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Title:TheAgeofInvention,AChronicleofMechanicalConquestAuthor:HollandThompson

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THISBOOK,37INTHECHRONICLESOFAMERICASERIES,WASDONATEDTO

PROJECTGUTENBERGBYTHEJAMESJ.KELLY

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THEAGEOFINVENTION,ACHRONICLEOFMECHANICALCONQUEST

BYHOLLANDTHOMPSON

PREFATORYNOTE

ThisvolumeisnotintendedtobeacompleterecordofinventivegeniusandmechanicalprogressintheUnitedStates.AbarecatalogueofnotableAmericaninventionsinthenineteenthcenturyalonecouldnotbecompressedintothesepages.Norisitanypartofthepurposeofthisbooktotrespassonthegroundofthemanymechanicalworksandencyclopediaswhichgivetechnicaldescriptionsandexplainindetailtheprincipleofeveryinvention.AllthisbookseekstodoistooutlinethepersonalitiesofsomeoftheoutstandingAmericaninventorsandindicatethesignificanceoftheirachievements.

AcknowledgmentsareduetheEditoroftheSeriesandtomembersofthestaffoftheYaleUniversityPressparticularly,MissConstanceLindsaySkinner,Mr.ArthurEdwinKrows,andMissFrancesHart—withoutwhoseintelligentassistancethebookcouldnothavebeencompletedintimetotakeitsplaceintheSeries.

H.T.

COLLEGEOFTHECITYOFNEWYORK,

May10,1921.

CONTENTS

I.BENJAMINFRANKLINANDHISTIMES

II.ELIWHITNEYANDTHECOTTONGIN

III.STEAMINCAPTIVITY

IV.SPINDLE,LOOM,ANDNEEDLEINNEWENGLAND

V.THEAGRICULTURALREVOLUTION

VI.AGENTSOFCOMMUNICATION

VII.THESTORYOFRUBBER

VIII.PIONEERSOFTHEMACHINESHOP

IX.THEFATHERSOFELECTRICITY

X.THECONQUESTOFTHEAIR

BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE

THEAGEOFINVENTION

CHAPTERI.BENJAMINFRANKLINANDHISTIMES

OnMilkStreet,inBoston,oppositetheOldSouthChurch,livedJosiahFranklin,amakerofsoapandcandles.HehadcometoBostonwithhiswifeabouttheyear1682fromtheparishofEcton,Northamptonshire,England,wherehisfamilyhadlivedonasmallfreeholdforaboutthreehundredyears.HisEnglishwifehaddied,leavinghimsevenchildren,andhehadmarriedacolonialgirl,AbiahFolger,whosefather,PeterFolger,wasamanofsomenoteinearlyMassachusetts.

JosiahFranklinwasfifty-oneandhiswifeAbiahthirty-nine,whenthefirstillustriousAmericaninventorwasbornintheirhouseonMilkStreet,January17,1706.HewastheireighthchildandJosiah’stenthsonandwasbaptizedBenjamin.WhatlittleweknowofBenjamin’schildhoodiscontainedinhis“Autobiography”,whichtheworldhasacceptedasoneofitsbestbooksandwhichwasthefirstAmericanbooktobesoaccepted.Inthecrowdedhousehold,wherethirteenchildrengrewtomanhoodandwomanhood,therewerenoluxuries.Benjamin’speriodofformalschoolingwaslessthantwoyears,thoughhecouldneverrememberthetimewhenhecouldnotread,andattheageoftenhewasputtoworkinhisfather’sshop.

Benjaminwasrestlessandunhappyintheshop.Heappearedtohavenoaptitudeatallforthebusinessofsoapmaking.Hisparentsdebatedwhethertheymightnoteducatehimfortheministry,andhisfathertookhimintovariousshopsinBoston,wherehemightseeartisansatwork,inthehopethathewouldbeattractedtosometrade.ButBenjaminsawnothingtherethathewishedtoengagein.Hewasinclinedtofollowthesea,asoneofhisolderbrothershaddone.

Hisfondnessforbooksfinallydeterminedhiscareer.HisolderbrotherJameswasaprinter,andinthosedaysaprinterwasaliterarymanaswellasamechanic.Theeditorofanewspaperwasalwaysaprinterandoftencomposedhisarticlesashesetthemintype;so“composing”cametomeantypesetting,andonewhosetstypeisacompositor.NowJamesneededanapprentice.IthappenedthenthatyoungBenjamin,attheageofthirteen,wasboundoverbylawtoservehisbrother.

JamesFranklinprintedthe“NewEnglandCourant”,thefourthnewspapertobeestablishedinthecolonies.Benjaminsoonbegantowritearticlesforthisnewspaper.Thenwhenhisbrotherwasputinjail,becausehehadprintedmatterconsideredlibelous,andforbiddentocontinueasthepublisher,thenewspaperappearedinBenjamin’sname.

Theyoungapprenticefeltthathisbrotherwasundulysevereand,afterservingforabouttwoyears,madeuphismindtorunaway.

SecretlyhetookpassageonasloopandinthreedaysreachedNewYork,theretofindthattheoneprinterinthetown,WilliamBradford,couldgivehimnowork.BenjaminthensetoutforPhiladelphia.ByboattoPerthAmboy,onfootto

Burlington,andthenbyboattoPhiladelphiawasthecourseofhisjourney,whichconsumedfivedays.OnaSundaymorninginOctober,1723,thetired,hungryboylandedupontheMarketStreetwharf,andatoncesetouttofindfoodandexploreAmerica’smetropolis.

BenjaminfoundemploymentwithSamuelKeimer,aneccentricprinterjustbeginningbusiness,andlodgingsatthehouseofRead,whosedaughterDeborahwaslatertobecomehiswife.TheintelligentyoungprintersoonattractedthenoticeofSirWilliamKeith,GovernorofPennsylvania,whopromisedtosethimupinbusiness.First,however,hemustgotoLondontobuyaprintingoutfit.OntheGovernor’spromisetosendaletterofcreditforhisneedsinLondon,Franklinsetsail;buttheGovernorbrokehisword,andFranklinwasobligedtoremaininLondonnearlytwoyearsworkingathistrade.ItwasinLondonthatheprintedthefirstofhismanypamphlets,anattackonrevealedreligion,called“ADissertationonLibertyandNecessity,PleasureandPain.”Thoughhemetsomeinterestingpersons,fromeachofwhomheextracted,accordingtohiscustom,everyparticleofinformationpossible,nofutureopenedforhiminLondon,andheacceptedanoffertoreturntoPhiladelphiawithemploymentasaclerk.Butearlyin1727hisemployerdied,andBenjaminwentbacktohistrade,asprintersalwaysdo.HefoundworkagaininKeimer’sprintingoffice.Herehismechanicalingenuityandgeneralabilitypresentlybegantoappear;heinventedamethodofcastingtype,madeink,andbecame,infact,therealmanagerofthebusiness.

TheabilitytomakefriendswasoneofFranklin’straits,andthenumberofhisacquaintancesgrewrapidly,bothinPennsylvaniaandNewJersey.“Igrewconvinced,”henaivelysays,“thatTRUTH,SINCERITY,andINTEGRITYindealingsbetweenmanandmanwereoftheutmostimportancetothefelicityoflife.”NotlongafterhisreturnfromEnglandhefoundedinPhiladelphiatheJunto,asocietywhichatitsregularmeetingsarguedvariousquestionsandcriticizedthewritingsofthemembers.Throughthissocietyheenlargedhisreputationaswellashiseducation.

ThefatherofanapprenticeatKeimer’sfurnishedthemoneytobuyaprintingoutfitforhissonandFranklin,butthesonsoonsoldhisshare,andBenjaminFranklin,Printer,wasfairlyestablishedinbusinessattheageoftwenty-four.Thewritingofananonymouspamphleton“TheNatureandNecessityofaPaperCurrency”calledattentiontotheneedofafurtherissueofpapermoneyinPennsylvania,andtheauthorofthetractwasrewardedwiththecontracttoprint

themoney,“averyprofitablejob,andagreathelptome.”Smallfavorswerethankfullyreceived.And,“ItookcarenotonlytobeinREALITYindustriousandfrugal,buttoavoidallappearancestothecontrary.Idrestplainly;Iwasseenatnoplacesofidlediversion.”And,“toshowthatIwasnotabovemybusiness,IsometimesbroughthomethepaperIpurchasedatthestoresthruthestreetsonawheelbarrow.”

“TheUniversalInstructorinAllArtsandSciencesandPennsylvaniaGazette”:thiswasthehigh-soundingnameofanewspaperwhichFranklin’soldemployer,Keimer,hadstartedinPhiladelphia.ButbankruptcyshortlyovertookKeimer,andFranklintookthenewspaperwithitsninetysubscribers.The“UniversalInstructor”featureofthepaperconsistedofapageortwoweeklyof“Chambers’sEncyclopedia”.Franklineliminatedthisfeatureanddroppedthefirstpartofthelongname.“ThePennsylvaniaGazette”inFranklin’shandssoonbecameprofitable.

Anditlivestodayinthefullnessofaboundinglife,thoughunderanothername.“FoundedA.D.1728byBenj.Franklin”istheproudlegendof“TheSaturdayEveningPost”,whichcarrieson,inourowntimes,theFranklintradition.

The“Gazette”printedbitsoflocalnews,extractsfromtheLondon“Spectator”,jokes,verses,humorousattacksonBradford’s“Mercury”,arivalpaper,moralessaysbytheeditor,elaboratehoaxes,andpungentpoliticalorsocialcriticism.Oftentheeditorwroteandprintedletterstohimself,eithertoemphasizesometruthortogivehimtheopportunitytoridiculesomefollyinareplyto“AliceAddertongue,”“AnthonyAfterwit,”orothermythicalbutnonethelesstypicalperson.

Ifthecountrymandidnotreadanewspaper,orbuybooks,hewas,atanyrate,suretoownanalmanac.Soin1732Franklinbroughtout“PoorRichard’sAlmanac”.Threeeditionsweresoldwithinafewmonths.YearafteryearthesayingsofRichardSaunders,theallegedpublisher,andBridget,hiswife,creationsofFranklin’sfancy,wereprintedinthealmanac.Yearslaterthemoststrikingofthesesayingswerecollectedandpublished.Thisworkhasbeentranslatedintoasmanyastwentylanguagesandisstillincirculationtoday.

Franklinkeptashopinconnectionwithhisprintingoffice,wherehesoldastrangevarietyofgoods:legalblanks,ink,pens,paper,books,maps,pictures,chocolate,coffee,cheese,codfish,soap,linseedoil,broadcloth,Godfrey’s

cordial,tea,spectacles,rattlesnakeroot,lotterytickets,andstoves—tomentiononlyafewofthemanyarticlesheadvertised.DeborahRead,whobecamehiswifein1730,lookedafterhishouse,tendedshop,foldedandstitchedpamphlets,boughtrags,andhelpedhimtoliveeconomically.“Wekeptnoidleservants,”saysFranklin,“ourtablewasplainandsimple,ourfurnitureofthecheapest.

Forinstance,mybreakfastwasalongtimebreadandmilk(notea),andIateitoutofatwopennyearthenporringerwithapewterspoon.”

Withallthisfrugality,Franklinwasnotamiser;heabhorredthewasteofmoney,nottheproperuse.Hiswealthincreasedrapidly.“Iexperiencedtoo,”hesays,“thetruthoftheobservation,‘THATAFTERGETTINGTHEFIRSTHUNDREDPOUND,ITIS

MOREEASYTOGETTHESECOND,moneyitselfbeingofaprolificnature.”Hegavemuchunpaidpublicserviceandsubscribedgenerouslytopublicpurposes;yethewasable,attheearlyageofforty-two,toturnoverhisprintingofficetooneofhisjourneymen,andtoretirefromactivebusiness,intendingtodevotehimselfthereaftertosuchpublicemploymentasshouldcomehisway,tophilosophicalorscientificstudies,andtoamusements.

FromboyhoodFranklinhadbeeninterestedinnaturalphenomena.

His“JournalofaVoyagefromLondontoPhiladelphia”,writtenatseaashereturnedfromhisfirststayinLondon,showsunusualpowersofexactobservationforayouthoftwenty.ManyofthequestionshepropoundedtotheJuntohadascientificbearing.Hemadeanoriginalandimportantinventionin1749,the“Pennsylvaniafireplace,”which,underthenameoftheFranklinstove,isincommonusetothisday,andwhichbroughttotheill-madehousesofthetimeincreasedcomfortandagreatsavingoffuel.ButitbroughtFranklinnopecuniaryreward,forheneverdeignedtopatentanyofhisinventions.

Hisactive,inquiringmindplayeduponhundredsofquestionsinadozendifferentbranchesofscience.Hestudiedsmokychimneys;heinventedbifocalspectacles;hestudiedtheeffectofoiluponruffledwater;heidentifiedthe“drybellyache”asleadpoisoning;hepreachedventilationinthedayswhenwindowswereclosedtightatnight,anduponthesickatalltimes;heinvestigatedfertilizersinagriculture.Manyofhissuggestionshavesincebornefruit,andhisobservationsshowthatheforesawsomeofthegreatdevelopmentsofthe

nineteenthcentury.

Hisfameinsciencerestschieflyuponhisdiscoveriesinelectricity.OnavisittoBostonin1746hesawsomeelectricalexperimentsandatoncebecamedeeplyinterested.PeterCollinsonofLondon,aFellowoftheRoyalSociety,whohadmadeseveralgiftstothePhiladelphiaLibrary,sentoversomeofthecrudeelectricalapparatusoftheday,whichFranklinused,aswellassomecontrivanceshehadpurchasedinBoston.HesaysinalettertoCollinson:“Formyownpart,Ineverwasbeforeengagedinanystudythatsoengrossedmyattentionandmytimeasthishaslatelydone.”

Franklin’sletterstoCollinsontellofhisfirstexperimentsandspeculationsastothenatureofelectricity.Experimentsmadebyalittlegroupoffriendsshowedtheeffectofpointedbodiesindrawingoffelectricity.Hedecidedthatelectricitywasnottheresultoffriction,butthatthemysteriousforcewasdiffusedthroughmostsubstances,andthatnatureisalwaysalerttorestoreitsequilibrium.Hedevelopedthetheoryofpositiveandnegativeelectricity,orplusandminuselectrification.Thesamelettertellsofsomeofthetrickswhichthelittlegroupofexperimenterswereaccustomedtoplayupontheirwonderingneighbors.Theysetalcoholonfire,relightedcandlesjustblownout,producedmimicflashesoflightning,gaveshocksontouchingorkissing,andcausedanartificialspidertomovemysteriously.

FranklincarriedonexperimentswiththeLeydenjar,madeanelectricalbattery,killedafowlandroastedituponaspitturnedbyelectricity,sentacurrentthroughwaterandfounditstillabletoignitealcohol,ignitedgunpowder,andchargedglassesofwinesothatthedrinkersreceivedshocks.Moreimportant,perhaps,hebegantodevelopthetheoryoftheidentityoflightningandelectricity,andthepossibilityofprotectingbuildingsbyironrods.Bymeansofanironrodhebroughtdownelectricityintohishouse,wherehestudieditseffectuponbellsandconcludedthatcloudsweregenerallynegativelyelectrified.InJune,1752,heperformedthefamousexperimentwiththekite,drawingdownelectricityfromthecloudsandchargingaLeydenjarfromthekeyattheendofthestring.

Franklin’sletterstoCollinsonwerereadbeforetheRoyalSocietybutwereunnoticed.Collinsongatheredthemtogether,andtheywerepublishedinapamphletwhichattractedwideattention.

TranslatedintoFrench,theycreatedgreatexcitement,andFranklin’sconclusionsweregenerallyacceptedbythescientificmenofEurope.TheRoyalSociety,tardilyawakened,electedFranklinamemberandin1753awardedhimtheCopleymedalwithacomplimentaryaddress.*

*ItmaybeusefultomentionsomeofthescientificfactsandmechanicalprincipleswhichwereknowntoEuropeansatthistime.

Morethanonelearnedessayhasbeenwrittentoprovethemechanicalindebtednessofthemodernworldtotheancient,particularlytotheworksofthosemechanicallymindedGreeks:Archimedes,Aristotle,Ctesibius,andHeroofAlexandria.TheGreeksemployedthelever,thetackle,andthecrane,theforce-pump,andthesuction-pump.Theyhaddiscoveredthatsteamcouldbemechanicallyapplied,thoughtheynevermadeanypracticaluseofsteam.Incommonwithotherancientstheyknewtheprincipleofthemariner’scompass.TheEgyptianshadthewater-wheelandtherudimentaryblast-furnace.ThependulumclockappearstohavebeenaninventionoftheMiddleAges.Theartofprintingfrommovabletype,beginningwithGutenbergabout1450,helpedtofurthertheRenaissance.Theimprovedmariner’scompassenabledColumbustofindtheNewworld;gunpowdermadepossibleitsconquest.ThecompoundmicroscopeandthefirstpracticaltelescopecamefromthespectaclemakersofMiddelburg,Holland,theformerabout1590andthelatterabout1608.Harvey,anEnglishphysician,haddiscoveredthecirculationofthebloodin1628,andNewton,anEnglishmathematician,thelawofgravitationin1685.

IfFranklin’sdesiretocontinuehisscientificresearcheshadbeengratified,itispossiblethathemighthavediscoveredsomeofthesecretsforwhichtheworldwaiteduntilEdisonandhiscontemporariesrevealedthemmorethanacenturylater.

Franklin’sscientificreputationhasgrownwiththeyears,andsomeofhisviewsseeminperfectaccordwiththelatestdevelopmentsinelectricity.Buthewasnottobepermittedtocontinuehisexperiments.Hehadshownhisabilitytomanagemenandwastobecalledtoawiderfield.

Franklin’sinfluenceamonghisfellowcitizensinPhiladelphiawasverygreat.Alwaysostensiblykeepinghimselfinthebackgroundandworkingthroughothers,nevercontradicting,butcarryinghispointbyshrewdquestionswhichshowedthefollyofthecontraryposition,hecontinuedtosetonfootandcarry

outmovementsforthepublicgood.HeestablishedthefirstcirculatinglibraryinPhiladelphia,andoneofthefirstinthecountry,andanacademywhichgrewintotheUniversityofPennsylvania.Hewasinstrumentalinthefoundationofahospital.“Iamoftenask’dbythosetowhomIproposesubscribing,”saidoneofthedoctorswhohadmadefruitlessattemptstoraisemoneyforthehospital,“HaveyouconsultedFranklinuponthisbusiness?”Otherpublicmattersinwhichthebusyprinterwasengagedwerethepavingandcleaningofthestreets,betterstreetlighting,theorganizationofapoliceforceandofafirecompany.Apamphletwhichhepublished,“PlainTruth”,showingthehelplessnessofthecolonyagainsttheFrenchandIndians,ledtotheorganizationofavolunteermilitia,andfundswereraisedforarmsbyalottery.FranklinhimselfwaselectedcolonelofthePhiladelphiaregiment,“butconsideringmyselfunfit,IdeclinedthestationandrecommendedMr.Lawrence,afinepersonandmanofinfluence,whowasaccordinglyappointed.”Inspiteofhismilitarism,FranklinretainedthepositionwhichheheldasClerkoftheAssembly,thoughthemajorityofthememberswereQuakersopposedtowaronprinciple.

TheAmericanPhilosophicalSocietyowesitsorigintoFranklin.

Itwasformallyorganizedonhismotionin1743,butthesocietyhasacceptedtheorganizationoftheJuntoin1727astheactualdateofitsbirth.Fromthebeginningthesocietyhashadamongitsmembersmanyleadingmenofscientificattainmentsortastes,notonlyofPhiladelphia,butoftheworld.In1769theoriginalsocietywasconsolidatedwithanotherofsimilaraims,andFranklin,whowasthefirstsecretaryofthesociety,waselectedpresidentandserveduntilhisdeath.ThefirstimportantundertakingwasthesuccessfulobservationofthetransitofVenusin1769,andmanyimportantscientificdiscoverieshavesincebeenmadebyitsmembersandfirstgiventotheworldatitsmeetings.

Franklin’sappointmentasoneofthetwoDeputyPostmastersGeneralofthecoloniesin1753enlargedhisexperienceandhisreputation.Hevisitednearlyallthepostofficesinthecoloniesandintroducedmanyimprovementsintotheservice.Innoneofhispositionsdidhistranscendentbusinessabilityshowtobetteradvantage.Heestablishednewpostalroutesandshortenedothers.Therewerenogoodroadsinthecolonies,buthispostridersmadewhatthenseemedwonderfulspeed.Thebagswereopenedtonewspapers,thecarryingofwhichhadpreviouslybeenaprivateandunlawfulperquisiteoftheriders.PreviouslytherehadbeenonemailaweekinsummerbetweenNewYorkandPhiladelphia

andoneamonthinwinter.Theservicewasincreasedtothreeaweekinsummerandoneinwinter.

ThemainpostroadranfromnorthernNewEnglandtoSavannah,closelyhuggingtheseacoastforthegreaterpartoftheway.

SomeofthemilestonessetbyFranklintoenablethepostmasterstocomputethepostage,whichwasfixedaccordingtodistance,arestillstanding.Crossroadsconnectedsomeofthelargercommunitiesawayfromtheseacoastwiththemainroad,butwhenFranklindied,afterservingalsoasPostmasterGeneraloftheUnitedStates,therewereonlyseventy-fivepostofficesintheentirecountry.

FranklintookahandinthefinalstrugglebetweenFranceandEnglandinAmerica.Ontheeveoftheconflict,in1754,commissionersfromtheseveralcolonieswereorderedtoconveneatAlbanyforaconferencewiththeSixNationsoftheIroquois,andFranklinwasoneofthedeputiesfromPennsylvania.OnhiswaytoAlbanyhe“projectedanddrewaplanfortheunionofallthecoloniesunderonegovernmentsofarasmightbenecessaryfordefenseandotherimportantgeneralpurposes.”Thisstatesmanlike“AlbanyPlanofUnion,”however,cametonothing.

“Itsfatewassingular,”saysFranklin;“theassembliesdidnotadoptit,astheyallthoughttherewastoomuchPREROGATIVEinitandinEnglanditwasjudg’dtohavetoomuchoftheDEMOCRATIC.”

Howtoraisefundsfordefensewasalwaysagraveprobleminthecolonies,fortheassembliescontrolledthepurse-stringsandreleasedthemwithagrudginghand.InfaceoftheFrenchmenace,thiswasGovernorShirley’sprobleminMassachusetts,GovernorDinwiddie’sinVirginia,andFranklin’sintheQuakerandproprietaryprovinceofPennsylvania.FranklinopposedShirley’ssuggestionofageneraltaxtobeleviedonthecoloniesbyParliament,onthegroundofnotaxationwithoutrepresentation,butusedallhisartstobringtheQuakerAssemblytovotemoneyfordefense,andsucceeded.WhenGeneralBraddockarrivedinVirginiaFranklinwassentbytheAssemblytoconferwithhiminthehopeofallayinganyprejudiceagainstQuakersthatthegeneralmighthaveconceived.Ifthatblusteringanddull-wittedsoldierhadanysuchprejudice,itmeltedawaywhentheenvoyoftheQuakerspromisedtoprocurewagonsforthearmy.ThestoryofBraddock’sdisasterdoesnotbelonghere,butFranklinformedashrewdestimateofthemanwhichprovedaccurate.Hisaccountof

Braddock’sopinionofthecolonialmilitiaisgiveninasentence:“Hesmil’datmyignorance,andreply’d,‘Thesesavagesmay,indeed,beaformidableenemytoyourrawAmericanmilitia,butupontheKing’sregularanddisciplin’dtroops,sir,itisimpossibletheyshouldmakeanyimpression.’”AfterBraddock’sdefeatthePennsylvaniaAssemblyvotedmoremoneyfordefense,andtheunmilitaryFranklinwasplacedincommandofthefrontierwithfullpower.Hebuiltforts,ashehadplanned,andincidentallylearnedmuchofthebeliefsofagroupofsettlersinthebackcountry,the“UnitasFratrum,”betterknownastheMoravians.

ThedeathstrugglebetweenEnglishandFrenchinAmericaservedonlytointensifyalesserconflictthatwasbeingwagedbetweentheAssemblyandtheproprietorsofPennsylvania;andtheAssemblydeterminedtosendFranklintoLondontoseekjudgmentagainsttheproprietorsandtorequesttheKingtotakeawayfromthemthegovernmentofPennsylvania.Franklin,accompaniedbyhissonWilliam,reachedLondoninJuly,1757,andfromthistimeonhislifewastobecloselylinkedwithEurope.HereturnedtoAmericasixyearslaterandmadeatripofsixteenhundredmilesinspectingpostalaffairs,butin1764hewasagainsenttoEnglandtorenewthepetitionforaroyalgovernmentforPennsylvania,whichhadnotyetbeengranted.PresentlythatpetitionwasmadeobsoletebytheStampAct,andFranklinbecametherepresentativeoftheAmericancoloniesagainstKingandParliament.

FranklindidhisbesttoaverttheRevolution.HemademanyfriendsinEngland,wrotepamphletsandarticles,toldcomicalstoriesandfableswheretheymightdosomegood,andconstantlystrovetoenlightentherulingclassofEnglanduponconditionsandsentimentinthecolonies.HisexaminationbeforetheHouseofCommonsinFebruary,1766,marksperhapsthezenithofhisintellectualpowers.Hiswideknowledge,hiswonderfulpoise,hisreadywit,hismarvelousgiftforclearandepigrammaticstatement,wereneverexhibitedtobetteradvantageandnodoubthastenedtherepealoftheStampAct.FranklinremainedinEnglandnineyearslonger,buthiseffortstoreconciletheconflictingclaimsofParliamentandthecolonieswereofnoavail,andearlyin1775hesailedforhome.

Franklin’sstayinAmericalastedonlyeighteenmonths,yetduringthattimehesatintheContinentalCongressandasamemberofthemostimportantcommittees;submittedaplanforaunionofthecolonies;servedasPostmasterGeneralandaschairmanofthePennsylvaniaCommitteeofSafety;visited

WashingtonatCambridge;wenttoMontrealtodowhathecouldforthecauseofindependenceinCanada;presidedovertheconventionwhichframedaconstitutionforPennsylvania;wasamemberofthecommitteeappointedtodrafttheDeclarationofIndependenceandofthecommitteesentonthefutilemissiontoNewYorktodiscusstermsofpeacewithLordHowe.

InSeptember,1776,FranklinwasappointedenvoytoFranceandsailedsoonafterwards.Theenvoysappointedtoactwithhimprovedahandicapratherthanahelp,andthegreatburdenofadifficultandmomentousmissionwasthuslaiduponanoldmanofseventy.ButnootherAmericancouldhavetakenhisplace.HisreputationinFrancewasalreadymade,throughhisbooksandinventionsanddiscoveries.Tothecorruptandlicentiouscourthewasthepersonificationoftheageofsimplicity,whichitwasthefashiontoadmire;tothelearned,hewasasage;tothecommonmanhewastheapotheosisofallthevirtues;totherabblehewaslittlelessthanagod.Greatladiessoughthissmiles;noblestreasuredakindlyword;theshopkeeperhunghisportraitonthewall;andthepeopledrewasideinthestreetsthathemightpasswithoutannoyance.ThroughallthisadulationFranklinpassedserenely,ifnotunconsciously.

TheFrenchministerswerenotatfirstwillingtomakeatreatyofalliance,butunderFranklin’sinfluencetheylentmoneytothestrugglingcolonies.Congresssoughttofinancethewarbytheissueofpapercurrencyandbyborrowingratherthanbytaxation,andsentbillafterbilltoFranklin,whosomehowmanagedtomeetthembyputtinghisprideinhispocket,andapplyingagainandagaintotheFrenchGovernment.HefittedoutprivateersandnegotiatedwiththeBritishconcerningprisoners.

AtlengthhewonfromFrancerecognitionoftheUnitedStatesandthentheTreatyofAlliance.

NotuntiltwoyearsafterthePeaceof1783wouldCongresspermittheveterantocomehome.Andwhenhedidreturnin1785hispeoplewouldnotallowhimtorest.AtoncehewaselectedPresidentoftheCouncilofPennsylvaniaandtwicereelectedinspiteofhisprotests.HewassenttotheConventionof1787

whichframedtheConstitutionoftheUnitedStates.Therehespokeseldombutalwaystothepoint,andtheConstitutionisthebetterforhissuggestions.Withprideheaxedhissignaturetothatgreatinstrument,ashehadpreviouslysignedtheAlbanyPlanofUnion,theDeclarationofIndependence,andtheTreatyof

Paris.

BenjaminFranklin’sworkwasdone.Hewasnowanoldmanofeighty-twosummersandhisfeeblebodywasrackedbyapainfulmalady.Yethekepthisfacetowardsthemorning.Aboutahundredofhisletters,writtenafterthistime,havebeenpreserved.

Theselettersshownoretrospection,nolookingbackward.Theynevermention“thegoodoldtimes.”Aslongashelived,Franklinlookedforward.Hisinterestinthemechanicalartsandinscientificprogressseemsnevertohaveabated.HewritesinOctober,1787,toafriendinFrance,describinghisexperiencewithlightningconductorsandreferringtotheworkofDavidRittenhouse,thecelebratedastronomerofPhiladelphia.Onthe31stofMayinthefollowingyearheiswritingtotheReverendJohnLathropofBoston:

“Ihavelongbeenimpressedwiththesamesentimentsyousowellexpress,ofthegrowingfelicityofmankind,fromtheimprovementinphilosophy,morals,politics,andeventheconveniencesofcommonliving,andtheinventionofnewandusefulutensilsandinstruments;sothatIhavesometimeswishedithadbeenmydestinytobeborntwoorthreecenturieshence.Forinventionandimprovementareprolific,andbegetmoreoftheirkind.Thepresentprogressisrapid.Manyofgreatimportance,nowunthoughtof,will,beforethatperiod,beproduced.”

Thustheoldphilosopherfeltthethrillofdawnandknewthatthedayofgreatmechanicalinventionswasathand.HehadreadthemeaningofthepuffingoftheyoungsteamengineofJamesWattandhehadheardofamarvelousseriesofBritishinventionsforspinningandweaving.Hesawthathisowncountrymenwereastir,tryingtosubstitutethepowerofsteamforthestrengthofmusclesandthefitfulwind.JohnFitchontheDelawareandJamesRumseyonthePotomacwerealreadymovingvesselsbysteam.

JohnStevensofNewYorkandHobokenhadsetupamachineshopthatwastomeanmuchtomechanicalprogressinAmerica.OliverEvans,amechanicalgeniusofDelaware,wasdreamingoftheapplicationofhigh-pressuresteamtobothroadandwatercarriages.Suchmanifestations,thoughstillveryfaint,weretoFranklinthesignsofanewera.

Andso,withvisionundimmed,America’smostfamouscitizenlivedonuntil

neartheendofthefirstyearofGeorgeWashington’sadministration.OnApril17,1790,hisunconquerablespirittookitsflight.

Inthatyear,1790,wastakentheFirstCensusoftheUnitedStates.Thenewnationhadapopulationofaboutfourmillionpeople.ItthenincludedpracticallythepresentterritoryeastoftheMississippi,excepttheFloridas,whichbelongedtoSpain.

Butonlyasmallpartofthisterritorywasoccupied.MuchofNewYorkandPennsylvaniawassavagewilderness.OnlytheseacoastofMainewasinhabited,andtheeighty-twothousandinhabitantsofGeorgiahuggedtheSavannahRiver.HardypioneershadclimbedtheAlleghaniesintoKentuckyandTennessee,buttheNorthwestTerritory—comprisingOhio,Michigan,Indiana,Illinois,andWisconsin—wasnotenumeratedatall,soscantywereitspeople,perhapsnotmorethanfourthousand.

ThoughtheFirstCensusdidnotclassifythepopulationbyoccupationitiscertainthatnine-tenthsofthebreadwinnersworkedmoreorlessuponthesoil.Theremainingtenthwereengagedintrade,transportation,manufacturing,fishingandincludedalsotheprofessionalmen,doctors,lawyers,clergymen,teachers,andthelike.Inotherwords,nineoutoftenofthepopulationwereengagedprimarilyintheproductionoffood,anoccupationwhichtodayengageslessthanthreeoutoften.Thiscomparison,however,requiressomequalification.Thefarmerandthefarmer’swifeandchildrenperformedmanytaskswhicharenowdoneinfactories.Thesuccessfulfarmeronthefrontierhadtobeajackofmanytrades.Oftenhetannedleatherandmadeshoesforhisfamilyandharnessforhishorses.Hewascarpenter,blacksmith,cobbler,andoftenboat-builderandfishermanaswell.Hiswifemadesoapandcandles,spunyarnanddyedit,woveclothandmadetheclothesthefamilywore,tomentiononlyafewofthetasksofthewomenoftheeighteenthcentury.

Theorganizationofindustry,however,wasbeginning.Hereandthereweresmallpapermills,glassfactories-thoughmanyhousesinthebackcountrywerewithoutglasswindows—potteries,andironfoundriesandforges.Capitalists,insomeplaces,hadbroughttogetherafewhandloomweaverstomakeclothforsale,andthefamousshoemakersofMassachusettscommonlyworkedingroups.

ThemineralresourcesoftheUnitedStateswerepracticallyunknown.Thecountryseemstohaveproducedironenoughforitssimpleneeds,somecoal,

copper,lead,gold,silver,andsulphur.

Butwemaysaythatminingwashardlypracticedatall.

Thefisheriesandtheshipyardsweregreatsourcesofwealth,especiallyforNewEngland.Thecodfishersnumberedseveralhundredvesselsandthewhalersaboutforty.Thousandsofcitizenslivingalongtheseashoreandtheriversfishedmoreorlesstoaddtothelocalfoodsupply.Thedeep-seafishermenexportedapartoftheircatch,driedandsalted.YankeevesselssailedtoallportsoftheworldandcarriedthegreaterpartoftheforeigncommerceoftheUnitedStates.Flour,tobacco,rice,wheat,corn,driedfish,potash,indigo,andstavesweretheprincipalexports.GreatBritainwasthebestcustomer,withtheFrenchWestIndiesnext,andthentheBritishWestIndies.Theprincipalimportscamefromthesamecountries.Importsandexportspracticallybalancedeachother,atabouttwentymilliondollarsannually,oraboutfivedollarsahead.Thegreatmerchantsownedshipsandmanyofthem,suchasJohnHancockofBoston,andStephenGirardofPhiladelphia,hadgrownveryrich.

Inlandtransportationdependedonhorsesandoxenorboats.Therewerefewgoodroads,sometimesnoneatallsavebridlepathsandtrails.Thesettlersalongtherivervalleysusedboatsalmostentirely.Stage-coachesmadethejourneyfromNewYorktoBostoninfourdaysinsummerandinsixinwinter.TwodayswererequiredtogobetweenNewYorkandPhiladelphia.Fortytofiftymilesadaywasthespeedofthebestcoaches,providedalwaysthattheydidnottumbleintotheditch.Inmanypartsofthecountryonemustneedstravelonhorsebackoronfoot.

EventhewealthiestAmericansofthosedayshadfewornoneofthearticleswhichweregardtodayasnecessitiesoflife.Thehouseswereprovidedwithopen—which,howevercheerful,didnotkeepthemwarm—orelsewithFranklin’sstoves.Tostrikeafireonemusthavetheflintandtinderbox,formatcheswereunknownuntilabout1830.Candlesmadethedarknessvisible.Therewasneitherplumbingnorrunningwater.Foodwascookedintheashesoroveranopenfire.

Thefarmer’stoolswerenolesscrudethanhiswife’s.HisploughhadbeenlittleimprovedsincethedaysofRameses.Hesowedhiswheatbyhand,cutitwithasickle,flaileditoutuponthefloor,andlaboriouslywinnowedawaythechaff.

Inthatsameyear,1790,cameagreatboonandencouragementtoinventors,thefirstFederalPatentAct,passedbyCongressonthe10thofApril.EveryStatehaditsownseparatepatentlawsorregulations,asaninheritancefromcolonialdays,buttheFathersoftheConstitutionhadwiselyprovidedthatthisfunctionofgovernmentshouldbeexercisedbythenation.*ThePatentAct,however,wasforatimeunpopular,andsomeStatesgrantedmonopolies,particularlyoftransportation,untiltheywereforbiddentodosobyjudicialdecision.

*TheConstitution(Article1,Section8,Clause8)empowersCongress:“TopromotetheProgressofScienceandusefulArts,bysecuringforlimitedTimestoAuthorsandInventorstheexclusiveRighttotheirrespectiveWritingsandDiscoveries.”

ThefirstPatentActprovidedthatanexaminingboard,consistingoftheSecretaryofState,theSecretaryofWar,andtheAttorney-General,oranytwoofthem,mightgrantapatentforfourteenyears,iftheydeemedtheinventionusefulandimportant.ThepatentitselfwastobeengrossedandsignedbythePresident,theSecretaryofState,andtheAttorney-General.

Andthecostwastobethreedollarsandseventycents,plusthecostofcopyingthespecificationsattencentsasheet.

ThefirstinventortoavailhimselfoftheadvantagesofthenewPatentActwasSamuelHopkinsofVermont,whoreceivedapatentonthe31stofJulyforanimprovedmethodof“MakingPotandPearlAshes.”TheworldknowsnothingofthisSamuelHopkins,butthepotashindustry,whichwasevidentlyonhismind,wasquiteimportantinhisday.Potash,thatis,crudepotassiumcarbonate,usefulinmakingsoapandinthemanufactureofglass,wasmadebyleachingwoodashesandboilingdownthelye.Toproduceatonofpotash,thetreesonanacreofgroundwouldbecutdownandburned,theashesleached,andthelyeevaporatedingreatironkettles.Atonofpotashwasworthabouttwenty-fivedollars.

Nothingcouldshowmoreplainlytherelativevalueofmoneyandhumanlaborinthoseearlytimes.

Twomorepatentswereissuedduringtheyear1790.ThesecondwenttoJosephS.SampsonofBostonforamethodofmakingcandles,andthethirdtoOliverEvans,ofwhomweshalllearnmorepresently,foranimprovementin

manufacturingflourandmeal.Thefourthpatentwasgrantedin1791toFrancisBailyofPhiladelphiaformakingpunchesfortypes.NextAaronPutnamofMedford,Massachusetts,thoughtthathecouldimprovemethodsofdistilling,andJohnStoneofConcord,Massachusetts,offeredanewmethodofdrivingpilesforbridges.Andaversatileinventor,SamuelMullikenofPhiladelphia,receivedfourpatentsinonedayforthreshinggrain,cuttingandpolishingmarble,raisinganaponcloth,andbreakinghemp.

Thencameimprovementsinmakingnails,inmakingbedsteads,inthemanufactureofboats,andforpropellingboatsbycattle.OnAugust26,1791,JamesRumsey,JohnStevens,andJohnFitch(allthreewillappearagaininthisnarrative)tookoutpatentsonmeansofpropellingboats.OnthesamedayNathanReadreceivedoneonaprocessfordistillingalcohol.

MorethanfiftypatentsweregrantedunderthePatentActof1790,andmechanicaldeviceswerecominginsothickandfastthatthedepartmentheadsapparentlyfounditinconvenienttohearapplications.SotheActof1790wasrepealed.ThesecondPatentAct(1793)providedthatapatentshouldbegrantedasamatterofroutinetoanyonewhosworetotheoriginalityofhisdeviceandpaidthesumofthirtydollarsasafee.Nooneexceptacitizen,however,couldreceiveapatent.Thisact,withsomeamendments,remainedinforceuntil1836,whenthepresentPatentOfficewasorganizedwitharigorousandintricatesystemforexaminationofallclaimsinordertopreventinterference.

ProtectionofthepropertyrightsofinventorshasbeenfromthebeginningofthenationadefiniteAmericanpolicy,andtothispolicymaybeascribedinnumerableinventionswhichhavecontributedtothegreatnessofAmericanindustryandmultipliedtheworld’scomfortsandconveniences.

UnderthesecondPatentActcamethemostimportantinventionyetoffered,aninventionwhichwastoaffectgenerationsthenunborn.ThiswasamachineforcleaningcottonanditwasofferedbyayoungYankeeschoolmaster,temporarilysojourningintheSouth.

CHAPTERII.ELIWHITNEYANDTHECOTTONGIN

Thecottonindustryisoneofthemostancient.Oneormoreofthemanyspeciesofthecottonplantisindigenoustofourcontinents,Asia,Africa,andtheAmericas,andthemanufactureofthefiberintoyarnandclothseemstohave

developedindependentlyineachofthem.WefindmentionofcottoninIndiafifteenhundredyearsbeforeChrist.TheEastIndians,withonlythecrudestmachinery,spunyarnandwoveclothasdiaphanousasthebestappliancesofthepresentdayhavebeenabletoproduce.

AlexandertheGreatintroducedthe“vegetablewool”intoEurope.

Thefableofthe“vegetablelambofTartary”persistedalmostdowntomoderntimes.TheMoorscultivatedcottoninSpainonanextensivescale,butaftertheirexpulsiontheindustrylanguished.TheEastIndiaCompanyimportedcottonfabricsintoEnglandearlyintheseventeenthcentury,andthesefabricsmadetheirwayinspiteofthebitteroppositionofthewooleninterests,whichwereattimesstrongenoughtohavetheuseofcottonclothprohibitedbylaw.ButwhentheManchesterspinnerstookupthemanufactureofcotton,thefightwaswon.TheManchesterspinners,however,usedlinenfortheirwarpthreads,forwithoutmachinerytheycouldnotspinthreadssufficientlystrongfromtheshort-fiberedIndiancotton.

IntheNewWorldtheSpanishexplorersfoundcottonandcottonfabricsinuseeverywhere.Columbus,Cortes,Pizarro,Magellan,andothersspeakofthevarioususestowhichthefiberwasput,andadmiredthestripedawningsandthecoloredmantlesmadebythenatives.ItseemsprobablethatcottonwasinuseintheNewWorldquiteasearlyasinIndia.

ThefirstEnglishsettlersinAmericafoundlittleornocottonamongthenatives.ButtheysoonbegantoimportthefiberfromtheWestIndies,whencecamealsotheplantitselfintothecongenialsoilandclimateoftheSoutherncolonies.Duringthecolonialperiod,however,cottonneverbecametheleadingcrop,hardlyanimportantcrop.Cottoncouldbegrownprofitablyonlywheretherewasanabundantsupplyofexceedinglycheaplabor,andlaborinAmerica,whiteorblack,wasneverandcouldneverbeascheapasinIndia.Americanslavescouldbemuchmoreprofitablyemployedinthecultivationofriceandindigo.

ThreevarietiesofthecottonplantweregrownintheSouth.Twokindsoftheblack-seedorlong-staplevarietythrivedinthesea-islandsandalongthecoastfromDelawaretoGeorgia,butonlythehardierandmoreprolificgreen-seedorshort-staplecottoncould.beraisedinland.Thelaborofcultivatingandharvestingcottonofanykindwasverygreat.Thefiber,growinginbollsresemblingawalnutinsizeandshape,hadtobetakenbyhandfromeveryboll,

asithastobetoday,fornosatisfactorycottonharvesterhasyetbeeninvented.Butinthecaseofthegreen-seedoruplandcotton,theonlykindwhichcouldeverbecultivatedextensivelyintheSouth,therewasanotherandmoreseriousobstacleintheway,namely,thedifficultyofseparatingthefiberfromtheseeds.Nomachineyetdevisedcouldperformthistediousandunprofitabletask.Fortheblack-seedorsea-islandcotton,thechurka,orrollergin,usedinIndiafromtimeimmemorial,drawingthefiberslowlybetweenapairofrollerstopushouttheseeds,didtheworkimperfectly,butthischurkawasentirelyuselessforthegreen-seedvariety,thefiberofwhichclungcloselytotheseedandwouldyieldonlytohumanhands.Thequickestandmostskillfulpairofhandscouldseparateonlyapoundortwooflintfromitsthreepoundsofseedsinanordinaryworkingday.Usuallythetaskwastakenupattheendoftheday,whentheotherworkwasdone.Theslavessatroundanoverseerwhoshookthedozingandnudgedtheslow.Itwasalsotheregulartaskforarainyday.Itisnotsurprising,then,thatcottonwasscarce,thatflaxandwoolinthatdayweretheusualtextiles,thatin1783woolfurnishedaboutseventy-sevenpercent,flaxabouteighteenpercent,andcottononlyaboutfivepercentoftheclothingofthepeopleofEuropeandtheUnitedStates.

Thatseriesofinventionsdesignedforthemanufactureofcloth,anddestinedtotransformGreatBritain,thewholeworld,infact,wasalreadycompletedinFranklin’stime.BeginningwiththeflyingshuttleofJohnKayin1738,followedbythespinningjennyofJamesHargreavesin1764,thewater-frameofRichardArkwrightin1769,andthemuleofSamuelCromptontenyearslater,machineswereprovidedwhichcouldspinanyquantityoffiberlikelytobeoffered.Andwhen,in1787,EdmundCartwright,clergymanandpoet,inventedtheself-actingloomtowhichpowermightbeapplied,theserieswascomplete.Theseinventions,supplementingthesteamengineofJamesWatt,madetheIndustrialRevolution.TheydestroyedthesystemofcottagemanufacturesinEnglandandgavebirthtothegreattextileestablishmentsoftoday.

Themechanismfortheproductionofclothonagreatscalewasprovided,ifonlytherawmaterialcouldbefound.

TheromanceofcottonbeginsonaNewEnglandfarm.Itwasonafarminthetown(township)ofWestboro,inWorcesterCounty,Massachusetts,intheyear1765,thatEliWhitney,inventorofthecottongin,wasborn.Eli’sfatherwasamanofsubstanceandstandinginthecommunity,amechanicaswellasafarmer,whooccupiedhisleisureinmakingarticlesforhisneighbors.Wearetoldthat

youngElidisplayedapassionfortoolsalmostassoonashecouldwalk,thathemadeaviolinattheageoftwelveandaboutthesametimetookhisfather’swatchtopiecessurreptitiouslyandsucceededinputtingittogetheragainsosuccessfullyastoescapedetection.Hewasabletomakeatableknifetomatchtheothersofabrokenset.Asaboyoffifteenorsixteen,duringtheWarofIndependence,hewassupplyingtheneighborhoodwithhand-madenailsandvariousotherarticles.

Thoughhehadnotbeenaparticularlyaptpupilintheschools,heconceivedtheambitionofattendingcollege;andso,afterteachingseveralwintersinruralschools,hewenttoYale.Heappearstohavepaidhisownwaythroughcollegebytheexerciseofhismechanicaltalents.Heissaidtohavemendedforthecollegesomeimportedapparatuswhichotherwisewouldhavehadtogototheoldcountryforrepairs.“Therewasagoodmechanicspoiledwhenyoucametocollege,”hewastoldbyacarpenterinthetown.Therewasno“Sheff”atYaleinthosedaystogiveyoungmenlikeWhitneyscientificinstruction;so,defyingthebentofhisabilities,Eliwentonwithhisacademicstudies,graduatedin1792,attheageoftwenty-seven,anddecidedtobeateacherorperhapsalawyer.

LikesomanyyoungNewEnglandersofthetime,WhitneysoughtemploymentintheSouth.HavingreceivedthepromiseofapositioninSouthCarolina,heembarkedatNewYork,soonafterhisgraduation,onasailingvesselboundforSavannah.OnboardhemetthewidowofGeneralNathanaelGreeneofRevolutionaryfame,andthisladyinvitedhimtovisitherplantationatMulberryGrove,nearSavannah.WhathappenedthenisbesttoldbyEliWhitneyhimself,inalettertohisfather,writtenatNewHaven,afterhisreturnfromtheSouthsomemonthslater,thoughthespellingmasterwillprobablysendWhitneytothefootoftheclass:

“NewHaven,Sept.11th,1793.

“…IwentfromN.YorkwiththefamilyofthelateMajorGeneralGreenetoGeorgia.IwentimmediatelywiththefamilytotheirPlantationabouttwelvemilesfromSavannahwithanexpectationofspendingfourorfivedaysandthenproceedintoCarolinatotaketheschoolasIhavementionedinformerletters.DuringthistimeIheardmuchsaidoftheextremedifficultyofginningCotton,thatis,seperatingitfromitsseeds.TherewereanumberofveryrespectableGentlemenatMrs.

Greene’swhoallagreedthatifamachinecouldbeinventedwhichwouldcleanthecottonwithexpedition,itwouldbeagreatthingbothtotheCountryandtotheinventor.IinvoluntarilyhappenedtobethinkingonthesubjectandstruckoutaplanofaMachineinmymind,whichIcommunicatedtoMiller(whoisagenttotheExecutorsofGenl.Greeneandresidesinthefamily,amanofrespectibilityandproperty),hewaspleasedwiththePlanandsaidifIwouldpursueitandtryanexperimenttoseeifitwouldanswer,hewouldbeatthewholeexpense,Ishouldloosenothingbutmytime,andifIsucceededwewouldsharetheprofits.PrevioustothisIfoundIwasliketobedisappointedinmyschool,thatis,insteadofahundred,IfoundIcouldgetonlyfiftyGuineasayear.IhoweverheldtherefusaloftheschooluntillItriedsomeexperiments.InabouttenDaysImadealittlemodel,forwhichIwasoffered,ifIwouldgiveupallrightandtitletoit,aHundredGuineas.IconcludedtorelinquishmyschoolandturnmyattentiontoperfectingtheMachine.ImadeonebeforeIcameawaywhichrequiredthelaborofonemantoturnitandwithwhichonemanwillcleantentimesasmuchcottonashecaninanyotherwaybeforeknownandalsocleanseitmuchbetterthanintheusualmode.Thismachinemaybeturnedbywaterorwithahorse,withthegreatestease,andonemanandahorsewilldomorethanfiftymenwiththeoldmachines.Itmakesthelaborfiftytimesless,withoutthrowinganyclassofPeopleoutofbusiness.

“IreturnedtotheNorthwardforthepurposeofhavingamachinemadeonalargescaleandobtainingaPatentfortheinvintion.IwenttoPhiladelphia*soonafterIarrived,mademyselfacquaintedwiththestepsnecessarytoobtainaPatent,tookseveralofthestepsandtheSecretaryofStateMr.JeffersonagreedtosendthePattenttomeassoonitcouldbemadeout—sothatIapprehendednodifficultyinobtainingthePatent—SinceIhavebeenhereIhaveemployedseveralworkmeninmakingmachinesandassoonasmybusinessissuchthatIcanleaveitafewdays,IshallcometoWestboro’**.IthinkitisprobableIshallgotoPhiladelphiaagainbeforeIcometoWestboro’,andwhenIdocomeIshallbeabletostaybutfewdays.IamcertainIcanobtainapatentinEngland.AssoonasIhavegotaPatentinAmericaIshallgowiththemachinewhichIamnowmaking,toGeorgia,whereIshallstayafewweekstoseeitatwork.FromthenceIexpecttogotoEngland,whereIshallprobablycontinuetwoorthreeyears.Howadvantageousthisbusinesswilleventuallyprovetome,Icannotsay.Itisgenerallysaidbythosewhoknowanythingaboutit,thatIshallmakeaFortunebyit.IhavenoexpectationthatIshallmakeanindependentfortunebyit,butthinkIhadbetterpursueitthananyotherbusinessintowhichIcanenter.Somethingwhichcannotbeforeseenmayfrustratemyexpectationsanddefeat

myPlan;butIamnowsosureofsuccessthattenthousanddollars,ifIsawthemoneycountedouttome,wouldnottemptmetogiveupmyrightandrelinquishtheobject.Iwishyou,sir,nottoshowthisletternorcommunicateanythingofitscontentstoanybodyexceptMyBrothersandSister,ENJOININGitonthemtokeepthewholeAPROFOUNDSECRET.”

*Thenthenationalcapital.

**Hammond,“CorrespondenceofEliWhitney,”AmericanHistoricalReview,vol.III,p.99.Theothercitationsinthischapterarefromthesamesource,unlessotherwisestated.

Theinvention,however,couldnotbekept“aprofoundsecret,”

forknowledgeofitwasalreadyoutinthecottoncountry.

Whitney’shostess,Mrs.Greene,hadshownthewonderfulmachinetosomefriends,whosoonspreadthegladtidings,andplanters,nearandfar,hadcometoMulberryGrovetoseeit.Themachinewasofverysimpleconstruction;anyblacksmithorwheelwright,knowingtheprincipleofthedesign,couldmakeone.EvenbeforeWhitneycouldobtainhispatent,cottonginsbasedonhiswerebeingmanufacturedandused.

WhitneyreceivedhispatentinMarch,1794,andenteredonhisnewworkwithenthusiasm.Hispartner,PhineasMiller,wasacultivatedNewEnglandgentleman,agraduateofYaleCollege,who,likeWhitney,hadsoughthisfortuneasateacherintheSouth.HehadbeenatutorintheGreenehouseholdandonGeneralGreene’sdeathhadtakenoverthemanagementofhisestates.HeafterwardsmarriedMrs.Greene.ThepartnersdecidedtomanufacturethemachinesinNewHaven,Whitneytogivehistimetotheproduction,Millertofurnishthecapitalandattendtothefirm’sinterestsintheSouth.

Attheoutsetthepartnersblunderedseriouslyintheirplanforcommercializingtheinvention.Theyplannedtobuyseedcottonandcleanitthemselves;alsotocleancottonfortheplantersonthefamiliartollsystem,asingrindinggrain,takingatollofonepoundofcottonoutofeverythree.“Whitney’splaninGeorgia,”saysarecentwriter,“asshownbyhislettersandotherevidence,wastoownalltheginsandginallthecottonmadeinthecountry.Itisbuthumannaturethatthissortofmonopolyshouldbeodioustoanycommunity.”*Millerappearstohavecalculatedthattheplanterscouldaffordtopayfortheuseofthe

newinventionaboutone-halfofalltheprofitstheyderivedfromitsuse.Anequaldivision,betweentheownersoftheinventionontheonehandandthecottongrowersontheother,ofallthesuper-addedwealtharisingfromtheinvention,seemedtohimfair.Apparentlythefullmeaningofsuchanarrangementdidnotenterhismind.PerhapsMillerandWhitneydidnotseeatfirstthatthenewinventionwouldcauseaveritableindustrialrevolution,orthatthesystemtheyplanned,ifitcouldbemadeeffective,wouldmakethemabsolutemastersofthecottoncountry,withthemoststupendousmonopolyintheworld.Nordotheyappeartohaverealizedthat,consideringthesimpleconstructionoftheirmachineandthelooseoperationofthepatentlawatthattime,theplantersoftheSouthwouldneversubmittosogreatatributeastheyproposedtoexact.

Theirattemptinthefirstinstancetosetupanunfairmonopolybroughtthempresentlyintoaseaoftroubles,whichtheyneverpassedoutof,evenwhentheyafterwardschangedtheirtackandofferedtosellthemachineswithalicense,oralicensealone,atareasonableprice.

*Tompkins,“CottonandCottonOil”,p.86.

Misfortunepursuedthepartnersfromthebeginning.WhitneywritestohisfatherfromNewHaveninMay,1794,thathismachinesinGeorgiaareworkingwell,butthatheapprehendsgreatdifficultyinmanufacturingthemasfastastheyareneeded.InMarchofthefollowingyearhewritesagain,sayingthathisfactoryinNewHavenhasbeendestroyedbyfire:“WhenIreturnedhomefromN.YorkIfoundmypropertyallinashes!Myshop,allmytools,materialandworkequaltotwentyfinishedcottonmachinesallgone.Themannerinwhichittookfireisaltogetherunaccountable.”Besides,thepartnersfoundthemselvesindistressforlackofcapital.ThenwordcamefromEnglandthattheManchesterspinnershadfoundtheginnedcottontocontainknots,andthiswassufficienttostarttherumorthroughouttheSouththatWhitney’sgininjuredthecottonfiberandthatcottoncleanedbythemwasworthless.Itwastwoyearsbeforethisghostwaslaid.MeanwhileWhitney’spatentwasbeinginfringedoneveryhand.“TheycontinuetocleangreatquantitiesofcottonwithLyon’sGinandsellitadvantageouslywhilethePatentginnedcottonisrundownasgoodfornothing,”writesMillertoWhitneyinSeptember,1797.MillerandWhitneybroughtsuitsagainsttheinfringersbuttheycouldobtainnoredressinthecourts.

Whitney’sattitudeofmindduringthesetroublesisshowninhisletters.Hesays

thestatementthathismachinesinjurethecottonisfalse,thatthesourceofthetroubleisbadcotton,whichheventurestothinkisimprovedfiftypercentbytheuseofhisgin,andthatitisabsurdtosaythatthecottoncouldbeinjuredinanywayintheprocessofcleaning.“Ithink,”hesays,writingtoMiller,“youwillbeabletoconvincetheCANDID

thatthisisquiteamistakennotionandthemthatWILLNOT

BELIEVEmaybedamn’d.”Again,writinglatertohisfriendJosiahStebbinsinNewEngland:“IhaveasetofthemostDepravedvillainstocombatandImightalmostaswellgotoHELLinsearchofHAPPINESSasapplytoaGeorgiaCourtforJustice.”Andagain:“YouknowIalwaysbelievedinthe‘DEPRAVITYOFHUMAN

NATURE.’IthoughtIwaslongagosufficiently‘groundedandstablished’inthisDoctrine.ButGodAlmightyiscontinuallypouringdowncataractsoftestimonyuponmetoconvincemeofthisfact.‘LordIbelieve,helpthou,’not‘mineunbelief,’butmetoovercometherascalityofmankind.”HispartnerMiller,ontheotherhand,isinclinedtobemorephilosophicalandsuggeststoWhitneythat“wetaketheaffairsofthisworldpatientlyandthatthelittledustwhichwemaystirupaboutcottonmayafterallnotmakemuchdifferencewithoursuccessorsonehundred,muchlessonethousandyearshence.”Miller,however,finallyconcludedthat,“theprospectofmakinganythingbyginninginthisState[Georgia]isatanend.Surreptitiousginsarebeingerectedineverypartofthecountry;andthejurymenatAugustahavecometoanunderstandingamongthemselves,thattheywillnevergiveaverdictinourfavor,letthemeritsofthecasebeastheymay.”*

*CitedinRoe,“EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders”,p.153.

MillerandWhitneyweresomewhatmorefortunateinotherStatesthaninGeorgiathoughtheynowherereceivedfromthecottonginenoughtocompensatethemfortheirtimeandtroublenormorethanapitiablefractionofthegreatvalueoftheirinvention.

SouthCarolina,in1801,votedthemfiftythousanddollarsfortheirpatentrights,twentythousanddollarstobepaiddownandtheremainderinthreeannualpaymentsoftenthousanddollarseach.“Wegetbutasongforit,”wroteWhitney,“incomparisonwiththeworthofthething,butitissecuring

something.”WhythepartnerswerewillingtotakesosmallasumwaslaterexplainedbyMiller.TheyvaluedtherightsforSouthCarolinaattwohundredthousanddollars,but,sincethepatentlawwasbeinginfringedwithimpunity,theywerewillingtotakehalfthatamount;“andhadflatteredthemselves,”wroteMiller,“thatasenseofdignityandjusticeonthepartofthathonorablebody[theLegislature]wouldnothavecountenancedanofferofalesssumthanonehundredthousanddollars.Findingthemselves,however,tobemistakeninthisopinion,andentertainingabeliefthatthefailureofsuchnegotiation,afteritcommenced,wouldhaveatendencytodiminishtheprospect,alreadydoubtful,ofenforcingthePatentLaw,itwasconcludedtobebestunderexistingcircumstancestoaccepttheveryinadequatesumoffiftythousanddollarsofferedbytheLegislatureandtherebyrelinquishandentirelyabandonthree-fourthsoftheactualvalueoftheproperty.”

Buteventhefiftythousanddollarswasnotcollectedwithoutdifficulty.SouthCarolinasuspendedthecontract,afterpayingtwentythousanddollars,andsuedMillerandWhitneyforrecoveryofthesumpaid,onthegroundthatthepartnershadnotcompliedwiththeconditions.Whitneysucceeded,in1805,ingettingtheLegislaturetoreinstatethecontractandpayhimtheremainderofthemoney.Miller,discouragedandbrokenbythelongstruggle,haddiedinthemeantime.

ThefollowingpassagefromaletterwrittenbyWhitneyinFebruary,1805,toJosiahStebbins,givesWhitney’sviewsastothetreatmenthehadreceivedatthehandsoftheauthorities.HeiswritingfromtheresidenceofafriendnearOrangeburg,SouthCarolina.

“TheprincipalobjectofmypresentexcursiontothisCountrywastogetthisbusinesssetright;whichIhavesofareffectedastoinducetheLegislatureofthisStatetorecindalltheirformerSUSPENDINGLAWSandRESOLUTIONS,toagreeoncemoretopaythesumof30,000Dollarswhichwasdueandmakethenecessaryappropriationsforthatpurpose.Ihaveasyethoweverobtainedbutasmallpartofthispayment.TheresidueispromisedmeinJulynext.ThusyouseemyRECOMPENSEOFREWARDisasthelandofCanaanwastotheJews,restingalongwhileinpromise.IftheNationswithwhomIhavetocontendarenotasnumerousasthoseopposedtotheIsraelites,theyarecertainlymuchgreaterHEATHENS,havingtheirheartshardenedandtheirunderstandingblinded,tomake,propagateandbelieveallmanneroflies.

Verily,Stebbins,Ihavehadmuchvexationofspiritinthisbusiness.Ishallspend

fortythousanddollarstoobtainthirty,anditwillallendinvanityatlast.AcontracthadbeenmadewiththeStateofTennesseewhichnowhangsSUSPENDED.TwoattemptshavebeenmadetoinducetheStateofNo.CarolinatoRECINDtheirCONTRACT,neitherofwhichhavesucceeded.ThusyouseeBrotherSteb.SovreignandIndependentStateswarpedbyINTERESTwillbeROGUESandmisledbyDemagogueswillbeFOOLS.

Theyhavespentmuchtime,MONEYandCREDIT,toavoidgivingmeasmallcompensation,forthatwhichtothemisworthmillions.”

MeanwhileNorthCarolinahadagreedtobuytherightsfortheStateontermsthatyieldedWhitneyaboutthirtythousanddollars,anditisestimatedthathereceivedabouttenthousanddollarsfromTennessee,makinghisreceiptsinallaboutninetythousanddollars,beforedeductingcostsoflitigationandotherlosses.Thecottonginwasnotprofitabletoitsinventor.Andyetnoinventioninhistoryeversosuddenlytransformedanindustryandcreatedenormouswealth.EightyearsbeforeWhitney’sinvention,eightbalesofcotton,landedatLiverpool,wereseizedonthegroundthatsolargeaquantityofcottoncouldnothavebeenproducedintheUnitedStates.TheyearbeforethatinventiontheUnitedStatesexportedlessthanonehundredandfortythousandpoundsofcotton;theyearafterit,nearlyhalfamillionpounds;thenextyearoveramillionandahalf;ayearlaterstill,oversixmillion;by1800,nearlyeighteenmillionpoundsayear.Andby1845theUnitedStateswasproducingproducingseven-eighthsoftheworld’scotton.TodaytheUnitedStatesproducessixtoeightbillionpoundsofcottonannually,andninety-ninepercentofthisistheuplandorgreen-seedcotton,whichiscleanedontheWhitneytypeofginandwasfirstmadecommerciallyavailablebyWhitney’sinvention.*

*Roe,“EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders”,pp.150-51.

Morethanhalfofthisenormouscropisstillexportedinspiteofthegreatdemandathome.CottonbecameandhascontinuedtobethegreatestsingleexportoftheUnitedStates.Inordinaryyearsitsvalueisgreaterthanthecombinedvalueofthethreenextlargestexports.ItisoncottonthattheUnitedStateshasdependedforthepaymentofitstradebalancetoEurope.

Othermomentousresultsfollowedontheinventionofthecottongin.In1793slaveryseemedadyinginstitution,NorthandSouth.

ConditionsofsoilandclimatemadeslaveryunprofitableintheNorth.Onmanyoftheindigo,rice,andtobaccoplantationsintheSouththereweremoreslavesthancouldbeprofitablyemployed,andmanyplanterswerethinkingofemancipatingtheirslaves,whenalongcamethissimplebutwonderfulmachineandwithitthevisionofgreatrichesincotton;forwhileslavescouldnotearntheirkeepseparatingthecottonfromitsseedsbyhand,theycouldearnenormousprofitsinthefields,oncethedifficultyofextractingtheseedswassolved.Slaveswerenolongeraliabilitybutanasset.Thepriceof“fieldhands”rose,andcontinuedtorise.Iftheworn-outlandsoftheseaboardnolongeraffordedopportunityforprofitableemployment,therichnewlandsoftheSouthwestcalledforlaborers,andyetmorelaborers.Takingslaveswiththem,youngersonspushedoutintothewilderness,becamepossessedofgreattractsoffertileland,andbuiltuplargerplantationsthanthoseuponwhichtheyhadbeenborn.CottonbecameKingoftheSouth.

Thesupposedeconomicnecessityofslavelaborledgreatmentodefendslavery,andpoliticsintheSouthbecamelargelythedefenseofslaveryagainsttheaggression,realorfancied,ofthefreeNorth.Theriftbetweenthesectionsbecameachasm.

ThencametheWarofSecession.

ThoughMillerwasdead,WhitneycarriedonthefightforhisrightsinGeorgia.HisdifficultieswereincreasedbyapatentwhichtheGovernmentatPhiladelphiaissuedinMay,1796,toHogdenHolmes,amechanicofAugusta,foranimprovementinthecottongin.TheHolmesmachinesweresoonincommonuse,anditwasagainsttheusersofthesethatmanyofthesuitsforinfringementwerebrought.SuitaftersuitranitscourseintheGeorgiacourts,withoutasingledecisionintheinventor’sfavor.Atlength,however,inDecember,1806,thevalidityofWhitney’spatentwasfinallydeterminedbydecisionoftheUnitedStatesCircuitCourtinGeorgia.WhitneyaskedforaperpetualinjunctionagainsttheHolmesmachine,andthecourt,findingthathisinventionwasbasic,grantedhimallthatheasked.

Bythistime,however,thelifeofthepatenthadnearlyrunitscourse.WhitneyappliedtoCongressforarenewal,but,inspiteofallhisargumentsandafavorablecommitteereport,theoppositionfromthecottonStatesprovedtoostrong,andhisapplicationwasdenied.Whitneynowhadotherinterests.Hewasagreatmanufactureroffirearms,atNewHaven,andassuchweshallmeethim

againinalaterchapter.

CHAPTERIII.STEAMINCAPTIVITY

Forthebeginningsoftheenslavementofsteam,thatmightygiantwhoseworkhaschangedtheworldwelivein,wemustreturntothetimesofBenjaminFranklin.JamesWatt,theaccreditedfatherofthemodernsteamengine,wasacontemporaryofFranklin,andhisenginewastwenty-oneyearsoldwhenFranklindied.Thediscoverythatsteamcouldbeharnessedandmadetoworkisnot,ofcourse,creditedtoJamesWatt.Thepreciseoriginofthatdiscoveryisunknown.TheancientGreekshadsteamenginesofasort,andsteamenginesofanothersortwerepumpingwateroutofminesinEnglandwhenJamesWattwasborn.JamesWatt,however,inventedandappliedthefirsteffectivemeansbywhichsteamcametoservemankind.Andsothemodernsteamenginebeginswithhim.

Thestoryisold,ofhowthisScottishboy,JamesWatt,satonthehearthinhismother’scottage,intentlywatchingthesteamrisingfromthemouthoftheteakettle,andofthegreatrolewhichthisboyafterwardsassumedinthemechanicalworld.Itwasin1763,whenhewastwenty-eightandhadtheappointmentofmathematical-instrumentmakertotheUniversityofGlasgow,thatamodelofNewcomen’ssteampumpingenginewasbroughtintohisshopforrepairs.OnecanperhapsimaginethefeelingswithwhichJamesWatt,interestedfromhisyouthinmechanicalandscientificinstruments,particularlythosewhichdealtwithsteam,regardedthisNewcomenengine.Nowhisinterestwasvastly.quickened.Hesetupthemodelandoperatedit,noticedhowthealternateheatingandcoolingofitscylinderwastedpower,andconcluded,aftersomeweeksofexperiment,that,inordertomaketheenginepracticable,thecylindermustbekepthot,“alwaysashotasthesteamwhichenteredit.”Yetinordertocondensethesteamtheremustbeacoolingofthevessel.Theproblemwastoreconcilethesetwoconditions.

Atlengththepregnantideaoccurredtohim—theideaoftheseparatecondenser.ItcametohimonaSundayafternoonin1765,ashewalkedacrossGlasgowGreen.Ifthesteamwerecondensedinavesselseparatefromthecylinder,itwouldbequitepossibletokeepthecondensingvesselcoolandthecylinderhotatthesametime.NextmorningWattbegantoputhisschemetothetestandfounditpracticable.Hedevelopedotherideasandappliedthem.Soatlastwasbornasteamenginethatwouldworkandmultiplyman’senergiesa

thousandfold.

Afteroneortwodisastrousbusinessexperiences,suchasfalltothelotofmanygreatinventors,perhapstotesttheirperseverance,WattassociatedhimselfwithMatthewBoulton,amanofcapitalandofenterprise,owneroftheSohoEngineeringWorks,nearBirmingham.ThefirmofBoultonandWattbecamefamous,andJamesWattlivedtillAugust19,1819—livedtoseehissteamenginethegreatestsinglefactorinthenewindustrialerathathaddawnedforEnglish-speakingfolk.

BoultonandWatt,however,thoughtheywerethepioneers,werebynomeansaloneinthedevelopmentofthesteamengine.Soontherewererivalsinthefieldwithnewtypesofengines.OneofthesewasRichardTrevithickinEngland;anotherwasOliverEvansofPhiladelphia.BothTrevithickandEvansinventedthehigh-pressureengine.EvansappearstohaveappliedthehighpressureprinciplebeforeTrevithick,andithasbeensaidthatTrevithickborroweditfromEvans,butEvanshimselfneversaidso,anditismorelikelythateachoftheseinventorsworkeditoutindependently.Wattintroducedhissteamtothecylinderatonlyslightlymorethanatmosphericpressureandclungtenaciouslytothelow-pressuretheoryallhislife.BoultonandWatt,indeed,arousedbyTrevithick’sexperimentsinhigh-pressureengines,soughttohaveParliamentpassanactforbiddinghighpressureonthegroundthatthelivesofthepublicwereendangered.Wattlivedlongenough,however,toseethehigh-pressuresteamenginecomeintogeneralfavor,notonlyinAmericabuteveninhisownconservativecountry.

Lesssudden,lessdramatic,thanthatofthecottongin,wastheentranceofthesteamengineontheAmericanindustrialstage,butnotlessmomentous.TheactionsandreactionsofsteaminAmericaprovidethethemeforanIliadwhichsomeAmericanHomermayonedaywrite.TheyincludetheepicofthecoalinthePennsylvaniahills,theepicoftheore,theepicoftherailroad,theepicofthegreatcity;and,ingeneral,thesubjugationofacontinentalwildernesstotheserviceofavastcivilization.

ThevitalneedofbettertransportationwasuppermostinthethoughtsofmanyAmericans.ItwasseenthattherecouldbenonationalunityinacountrysofarflungwithoutmeansofeasyintercoursebetweenonegroupofAmericansandanother.Thehighroadsofthenewcountrywere,forthemostpart,difficultevenforthemanonhorseback,andworseforthosewhomusttravelbycoachorpost-

chaise.Inlandfromthecoastandawayfromthegreatriverstherewerenoroadsofanysort;nothingbuttrails.Highwayswereessential,notonlyforthepermanentunityoftheUnitedStates,buttomakeavailablethewonderfulrichesoftheinlandcountry,acrosstheAppalachianbarrierandaroundtheGreatLakes,intowhichAmericanpioneershadalreadymadetheirway.

Thoseimmemorialpathways,thegreatrivers,werethemainavenuesoftrafficwiththeinterior.So,ofcourse,whenmenthoughtofimprovingtransportation,theyhadinmindchieflytransportationbywater;andthatiswhytheearliesteffortsofAmericaninventorswereappliedtothemeansofimprovingtrafficandtravelbywaterandnotbyland.

ThefirstmentospendtheirtimeintryingtoapplysteampowertothepropulsionofaboatwerecontemporariesofBenjaminFranklin.ThosewhoworkedwithoutWatt’senginecouldhardlysucceed.OneoftheearliestofthesewasWilliamHenryofPennsylvania.Henry,in1763,hadtheideaofapplyingpowertopaddlewheels,andconstructedaboat,buthisboatsank,andnoresultfollowed,unlessitmaybethatJohnFitchandRobertFulton,bothofwhomwerevisitorsatHenry’shouse,receivedsomesuggestionsfromhim.JamesRumseyofMarylandbeganexperimentsasearlyas1774andby1786hadaboatthatmadefourmilesanhouragainstthecurrentofthePotomac.

ThemostinterestingoftheseearlyandunsuccessfulinventorsisJohnFitch,who,wasaConnecticutclockmakerlivinginPhiladelphia.Hewaseccentricandirregularinhishabitsandquiteignorantofthesteamengine.Butheconceivedtheideaofasteamboatandsettoworktomakeone.TherecordofFitch’slifeissomethingofatragedy.Atthebesthewasanunhappymanandwasalwaysclosetopoverty.Asayoungmanhehadlefthisfamilybecauseofunhappydomesticrelationswithhiswife.OnemayfindintherecordofhisundertakingswhichheleftinthePhiladelphiaLibrary,tobeopenedthirtyyearsafteritsreceipt,thesewords:“IknowofnothingsoperplexingandvexatioustoamanoffeelingsasaturbulentWifeandSteamboatbuilding.”ButinspiteofallhisdifficultiesFitchproducedasteamboat,whichpliedregularlyontheDelawareforseveralyearsandcarriedpassengers.“WereignedLordHighAdmiralsoftheDelaware;andnootherboatintheRivercouldholditswaywithus,”hewrote.“ThushasbeeneffectedbylittleJohnnyFitchandHarryVoight[oneofhisassociates]oneofthegreatestandmostusefulartsthathaseverbeenintroducedintotheworld;andalthoughtheworldandmycountrydoesnotthankmeforit,yetitgivesmeheartfeltsatisfaction.”The“LordHighAdmiralsofthe

Delaware,”however,didnotreignlong.Thesteamboatneededimprovementtomakeitpay;itsbackerslostpatienceandfaith,andtheinventorgaveupthefightandretiredintothefastnessesoftheKentuckywilderness,wherehedied.

Thenextinventortostrugglewiththeproblemofthesteamboat,withanyapproachtosuccess,wasJohnStevensofHoboken.HislifewascastinavastlydifferentenvironmentfromthatofJohnFitch.Hewasarichman,amanoffamilyandofinfluence.Hisfather’shouse—afterwardshisown–at7Broadway,facingBowlingGreen—wasoneofthemansionsofearlyNewYork,andhisownsummerresidenceonCastlePoint,Hoboken,justacrosstheHudson,wasoneofthelandmarksofthegreatriver.FormanyyearsJohnStevenscrossedthatriver;mostofteninanopenboatpropelledbysailorbymenattheoars.Beingnaturallyofamechanicalturn,hesoughttomakethecrossingeasier.TohislibrarywerecomingtheprintsthattoldofJamesWattandthesteamengineinEngland,andJohnFitch’sboathadinterestedhim.

RobertFulton’sClermont,ofwhichweshallspeakpresently,wasundoubtedlythepioneerofpracticablesteamboats.ButthePhoenix,builtbyJohnStevens,followedcloseontheClermont.

AnditsengineswerebuiltinAmerica,whilethoseoftheClermonthadbeenimportedfromEngland.Moreover,inJune,1808,thePhoenixstoodtosea,andmadethefirstoceanvoyageinthehistoryofsteamnavigation.BecauseofamonopolyoftheHudson,whichtheNewYorkLegislaturehadgrantedtoLivingstonandFulton,StevenswascompelledtosendhisshiptotheDelaware.

HencethetripoutintothewatersoftheAtlantic,ajourneythatwasnotundertakenwithouttrepidation.But,despitethefactthatagreatstormarose,thePhoenixmadethetripinsafety;andcontinuedformanyyearsthereaftertoplytheDelawarebetweenPhiladelphiaandTrenton.

RobertFulton,likemanyandmanyanothergreatinventor,fromLeonardodaVincidowntothepresenttime,wasalsoanartist.

HewasbornNovember14,1765,atLittleBritain,LancasterCounty,Pennsylvania,ofthatstockwhichissooftenmiscalled“Scotch-Irish.”Hewasonlyachildwhenhisfatherdied,leavingbehindhimasonwhoseemstohavebeenmuchmoreinterestedinhisownideasthaninhisschoolbooks.EveninhischildhoodRobertshowedhismechanicalability.Therewasafirmofnoted

gunsmithsinLancaster,inwhoseshopshemadehimselfathomeandbecameexpertintheuseoftools.Attheageoffourteenheappliedhisingenuitytoaheavyfishingboatandequippeditwithpaddle-wheels,whichwereturnedbyacrank,thusgreatlylighteningthelaborofmovingit.

AttheageofseventeenyoungFultonmovedtoPhiladelphiaandsetupasaportraitpainter.Someoftheminiatureswhichhepaintedatthistimearesaidtobeverygood.Heworkedhard,mademanygoodfriends,includingBenjaminFranklin,andsucceededfinancially.HedeterminedtogotoEuropetostudy—ifpossibleunderhisfellowPennsylvanian,BenjaminWest,thenrisingintofameinLondon.TheWestandtheFultonfamilieshadbeenintimate,andFultonhopedthatWestwouldtakehimasapupil.Firstbuyingafarmforhismotherwithapartofhissavings,hesailedforEnglandin1786,withfortyguineasinhispocket.Westreceivedhimnotonlyasapupilbutasaguestinhishouseandintroducedhimtomanyofhisfriends.AgainFultonsucceeded,andin1791twoofhisportraitswereexhibitedattheRoyalAcademy,andtheRoyalSocietyofBritishArtistshungfourpaintingsbyhim.

ThencamethecommissionwhichchangedthecourseofFulton’slife.HisworkhadattractedthenoticeofViscountCourtenay,laterEarlofDevon,andhewasinvitedtoDevonshiretopaintthatnobleman’sportrait.HerehemetFrancis,thirdDukeofBridgewater,thefatheroftheEnglishcanalsystem,andhishardlylessfamousengineer,JamesBrindley,andalsoEarlStanhope,arestless,inquiringspirit.FultonthemechanicpresentlybegantodominateFultontheartist.Hestudiedcanals,inventedameansofsawingmarbleinthequarries,improvedthewheelforspinningflax,inventedamachineformakingrope,andamethodofraisingcanalboatsbyinclinedplanesinsteadoflocks.Whatmoneyhemadefromtheseinventionswedonotknow,butsomewhatlater(1796)hespeakshopefullyofanimprovementintanning.Thissameyearhepublishedapamphletentitled“ATreatiseontheImprovementofCanalNavigation”,copiesofwhichweresenttoNapoleonandPresidentWashington.

FultonwenttoFrancein1797.ToearnmoneyhepaintedseveralportraitsandapanoramaoftheBurningofMoscow.Thispanorama,coveringthewallsofacircularhallbuiltespeciallyforit,becameverypopular,andFultonpaintedanother.InParisheformedawarmfriendshipwiththatsingularAmerican,JoelBarlow,soldier,poet,speculator,anddiplomatist,andhiswife,andforsevenyearslivedintheirhouse.

ThelongandcomplicatedstoryofFulton’ssuddeninterestintorpedoesandsubmarineboats,hisdealingswiththeDirectoryandNapoleonandwiththeBritishAdmiraltydoesnotbelonghere.

HisexperimentsandhisnegotiationswiththetwoGovernmentsoccupiedthegreaterpartofhistimefortheyearsbetween1797

and1806.Hisexpressedpurposewastomakeanengineofwarsoterriblethatwarwouldautomaticallybeabolished.Theworld,however,wasnotreadyfordivingboatsandtorpedoes,noryetfortheendofwar,andhiseffortshadnotangibleresults.*

*ThesubmarinewastheinventionofDavidBushnell,aConnecticutYankee,whose“AmericanTurtle”blewupatleastoneBritishvesselintheWarofIndependenceandcreatedmuchconsternationamongtheKing’sshipsinAmericanwaters.

Duringalltheyearsafter1793,atleast,andperhapsearlier,theideaofthesteamboathadseldombeenoutofhismind,butlackoffundsandthegreaterurgency,ashethought,ofthesubmarinepreventedhimfromworkingseriouslyuponit.In1801,however,RobertR.LivingstoncametoFranceasAmericanMinister.LivingstonhadalreadymadesomeunsuccessfulexperimentswiththesteamboatintheUnitedStates,and,in1798,hadreceivedthemonopolyofsteamnavigationonthewatersofNewYorkfortwentyyears,providedthatheproducedavesselwithintwelvemonthsabletosteamfourmilesanhour.Thisgranthad,ofcourse,beenforfeited,butmightberenewed,Livingstonthought.

FultonandLivingstonmet,probablyatBarlow’shouse,and,in1802,drewupanagreementtoconstructasteamboattoplybetweenNewYorkandAlbany.LivingstonagreedtoadvancefivehundreddollarsforexperimentationinEurope.InthissameyearFultonbuiltamodelandtesteddifferentmeansofpropulsion,giving“thepreferencetoawheeloneachsideofthemodel.”*

TheboatwasbuiltontheSeine,butprovedtoofrailfortheborrowedengine.AsecondboatwastriedinAugust,1803,andmoved,thoughatadisappointinglyslowrateofspeed.

*FultontoBarlow,quotedinSutcliffe,“RobertFultonandtheClermont”,p.124.

JustatthistimeFultonwroteorderinganenginefromBoultonandWatttobetransportedtoAmerica.Theorderwasatfirstrefused,asitwasthentheshortsightedpolicyoftheBritishGovernmenttomaintainamonopolyofmechanicalcontrivances.

Permissiontoexportwasgiventhenextyear,however,andtheenginewasshippedin1805.ItlayforsometimeintheNewYorkCustomsHouse.MeanwhileFultonhadstudiedtheWattengineonSymington’ssteamboat,theCharlotteDundas,ontheForthandClydeCanal,andLivingstonhadbeengrantedarenewalofhismonopolyofthewatersofNewYork.

FultonarrivedatNewYorkin1806andbegantheconstructionoftheClermont,sonamedafterLivingston’sestateontheHudson.

ThebuildingwasdoneontheEastRiver.Theboatexcitedthejeersofpassersby,whocalledit“Fulton’sFolly.”OnMonday,August17,1807,thememorablefirstvoyagewasbegun.Carryingapartyofinvitedguests,theClermontsteamedoffatoneo’clock.

PastthetownsandvillagesalongtheHudson,theboatmovedsteadily,blacksmokerollingfromherstack.Pinewoodwasthefuel.Duringthenight,thesparkspouringfromherfunnel,theclankingofhermachinery,andthesplashingofthepaddlesfrightenedtheanimalsinthewoodsandtheoccupantsofthescatteredhousesalongthebanks.Atoneo’clockTuesdaytheboatarrivedatClermont,110milesfromNewYork.AfterspendingthenightatClermont,thevoyagewasresumedonWednesday.Albany,fortymilesaway,wasreachedineighthours,makingarecordof150milesinthirty-twohours.ReturningtoNewYork,thedistancewascoveredinthirtyhours.Thesteamboatwasasuccess.

Theboatwasthenlaidupfortwoweekswhilethecabinswereboardedin,aroofbuiltovertheengine,andcoveringsplacedoverthepaddle-wheelstocatchthespray—allunderFulton’seye.ThentheClermontbeganregulartripstoAlbany,carryingsometimesahundredpassengers,makingtheroundtripeveryfourdays,andcontinueduntilfloatingicemarkedtheendofnavigationforthewinter.

WhyhadFultonsucceededwhereothershadfailed?Therewasnothingnewinhisboat.EveryessentialfeatureoftheClermonthadbeenanticipatedbyoneorotherofthenumerousexperimentersbeforehim.Theanswerseemstobethathe

wasabetterengineerthananyofthem.Hehadcalculatedproportions,andhishullandhisenginewereinrelation.Thentoo,hehadoneofWatt’sengines,undoubtedlythebestatthetime,andtheunwaveringsupportofRobertLivingston.

Fulton’srestlessmindwasneverstill,buthedidnotturncapriciouslyfromoneideatoanother.Thoughneversatisfied,hisnewideasweretestedscientificallyandtheresultscarefullywrittendown.Someofhisnotebooksreadalmostlikegeometricaldemonstrations;andhisdrawingsandplanswerebeautifullyexecuted.Beforehisdeathin1815hehadconstructedorplannedsixteenorseventeenboats,includingboatsfortheHudson,Potomac,andMississippirivers,fortheNevainRussia,andasteamvesselofwarfortheUnitedStates.HewasamemberofthecommissionontheErieCanal,thoughhedidnotlivetoseethatenterprisebegun.

ThemightyinfluenceofthesteamboatinthedevelopmentofinlandAmericaistoldelsewhereinthisSeries.*Thesteamboathaslongsincegrowntogreatness,butitiswelltorememberthatthetrueancestorofthemagnificentleviathanofourowndayistheClermontofRobertFulton.

*ArcherB.Hulbert,“ThePathsofInlandCommerce”.

Theworldtodayisontheeveofanothergreatdevelopmentintransportation,quiteasrevolutionaryasanythathavepreceded.

Howsoonwillittakeplace?HowlongbeforeKipling’svisionin“TheNightMail”becomesafullreality?Howlongbeforetheaircraftcomestoplayagreatroleintheworld’stransportation?

Wecannottell.But,afterlookingatthenearestparallelinthefactsofhistory,eachofusmaymakehisownguess.TheairshipappearsnowtobemuchfartheradvancedthanthesteamboatwasformanyyearsafterRobertFultondied.AlreadywehaveseenmenridethewindabovetheseafromtheNewWorldtotheOld.

AlreadyUnitedStatesmailsareregularlycarriedthroughtheairfromtheAtlantictotheGoldenGate.ItwastwelveyearsafterthebirthofFulton’sClermont,andfouryearsaftertheinventor’sdeath,beforeanyvesseltriedtocrosstheAtlanticundersteam.Thiswasin1819,whenthesailingpacketSavannah,equippedwithaninetyhorsepowerhorizontalengineandpaddle-

wheels,crossedfromSavannahtoLiverpoolintwenty-fivedays,duringeighteenofwhichsheusedsteampower.Thefollowingyear,however,theenginewastakenoutofthecraft.Anditwasnotuntil1833thatarealsteamshipcrossedtheAtlantic.ThistimeitwastheRoyalWilliam,whichmadeasuccessfulpassagefromQuebectoLondon.FouryearsmorepassedbeforetheGreatWesternwaslaunchedatBristol,thefirststeamshiptobeespeciallydesignedfortransatlanticservice,andtheeraofgreatsteamlinersbegan.

Ifsteamcouldbemadetodriveaboatonthewater,whynotawagonontheland?

History,seekingorigins,oftenhasdifficultywhenitattemptstodiscoverthepreciseoriginofanidea.“Itfrequentlyhappens,”saidOliverEvans,“thattwopersons,reasoningrightonamechanicalsubject,thinkalikeandinventthesamethingwithoutanycommunicationwitheachother.”*Itiscertain,however,thatoneofthefirst,ifnotthefirst,protagonistofthelocomotiveinAmericawasthesameOliverEvans,atrulygreatinventorforwhomtheworldwasnotquiteready.Theworldhasforgottenhim.ButhewasthefirstenginebuilderinAmerica,andoneofthebestofhisday.Hegavetohiscountrymenthehigh-pressuresteamengineandnewmachineryformanufacturingflourthatwasnotsupersededforahundredyears.

*ColemanSellers,“OliverEvansandHisInventions,”“JournaloftheFranklinInstitute”,July,1886:vol.CXXII,p.16.

“Evanswasapprenticedattheageoffourteentoawheelwright.

Hewasathoughtful,studiousboy,whodevouredeagerlythefewbookstowhichhehadaccess,evenbythelightofafireofshavings,whendeniedacandlebyhisparsimoniousmaster.Hesaysthatin1779,whenonlyseventeenyearsold,hebegantocontrivesomemethodofpropellinglandcarriagesbyothermeansthananimalpower;andthathethoughtofavarietyofdevices,suchasusingtheforceofthewindandtreadlesworkedbymen;butastheywereevidentlyinadequate,wasabouttogiveuptheproblemasunsolvableforwantofasuitablesourceofpower,whenheheardthatsomeneighboringblacksmith’sboyshadstoppedupthetouch-holeofagunbarrel,putinsomewater,rammeddownatightwad,and,puttingthebreechintothesmith’sfire,thegunhaddischargeditselfwithareportlikethatofgunpowder.

Thisimmediatelysuggestedtohisfertilemindanewsourceofpower,andhelaboredlongtoapplyit,butwithoutsuccess,untiltherefellintohishandsabookdescribingtheoldatmosphericsteamengineofNewcomen,andhewasatoncestruckwiththefactthatsteamwasonlyusedtoproduceavacuumwhiletohimitseemedclearthattheelasticpowerofthesteamifapplieddirectlytomovingthepiston,wouldbefarmoreefficient.Hesoonsatisfiedhimselfthathecouldmakesteamwagons,butcouldconvincenooneelseofthispossibility.”*

*ColemanSellers,“OliverEvansandHisInventions,”“JournaloftheFranklinInstitute”,July,1886:vol.CXXII,p.3.

EvanswasthenlivinginDelaware,wherehewasborn,andwherehelaterworkedouthisinventionsinflour-millingmachineryandinventedandputintoservicethehigh-pressuresteamengine.HeappearstohavemovedtoPhiladelphiaabout1790,theyearofFranklin’sdeathandoftheFederalPatentAct;and,aswehaveseen,thethirdpatentissuedbytheGovernmentatPhiladelphiawasgrantedtohim.Aboutthistimehebecameabsorbedinthehardworkofwritingabook,the“MillwrightandMiller’sGuide”,whichhepublishedin1795,butataheavysacrificetohimselfintimeandmoney.AfewyearslaterhehadanestablishedengineworksinPhiladelphiaandwasmakingsteamenginesofhisowntypethatperformedtheirworksatisfactorily.

TheOruktorAmphibolos,orAmphibiousDigger,whichcameoutofhisshopin1804,wasasteamdrivenmachinemadetotheorderofthePhiladelphiaBoardofHealthfordredgingandcleaningthedocksofthecity.Itwasdesigned,asitsnamesuggests,forserviceeitherinwateroronshore.Itpropelleditselfacrossthecitytotheriverfront,puffingandthrowingoffcloudsofsteamandmakingquiteasensationonthestreets.

Evanshadneverforgottenhisdreamofthe“steamwagon.”HisOruktorhadnosoonerbegunpuffingthanheofferedtomakeforthePhiladelphiaandLancasterTurnpikeCompanysteamdrivencarriagestotaketheplaceoftheirsix-horseConestogawagons,promisingtotrebletheirprofits.Butthedirectorsoftheroadwereconservativemenandhisargumentsfellondeafears.

InthesameyearEvanspetitionedCongressforanextensionofthepatentonhisflour-millingmachinery,whichwasabouttoexpire.Hehadderivedlittleprofitfromthisimportantinvention,asthenewmachinerymadeitswayveryslowly,buteveryyearmoreandmoremillerswereusingitandEvansreceivedroyalties

fromthem.HefeltsurethatCongresswouldrenewhispatent,and,withgreatexpectationsforthefuture,heannouncedanewbookinpreparationbyhimselftobecalled“TheYoungEngineer’sGuide”.Itwastogivethemostthoroughtreatmenttothesubjectofthesteamengine,withaprofusionofdrawingstoillustratethetext.ButEvansreckonedwithoutthemillerswhowereopposinghispetition.Thoughtheywereprofitingbyhisinvention,theywereunwillingtopayhimanything,andtheysucceededinhavinghisbillinCongressdefeated.Itwasahardblowforthestrugglingauthorandinventor.Hisincomecutoff,hewasobligedtoreducethescaleofhisbook“andtoomitmanyoftheillustrationshehadpromised.”Hewrotethesadstoryintothenameofthebook.Itcameoutunderthetitleof“TheAbortionoftheYoungEngineer’sGuide”.

Fouryearslater,whenCongressrestoredandextendedhispatent,Evansfeltthatbetterdayswereahead,but,assaidalready,hewastoofaraheadofhistimetobeunderstoodandappreciated.

Incredulity,prejudice,andoppositionwerehisportionaslongashelived.Nevertheless,hewentonbuildinggoodenginesandhadthesatisfactionofseeingtheminextensiveuse.Hislifecametoanendastheresultofwhattohimwasthegreatestpossibletragedy.HewasvisitingNewYorkCityin1819,whennewscametohimofthedestructionbyanincendiaryofhisbelovedshopsinPhiladelphia.Theshockwasgreaterthanhecouldbear.Astrokeofapoplexyfollowed,fromwhichhedied.

Thefollowingprophecy,writtenbyOliverEvansandpublishedin1812,seventeenyearsbeforethepracticaluseofthelocomotivebegan,tellsussomethingofthevisionofthisearlyAmericaninventor:

“Thetimewillcomewhenpeoplewilltravelinstagesmovedbysteamenginesfromonecitytoanotheralmostasfastasbirdsfly—fifteentotwentymilesanhour.Passingthroughtheairwithsuchvelocity—changingthescenesinsuchrapidsuccession—willbethemostexhilarating,delightfulexercise.AcarriagewillsetoutfromWashingtoninthemorning,andthepassengerswillbreakfastatBaltimore,dineinPhiladelphia,andsupatNewYorkthesameday.

“Toaccomplishthis,twosetsofrailwayswillbelaidsonearlylevelasnotinanyplacetodeviatemorethantwodegreesfromahorizontalline,madeofwoodoriron,onsmoothpathsofbrokenstoneorgravel,witharailtoguidethecarriagessothattheymaypasseachotherindifferentdirectionsandtravelby

nightaswellasbyday;andthepassengerswillsleepinthesestagesascomfortablyastheydonowinsteamstage-boats.”*

*CitedbyColemanSellers,Ibid.,p.13.

AnotherearlyadvocateofsteamcarriagesandrailwayswasJohnStevens,therichinventorofHoboken,whofiguresinthestoryofthesteamboat.InFebruary,1812,StevensaddressedtothecommissionersappointedbytheStateofNewYorktoexplorearoutefortheErieCanalanelaboratememoircalculatedtoprovethatrailwayswouldbemuchmoreinthepublicinterestthantheproposedcanal.HewroteatthesametimetoRobertR.Livingston(who,aswellasRobertFulton,hispartnerinthesteamboat,wasoneofthecommissioners)requestinghisinfluenceinfavorofrailways.Livingston,havingcommittedhimselftothesteamboatandholdingamonopolyofnavigationonthewatersofNewYorkState,couldhardlybeexpectedtogiveawillingeartoarivalscheme,andnoonethenseemstohavedreamedthatbothcanalandrailwaywouldultimatelybeneeded.Livingston,however,wasanenlightenedstatesman,oneoftheablestmenofhisday.HehadplayedaprominentpartintheaffairsoftheRevolutionandintheratificationoftheConstitution;hadknownFranklinandWashingtonandhadnegotiatedwithNapoleontheLouisianaPurchase.HisreplytoStevensisagoodstatementoftheobjectionstotherailway,asseenatthetime,andofthepublicattitudetowardsit.

RobertR.LivingstontoJohnStevens“Albany,11thMarch,1812.

“Ididnot,tillyesterday,receiveyoursofthe5thofFebruary;whereithasloiteredontheroadIamatalosstosay.Ihadbeforereadyourveryingeniouspropositionsastotherailwaycommunication.Ifear,however,onmaturereflection,thattheywillbeliabletoseriousobjections,andultimatelymoreexpensivethanacanal.Theymustbedouble,soastopreventthedangeroftwosuchheavybodiesmeeting.Thewallsonwhichtheyareplacedmustatleastbefourfeetbelowthesurface,andthreeabove,andmustbeclampedwithiron,andeventhen,wouldhardlysustainsoheavyaweightasyouproposemovingattherateoffourmilesanhouronwheels.Astowood,itwouldnotlastaweek;theymustbecoveredwithiron,andthattooverythickandstrong.Themeansofstoppingtheseheavycarriageswithoutagreatshock,andofpreventingthemfromrunninguponeachother(fortherewouldbemanyontheroadatonce)wouldbeverydifficult.Incaseofaccidentalstops,orthenecessarystopstotakewoodandwater&cmanyaccidentswouldhappen.Thecarriageofcondensed

waterwouldbeverytroublesome.Uponthewhole,Ifeartheexpensewouldbemuchgreaterthanthatofcanals,withoutbeingsoconvenient.”*

*JohnStevens,“DocumentsTendingtoProvetheSuperiorAdvantagesofRailWaysandSteam-CarriagesoverCanalNavigation”(1819).Reprintedin“TheMagazineofHistorywithNotesandQueries”,ExtraNumber54(1917).

Stevens,ofcourse,couldnotconvincethecommissioners.“TheCommunicationfromJohnStevens,Esq.,”wasreferredtoacommittee,whoreportedinMarch:“Thattheyhaveconsideredthesaidcommunicationwiththeattentionduetoagentlemanwhosescientificresearchesandknowledgeofmechanicalpowersentitlehisopinionstogreatrespect,andaresorrynottoconcurinthem.”

Stevens,however,keptupthefight.Hepublishedallthecorrespondence,hopingtogetaidfromCongressforhisdesign,andspreadhispropagandafarandwide.ButtheWarof1812soonabsorbedtheattentionofthecountry.ThencametheErieCanal,completedin1825,andtheextensionintotheNorthwestofthegreatCumberlandRoad.FromSt.LouissteamboatschurnedtheirwayuptheMissouri,connectingwiththeSantaFeTrailtotheSouthwestandtheOregonTrailtothefarNorthwest.Horses,mules,andoxencarriedtheoverlandtravelers,andnoneyetdreamedofbeingcarriedonthelandbysteam.

BackEast,however,andacrosstheseainEngland,therewereafewdreamers.Railwaysofwoodenrails,sometimescoveredwithiron,onwhichwagonsweredrawnbyhorses,werecommoninGreatBritain;somewereinuseveryearlyinAmerica.Andontheserailways,ortramways,menwerenowexperimentingwithsteam,tryingtoharnessittodotheworkofhorses.InEngland,Trevithick,Blenkinsop,Ericsson,Stephenson,andothers;inAmerica,JohnStevens,nowanoldmanbutpersistentinhisplansaseverandwithablesonstohelphim,haderectedacircularrailwayatHobokenasearlyas1826,onwhichheranalocomotiveattherateoftwelvemilesanhour.Thenin1828HoratioAllen,oftheDelawareandHudsonCanalCompany,wentovertoEnglandandbroughtbackwithhimtheStourbridgeLion.Thislocomotive,thoughitwasnotasuccessinpractice,appearstohavebeenthefirsttoturnawheelonaregularrailwaywithintheUnitedStates.Itwasasevendays’wonderinNewYorkwhenitarrivedinMay,1829.ThenAllenshippedittoHonesdale,Pennsylvania,wheretheDelawareandHudsonCanalCompanyhadatramwaytobringdowncoalfromthemountainstotheterminalofthecanal.

OnthecrudewoodenrailsofthistramwayAllenplacedtheStourbridgeLionandranitsuccessfullyattherateoftenmilesanhour.ButinactualservicetheStourbridgeLionfailedandwassoondismantled.

PassnowtoRainhill,England,andwitnessthebirthofthemodernlocomotive,afteralltheseyearsoflabor.Inthesameyearof1829,onthemorningofthe6thofOctober,agreatcrowdhadassembledtoseeanextraordinaryrace—arace,infact,withoutanyparallelorprecedentwhatsoever.Therewerefourentriesbutonedroppedout,leavingthree:TheNovelty,JohnBraithwaiteandJohnEricsson;TheSanspareil,TimothyHackworth;TheRocket,GeorgeandRobertStephenson.Thesewerenothorses;theywerelocomotives.ThedirectorsoftheLondonandManchesterRailwayhadofferedaprizeoffivehundredpoundsforthebestlocomotive,andheretheyweretotrytheissue.

ThecontestresultedinthetriumphofStephenson’sRocket.Theothersfellearlyoutoftherace.TheRocketalonemetalltherequirementsandwontheprize.SoithappenedthatGeorgeStephensoncameintofameandhaseversincelivedinpopularmemoryasthefatherofthelocomotive.TherewasnothingnewinhisRocket,excepthisownworkmanship.LikeRobertFulton,heappearstohavesucceededwhereothersfailedbecausehewasasounderengineer,orabettercombinerofsoundprinciplesintoaworking,whole,thananyofhisrivals.

AcrosstheAtlanticcamethenewsofStephenson’sremarkablesuccess.AndbythistimerailroadswerebeginninginvariouspartsoftheUnitedStates:theMohawkandHudson,fromAlbanytoSchenectady;theBaltimoreandOhio;theCharlestonandHamburginSouthCarolina;theCamdenandAmboy,acrossNewJersey.

Horses,mules,andevensails,furnishedthepowerfortheseearlyrailroads.ItcanbeimaginedwithwhatinteresttheownersoftheseroadsheardthatatlastapracticablelocomotivewasrunninginEngland.

ThisnewsstimulatedthedirectorsoftheBaltimoreandOhiototrythelocomotive.Theyhadnotfartogoforanexperiment,forPeterCooper,proprietoroftheCantonIronWorksinBaltimore,hadalreadydesignedasmalllocomotive,theTomThumb.ThiswasplacedontrialinAugust,1830,andissupposedtohavebeenthefirstAmerican-builtlocomotivetodoworkonrails,thoughnearlycoincidentwithitwastheBestFriendofCharleston,builtbytheWestPointFoundry,NewYork,fortheCharlestonandHamburgRailroad.Itis

oftendifficult,aswehaveseen,tosaywhichoftwoorseveralthingswasfirst.ItappearsasthoughthelittleTomThumbwasthefirstenginebuiltinAmerica,whichactuallypulledweightonaregularrailway,whilethemuchlargerBestFriendwasthefirsttohaulcarsinregulardailyservice.

TheWestPointFoundryfolloweditsfirstsuccesswiththeWestPoint,whichalsowentintoserviceontheCharlestonandHamburgRailroad,andthenbuiltforthenewlyfinishedMohawkandHudson(thefirstlinkintheNewYorkCentralLines)thehistoricDeWittClinton.ThisprimitivelocomotiveandthecarsitdrewmaybeseentodayintheGrandCentralStationinNewYork.

Meanwhile,theStevensbrothers,sonsofJohnStevens,wereengagedintheconstructionoftheCamdenandAmboyRailroad.ThefirstlocomotivetooperateonthisroadwasbuiltinEnglandbyGeorgeStephenson.ThiswastheJohnBull,whicharrivedinthesummerof1831andatoncewenttowork.TheJohnBullwasacompletesuccessandhadadistinguishedcareer.Sixty-twoyearsold,in1893,itwenttoChicago,totheColumbianExposition,underitsownsteam.TheJohnBulloccupiesaplacetodayintheNationalMuseumatWashington.

Withthelocomotivedefinitelyaccepted,menbegantoturntheirmindstowardsitsimprovementanddevelopment,andlocomotivebuildingsoonbecamealeadingindustryinAmerica.AtfirsttheBritishtypesandpatternswerefollowed,butitwasnotlongbeforeAmericandesignersbegantodepartfromtheBritishmodelsandtoevolveadistinctivelyAmericantype.InthedevelopmentofthistypegreatnameshavebeenwrittenintotheindustrialhistoryofAmerica,amongwhichthenameofMatthiasBaldwinofPhiladelphiaprobablyranksfirst.Buttherehavebeenhundredsofgreatworkersinthisfield.FromStephenson’sRocketandthelittleTomThumbofPeterCooper,tothepowerful“Mallets”oftoday,isalongdistance—notspannedinninetyyearssavebythegeniusandrestlesstoilofcountlessbrainsandhands.

IfthelocomotivecouldnotremainasitwasleftbyStephensonandCooper,neithercouldthestationarysteamengineremainasitwasleftbyJamesWattandOliverEvans.Demandsincreasingandagainincreasing,yearafteryear,forcedthesteamenginetogrowinordertomeetitsresponsibilities.ThereweremenlivinginPhiladelphiain1876,whohadknownOliverEvanspersonally;atleastoneoldmanattheCentennialExhibitionhadhimselfseentheOruktorAmphibolosandrecalledtheconsternationithadcausedonthestreetsofthecity

in1804.ItseemedafarcrybacktotheOruktorfromthegreatandbeautifulengine,designedbyGeorgeHenryCorliss,whichwasthenmovingallthevastmachineryoftheCentennialExhibition.ButsincethenachievementsinsteamhavedwarfedeventhegreatworkofCorliss.Andtodoakindofherculeantaskthatwashardlydreamedofin1876anothertypeofenginehasmadeitsentrance:thesteamturbine,whichsendsitsawfulenergy,transformedintoelectriccurrent,tolightamillionlampsortoturntenthousandwheelsondistantstreetsandhighways.

CHAPTERIV.SPINDLE,LOOM,ANDNEEDLEINNEWENGLAND

Themajorstepsinthemanufactureofclothesarefour:firsttoharvestandcleanthefiberorwool;second,tocarditandspinitintothreads;third,toweavethethreadsintocloth;and,finallytofashionandsewtheclothintoclothes.WehavealreadyseentheinfluenceofEliWhitney’scottonginonthefirstprocess,andtheseriesofinventionsforspinningandweaving,whichsoprofoundlychangedthetextileindustryinGreatBritain,hasbeenmentioned.ItwillbethebusinessofthischaptertotellhowspinningandweavingmachinerywasintroducedintotheUnitedStatesandhowaYankeeinventorlaidthekeystoneofthearchofclothingmachinerybyhisinventionofthesewingmachine.

GreatBritainwasdeterminedtokeeptoherselftheindustrialsecretsshehadgained.Accordingtotheeconomicbeliefsoftheeighteenthcentury,whichgaveplacebutslowlytothedoctrinesofAdamSmith,monopolyratherthancheapproductionwastheroadtosuccess.ThelawsthereforeforbadetheexportofEnglishmachineryordrawingsandspecificationsbywhichmachinesmightbeconstructedinothercountries.SomemensawavastprosperityforGreatBritain,ifonlythemysterymightbepreserved.

Meanwhilethestoriesofwhatthesemachinescoulddoexcitedenvyinothercountries,wheremendesiredtoshareintheindustrialgains.And,evenbeforeEliWhitney’scottongincametoprovideanabundantsupplyofrawmaterial,someAmericanswerestrugglingtoimprovetheoldhandloom,foundineveryhouse,andtomakesomesortofaspinningmachinetoreplacethespinningwheelbywhichonethreadatatimewaslaboriouslyspun.

EastBridgewater,Massachusetts,wasthesceneofoneoftheearliestoftheseexperiments.Therein1786twoScotchmen,whoclaimedtounderstandArkwright’smechanism,wereemployedtomakespinningmachines,andabout

thesametimeanotherattemptwasmadeatBeverly.InbothinstancestheexperimentswereencouragedbytheStateandassistedwithgrantsofmoney.Themachines,operatedbyhorsepower,werecrude,andtheproductwasirregularandunsatisfactory.ThenthreemenatProvidence,RhodeIsland,usingdrawingsoftheBeverlymachinery,mademachineshavingthirty-twospindleswhichworkedindifferently.

Theattempttorunthembywaterpowerfailed,andtheyweresoldtoMosesBrownofPawtucket,whowithhispartner,WilliamAlmy,hadmusteredanarmyofhandloomweaversin1790,largeenoughtoproducenearlyeightthousandyardsofclothinthatyear.

Brown’sneedofspinningmachinery,toprovidehisweaverswithyarn,wasverygreat;butthesemachineshehadboughtwouldnotrun,andin1790therewasnotasinglesuccessfulpower-spinnerintheUnitedStates.

MeanwhileBenjaminFranklinhadcomehome,andthePennsylvaniaSocietyfortheEncouragementofManufacturesandUsefulArtswasofferingprizesforinventionstoimprovethetextileindustry.

AndinMilford,England,wasayoungmannamedSamuelSlater,who,onhearingthatinventivegeniuswasmunificentlyrewardedinAmerica,decidedtomigratetothatcountry.SlaterattheageoffourteenhadbeenapprenticedtoJedediahStrutt,apartnerofArkwright.Hehadservedbothinthecounting-houseandthemillandhadhadeveryopportunitytolearnthewholebusiness.

Soonafterattaininghismajority,helandedinNewYork,November,1789,andfoundemployment.FromNewYorkhewrotetoMosesBrownofPawtucket,offeringhisservices,andthatoldQuaker,thoughnotgivinghimmuchencouragement,invitedhimtoPawtuckettoseewhetherhecouldrunthespindleswhichBrownhadboughtfromthemenofProvidence.“Ifthoucanstdowhatthousayest,”wroteBrown,“IinvitetheetocometoRhodeIsland.”

ArrivinginPawtucketinJanuary,1790,Slaterpronouncedthemachinesworthless,butconvincedAlmyandBrownthatheknewhisbusiness,andtheytookhimintopartnership.HehadnodrawingsormodelsoftheEnglishmachinery,exceptsuchaswereinhishead,butheproceededtobuildmachines,doingmuchoftheworkhimself.OnDecember20,1790,hehadreadycarding,drawing,androvingmachinesandseventy-twospindlesintwoframes.The

water-wheelofanoldfullingmillfurnishedthepower—andthemachineryran.

HerethenwasthebirthofthespinningindustryintheUnitedStates.The“OldFactory,”asitwastobecalledfornearlyahundredyears,wasbuiltatPawtucketin1793.FiveyearslaterSlaterandothersbuiltasecondmill,andin1806,afterSlaterhadbroughtouthisbrothertosharehisprosperity,hebuiltanother.Workmencametoworkforhimsolelytolearnhismachines,andthenlefthimtosetupforthemselves.Theknowledgehehadbroughtsoonbecamewidespread.MillswerebuiltnotonlyinNewEnglandbutinotherStates.In1809thereweresixty-twospinningmillsinoperationinthecountry,withthirty-onethousandspindles;twenty-fivemoremillswerebuildingorprojected,andtheindustrywasfirmlyestablishedintheUnitedStates.Theyarnwassoldtohousewivesfordomesticuseorelsetoprofessionalweaverswhomadeclothforsale.Thispracticewascontinuedforyears,notonlyinNewEngland,butalsointhoseotherpartsofthecountrywherespinningmachineryhadbeenintroduced.

By1810,however,commerceandthefisherieshadproducedconsiderablefluidcapitalinNewEnglandwhichwasseekingprofitableemployment,especiallyastheNapoleonicWarsinterferedwithAmericanshipping;andsinceWhitney’sginsintheSouthwerenowpilingupmountainsofrawcotton,andSlater’smachinesinNewEnglandweremakingthiscottonintoyarn,itwasinevitablethatthenextstepshouldbethepowerloom,toconverttheyarnintocloth.SoFrancisCabotLowell,scionoftheNewEnglandfamilyofthatname,animportingmerchantofBoston,conceivedtheideaofestablishingweavingmillsinMassachusetts.OnavisittoGreatBritainin1811,LowellmetatEdinburghNathanAppleton,afellowmerchantofBoston,towhomhedisclosedhisplansandannouncedhisintentionofgoingtoManchestertogainallpossibleinformationconcerningthenewindustry.Twoyearsafterwards,accordingtoAppleton’saccount,Lowellandhisbrother-in-law,PatrickT.

Jackson,conferredwithAppletonattheStockExchangeinBoston.

Theyhaddecided,theysaid,tosetupacottonfactoryatWalthamandinvitedAppletontojointhemintheadventure,towhichhereadilyconsented.LowellhadnotbeenabletoobtaineitherdrawingsormodelinGreatBritain,buthehadneverthelessdesignedaloomandhadcompletedamodelwhichseemedtowork.

ThepartnerstookinwiththemPaulMoodyofAmesbury,anexpertmachinist,

andbytheautumnof1814loomswerebuiltandsetupatWaltham.Carding,drawing,androvingmachineswerealsobuiltandinstalledinthemill,thesemachinesgaininggreatly,atMoody’sexperthands,overtheirAmericanrivals.ThiswasthefirstmillintheUnitedStates,andoneofthefirstintheworld,tocombineunderoneroofalltheoperationsnecessarytoconvertrawfiberintocloth,anditprovedasuccess.Lowell,sayshispartnerAppleton,“isentitledtothecreditforhavingintroducedthenewsysteminthecottonmanufacture.”JacksonandMoody“weremenofunsurpassedtalent,”butLowell“wastheinformingsoul,whichgavedirectionandformtothewholeproceeding.”

Thenewenterprisewasneeded,fortheWarof1812hadcutoffimports.ThebeginningsoftheprotectiveprincipleintheUnitedStatestariffarenowtobeobserved.WhenthepeacecameandGreatBritainbegantodumpgoodsintheUnitedStates,Congress,in1816,laidaminimumdutyofsixandaquartercentsayardonimportedcottons;theratewasraisedin1824andagainin1828.

ItissaidthatLowellwasinfluentialinwinningthesupportofJohnC.Calhounfortheimpostof1816.

Lowelldiedin1817,attheearlyageofforty-two,buthisworkdidnotdiewithhim.ThemillshehadfoundedatWalthamgrewexceedinglyprosperousunderthemanagementofJackson;anditwasnotlongbeforeJacksonandhispartnersAppletonandMoodywereseekingwideropportunities.By1820theywerelookingforasuitablesiteonwhichtobuildnewmills,andtheirattentionwasdirectedtothePawtucketFalls,ontheMerrimacRiver.ThelandaboutthisgreatwaterpowerwasownedbythePawtucketCanalCompany,whosecanal,builttoimprovethenavigationoftheMerrimac,wasnotpayingsatisfactoryprofits.Thepartnersproceededtoacquirethestockofthiscompanyandwithitthelandnecessaryfortheirpurpose,andinDecember,1821,theyexecutedArticlesofAssociationfortheMerrimacManufacturingCompany,admittingsomeadditionalpartners,amongthemKirkBoottwhowastoactasresidentagentandmanagerofthenewenterprise,sinceJacksoncouldnotleavehisdutiesatWaltham.

ThestoryoftheenterprisethusbegunformsoneofthebrightestpagesintheindustrialhistoryofAmerica;forthesepartnershadthewisdomandforesighttomakeprovisionattheoutsetforthecomfortandwell-beingoftheiroperatives.TheirmillhandsweretobechieflygirlsdrawnfromtheruralpopulationofNewEngland,strongandintelligentyoungwomen,ofwhomtherewereatthattime

greatnumbersseekingemployment,sincehouseholdmanufactureshadcometobelargelysupersededbyfactorygoods.

Andoneofthefirstquestionswhichthepartnersconsideredwaswhetherthechangefromfarmtofactorylifewouldeffectfortheworsethecharacterofthesegirls.This,saysAppleton,“wasamatterofdeepinterest.TheoperativesinthemanufacturingcitiesofEuropewerenotoriouslyofthelowestcharacterforintelligenceandmorals.Thequestionthereforearose,andwasdeeplyconsidered,whetherthisdegradationwastheresultofthepeculiaroccupationorofotheranddistinctcauses.Wecouldnotperceivewhythispeculiardescriptionoflaborshouldvaryinitseffectsuponcharacterfromallotheroccupations.”Andsowefindthepartnersvotingmoney,notonlyforfactorybuildingsandmachinery,butforcomfortableboardinghousesforthegirls,andplanningthattheseboardinghousesshouldhave“themostefficientguards,”thattheyshouldbein“chargeofrespectablewomen,witheveryprovisionforreligiousworship.”Theyvotedninethousanddollarsforachurchbuildingandfurthersumslaterforalibraryandahospital.

ThewheelsofthefirstmillwerestartedinSeptember,1823.

NextyearthepartnerspetitionedtheLegislaturetohavetheirpartofthetownshipsetofftoformanewtown.Oneyearlaterstilltheyerectedthreenewmills;andinanotheryear(1826)thetownofLowellwasincorporated.

Theyear1829foundtheLowellmillsinstraitsforlackofcapital,fromwhich,however,theywerepromptlyrelievedbytwogreatmerchantsofBoston,AmosandAbbottLawrence,whonowbecamepartnersinthebusinessandwhoafterwardsfoundedthecitynamedforthemfartherdownontheMerrimacRiver.

ThestoryoftheLowellcottonfactories,fortwentyyears,moreorless,untiltheAmericangirlsoperatingthemachinescametobesupplantedbyFrenchCanadiansandIrish,isappropriatelysummedupinthetitleofabookwhichdescribesthefactorylifeinLowellduringthoseyears.Thetitleofthisbookis“AnIdylofWork”anditwaswrittenbyLucyLarcom,whowasherselfoneoftheoperativesandwhosemotherkeptoneofthecorporationboardinghouses.AndLucyLarcomwasnottheonlyoneoftheLowell“factorygirls”whotooktowritingandlecturing.Thereweremanyothers,notably,HarrietHanson(laterMrs.W.S.

Robinson),HarriotCurtis(“MinaMyrtle”),andHarrietFarley;andmanyofthe“factorygirls”marriedmenwhobecameprominentintheworld.Therewasnothoughtamongthemthattherewasanythingdegradinginfactorywork.Mostofthegirlscamefromthesurroundingfarms,toearnmoneyforatrousseau,tosendabrotherthroughcollege,toraiseamortgage,ortoenjoythesocietyoftheirfellowworkers,andhaveagoodtimeinaquiet,seriousway,discussingthesermonsandlecturestheyheardandthebookstheyreadintheirleisurehours.Theyhadnumerous“improvementcircles”atwhichcontributionsofthemembersinbothproseandversewerereadanddiscussed.Andforseveralyearstheyprintedamagazine,“TheLowellOffering”,whichwasentirelywrittenandeditedbygirlsinthemills.

CharlesDickensvisitedLowellinthewinterof1842andrecordedhisimpressionsofwhathesawthereinthefourthchapterofhis“AmericanNotes”.Hesaysthathewentoverseveralofthefactories,“examinedthemineverypart;andsawthemintheirordinaryworkingaspect,withnopreparationofanykind,ordeparturefromtheirordinaryevery-dayproceedings”;thatthegirls“wereallwelldressed:andthatphrasenecessarilyincludesextremecleanliness.Theyhadserviceablebonnets,goodwarmcloaks,andshawls….Moreover,therewereplacesinthemillinwhichtheycoulddepositthesethingswithoutinjury;andtherewereconveniencesforwashing.Theywerehealthyinappearance,manyofthemremarkablyso,andhadthemannersanddeportmentofyoungwomen;notofdegradedbrutesofburden.”

Dickenscontinues:“Theroomsinwhichtheyworkedwereaswellorderedasthemselves.Inthewindowsofsomethereweregreenplants,whichweretrainedtoshadetheglass;inall,therewasasmuchfreshair,cleanliness,andcomfortasthenatureoftheoccupationwouldpossiblyadmitof.”Again:“Theyresideinvariousboardinghousesnearathand.Theownersofthemillsareparticularlycarefultoallownopersonstoenteruponthepossessionofthesehouses,whosecharactershavenotundergonethemostsearchingandthoroughenquiry.”Finally,theauthorannouncesthathewillstatethreefactswhichhethinkswillstartlehisEnglishreaders:“Firstly,thereisajoint-stockpianoinagreatmanyoftheboardinghouses.Secondly,nearlyalltheseyoungladiessubscribetocirculatinglibraries.

Thirdly,theyhavegotupamongthemselvesaperiodicalcalled‘TheLowellOffering’…whereofIbroughtawayfromLowellfourhundredgoodsolidpages,whichIhavereadfrombeginningtoend.”And:“Ofthemeritsofthe

‘LowellOffering’asaliteraryproduction,Iwillonlyobserve,puttingentirelyoutofsightthefactofthearticleshavingbeenwrittenbythesegirlsafterthearduouslaborsoftheday,thatitwillcompareadvantageouslywithagreatmanyEnglishAnnuals.”

TheefficiencyoftheNewEnglandmillswasextraordinary.JamesMontgomery,anEnglishcottonmanufacturer,visitedtheLowellmillstwoyearsbeforeDickensandwroteafterhisinspectionofthemthattheyproduced“agreaterquantityofyarnandclothfromeachspindleandloom(inagiventime)thanwasproducedbyanyotherfactories,withoutexceptionintheworld.”Longbeforethattime,ofcourse,thebasictypeofloomhadchangedfromthatoriginallyintroduced,andmanyNewEnglandinventorshadbeenbusydevisingimprovedmachineryofallkinds.

SuchwerethebeginningsofthegreattextilemillsofNewEngland.Thescenetodayisvastlychanged.Productivityhasbeenmultipliedbyinventionafterinvention,bytheerectionofmillaftermill,andbytheemploymentofthousandsofhandsinplaceofhundreds.Lowellasatextilecenterhaslongbeensurpassedbyothercities.ThesceneinLowellitselfisvastlychanged.IfCharlesDickenscouldvisitLowelltoday,hewouldhardlyrecognizeinthatcityofmodernfactories,ofmorethanahundredthousandpeople,nearlyhalfofthemforeigners,theUtopiaof1842whichhesawanddescribed.

ThecottonplantationsintheSouthwereflourishing,andWhitney’sginswerecleaningmoreandmorecotton;thesheepofathousandhillsweregivingwool;Arkwright’smachinesinEngland,introducedbySlaterintoNewEngland,werespinningthecottonandwoolintoyarn;Cartwright’sloomsinEnglandandLowell’simprovementsinNewEnglandwereweavingtheyarnintocloth;butasyetnopracticalmachinehadbeeninventedtosewtheclothintoclothes.

TherewereintheUnitedStatesnumeroussmallworkshopswhereafewtailorsorseamstresses,gatheredunderoneroof,laboriouslysewedgarmentstogether,butthegreatbulkofthework,untiltheinventionofthesewingmachine,wasdonebythewivesanddaughtersoffarmersandsailorsinthevillagesaroundBoston,NewYork,andPhiladelphia.Inthesecitiesthegarmentswerecutandsentouttothedwellingsofthepoortobesewn.Thewagesofthelaborerswerenotoriouslyinadequate,thoughprobablybetterthaninEngland.ThomasHood’sballadTheSongoftheShirt,publishedin1843,depictsthehardshipsoftheEnglishwomanwhostrovetokeepbodyandsoultogetherbymeansofthe

needle:

Withfingerswearyandworn,

Witheyelidsheavyandred,

Awomansatinunwomanlyrags,

Plyingherneedleandthread.

Meanwhile,asHoodwroteandasthewholeEnglishpeoplelearnedbyhearthisvividlines,asgreatladiesweptoverthemandstreetsingerssangtheminthedarkestslumsofLondon,aman,hungryandill-clad,inanatticinfarawayCambridge,Massachusetts,wasstrugglingtoputintometalanideatolightenthetoilofthosewholivedbytheneedle.HisnamewasEliasHoweandhehailedfromEliWhitney’soldhome,WorcesterCounty,Massachusetts.ThereHowewasbornin1819.Hisfatherwasanunsuccessfulfarmer,whoalsohadsomesmallmills,butseemstohavesucceededinnothingheundertook.

YoungHoweledtheordinarylifeofaNewEnglandcountryboy,goingtoschoolinwinterandworkingaboutthefarmuntiltheageofsixteen,handlingtoolseveryday,likeanyfarmer’sboyofthetime.HearingofhighwagesandinterestingworkinLowell,thatgrowingtownontheMerrimac,hewenttherein1835

andfoundemployment;buttwoyearslater,whenthepanicof1837

cameon,heleftLowellandwenttoworkinamachineshopinCambridge.Itissaidthat,foratime,heoccupiedaroomwithhiscousin,NathanielP.Banks,whorosefrombobbinboyinacottonmilltoSpeakeroftheUnitedStatesHouseofRepresentativesandMajor-GeneralintheCivilWar.

NextwehearofHoweinBoston,workingintheshopofAriDavis,aneccentricmakerandrepaireroffinemachinery.Heretheyoungmechanicheardofthedesirabilityofasewingmachineandbegantopuzzleovertheproblem.Manyaninventorbeforehimhadattemptedtomakesewingmachinesandsomehadjustfallenshortofsuccess.ThomasSaint,anEnglishman,hadpatentedonefiftyyearsearlier;andaboutthisverytimeaFrenchmannamedThimmonierwasworkingeightysewingmachinesmakingarmyuniforms,whenneedleworkersofParis,fearingthatthebreadwastobetakenfromthem,brokeintohisworkroomanddestroyedthemachines.Thimmoniertriedagain,buthismachinenevercameintogeneraluse.SeveralpatentshadbeenissuedonsewingmachinesintheUnitedStates,butwithoutanypracticalresult.

AninventornamedWalterHunthaddiscoveredtheprincipleofthelockstitchandhadbuiltamachinebuthadweariedofhisworkandabandonedhisinvention,justassuccesswasinsight.ButHoweknewnothingofanyoftheseinventors.Thereisnoevidencethathehadeverseentheworkofanother.

Theideaobsessedhimtosuchanextentthathecoulddonootherwork,andyethemustlive.Bythistimehewasmarriedandhadchildren,andhiswageswereonlyninedollarsaweek.Justthenanoldschoolmate,GeorgeFisher,agreedtosupporthisfamilyandfurnishhimwithfivehundreddollarsformaterialsandtools.TheatticinFisher’shouseinCambridgewasHowe’sworkroom.Hisfirsteffortswerefailures,butallatoncetheideaofthelockstitchcametohim.Previouslyallmachines(exceptHunt’s,whichwasunknown,nothavingevenbeenpatented)hadusedthechainstitch,wastefulofthreadandeasilyunraveled.Thetwothreadsofthelockstitchcrossinthematerialsjoinedtogether,andthelinesofstitchesshowthesameonbothsides.Inshort,thechainstitchisacrochetorknittingstitch,whilethelockstitchisaweavingstitch.Howehadbeenworkingatnightandwasonhiswayhome,gloomyanddespondent,whenthisideadawnedonhismind,probablyrisingoutofhisexperienceinthecottonmill.Theshuttlewouldbedrivenbackandforthasinaloom,ashehadseenitthousandsoftimes,andpassedthroughaloopofthreadwhichthecurvedneedlewouldthrowoutontheothersideofthecloth;andtheclothwouldbefastenedtothemachineverticallybypins.Acurvedarmwouldplytheneedlewiththemotionofapick-axe.Ahandleattachedtothefly-wheelwouldfurnishthepower.

OnthatdesignHowemadeamachinewhich,crudeasitwas,sewedmore

rapidlythanfiveoftheswiftestneedleworkers.Butapparentlytonopurpose.Hismachinewastooexpensive,itcouldsewonlyastraightseam,anditmighteasilygetoutoforder.

Theneedleworkerswereopposed,astheyhavegenerallybeen,toanysortoflaborsavingmachinery,andtherewasnomanufacturerwillingtobuyevenonemachineatthepriceHoweasked,threehundreddollars.

Howe’ssecondmodelwasanimprovementonthefirst.Itwasmorecompactanditranmoresmoothly.Hehadnomoneyeventopaythefeesnecessarytogetitpatented.AgainFishercametotherescueandtookHoweandhismachinetoWashington,payingalltheexpenses,andthepatentwasissuedinSeptember,1846.But,asthemachinestillfailedtofindbuyers,Fishergaveuphope.

Hehadinvestedabouttwothousanddollarswhichseemedgoneforever,andhecouldnot,orwouldnot,investmore.Howereturnedtemporarilytohisfather’sfarm,hopingforbettertimes.

MeanwhileHowehadsentoneofhisbrotherstoLondonwithamachinetoseeifafootholdcouldbefoundthere,andinduetimeanencouragingreportcametothedestituteinventor.AcorsetmakernamedThomashadpaidtwohundredandfiftypoundsfortheEnglishrightsandhadpromisedtopayaroyaltyofthreepoundsoneachmachinesold.Moreover,ThomasinvitedtheinventortoLondontoconstructamachineespeciallyformakingcorsets.HowewenttoLondonandlatersentforhisfamily.Butafterworkingeightmonthsonsmallwages,hewasasbadlyoffasever,for,thoughhehadproducedthedesiredmachine,hequarrelledwithThomasandtheirrelationscametoanend.

Anacquaintance,CharlesInglis,advancedHowealittlemoneywhileheworkedonanothermodel.ThisenabledHowetosendhisfamilyhometoAmerica,andthen,bysellinghislastmodelandpawninghispatentrights,heraisedenoughmoneytotakepassagehimselfinthesteeragein1848,accompaniedbyInglis,whocametotryhisfortuneintheUnitedStates.

HowelandedinNewYorkwithafewcentsinhispocketandimmediatelyfoundwork.Buthiswifewasdyingfromthehardshipsshehadsuffered,duetostarkpoverty.Atherfuneral,Howeworeborrowedclothes,forhisonlysuitwastheoneheworeintheshop.

Then,soonafterhiswifehaddied,Howe’sinventioncameintoitsown.It

transpiredpresentlythatsewingmachineswerebeingmadeandsoldandthatthesemachineswereusingtheprinciplescoveredbyHowe’spatent.HowefoundanallyinGeorgeW.Bliss,amanofmeans,whohadfaithinthemachineandwhoboughtoutFisher’sinterestandproceededtoprosecuteinfringers.

MeanwhileHowewentonmakingmachines—heproducedfourteeninNewYorkduring1850—andneverlostanopportunitytoshowthemeritsoftheinventionwhichwasbeingadvertisedandbroughttonoticebytheactivitiesofsomeoftheinfringers,particularlybyIsaacM.Singer,thebestbusinessmanofthemall.SingerhadjoinedhandswithWalterHuntandHunthadtriedtopatentthemachinewhichhehadabandonednearlytwentyyearsbefore.

Thesuitsdraggedonuntil1854,whenthecasewasdecisivelysettledinHowe’sfavor.Hispatentwasdeclaredbasic,andallthemakersofsewingmachinesmustpayhimaroyaltyoftwenty-fivedollarsoneverymachine.SoHowewokeonemorningtofindhimselfenjoyingalargeincome,whichintimeroseashighasfourthousanddollarsaweek,andhediedin1867arichman.

ThoughthebasicnatureofHowe’spatentwasrecognized,hismachinewasonlyaroughbeginning.Improvementsfollowed,oneafteranother,untilthesewingmachineborelittleresemblancetoHowe’soriginal.JohnBachelderintroducedthehorizontaltableuponwhichtolaythework.Throughanopeninginthetable,tinyspikesinanendlessbeltprojectedandpushedtheworkforwardcontinuously.AllanB.Wilsondevisedarotaryhookcarryingabobbintodotheworkoftheshuttle,andalsothesmallserratedbarwhichpopsupthroughthetableneartheneedle,movesforwardatinyspace,carryingtheclothwithit,dropsdownjustbelowtheuppersurfaceofthetable,andreturnstoitsstartingpoint,torepeatoverandoveragainthisseriesofmotions.Thissimpledevicebroughtitsownerafortune.IsaacM.Singer,destinedtobethedominantfigureoftheindustry,patentedin1851amachinestrongerthananyoftheothersandwithseveralvaluablefeatures,notablytheverticalpresserfoothelddownbyaspring;andSingerwasthefirsttoadoptthetreadle,leavingbothhandsoftheoperatorfreetomanagethework.Hismachinewasgood,but,ratherthanitssurpassingmerits,itwashiswonderfulbusinessabilitythatmadethenameofSingerahouseholdword.

By1856therewereseveralmanufacturersinthefield,threateningwaroneachother.AllmenwerepayingtributetoHowe,forhispatentwasbasic,andallcouldjoininfightinghim,buttherewereseveralotherdevicesalmostequally

fundamental,andevenifHowe’spatentshadbeendeclaredvoiditisprobablethathiscompetitorswouldhavefoughtquiteasfiercelyamongthemselves.AtthesuggestionofGeorgeGifford,aNewYorkattorney,theleadinginventorsandmanufacturersagreedtopooltheirinventionsandtoestablishafixedlicensefeefortheuseofeach.This“combination”wascomposedofEliasHowe,WheelerandWilson,GroverandBaker,andI.M.Singer,anddominatedthefielduntilafter1877,whenthemajorityofthebasicpatentsexpired.ThemembersmanufacturedsewingmachinesandsoldtheminAmericaandEurope.Singerintroducedtheinstallmentplanofsale,tobringthemachinewithinreachofthepoor,andthesewingmachineagent,withamachineortwoonhiswagon,drovethrougheverysmalltownandcountrydistrict,demonstratingandselling.Meanwhilethepriceofthemachinessteadilyfell,untilitseemedthatSinger’sslogan,“Amachineineveryhome!”wasinafairwaytoberealized,hadnotanotherdevelopmentofthesewingmachineintervened.

Thiswasthedevelopmentoftheready-madeclothingindustry.Intheearlierdaysofthenation,thoughnearlyalltheclothingwasofdomesticmanufacture,thereweretailorsandseamstressesinallthetownsandmanyofthevillages,whomadeclothingtoorder.Sailorscomingashoresometimesneededclothesatonce,andapparentlyamerchantofNewBedfordwasthefirsttokeepastockonhand.About1831,GeorgeOpdyke,laterMayorofNewYork,beganthemanufactureofclothingonHudsonStreet,whichhesoldlargelythroughastoreinNewOrleans.OtherfirmsbegantoreachoutforthisSoutherntrade,anditbecameimportant.

Southernplantersboughtclothesnotonlyfortheirslavesbutfortheirfamilies.ThedevelopmentofCaliforniafurnishedanotherlargemarket.Ashirtfactorywasestablished,in1832,onCherryandMarketStreets,NewYork.Butnotuntilthecomingofthepower-drivensewingmachinecouldtherebeanyfactoryproductionofclothesonalargescale.Sincethentheclothingindustryhasbecomeoneofthemostimportantinthecountry.Thefactorieshavesteadilyimprovedtheirmodelsandmaterials,andatthepresentdayonlyanegligiblefractionofthepeopleoftheUnitedStateswearclothesmadetotheirorder.

Thesewingmachinetodaydoesmanythingsbesidessewingaseam.

Thereareattachmentswhichmakebuttonholes,darn,embroider,makerufflesorhems,anddozensofotherthings.Therearespecialmachinesforeverytrade,someofwhichdealsuccessfullywithrefractorymaterials.

TheSingermachineof1851wasstrongenoughtosewleatherandwasalmostatonceadoptedbytheshoemakers.ThesecraftsmenflourishedchieflyinMassachusetts,andtheyhadtraditionsreachingbackatleasttoPhilipKertland,whocametoLynnin1636andtaughtmanyapprentices.Evenintheearlydaysbeforemachinery,divisionoflaborwastheruleintheshopsofMassachusetts.Oneworkmancuttheleather,oftentannedonthepremises;anothersewedtheupperstogether,whileanothersewedonthesoles.Woodenpegswereinventedin1811andcameintocommonuseabout1815forthecheapergradesofshoes:Soonthepracticeofsendingouttheupperstobedonebywomenintheirownhomesbecamecommon.Thesewomenwerewretchedlypaid,andwhenthesewingmachinecametodotheworkbetterthanitcouldbedonebyhand,thepracticeof“puttingout”workgraduallydeclined.

Thatvariationofthesewingmachinewhichwastodothemoredifficultworkofsewingthesoletotheupperwastheinventionofamereboy,LymanR.Blake.Thefirstmodel,completedin1858,wasimperfect,butBlakewasabletointerestGordonMcKay,ofBoston,andthreeyearsofpatientexperimentationandlargeexpenditurefollowed.TheMcKaysole-sewingmachine,whichtheyproduced,cameintouse,andfortwenty-oneyearswasusedalmostuniversallybothintheUnitedStatesandGreatBritain.Butthis,likealltheotherusefulinventions,wasintimeenlargedandgreatlyimproved,andhundredsofotherinventionshavebeenmadeintheshoeindustry.Therearemachinestosplitleather,tomakethethicknessabsolutelyuniform,tosewtheuppers,toinserteyelets,tocutoutheeltops,andmanymore.Infact,divisionoflaborhasbeencarriedfartherinthemakingofshoesthaninmostindustries,fortherearesaidtobeaboutthreehundredseparateoperationsinmakingapairofshoes.

Fromsmallbeginningsgreatindustrieshavegrown.Itisafarcryfromtheslow,clumsymachineofEliasHowe,lessthanthree-quartersofacenturyago,tothegreatfactoriesoftoday,filledwithspecialmodels,runatterrificspeedbyelectriccurrent,andperformingtaskswhichwouldseemtorequiremorethanhumanintelligenceandskill.

CHAPTERV.THEAGRICULTURALREVOLUTION

TheCensusof1920showsthathardlythirtypercentofthepeoplearetodayengagedinagriculture,thebasicindustryoftheUnitedStates,ascomparedwithperhapsninetypercentwhenthenationbegan.YetAmericanfarmers,thoughconstantlydiminishinginproportiontothewholepopulation,havealwaysbeen,

andstillare,abletofeedthemselvesandalltheirfellowAmericansandalargepartoftheoutsideworldaswell.Theybringforthalsonotmerelyfoodstuffs,butvastquantitiesofrawmaterialformanufacture,suchascotton,wool,andhides.

Thisimmenseproductivityisduetotheuseoffarmmachineryonascaleseennowhereelseintheworld.Thereisstill,andalwayswillbe,agooddealofhardlaboronthefarm.Butinventionhasreducedthelaborandhasmadepossiblethecarryingonofthisvastindustrybyarelativelysmallnumberofhands.

ThefarmersofWashington’sdayhadnobettertoolsthanhadthefarmersofJuliusCaesar’sday;infact,theRomanploughswereprobablysuperiortothoseingeneraluseinAmericaeighteencenturieslater.“Themachineryofproduction,”saysHenryAdams,“showednoradicaldifferencefromthatfamiliarinageslongpast.TheSaxonfarmeroftheeighthcenturyenjoyedmostofthecomfortsknowntoSaxonfarmersoftheeighteenth.”*OnetypeofploughintheUnitedStateswaslittlemorethanacrookedstickwithanironpointattached,sometimeswithrawhide,whichsimplyscratchedtheground.PloughsofthissortwereinuseinIllinoisaslateas1812.Therewereafewploughsdesignedtoturnafurrow,oftensimplyheavychunksoftoughwood,rudelyhewnintoshape,withawrought-ironpointclumsilyattached.Themoldboardwasroughandthecurvesofnotwowerealike.Countryblacksmithsmadeploughsonlyonorderandfewhadpatterns.Suchploughscouldturnafurrowinsoftgroundiftheoxenwerestrongenough—butthefrictionwassogreatthatthreemenandfourorsixoxenwererequiredtoturnafurrowwherethesodwastough.

*“HistoryoftheUnitedStates”,vol.I,p.16.

ThomasJeffersonhadworkedoutveryelaboratelythepropercurvesofthemoldboard,andseveralmodelshadbeenconstructedforhim.Hewas,however,interestedintoomanythingsevertofollowanyonetotheend,andhisworkseemstohavehadlittlepublicity.ThefirstrealinventorofapracticableploughwasCharlesNewbold,ofBurlingtonCounty,NewJersey,towhomapatentforacast-ironploughwasissuedinJune,1797.Butthefarmerswouldhavenoneofit.Theysaidit“poisonedthesoil”

andfosteredthegrowthofweeds.OneDavidPeacockreceivedapatentin1807,andtwootherslater.NewboldsuedPeacockforinfringementandrecovereddamages.PiecesofNewbold’soriginalploughareinthemuseumoftheNew

YorkAgriculturalSocietyatAlbany.

AnotherinventorofploughswasJethroWood,ablacksmithofScipio,NewYork,whoreceivedtwopatents,onein1814andtheotherin1819.Hisploughwasofcastiron,butinthreeparts,sothatabrokenpartmightberenewedwithoutpurchasinganentireplough.Thisprincipleofstandardizationmarkedagreatadvance.Thefarmersbythistimewereforgettingtheirformerprejudices,andmanyploughsweresold.ThoughWood’soriginalpatentwasextended,infringementswerefrequent,andheissaidtohavespenthisentirepropertyinprosecutingthem.

Inclaysoilstheseploughsdidnotworkwell,asthemoretenacioussoilstucktotheironmoldboardinsteadofcurlinggracefullyaway.In1833,JohnLane,aChicagoblacksmith,facedawoodenmoldboardwithanoldsteelsaw.Itworkedlikemagic,andotherblacksmithsfollowedsuittosuchanextentthatthedemandforoldsawsbecamebrisk.ThencameJohnDeere,anativeofVermont,whosettledfirstinGrandDetour,andtheninMoline,Illinois.Deeremadewoodenploughsfacedwithsteel,likeotherblacksmiths,butwasnotsatisfiedwiththemandstudiedandexperimentedtofindthebestcurvesandanglesforaploughtobeusedinthesoilsaroundhim.Hisploughsweremuchindemand,andhisneedforsteelledhimtohavelargerandlargerquantitiesproducedforhim,andtheestablishmentwhichstillbearshisnamegrewtolargeproportions.

Anotherskilledblacksmith,WilliamParlin,atCanton,Illinois,beganmakingploughsabout1842,whichheloadeduponawagonandpeddledthroughthecountry.Laterhisestablishmentgrewlarge.

AnotherJohnLane,asonofthefirst,patentedin1868a“soft-center”steelplough.Thehardbutbrittlesurfacewasbackedbysofterandmoretenaciousmetal,toreducethebreakage.ThesameyearJamesOliver,aScotchimmigrantwhohadsettledatSouthBend,Indiana,receivedapatentforthe“chilledplough.”Byaningeniousmethodthewearingsurfacesofthecastingwerecooledmorequicklythantheback.Thesurfaceswhichcameincontactwiththesoilhadahard,glassysurface,whilethebodyoftheploughwasoftoughiron.FromsmallbeginningsOliver’sestablishmentgrewgreat,andtheOliverChilledPlowWorksatSouthBendistodayoneofthelargestandmostfavorablyknownprivatelyownedindustriesintheUnitedStates.

Fromthesingleploughitwasonlyasteptotwoormoreploughsfastened

together,doingmoreworkwithapproximatelythesamemanpower.Thesulkyplough,onwhichtheploughmanrode,madehisworkeasier,andgavehimgreatcontrol.Suchploughswerecertainlyinuseasearlyas1844,perhapsearlier.Thenextstepforwardwastosubstituteforhorsesatractionengine.Todayonemayseeonthousandsoffarmsatractorpullingsix,eight,ten,ormoreploughs,doingtheworkbetterthanitcouldbedonebyanindividualploughman.Onthe“Bonanza”farmsoftheWestafiftyhorsepowerenginedrawssixteenploughs,followedbyharrowsandagraindrill,andperformsthethreeoperationsofploughing,harrowing,andplantingatthesametimeandcoversfiftyacresormoreinaday.

ThebasicideasindrillsforsmallgrainsweresuccessfullydevelopedinGreatBritain,andmanyBritishdrillsweresoldintheUnitedStatesbeforeonewasmanufacturedhere.Americanmanufactureofthesedrillsbeganabout1840.Plantersforcorncamesomewhatlater.Machinestoplantwheatsuccessfullywereunsuitedtocorn,whichmustbeplantedlessprofuselythanwheat.

TheAmericanpioneershadonlyasickleorascythewithwhichtocuttheirgrain.Theadditiontothescytheofwoodenfingers,againstwhichthegrainmightlieuntiltheendoftheswing,wasanaturalstep,andseemstohavebeentakenquiteindependentlyinseveralplaces,perhapsasearlyas1803.Graincradlesarestillusedinhillyregionsandinthosepartsofthecountrywherelittlegrainisgrown.

ThefirstattemptstobuildamachinetocutgrainweremadeinEnglandandScotland,severalofthemintheeighteenthcentury;andin1822HenryOgle,aschoolmasterinRennington,madeamechanicalreaper,buttheoppositionofthelaborersofthevicinity,whofearedlossofemployment,preventedfurtherdevelopment.In1826,PatrickBell,ayoungScotchstudent,afterwardaPresbyterianminister,whohadbeenmovedbythefatigueoftheharvestersuponhisfather’sfarminArgyllshire,madeanattempttolightentheirlabor.Hisreaperwaspushedbyhorses;areelbroughtthegrainagainstbladeswhichopenedandclosedlikescissors,andatravelingcanvasaprondepositedthegrainatoneside.TheinventorreceivedaprizefromtheHighlandandAgriculturalSocietyofEdinburgh,andpicturesandfulldescriptionsofhisinventionwerepublished.SeveralmodelsofthisreaperwerebuiltinGreatBritain,anditissaidthatfourcametotheUnitedStates;howeverthismaybe,Bell’smachinewasnevergenerallyadopted.

SoonafterwardthreemenpatentedreapersintheUnitedStates:WilliamManning,Plainfield,NewJersey,1831;ObedHussey,Cincinnati,Ohio,1833;andCyrusHallMcCormick,Staunton,Virginia,1834.JusthowmuchtheyowedtoPatrickBellcannotbeknown,butitisprobablethatallhadheardofhisdesigniftheyhadnotseenhisdrawingsorthemachineitself.Thefirstoftheseinventors,ManningofNewJersey,dropsoutofthestory,foritisnotknownwhetherheevermadeamachineotherthanhismodel.MorepersistentwasObedHusseyofCincinnati,whosoonmovedtoBaltimoretofightouttheissuewithMcCormick.Husseywasanexcellentmechanic.Hepatentedseveralimprovementstohismachineandreceivedhighpraisefortheefficiencyofthework.ButhewassoonoutstrippedintheracebecausehewasweakintheessentialqualitieswhichmadeMcCormickthegreatestfigureintheworldofagriculturalmachinery.McCormickwasmorethanamechanic;hewasamanofvision;andhehadtheenthusiasmofacrusaderandsuperbgeniusforbusinessorganizationandadvertisement.Hisstoryhasbeentoldinanothervolumeofthisseries.*

*“TheAgeofBigBusiness”,byBurtonJ.Hendrick.

ThoughMcCormickofferedreapersforsalein1834,heseemstohavesoldnoneinthatyear,noranyforsixyearsafterwards.Hesoldtwoin1840,sevenin1842,fiftyin1844.ThemachinewasnotreallyadaptedtothehillsoftheValleyofVirginia,andfarmershesitatedtobuyacontrivancewhichneededtheattentionofaskilledmechanic.McCormickmadeatripthroughtheMiddleWest.Intherollingprairies,mileaftermileofrichsoilwithoutatreeorastone,hesawhisfuturedominion.HusseyhadmovedEast.McCormickdidtheopposite;hemovedWest,toChicago,in1847.

Chicagowasthenatownofhardlytenthousand,butMcCormickforesawitsfuture,builtafactorythere,andmanufacturedfivehundredmachinesfortheharvestof1848.Fromthistimehewentonfromtriumphtotriumph.Heformulatedanelaboratebusinesssystem.Hismachinesweretobesoldatafixedprice,payableininstallmentsifdesired,withaguaranteeofsatisfaction.Hesetupasystemofagenciestogiveinstructionortosupplyspareparts.Advertising,chieflybyexhibitionsandcontestsatfairsandotherpublicgatherings,wasanotheritemofhisprogramme.

Allwouldhavefailed,ofcourse,ifhehadnotbuiltgoodmachines,buthedidbuildgoodmachines,andwasnotdauntedbytheGovernment’srefusalin1848

torenewhisoriginalpatent.Hedecidedtomakeprofitsasamanufacturerratherthanacceptroyaltiesasaninventor.

McCormickhadmanycompetitors,andsomeofthemwereinthefieldwithimproveddevicesaheadofhim,buthealwaysheldhisown,eitherbybuyingupthepatentforarealimprovement,orelsebyrequiringhisstafftoinventsomethingtodothesamework.Numerousnewdevicestoimprovetheharvesterwerepatented,butthemostimportantwasanautomaticattachmenttobindthesheaveswithwire.Thiswaspatentedin1872,andMcCormicksoonmadeithisown.Theharvesterseemedcomplete.

Onemandrovetheteam,andthemachinecutthegrain,bounditinsheaves,anddepositedthemupontheground.

Presently,however,complaintswereheardofthewiretie.Whenthewheatwasthreshed,bitsofwiregotintothestraw,andwereswallowedbythecattle;orelsethebitsofmetalgotamongthewheatitselfandgaveoutsparksingrinding,settingsomemillsonfire.Twoinventors,almostsimultaneously,producedtheremedy.MarquisL.Gorham,workingforMcCormick,andJohnF.

Appleby,whoseinventionwaspurchasedbyWilliamDeering,oneofMcCormick’schiefcompetitors,inventedbinderswhichusedtwine.

By1880theself-bindingharvesterwascomplete.Nodistinctiveimprovementhasbeenmadesince,excepttoaddstrengthandsimplification.Themachinenowneededtheservicesofonlytwomen,onetodriveandtheothertoshockthebundles,andcouldreaptwentyacresormoreaday,tiethegrainintobundlesofuniformsize,anddumptheminpilesoffivereadytobeshocked.

Grainmustbeseparatedfromthestrawandchaff.TheBiblicalthreshingfloor,onwhichoxenorhorsestrampledoutthegrain,wasstillcommoninWashington’stime,thoughithadbeenlargelysucceededbytheflail.InGreatBritainseveralthreshingmachinesweredevisedintheeighteenthcentury,butnonewasparticularlysuccessful.Theywerestationary,anditwasnecessarytobringthesheavestothem.TheseventhpatentissuedbytheUnitedStates,toSamuelMullikenofPhiladelphia,wasforathreshingmachine.Theportablehorsepowertreadmill,inventedin1830byHiramA.andJohnA.PittsofWinthrop,Maine,waspresentlycoupledwithathresher,or“separator,”andthisoutfit,withitsmenandhorses,movingfromfarmtofarm,soonbecamean

autumnfeatureofeveryneighborhood.Thetreadmillwaslateronsucceeded—bythetractionengine,andtheapparatusnowincommonuseisanenginewhichdrawsthegreatlyimprovedthreshingmachinefromfarmtofarm,andwhenthedestinationisreached,furnishesthepowertodrivethethresher.Manyoftheseenginesareadaptedtotheuseofstrawasfuel.

AnotherdevelopmentwasthecombinationharvesterandthresherusedonthelargerfarmsoftheWest.Thismachinedoesnotcutthewheatclosetotheground,butthecutter-bar,overtwenty-fivefeetinlength,takesofftheheads.Thewheatisseparatedfromthechaffandautomaticallyweighedintosacks,whicharedumpedasfastastwoexpertsewerscanwork.Themotivepowerisatractionengineorelsetwentytothirtyhorses,andseventy-fiveacresadaycanbereapedandthreshed.

Oftenanothertractorpullingadozenwagonsfollowsandthesacksarepickedupandhauledtothegranaryorelevator.

Hayingwasoncethehardestworkonthefarm,andinnocrophasmachinerybeenmoreefficient.Thebasicideainthereaper,thecutter-bar,isthewholeofthemower,andthemachinedevelopedwiththereaper.PreviouslyJeremiahBailey,ofChesterCounty,Pennsylvania,hadpatentedin1822amachinedrawnbyhorsescarryingarevolvingwheelwithsixscythes,whichwaswidelyused.TheinventionsofManning,Hussey,andMcCormickmadethemowerpracticable.HazardKnowles,anemployeeofthePatentOffice,inventedthehingedcutter-bar,whichcouldbeliftedoveranobstruction,butneverpatentedtheinvention.WilliamF.

KetchumofBuffalo,NewYork,in1844,patentedthefirstmachineintendedtocuthayonly,anddozensofothersfollowed.ThemodernmowingmachinewaspracticallydevelopedinthepatentofLewisMillerofCanton,Ohio,in1858.Severaltimesasmanymowersasharvestersaresold,andforthatmatter,reaperswithoutbindingattachmentsarestillmanufactured.

Hayrakesandteddersseemtohavedevelopedalmostofthemselves.

Diligentresearchhasfailedtodiscoveranyreliableinformationontheinventionofthehayrake,thoughahorserakewaspatentedasearlyas1818.JoabCenterofHudson,NewYork,patentedamachineforturningandspreadinghayin1834.Mechanicalhayloadershavegreatlyreducedtheamountofhumanlabor.The

hay-pressmakesstorageandtransportationeasierandcheaper.

Therearebinderswhichcutandbindcorn.Anadditionshocksthecornanddepositsitupontheground.Theshredderandhuskerremovestheears,husksthem,andshredsshucks,stalks,andfodder.Powershellersseparategrainandcobsmorethanahundredtimesasrapidlyasapairofhumanhandscoulddo.OnestudentofagriculturehasestimatedthatitwouldrequirethewholeagriculturalpopulationoftheUnitedStatesonehundreddaystoshelltheaveragecorncropbyhand,butthisisanexaggeration.

Thelistoflaborsavingmachineryinagricultureisbynomeansexhausted.Therearecloverhullers,beanandpeathreshers,ensilagecutters,manurespreaders,anddozensofothers.Onthedairyfarmthecreamseparatorbothincreasesthequantityandimprovesthequalityofthebutterandsavestime.Poweralsodrivesthechurns.Onmanyfarmscowsaremilkedandsheepareshearedbymachinesandeggsarehatchedwithouthens.

Thereare,ofcourse,thousandsoffarmsinthecountrywheremachinerycannotbeusedtoadvantageandwheretheworkisstilldoneentirelyorinpartintheoldways.

Historiansoncewerefondofmarkingoffthestoryoftheearthandofmenupontheearthintodistinctperiodsfixedbydefinitedates.Onewhoattemptstolookbeneaththesurfacecannotacceptthiseasymethodoftreatment.Beneaththesurfacenewtendenciesdeveloplongbeforetheydemandrecognition;aninstitutionmaybedecayinglongbeforeitsweaknessisapparent.TheAmericanRevolutionbegannotwiththeStampActbutatleastacenturyearlier,assoonasthesettlersrealizedthattherewerethreethousandmilesofseabetweenEnglandandtherudecountryinwhichtheyfoundthemselves;theCivilWarbegan,ifnotinearlyVirginia,withthe“DutchManofWarrethatsoldustwentyNegars,”atleastwithEliWhitneyandhiscottongin.

Nevertheless,certaindatesorshortperiodsseemtobefloweringtimes.Apparentlyallatonceafloodofinvention,achangeofmethods,adifferenceinorganization,oranewpsychologymanifestsitself.AndthedecadeoftheCivilWardoesserveasalandmarktomarkthepassingofoneperiodinAmericanlifeandthebeginningofanother;especiallyinagriculture;andasagricultureisthebasicindustryofthecountryitfollowsthatwithitsmutationsthewholesuperstructureisalsochanged.

TheUnitedStateswhichfoughttheCivilWarwasvastlydifferentfromtheUnitedStateswhichfrontedtheworldatthecloseoftheRevolution.Thescantfourmillionpeopleof1790hadgrowntothirty-oneandahalfmillion.Thisgrowthhadcomechieflybynaturalincrease,butalsobyimmigration,conquest,andannexation.SettlementhadreachedthePacificOcean,thoughthereweregreatstretchesofalmostuninhabitedterritorybetweenthesettlementsonthePacificandthosejustbeyondtheMississippi.

ThecottonginhadturnedthewholeSouthtowardthecultivationofcotton,thoughsomeStateswerebetterfittedformixedfarming,andtheirdevotiontocottonmeantlossintheendassubsequenteventshaveproved.TheSouthwasnotmanufacturinganyconsiderableproportionofthecottonitgrew,butthetextileindustrywasflourishinginNewEngland.AwholeseriesofmachinessimilartothoseusedinGreatBritain,butnotidentical,hadbeeninventedinAmerica.AmericanmillspaidhigherwagesthanBritishandinquantityproductionwerefaraheadof.theBritishmills,inproportiontohandsemployed,whichmeantbeingaheadoftherestoftheworld.

WagesinAmerica,measuredbytheworldstandard,werehigh,thoughasexpressedinmoney,theyseemlownow.Theywereconditionedbythesupplyoffreeland,orlandthatwaspracticallyfree.Thewagespaidwerenecessarilyhighenoughtoattractlaborersfromthesoilwhichtheymighteasilyowniftheychose.Therewasnofixedlaboringclass.Theboyorgirlinatextilemilloftenworkedonlyafewyearstosavemoney,buyafarm,ortoentersomebusinessorprofession.

Thesteamboatnow,wherevertherewasnavigablewater,andtherailroad,foralargepartoftheway,offeredtransportationtotheboundlessWest.Steamboatstraversedallthelargerriversandthelakes.Therailroadwasgrowingrapidly.Itslineshadextendedtomorethanthirtythousandmiles.Constructionwentonduringthewar,andthetranscontinentalrailwaywasinsight.

Thelocomotivehadapproachedstandardization,andtheAmericanrailwaycarwasinformsimilartothatofthepresentday,thoughnotsolarge,socomfortable,orsostrong.ThePullmancar,fromwhichhasdevelopedthechaircar,thediningcar,andthewholelistofspecialcars,wasinprocessofdevelopment,andtheautomaticairbrakeofGeorgeWestinghousewassoontofollow.

Thusfarhadthenationprogressedininventionandindustryalongthelinesofpeacefuldevelopment.ButwiththeCivilWarcameasuddenandtremendousadvance.NoresultoftheCivilWar,politicalorsocial,hasmoreprofoundlyaffectedAmericanlifethantheapplicationtothefarm,asawarnecessity,ofmachineryonagreatscale.Solongaslaborwasplentifulandcheap,onlyacomparativelyfewfarmerscouldbeinterestedinexpensivemachinery,butwhenthewarcalledtheyoungmenawaytheworriedfarmersgladlyturnedtothenewmachinesandfoundthattheywereablenotonlytofeedtheUnion,butalsotoexportimmensequantitiesofwheattoEurope,evenduringthewar.SuddenlytheWestleapedintogreatprosperity.Andlongcenturiesofeconomicandsocialdevelopmentwerespannedwithinafewdecades.

CHAPTERVI.AGENTSOFCOMMUNICATION

Communicationisoneofman’sprimalneeds.Therewasindeedatimewhennoformulaoflanguageexisted,whenmencommunicatedwitheachotherbymeansofgestures,grimaces,gutturalsounds,orrudeimagesofthingsseen;butitisimpossibletoconceiveofatimewhenmenhadnomeansofcommunicationatall.Andatlast,afterlongages,menevolvedinsoundthenamesofthethingstheyknewandtheformsofspeech;ageslater,thealphabetandtheartofwriting;ageslaterstill,thosewonderfulinstrumentsofextensionforthewrittenandspokenword:thetelegraph,thetelephone,themodernprintingpress,thephonograph,thetypewriter,andthecamera.

Theword“telegraph”isderivedfromGreekandmeans“towritefar”;soitisaveryexactword,fortowritefarispreciselywhatwedowhenwesendatelegram.Thewordtoday,usedasanoun,denotesthesystemofwireswithstationsandoperatorsandmessengers,girdlingtheearthandreachingintoeverycivilizedcommunity,wherebynewsiscarriedswiftlybyelectricity.Butthewordwascoinedlongbeforeitwasdiscoveredthatintelligencecouldbecommunicatedbyelectricity.Itdenotedatfirstasystemofsemaphores,ortallpoleswithmovablearms,andothersignalingapparatus,setwithinsightofoneanother.

TherewassuchatelegraphlinebetweenDoverandLondonatthetimeofWaterloo;andthistelegraphbeganrelatingthenewsofthebattle,whichhadcometoDoverbyship,toanxiousLondon,whenafogsetinandtheLondonershadtowaituntilacourieronhorsebackarrived.And,intheveryyearswhentherealtelegraphwascomingintobeing,theUnitedStatesGovernment,withouta

thoughtofelectricity,wasconsideringtheadvisabilityofsettingupsuchasystemoftelegraphsintheUnitedStates.

ThetelegraphisoneofAmerica’sgiftstotheworld.ThehonorforthisinventionfallstoSamuelFinleyBreeseMorse,aNewEnglanderofoldPuritanstock.NoristheglorythatbelongstoMorseinanywaydimmedbythefactthathemadeuseofthediscoveriesofothermenwhohadbeentryingtounlockthesecretsofelectricityeversinceFranklin’sexperiments.IfMorsediscoverednonewprinciple,heisneverthelessthemanofalltheworkersinelectricitybetweenhisowndayandFranklin’swhomtheworldmostdelightstohonor;andrightlyso,foritistosuchasMorsethattheworldismostindebted.Othersknew;Morsesawandacted.Othershadfoundoutthefacts,butMorsewasthefirsttoperceivethepracticalsignificanceofthosefacts;thefirsttotakestepstomakethemofservicetohisfellows;thefirstmanofthemallwiththepluckandpersistencetoremainsteadfasttohisgreatdesign,throughtwelvelongyearsoftoilandprivation,untilhiscountrymenacceptedhisworkandfounditwelldone.

Morsewashappyinhisbirthandearlytraining.Hewasbornin1791,atCharlestown,Massachusetts.HisfatherwasaCongregationalministerandascholarofhighstanding,who,bycarefulmanagement,wasabletosendhisthreesonstoYaleCollege.ThitherwentyoungSamuel(orFinley,ashewascalledbyhisfamily)attheageoffourteenandcameundertheinfluenceofBenjaminSilliman,ProfessorofChemistry,andofJeremiahDay,ProfessorofNaturalPhilosophy,afterwardsPresidentofYaleCollege,whoseteachinggavehimimpulseswhichinlateryearsledtotheinventionofthetelegraph.“Mr.Day’slecturesareveryinteresting,”theyoungstudentwrotehomein1809;“theyareuponelectricity;hehasgivenussomeveryfineexperiments,thewholeclasstakingholdofhandsformthecircuitofcommunicationandweallreceivetheshockapparentlyatthesamemoment.”Electricity,however,wasonlyanalluringstudy.Itaffordednomeansoflivelihood,andMorsehadgiftsasanartist;infact,heearnedapartofhiscollegeexpensespaintingminiaturesatfivedollarsapiece.Hedecided,therefore,thatartshouldbehisvocation.

AletterwrittenyearsafterwardsbyJosephM.DullesofPhiladelphia,whowasatNewHavenpreparingforYalewhenMorsewasinhissenioryear,isworthreadinghere:“IfirstbecameacquaintedwithhimatNewHaven,whenabouttograduatewiththeclassof1810,andhadsuchanassociationasaboypreparingforcollegemighthavewithaseniorwhowasjustfinishinghiscourse.Having

cometoNewHavenunderthecareofRev.JedidiahMorse,thevenerablefatherofthethreeMorses,alldistinguishedmen,IwascommendedtotheprotectionofFinley,ashewasthencommonlydesignated,andthereforesawhimfrequentlyduringthebriefperiodweweretogether.ThefatherIregardasthegravestmanIeverknew.HewasafineexemplarofthegentlertypeofthePuritan,courteousinmanner,butsterninconductandinaspect.Hewasamanofconflict,andaleaderinthetheologicalcontestsinNewEnglandintheearlypartofthiscentury.Finley,onthecontrary,boretheexpressionofgentlenessentirely.Inpersonratherabovetheordinaryheight,wellformed,gracefulindemeanor,withacomplexion,ifIrememberright,slightlyruddy,featuresdulyproportioned,andoftenlightenedwithagenialandexpressivesmile.Hewas,altogether,ahandsomeyoungman,withmannersunusuallybland.

Itisneedlesstoaddthatwithintelligence,highculture,andgeneralinformation,andwithastrongbenttothefinearts,Mr.

Morsewasin1810anattractiveyoungman.Duringthelastyearofhiscollegelifeheoccupiedhisleisurehours,withaviewtohisself-support,intakingthelikenessesofhisfellow-studentsonivory,andnodoubtwithsuccess,asheobtainedafterwardaveryrespectablerankasaportrait-painter.ManypiecesofhisskillwereafterwardexecutedinCharleston,SouthCarolina.”*

*Prime,“TheLifeofSamuelF.B.Morse,LL.D.”,p.26.

ThatMorsewasdestinedtobeapainterseemedcertain,andwhen,soonaftergraduatingfromYale,hemadetheacquaintanceofWashingtonAllston,anAmericanartistofhighstanding,anydoubtsthatmayhaveexistedinhismindastohisvocationweresetatrest.AllstonwasthenlivinginBoston,butwasplanningtoreturntoEngland,wherehisnamewaswellknown,anditwasarrangedthatyoungMorseshouldaccompanyhimashispupil.Soin1811MorsewenttoEnglandwithAllstonandreturnedtoAmericafouryearslateranaccreditedportraitpainter,havingstudiednotonlyunderAllstonbutunderthefamousmaster,BenjaminWest,andhavingmetonintimatetermssomeofthegreatEnglishmenofthetime.HeopenedastudioinBoston,butassitterswerefew,hemadeatripthroughNewEngland,takingcommissionsforportraits,andalsovisitedCharleston,SouthCarolina,wheresomeofhispaintingsmaybeseentoday.

AtConcord,NewHampshire,MorsemetMissLucretiaWalker,abeautifuland

cultivatedyoungwoman,andtheyweremarriedin1818.MorsethensettledinNewYork.Hisreputationasapainterincreasedsteadily,thoughhegainedlittlemoney,andin1825hewasinWashingtonpaintingaportraitoftheMarquisLaFayette,forthecityofNewYork,whenheheardfromhisfatherthebitternewsofhiswife’sdeathinNewHaven,thenajourneyofsevendaysfromWashington.LeavingtheportraitofLaFayetteunfinished,theheartbrokenartistmadehiswayhome.

TwoyearsafterwardsMorsewasagainobsessedwiththemarvelsofelectricity,ashehadbeenincollege.TheoccasionthistimewasaseriesoflecturesonthatsubjectgivenbyJamesFreemanDanabeforetheNewYorkAthenaeuminthechapelofColumbiaCollege.MorseattendedtheselecturesandformedwithDanaanintimateacquaintance.DanawasinthehabitofgoingtoMorse’sstudio,wherethetwomenwouldtalkearnestlyforlonghours.

ButMorsewasstilldevotedtohisart;besides,hehadhimselfandthreechildrentosupport,andpaintingwashisonlysourceofincome.

BacktoEuropewentMorsein1829topursuehisprofessionandperfecthimselfinitbythreeyears’furtherstudy.Thencamethecrisis.HomewardboundontheshipSullyintheautumnof1832,Morsefellintoconversationwithsomescientificmenwhowereonboard.Oneofthepassengersaskedthisquestion:“Isthevelocityofelectricityreducedbythelengthofitsconductingwire?”TowhichhisneighborrepliedthatelectricitypassesinstantlyoveranyknownlengthofwireandreferredtoFranklin’sexperimentswithseveralmilesofwire,inwhichnoappreciabletimeelapsedbetweenatouchatoneendandasparkattheother.

Herewasafactalreadywellknown.Morsemusthaveknownithimself.Butthetremendoussignificanceofthatfacthadneverbeforeoccurredtohimnor,sofarasheknew,toanyman.Arecordingtelegraph!Whynot?Intelligencedeliveredatoneendofawireinstantlyrecordedattheotherend,nomatterhowlongthewire!Itmightreachacrossthecontinentorevenroundtheearth.Theideasethismindonfire.

HomeagaininNovember,1832,Morsefoundhimselfonthehornsofadilemma.Togiveuphisprofessionmeantthathewouldhavenoincome;ontheotherhand,howcouldhecontinuewholeheartedlypaintingpictureswhileconsumedwiththeideaofthetelegraph?

Theideawouldnotdown;yethemustlive;andtherewerehisthreemotherlesschildreninNewHaven.Hewouldhavetogoonpaintingaswellashecouldanddevelophistelegraphinwhattimehecouldspare.Hisbrothers,RichardandSidney,werebothlivinginNewYorkandtheydidwhattheycouldforhim,givinghimaroominabuildingtheyhaderectedatNassauandBeekmanStreets.Morse’slotatthistimewasmadealltheharderbyhopesraisedanddashedtoearthagain.CongresshadvotedmoneyformuralpaintingsfortherotundaoftheCapitol.TheartistsweretobeselectedbyacommitteeofwhichJohnQuincyAdamswaschairman.Morseexpectedacommissionforapartofthework,forhisstandingatthattimewassecondtothatofnoAmericanartist,saveAllston,andAllstonheknewhaddeclinedtopaintanyofthepicturesandhadspokeninhisfavor.Adams,however,aschairmanofthecommitteewasoftheopinionthatthepicturesshouldbedonebyforeignartists,therebeingnoAmericansavailable,hethought,ofsufficientlyhighstandingtoexecutetheworkwithfittingdistinction.Thisopinion,publiclyexpressed,infuriatedJamesFenimoreCooper,Morse’sfriend,andCooperwroteanattackonAdamsintheNewYorkEveningPost,butwithoutsigningit.SupposingMorsetobetheauthorofthisarticle,Adamssummarilystruckhisnamefromthelistofartistswhoweretobeemployed.

HowverypoorMorsewasaboutthistimeisindicatedbyastoryafterwardstoldbyGeneralStrotherofVirginia,whowasoneofhispupils:

IengagedtobecomeMorse’spupilandsubsequentlywenttoNewYorkandfoundhiminaroominUniversityPlace.HehadthreeorfourotherpupilsandIsoonfoundthatourprofessorhadverylittlepatronage.

Ipaidmyfiftydollarsforone-quarter’sinstruction.Morsewasafaithfulteacherandtookasmuchinterestinourprogressas—

moreindeedthan—wedidourselves.Buthewasverypoor.Irememberthat,whenmysecondquarter’spaywasdue,myremittancedidnotcomeasexpected,andonedaytheprofessorcameinandsaid,courteously:“WellStrother,myboy,howareweoffformoney?”

“Whyprofessor,”Ianswered,“IamsorrytosaythatIhavebeendisappointed,butIexpectaremittancenextweek.”

“Nextweek,”herepeatedsadly,“Ishallbedeadbythattime.”

“Dead,sir?”

“Yes,deadbystarvation.”

Iwasdistressedandastonished.Isaidhurriedly:“Wouldtendollarsbeofanyservice?”

“Tendollarswouldsavemylife.Thatisallitwoulddo.”

Ipaidthemoney,allthatIhad,andwedinedtogether.Itwasamodestmeal,butgood,andafterhehadfinished,hesaid:“Thisismyfirstmealfortwenty-fourhours.Strother,don’tbeanartist.Itmeansbeggary.Yourlifedependsuponpeoplewhoknownothingofyourartandcarenothingforyou.Ahousedoglivesbetter,andtheverysensitivenessthatstimulatesanartisttoworkkeepshimalivetosuffering.”*

*Prime,p.424.

In1835MorsereceivedanappointmenttotheteachingstaffofNewYorkUniversityandmovedhisworkshoptoaroomintheUniversitybuildinginWashingtonSquare.“There,”sayshisbiographer*,“hewroughtthroughtheyear1836,probablythedarkestandlongestyearofhislife,givinglessonstopupilsintheartofpaintingwhilehismindwasinthethroesofthegreatinvention.”InthatyearhetookintohisconfidenceoneofhiscolleaguesintheUniversity,LeonardD.Gale,whoassistedhimgreatly,inimprovingtheapparatus,whiletheinventorhimselfformulatedtherudimentsofthetelegraphicalphabet,orMorseCode,asitisknowntoday.Atlengthallwasreadyforatestandthemessageflashedfromtransmittertoreceiver.Thetelegraphwasborn,thoughonlyaninfantasyet.“Yes,thatroomoftheUniversitywasthebirthplaceoftheRecordingTelegraph,”

saidMorseyearslater.OnSeptember2,1837,asuccessfulexperimentwasmadewithseventeenhundredfeetofcopperwirecoiledaroundtheroom,inthepresenceofAlfredVail,astudent,whosefamilyownedtheSpeedwellIronWorks,atMorristown,NewJersey,andwhoatoncetookaninterestintheinventionandpersuadedhisfather,JudgeStephenVail,toadvancemoneyforexperiments.MorsefiledapetitionforapatentinOctoberandadmittedhiscolleagueGale;aswellasAlfredVail,topartnership.ExperimentsfollowedattheVailshops,allthepartnersworkingdayandnightintheirenthusiasm.TheapparatuswasthenbroughttoNewYorkandgentlemenofthecitywereinvited

totheUniversitytoseeitworkbeforeitleftforWashington.Thevisitorswererequestedtowritedispatches,andthewordsweresentroundathree-milecoilofwireandreadattheotherendoftheroombyonewhohadnopriorknowledgeofthemessage.

*Prime,p.311.

InFebruary,1838,MorsesetoutforWashingtonwithhisapparatus,andstoppedatPhiladelphiaontheinvitationoftheFranklinInstitutetogiveademonstrationtoacommitteeofthatbody.ArrivedatWashington,hepresentedtoCongressapetition,askingforanappropriationtoenablehimtobuildanexperimentalline.ThequestionoftheappropriationwasreferredtotheCommitteeonCommerce,whoreportedfavorably,andMorsethenreturnedtoNewYorktopreparetogoabroad,asitwasnecessaryforhisrightsthathisinventionshouldbepatentedinEuropeancountriesbeforepublicationintheUnitedStates.

MorsesailedinMay,1838,andreturnedtoNewYorkbythesteamshipGreatWesterninApril,1839.Hisjourneyhadnotbeenverysuccessful.HehadfoundLondonintheexcitementoftheceremoniesofthecoronationofQueenVictoria,andtheBritishAttorney-GeneralhadrefusedhimapatentonthegroundthatAmericannewspapershadpublishedhisinvention,makingitpublicproperty.InFrancehehaddonebetter.Butthemostinterestingresultofthejourneywassomethingnotrelatedtothetelegraphatall.InParishehadmetDaguerre,thecelebratedFrenchmanwhohaddiscoveredaprocessofmakingpicturesbysunlight,andDaguerrehadgivenMorsethesecret.ThisledtothefirstpicturestakenbysunlightintheUnitedStatesandtothefirstphotographsofthehumanfacetakenanywhere.Daguerrehadneverattemptedtophotographlivingobjectsanddidnotthinkitcouldbedone,asrigidityofpositionwasrequiredforalongexposure.Morse,however,andhisassociate,JohnW.Draper,wereverysoontakingportraitssuccessfully.

MeanwhiletheaffairsofthetelegraphatWashingtonhadnotprospered.CongresshaddonenothingtowardsthegrantwhichMorsehadrequested,notwithstandingthefavorablereportofitscommittee,andMorsewasindesperatestraitsformoneyeventoliveon.HeappealedtotheVailstoassisthimfurther,buttheycouldnot,sincethepanicof1837hadimpairedtheirresources.

Heearnedsmallsumsfromhisdaguerreotypesandhisteaching.

ByDecember,1842,Morsewasinfundsagain;sufficiently,atleast,toenablehimtogotoWashingtonforanotherappealtoCongress.Andatlast,onFebruary23,1843,abillappropriatingthirtythousanddollarstolaythewiresbetweenWashingtonandBaltimorepassedtheHousebyamajorityofsix.Tremblingwithanxiety,MorsesatinthegalleryoftheHousewhilethevotewastakenandlistenedtotheirreverentbadinageofCongressmenastheydiscussedhisbill.Onememberproposedanamendmenttosetasidehalftheamountforexperimentsinmesmerism,anothersuggestedthattheMilleritesshouldhaveapartofthemoney,andsoon;however,theypassedthebill.AndthatnightMorsewrote:“Thelongagonyisover.”

Buttheagonywasnotover.ThebillhadyettopasstheSenate.

ThelastdayoftheexpiringsessionofCongressarrived,March3,1843,andtheSenatehadnotreachedthebill.SaysMorse’sbiographer:

InthegalleryoftheSenateProfessorMorsehadsatallthelastdayandeveningofthesession.Atmidnightthesessionwouldclose.Assuredbyhisfriendsthattherewasnopossibilityofthebillbeingreached,helefttheCapitolandretiredtohisroomatthehotel,dispirited,andwell-nighbroken-hearted.Ashecamedowntobreakfastthenextmorning,ayoungladyentered,and,comingtowardhimwithasmile,exclaimed:“Ihavecometocongratulateyou!”

“Forwhat,mydearfriend?”askedtheprofessor,oftheyounglady,whowasMissAnnieG.Ellsworth,daughterofhisfriendtheCommissionerofPatents.

“Onthepassageofyourbill.”

Theprofessorassuredheritwasnotpossible,asheremainedintheSenate-Chamberuntilnearlymidnight,anditwasnotreached.

Shetheninformedhimthatherfatherwaspresentuntiltheclose,and,inthelastmomentsofthesession,thebillwaspassedwithoutdebateorrevision.ProfessorMorsewasovercomebytheintelligence,sojoyfulandunexpected,andgaveatthemomenttohisyoungfriend,thebearerofthesegoodtidings,thepromisethatsheshouldsendthefirstmessageoverthefirstlineoftelegraphthatwasopened.*

*Prime,p.465.

Morseandhispartners*thenproceededtotheconstructionoftheforty-milelineofwirebetweenBaltimoreandWashington.AtthispointEzraCornell,afterwardsafamousbuilderoftelegraphsandfounderofCornellUniversity,firstappearsinhistoryasayoungmanofthirty-six.Cornellinventedamachinetolaypipeundergroundtocontainthewiresandhewasemployedtocarryouttheworkofconstruction.TheworkwascommencedatBaltimoreandwascontinueduntilexperimentprovedthattheundergroundmethodwouldnotdo,anditwasdecidedtostringthewiresonpoles.

Muchtimehadbeenlost,butoncethesystemofpoleswasadoptedtheworkprogressedrapidly,andbyMay,1844,thelinewascompleted.Onthetwenty-fourthofthatmonthMorsesatbeforehisinstrumentintheroomoftheSupremeCourtatWashington.

HisfriendMissEllsworthhandedhimthemessagewhichshehadchosen:“WHATHATHGODWROUGHT!”MorseflashedittoVailfortymilesawayinBaltimore,andVailinstantlyflashedbackthesamemomentouswords,“WHATHATHGODWROUGHT!”

*Thepropertyintheinventionwasdividedintosixteenshares(thepartnershiphavingbeenformedin1838)ofwhichMorseheld9,FrancisO.J.Smith4,AlfredVail2,LeonardD.Gale2.Inpatentstobeobtainedinforeigncountries,Morsewastohold8

shares,Smith5,Vail2,Gale1.SmithhadbeenamemberofCongressandChairmanoftheCommitteeonCommerce.HewasadmittedtothepartnershipinconsiderationofhisassistingMorsetoarousetheinterestofEuropeanGovernments.

TwodayslatertheDemocraticNationalConventionmetinBaltimoretonominateaPresidentandVice-President.TheleadersoftheConventiondesiredtonominateSenatorSilasWrightofNewYork,whowastheninWashington,asrunningmatetoJamesK.

Polk,buttheymustknowfirstwhetherWrightwouldconsenttorunasVice-President.SotheypostedamessengerofftoWashingtonbutwerepersuadedatthesametimetoallowthenewtelegraphtotrywhatitcoulddo.ThetelegraphcarriedtheoffertoWrightandcarriedbacktotheConventionWright’srefusalofthehonor.Thedelegates,however,wouldnotbelievethetelegraph,untiltheir

ownmessenger,returningthenextday,confirmeditsmessage.

Foratimethetelegraphattractedlittleattention.ButCornellstretchedthelinesacrossthecountry,connectingcitywithcity,andMorseandVailimprovedthedetailsofthemechanismandperfectedthecode.Otherscameafterthemandaddedfurtherimprovements.AnditisgratifyingtoknowthatbothMorseandVail,aswellasCornell,livedtoreapsomereturnfortheirlabor.Morselivedtoseehistelegraphspanthecontinent,andlinktheNewWorldwiththeOld,anddiedin1872fullofhonors.

Promptcommunicationofthewrittenorspokenmessageisademandevenmoreinsistentthanprompttransportationofmenandgoods.

By1859boththerailroadandthetelegraphhadreachedtheoldtownofSt.JosephontheMissouri.Twothousandmilesbeyond,ontheothersideofplainsandmountainsandgreatrivers,layprosperousCalifornia.TheonlytransportationtoCaliforniawasbystage-coach,asixtydays’journey,orelseacrossPanama,orelseroundtheHorn,achoiceofthreeevils.Buttoestablishquickercommunication,eventhoughtransportationmightlag,themenofSt.JosephorganizedthePonyExpress,tocoverthegreatwilddistancebyridersonhorseback,intenortwelvedays.

Relaystationsforthehorsesandmenweresetupatappropriatepointsallalongtheway,andapostboydashedofffromSt.

Josepheverytwenty-fourhours,onarrivalofthetrainfromtheEast.AndforatimethePonyExpressdiditsworkanddiditwell.PresidentLincoln’sFirstInauguralwascarriedtoCaliforniabythePonyExpress;sowasthenewsofthefiringonFortSumter.Butby1869.thePonyExpresswasquietlysupersededbythetelegraph,whichinthatyearhadcompleteditscircuitsallthewaytoSanFrancisco,sevenyearsaheadofthefirsttranscontinentalrailroad.AndinfourmoreyearsCyrusW.FieldandPeterCooperhadcarriedtocompletesuccesstheAtlanticCable;andtheMorsetelegraphwassendingintelligenceacrossthesea,aswellasfromNewYorktotheGoldenGate.

Andtodayshipsatseaandstationsonland,separatedbythesea,speaktooneanotherinthelanguageoftheMorseCode,withouttheuseofwires.Wireless,orradio,telegraphywastheinventionofanineteen-year-oldboy,GuglielmoMarconi,anItalian;butithasbeengreatlyextendedanddevelopedatthehands

offourAmericans:Fessenden,Alexanderson,Langmuir,andLeeDeForest.ItwasDeForest’sinventionthatmadepossibletranscontinentalandtransatlantictelephoneservice,bothwithandwithoutwires.

Thestoryofthetelegraph’syoungerbrother,andgreatallyincommunication,thetelephoneofAlexanderGrahamBell,isanotherpregnantromanceofAmericaninvention.Butthatisastorybyitself,anditbeginsinalaterperiodandsofallswithinthescopeofanothervolumeoftheseChronicles.*

*“TheAgeofBigBusiness”,byBurtonJ.Hendrick,“TheChronicleofAmerica”,vol.XXXIX.

Wisenewspapermenstiffenedtoattentionwhenthetelegraphbeganticking.TheNewYorkHerald,theSun,andtheTribunehadbeenfoundedonlyrecentlyandtheyrepresentedanewtypeofjournalism,swift,fearless,andenergetic.Theproprietorsofthesenewspaperssawthatthisnewinstrumentwasboundtoaffectallnewspaperdomprofoundly.Howwasthenewspapertocopewiththesituationandmakeuseofthenewsthatwascominginandwouldbecominginmoreandmoreoverthewires?

Foronething,thenewspapersneededbetterprintingmachinery.

Theapplicationofsteam,oranymechanicalpower,toprintinginAmericawasonlybegun.IthadbeenintroducedbyRobertHoeintheveryyearswhenMorsewasstrugglingtoperfectthetelegraph.BeforethattimenewspaperswereprintedintheUnitedStates,onpressesoperatedasFranklin’spresshadbeenoperated,byhand.TheNewYorkSun,thepioneerofcheapmodernnewspapers,wasprintedbyhandin1833,andfourhundredimpressionsanhourwasthehighestspeedofonepress.Therehadbeen,itistrue,someimprovementsoverFranklin’sprintingpress.TheColumbianpressofGeorgeClymerofPhiladelphia,inventedin1816,wasastepforward.TheWashingtonpress,patentedin1829bySamuelRustofNewYork,wasanotherstepforward.ThenhadcomeRobertHoe’sdouble-cylinder,steamdrivenprintingpress.Butaswiftermachinewaswanted.Andsoin1845

RichardMarchHoe,asonofRobertHoe,inventedtherevolvingorrotarypress,ontheprincipleofwhichlargerandlargermachineshavebeenbuilt—machinessocomplexandwonderfulthattheybaffledescription;whichtakeinreelsofwhitepaperandturnoutgreatnewspaperscomplete,foldedandcounted,atthe

rateofahundredthousandcopiesanhour.Americanprintingmachinesareinusetodaytheworldover.TheLondonTimesisprintedonAmericanmachines.

Hundredsofnewinventionsandimprovementsonoldinventionsfollowedhardonthegrowthofthenewspaper,untilitseemedthatthelastwordhadbeenspoken.ThenewspapershadthewonderfulHoepresses;theyhadcheappaper;theyhadexcellenttype,castbymachinery;theyhadasatisfactoryprocessofmultiplyingformsoftypebystereotyping;andatlengthcameanewprocessofmakingpicturesbyphotoengraving,supplantingtheold-fashionedprocessofengravingonwood.Meanwhile,however,inoneimportantdepartmentofthework,thenewspapershadmadenoadvancewhatever.ThenewspapersofNewYorkintheyear1885,andlater,setuptheirtypebythesamemethodthatBenjaminFranklinusedtosetupthetypeforThePennsylvaniaGazette.Thecompositorstoodorsatathis“case,”withhis“copy”beforehim,andpickedthetypeupletterbyletteruntilhehadfilledandcorrectlyspacedaline.Thenhewouldsetanotherline,andsoon,allwithhishands.Afterthejobwascompleted,thetypehadtobedistributedagain,letterbyletter.Typesettingwasslowandexpensive.

Thislaboroftypesettingwasatlastgenerallydoneawaywithbytheinventionoftwointricateandingeniousmachines.Thelinotype,theinventionofOttmarMergenthalerofBaltimore,camefirst;thenthemonotypeofTolbertLanston,anativeofOhio.

Thelinotypeisthefavoritecomposingmachinefornewspapersandisalsowidelyusedintypesettingforbooks,thoughthemonotypeispreferredbybookprinters.Oneorotherofthesemachineshastodayreplaced,forthemostpart,theoldhandcompositorsineverylargeprintingestablishmentintheUnitedStates.

Whilethemachineryofthegreatnewspaperswasbeingdeveloped,anotherinstrumentofcommunication,morehumblebuthardlylessimportantinmodernlife,wascomingintoexistence.ThetypewriteristodayineverybusinessofficeandisanotherofAmerica’sgiftstothecommercialworld.Onemightattempttotracethetypewriterbacktotheearlyseals,ortothenameplatesoftheMiddleAges,ortotherecordsoftheBritishPatentOffice,for1714,whichmentionamachineforembossing.

Butitwouldbedifficulttoestablishtheidentityofthesecontrivanceswiththe

moderntypewriter.

TwoAmericandevices,oneofWilliamBurtin1829,fora“typographer,”andanotherofCharlesThurber,ofWorcester,Massachusetts,in1843,mayalsobepassedover.AlfredElyBeachmadeamodelforatypewriterasearlyas1847,butneglecteditforotherthings,andhisnexteffortinprintingmachineswasadeviceforembossinglettersfortheblind.Histypewriterhadmanyofthefeaturesofthemoderntypewriter,butlackedasatisfactorymethodofinkingthetypes.ThiswasfurnishedbyS.

W.FrancisofNewYork,whosemachine,in1857,borearibbonsaturatedwithink.Noneofthesemachines,however,wasacommercialsuccess.Theywereregardedmerelyasthetoysofingeniousmen.

TheaccreditedfatherofthetypewriterwasaWisconsinnewspaperman,ChristopherLathamSholes,editor,politician,andanti-slaveryagitator.Astrikeofhisprintersledhimtounsuccessfulattemptstoinventatypesettingmachine.Hedidsucceed,however,inmaking,incollaborationwithanotherprinter,SamuelW.Soule,anumberingmachine,andafriend,CarlosGlidden,towhomthisingeniouscontrivancewasshown,suggestedamachinetoprintletters.

Thethreefriendsdecidedtotry.Nonehadstudiedtheeffortsofpreviousexperimenters,andtheymademanyerrorswhichmighthavebeenavoided.Gradually,however,theinventiontookform.

PatentswereobtainedinJune,1868,andagaininJulyofthesameyear,butthemachinewasneitherstrongnortrustworthy.

NowappearedJamesDensmoreandboughtashareinthemachine,whileSouleandGliddenretired.Densmorefurnishedthefundstobuildaboutthirtymodelsinsuccession,eachalittlebetterthanthepreceding.Theimprovedmachinewaspatentedin1871,andthepartnersfeltthattheywerereadytobeginmanufacturing.

Wiselytheydetermined,in1873,tooffertheirmachinetoEliphaletRemingtonandSons,thenmanufacturingfirearms,sewingmachines,andthelike,atIlion,NewYork.Here,inwell-equippedmachineshopsitwastested,strengthened,andimproved.TheRemingtonsbelievedtheysawademandforthemachineandofferedtobuythepatents,payingeitheralumpsum,oraroyalty.ItissaidthatSholespreferredthereadycashandreceivedtwelvethousanddollars,while

Densmorechosetheroyaltyandreceivedamillionandahalf.

Thetelegraph,thepress,andthetypewriterareagentsofcommunicationforthewrittenword.Thetelephoneisanagentforthespokenword.Andthereisanotherinstrumentforrecordingsoundandreproducingit,whichshouldnotbeforgotten.Itwasin1877thatThomasAlvaEdisoncompletedthefirstphonograph.

Theairvibrationssetupbythehumanvoicewereutilizedtomakeminuteindentationsonasheetoftinfoilplacedoverametalliccylinder,andthemachinewouldthenreproducethesoundswhichhadcausedtheindentations.Therecordworeoutafterafewreproductions,however,andEdisonwastoobusytodevelophisideafurtherforatime,thoughlaterhereturnedtoit.

Thephonographtodayappearsundervariousnames,butbywhatevernametheyarecalled,thebestmachinesreproducewithwonderfulfidelitythehumanvoice,inspeechorsong,andthetonesofeitherasingleinstrumentorawholeorchestra.Themostdistinguishedmusiciansaregladtodotheirbestforthepreservationandreproductionoftheirart,andthroughthesemachines,goodmusicisbroughttothousandstowhomitcouldcomeinnootherway.

Thecamerabearsalargepartinthediffusionofintelligence,andthelasthalfcenturyintheUnitedStateshasseenagreatdevelopmentinphotographyandphotoengraving.TheearliestexperimentsinphotographybelongalmostexclusivelytoEurope.

Morse,aswehaveseen,introducedthesecrettoAmericaandinterestedhisfriendJohnW.Draper,whohadapartintheperfectionofthedryplateandwhowasoneofthefirst,ifnotthefirst,totakeaportraitbyphotography.

Theworld’sgreatestinventorinphotographyis,however,GeorgeEastman,ofRochester.Itwasin1888thatEastmanintroducedanewcamera,whichhecalledbythedistinctivenameKodak,andwithittheslogan:“Youpressthebutton,wedotherest.”Thisfirstkodakwasloadedwitharollofsensitizedpaperlongenoughforahundredexposures.Senttothemakers,therollcoulditselfbedevelopedandpicturescouldbeprintedfromit.

Eastmanhadbeenanamateurphotographerwhenthefancywasbothexpensiveandtedious.Inventingamethodofmakingdryplates,hebegantomanufacturetheminasmallwayasearlyas1880.

Afterthefirstkodak,therecameothersfilledwithrollsofsensitizednitro-cellulosefilm.Priorityintheinventionofthecellulosefilm,insteadofglass,whichhasrevolutionizedphotography,hasbeendecidedbythecourtstobelongtotheReverendHannibalGoodwin,butthehonornonethelessbelongstoEastman,whoindependentlyworkedouthisprocessandgavephotographytothemillions.TheintroductionbytheEastmanKodakCompanyofafilmcartridgewhichcouldbeinsertedorremovedwithoutretiringtoadarkroomremovedthechiefdifficultyinthewayofamateurs,andacameraofsomesort,varyinginpricefromadollarortwotoasmanyhundreds,istodayanindispensablepartofavacationequipment.

InthedevelopmentoftheanimatedpicturesThomasAlvaEdisonhasplayedalargepart.ManyweretheeffortstogivetheappearanceofmovementtopicturesbeforethefirstrealentertainmentwasstagedbyHenryHeylofPhiladelphia.Heyl’spictureswereonglassplatesfixedinthecircumferenceofawheel,andeachwasbroughtandheldforapartofasecondbeforethelens.Thismethodwasobviouslytooslowandtooexpensive.Edisonwithhiskeenmindapproachedthedifficultyandafteraprolongedseriesofexperimentsarrivedatthedecisionthatacontinuoustape-likefilmwouldbenecessary.Heinventedthefirstpractical“taking”cameraandevokedtheenthusiasticcooperationofGeorgeEastmanintheproductionofthistape-likefilm,andthemodernmotionpicturewasborn.Theprojectingmachinewassubstantiallylikethe“taking”cameraandwassoused.Otherinventors,suchasPaulinEnglandandLumiereinFrance,producedothertypesofprojectingmachines,whichdifferedonlyinmechanicaldetails.

WhenthemotionpicturewastakenupinearnestintheUnitedStates,theworldstaredinastonishmentattheapparentrecklessnessoftheearlymanagers.Thepublicresponded,however,andthereishardlyahamletinthenationwherethereisnotatleastonemoving-picturehouse.Themostpopularactorshavebeendrawnfromthespeakingstageintothe“movies,”andmanynewactorshavebeendeveloped.Inthesmalltown,thepicturetheaterisoftenaconvertedstoreroom,butinthecities,someofthelargestandmostattractivetheatershavebeengivenovertothepictures,andothersevenmoreluxurioushavebeenspeciallybuilt.TheEastmanCompanyalonemanufacturesabouttenthousandmilesoffilmeverymonth.

Besidesaffordingamusementtomillions,themovingpicturehasbeenturnedtoinstruction.Importantnewseventsareshownonthescreen,andhistoricalevents

arepreservedforposteritybydepositingthefilmsinavault.WhatwouldthehistoricalstudentnotgiveforafilmfaithfullyportrayingtheinaugurationofGeorgeWashington!Themotionpicturehasbecomeanimportantfactorininstructioninhistoryandscienceintheschoolsandthisdevelopmentisstillinitsinfancy.

CHAPTERVII.THESTORYOFRUBBER

Onedayin1852,atTrenton,NewJersey,thereappearedintheCircuitCourtoftheUnitedStatestwomen,thelegalgiantsoftheirday,toarguethecaseofGoodyearvs.Dayforinfringementofpatent.RufusChoaterepresentedthedefendantandDanielWebstertheplaintiff.Webster,inthecourseofhisplea,oneofthemostbrilliantandmovingeverutteredbyhim,pausedforamoment,drewfromhimselftheattentionofthosewhowerehanginguponhiswords,andpointedtohisclient.Hewouldhavethemlookatthemanwhosecausehepleaded:amanoffifty-two,wholookedfifteenyearsolder,sallow,emaciatedfromdisease,duetolongprivations,bitterdisappointments,andwrongs.ThiswasCharlesGoodyear,inventoroftheprocesswhichputrubberintotheserviceoftheworld.SaidWebster:“AndnowisCharlesGoodyearthediscovererofthisinventionofvulcanizedrubber?Ishethefirstmanuponwhosemindtheideaeverflashed,ortowhoseintelligencethefacteverwasdisclosed,thatbycarryingheattoacertainheightitwouldceasetorenderplastictheIndiaRubberandbegintohardenandmetallizeit?IsthereamanintheworldwhofoundoutthatfactbeforeCharlesGoodyear?Whoishe?Whereishe?Onwhatcontinentdoeshelive?Whohasheardofhim?Whatbookstreatofhim?Whatmanamongallthemenonearthhasseenhim,knownhim,ornamedhim?Yetitiscertainthatthisdiscoveryhasbeenmade.Itiscertainthatitexists.Itiscertainthatitisnowamatterofcommonknowledgealloverthecivilizedworld.Itiscertainthattenortwelveyearsagoitwasnotknowledge.Itiscertainthatthiscuriousresulthasgrownintoknowledgebysomebody’sdiscoveryandinvention.Andwhoisthatsomebody?Thequestionwasputtomylearnedopponentbymylearnedassociate.

IfCharlesGoodyeardidnotmakethisdiscovery,whodidmakeit?

Whodidmakeit?Why,ifourlearnedopponenthadsaidheshouldendeavortoprovethatsomeoneotherthanMr.Goodyearhadmadethisdiscovery,thatwouldhavebeenveryfair.Ithinkthelearnedgentlemanwasverywiseinnotdoingso.ForIhavethoughtoften,inthecourseofmypracticeinlaw,thatit

wasnotveryadvisabletoraiseaspiritthatonecouldnotconvenientlylayagain.Nowwhomadethisdiscovery?Andwoulditnotbeproper?Iamsureitwould.Andwoulditnotbemanly?Iamsureitwould.Wouldnotmylearnedfriendandhiscoadjutorhaveactedamorenoblepart,iftheyhadstoodupandsaidthatthisinventionwasnotGoodyear’s,butitwasaninventionofsuchandsuchaman,inthisorthatcountry?OnthecontrarytheydonotmeetGoodyear’sclaimbysettingupadistinctclaimofanybodyelse.Theyattempttoprovethathewasnottheinventorbylittleshredsandpatchesoftestimony.Herealittlebitofsulphur,andtherealittleparceloflead;herealittledegreeofheat,alittlehotterthanwouldwarmaman’shands,andinwhichamancouldlivefortenminutesoraquarterofanhour;andyettheyneverseemtocometothepoint.Ithinkitisbecausetheirmaterialsdidnotallowthemtocometothemanlyassertionthatsomebodyelsedidmakethisinvention,givingtothatsomebodyalocalhabitationandaname.Wewanttoknowthename,andthehabitation,andthelocationofthemanuponthefaceofthisglobe,whoinventedvulcanizedrubber,ifitbenothe,whonowsitsbeforeus.

“Welltherearebirdswhichflyintheair,seldomlighting,butoftenhovering.NowIthinkthisisaquestionnottobehoveredover,nottobebroodedover,andnottobedealtwithasaninfinitesimalquantityofsmallthings.Itisacasecallingforamanlyadmissionandamanlydefense.Iaskagain,ifthereisanybodyelsethanGoodyearwhomadethisinvention,whoishe?Isthediscoverysoplainthatitmighthavecomeaboutbyaccident?

Itislikelytoworkimportantchangesintheartseverywhere.IT

INTRODUCESQUITEANEWMATERIALINTOTHEMANUFACTUREOFTHEARTS,THATMATERIALBEINGNOTHINGLESSTHANELASTICMETAL.Itishardlikemetalandaselasticaspureoriginalgumelastic.Why,thatisasgreatandmomentousaphenomenonoccurringtomenintheprogressoftheirknowledge,asitwouldbeforamantoshowthatironandgoldcouldremainironandgoldandyetbecomeelasticlikeIndiaRubber.Itwouldbejustsuchanotherresult.

Now,thisfactcannotbedenied;itcannotbesecreted;itcannotbekeptoutofsight;somebodyhasmadethisinvention.Thatiscertain.Whoishe?Mr.Hancockhasbeenreferredto.ButheexpresslyacknowledgesGoodyeartobethefirstinventor.Isaythatthereisnotintheworldahumanbeingthatcanstandupandsaythatitishisinvention,exceptthemanwhoissittingatthattable.”

Thecourtfoundfortheplaintiff,andthisdecisionestablishedforalltimetheclaimoftheAmerican,CharlesGoodyear,tobethesoleinventorofvulcanizedrubber.

Thistrialmaybesaidtobethedramaticclimaxinthestoryofrubber.Itcelebratedthehourwhenthescienceofinventionturnedarawproduct—whichhadtantalizedbyitspromiseandwroughtruinbyitstreachery—intoamanufactureadaptabletoathousanduses,addingtoman’seaseandhealthandtothelocomotion,construction,andcommunicationofmodernlife.

WhenColumbusrevisitedHaytionhissecondvoyage,heobservedsomenativesplayingwithaball.Now,ballgamesaretheoldestsportknown.Fromthebeginningofhishistoryman,likethekittenandthepuppy,hasdelightedtoplaywiththeroundthingthatrolls.ThemenwhocamewithColumbustoconquertheIndieshadbroughttheirCastilianwind-ballstoplaywithinidlehours.ButatoncetheyfoundthattheballsofHaytiwereincomparablysuperiortoys;theybouncedbetter.Thesehighbouncingballsweremade,sotheylearned,fromamilkyfluidoftheconsistencyofhoneywhichthenativesprocuredbytappingcertaintreesandthencuredoverthesmokeofpalmnuts.Adiscoverywhichimprovedthedelightsofballgameswasnoteworthy.

TheoldSpanishhistorian,Herrera,gravelytranscribedinhispagesallthatthegovernorsofHaytireportedaboutthebouncingballs.SomefiftyyearslateranotherSpanishhistorianrelatedthatthenativesoftheAmazonvalleymadeshoesofthisgum;andthatSpanishsoldiersspreadtheircloakswithittokeepouttherain.Manyyearslaterstill,in1736,aFrenchastronomer,whowassentbyhisgovernmenttoPerutomeasureanarcofthemeridian,broughthomesamplesofthegumandreportedthatthenativesmakelightsofit,“whichburnwithoutawickandareverybright,”and“shoesofitwhicharewaterproof,andwhensmokedtheyhavetheappearanceofleather.Theyalsomakepear-shapedbottlesonthenecksofwhichtheyfastenwoodentubes.Pressureonthebottlesendstheliquidsquirtingoutofthetube,sotheyresemblesyringes.”Theirnameforthefluid,headded,was“cachuchu”—caoutchouc,wenowwriteit.Evidentlythesamplesfillednoimportantneedatthetime,forwehearnomoreofthegumuntilthirty-fouryearsafterward.Then,soanEnglishwritertellsus,ausewasfoundforthegum—andaname.

Astationeraccidentallydiscoveredthatitwoulderasepencilmarks,And,asitcamefromtheIndiesandrubbed,ofcourseitwas“Indiarubber.”

Abouttheyear1820Americanmerchantmen,plyingbetweenBrazilandNewEngland,sometimescarriedrubberasballastonthehomevoyageanddumpeditonthewharvesatBoston.Oneoftheshipmastersexhibitedtohisfriendsapairofnativeshoesfancifullygilded.Another,withmoreforesight,broughthomefivehundredpairs,ungilded,andofferedthemforsale.Theywerethick,clumsilyshaped,andheavy,buttheysold.Therewasademandformore.Inafewyearshalfamillionpairswerebeingimportedannually.NewEnglandmanufacturersbidagainstoneanotheralongthewharvesforthegumwhichhadbeenusedasballastandbegantomakerubbershoes.

Europeanvesselshadalsocarriedrubberhome;andexperimentswerebeingmadewithitinFranceandBritain.AFrenchmanmanufacturedsuspendersbycuttinganativebottleintofinethreadsandrunningthemthroughanarrowclothweb.AndMacintosh,achemistofGlasgow,insertedrubbertreatedwithnaphthabetweenthinpiecesofclothandevolvedthegarmentthatstillbearshisname.

Atfirstthenewbusinessinrubberyieldedprofits.Thecostoftherawmaterialwasinfinitesimal;andtherewasademandforthefinishedarticles.InRoxbury,Massachusetts,afirmmanufacturingpatentleathertreatedrawrubberwithturpentineandlampblackandspreaditoncloth,inanefforttoproduceawaterproofleather.Theprocessappearedtobeacompletesuccess,andalargecapitalwasemployedtomakehandsomeshoesandclothingoutofthenewproductandinopeningshopsinthelargecitiesfortheirsale.Merchantsthroughoutthecountryplacedordersforthesegoods,which,asithappened,weremadeandshippedinwinter.

But,whensummercame,thehugeprofitsofthemanufacturersliterallymeltedaway,forthebeautifulgarmentsdecomposedintheheat;andloadsofthem,meltingandrunningtogether,werebeingreturnedtothefactory.AndtheyfilledRoxburywithsuchnoisomeodorsthattheyhadtobetakenoutatdeadofnightandburieddeepintheearth.

Andnotonlydidtheserubbergarmentsmeltintheheat.Itpresentlytranspiredthatseverefroststiffenedthemtotherigidityofgranite.DanielWebsterhadhadsomeexperienceinthismatterhimself.“AfriendinNewYork,”hesaid,“sentmeaveryfinecloakofIndiaRubber,andahatofthesamematerial.

Ididnotsucceedverywellwiththem.Itookthecloakonedayandsetitoutinthecold.Itstoodverywellbyitself.Isurmounteditwiththehat,andmany

personspassingbysupposedtheysaw,standingbytheporch,theFarmerofMarshfield.”

Itwasintheyear1834,shortlyaftertheRoxburymanufacturershadcometorealizethattheirprocesswasworthlessandthattheirgreatfortunewasonlyamirage,andjustbeforethesefactsbecamegenerallyknown,thatCharlesGoodyearmadehisentranceonthescene.Heappearedfirstasacustomerinthecompany’sstoreinNewYorkandboughtarubberlife-preserver.

Whenhereturnedsomeweekslaterwithaplanforimprovingthetube,themanagerconfidedtohimthesadtragedyofrubber,pointingoutthatnoimprovementinthemanufacturedarticleswouldmeetthedifficulty,butthatfameandfortuneawaitedtheinventorofaprocessthatwouldkeeprubberdryandfirmandflexibleinallweathers.

GoodyearfeltthathehadacallfromGod.“Hewhodirectstheoperationsofthemind,”hewroteatalaterdate,“canturnittothedevelopmentofthepropertiesofNatureinhisownway,andatthetimewhentheyarespeciallyneeded.Thecreatureimaginesheisexecutingsomeplanofhisown,whileheissimplyaninstrumentinthehandsofhisMakerforexecutingthedivinepurposesofbeneficencetotherace.”Itwasinthespiritofacrusader,consecratedtoaparticularservice,thatthismantookuptheproblemofrubber.Thewordsquotedareafittingprefaceforthestoryoftheyearsthatfollowed,whichisataleofenduranceandpersistentactivityundersufferingsanddisappointmentssuchasarescarcelyparalleledeveninthepagesofinvention,darkenedastheyoftenarebypovertyanddefeat.

CharlesGoodyearwasbornatNewHaven,December29,1800,thesonofAmasaGoodyearanddescendantofStephenGoodyearwhowasassociatedwithTheophilusEaton,thefirstgovernorofthePuritancolonyofNewHaven.ItwasnaturalthatCharlesshouldturnhismindtoinvention,ashedidevenwhenaboy;forhisfather,apioneerinthemanufactureofAmericanhardware,wastheinventorofasteelhayforkwhichreplacedtheheavyironforkofpriordaysandlightenedandexpeditedthelaborofthefields.WhenCharleswassevenhisfathermovedtoNaugatuckandmanufacturedthefirstpearlbuttonsmadeinAmerica;duringtheWarof1812theGoodyearfactorysuppliedmetalbuttonstotheGovernment.Charles,astudious,seriousboy,wastheclosecompanionofhisfather.Hisdeeplyreligiousnaturemanifesteditselfearly,andhejoinedtheCongregationalChurchwhenhewassixteen.Itwasatfirsthisintentiontoenter

theministry,whichseemedtohimtoofferthemostusefulcareerofservice,but,changinghismind,hewenttoPhiladelphiatolearnthehardwarebusinessandoncomingofagewasadmittedtopartnershipinafirmestablishedtherebyhisfather.Thefirmprosperedforatime,butaninjudiciousextensionofcreditledtoitssuspension.SoithappenedthatGoodyearin1834,whenhebecameinterestedinrubber,wasaninsolventdebtor,liable,underthelawsofthetime,toimprisonment.Soonafterward,indeed,hewaslodgedintheDebtor’sPrisoninPhiladelphia.

Itwouldseemaninauspicioushourtobeginasearchwhichmightleadhimoninpovertyforyearsandendnowhere.But,havingseentheneedforperfectrubber,thethoughthadcometohim,withtheforceofareligiousconviction,that“anobjectsodesirableandsoimportant,andsonecessarytoman’scomfort,asthemakingofgumelasticavailabletohisuse,wasmostcertainlyplacedwithinhisreach.”ThereafterheneverdoubtedthatGodhadcalledhimtothistaskandthathiseffortswouldbecrownedwithsuccess.Concerninghisprisonexperiences,ofwhichthefirstwasnottobethelast,hesaysthat“notwithstandingthemortificationattendingsuchatrial,”iftheprisonerhasarealaim“forwhichtoliveandhopeoverhemayaddfirmnesstohope,andderivelastingadvantagebyhavingprovedtohimselfthat,withaclearconscienceandahighpurpose,amanmaybeashappywithinprisonwallsasinanyother(eventhemostfortunate)circumstancesinlife.”Withthisspirithemeteveryreversethroughoutthetenhardyearsthatfollowed.

Luckily,ashesays,hisfirstexperimentsrequirednoexpensiveequipment.Fingerswerethebesttoolsforworkingthegum.Theprisonofficialsallowedhimabenchandamarbleslab,afriendprocuredhimafewdollars’worthofgum,whichsoldthenatfivecentsapound,andhiswifecontributedherrollingpin.Thatwasthebeginning.

Foratimehebelievedthat,bymixingtherawgumwithmagnesiaandboilingitinlime,hehadovercomethestickinesswhichwastheinherentdifficulty.Hemadesomesheetsofwhiterubberwhichwereexhibited,andalsosomearticlesforsale.Hishopesweredashedwhenhefoundthatweakacid,suchasapplejuiceorvinegar,destroyedhisnewproduct.Thenin1836hefoundthattheapplicationofaquafortis,ornitricacid,produceda“curing”effectontherubberandthoughtthathehaddiscoveredthesecret.Findingapartnerwithcapital,heleasedanabandonedrubberfactoryonStatenIsland.Buthispartner’sfortunewassweptawayinthepanicof1837,leavingGoodyearagainaninsolvent

debtor.LaterhefoundanotherpartnerandwenttomanufacturinginthedesertedplantatRoxbury,withanorderfromtheGovernmentforalargenumberofmailbags.Thisorderwasgivenwidepublicityanditarousedtheinterestofmanufacturersthroughoutthecountry.Butbythetimethegoodswerereadyfordeliverythefirstbagsmadehadrottedfromtheirhandles.Onlythesurfaceoftherubberhadbeen“cured.”

Thisfailurewasthelaststraw,asfarasGoodyear’sfriendswereconcerned.Onlyhispatientanddevotedwifestoodbyhim;shehadlabored,knownwant,seenherchildrengohungrytoschool,butsheseemsnevertohavereproachedherhusbandnortohavedoubtedhisultimatesuccess.Thegentlenessandtendernessofhisdeportmentinthehomemadehisfamilyclingtohimwithdeepaffectionandbearwillinglyanysacrificeforhissake;thoughhissuccessivefailuresgenerallymeantareturnoftheinventortothedebtor’sprisonandthecastingofhisfamilyuponcharity.

Thenitricacidprocesshadnotsolvedtheproblembutithadbeenarealstepforward.Itwasintheyear1839,byanaccident,thathediscoveredthetrueprocessofvulcanizationwhichcurednotthesurfacealonebutthewholemass.Hewastryingtohardenthegumbyboilingitwithsulphuronhiswife’scookstovewhenheletfallalumpofitontheredhotirontop.

Itvulcanizedinstantly.ThiswasanaccidentwhichonlyGoodyearcouldhaveinterpreted.Anditwasthelast.Thestrangesubstancefromthejunglesofthetropicshadbeenmastered.Itremained,however,toperfecttheprocess,toascertaintheaccurateformulaandtheexactdegreeofheat.TheGoodyearsweresopoorduringtheseyearsthattheyreceivedatanytimeabarrelofflourfromaneighborthankfully.Thereisatraditionthatononeoccasion,whenGoodyeardesiredtocrossbetweenStatenIslandandNewYork,hehadtogivehisumbrellatotheferrymasterassecurityforhisfare,andthatthenameoftheferrymasterwasCorneliusVanderbilt,“amanwhomademuchmoneybecausehetookfewchances.”Theincidentmayeasilyhaveoccurred,thoughtheferrymastercouldhardlyhavebeenVanderbilthimself,unlessithadbeenatanearlierdate.

AnothertraditionsaysthatoneofGoodyear’sneighborsdescribedhimtoaninquisitivestrangerthus:“Youwillknowhimwhenyouseehim;hehasonanIndiarubbercap,stock,coat,vest,andshoes,andanIndiarubberpurseWITHOUTACENTINIT!”

Goodyear’strialswereonlybeginning.Hehadthesecretatlast,butnobodywouldbelievehim.Hehadwornouteventhemostsanguineofhisfriends.“Thatsuchindifferencetothisdiscovery,andmanyincidentsattendingit,couldhaveexistedinanintelligentandbenevolentcommunity,”wroteGoodyearlater,“canonlybeaccountedforbyexistingcircumstancesinthatcommunityThegreatlossesthathadbeensustainedinthemanufactureofgumelastic:thelengthoftimetheinventorhadspentinwhatappearedtothemtobeentirelyfruitlesseffortstoaccomplishanythingwithit;addedtohisrecentmisfortunesanddisappointments,allconspired,withhisutterdestitution,toproduceastateofthingsasunfavorabletothepromulgationofthediscoveryascanwellbeimagined.He,however,feltindutyboundtobeginearnest,ifneedbe,soonerthanthatthediscoveryshouldbelosttotheworldandtohimself….Howhesubsistedatthisperiodcharityalonecantell,foritisaswelltocallthingsbytheirrightnames;anditislittleelsethancharitywhenthelenderlooksuponwhathepartswithasagift.Thepawningorsellingsomerelicofbetterdaysorsomearticleofnecessitywasafrequentexpedient.Hislibraryhadlongsincedisappeared,butshortlyafterthediscoveryofthisprocess,hecollectedandsoldatauctiontheschoolbooksofhischildren,whichbroughthimthetriflingsumoffivedollars;smallastheamountwas,itenabledhimtoproceed.Atthisstephedidnothesitate.Theoccasion,andthecertaintyofsuccess,warrantedthemeasurewhich,inothercircumstances,wouldhavebeensacrilege.”

Hisitineraryduringthoseyearsiseloquent.Wherevertherewasaman,whohadeitheragrainoffaithinrubberoralittlecharityforafrailandpennilessmonomaniac,thitherGoodyearmadehisway.Thegoalmightbeanatticroomorshedtoliveinrentfree,orafewdollarsforabarrelofflourforthefamilyandabarrelofrubberforhimself,orpermissiontouseafactory’sovensafterhoursandtohanghisrubberoverthesteamvalveswhileworkwenton.FromWoburnin1839,theyearofhisgreatdiscovery,hewenttoLynn,fromLynnbacktothedesertedfactoryatRoxbury.AgaintoWoburn,toBoston,toNorthampton,toSpringfield,toNaugatuck;infiveyearsasmanyremoves.Whenhelackedboatorrailwayfare,andhegenerallydid,hewalkedthroughwindsandrainsanddriftingsnow,beggingshelteratsomecottageorfarmwhereawindowlampgleamedkindly.

Goodyeartookouthispatentin1844.Theprocessheinventedhasbeenchangedlittle,ifatall,fromthatdaytothis.HealsoinventedtheperfectIndiarubberclothbymixingfiberwiththegumadiscoveryheconsideredrightlyassecondaryinimportanceonlytovulcanization.Whenhediedin1860hehad

takenoutsixtypatentsonrubbermanufactures.Hehadseenhisinventionappliedtoseveralhundreduses,givingemploymenttosixtythousandpersons,producingannuallyeightmilliondollars’worthofmerchandise—numberswhichwouldformbutafractionoftherubberstatisticsoftoday.

Everybody,thewholecivilizedworldround,usesrubberinoneformoranother.Andrubbermakesabeltaroundtheworldinitsnaturalaswellasinitsmanufacturedform.Therubber-bearingzonewindsnorthandsouthoftheequatorthroughbothhemispheres.InSouthAmericarubberisthelatexofcertaintrees,inAfricaoftreesandvines.Thebest“wild”rubberstillcomesfromParainBrazil.Itisgatheredandpreparedforshipmenttheretodaybythesamemethodsthenativesusedfourhundredyearsago.Thenativesintheircanoesfollowthewatercoursesintothejungles.TheycutV-shapedorspiralincisionsinthetrunksofthetreesthatgrowsheertosixtyfeetbeforespreadingtheirshade.Atthebaseoftheincisionstheyaffixsmallclaycups,likeswallows’nests.Overtheroutetheyreturnlaterwithlargegourdsinwhichtheycollectthefluidfromtheclaycups.Thefilledgourdstheycarrytotheirvillageofgrasshutsandtheretheybuildtheirsmokyfiresofoilypalmnuts.Dippingpaddlesintothefluidgumtheyturnandhardenit,acoatingatatime,inthesmoke.Therubber“biscuit”iscutfromthepaddlewithawetknifewhenthedesiredthicknesshasbeenattained.

Goodyearlivedforsixteenyearsafterhisdiscoveryofthevulcanizationprocess.Duringthelastsixhewasunabletowalkwithoutcrutches.Hewasindifferenttomoney.Tomakehisdiscoveriesofstillgreaterservicetomankindwashiswholeaim.Itwasotherswhomadefortunesoutofhisinventions.

Goodyeardiedapoorman.

Inhisbook,acopyofwhichwasprintedongumelasticsheetsandboundinhardrubbercarved,hesummeduphisphilosophyinthisstatement:“Thewriterisnotdisposedtorepineandsaythathehasplantedandothershavegatheredthefruits.Theadvantagesofacareerinlifeshouldnotbeestimatedexclusivelybythestandardofdollarsandcents,asitistoooftendone.Manhasjustcauseforregretwhenhesowsandnoonereaps.”

CHAPTERVIII.PIONEERSOFTHEMACHINESHOP

ThereisatingeofmelancholyaboutthelifeofsuchapioneerasOliverEvans,

thatearlyAmericanmechanicofgreatgenius,whosestoryisbrieflyoutlinedinaprecedingchapter.Herewasamanofimaginationandsensibility,aswellaspracticalpower;conferringgreatbenefitsonhiscountrymen,yetinchronicpoverty;deridedbyhisneighbors,robbedbyhisbeneficiaries;hisproperty,thefruitofhisbrainandtoil,intheendmalevolentlydestroyed.Thelotofthemanwhoseesfaraheadofhistime,andendeavorstoleadhisfellowsinwaysforwhichtheyarenotprepared,hasalwaysbeenhard.

JohnStevens,too,aswehaveseen,metdefeatwhenhetriedtothrustasteamrailroadonacountrythatwasnotyetreadyforit.HismechanicalconceptionswerenotmarkedbygeniusequaltothatofEvans,buttheywerestilltoofaradvancedtobepopular.ThecareerofStevens,however,presentsaremarkablecontrasttothatofEvansinotherrespects.Evanswasbornpoor(inDelaware,1755)andremainedpoorallhislife.Stevenswasbornrich(inNewYorkCity,1749)andremainedrichallhislife.OfthefamilyofEvansnothingisknowneitherbeforeorafterhim.Stevens,onthecontrary,belongedtooneofthebestknownandmostpowerfulfamiliesinAmerica.Hisgrandfather,JohnStevensI,camefromEnglandin1699andmadehimselfalawyerandagreatlandowner.Hisfather,JohnStevensII,wasamemberfromNewJerseyoftheContinentalCongressandpresidedattheNewJerseyConventionwhichratifiedtheConstitution.

JohnStevensIIIwasgraduatedatKing’sCollege(Columbia)in1768.HeheldpublicofficesduringtheRevolution.Tohim,perhapsmorethantoanyotherman,isduethePatentActof1790,fortheprotectionofAmericaninventors,forthatlawwastheresultofapetitionwhichhemadetoCongressandwhich,beingreferredtoacommittee,wasfavorablyreported.ThuswemayregardJohnStevensasthefatheroftheAmericanpatentlaw.

JohnStevensownedtheoldDutchfarmontheHudsononwhichthecityofHobokennowstands.TheplacehadbeeninpossessionoftheBayardfamily,butWilliamBayard,wholivedthereatthetimeoftheRevolution,wasaLoyalist,andhishouseonCastlePointwasburneddownandhisestateconfiscated.AftertheRevolutionStevensacquiredtheproperty.Helaiditoutasatownin1804,madeithissummerresidence,andestablishedtherethemachineshopsinwhichheandhissonscarriedontheirmechanicalexperiments.

TheseshopswereeasilythelargestandbestequippedintheUnionwhenin1838JohnStevensdiedattheageofninety.Thefourbrothers,JohnCox,Robert

Livingston,JamesAlexander,andEdwinAugustus,workedharmoniouslytogether.“NooneeverheardofanyquarrelordissensionintheStevensfamily.Theywereworkmenthemselves,andtheyweresuperiortotheirsubordinatesbecausetheywerebetterengineersandbettermenofbusinessthananyotherfolkwhouptothattimehadundertakenthebusinessoftransportationintheUnitedStates.”*

*AbramS.Hewitt.QuotedinIles,“LeadingAmericanInventors”,p.37.

Theyoungestofthesebrothers,EdwinAugustusStevens,dyingin1868,leftalargepartofhisfortunetofoundtheStevensInstituteofTechnology,afterwardserectedatHobokennotfarfromtheoldfamilyhomesteadonCastlePoint.Themechanicalstarofthefamily,however,wasthesecondbrother,RobertLivingstonStevens,whosemanyinventionsmadeforthegreatimprovementoftransportationbothbylandandwater.Foraquarterofacentury,from1815to1840,hewastheforemostbuilderofsteamboatsinAmerica,andunderhishandthesteamboatincreasedamazinglyinspeedandefficiency.Hemadegreatcontributionstotherailway.Thefirstlocomotivesranuponwoodenstringersplatedwithstrapiron.Alooseend—“asnakehead”itwascalled—sometimescurledupandpiercedthroughthefloorofacar,causingawreck.ThesolidmetalT-rail,nowinuniversaluse,wasdesignedbyStevensandwasfirstusedontheCamdenandAmboyRailroad,ofwhichhewaspresidentandhisbrotherEdwintreasurerandmanager.Theswiveltruckandthecow-catcher,themodernmethodofattachingrailstoties,thevestibulecar,andmanyimprovementsinthelocomotivewerealsofirstintroducedontheStevensroad.

TheStevensbrothersexertedtheirinfluencealsoonnavalconstruction.AdoubleinventionofRobertandEdwin,theforceddraft,toaugmentsteampowerandsavecoal,andtheair-tightfireroom,whichtheyappliedtotheirownvessels,wasafterwardsadoptedbyallnavies.Robertdesignedandprojectedanironcladbattleship,thefirstoneintheworld.Thisvessel,calledtheStevensBattery,wasbegunbyauthorityoftheGovernmentin1842;but,owingtochangesinthedesignandinadequateappropriationsbyCongress,itwasneverlaunched.ItlayformanyyearsinthebasinatHobokenanunfinishedhulk.Robertdiedin1856.OntheoutbreakoftheCivilWar,EdwintriedtorevivetheinterestoftheGovernment,butbythattimethedesignoftheStevensBatterywasobsolete,andEdwinStevenswasanoldman.Sothehonorsfortheconstructionofthefirstironcladman-of-wartofightandwinabattlewenttoJohnEricsson,thatothergreatinventor,whobuiltthefamousMonitorforthe

UnionGovernment.

Carlyle’soft-quotedterm,“CaptainsofIndustry,”mayfittinglybeappliedtotheStevensfamily.Strong,masterful,andfarseeing,theyusedideas,theirownandthoseofothers,inalargeway,andwereabletosucceedwheremoretimorousinventorsfailed.Withoutthestimulusofpovertytheyachievedsuccess,makingintheirshopsthatcombinationofmenandmaterialwhichnotonlyaddedtotheirownfortunesbutalsoservedtheworld.

WeleftEliWhitneydefeatedinhiseffortstodiverttohimselfsomeadequateshareoftheuntoldrichesarisingfromhisgreatinventionofthecottongin.Whitney,however,hadothersourcesofprofitinhisowncharacterandmechanicalability.Asearlyas1798hehadturnedhistalentstothemanufactureoffirearms.

HehadestablishedhisshopsatWhitneyville,nearNewHaven;anditwastherethatheworkedoutanotherachievementquiteasimportanteconomicallyasthecottongin,eventhoughtheimmediateconsequenceswerelessspectacular:namely,theprincipleofstandardizationorinterchangeabilityinmanufacture.

ThisprincipleistheveryfoundationtodayofallAmericanlarge-scaleproduction.Themanufacturerproducesseparatelythousandsofcopiesofeverypartofacomplicatedmachine,confidentthatanequalnumberofthecompletemachinewillbeassembledandsetinmotion.Theownerofamotorcar,areaper,atractor,orasewingmachine,orders,perhapsbytelegraphortelephone,abrokenorlostpart,takingitforgrantedthatthenewpartcanbefittedeasilyandpreciselyintotheplaceoftheold.

Thoughitisprobablethatthisideaofstandardization,orinterchangeability,originatedindependentlyinWhitney’smind,andthoughitiscertainthatheandoneofhisneighbors,whowillbementionedpresently,werethefirstmanufacturersintheworldtocarryitoutsuccessfullyinpractice,yetitmustbenotedthattheideawasnotentirelynew.WearetoldthatthesystemwasalreadyinoperationinEnglandinthemanufactureofship’sblocks.FromnolessanauthoritythanThomasJeffersonwelearnthataFrenchmechanichadpreviouslyconceivedthesameidea.*But,asnogeneralresultwhatevercamefromtheideaineitherFranceorEngland,thehonorsgotoWhitneyandNorth,sincetheycarriedittosuchcompletesuccessthatitspreadtootherbranchesofmanufacturing.Andinthefaceofopposition.

WhenWhitneywrotethathisleadingobjectwas“tosubstitutecorrectandeffectiveoperationsofmachineryforthatskilloftheartistwhichisacquiredonlybylongpracticeandexperience,”inordertomakethesamepartsofdifferentguns“asmuchlikeeachotherasthesuccessiveimpressionsofacopper-plateengraving,”hewaslaughedtoscornbytheordnanceofficersofFranceandEngland.“EventheWashingtonofficials,”

saysRoe,“werescepticalandbecameuneasyatadvancingsomuchmoneywithoutasinglegunhavingbeencompleted,andWhitneywenttoWashington,takingwithhimtenpiecesofeachpartofamusket.HeexhibitedthesetotheSecretaryofWarandthearmyofficersinterested,asasuccessionofpilesofdifferentparts.

Selectingindiscriminatelyfromeachofthepiles,heputtogethertenmuskets,anachievementwhichwaslookedonwithamazement.”**

*SeetheletterfromJeffersontoJohnJay,ofApril30,1785,citedinRoe,“EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders”,p.129.

**Roe,“EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders”,p.133.

WhileWhitneyworkedouthisplansatWhitneyville,SimeonNorth,anotherConnecticutmechanicandagunmakerbytrade,adoptedthesamesystem.North’sfirstshopwasatBerlin.HeafterwardsmovedtoMiddletown.LikeWhitney,heusedmethodsfarinadvanceofthetime.BothWhitneyandNorthhelpedtoestablishtheUnitedStatesArsenalsatSpringfield,Massachusetts,andatHarper’sFerry,Virginia,inwhichtheirmethodswereadopted.

BoththeWhitneyandNorthplantssurvivedtheirfounders.JustbeforetheMexicanWartheWhitneyplantbegantousesteelforgunbarrels,andJeffersonDavis,ColoneloftheMississippiRifles,declaredthatthenewgunswere“thebestrifleswhichhadeverbeenissuedtoanyregimentintheworld.”Later,whenDavisbecameSecretaryofWar,heissuedtotheregulararmythesameweapon.

TheperfectionofWhitney’stoolsandmachinesmadeitpossibletoemployworkmenoflittleskillorexperience.“IndeedsoeasydidMr.Whitneyfindittoinstructnewandinexperiencedworkmen,thatheuniformlypreferredtodoso,ratherthantocombattheprejudicesofthosewhohadlearnedthebusinessunderadifferentsystem.”*ThisrelianceuponthemachineforprecisionandspeedhasbeenadistinguishingmarkofAmericanmanufacture.Amanorawomanof

littleactualmechanicalskillmaymakeanexcellentmachinetender,learningtoperformafewsimplemotionswithgreatrapidity.

*DenisonOlmstead,“Memoir”,citedbyRoe,p.159.

Whitneymarriedin1817MissHenriettaEdwards,daughterofJudgePierpontEdwards,ofNewHaven,andgranddaughterofJonathanEdwards.Hisbusinessprospered,andhishighcharacter,agreeablemanners,andsoundjudgmentwon.forhimthehighestregardofallwhoknewhim;andhehadawidecircleoffriends.

ItissaidthathewasonintimatetermswitheveryPresidentoftheUnitedStatesfromGeorgeWashingtontoJohnQuincyAdams.

ButhishealthhadbeenimpairedbyhardshipsenduredintheSouth,inthelongstruggleoverthecottongin,andhediedin1825,attheageoffifty-nine.Thebusinesswhichhefoundedremainedinhisfamilyforninetyyears.Itwascarriedonafterhisdeathbytwoofhisnephewsandthenbyhisson,until1888,whenitwassoldtotheWinchesterRepeatingArmsCompanyofNewHaven.

Herethen,intheseearlyNewEnglandgunshops,wasborntheAmericansystemofinterchangeablemanufacture.Itsgrowthdependeduponthemachinetool,thatis,themachineformakingmachines.Machinetools,ofcourse,didnotoriginateinAmerica.

EnglishmechanicsweremakingmachinesforcuttingmetalatleastagenerationbeforeWhitney.OneoftheearliestoftheseEnglishpioneerswasJohnWilkinson,inventorandmakeroftheboringmachinewhichenabledBoultonandWattin1776tobringtheirsteamenginetothepointofpracticability.WithoutthismachineWattfounditimpossibletoborehiscylinderswiththenecessarydegreeofaccuracy.*Fromthisonefact,thatthesuccessofthesteamenginedependedupontheinventionofanewtool,wemayjudgeofwhatagreatparttheinventorsofmachinetools,ofwhomthousandsareunnamedandunknown,haveplayedintheindustrialworld.

*Roe,“EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders”,p.1etseq.

SoitwasintheshopsoftheNewEnglandgunmakersthatmachinetoolswerefirstmadeofsuchvarietyandadaptabilitythattheycouldbeappliedgenerallytootherbranchesofmanufacturing;andsoitwasthatthesystemof

interchangeablemanufacturearoseasadistinctivelyAmericandevelopment.WehavealreadyseenhowEngland’spolicyofkeepingathomethesecretsofhermachineryledtotheindependentdevelopmentofthespindlesandloomsofNewEngland.ThesamepolicyaffectedthetoolindustryinAmericainthesamewayandbredinthenewcountryaraceoforiginalandresourcefulmechanics.

OneofthesepioneerswasThomasBlanchard,bornin1788onafarminWorcesterCounty,Massachusetts,thehomealsoofEliWhitneyandEliasHowe.Tombeganhismechanicalcareerattheageofthirteenbyinventingadevicetopareapples.Attheageofeighteenhewenttoworkinhisbrother’sshop,wheretacksweremadebyhand,andonedaytooktohisbrotheramechanicaldeviceforcountingthetackstogointoasinglepacket.Theinventionwasadoptedandwasfoundtosavethelaborofoneworkman.Tom’snextachievementwasamachinetomaketacks,onwhichhespentsixyearsandtherightsofwhichhesoldforfivethousanddollars.Itwasworthfarmore,foritrevolutionizedthetackindustry,butsuchasumwastoyoungBlanchardagreatfortune.

Thetack-makingmachinegaveBlanchardareputation,andhewaspresentlysoughtoutbyagunmanufacturer,toseewhetherhecouldimprovethelatheforturningthebarrelsoftheguns.

Blanchardcould;anddid.Hisnextproblemwastoinventalatheforturningtheirregularwoodenstocks.Herehealsosucceededandproducedalathethatwouldcopypreciselyandrapidlyanypattern.ItisfromthisinventionthatthenameofBlanchardisbestknown.TheoriginalmachineispreservedintheUnitedStatesArmoryatSpringfield,towhichBlanchardwasattachedformanyyears,andwherescoresofthedescendantsofhiscopyinglathemaybeseeninactiontoday.

Turninggunstockswas,ofcourse,onlyoneofthemanyusesofBlanchard’scopyinglathe.Itschiefuse,infact,wasintheproductionofwoodenlastsfortheshoemakersofNewEngland,butitwasappliedtomanybranchesofwoodmanufacture,andlateronthesameprinciplewasappliedtotheshapingofmetal.

Blanchardwasamanofmanyideas.Hebuiltasteamvehicleforordinaryroadsandwasanearlyadvocateofrailroads;hebuiltsteamboatstoplyupontheConnecticutandincidentallyproducedinconnectionwiththesehismostprofitableinvention,amachinetobendship’stimberswithoutsplinteringthem.

ThelateryearsofhislifewerespentinBoston,andheoftenservedasapatentexpertinthecourts,wherehiswideknowledge,hardcommonsense,incisivespeech,andhomelywitmadehimawelcomewitness.

WenowglanceatanotherNewEnglandinventor,SamuelColt,themanwhocarriedWhitney’sconceptionstotranscendentheights,themostdashingandadventurousofallthepioneersofthemachineshopinAmerica.If“theAmericanfrontierwasElizabethaninquality,”therewassurelyatouchoftheElizabethanspiritonthemanwhoseinventionsogreatlyaffectedthecharacterofthatfrontier.SamuelColtwasbornatHartfordin1814anddiedtherein1862attheageofforty-eight,leavingbehindhimafamousnameandacolossalindustryofhisowncreation.HisfatherwasasmallmanufacturerofsilkandwoolensatHartford,andtheboyenteredthefactoryataveryearlyage.

AtschoolinAmherstalittlelater,hefellunderthedispleasureofhisteachers.Atthirteenhetooktosea,asaboybeforethemast,ontheEastIndiavoyagetoCalcutta.Itwasonthisvoyagethatheconceivedtheideaoftherevolverandwhittledoutawoodenmodel.Onhisreturnhewentintohisfather’sworksandgainedasuperficialknowledgeofchemistryfromthemanagerofthebleachinganddyeingdepartment.ThenhetooktotheroadforthreeyearsandtraveledfromQuebectoNewOrleanslecturingonchemistryunderthenameof“Dr.Coult.”Themainfeatureofhislecturewastheadministrationofnitrousoxidegastovolunteersfromtheaudience,whoseanticsandtheamusingshowman’spattermadetheentertainmentverypopular.

Colt’sambition,however,soaredbeyondtheoccupationofitinerantshowman,andheneverforgothisrevolver.Assoonashehadmoneyenough,hemademodelsofthenewarmandtookouthispatents;and,havingenlistedtheinterestofcapital,hesetupthePatentArmsCompanyatPaterson,NewJersey,tomanufacturetherevolver.HedidnotsucceedinhavingtherevolveradoptedbytheGovernment,forthearmyofficersforalongtimeobjectedtothepercussioncap(aninvention,bytheway,thensometwentyyearsold,whichwasjustcomingintouseandwithoutwhichColt’srevolverwouldnothavebeenpracticable)andthoughtthatthenewweaponmightfailinanemergency.ColtfoundamarketinTexasandamongthefrontiersmenwhowerefightingtheSeminoleWarinFlorida,butthesaleswereinsufficient,andin1842thecompanywasobligedtoconfessinsolvencyandclosedowntheplant.Coltboughtfromthecompanythepatentoftherevolver,whichwassupposedtobeworthless.

NothingmorehappeneduntilaftertheoutbreakoftheMexicanWarin1846.ThencamealoudcallfromGeneralZacharyTaylorforasupplyofColt’srevolvers.Colthadnone.HehadsoldthelastonetoaTexasranger.Hehadnotevenamodel.YethetookanorderfromtheGovernmentforathousandandproceededtoconstructamodel.ForthemanufactureoftherevolvershearrangedwiththeWhitneyplantatWhitneyville.TherehesawandscrutinizedeverydetailofthefactorysystemthatEliWhitneyhadestablishedfortyyearsearlier.HeresolvedtohaveaplantofhisownonthesamesystemandonethatwouldfarsurpassWhitney’s.Nextyear(1848)herentedpremisesinHartford.Hisbusinessprosperedandincreased.AtlasttheGovernmentdemandedhisrevolvers.WithinfiveyearshehadprocuredasiteoftwohundredandfiftyacresfrontingtheConnecticutRiveratHartford,andhadtherebeguntheerectionofthegreatestarmsfactoryintheworld.

Coltwasacaptainofcaptains.TheablestmechanicandindustrialorganizerinNewEnglandatthattimewasElishaK.

Root.Coltwentafterhim,outbiddingeveryotherbidderforhisservices,andbroughthimtoHartfordtosupervisetheerectionofthenewfactoryandsetupitsmachinery.Rootwasagreatsuperintendent,andthephenomenalsuccessoftheColtfactorywasdueinamarkeddegreetohim.HebecamepresidentofthecompanyafterColt’sdeathin1862,andunderhimweretrainedalargenumberofmechanicsandinventorsofnewmachinetools,whoafterwardsbecamecelebratedleadersandofficersintheindustrialarmiesofthecountry.

ThespectacularriseoftheColtfactoryatHartforddrewtheattentionoftheBritishGovernment,andin1854ColtwasinvitedtoappearinLondonbeforeaParliamentaryCommitteeonSmallArms.Helecturedthemembersofthecommitteeasiftheyhadbeenschoolboys,tellingthemthattheregularBritishgunwassobadthathewouldbeashamedtohaveitcomefromhisshop.

SpeakingofaplantwhichhehadopenedinLondontheyearbeforehecriticizedthesupposedlyskilledBritishmechanic,saying:“Ibeganherebyemployingthehighest-pricedmenthatIcouldfindtododifficultthings,butIhadtoremovethewholeofthesehigh-pricedmen.ThenItriedthecheapestIcouldfind,andthemoreignorantamanwas,themorebrainshehadformypurpose;andtheresultwasthis:IhadmennowinmyemploythatIstartedwithattwoshillingsaday,andinoneshortyearIcannotsparethemateightshillingsaday.”*Colt’saudacity,however,didnotoffendthemembersofthecommitteeandthey

decidedtovisithisAmericanfactoryatHartford.Theydid;andweresoimpressedthattheBritishGovernmentpurchasedinAmericaafullsetofmachinesforthemanufactureofarmsintheRoyalSmallArmsfactoryatEnfield,England,andtookacrosstheseaAmericanworkmenandforementosetupandrunthese.

machines.AdemandsprangupinEuropeforBlanchardcopyinglathesandahundredotherAmericantools,andfromthistimeonthemanufactureoftoolsandappliancesforothermanufacturers,bothathomeandabroad,becameanincreasinglyimportantindustryofNewEngland.

*HenryBarnard,“Armsmear”,p.371.

Thesystemwhichthegunmakersworkedoutanddevelopedtomeettheirownrequirementswascapableofindefiniteexpansion.Itwaseasilyadaptedtootherkindsofmanufacture.Soitwasthatasnewinventionscameinthemanufacturersofthesefoundmanyoftheneededtoolsreadyforthem,andanyspecialmodificationscouldbequicklymade.Amanufacturer,ofmachinetoolswillproduceondemandadevicetoperformanyoperation,howeverdifficultorintricate.Someofthemachinesaresoversatilethatspeciallydesignedsetsofcuttingedgeswilladaptthemtoalmostanywork.

Standardization,duetothemachinetool,isoneofthechiefgloriesofAmericanmanufacturing.Accuratewatchesandclocks,bicyclesandmotorcars,innumerabledevicestosavelaborinthehome,theoffice,theshop,oronthefarm,arewithinthereachofall,becausethemachinetool,tendedbylaborcomparativelyunskilled,doesthegreaterpartoftheworkofproduction.InthecrisisoftheWorldWar,Americanmanufacturers,turningfromtheartsofpeace,promptlyadaptedtheirplantstothemanufactureofthemostcomplicatedenginesofdestruction,whichwereproducedinEuropeonlybyskilledmachinistsofthehighestclass.

CHAPTERIX.THEFATHERSOFELECTRICITY

ItmaystartlesomereadertobetoldthatthefoundationsofmodernelectricalscienceweredefinitelyestablishedintheElizabethanAge.TheEnglandofElizabeth,ofShakespeare,ofDrakeandthesea-dogs,isseldomthoughtofasthecradleofthescienceofelectricity.Nevertheless,itwas;justassurelyasitwasthebirthplaceoftheShakespeariandrama,oftheAuthorizedVersionofthe

Bible,orofthatmaritimeadventureandcolonialenterprisewhichfinallygrewandblossomedintotheUnitedStatesofAmerica.

TheaccreditedfatherofthescienceofelectricityandmagnetismisWilliamGilbert,whowasaphysicianandmanoflearningatthecourtofElizabeth.Priortohim,allthatwasknownofthesephenomenawaswhattheancientsknew,thatthelodestonepossessedmagneticpropertiesandthatamberandjet,whenrubbed,wouldattractbitsofpaperorothersubstancesofsmallspecificgravity.Gilbert’sgreattreatise“OntheMagnet”,printedinLatinin1600,containingthefruitsofhisresearchesandexperimentsformanyyears,indeedprovidedthebasisforanewscience.

OnfoundationswellandtrulylaidbyGilbertseveralEuropeans,likeOttovonGuerickeofGermany,DuFayofFrance,andStephenGrayofEngland,workedbeforeBenjaminFranklinandaddedtothestructureofelectricalknowledge.TheLeydenjar,inwhichthemysteriousforcecouldbestored,wasinventedinHollandin1745

andinGermanyalmostsimultaneously.

Franklin’simportantdiscoveriesareoutlinedinthefirstchapterofthisbook.Hefoundout,aswehaveseen,thatelectricityandlightningareoneandthesame,andinthelightningrodhemadethefirstpracticalapplicationofelectricity.AfterwardsCavendishofEngland,CoulombofFrance,GalvaniofItaly,allbroughtnewbrickstothepile.Followingthemcameagroupofmasterbuilders,amongwhommaybementioned:VoltaofItaly,OerstedofDenmark,AmpereofFrance,OhmofGermany,FaradayofEngland,andJosephHenryofAmerica.

Amongthesemen,whowere,itshouldbenoted,theoreticalinvestigators,ratherthanpracticalinventorslikeMorse,orBell,orEdison,theAmericanJosephHenryrankshigh.HenrywasbornatAlbanyin1799andwaseducatedattheAlbanyAcademy.

Intendingtopracticemedicine,hestudiedthenaturalsciences.

Hewaspoorandearnedhisdailybreadbyprivatetutoring.Hewasanindustriousandbrilliantstudentandsoongaveevidenceofbeingendowedwithapowerfulmind.Hewasappointedin1824

anassistantengineerforthesurveyofarouteforaStateroad,threehundred

mileslong,betweentheHudsonRiverandLakeErie.

Theexperiencehegainedinthisworkchangedthecourseofhiscareer;hedecidedtofollowcivilandmechanicalengineeringinsteadofmedicine.Thenin1826hebecameteacherofmathematicsandnaturalphilosophyintheAlbanyAcademy.

ItwasintheAlbanyAcademythathebeganthatwideseriesofexperimentsandinvestigationswhichtouchedsomanyphasesofthegreatproblemofelectricity.Hisfirstdiscoverywasthatamagnetcouldbeimmenselystrengthenedbywindingitwithinsulatedwire.Hewasthefirsttoemployinsulatedwirewoundasonaspoolandwasablefinallytomakeamagnetwhichwouldliftthirty-fivehundredpounds.Hefirstshowedthedifferencebetween“quantity”magnetscomposedofshortlengthsofwireconnectedinparallel,excitedbyafewlargecells,and“intensity”magnetswoundwithasinglelongwireandexcitedbyabatterycomposedofcellsinseries.Thiswasanoriginaldiscovery,greatlyincreasingboththeimmediateusefulnessofthemagnetanditspossibilitiesforfutureexperiments.

ThelearnedmenofEurope,Faraday,Sturgeon,andtherest,werequicktorecognizethevalueofthediscoveriesoftheyoungAlbanyschoolmaster.Sturgeonmagnanimouslysaid:“ProfessorHenryhasbeenenabledtoproduceamagneticforcewhichtotallyeclipseseveryotherinthewholeannalsofmagnetism;andnoparallelistobefoundsincethemiraculoussuspensionofthecelebratedOrientalimposterinhisironcoffin.”*

*PhilosophicalMagazine,vol.XI,p.199(March,1832).

Henryalsodiscoveredthephenomenaofselfinductionandmutualinduction.Acurrentsentthroughawireinthesecondstoryofthebuildinginducedcurrentsthroughasimilarwireinthecellartwofloorsbelow.InthisdiscoveryHenryanticipatedFaradaythoughhisresultsastomutualinductionwerenotpublisheduntilhehadheardrumorsofFaraday’sdiscovery,whichhethoughttobesomethingdifferent.

TheattempttosendsignalsbyelectricityhadbeenmademanytimesbeforeHenrybecameinterestedintheproblem.OntheinventionofSturgeon’smagnettherehadbeenhopesinEnglandofasuccessfulsolution,butintheexperimentsthatfollowedthecurrentbecamesoweakafterafewhundredfeetthattheidea

waspronouncedimpracticable.HenrystrungamileoffinewireintheAcademy,placedan“intensity”batteryatoneend,andmadethearmaturestrikeabellattheother.Thushediscoveredtheessentialprincipleoftheelectrictelegraph.Thisdiscoverywasmadein1831,theyearbeforetheideaofaworkingelectrictelegraphflashedonthemindofMorse.Therewasnooccasionforthecontroversywhichtookplacelaterastowhoinventedthetelegraph.ThatwasMorse’sachievement,butthediscoveryofthegreatfact,whichstartledMorseintoactivity,wasHenry’sachievement.InHenry’sownwords:“Thiswasthefirstdiscoveryofthefactthatagalvaniccurrentcouldbetransmittedtoagreatdistancewithsolittleadiminutionofforceastoproducemechanicaleffects,andofthemeansbywhichthetransmissioncouldbeaccomplished.Isawthattheelectrictelegraphwasnowpracticable.”Hesaysfurther,however:“Ihadnotinmindanyparticularformoftelegraph,butreferredonlytothegeneralfactthatitwasnowdemonstratedthatagalvaniccurrentcouldbetransmittedtogreatdistances,withsufficientpowertoproducemechanicaleffectsadequatetothedesiredobject.”*

*DepositionofJosephHenry,September7,1849,printedinMorse,“TheElectra-MagneticTelegraph”,p.91.

Henrynextturnedtothepossibilityofamagneticenginefortheproductionofpowerandsucceededinmakingareciprocating-barmotor,onwhichheinstalledthefirstautomaticpolechanger,orcommutator,everusedwithanelectricbattery.Hedidnotsucceedinproducingdirectrotarymotion.Hisbaroscillatedlikethewalkingbeamofasteamboat.

Henrywasappointedin1839.ProfessorofNaturalPhilosophyintheCollegeofNewJersey,betterknowntodayasPrincetonUniversity.Thereherepeatedhisoldexperimentsonalargerscale,confirmedSteinheil’sexperimentofusingtheearthasreturnconductor,showedhowafeeblecurrentwouldbestrengthened,andhowasmallmagnetcouldbeusedasacircuitmakerandbreaker.Hereweretheprinciplesofthetelegraphrelayandthedynamo.

Why,then,iftheworkofHenrywassoimportant,ishisnamealmostforgotten,exceptbymenofscience,andnotgiventoanyoneofthepracticalapplicationsofelectricity?Theanswerisplain.Henrywasaninvestigator,notaninventor.Hestateshispositionveryclearly:“Inevermyselfattemptedtoreducetheprinciplestopractice,ortoapplyanyofmydiscoveriestoprocessesinthearts.MywholeattentionexclusiveofmydutiestotheCollege,wasdevotedto

originalscientificinvestigations,andIlefttootherswhatIconsideredinascientificviewofsubordinateimportance—theapplicationofmydiscoveriestousefulpurposesinthearts.BesidesthisIpartookofthefeelingcommontomenofscience,whichdisinclinesthemtosecuretothemselvestheadvantagesoftheirdiscoveriesbyapatent.”

Then,too,histalentsweresoonturnedtoawiderfield.ThebequestofJamesSmithson,thatfarsightedEnglishman,wholefthisfortunetotheUnitedStatestofound“theSmithsonianInstitution,fortheincreaseanddiffusionofknowledgeamongmen,”wasresponsibleforthediffusionofHenry’sactivities.

TheSmithsonianInstitutionwasfoundedatWashingtonin1846,andHenrywasfittinglychosenitsSecretary,thatis,itschiefexecutiveofficer.Andfromthattimeuntilhisdeathin1878,overthirtyyears,hedevotedhimselftoscienceingeneral.

Hestudiedterrestrialmagnetismandbuildingmaterials.Hereducedmeteorologytoascience,collectingreportsbytelegraph,madethefirstweathermap,andissuedforecastsoftheweatherbasedupondefiniteknowledgeratherthanuponsigns.

HebecameamemberoftheLighthouseBoardin1852andwastheheadafter1871.Theexcellenceofmarineilluminantsandfogsignalstodayislargelyduetohisefforts.ThoughhewaslaterdrawnintoacontroversywithMorseoverthecreditfortheinventionofthetelegraph,heusedhisinfluencetoprocuretherenewalofMorse’spatent.HelistenedwithattentiontoAlexanderGrahamBell,whohadtheideathatelectricwiresmightbemadetocarrythehumanvoice,andencouragedhimtoproceedwithhisexperiments.“Hesaid,”Bellwrites,“thathethoughtitwasthegermofagreatinventionandadvisedmetoworkatitwithoutpublishing.IsaidthatIrecognizedthefactthatthereweremechanicaldifficultiesinthewaythatrenderedtheplanimpracticableatthepresenttime.IaddedthatIfeltthatIhadnottheelectricalknowledgenecessarytoovercomethedifficulties.Hislaconicanswerwas,‘GETIT!’Icannottellyouhowmuchthesetwowordshaveencouragedme.”

Henryhadblazedthewayforotherstoworkouttheprinciplesoftheelectricmotor,andafewexperimentersattemptedtofollowhislead.ThomasDavenport,ablacksmithofBrandon,Vermont,builtanelectriccarin1835,whichhewasabletodriveontheroad,andsomadehimselfthepioneeroftheautomobilein

America.TwelveyearslaterMosesG.FarmerexhibitedatvariousplacesinNewEnglandanelectric-drivenlocomotive,andin1851

CharlesGraftonPagedroveanelectriccar,onthetracksoftheBaltimoreandOhioRailroad,fromWashingtontoBladensburg,attherateofnineteenmilesanhour.Butthecostofbatterieswastoogreatandtheuseoftheelectricmotorintransportationnotyetpracticable.

Thegreatprincipleofthedynamo,orelectricgenerator,wasdiscoveredbyFaradayandHenrybuttheprocessofitsdevelopmentintoanagencyofpracticalpowerconsumedmanyyears;andwithoutthedynamoforthegenerationofpowertheelectricmotorhadtostandstillandtherecouldbenopracticableapplicationofelectricitytotransportation,ormanufacturing,orlighting.Soitwasthat,exceptforthetelegraph,whosestoryistoldinanotherchapter,therewaslittlemoreAmericanachievementinelectricityuntilaftertheCivilWar.

Thearclightasapracticalilluminatingdevicecamein1878.ItwasintroducedbyCharlesF.Brush,ayoungOhioengineerandgraduateoftheUniversityofMichigan.Othersbeforehimhadattackedtheproblemofelectriclighting,butlackofsuitablecarbonsstoodinthewayoftheirsuccess.Brushovercamethechiefdifficultiesandmadeseverallampstoburninseriesfromonedynamo.ThefirstBrushlightsusedforstreetilluminationwereerectedinCleveland,Ohio,andsoontheuseofarclightsbecamegeneral.Otherinventorsimprovedtheapparatus,butstillthereweredrawbacks.Foroutdoorlightingandforlargehallstheyservedthepurpose,buttheycouldnotbeusedinsmallrooms.Besides,theywereinseries,thatis,thecurrentpassedthrougheverylampinturn,andanaccidenttoonethrewthewholeseriesoutofaction.ThewholeproblemofindoorlightingwastobesolvedbyoneofAmerica’smostfamousinventors.

TheantecedentsofThomasAlvaEdisoninAmericamaybetracedbacktothetimewhenFranklinwasbeginninghiscareerasaprinterinPhiladelphia.ThefirstAmericanEdisonsappeartohavecomefromHollandabout1730andsettledonthePassaicRiverinNewJersey.Edison’sgrandfather,JohnEdison,wasaLoyalistintheRevolutionwhofoundrefugeinNovaScotiaandsubsequentlymovedtoUpperCanada.Hisson,SamuelEdison,thoughthesawamoralintheoldman’sexile.HisfatherhadtakentheKing’ssideandhadlosthishome;Samuelwouldmakenosucherror.So,whentheCanadianRebellionof1837brokeout,SamuelEdison,agedthirty-three,arrayedhimselfonthesideoftheinsurgents.Thistime,however,theinsurgentslost,andSamuelwas

obligedtofleetotheUnitedStates,justashisfatherhadfledtoCanada.HefinallysettledatMilan,Ohio,andthere,in1847,inalittlebrickhouse,whichisstillstanding,ThomasAlvaEdisonwasborn.

WhentheboywasseventhefamilymovedtoPortHuron,Michigan.

Thefactthatheattendedschoolonlythreemonthsandsoonbecameself-supportingwasnotduetopoverty.Hismother,aneducatedwomanofScotchextraction,taughthimathomeaftertheschoolmasterreportedthathewas“addled.”Hisdesireformoneytospendonchemicalsforalaboratorywhichhehadfittedupinthecellarledtohisfirstventureinbusiness.“Byagreatamountofpersistence,”hesays,“Igotpermissiontogoonthelocaltrainasnewsboy.ThelocaltrainfromPortHurontoDetroit,adistanceofsixty-threemiles,leftat7A.M.andarrivedagainat9.30P.M.AfterbeingonthetrainforseveralmonthsIstartedtwostoresinPortHuron—oneforperiodicals,andtheotherforvegetables,butter,andberriesintheseason.

Theywereattendedbytwoboyswhosharedintheprofits.”

Moreover,youngEdisonboughtproducefromthefarmers’wivesalongthelinewhichhesoldataprofit.Hehadseveralnewsboysworkingforhimonothertrains;hespenthoursinthePublicLibraryinDetroit;hefittedupalaboratoryinanunusedcompartmentofoneofthecoaches,andthenboughtasmallprintingpresswhichheinstalledinthecarandbegantoissueanewspaperwhichheprintedonthetrain.Allbeforehewasfifteenyearsold.

ButonedayEdison’scareerasatravelingnewsboycametoasuddenend.Hewasatworkinhismovinglaboratorywhenalurchofthetrainjarredastickofburningphosphorustothefloorandsetthecaronfire.Theirateconductorejectedhimatthenextstation,givinghimaviolentboxontheear,whichpermanentlyinjuredhishearing,anddumpedhischemicalsandprintingapparatusontheplatform.

Havinglosthisposition,youngEdisonsoonbegantodabbleintelegraphy,inwhichhehadalreadybecomeinterested,“probably,”ashesays,“fromvisitingtelegraphofficeswithachumwhohadtastessimilartomine.”Heandthischumstrungalinebetweentheirhousesandlearnedtherudimentsofwritingbywire.Thenastationmasterontherailroad,whosechildEdisonhadsavedfromdanger,tookEdisonunderhiswingandtaughthimthemysteriesofrailway

telegraphy.Theboyofsixteenheldpositionswtsmallstationsnearhomeforafewmonthsandthenbeganaperiodoffiveyearsofapparentlypurposelesswanderingasatramptelegrapher.Toledo,Cincinnati,Indianapolis,Memphis,Louisville,Detroit,weresomeofthecitiesinwhichheworked,studied,experimented,andplayedpracticaljokesonhisassociates.Hewaseagertolearnsomethingoftheprinciplesofelectricitybutfoundfewfromwhomhecouldlearn.

EdisonarrivedinBostonin1868,practicallypenniless,andappliedforapositionasnightoperator.“ThemanageraskedmewhenIwasreadytogotowork.‘Now,’Ireplied.”InBostonhefoundmenwhoknewsomethingofelectricity,and,asheworkedatnightandcutshorthissleepinghours,hefoundtimeforstudy.

HeboughtandstudiedFaraday’sworks.Presentlycamethefirstofhismultitudinousinventions,anautomaticvoterecorder,forwhichhereceivedapatentin1868.ThisnecessitatedatriptoWashington,whichhemadeonborrowedmoney,buthewasunabletoarouseanyinterestinthedevice.“Afterthevoterecorder,”hesays,“Iinventedastockticker,andstartedatickerserviceinBoston;hadthirtyorfortysubscribersandoperatedfromaroomovertheGoldExchange.”ThismachineEdisonattemptedtosellinNewYork,buthereturnedtoBostonwithouthavingsucceeded.Hetheninventedaduplextelegraphbywhichtwomessagesmightbesentsimultaneously,butatatestthemachinefailedbecauseofthestupidityoftheassistant.

Pennilessandindebt,EdisonarrivedagaininNewYorkin1869.

Butnowfortunefavoredhim.TheGoldIndicatorCompanywasaconcernfurnishingtoitssubscribersbytelegraphtheStockExchangepricesofgold.Thecompany’sinstrumentwasoutoforder.ByaluckychanceEdisonwasonthespottorepairit,whichhedidsuccessfully,andthisledtohisappointmentassuperintendentatasalaryofthreehundreddollarsamonth.Whenachangeintheownershipofthecompanythrewhimoutofthepositionheformed,withFranklinL.Pope,thepartnershipofPope,Edison,andCompany,thefirstfirmofelectricalengineersintheUnitedStates.

NotlongafterwardsEdisonbroughtouttheinventionwhichsethimonthehighroadtogreatachievement.Thiswastheimprovedstockticker,forwhichtheGoldandStockTelegraphCompanypaidhimfortythousanddollars.Itwas

muchmorethanhehadexpected.“Ihadmadeupmymind,”hesays,“that,takingintoconsiderationthetimeandkillingpaceIwasworkingat,Ishouldbeentitledto$5000,butcouldgetalongwith$3000.”Themoney,ofcourse,waspaidbycheck.Edisonhadneverreceivedacheckbeforeandhehadtobetoldhowtocashit.

EdisonimmediatelysetupashopinNewarkandthrewhimselfintomanyandvariousactivities.HeremadetheprevailingsystemofautomatictelegraphyandintroduceditintoEngland.Heexperimentedwithsubmarinecablesandworkedoutasystemofquadruplextelegraphybywhichonewirewasmadetodotheworkoffour.ThesetwoinventionswereboughtbyJayGouldforhisAtlanticandPacificTelegraphCompany.Gouldpaidforthequadruplexsystemthirtythousanddollars,butfortheautomatictelegraphhepaidnothing.GouldpresentlyacquiredcontroloftheWesternUnion;and,havingthusremovedcompetitionfromhispath,“hethen,”saysEdison,“repudiatedhiscontractwiththeautomatictelegraphpeopleandtheyneverreceivedacentfortheirwiresorpatents,andIlostthreeyearsofveryhardlabor.ButIneverhadanygrudgeagainsthimbecausehewassoableinhisline,andaslongasmypartwassuccessfulthemoneywithmewasasecondaryconsideration.WhenGouldgottheWesternUnionIknewnofurtherprogressintelegraphywaspossible,andIwentintootherlines.”*

*QuotedinDyerandMartin.“Edison”,vol.1,p.164.

Infact,however,theneedofmoneyforcedEdisonlaterontoresumehisworkfortheWesternUnionTelegraphCompany,bothintelegraphyandtelephony.Hisconnectionwiththetelephoneistoldinanothervolumeofthisseries.*HeinventedacarbontransmitterandsoldittotheWesternUnionforonehundredthousanddollars,payableinseventeenannualinstallmentsofsixthousanddollars.Hemadeasimilaragreementforthesamesumofferedhimforthepatentoftheelectro-motograph.Hedidnotrealizethattheseinstallmentswereonlysimpleinterestuponthesumsduehim.TheseagreementsaretypicalofEdison’scommercialsenseintheearlyyearsofhiscareerasaninventor.

Heworkedonlyuponinventionsforwhichtherewasapossiblecommercialdemandandsoldthemforatrifletogetthemoneytomeetthepayrollsofhisdifferentshops.Latertheinventorlearnedwisdomandassociatedwithhimselfkeenbusinessmentotheircommonprofit.

*Hendrick,“TheAgeofBigBusiness”.

EdisonsetuphislaboratoriesandfactoriesatMenloPark,NewJersey,in1876,anditwastherethatheinventedthephonograph,forwhichhereceivedthefirstpatentin1878.Itwasthere,too,thathebeganthatwonderfulseriesofexperimentswhichgavetotheworldtheincandescentlamp.Hehadnoticedthegrowingimportanceofopenarclighting,butwasconvincedthathismissionwastoproduceanelectriclampforusewithindoors.Forsakingforthemomenthisnewbornphonograph,Edisonappliedhimselfinearnesttotheproblemofthelamp.Hisfirstsearchwasforadurablefilamentwhichwouldburninavacuum.Aseriesofexperimentswithplatinumwireandwithvariousrefractorymetalsledtonosatisfactoryresults.

Manyothersubstancesweretried,evenhumanhair.Edisonconcludedthatcarbonofsomesortwasthesolutionratherthanametal.Almostcoincidently,Swan,anEnglishman,whohadalsobeenwrestlingwiththisproblem,cametothesameconclusion.

Finally,onedayinOctober,1879,afterfourteenmonthsofhardworkandtheexpenditureoffortythousanddollars,acarbonizedcottonthreadsealedinoneofEdison’sglobeslastedfortyhours.“Ifitwillburnfortyhoursnow,”saidEdison,“IknowIcanmakeitburnahundred.”Andsohedid.Abetterfilamentwasneeded.Edisonfounditincarbonizedstripsofbamboo.

Edisondevelopedhisowntypeofdynamo,thelargestevermadeuptothattime,and,alongwiththeEdisonincandescentlamps,itwasoneofthewondersoftheParisElectricalExpositionof1881.TheinstallationinEuropeandAmericaofplantsforservicefollowed.Edison’sfirstgreatcentralstation,supplyingpowerforthreethousandlamps,waserectedatHolbornViaduct,London,in1882,andinSeptemberofthatyearthePearlStreetStationinNewYorkCity,thefirstcentralstationinAmerica,wasputintooperation.

Theincandescentlampandthecentralpowerstation,consideredtogether,mayberegardedasoneofthemostfruitfulconceptionsinthehistoryofappliedelectricity.Itcomprisedacompletegenerating,distributing,andutilizingsystem,fromthedynamototheverylampatthefixture,readyforuse.Itevenincludedametertodeterminethecurrentactuallyconsumed.Thesuccessofthesystemwascomplete,andasfastaslampsandgeneratorscouldbeproducedtheywereinstalledtogiveaserviceatoncerecognizedassuperiortoanyotherformof

lighting.By1885theEdisonlightingsystemwascommerciallydevelopedinallitsessentials,thoughstillsubjecttomanyimprovementsandcapableofgreatenlargement,andsoonEdison.soldouthisinterestsinitandturnedhisgreatmindtootherinventions.

Theinventiveingenuityofothersbroughtintimebetterandmoreeconomicalincandescentlamps.Fromthefilamentsofbamboofiberthenextstepwastofilamentsofcelluloseintheformofcotton,dulypreparedandcarbonized.Later(1905)camethemetalizedcarbonfilamentandfinallytheemploymentoftantalumortungsten.Thetungstenlampsfirstmadewereverydelicate,anditwasnotuntilW.D.Coolidge,intheresearchlaboratoriesoftheGeneralElectricCompanyatSchenectady,inventedaprocessforproducingductiletungstenthattheybecameavailableforgeneraluse.

Thedynamoandthecentralpowerstationbroughttheelectricmotorintoaction.Thedynamoandthemotordopreciselyoppositethings.Thedynamoconvertsmechanicalenergyintoelectricenergy.Themotortransformselectricenergyintomechanicalenergy.Butthetwoworkinpartnershipandwithoutthedynamotomanufacturethepowerthemotorcouldnotthrive.Moreover,thecentralstationwasneededtodistributethepowerfortransportationaswellasforlighting.

ThefirstmotorstouseEdisonstationcurrentweredesignedbyFrankJ.Sprague,agraduateoftheNavalAcademy,whohadworkedwithEdison,ashavemanyoftheforemostelectricalengineersofAmericaandEurope.Thesesmallmotorspossessedseveraladvantagesoverthebigsteamengine.Theyransmoothlyandnoiselesslyonaccountoftheabsenceofreciprocatingparts.

Theyconsumedcurrentonlywheninuse.Theycouldbeinstalledandconnectedwithaminimumoftroubleandexpense.Theyemittedneithersmellnorsmoke.EdisonbuiltanexperimentalelectricrailwaylineatMenloParkin1880andproveditspracticability.

Meanwhile,however,asheworkedonhismotorsanddynamos,hewasanticipatedbyothersinsomeofhisinventions.ItwouldnotbefairtosaythatEdisonandSpraguealonedevelopedtheelectricrailway,fortherewereseveralotherswhomadeimportantcontributions.StephenD.FieldofStockbridge,Massachusetts,hadapatentwhichtheEdisoninterestsfounditnecessarytoacquire;C.J.VanDepoeleandLeoDaftmadeimportantcontributionstothe

trolleysystem.InClevelandin1884anelectricrailwayonasmallscalewasopenedtothepublic.ButSprague’sfirstelectricrailway,builtatRichmond,Virginia,in1887,asacompletesystem,isgenerallyhailedasthetruepioneerofelectrictransportationintheUnitedStates.

Thereaftertheelectricrailwayspreadquicklyovertheland,obliteratingtheoldhorsecarsandgreatlyenlargingthecircumferenceofthecity.Moreover,onthesteamroads,atallthegreatterminals,andwhereverthereweretunnelstobepassedthrough,theoldgiantsteamengineintimeyieldedplacetotheelectricmotor.

Theapplicationoftheelectricmotortothe“verticalrailway,”

orelevator,madepossiblethesteelskyscraper.Theelevator,ofcourse,isanolddevice.ItwasimprovedanddevelopedinAmericabyElishaGravesOtis,aninventorwholivedanddiedbeforetheCivilWarandwhosesonsafterwarderectedagreatbusinessonfoundationslaidbyhim.ThefirstOtiselevatorsweremovedbysteamorhydraulicpower.Theywereslow,noisy,anddifficultofcontrol.Aftertheelectricmotorcamein;theelevatorsoonchangeditscharacterandadapteditselftotheimperativedemandsofthetowering,skeleton-framedbuildingswhichwererisingineverycity.

Edison,alreadyfamousas“theWizardofMenloPark,”establishedhisfactoriesandlaboratoriesatWestOrange,NewJersey,in1887,whencehehassincesentforthaconstantstreamofinventions,somenewandstartling,othersimprovementsonolddevices.Theachievementsofseveralotherinventorsintheelectricalfieldhavebeenonlylessnoteworthythanhis.Thenewprofessionofelectricalengineeringcalledtoitsservicegreatnumbersofablemen.Manufacturersofelectricalmachineryestablishedresearchdepartmentsandemployedinventors.ThetimeshadindeedchangedsincethedaywhenMorse,asastudentatYaleCollege,choseartinsteadofelectricityashiscalling,becauseelectricityaffordedhimnomeansoflivelihood.

FromEdison’splantin1903cameanewtypeofthestoragebattery,whichheafterwardsimproved.Thestoragebattery,aseveryoneknows,isusedinthepropulsionofelectricvehiclesandboats,intheoperationofblock-signals,inthelightingoftrains,andintheignitionandstartingofgasolineengines.Asanadjunctofthegas-drivenautomobile,itrendersthestartingoftheengineindependentofmuscleandsomakespossiblethegeneraluseoftheautomobile

bywomenaswellasmen.

Thedynamobroughtintoservicenotonlylightandpowerbutheat;andtheelectricfurnaceinturngaverisetoseveralgreatmetallurgicalandchemicalindustries.ElihuThomson’sprocessofweldingbymeansofthearcfurnacefoundwideandvariedapplications.Thecommercialproductionofaluminumisduetotheelectricfurnaceanddatesfrom1886.ItwasinthatyearthatH.

Y.CastnerofNewYorkandC.M.HallofPittsburghbothinventedthemethodsofmanufacturewhichgavetotheworldthenewmetal,malleableandductile,exceedinglylight,andcapableofathousanduses.Carborundumisanotherproductoftheelectricfurnace.ItwastheinventionofEdwardB.Acheson,agraduateoftheEdisonlaboratories.Acheson,in1891,wastryingtomakeartificialdiamondsandproducedinsteadthemoreusefulcarborundum,aswellastheAchesongraphite,whichatoncefounditsplaceinindustry.Anothervaluableproductoftheelectricfurnacewasthecalciumcarbidefirstproducedin1892byThomasL.WilsonofSpray,NorthCarolina.Thiscalciumcarbideisthebasisofacetylenegas,apowerfulilluminant,anditiswidelyusedinmetallurgy,forweldingandotherpurposes.

Atthesametimewiththesedevelopmentsthevalueofthealternatingcurrentcametoberecognized.Thetransformer,aninstrumentdevelopedonfoundationslaidbyHenryandFaraday,madeitpossibletotransmitelectricalenergyovergreatdistanceswithlittlelossofpower.Alternatingcurrentsweretransformedbymeansofthisinstrumentatthesource,andwereagainconvertedatthepointofusetoalowerandconvenientpotentialforlocaldistributionandconsumption.Thefirstextensiveuseofthealternatingcurrentwasinarclighting,wherethehigherpotentialscouldbeemployedonserieslamps.

PerhapsthechiefAmericaninventorinthedomainofthealternatingcurrentisElihuThomson,whobeganhisusefulcareerasProfessorofChemistryandMechanicsintheCentralHighSchoolofPhiladelphia.AnothergreatprotagonistofthealternatingcurrentwasGeorgeWestinghouse,whowasquiteasmuchanimproverandinventorasamanufacturerofmachinery.Twootherinventors,atleast,shouldnotbeforgotteninthisconnection:NicolaTeslaandCharlesS.Bradley.BothofthemhadworkedforEdison.

Theturbine(fromtheLatinturbo,meaningawhirlwind)isthenameofthemotorwhichdrivesthegreatdynamosforthegenerationofelectricenergy.It

maybeeitherasteamturbineorawaterturbine.ThesteamturbineofCurtisorParsonsistodaytheprevailingengine.Butthedevelopmentofhydro-electricpowerhasalreadygonefar.ItisestimatedthattheelectricenergyproducedintheUnitedStatesbytheutilizationofwaterpowerseveryyearequalsthepowerproductoffortymilliontonsofcoal,oraboutone-tenthofthecoalwhichisconsumedintheproductionofsteam.Yethydro-electricityissaidtobeonlyinitsbeginnings,fornotmorethanatenthofthereadilyavailablewaterpowerofthecountryisactuallyinuse.

Thefirstcommercialhydro-stationforthetransmissionofpowerinAmericawasestablishedin1891atTelluride,Colorado.ItwaspracticallyduplicatedinthefollowingyearatBrodie,Colorado.

ThemotorsandgeneratorsforthesestationscamefromtheWestinghouseplantinPittsburgh,andWestinghousealsosuppliedtheturbo-generatorswhichinaugurated,in1895,thedeliveryofpowerfromNiagaraFalls.

CHAPTERX.THECONQUESTOFTHEAIR

ThemostpopularmaninEuropeintheyear1783wasstilltheUnitedStatesMinistertoFrance.ThefigureofplainBenjaminFranklin,hisbroadhead,withthecalm,shrewdeyespeeringthroughthebifocalsofhisowninvention,investedwithahaloofgreatlearningandfame,entirelycaptivatedthepeople’simagination.

AsoneoftheAmericanCommissionersbusywiththeextraordinaryproblemsofthePeace,Franklinmighthavebeensupposedtoooccupiedforexcursionsintothepathsofscienceandphilosophy.

Butthespaciousnessandorderlyfurnishingofhismindprovidedthatnopursuitofknowledgeshouldbeadigressionforhim.Sowefindhim,naturally,leavinghisdeskonseveraldaysofthatsummerandautumnandpostingofftowatchthetrialsofanewinvention;nothinglessindeedthanashiptoridetheair.Hefoundtimealsotodescribethenewinventioninletterstohisfriendsindifferentpartsoftheworld.

Onthe21stofNovemberFranklinsetoutforthegardensoftheKing’shuntinglodgeintheBoisdeBoulogne,ontheoutskirtsofParis,withaquickenedinterest,athrillofexcitement,whichmadehimyearntobeyoungagainwithanotherlonglifetolivethathemightseewhatshouldbeafterhimontheearth.

Whatboldthingsmenwouldattempt!TodaytwodaringFrenchmen,PilatredeRozieroftheRoyalAcademyandhisfriendtheMarquisd’Arlandes,wouldascendinaballoonfreedfromtheearth—thefirstmeninhistorytoadventurethusuponthewind.ThecrowdsgatheredtowitnesstheeventopenedalaneforFranklintopassthrough.

Atsixminutestotwotheaeronautsenteredthecaroftheirballoon;and,ataheightoftwohundredandseventyfeet,doffedtheirhatsandsalutedtheapplaudingspectators.ThenthewindcarriedthemawaytowardParis.OverPassy,abouthalfamilefromthestartingpoint,theballoonbegantodescend,andtheRiverSeineseemedrisingtoengulfthem;butwhentheyfedthefireundertheirsackofhotairwithchoppedstrawtheyrosetotheelevationoffivehundredfeet.SafeacrosstherivertheydampenedthefirewithaspongeandmadeagentledescentbeyondtheoldrampartsofParis.

Atfiveo’clockthatafternoon,attheKing’sChateauintheBoisdeBoulogne,themembersoftheRoyalAcademysignedamemorialoftheevent.OneofthespectatorsaccostedFranklin.

“WhatdoesDr.Franklinconceivetobetheuseofthisnewinvention?”

“Whatistheuseofanewbornchild?”wastheretort.

Anewbornchild,anewbornrepublic,anewinvention:alikedimbeginningsofdevelopmentwhichnonecouldforetell.Theyearthatsawtheworldacknowledgeanewnation,freedofitsancientpoliticalbonds,sawalsothefirstsuccessfulattempttobreakthesupposedbondsthatheldmendowntotheground.Thoughtheinventionoftheballoonwasonlyfivemonthsold,therewerealreadytwotypesonexhibition:theoriginalMontgolfier,orfireballoon,inflatedwithhotair,andamodificationbyCharles,inflatedwithhydrogengas.ThemassoftheFrenchpeopledidnotregardtheseballoonswithFranklin’sserenity.

Someweeksearlierthedangerofattackhadnecessitatedaballoon’sremovalfromtheplaceofitsfirstmooringstotheChampdeMarsatdeadofnight.Precededbyflamingtorches,withsoldiersmarchingoneithersideandguardsinfrontandrear,thegreatballwasbornethroughthedarkenedstreets.Themidnightcabbyalongtheroutestoppedhisnag,ortumbledfromsleeponhisbox,tokneelonthepavementandcrosshimselfagainsttheevilthatmightbein

thatstrangemonster.ThefearofthepeoplewassogreatthattheGovernmentsawfittoissueaproclamation,explainingtheinvention.Anyoneseeingsuchaglobe,likethemooninaneclipse,soreadtheproclamation,shouldbeawarethatitisonlyabagmadeoftaffetaorlightcanvascoveredwithpaperand“cannotpossiblycauseanyharmandwhichwillsomedayproveserviceabletothewantsofsociety.”

FranklinwroteadescriptionoftheMontgolfierballoontoSirJosephBanks,PresidentoftheRoyalSocietyofLondon:“Itsbottomwasopenandinthemiddleoftheopeningwasfixedakindofbasketgrate,inwhichfaggotsandsheavesofstrawwereburnt.Theair,rarefiedinpassingthroughthisflame,roseintheballoon,swelledoutitssides,andfilledit.Thepersons,whowereplacedinthegallerymadeofwickerandattachedtotheoutsidenearthebottom,hadeachofthemaportthroughwhichtheycouldpasssheavesofstrawintothegratetokeepuptheflameandtherebykeeptheballoonfull….Oneofthesecourageousphilosophers,theMarquisd’Arlandes,didmethehonortocalluponmeintheeveningaftertheexperiment,withMr.

Montgolfier,theveryingeniousinventor.Iwashappytoseehimsafe.Heinformedmethattheylitgently,withouttheleastshock,andtheballoonwasverylittledamaged.”

FranklinwritesthatthecompetitionbetweenMontgolfierandCharleshasalreadyresultedinprogressintheconstructionandmanagementoftheballoon.Heseesitasadiscoveryofgreatimportance,onethat“maypossiblygiveanewturntohumanaffairs.Convincingsovereignsofthefollyofwarmayperhapsbeoneeffectofit,sinceitwillbeimpracticableforthemostpotentofthemtoguardhisdominions.”Theprophecymayyetbefulfilled.Franklinremarksthatashortwhileagotheideaof“witchesridingthroughtheairuponabroomstickandthatofphilosophersuponabagofsmokewouldhaveappearedequallyimpossibleandridiculous.”Yetinthespaceofafewmonthshehasseenthephilosopheronhissmokebag,ifnotthewitchonherbroom.Hewishesthatoneoftheseveryingeniousinventorswouldimmediatelydevisemeansofdirectionfortheballoon,aruddertosteerit;becausethemaladyfromwhichheissufferingisalwaysincreasedbyajoltingdriveinafourwheelerandhewouldgladlyavailhimselfofaneasierwayoflocomotion.

Thevisionofmanonthewingdidnot,ofcourse,begin.withtheinventionoftheballoon.Perhapsthedreamofflyingmancamefirsttosomeprimitivepoet

oftheStoneAge,ashewatched,fearfully,thegyrationsofthewingedcreaturesoftheair;evenasinalaterageitcametoLangleyandMaxim,whostudiedthewingmotionsofbirdsandinsects,notinfearbutinthelightandconfidenceofadvancingscience.

CrudelyoutlinedbysomeancientEgyptiansculptor,awingedhumanfigurebroodsuponthetombofRamesesIII.IntheHebrewparableofGenesiswingedcherubimguardedthegatesofParadiseagainstthemanandwomanwhohadstifledaspirationwithsin.

Fairies,witches,andmagiciansridethewindinthelegendsandfolkloreofallpeoples.TheGreekshadgodsandgoddessesmany;andoneoftheseGreekartrepresentsasmovingearthwardongreatspreadingpinions.Victorycamebytheair.WhenDemetrius,KingofMacedonia,setuptheWingedVictoryofSamothracetocommemoratethenavaltriumphoftheGreeksovertheshipsofEgypt,Greekartpoeticallyforeshadowedtherelationoftheairservicetothefleetinourownday.

Manhasalwaysdreamedofflight;butwhendidmenfirstactuallyfly?WesmileatthestoryofDaedalus,theGreekarchitect,andhisson,Icarus,whomadethemselveswingsandflewfromtherealmoftheirfoes;andthetaleofSimon,themagician,whopesteredtheearlyChristianChurchbyexhibitionsofflightintotheairamidsmokeandflameinmockeryoftheascension.ButdothemanytalesofsorcerersintheMiddleAges,whorosefromthegroundwiththeircloaksapparentlyfilledwithwind,toawetherabble,suggestthattheyhaddeducedtheprincipleoftheaerostatfromwatchingtheactionofsmokeasdidtheMontgolfiershundredsofyearslater?Atalleventsoneoftheseallegedexhibitionsabouttheyear800inspiredthegoodBishopAgobardofLyonstowriteabookagainstsuperstition,inwhichheprovedconclusivelythatitwasimpossibleforhumanbeingstorisethroughtheair.Later,RogerBaconandLeonardodaVinci,eachinhisturnruminatedinmanuscriptuponthesubjectofflight.Bacon,thescientist,putforwardatheoryofthincopperglobesfilledwithliquidfire,whichwouldsoar.Leonardo,artist,studiedthewingsofbirds.TheJesuitFranciscoLana,in1670,workingonBacon’stheorysketchedanairshipmadeoffourcopperballswithaskiffattached;thismachinewastosoarbymeansofthelighter-than-airglobesandtobenavigatedaloftbyoarsandsails.

Butwhilephilosophersintheirlibrariesweredesigningairshipsonpaperandpropoundingtheirtheories,venturesomemen,“crawling,butpesteredwiththe

thoughtofwings,”weremakingpinionsofvariousfabricsandtryingthemuponthewind.FouryearsafterLanasuggestedhisairshipwithballsandoars,Besnier,aFrenchlocksmith,madeaflyingmachineoffourcollapsibleplaneslikebookcoverssuspendedonrods.Witharodovereachshoulder,andmovingthetwofrontplaneswithhisarmsandthetwobackonesbyhisfeet,Besniergaveexhibitionsofglidingfromaheighttotheearth.Buthismachinecouldnotsoar.Whatmaybecalledthefirstpatentonaflyingmachinewasrecordedin1709whenBartholomeodeGusmao,afriar,appearedbeforetheKingofPortugaltoannouncethathehadinventedaflyingmachineandtorequestanorderprohibitingothermenfrommakinganythingofthesort.TheKingdecreedpainofdeathtoallinfringers;andtoassisttheenterprisingmonkinimprovinghismachine,heappointedhimfirstprofessorofmathematicsintheUniversityofCoimbrawithafatstipend.ThentheInquisitionsteppedin.Theinventor’ssuavereply,totheeffectthattoshowmenhowtosoartoHeavenwasanessentiallyreligiousact,availedhimnothing.Hewaspronouncedasorcerer,hismachinewasdestroyed,andhewasimprisonedtillhisdeath.

Manyothermenfashioneduntothemselveswings;but,thoughsomeofthemmightglideearthward,nonecouldriseuponthewind.

Whiletheprinciplebywhichtheballoon,fatherofthedirigible,soarsandfloatscouldbededucedbymenofnaturalpowersofobservationandlittlesciencefromtheactionofcloudsandsmoke,theairplane,theWingedVictoryofourday,waitedupontwothings—thescientificanalysisoftheanatomyofbirdwingsandtheinternalcombustionengine.

Thesetwothingsnecessarytoconvertmanintoarivalofthealbatrossdidnotcomeatonceandtogether.Notthedreamofflyingbuttheneedforquantityandspeedinproductiontotakecareofthewantsofamoderncivilizationcompelledtheinventionoftheinternalcombustionengine.Beforeitappearedintherealmofmechanics,experimenterswereapplyingintheconstructionofflyingmodelstheknowledgesuppliedbyCayleyin1796,whomadeaninstrumentofwhalebone,corks,andfeathers,whichbytheactionoftwoscrewsofquillfeathers,rotatinginoppositedirections,wouldrisetotheceiling;andthefullrevelationofthestructureandactionofbirdwingssetforthbyPettigrewin1867.

“Thewing,bothwhenatrestandwheninmotion,”Pettigrewdeclared,“maynotinaptlybecomparedtothebladeofanordinaryscrewpropellerasemployedin

navigation.Thusthegeneraloutlineofthewingcorrespondscloselywiththeoutlineofthepropeller,andthetrackdescribedbythewinginspaceIS

TWISTEDUPONITSELFpropellerfashion.”Numerousattemptstoapplythenewlydiscoveredprinciplestoartificialbirdsfailed,yetcamesoclosetosuccessthattheyfedinsteadofkillingthehopethatasolutionoftheproblemwouldonedayerelongbereached.

“Naturehassolvedit,andwhynotman?”

FromhisboyhooddaysSamuelPierpontLangley,sohetellsus,hadaskedhimselfthatquestion,whichhewaslatertoanswer.

Langley,borninRoxbury,Massachusetts,in1834,wasanotherlinkinthechainofdistinguishedinventorswhofirstsawthelightofdayinPuritanNewEngland.And,likemanyofthoseotherinventors,henumberedamonghisancestorsforgenerationstwotypesofmen—ontheonehand,alineofskilledartisansandmechanics;ontheother,themostintellectualmenoftheirtimesuchasclergymenandschoolmasters,oneofthembeingIncreaseMather.WeseeinLangley,asinsomeofhisbrotherNewEnglandinventors,thelaterfloweringofthePuritanidealstrippedofitshuskofsuperstitionandharshness—ahighsenseofdutyandofintegrity,anintenseconvictionthatthereasonforaman’slifehereisthathemaygiveservice,areserveddeportmentwhichdidnotmaskfromdiscerningeyestheman’sgentlequalitiesofheartandhiskeenloveofbeautyinartandNature.

Langleyfirstchoseashisprofessioncivilengineeringandarchitectureandtheyearsbetween1857and1864werechieflyspentinprosecutingthesecallingsinSt.LouisandChicago.

Thenheabandonedthem;forthebentofhismindwasdefinitelytowardsscientificinquiry.In1867hewasappointeddirectoroftheAlleghenyObservatoryatPittsburgh.Hereheremaineduntil1887,when,havingmadeforhimselfaworld-widereputationasanastronomer,hebecameSecretaryoftheSmithsonianInstitutionatWashington.

Itwasaboutthistimethathebeganhisexperimentsin“aerodynamics.”Buttheproblemofflighthadlongbeenasubjectofinterestedspeculationwithhim.Tenyearslaterhewrote:“Naturehasmadeherflying-machineinthebird,whichisnearlyathousandtimesasheavyastheairitsbulkdisplaces,andonlythosewho

havetriedtorivalitknowhowinimitableherworkis,forthe“wayofabirdintheair”remainsaswonderfultousasitwastoSolomon,andthesightofthebirdhasconstantlyheldthiswonderbeforemen’sminds,andkepttheflameofhopefromutterextinction,inspiteoflongdisappointment.Iwellrememberhow,asachild,whenlyinginaNewEnglandpasture,hwatchedahawksoaringfarupintheblue,andsailingforalongtimewithoutanymotionofitswings,asthoughitneedednoworktosustainit,butwaskeptuptherebysomemiracle.But,howeversustained,Isawitsweepinafewsecondsofitsleisurelyflight,overadistancethattomewasencumberedwitheverysortofobstacle,whichdidnotexistforit….Howwonderfullyeasy,too,wasitsflight!Therewasnotaflutterofitspinionsasitsweptoverthefield,inamotionwhichseemedaseffortlessasthatofitsshadow.Aftermanyyearsandinmaturelife,Iwasbroughttothinkofthesethingsagain,andto.askmyselfwhethertheproblemofartificialflightwasashopelessandasabsurdasitwasthenthoughttobe”…InthreeorfouryearsLangleymadenearlyfortymodels.“Theprimarydifficultylayinmakingthemodellightenoughandsufficientlystrongtosupportitspower,”hesays.“Thisdifficultycontinuedtobefundamentalthrougheverylaterform;but,besidethis,theadjustmentofthecenterofgravitytothecenterofpressureofthewings,thedispositionofthewingsthemselves,thesizeofthepropellers,theinclinationandnumberoftheblades,andagreatnumberofotherdetails,presentedthemselvesforexamination.”

By1891Langleyhadamodellightenoughtofly,butproperbalancinghadnotbeenattained.Hesethimselfanewtofindthepracticalconditionsofequilibriumandofhorizontalflight.Hisexperimentsconvincedhimthat“mechanicalsustenationofheavybodiesintheair,combinedwithverygreatspeeds,isnotonlypossible,butwithinthereachofmechanicalmeansweactuallypossess.”

AftermanyexperimentswithnewmodelsLangleyatlengthfashionedasteamdrivenmachinewhichwouldflyhorizontally.Itweighedaboutthirtypounds;itwassomesixteenfeetinlength,withtwosetsofwings,thepairinfrontmeasuringfortyfeetfromtiptotip.OnMay6,1896,thismodelwaslaunchedoverthePotomacRiver.Itflewhalfamileinaminuteandahalf.Whenitsfuelandwatergaveout,itdescendedgentlytotheriver’ssurface.InNovemberLangleylaunchedanothermodelwhichflewforthree-quartersofamileataspeedofthirtymilesanhour.

Thesetestsdemonstratedthepracticabilityofartificialflight.

TheSpanish-AmericanWarfoundthemilitaryobservationballoondoingthelimitedworkwhichithaddoneeversincethedaysofFranklin.PresidentMcKinleywaskeenlyinterestedinLangley’sdesigntobuildapower-drivenflyingmachinewhichwouldhaveinnumerableadvantagesovertheballoon.TheGovernmentprovidedthefundsandLangleytookuptheproblemofaflyingmachinelargeenoughtocarryaman.Hisinitialdifficultywastheengine.Itwasplainatoncethatnewprinciplesofengineconstructionmustbeadoptedbeforeamotorcouldbedesignedofhighpoweryetlightenoughtobeborneintheslenderbodyofanairplane.Theinternalcombustionenginehadnowcomeintouse.

LangleywenttoEuropein1900,seekinghismotor,onlytobetoldthatwhathesoughtwasimpossible.

Hisassistant,CharlesM.Manly,meanwhilefoundabuilderofenginesinAmericawhowaswillingtomaketheattempt.But,aftertwoyearsofwaitingforit,theengineprovedafailure.

Manlythenhadtheseveralpartsofit,whichhedeemedhopeful,transportedtoWashington,andthereattheSmithsonianInstitutionhelaboredandexperimenteduntilheevolvedalightandpowerfulgasolinemotor.InOctober,1903,thetestwasmade,withManlyaboardofthemachine.Thefailurewhichresultedwasduesolelytotheclumsylaunchingapparatus.Theairplanewasdamagedasitrushedforwardbeforebeginningtosoar;and,asitrose,itturnedoverandplungedintotheriver.TheloyalandenthusiasticManly,whowasfortunatelyagooddiverandswimmer,hastilydriedhimselfandgaveoutareassuringstatementtotherepresentativesofthepressandtotheofficersoftheBoardofOrdnancegatheredtowitnesstheflight.

AsecondfailureinDecemberconvincedspectatorsthatmanwasneverintendedtofly.ThenewspapersletloosesuchastormofridiculeuponLangleyandhismachine,withchargesastothewasteofpublicfunds,thattheGovernmentrefusedtoassisthimfurther.Langley,atthattimesixty-nineyearsofage,tookthisdefeatsokeenlytoheartthatithastenedhisdeath,whichoccurredthreeyearslater.“Failureintheaerodromeitself,”hewrote,“oritsenginestherehasbeennone;anditisbelievedthatitisatthemomentofsuccess,andwhentheengineeringproblemshavebeensolved,thatalackofmeanshaspreventedacontinuanceofthework.”

Itwastruly“atthemomentofsuccess”thatLangley’sworkwasstopped.OnDecember17,1903,theWrightbrothersmadethefirstsuccessfulexperimentinwhichamachinecarryingamanrosebyitsownpower,flewnaturallyandatevenspeed,anddescendedwithoutdamage.Thesebrothers,WilburandOrville,whoatlastopenedthelongbesiegedlanesoftheair,wereborninDayton,Ohio.Theirfather,aclergymanandlaterabishop,spenthisleisureinscientificreadingandintheinventionofatypewriterwhich,however,heneverperfected.Heinspiredaninterestinscientificprinciplesinhisboys’mindsbygivingthemtoyswhichwouldstimulatetheircuriosity.Oneofthesetoyswasahelicopter,orCayley’sTop,whichwouldriseandflutterawhileintheair.

Afterseveralhelicoptersoftheirown,thebrothersmadeoriginalmodelsofkites,andOrville,theyounger,attainedanexceptionalskillinflyingthem.PresentlyOrvilleandWilburweremakingtheirownbicyclesandastonishingtheirneighborsbypublicappearancesonaspeciallydesignedtandem.Thefirstaccountswhichtheyreadofexperimentswithflyingmachinesturnedtheirinventivegeniusintothenewfield.InparticularthenewspaperaccountsatthattimeofOttoLilienthal’sexhibitionswithhisgliderstirredtheirinterestandsetthemontosearchthelibrariesforliteratureonthesubjectofflying.AstheyreadoftheworkofLangleyandotherstheyconcludedthatthesecretofflyingcouldnotbemasteredtheoreticallyinalaboratory;itmustbelearnedintheair.Itstrucktheseyoungmen,trainedbynecessitytocountpenniesattheirfullvalue,as“wastefulextravagance”tomountdelicateandcostlymachineryonwingswhichnooneknewhowtomanage.

Theyturnedfromtherecordsofotherinventors’modelstostudytheoneperfectmodel,thebird.SaidWilburWright,speakingbeforetheSocietyofWesternEngineers,atChicago:“Thebird’swingsareundoubtedlyverywelldesignedindeed,butitisnotanyextraordinaryefficiencythatstrikeswithastonishment,butratherthemarvelousskillwithwhichtheyareused.ItistruethatIhaveseenbirdsperformsoaringfeatsofalmostincrediblenatureinpositionswhereitwasnotpossibletomeasurethespeedandtrendofthewind,butwheneveritwaspossibletodeterminebyactualmeasurementstheconditionsunderwhichthesoaringwasperformeditwaseasytoaccountforitonthebasisoftheresultsobtainedwithartificialwings.Thesoaringproblemisapparentlynotsomuchoneofbetterwingsasofbetteroperators.”*

*CitedinTurner,“TheRomanceofAeronautics”.

WhentheWrightsdeterminedtofly,twoproblemswhichhadbesetearlierexperimentershadbeenpartiallysolved.Experiencehadbroughtoutcertainfactsregardingthewings;andinventionhadsuppliedanengine.Butthelawsgoverningthebalancingandsteeringofthemachinewereunknown.Thewayofamanintheairhadyettobediscovered.

Thestartingpointoftheirtheoryofflightseemstohavebeenthatmanwasendowedwithanintelligenceatleastequaltothatofthebird;and,thatwithpracticehecouldlearntobalancehimselfintheairasnaturallyandinstinctivelyasontheground.Hemustandcouldbe,likethebird,thecontrollingintelligenceofhismachine.ToquoteWilburWrightagain:“Itseemedtousthatthemainreasonwhytheproblemhadremainedsolongunsolvedwasthatnoonehadbeenabletoobtainanyadequatepractice.Lilienthalinfiveyearsoftimehadspentonlyfivehoursinactualglidingthroughtheair.Thewonderwasnotthathehaddonesolittlebutthathehadaccomplishedsomuch.Itwouldnotbeconsideredatallsafeforabicycleridertoattempttoridethroughacrowdedcitystreetafteronlyfivehours’practicespreadoutinbitsoftensecondseachoveraperiodoffiveyears,yetLilienthalwithhisbriefpracticewasremarkablysuccessfulinmeetingthefluctuationsandeddiesofwindgusts.Wethoughtthatifsomemethodcouldbefoundbywhichitwouldbepossibletopracticebythehourinsteadofbythesecond,therewouldbeahopeofadvancingthesolutionofaverydifficultproblem.”

ThebrothersfoundthatwindsofthevelocitytheydesiredfortheirexperimentswerecommononthecoastofNorthCarolina.

TheypitchedtheircampatKittyHawkinOctober,1900,andmadeabriefandsuccessfultrialoftheirglidingmachine.Nextyear,theyreturnedwithamuchlargermachine;andin1902theycontinuedtheirexperimentswithamodelstillfurtherimprovedfromtheirfirstdesign.Havingtestedtheirtheoriesandbecomeconvincedthattheyweredefinitelyontherighttrack,theywerenolongersatisfiedmerelytoglide.Theysetaboutconstructingapowermachine.Hereanewproblemmetthem.Theyhaddecidedontwoscrewpropellersrotatinginoppositedirectionsontheprincipleofwingsinflight;buttheproperdiameter,pitch,andareaofbladewerenoteasilyarrivedat.

OnDecember17,1903,thefirstWrightbiplanewasreadytonavigatetheairandmadefourbriefsuccessfulflights.

Subsequentflightsin1904demonstratedthattheproblemofequilibriumhadnotbeenfullysolved;buttheexperimentsof1905banishedthisdifficulty.

TheresponsibilitywhichtheWrightsplacedupontheaviatorformaintaininghisequilibrium,andthetaillessdesignoftheirmachine,causedmuchheadshakingamongforeignflyingmenwhenWilburWrightappearedatthegreataviationmeetinFrancein1908.ButhewontheMichelinPrizeofeighthundredpoundsbybeatingpreviousrecordsforspeedandforthetimewhichanymachinehadremainedintheair.HegaveexhibitionsalsoinGermanyandItalyandinstructedItalianarmyofficersintheflyingofWrightmachines.AtthistimeOrvillewasgivingsimilardemonstrationsinAmerica.Transversecontrol,thewarpingdeviceinventedbytheWrightbrothersforthepreservationoflateralbalanceandforartificialinclinationinmakingturns,hasbeenemployedinasimilarormodifiedforminmostairplanessinceconstructed.

Therewasno“mine”or“thine”inthedictionoftheWrightbrothers;only“we”and“ours.”Theywerejointinventors;theysharedtheirfameequallyandalltheirhonorsandprizesalsountilthedeathofWilburin1912.Theywerethefirstinventorstomaketheancientdreamofflyingmanarealityandtodemonstratethatrealitytothepracticalworld.

WhentheNCflyingboatsoftheUnitedStatesnavylinedupatTrepasseyinMay,1919,fortheirAtlanticventure,andthepresswasfullofpicturesofthem,howmanyhastyreaders,eageronlyfornewsofthestart,stoppedtothinkwhattheinitialsNC

stoodfor?

TheseaplaneisthechiefcontributionofGlennHammondCurtisstoaviation,andtheNavyCurtissNumberFour,whichmadethefirsttransatlanticflightinhistory,wasdesignedbyhim.Thespiritofcooperation,expressedinpoolingideasandfame,whichtheWrightbrothersexemplified,isseenagainintheassociationofCurtisswiththenavyduringthewar.NCisafraternitybadgesignifyingequalhonors.

Curtiss,in1900,was—liketheWrights—theownerofasmallbicycleshop.ItwasatHammondsport,NewYork.Hewasanenthusiasticcyclist,andspeedwasamaniawithhim.Heevolvedamotorcyclewithwhichhebrokeallrecordsforspeedovertheground.Hestartedafactoryandachievedareputationfor

excellentmotors.HedesignedandmadetheengineforthedirigibleofCaptainThomasS.Baldwin;andforthefirstUnitedStatesarmydirigiblein1905.

CurtisscarriedonsomeofhisexperimentsinassociationwithAlexanderGrahamBell,whowastryingtoevolveastableflyingmachineontheprincipleofthecellularkite.BellandCurtiss,withthreeothers,formedin1907,theAerialExperimentalAssociationatBell’scountryhouseinCanada,whichwasfruitfulofresults,andCurtissscoredseveralnotabletriumphswiththecrafttheydesigned.Buttheideaofamachinewhichcoulddescendandpropelitselfonwaterpossessedhismind,andin1911heexhibitedattheaviationmeetinChicagothehydroaeroplane.Anincidenttheresethimdreamingofthelife-savingsystemsongreatwaters.Hishydroaeroplanehadjustreturnedtoitshangar,afteraseriesofmaneuvers,whenamonoplaneinflightbrokeoutofcontrolandplungedintoLakeMichigan.TheCurtissmachineleftitshangarontheminute,coveredtheinterveningmile,andalightedonthewatertoofferaid.Thepresenceofboatsmadethegoodofficesofthehydroaeroplaneunnecessaryonthatoccasion;buttheincidentopeneduptothemindofCurtissnewpossibilities.

InthefirstyearsoftheWorldWarCurtissbuiltairplanesandflyingboatsfortheAllies.TheUnitedStatesenteredthearenaandcalledforhisservices.TheNavyDepartmentcalledforthebigflyingboat;andtheNCtypewasevolved,which,equippedwithfourLibertyMotors,crossedtheAtlanticafterthecloseofthewar.

TheWorldWar,ofcourse,broughtaboutthemagicaldevelopmentofallkindsofaircraft.Necessitynotonlymotheredinventionbutforcedittocoveranormalhalfcenturyofprogressinfouryears.WhileCurtissworkedwiththenavy,theDayton-WrightfactoryturnedoutthefamousDHfightingplanesunderthesupervisionofOrvilleWright.ThesecondinitialherestandsforHavilland,astheDHwasdesignedbyGeoffreydeHavilland,aBritishinventor.

Theyear1919sawthefirsttransatlanticflights.TheNC4,withLieutenantCommanderAlbertCushingReadandcrew,leftTrepassey,Newfoundland,onthe16thofMayandintwelvehoursarrivedatHorta,theAzores,morethanathousandmilesaway.

Allalongthecoursethenavyhadstrungachainofdestroyers,withsignalingapparatusandsearchlightstoguidetheaviators.

Onthetwenty-seventh,NC4tookofffromSanMiguel,Azores,andinninehoursmadeLisbon—Lisbon,capitalofPortugal,whichsentoutthefirstboldmarinerstoexploretheSeaofDarkness,priortoColumbus.Onthethirtieth,NC4tookoffforPlymouth,England,andarrivedintenhoursandtwentyminutes.Perhapsaphantomship,withsailssetandflagsblowing,thenameMayfloweronherhull,rodeinPlymouthHarborthatdaytogreetaNewEnglandpilot.

Onthe14thofJunetheVickers-VimyRolls-Roycebiplane,pilotedbyJohnAlcockandwithArthurWhittenBrownasobserver-navigator,leftSt.John’s,Newfoundland,andarrivedatClifden,Ireland,insixteenhourstwelveminutes,havingmadethefirstnon-stoptransatlanticflight.HawkerandGrievemeanwhilehadmadethesamegallantattemptinasingle-enginedSopwithmachine;andhadcomedowninmid-ocean,afterflyingfourteenandahalfhours,owingtothefailureoftheirwatercirculation.TheirrescuebyslowDanishMarycompletedafascinatingtaleofheroicadventure.TheBritishdirigibleR34,withMajorG.H.Scottincommand,leftEastFortune,Scotland,onthe2dofJuly,andarrivedatMineola,NewYork,onthesixth.TheR34madethereturnvoyageinseventy-fivehours.InNovember,1919,CaptainSirRossSmithsetofffromEnglandinabiplanetowinaprizeoftenthousandpoundsofferedbytheAustralianCommonwealthtothefirstAustralianaviatortoflyfromEnglandtoAustraliainthirtydays.OverFrance,Italy,Greece,overtheHolyLand,perhapsovertheGardenofEden,whencethewingedcherubimdroveAdamandEve,overPersia,India,Siam,theDutchEastIndiestoPortDarwininnorthernAustralia;andthensoutheastwardacrossAustraliaitselftoSydney,thebiplaneflewwithoutmishap.ThetimefromHounslow,England,toPortDarwinwastwenty-sevendays,twentyhours,andtwentyminutes.Earlyin1920theBoerairmanCaptainVanRyneveldmadetheflightfromCairototheCape.

Commercialdevelopmentoftheairplaneandtheairshipcommencedafterthewar.ThefirstairserviceforUnitedStatesmailswas,infact,inauguratedduringthewar,betweenNewYorkandWashington.Thetranscontinentalservicewasestablishedsoonafterwards,andaregularlinebetweenKeyWestandHavana.

FrenchandBritishcompaniesbegantooperatedailybetweenLondonandPariscarryingpassengersandmail.AirshipcompanieswereformedinAustralia,SouthAfrica,andIndia.InCanadaairplanesweresoonbeingusedinprospectingtheLabradortimberregions,inmakingphotographsandmapsofthe

northernwilderness,andbytheNorthwestMountedPolice.

Itisnotforhistorytoprophesy.“Emblemofmuch,andofourAgeofHopeitself,”Carlylecalledtheballoonofhistime,borntomountmajesticallybut“unguidably”onlytotumble“whitherFatewill.”Buttheaircraftofourdayisguidable,andourAgeofHopeisnotrudderlessnoratthemercyofFate.

BIBLIOGRAPHICALNOTE

GENERAL

Aclear,non-technicaldiscussionofthebasisofallindustrialprogressis“Power”,byCharlesE.Lucke(1911),whichdiscussesthegeneralprincipleofthesubstitutionofpowerforthelaborofmen.Manyofthereferencesgivenin“ColonialFolkways”,byC.M.Andrews(“TheChroniclesofAmerica”,vol.IX),arevaluableforanunderstandingofearlyindustrialconditions.ThegeneralcourseofindustryandcommerceintheUnitedStatesisbrieflytoldbyCarrollD.Wrightin“TheIndustrialEvolutionoftheUnitedStates”(1907),byE.L.Bogartin“TheEconomicHistoryoftheUnitedStates”(1920),andbyKatharineComanin“TheIndustrialHistoryoftheUnitedStates”(1911).“ADocumentaryHistoryofAmericanIndustrialSociety”,10vols.

(1910-11),editedbyJohnR.Commons,isamineofmaterial.SeealsoEmersonD.Fite,“SocialandIndustrialConditionsintheNorthDuringtheCivilWar”(1910).Thebestaccountoftheinventionsofthenineteenthcenturyis“TheProgressofInventionintheNineteenthCentury”byEdwardW.Byrn(1900).

GeorgeIlesin“LeadingAmericanInventors”(1912)tellsthestoryofseveralimportantinventorsandtheirwork.Thesameauthorin“Flame,ElectricityandtheCamera”(1900)givesmuchvaluableinformation.

CHAPTERI

TheprimarysourceofinformationonBenjaminFrankliniscontainedinhisownwritings.ThesewerecompiledandeditedbyJaredSparks,“TheWorksof…Franklin…withNotesandaLifeoftheAuthor”,10vols.(1836-40);andlaterbyJohnBigelow,“TheCompleteWorksofBenjaminFranklin;includingHisPrivateaswellasHisOfficialandScientificCorrespondence,andNumerousLettersandDocumentsNowfortheFirstTimePrinted,withManyOthersnotincludedinAnyFormerCollection,also,theUnmutilatedandCorrectVersionofHisAutobiography”,10vols.(1887-88).ConsultalsoJamesParton,“TheLifeandTimesofBenjaminFranklin”,2vols.(1864);S.G.Fisher,“TheTrueBenjaminFranklin”(1899);PaulLeicesterFord,“TheMany-SidedFranklin”(1899);JohnT.Morse,“BenjaminFranklin”

(1889)inthe“AmericanStatesmen”series;andLindsaySwift,“BenjaminFranklin”(1910)in“BeaconBiographies.OnthePatentOffice:HenryL.Ellsworth,ADigestofPatentsIssuedbytheUnitedStatesfrom1790toJanuary1,1839”(Washington,1840);alsotheregularReportsandpublicationsoftheUnitedStatesPatentOffice.

CHAPTERII

ThefirstlifeofEliWhitneyisthe“Memoir”byDenisonOlmsted(1846),andacollectionofWhitney’slettersaboutthecottonginmaybefoundin“TheAmericanHistoricalReview”,vol.III(1897).“EliWhitneyandHisCottonGin,”byM.F.Foster,isincludedinthe“TransactionsoftheNewEnglandCottonManufacturers’Association”,no.67(October,1899).SeealsoDwightGoddard,“AShortStoryofEliWhitney”(1904);D.A.

Tompkins,“CottonandCottonOil”(1901);JamesA.B.Scherer,“CottonasaWorldPower”(1916);E.C.Bates,“TheStoryoftheCottonGin”(1899),reprintedfrom“TheNewEnglandMagazine”,May,1890;andEugeneClydeBrooks,“TheStoryofCottonandtheDevelopmentoftheCottonStates”(1911).

CHAPTERIII

ForanaccountofJamesWatt’sachievements,seeJ.Cleland,“HistoricalAccountoftheSteamEngine”(1825)andJohnW.

Grant,“WattandtheSteamAge”(1917).OnFulton:R.H.

Thurston,“RobertFulton”(1891)inthe“MakersofAmerica”

series;A.C.Sutcliffe,“RobertFultonandthe‘Clermont’”

(1909);H.W.Dickinson,“RobertFulton,EngineerandArtist;HisLifeandWorks”(1913).ForanaccountofJohnStevens,seeGeorgeIles,“LeadingAmericanInventors”(1912),andDwightGoddard,“AShortStoryofJohnStevensandHisSonsinEminentEngineers”(1905).SeealsoJohnStevens,“DocumentsTendingtoProvetheSuperiorAdvantagesofRailWaysandSteam-CarriagesoverCanalNavigation”(1819.),reprintedin“TheMagazineofHistorywithNotesandQueries”,ExtraNumber54(1917).OnEvans:“OliverEvansandHisInventions,”byColemanSellers,in“TheJournaloftheFranklinInstitute”,July,1886,vol.CXXII.

CHAPTERIV

Onthegeneralsubjectofcottonmanufactureandmachinery,see:J.L.Bishop,“HistoryofAmericanManufacturesfrom1608to1860”,3vols.(1864-67);SamuelBatchelder,“IntroductionandEarlyProgressoftheCottonManufactureintheUnitedStates”

(1863);JamesMontgomery,“APracticalDetailoftheCottonManufactureoftheUnitedStatesofAmerica”(1840);MelvinT.

Copeland,“TheCottonManufacturingIndustryoftheUnitedStates”(1912);andJohnL.Hayes,“AmericanTextileMachinery”

(1879).HarrietH.Robinson,“LoomandSpindle”(1898),isadescriptionofthelifeofgirlworkersintheearlyfactorieswrittenbyoneofthem.CharlesDickens,“AmericanNotes”,ChapterIV,isavividaccountofthelifeintheLowellmills.

SeealsoNathanAppleton,“IntroductionofthePowerLoomandOriginofLowell”(1858);H.A.Miles,“Lowell,asItWas,andasItIs”(1845),andG.S.White,“MemoirofSamuelSlater”(1836).

OnEliasHowe,seeDwightGoddard,“AShortStoryofEliasHoweinEminentEngineers”(1905).

CHAPTERV

Thestoryofthereaperistoldin:HerbertN.Casson,“CyrusHallMcCormick;HisLifeandWork”(1909),and“TheRomanceoftheReaper”(1908),andMerrittF.Miller,“EvolutionofReapingMachines”(1902),U.S.ExperimentStationsOffice,Bulletin103.

Otherfarminventionsarecoveredin:WilliamMacdonald,“MakersofModernAgriculture”(1913);EmileGuarini,“TheUseofElectricPowerinPlowing”inThe“ElectricalReview”,vol.

XLIII;A.P.Yerkes,“TheGasTractorinEasternFarming”(1918),U.S.DepartmentofAgriculture,Farmer’sBulletin1004;andHerbertN.Cassonandothers,“Horse,TruckandTractor;theComingofCheaperPowerforCityandFarm”(1913).

CHAPTERVI

Anaccountofanearly“agentofcommunication”isgivenbyW.F.

Bailey,articleonthe“PonyExpress”in“TheCenturyMagazine”,vol.XXXIV(1898).Forthestoryofthetelegraphanditsinventors,see:S.I.Prime,“LifeofSamuelF.B.Morse”(1875);S.F.B.Morse,“TheElectro-MagneticTelegraph”(1858)and“ExaminationoftheTelegraphicApparatusandtheProcessinTelegraphy”(1869);GuglielmoMarconi,“TheProgressofWirelessTelegraphy”(1912)inthe“TransactionsoftheNewYorkElectricalSociety”,no.15;andRayStannardBaker,“Marconi’sAchievement”inMcClure’sMagazine,vol.XVIII(1902).Onthetelephone,seeHerbertN.Casson,“HistoryoftheTelephone”

(1910);andAlexanderGrahamBell,“TheTelephone”(1878).Onthecable:CharlesBright,“TheStoryoftheAtlanticCable”(1903).

Forfactsinthehistoryofprintinganddescriptionsofprintingmachines,see:EdmundG.Gress,“AmericanHandbookofPrinting”

(1907);RobertHoe,“AShortHistoryofthePrintingPressandoftheImprovementsinPrintingMachinery”(1902);andOttoSchoenrich,“BiographyofOttmarMergenthalerandHistoryoftheLinotype”(1898),writtenunderMr.Mergenthaler’sdirection.Onthebest-knownNewYorknewspapers,see:H.HapgoodandA.B.

Maurice,“TheGreatNewspapersoftheUnitedStates;theNewYorkNewspapers,”in“TheBookman”,vols.XIVandXV(1902).Onthetypewriter,seeCharlesEdwardWeller,“TheEarlyHistoryoftheTypewriter”(1918).Onthecamera,PaulLewisAnderson,“TheStoryofPhotography”(1918)in“TheMentor”,vol.vi,no.19.;andonthemotionpicture,ColinN.Bennett,“TheHandbookofKinematography”;“TheHistory,TheoryandPracticeofMotionPhotographyandProjection”,London:“KinematographWeekly”

(1911).

CHAPTERVII

ForinformationonthesubjectofrubberandthelifeofCharlesGoodyear,see:H.Wickham,“OnthePlantation,CultivationandCuringofParaIndianRubber”,London(1908);FrancisErnestLloyd,“Guayule,aRubberPlantoftheChihuahuanDesert”,Washington(1911),CarnegieInstitutepublicationno.139;CharlesGoodyear,“GumElasticandItsVarieties”(1853);JamesParton,“FamousAmericansofRecentTimes”(1867);and“TheRubberIndustry,BeingtheOfficialReportoftheProceedingsoftheInternationalRubberCongress”(London,1911),editedbyJosephToreyandA.StainesManders.

CHAPTERVIII

J.W.Roe,“EnglishandAmericanToolBuilders”(1916),andJ.V.

Woodworth,“AmericanToolMakingandInterchangeableManufacturing”(1911),givegeneralaccountsofgreatAmericanmechanics.

ForanaccountofJohnStevensandRobertL.andE.A.Stevens,seeGeorgeIles,“LeadingAmericanInventors”(1912);DwightGoddard,“AShortStoryofJohnStevensandHisSons”in“EminentEngineers”(1905),andR.H.Thurston,“TheMessrs.Stevens,ofHoboken,asEngineers,NavalArchitectsandPhilanthropists”

(1874),“JournaloftheFranklinInstitute”,October,1874.ForWhitney’scontributiontomachineshopmethods,seeOlmsted’s“Memoir”alreadycitedandRoeandWoodworth,alreadycited.ForBlanchard,seeDwightGoddard,“AShortStoryofThomasBlanchard”in“EminentEngineers”(1905),andforSamuelColt,seehisown“OntheApplicationofMachinerytotheManufactureofRotatingChambered-BreechFireArms,andTheirPeculiarities”

(1855),anexcerptfromthe“MinutesofProceedingsoftheInstituteofCivilEngineers”,vol.XI(1853),andHenryBarnard,“Armsmear;theHome,theArm,andtheArmoryofSamuelColt”

(1866).

CHAPTERIX

“TheStoryofElectricity”(1919)isapopularhistoryeditedbyT.C.MartinandS.L.Coles.AmorespecializedaccountofelectricalinventionsmaybefoundinGeorgeBartlettPrescott’s“TheSpeakingTelephone,ElectricLight,andOtherRecentElectricalInventions”(1879).

ForJosephHenry’sachievements,seehisown“ContributionstoElectricityandGalvanism”(1835-42)and“OntheApplicationofthePrincipleoftheGalvanicMultipliertoElectromagneticApparatus”(1831),andtheaccountsofothersinHenryC.

Cameron’s“ReminiscencesofJosephHenry”andW.B.Taylor’s“HistoricalSketchofHenry’sContributiontotheElectro-MagneticTelegraph”(1879),SmithsonianReport,1878.

“AListofReferencesontheLifeandInventionsofThomasA.

Edison”maybefoundintheDivisionofBibliography,U.S.

LibraryofCongress(1916).SeealsoF.L.DyerandT.C.Martin,“Edison;HisLifeandInventions”(1910),and“Mr.Edison’sReminiscencesoftheFirstCentralStation”in“TheElectricalReview”,vol.XXXVIII.Onotherspecialtopicssee:F.E.Leupp,“GeorgeWestinghouse,HisLifeandAchievements”(1918);ElihuThomson,“InductionofElectricCurrentsandInductionCoils”

(1891),“JournaloftheFranklinInstitute”,August,1891;andAlexDow,“TheProductionofElectricitybySteamPower”(1917).

CHAPTERX

CharlesC.Turner,“TheRomanceofAeronautics”(1912);“TheCurtissAviationBook”,byGlennH.CurtissandAugustusPost(1912);SamuelPierpontLangleyandCharlesM.Manly,“LangleyMemoironMechanicalFlight”(SmithsonianInstitution,1911);“OurAtlanticAttempt”,byH.G.HawkerandK.MackenzieGrieve(1919);“FlyingtheAtlanticinSixteenHours”,bySirArthurWhittenBrown(1920);“PracticalAeronautics”,byCharlesB.

Hayward,withanIntroductionbyOrvilleWright(1912);“Aircraft;ItsDevelopmentinWarandPeace”,byEvanJ.David(1919).AccountsoftheflightsacrosstheAtlanticaregivenin“TheAerialYearBookandWho’sWhointheAir”(1920),andthestoryofNC4istoldin“TheFlightAcrosstheAtlantic”,issuedbytheDepartmentofEducation,CurtissAeroplaneandMotorCorporation(1919).

EndofProjectGutenberg’sTheAgeofInvention,byHollandThompson