. Visually impaired people mean people who can be defined on a continuum which includes three categories:

1.1 Total lack of functional use of vision

1.2 Partially sighted

1.3 Visually limited

2. The Creation means the approach to the live performance show to allow it to be perceived by and to satisfy visually impaired people.

3. Live performance means a type of media communication which involves acting on a stage under a time limitation. Audience and performers use their bodies or voices to convey artistic expression. For this research, live performance specifically refers to “The Dreamer: Senses of Dream, Sounds of Infinity”.

Research Questions

1. How is a live performance for visually impaired people created?

2. How well can a live performance be perceived by and satisfy visually impaired people?

Theoretical Background and Literature Review

To understand the two research questions, a literature review was conducted focusing on laws and human rights relating to disabled people in Thailand, theories of communication, and live performance communication concepts.

Status and Concept of Visually Impaired people in Thailand

Namsiripongpun (2011) reviewed Thailand’s overall legislative framework in terms of its compliance with the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD) in his article " The Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: A Case of Thailand”. His article stated the following.

“Article 20(3) of the Persons with Disabilities Empowerment Act of 2007 stipulates that disabled persons are entitled to rehabilitation for occupations, labor protection, employment security measures, including promotion of self-employment, as well as media services, facilities, technologies, or any other assistance that enable them to access employment chance under prescribed criteria and methods. Article 33 of the Ministerial Decree of the Ministry of Labor prescribes that employers employ persons with disabilities


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under the ratio employment system, which requires the employment of one disabled employee out every 200 employees. Article 34 prescribes that should the employer fail to employ disabled persons he/she must contribute to the Public Fund for the Empowerment of Persons with Disabilities; should he/she does employ, he/she shall be entitled to tax exemption as prescribed by law. Article 35 stipulates that an employer may grant concessions, arrange a place to supply goods or services, employ under a temporary employment contract, or provide training to disabled persons as a substitute for employment. Article 36 stipulates that the property of any employer failing to contribute to the Fund shall be subject to forfeiture. Article 38 stipulates that any business employing disabled persons over sixty percent of its entire workforce shall be entitled to tax exemption as prescribed by law. Article 39 prescribes that implementation or violation of the provisions set forth in Articles 33 - 35 be publicly announced at least once a year. These provisions are all in harmonization with Article 27 of the CRPD. Article 20(9) of the Persons with Disabilities Empowerment Act of 2007 stipulates that disabled persons are entitled to welfare of allowance for disabilities. (Namsiripongpun, 2011).

A Handbook on Mainstreaming Disability (2006) defined the difference between impairment and disability. Impairment is: a physical, intellectual, mental or sensory characteristic or condition, which places limitations on an individual’s personal or social functioning in comparison with someone who does not have that characteristic or condition. In other words, impairment is individual. There is as much different impairment as there are impaired individuals. Impairment can be the result of illness, injury, or a congenital condition. In contrast, disability is social. It is the exclusion of people with impairments due to social and environmental discrimination that acts as a barrier to their full and equal participation in mainstream society. Disability is fundamentally an issue of rights. (Daniel and Li, 2006)

Jones, D., & Webster, L. (2006) stated that The Voluntary Services Overseas (VSO) suggests society treat everyone with courtesy and respect, including disabled people. Treat each person as an individual, with her own way of interacting. Other general guidelines include:

• Speak directly to the person, in the same way as you would to anyone else, not to her interpreter or assistant.

• Speak normally and clearly. Don’t rush your words, shout or mumble. If you are talking to a person with limited hearing, check that she can understand you.

• Get on the same eye level, and look the person in the eyes (assuming this is culturally appropriate). This is the best way of making sure that your attention is on her and what she is saying.

• Don’t treat a disabled adult like a child. Talk to her like an adult. A person’s impairment may prompt your concern – but don’t restrict her freedom.

• Offer assistance, but don’t help someone without asking first. If you are helping someone, always do what she asks you, not what you think is best.

• Try not to stare if something about the person seems unusual to you – while many disabled people are used to being looked at, staring will make anybody self-conscious and uncomfortable.

• Avoid language that you know is rude or derogatory. When talking about people, refer to them by their name rather than their impairment.


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• Be polite. Treat the person the same way as you would anyone else. Disabled people have also suggested more specific guidelines for different kinds of impairment.

The "Barrier-Free" concept

UNNATI (2004) is the organization for Development Education, Handicap International stated the Barrier-Free concept in Design manual for A barrier-Free built environment that barrier-free building modification consists of modifying buildings or facilities so that they can be used by people who are disabled or have physical impairments. The term is used primarily in Japan and non-English speaking countries while in English-speaking countries, terms such as “accessibility” and “handicapped accessible” dominate in regular everyday use. In the case of new buildings, however, the idea of barrier free modification has largely been superseded by the concept of universal design, which seeks to design things from the outset to support easy access.

Communication Theory: Model of Communication

For the purpose of this research, communication is defined as the process of using symbols to exchange meaning. This research mainly focuses on the model of communication theory. Live performance is a medium of communication between the production team and the audience who were, in this case, a group of people with mixed sighted ability.

Linear Model: Shannon and Weaver proposed a Mathematical Model of Communication (often called the Linear Model) that serves as a basic model of communication. This model suggests that communication is simply the transmission of a message from one source to another. The Linear Model of Communication is a model that suggests communication moves only in one direction. (Pierce, 1980).

The sender encodes a message, then uses a certain channel (verbal/nonverbal communication) to send it to a receiver who decodes (interprets) the message. Noise is anything that interferes with, or changes, the original encoded message.

Concept and role of live performance

Live performance, known as theater, appears to exist and have existed in all societies in some form. Some things have theatrical elements including parades, game shows, sports, dances, religious services, political campaigns but they are different from theater, the art form.

Cameron and Gillespie (2000) noted that theater is a performing art. It is the most ephemeral, immediate art. It encompasses acting, directing, design, construction, and a running crew (musicians, singers, dancers). Moreover, theater is an amalgam of all the arts which makes it either the least pure or the most pure. It needs talent and skill to plan and execute. The final product is a result of the efforts of many. We can increase aesthetic and technical appreciation for the individual arts going into making theater and for the different styles and periods of theater.

Theater is a Major Form of Entertainment. It holds an audience's attention and was the primary form of public entertainment until the advent of radio and movies. Theater is fun, play (work, food, exercise) for the soul, for the mind, for the body. Therefore, we could look at the theater in at least four ways: as entertainment or art, as instrument of education, as weapon of social/political change and as document of history. The plays and the theatrical events of various periods can be seen as historical documents reflecting that period

Performance requires an audience, a group of individuals gathered together at a certain time and place for no purpose other than to see the performance (though some may be


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doing other things: placing bets, writing reviews, wasting time, etc.) that is aware of itself as a group.

Audiences respond to theater:

The preparation and the conditions or the theater (physical, social, cultural) help determine audience response. Audiences can respond to theater in many intellectual and emotional ways.

Aristotle's Six Parts of a Tragedy

1. PLOT: Plot means "the arrangement of events or the selection and order of scenes in a play”. Plot is different from the story which is what happens; the plot is how it happens. A story is a full account of an event or series of events, usually in chronological order; a plot is a selection and arrangement of scenes." (Wilson, 2014)

2. CHARACTER: Character is the essence of human behavior. Representative or quintessential characters embody of the characteristics of an entire group.

3. THOUGHT: Plays may often be written about an idea, but the playwright will probably focus more on plot and character to get the idea across. In production, directors seldom try to direct the idea. It is the other values that will get the idea across.

4. DICTION/LANGUAGE: Language is used to convey information, reveal characters, characterize direct attention, reveal themes and ideas, establish mood/tone, and establish tempo/rhythm appropriate to character.

5. MUSIC/SONG: The sound of the dialogue may have musicality, rhythm, pace, etc. Songs or music helps establish mood, characterize, and lend variety and pleasure

6. SPECTACLE: Visualization is the most immediate element and should be appropriate and distinctive.

This research uses the theories and concepts discussed above as guidelines in answering the research questions.

Methodology

This research used ethnography, which is the descriptive study of a particular group of society, in two stages. The first stage used participant observation and detailed work with key consultants to study the creative and production process behind the live performance.

The second stage studied the perception and satisfaction of the audience studied. Thirty visually impaired people from the Center of Training and Development for Visually Impaired People (Bangkok) were invited to participate as the audience of “The Dreamer: Senses of Dream, Sounds of Infinity” live performance on November 23, 2013 sponsored by Assumption University at John Paul Gymnasium, Suvarnabhumi Campus, Assumption University(Thailand). After attending the show, they were asked for their consent to participate in this study. Data were collected by focus group interviews. Participants were divided into four groups (7-8 persons each) using voluntary grouping.

Procedure

In the first stage of research, data was collected by structural recording by the researcher.

In the second stage, Data collection was conducted by well- trained research team members. Data was collected by structured 45-minute focus group interviews with


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participants, which were audio recorded and the recordings transmitted to the researcher for analysis.

Instrumentation

The primary tool for the first stage, studying the live performance, was a recording form which was designed to measure the creative and production procedures. This form consisted of seven main items covering live performance show elements and production procedures. A secondary tool was an interview recording form used for collecting data from interviews with people in each stage of the production process.

For the focus groups of participants, a structured questionnaire was used consisting of seven main items measuring each group’s opinion, perception, and satisfaction regarding “The Dreamer: Senses of Dream, Sounds of Infinity”. Interviews were recorded for analysis by the researcher.

Results

1. The creation of a live performance for visually impaired people

“The Dreamer: Senses of Dream, Sounds of Infinity” was performed on Friday 22 November 2013 at the John Paul Gymnasium, Assumption University, Suvarnabhumi campus. Results showed that the creative and production team members separated work into three main parts: management, performance, and design. Each part was broken into pre-production, production, and post-production stages. The functions of each main part are described below.

1) Management covers the functions of the project manager, producer or house manager, and the PR team.

2) Performance covers the functions of the director, script writer, stage manager, and performers.

3) Design covers the functions of the costumers, make-up artists, sound/light technicians, and prop/scene designers.

Alive performance for visually impaired people differs from a live performance for general audiences in several ways.

-Seating arrangement: Seating arrangement is important. It is not about the best seating for vision but other senses as well.

-Internal access: Because the performance took place in a gymnasium, producers were concerned about flights of stairs. However, producers checked with assistants to the visually impaired people before the day and found that the visually impaired audience could move and walk on stairs well using white canes. Therefore it was not an obstacle for the visually impaired audience to seat themselves.

-External Access: Because the visually impaired audience was unfamiliar with the gymnasium, producers prepared a walkway from bus parking to the audience seats.

Restrooms and other facilities: Producers provided information on locations and time needed to access facilities to the assistants to the visually impaired audience. For lunch, producers provided a university tram to take the audience to the cafeteria.

Live performance is a communication tool. Because a visually impaired audience may have trouble understanding the performance, the structure of the performance is important. The creative team came up with the idea of a musical play using both acting and music. For audience accessibility, the story was presented as simply as it could be.


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The live performance told the story of Somwang in four acts. The first, “When you wish upon the stars” was set in the 1990’s. Somwang was in 10-year-old poor boy. He helped mother to sell Thai desserts in the fresh market. Because of financial problems, his mother couldn’t support his studies. He passed one school everyday and dreamed of attending this school the same as other boys. One day his dream came true because he met the Principal of this school who gave him an opportunity.

Music part: “Jailhouse Rock”, “When You Wish upon Star”, “That’s life”

Techniques to communicate with visually impaired people:

- Sense of taste by serving Thai dessert to the audience.

- Sense of touch by having chiffon cloth flown to represent wind while “When you wish upon a star” was played.

- Sense of sound by having kitchen and natural sounds accompany the dialogue.

The second act was called “Imagine”. It covered Somwang’s life in high school and university where rich friends looked down on him. He graduated from university and got a scholarship to England but he chose to stay in Thailand to take care of his sick mother instead.

Music Part: “We Will Rock You”, “Imagine”


- Sound of sound using cafeteria and crowd noises

- Sense of touch by having actors dance around the audience close enough for them to feel part of show. Performers on stage made a sound along with the music rhythm by using tableware, glasses, and clapping hands

The third act was “When you believe”. This is set around the year 2000. Somwang is in the workplace. He fell in love with a new teacher but he realized their different social status. Even though he still believed in love, he had to be responsible to his family and made a decision to devote himself to his education.

Music Part: “When You Believe”, “Dream a Little Dream”, “Your Song, “You Raise Me Up”


- Sense of sound using crowd noise and garden environment sounds.

- Sense of touch by having bubbles flown around when “Dream a Little Dream” was played.

- Sense of smell by having a floral smell sprayed around the audience when the scene was in the garden.

- Sense of smell by having a floor cleaner smell sprayed around the audience when the scene was in the classroom.

The last act, “If we hold on together”, is set around the year 2020. Somwang is now old and tries to teach the power of dreams to a new generation.

Music Part: “If We Hold on Together”, Wind Beneath my Wings”, “Impossible dream”


- Sound of sound using university environment sounds, crowd noise and garden environment sounds.


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- Sense of touch by having the audience hold hands when “If We Hold on Together” was played.

- Sense of touch by having feathers flown around the audience when “Wind Beneath my Wings” was played.

2. Live performance communication

The live performance used narrative communication. The main elements are discussed below.

1) Plot: The performance is a musical play. There are two mains parts: acting and music. Acting conveys the main storyline. Music supports the feeling and atmosphere.

2) Theme: Follow your dream and try hard to make it real

3) Character: TheMain Character is Somwang whose life is shown from 10-60 years old. All characters are flat characters and stereotypes because a musical play is a style of story-telling which switches between acting scenes and music scenes. Therefore, the easier it is to understand each character, the easier it is to understand the theme and story.

4) Point of view: The point of view is the third person omniscient (God-like) observing the story from afar. The third person as narrator told the audience the theme of story and also the theme of each act as well. The narrator appears in the form of a voiceover before every act.

Because a visually impaired audience could not see the physical appearance of any character or any physical interaction between characters, the thoughts and reasons behind each character’s actions had to be made clear through dialogue

5) Conflict: The performance employed “internal conflict” mainly.

6) Setting/Location: The six settings in the performance were communicated to a visually impaired audience using the following techniques:

- Somwang’s house at night: sound of crickets and dialogue between Somwang and his mother

- School: sound of children playing in the playground, bell and school march sounds

- Kitchen: sound of pans, dialogue interpretation

- Canteen: sound of the crowd, table, utensils

- Ballet room: sound of ballet song and counting pitch for ballet practice

- Teachers’ office: dialogue interpretation and smell of floor cleaner

- Petunia Garden: sounds of nature, smell of flowers

7) Time and space: The performance was approximately 1.2hours long. The sequence of storytelling was demonstrated as shown below.

- Train sounds from different periods of time: 4 times

- Sound of narrator explaining the plot or main idea of each of act

- Acting or music relevant to each act

8) Audio/Visual: Multimedia is used to explain, add emotion, and make a performance livelier. Before the show, the video for the beginning of each act and all background pictures and music for each scene of the story were prepared.


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In this production, sound was very important not only for the visually impaired audience but also a general audience. Sound in an event is one of the factors which affect an event’s atmosphere, but for a visually impaired audience, sound is the main communication tool.

3. Perception of Visually Impaired people

Participants in this research came from the Center of Training and Development for Visually Impaired People (Pak-kred, Bangkok, Thailand). The Researcher invited them to participate. Participants joined in this research voluntarily. All participants knew the purpose of attending the performance because they were informed by the director of the center. Before the performance day, the researcher sent the participants some songs from the performance. After they attended the performance, voluntary focus groups were formed. Participants were separated into four groups. Each group contained 7-8 participants and two facilitators and one recorder. Results of research into perception and understanding of message strategies showed the following.

1) Experience of live performance

For this aspect, questions concentrated on media use patterns, live performance experience, and expectations of live performance. Results show that radio is the main media which visually impaired people use for consuming news and entertainment. Online internet technology is also used and is supported by the “JAW” program for Windows which is a reading program. Mobile phones also serve a practical function for visually impaired people.

For perception of live performance, every group participant recognized what a stage play or live performance is. Some of them had experience of stage plays or concerts but they were for a general audience, not tailored to the visually impaired. The participants also didn’t expect much from this performance other than some new experience.

After participants attended the performance they were satisfied with it. The main reason was participatory audience experience. They perceived sound, smell, and touch throughout the show. All groups agreed that they felt a part of show and their sensory experiences communicated the story well.

2) Perception and satisfaction with the live performance.

Participant perception and satisfaction was analyzed in terms of the seven elements of narrative structure: plot, theme, character, conflict, point of view, set/scene, and visual/audio.

- Plot

Facilitators asked participants to recount the story from beginning to end. All group participants recalled the whole story. Results showed they could understand the sequence of events in the plot correctly

For the concept of the performance, participants understood the pattern of a musical play. They liked both the acting part and music parts. All groups agreed that the music part engaged them and helped them to better appreciate the story.

- Theme

For questions about theme, all four groups answered in different ways but the ideas of all participants were close. The main themes identified were:

1) Dream for what you need and try to make your dream come true.

2) Do not give up even if you lost encouragement


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Results showed that the visually impaired audience correctly understood the main message which the sender communicated to the receiver.

- Character

Even through all characters were not mentioned in participants’ answers, those characters that were mentioned were understood correctly.

- Conflict

Results showed that the visually impaired audience perceived that the conflict in the story was internal conflict. Some participants felt that the story was the same as their life.

- Location and setting

For location and setting, only one group mentioned the distance between stage and seating. Results showed that participants who cannot use the visual sense perceive location and setting as an element of the communication effect.

- Visual/audio

All participants in the four groups agreed that the audio system is very important for a visually impaired audience. Audio in this research covered sound quality and content as well. Results showed that the audience who lacked visual ability were concerned about audio in terms of quality of sound, including sound volume and intensity, and also content creation which helped their imagination. They were also liked the sound of the music which was played in each scene.

- Timing and space

Results showed that participants understood that the performance was separated into four acts each introduced by the sound of a train from four different time periods. For performance length, participants in two groups desired a longer performance. They shared some ideas about possible scenes to add and characters to favor.

4. Perception and satisfaction with message strategies

To study the perception and understanding of the message strategies, the researcher considered message strategies which used other senses than the visual. The results are shown below.

Table 1: Message Techniques used for visually impaired audience

Scene Audio / Narration Senses Technique Used Meaning/communication

1.

When you Wish

Upon a Star

Touch

Fly chiffon silk inside to symbolize wind by letting the cloth touch the audiences’ skin.

Angels appear and take audiences to the sky then they feel wind in the sky

2. That's Life

Taste

Thai dessert served to audience

Taste Thai dessert

3. We Will Rock You Touch Hit items and clap hands to the rhythm of music

Encouragement, cooperation


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Research results showed all message strategies were perceived by the audience but different levels of accessibility affected audience perception and satisfaction.

1. Chiffon cloth

It was used in a music scene to give a sense of touch which was light, soft, and feminine. The director wanted the audience to feel an angel coming because the song was about an angel making a wish come true. All four groups were able to perceive the sense of touch but they imagined some other object. Some participants thought it was a bed net because the scene between Mom and Somwang was in the bedroom. However they understood the meaning and were satisfied with this sense of touch.

2. Taste of Thai dessert

This was perceived by all groups.

3. Flash mob dancing around and making sounds using tableware

In an energetic scene the director needed the audience to feel power and enthusiasm along with Somwang. The message strategy of hitting tableware and clapping along with the rhythm of music was used to give a feeling of touch. A flash mob team danced close to the audiences’ seats. All four groups perceived this strongly.

4. Feathers flown

Feathers refer to birds, wings, and flying. The director communicated the feeling of flying and of ambition using feathers blown around the audience. However, only some participants who sat close to feather blowing area could feel the feathers. Some participants touched the feathers but could not connect the feel of them to the idea of ambition.

5. Floral smell

A floral smell was used to communicate a location in a garden. All four groups perceived and understood this without any confusion.

4. Wind Beneath my Wings

Touch Feathers flown around To touch the wings from heaven

5. Acting Scene in the garden

Smell Floral smell To know the location and feel in love

6. Acting scene in the classroom

Smell

Floral smell

To know the location and status of the character “Weaw”

7. Dream a Little Dream of me

Touch

Blow air bubbles around Puppy love

8. If We Hold on Together

Touch

Go to hold hands together with the audience

Togetherness, supportiveness


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6. Bubbles

The music part of “Dream a Little Dream” was about “puppy love” therefore the director needed to communicate the feeling of a popping touch to the audience. However, only two groups perceived this.

7. Floor cleaner smell

This strategy was used to communicate the scene location and the activity of a character to the audience. Jaew, an office housekeeper, had been cleaning the office floor. Somwang came in to the office to give Ploydao flowersand he met Jeaw. Results showed that although all participants perceived the smell, no participants perceived that it was a floor cleaner smell; they only perceived a floral smell.

8. Holding hands

This message strategy of the music “If We Hold on Together” was communicated to the audience effectively by having flash mob team members hold hands with audience members. All four groups perceived, understood, and were satisfied with this message strategy.

Table 2: Conclusion of audience perception and satisfaction

Message strategies Perceivable Understood Satisfied

1.Cliffon cloth flown over the heads of the audience

2.Flashmob dancing around the audience and making sounds along with the music

3. Floral smell all around

4.Bubbles blown ± × ×

5.Feathers flown ± × ×

6.Floor cleaner smell all around × ×

7.Audience holding hands together along with the music

Remark: ± = doubtful

The table above shows audience perception, understanding, and satisfaction with communication strategies.

Conclusion

This research project set out to investigate two things: how a live performance catering to disabled people, specifically the visually impaired, might be created, and how well a target audience of visually impaired people could perceive, understand, and be satisfied with a live performance. Creating the performance meant taking into account making the performance physically accessible to the target audience and considering things like delineated access routes from car park to venue, ensuring stairs were accessible, informing participants of the location of toilets and other facilities, seating participants appropriately, transporting them to and from a lunch venue, and so on. It also involved considering how to


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make the live performance itself accessible in terms of ensuring the target audience understood the content of the live performance including plot, mood, themes etc. To this end the creative and production team decided to put on a musical play as music both appeals to the auditory sense and can be used a strategy to communicate plot, characterization, mood, theme, etc. The creative team also decided to include techniques to appeal to the senses of hearing, taste, smell and touch, both to enhance the communicatory effectiveness of the performance and to compensate for limited-to-no visual awareness on the part of the target audience. Several techniques were used: flying chiffon cloth around the audience (communicating through a sense of touch), having actors dance around and hold hands with audience members (touch), spraying a floral smell through the audience (smell), blowing bubbles around the audience (touch), flying feathers around the audience (touch), spraying the smell of floor cleaner through the audience (smell), playing songs and using sound effects (hearing) and having the audience eat Thai desserts (taste).

The research also sought to ascertain how well the target audience perceived, understood, and were satisfied with the performance. Results showed that the target audience were overall highly satisfied with most aspects of the live performance and were able to perceive and understand most but not all of the communication strategies used. In some cases, strategies were perceived but not understood, and in others they were neither perceived not understood. It is these last two areas that future research in this area ought to aim to overcome problems or obstacles to communication identified in this research so that future live performance projects can better cater to the needs of a visually impaired audience as well as a general one.

References

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Barasch, M. (2001). Blindness: A history of mental image in western thought. New York: Routledge.

Barber, O. P.,& Lederman, J. S. (1988). Encoding direction in manipulatory space and the role of visual experience. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 82, 99-106.

Barnes, C., & Mercer, G. (Eds.). (1997). Doing disability research. Leeds: Disability Press.

Barnes, C., Mercer, G., &Shakespeare, T. (1999). Exploring disability: A sociological introduction. Cambridge:Polity Press.

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Design Manual For A Barrier-Free Built Environment (2004), UNNATI. Bansidhar offset, Ahmedabad

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Hatlen, P. (2000). Historical perspectives. In C. Holbrook, M. & A. J. Koenig (Eds.), Foundations of education: History and theory of teaching children and youths with visual impairments (1, pp. 1-54). New York: AFB Press.

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John Robinson Pierce (1980). An introduction to Information Theory: Symbols, Signals & Noise. Couvier Dover Publications.

Namsiripongpun Wiriya (2011). The Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities: A Case of Thailand, Faculty of Law, Thammasat University.

Roy, A., & MacKay, G. (2002).Self-perception and locus of control in visually impaired college studentswith different types of vision loss. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 96(4), 254-66.

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Graduate School of Communication Arts and Management Innovation,National Institute of Development Administration

Tel. : +66 (0) 2727-3758-9/ +66 90-678-4690Fax : +66 (0) 2727-3764

E-mail : [email protected] : www.gscm.nida.ac.th/aseanconference2015

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