Protestantism, Poetry and Protest - Taylor and Francis

Protestantism, Poetry and Protest

S.K. Barker

The Vernacular Writings of Antoine de Chandieu (c. 1534–1591)


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The Vernacular Writings of Antoine de Chandieu (c. 1534–1591)

S.K. BARKERLancaster University, UK

First published 2009 by Ashgate Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.

S.K. Barker has asserted her moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataBarker, S.K.

Protestantism, poetry and protest : the vernacular writings of Antoine de Chandieu (c. 1534–1591). – (St Andrews studies in Reformation history)1. Chandieu, Antoine de, 1534–1591 2. Protestantism in literature3. Protestantism – France – History – 16th century 4. Religion and literature– France – History – 16th century 5. France – History – Wars of theHuguenots, 1562–1598 – Literature and the warsI. Title284.5’092

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataBarker, S.K.

Protestantism, poetry, and protest : the vernacular writings of Antoine de Chandieu (c. 1534–1591) / Sara Barker.

p. cm. – (St. Andrews studies in Reformation history)Includes bibliographical references (p. ).ISBN 978–0–7546–6491–8 (alk. paper) – ISBN 978–0–7546–9444–1 (ebook) 1. Chandieu, Antoine de, 1534–1591.I. Title.

BX9419.C53B37 2009284.2092–dc22 2008050393

ISBN 978–0–754–66491–8 (hbk)

Published 2016 by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017, USA

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

Copyright © 2009 S.K. Barker.

Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

Contents

List of Tables viiAcknowledgements ixAbbreviations xiConventions xiii

Introduction 1

1 The Life of Antoine de Chandieu 13

2 Establishing a Church (1555–1560) 51

3 The Conspiracy of Amboise and the French Reformed Church 87

4 ‘Armez-vous pour vostre Poësie’: Chandieu, Ronsard and Polemical Poetry 109

5 Creating a French Protestant Ideal 161

6 Chandieu and Internal Threats to the Protestant Churches 187

7 ‘Mes yeux ne sont fontaines sourdans du rocher de mes peines’: Poetical Expression and the Crisis of French Calvinism 209

8 ‘Sa solide erudition est redoutee de tous les aduersaires de verité’: Chandieu’s Practical Experience of Protestantism 243

Conclusion 281

APPENDIX A: Antoine de Chandieu – Life and Times 287APPENDIX B: English Citations of Chandieu 299APPENDIX C: Chandieu’s Surviving Correspondence 305

Bibliography 307

Index 329


List of Tables

2.1 Reformed Confessions of the Sixteenth Century 68

4.1 Ronsard and his Protestant Critics 128

5.1 Chandieu’s Martyrs 177

8.1 Prose Meditations 248

8.2 The Articles of the Response à la Profession de Foy 264


Acknowledgements

The research that forms the foundation of this work has been conducted over several years, firstly as a graduate student at the University of St Andrews, latterly as a research fellow with the St Andrews French Vernacular Book Project in Paris. The work could not have come to fruition without funding from two bodies. An AHRC scholarship provided the initial funding for the Ph.D. research undertaken at the University of St Andrews as part of the French Vernacular Book Project. A second scholarship from the Bourse Française in Geneva allowed me to spend several months in the autumn of 2003 as a guest of the Institut d’histoire de la Réformation. Both grants, and both institutions, had an immense impact on my work, and I am grateful to be able to offer thanks here. In Geneva, the members of the Institut, especially Nicolas Fornerod, Irena Backus, and Reinhard Bodenmann, ensured my time there was both profitable and enjoyable. The staff of the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire de Genève, the rare books room of the Bibliothèque Cantonale et Universitaire in Lausanne, the Universitätsbibliothek in Basel, the Bibliothèque Publique et Universitaire of Neuchâtel, the British Library, Palace Green Library at the University of Durham, Special Collections at the University of Edinburgh, the Bibliothèque nationale de France, the Bibliothèque de l’Arsenal, the Bibliothèque Sainte Geneviève, and the Bibliothèque de la société de l’histoire du protestantisme français in Paris all went out of their way to help my research run as smoothly as possible. Special thanks must go to Marianne Tisoli of the BPU and the Musée Historique de la Réformation in Geneva, for her help inside the library and her friendship outside it. I was privileged as part of the St Andrews French Vernacular Book Project to visit libraries, archives and collections across France, Luxembourg and Switzerland: my understanding of the early modern book world grew out of the rich resources that are housed in these institutions.

The Reformation Studies Institute in St Andrews was a happy home for several years, its members providing an informative and welcoming atmosphere in which to pursue research. In particular, Dr Alexandra Kess, Dr Matthew Hall, and Dr Michael Springer were all willing to share their expertise over coffee or in emails – their particular contributions are noted in the text. Dr Bridget Heal gave me excellent advice on revising the thesis. As part of the St Andrews French Vernacular Book Project, I was very lucky to work alongside a tight-knit group who were supportive and challenging

PROTESTANTISM, POETRY AND PROTESTx

as necessary. Dr Alexander Wilkinson, now of University College Dublin, and Dr Malcolm Walsby have been both excellent colleagues and good friends over the last five years. Philip John has been a good friend, a good colleague and an understanding flatmate. In the Department of History Isla Woodman and Claire Eldridge have proved unstintingly supportive. The staff and students of Leeds Metropolitan University have been similarly generous as I have completed this monograph.

At the heart of the Institute and the Project, I am extremely grateful to Professor Andrew Pettegree for the help and advice he has shared with me over the years. It was he who introduced me to Chandieu, and set the wheels of this book in motion. He consistently guided and challenged me as a student, and has continued to be generous with his time and advice as I expanded the initial research into this book. His exacting standards and insatiable thirst for knowledge continue to inspire. Jane Pettegree has frequently welcomed me to her home, and happily talked literature at any given opportunity. Further afield, I would like to thank Professor Stuart Carroll for his comments on the thesis, and his sustained interest in my work. As an undergraduate at the University of Durham, I was nurtured by Professor Jennifer Britnell and her belief in my work at such an early stage will always be appreciated.

Chandieu’s work consistently celebrated the role of friends and family in sustaining his mission. I can readily identify with his sentiment. Deborah Anderson Gallant, Alexandra Sarma and Charlotte Schriewer have debated, distracted and discussed as required by the author. International research has seen international support. Katie Edwards, Giora Sternberg and the Prevot family in Paris, and Mette Skotte Holland in Geneva have provided vital assistance at key stages. My family has been consistently supportive, if sometimes slightly baffled, by my love of French history. I would especially like to thank my aunt Elizabeth Barker – for supplying spare rooms, slap up dinners in interesting places, trailing round exhibitions she later admitted to having no real wish to see, and always asking the right questions. Although it was a happy accident that most of my research was in places my parents, Andrew and Christine Barker, were happy to go to on holiday, they went above and beyond the call of duty in their support of both the initial thesis and the book.

As I put the finishing touches to this manuscript, personal circumstances bring some of the issues raised in this work close to home. For a decade, Emily and Jake Hetherington repeatedly welcomed me into their home, and encouraged me in my professional and personal life. When Jake fell terminally ill in 2007, it was a shock that many close to him could not comprehend, and his loss is felt by all his friends. I dedicate this book to Jake and Emily, in thanks for their friendship and their love.

Abbreviations

Aymon, Synodes Aymon, Johannes, Tous les Synodes Nationaux des Eglises Reformées de France: Auxquels on a joint des mandemens roiaux, et plusieurs lettres politiques (The Hague, 1710).

BHR Bibliothèque d’Humanisme et RenaissanceBSHPF Bulletin de la Société d’Histoire du Protestantisme

FrançaisOC Ioannis Calvini Opera Quae Supersunt Omnia, G.

Baum, E. Cunitz and E. Reuss (eds), (Brunswick and Berlin, 1863–1900, reprinted 1964).

RCP Registres de la Compagnie des pasteurs de Genève au temps de Calvin. R.M. Kingdom and J.F. Bergier (eds)(Geneva, 1964–)


Conventions

The original spelling has been kept throughout, except for sources where only modern editions survive. ‘U’ and ‘v’ and ‘i’ and ‘j’ have been maintained as originally printed, although õ and similar abbreviations have been elongated.

All Bible citations are taken from the King James Version.

When referring to the poetry of Chandieu and his contemporaries, a distinction has been made between the verses themselves and the printed editions of the various works. This has been necessary due to the large number of items which were printed concurrently and in multiple editions. Thus, when referring to the verse itself, the item will appear within quote marks – italicised titles are referring to the printed item as a product.


Introduction

For over 150 years, Protestantism played an uneasy role in the life of the developing French nation. Home-grown yet alien to many Frenchmen, Protestant communities emerged from a native evangelical movement to become embroiled in the turmoil of the civil war years, before enjoying varying levels of protection under the monarchy until 1685. Louis XIV’s final rejection of the Protestants embodied their contradictory status within their own society. Their religion made them outsiders in the eyes of their fellow countrymen, who saw them as ideologically sympathetic to old national enemies, and traitors to a nation whose identity was shaped by Catholicism.1 Even so, their eradication took over 20 years and a multiplicity of economic and political sanctions.2

As Protestantism made inroads into French society, its adherents were torn between their country and their religion. The fragility of this dichotomy was most exposed during the Wars of Religion. The movement was in its infancy when Henry II died in 1559; having emerged from the shadows of Evangelical groups over the 1550s, it incorporated a wide range of religious beliefs under the one ‘Protestant’ banner. Significantly, it lacked an obvious national figurehead around whom to coalesce. Although Calvin’s name would forever be linked with Protestantism in France, he was removed from the action in his homeland by his work in Geneva, and no one man emerged in his wake to provide either the spiritual or the political guidance the young movement needed to make good its early promise. Instead, Protestants in France tried to navigate their own way through the barracking of the war years, with mixed results. What historians often regard as a cohesive association of local Churches was actually an amorphous coalition that struggled to find a workable identity with which to face its opponents. The formation of this identity was challenged not only by the situation of civil war, but also by internal rifts between Protestants who wanted to shape this identity in conflicting, or at best contrasting, directions.

Fluidity of movement, both of people and ideas, means that it is nigh on impossible to regard any of the reform movements of the sixteenth

1 Collette Beaune, The Birth of an Ideology: Myths and Symbols of Nation in Early Modern France (Berkeley, 1991).

2 David J. Sturdy, Louis XIV (Basingstoke, 1998), pp. 89–99.

PROTESTANTISM, POETRY AND PROTEST2

century as an isolated capsule, and it is highly debatable whether those involved would have believed this to be likely at all. God’s providence did not respect national frontiers any more than plague or famine did. In this age of religious reinterpretation, the influences were fast, furious and of multiple provenances, shaped in large part by the flourishing printing industry, and borne forward by enquiring minds determined to bring about God’s will on earth. However, the term ‘French Protestantism’ needs to be clearly defined. For many, this deceptively simple phrase denotes all those who turned away from the Catholic Church in the mid-sixteenth century and joined one of the congregations worshipping with all the hallmarks of the reformed liturgy – vernacular services, taking communion in both kinds, married clergy and heavy reliance on the Bible. As this largely corresponds to the precepts of the form of worship set up by Calvin, the tendency has been to highlight the many parallels, and the plethora of personal links that kept channels of communication open between Geneva and France.3 It can appear as if Protestantism in France was transplanted wholesale from Geneva, with little attempt or even need for adaptation. To a certain extent, this is understandable – Calvin’s supporters were certainly organised and well placed to disperse their message. But the descent into war and the intricacies of the day-to-day fight for survival that dominated Protestant life after 1559 have obscured the realities of the internal mechanics of French Protestantism. To define all French Protestants as unthinking followers of Calvin misses the point of their struggle. Such an interpretation fails to recognise the serious disagreements that threatened the movement not once but repeatedly throughout its notoriety in the sixteenth century. Indeed, initially, not all those who we might define as Protestant came to their spiritual beliefs through Calvin or his works – there was a strong evangelical tradition in France that persevered through persecution in the 1540s to wield an increasingly acknowledged influence over the later, more successful movement.4 When Calvin’s ideas hit France

3 Robert Kingdon’s seminal works on the role of Genevan missionaries in the diffusion of the Reformation in France Geneva and the Coming of the Wars of Religion in France (Geneva, 1956), and its successor Geneva and the Consolidation of the French Protestant Movement 1564–1572: A Contribution to the History of Congregationalism, Presbyterianism, and Calvinist Resistance Theory (Geneva, 1967) are still the best starting points for consideration of the relationship between French Protestantism and Geneva.

4 David Nicholls has charted the vitality of the evangelical movement in ‘The Nature of Popular Heresy in France, 1520–1542’, Historical Journal 26 (1983). Philip Conner and Glenn Sunshine have both identified deviations from Genevan orthodoxy during the 1550s–1560s. Philip Conner, ‘Huguenot Identities During the Wars of Religion: The Churches of Le Mans and Montauban Compared’, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 54 (2003), pp. 23–39; Glenn S. Sunshine, Reforming French Protestantism: The Development of Huguenot Ecclesiastical Institutions, 1557–1572 (Kirksville, Missouri, 2003).

INTRODUCTION 3

with such force, their proliferation in print ensured that were as many interpretations of reformed religion as there were adherents. Not everyone had the pleasure of hearing a Genevan missionary preacher who had the training to mediate Calvin’s message, and even those who did might not have had this opportunity repeatedly. French Protestantism flourished locally, through group meetings, discussions and above all the printed word. This was only to be exacerbated by persecution, when religious sensibilities came under pressure from more urgent practicalities – arguments about the form Church worship should take became arguments about whether to worship openly at all. With open war came more confrontation, between those who put practical considerations above spiritual concerns and those who accepted no compromise that limited religious observance. And eventually the enforced experience of exile or conversion created yet more barriers between those who would still be recognised by later historians as ‘French Protestants’ or ‘Huguenots’ – the lack of clarity over their name only serving to reinforce the lack of uniformity within the movement.

This monograph has two aims. The first is to illuminate the career of Antoine de Chandieu during the French Wars of Religion. It will demonstrate the key role Chandieu played in the development of French Protestantism. It is sad but not altogether surprising that Chandieu does not enjoy a more recognised position in the annals of Reformation History. Although a respected theologian in his day and a key player in the concerns of the sixteenth-century French Church, the peripatetic nature of his career meant that he had no real physical powerbase that would preserve his legacy after his death – he probably had the most local impact in the congregations in Paris and Geneva, but both would commemorate more obvious men for posterity. Chandieu was always going to live on through his writings. And as times and tastes changed, so Chandieu fell out of fashion and into semi-obscurity. Not total obscurity, for he continued to attract some readers. He enjoyed an enduring popularity with theologians and with the senior figures of the revived French Protestant Church. Today, he is a writer who has a specific readership, in sharp contrast to the successes he enjoyed as a published author in his lifetime. Moreover, he has been appropriated by specialists in three different fields, literature, theology, and history, with little attempt to bridge the disciplinary divides. Each knows him for different aspects of his output. Consequently there is often a gap between the understanding of Chandieu the Poet, Chandieu the Pastor, and Chandieu the Man. He is known to literary scholars firstly as an ‘angry young man’ firing off vitriolic polemic against Ronsard in the early 1560s. But he is also recognised for his meditative works which appeared two decades later, the Octonaires. Theologians know him for his application of scholastic theory to reformed theology in his attacks on Jesuit writers, and for his work in standardising reformed practice throughout France.


Historians might recognise the name as being one of Calvin’s foot soldiers bringing the word to the people of France, but more often as the link between Geneva and the rebels of the Conspiracy of Amboise. All of these are valid observations, but it is rare to find studies that acknowledge the extent of his multifaceted career. Consequently, many assumptions about his motivations and aims have been drawn which do not take into account the other aspects of his work. To understand Chandieu, his works and his interpretation of the unravelling situation around him, these distinct personalities must be condensed into one historical figure.

This work not only addresses this imbalance by presenting Chandieu’s career step by step over 30 years of religious turmoil, it will also be the first systematic evaluation of Chandieu’s French works. These were written for a domestic audience, and chart the evolution of Protestantism in France from the emergence of reformed congregations in the 1550s through the vigour of the 1560s and the crisis of the 1570s and 1580s. By focusing on the vernacular works, Chandieu’s long unacknowledged role as a spiritual leader of French Protestants will be re-established.5 Keeping the vernacular works as the main focus allows Chandieu to act as a lens through which to focus on the issues facing French Protestants during the wars of religion. His writings cannot be divorced from the environment in which they were produced.6

Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of Chandieu’s career is its longevity. Many of his co-religionists would have brief spells of publishing success, but Chandieu’s career spanned the Wars of Religion. He began to write as Calvinism made its first real inroads into French society and continued to publish throughout his life. Each stage of French Protestantism would be reflected in Chandieu’s writings, and through these writings, we can see how French Protestantism adapted to the challenges of the wars. Of his contemporaries, only Theodore Beza would enjoy such a long career, and he was based in Geneva whereas Chandieu was on the front line in France. This study considers Chandieu’s whole career and examines how his written work contributed to his reputation as one of the most influential

5 There remains a need for a systematic survey of his Latin works and their impact on the intellectual circles of late sixteenth-century Europe.

6 It is a harsh reality but the majority of those writings survive today only in printed formats. What survives in Chandieu’s hand is fragmentary at best, and must be recognised as such. Unless a major new discovery of Chandieu’s manuscripts is unearthed, research into his career must rely on the many printed editions of his writings. Chandieu’s letters have been consulted and are listed in Appendix C. At the time of writing, his manuscript journal has been lost for over a century, although attempts are ongoing to locate it. Such a discovery would be invaluable for our understanding of the French Protestant Church during the war years.

INTRODUCTION 5

and respected of French ministers, and how he guided the Protestant movement through this crucial period in its history.

The surviving information about Chandieu’s life comes to us from several sources. His first biographer was the Genevan historian, lawyer and magistrate Jacques Lect, who wrote an account of Chandieu’s life in Latin two years after his death.7 This laudatory rendition, dedicated to Archbishop Whitgift in England, charted Chandieu’s early training and his quick rise to dominance in the Paris Church, his impressive record as a pastor, and his subsequent international standing as a theologian.8 This international renown continued through the seventeenth century, where his writings were commonly used by theologians including the Puritans William Ames, Edward Leigh and Robert Baxter, the Quaker Robert Barclay and the Scottish Presbyterian George Gillespie.9 But his real re-discovery would come later. Nineteenth-century Protestant writers saw him and his ilk as shining examples of the Reformation man, and set about memorialising their spiritual ancestors.10 The apogee of this approach is the work by Auguste Bernus, the starting point for most modern scholars.11 His exhaustive, if somewhat partisan, study gives an account of Chandieu’s life and times from childhood to his passing. This work is of fundamental importance to later scholars, as Bernus had access to the few surviving letters from Chandieu’s correspondence, but more importantly to his manuscript journal.12 Covering the years between 1563 and 1591, it encompassed the majority of Chandieu’s writing career, and his service as a pastor in France and Switzerland. It gave a wealth of information about his movements around the countryside and his work with congregations and individuals that the printed works never fully reflected. It also provided some clues as to the conduct of his family life which were not appropriate for his other writings. The manuscript later disappeared, and

7 Jacques Lect (1560–1611) was a key figure in Genevan life at the end of the sixteenth and start of the seventeenth century. A Magistrate and Professor of Law, he was a protégé of Beza, and served on the Genevan city council from 1584. Antonio d’Andrea, ‘The Last Years of Innocent Gentillet: “Princeps Adversariorum Machiavelli’’’, Renaissance Quarterly 20 (1967), pp. 12–16, p. 14.

8 Jacques Lect, De Vita Anton Sadeelis et Scriptis, Epistola in Antonii Sadeelis Chandei Nobilissimi Viri Opera Theologica, (Geneva, 1599), ¶¶¶1r ff.

9 The full extent of Chandieu’s influence on Anglophone successors can be seen in Appendix B.

10 The articles and monographs produced by the members of the Société d’Histoire de Protestantisme Français not only give valuable factual details otherwise lost, in many instances they also examine secondary players most modern treatments do not reference.

11 Auguste Bernus, ‘Le ministre Antoine de Chandieu d’après son journal autographe (1534–1591)’, BSHPF 37 (1888).

12 The journal was at that point in the possession of the Tscharner family in Berne.


without Bernus, innumerable particulars pertaining to Chandieu would be lost. Crucially, it also represented Chandieu’s private voice, charting his fluctuating moods and personal views, hinting at a passionate side of his personality which rarely appeared in print. From the short extracts Bernus included in his biography, we can appreciate the vigour with which Chandieu approached his faith in his daily life, as well as in his longer works. The short bursts of thankful prayer and cries of anguish to God that appear to have peppered his observations of his actions might be the closest a modern day audience can get to experiencing the dynamism of Chandieu’s renowned preaching.

For several decades, Chandieu remained firmly in the shadow of Bernus’ interpretation. By the 1920s, however, a counter-argument emerged, at least for the early part of his career. Lucien Romier’s influential work on the Conspiracy of Amboise presented Chandieu as the manifestation of all that was seditious and rebellious about the early reformed movement: his account of the events of 1558–1560 painted Chandieu as the most manipulative and conniving of political operators, exploiting the tensions at court between Antoine de Bourbon and Condé for his own ends.13 Such was Romier’s dominance over subsequent approaches to the political origins of the wars of religion that no one challenged the idea of Chandieu as a young political radical feverishly in the grip of a kind of Calvinist terrorism, at least from a historical perspective. Inadvertently, work on the links between Geneva and French Protestantism only served to embed this notion further, thanks to the emergence of Geneva as the headquarters of an International Calvinist movement.

Initially, Chandieu’s later career was neglected outside the realms of literary studies, where increasing interest in the shift in poetry from the period of the pléiade to the Baroque era saw a growing fascination with ‘meditative literature’, of which Chandieu’s Octonaires were held to be a prime example. The cross-confessional approach of scholars like Terence Cave to this phenomenon saw Chandieu’s writings taken out of their compositional context, and investigated solely in terms of their biblical precedents and their position on the poetic continuum.14 From being one of the most ‘dangerous’ members of the Protestant community, as Romier had suggested, Chandieu was now little more than a mouthpiece reflecting general ennui. And more recent scholarship has done little to rehabilitate him. His continuing rejection and refutation of the ‘democratic’ ideas of Church structure advocated by Jean Morély in the 1560s marked

13 Lucien Romier, La Conjuration d’Amboise (Paris, 1923).14 Cave refers to Chandieu’s preaching heritage, and to his being part of a group based

around Geneva, but these are as mere adjuncts to the main attraction, the poems themselves. Terence Cave, Devotional Poetry in France, c. 1570–1613 (Cambridge, 1969), pp. 165, 301.

INTRODUCTION 7

him down as staunchly Genevan-Calvinist in the face of a more utopian interpretation. He was seen as a reactionary whose grasp of scholarship enabled him to curtail the more ‘modern’ tendencies at work in the French Reformed movement which Morély had tried to articulate.15 Chandieu’s youthful attacks on Ronsard earned him few supporters in the literary world, as he dared criticise the star of the pléiade, whilst causing Ronsard to write some of his most partisan ‘commercial poetry’, thereby proving that the prince des poètes was inspired as much by political circumstance as by his muse.16 Yet this dazzling exchange of verse has been neglected for its insights into the religious motivations of the literary intelligentsia on the eve of the Wars of Religion. What emerges is an intricately nuanced set of arguments hinging on the twin notions of loyalty and treachery that characterised the explosion of pamphlet literature of the early 1560s.

In all of these studies, Chandieu is accepted to be the embodiment of French Calvinism, obeying Calvin and Geneva at every turn. But increasingly, evidence shows this to have been less clear cut than previously imagined. N.M. Sutherland has dug deeper into explaining Chandieu’s actions as regards the Conspiracy of Amboise, redressing Romier’s original critique.17 Studies of martyrology and polemic have found Chandieu’s prose works useful for their ‘hands-on’ observation of events and their detailed recollections.18 His deviation from Calvin in various areas, such as the independent development of the Discipline and Confession, active resistance to persecution and the use of Aristotelian scholastic theory, have been noted by Glenn Sunshine and Donald Sinnema.19 Chandieu’s career needs to be reconsidered in this light. His role was much more complicated than that previously ascribed to him, and was as much influenced by the

15 Philippe Denis and Jean Rott, Jean Morély (ca 1524–1594) et l’Utopie d’une démocratie dans l’eglise (Geneva, 1993).

16 F. Charbonnier, Pamphlets Protestants contre Ronsard 1560–1577 (Paris, 1923); Jacques Pineaux, La poésie protestante de langue française (1559–1598) (s.l., 1971); Jean-Paul Barbier, Bibliographie des discours politiques de Ronsard (Geneva, Droz, 1984); Fernand Desonay, ‘Ronsard poète engagé’, Bulletin de l’Academie Royale de Langue et Literature Françaises XLIV (1966), pp. 29–46; Francis Higman, ‘Ronsard’s political and polemical poetry’, in Terence Cave (ed.), Ronsard the Poet (London, 1973), pp. 241–86; Malcolm Smith, ‘Ronsard et ses critiques contemporains’, in M. Smith, Renaissance Studies Articles 1966–1994 (Geneva, 1999), pp. 219–26.

17 N.M. Sutherland, The Huguenot Struggle for Recognition (New Haven and London, 1980).

18 Brad S. Gregory, Salvation at Stake: Christian Martyrdom in Early Modern Europe (Cambridge, MA, 1999); Luc Racaut, Hatred in Print: Catholic Propaganda and Protestant Identity during the French Wars of Religion (Aldershot, 2002).

19 Sunshine, Reforming French Protestantism; Donald Sinnema, ‘Antoine de Chandieu’s call for a scholastic reformed theology (1580)’, in W. Fred Graham (ed.), Later Calvinism: international perspectives (Kirksville, Missouri, 1994), pp. 159–90.


circumstances in which he found himself as the ideals he held. This is not in any way to suggest that Chandieu was not a committed Calvinist, rather the contrary: in his determination to see the triumph of the light, he was clear-sighted enough to recognise that the fight was taking place on many levels and in different spheres than that which might be safely directed from Geneva.

Chandieu’s career and writings show how French Protestants saw themselves and how they were seen by others. On the one hand, Chandieu needs to be re-examined not as a poet, or a theologian, or a political player, but as an intellectual committed to action, whose ideals were reflected in all his deeds and writings, and in whom all these supposedly distinct elements were in fact combined. He is emblematic of the men who pushed the Reformation through its later stages, the less showy figures whose faith was no less steadfast than their more famous counterparts. In the words of Denis and Rott: ‘Chandieu n’appartient pas à la génération des fondateurs, les Calvin, les Viret et les Farel … Il est plutôt l’homme de la consolidation.’20 His career distils many of the crucial elements that defined French Protestantism: loyalty to country and family balanced by duty to God, the need for structure in accordance with faith, the reaction to mass violence and the experience of exile. His life and work personify the struggle French Protestantism never really overcame, of how to establish oneself in a hostile country, the modifications needed to survive in these conditions, and the changes forced by war, repression and exile.

The second aim of this work is to highlight the highly influential role that literature, especially poetry, played in the shaping of the religious and spiritual experience of the wars. Religious experience in this period was recorded through many forms of writing. Martyrologies have proved to be a rich source of what people took to be an ideal to aim for. Journals and first-hand accounts provide great factual detail, but can be overly reliant on interpretive conditioning. Yet poetry seems to present a stumbling block as a historical source. Some of the metaphors might today seem obscure, and the standard of composition is not consistently high: one reads many weak compositions before one encounters a verse that works both as poem and documentary source. Whilst not all works of the sixteenth century reached the dizzy heights of a Ronsard or a Marot, there is nonetheless a huge wealth of personal experience locked up in the reams of verse written during the Wars of Religion.

The Wars of Religion continue to fascinate historians. Traditional political surveys of kings and the court and battles and ‘events’ have been supplemented by case studies of towns, literary trends, information

20 Denis and Rott, Jean Morély, p. 96.

INTRODUCTION 9

distribution and social groups with their interrelations and their practices.21 We now understand far more intimately the world in which these events unfolded, from the atmosphere on the streets to the impact of the weather on the production of food. Yet findings on such varied subjects can be difficult to judge in the wider context. Introducing personality back into our understanding of the Wars of Religion helps us remember these were not events that took place in a vacuum, but that involved people from all ranks of society.

In using Chandieu and his life as a template for investigation, this study will show how the Wars of Religion shaped the experience of Protestants in France. The chapters take a broadly chronological approach to Chandieu’s career. This is not a survey of Chandieu’s theology, although at some points his religious thinking is integral to understanding his actions. Rather, his works are to be seen as a guide to the emotional fortunes of French Calvinists, the nebulous entity that might be defined as ‘Protestant Identity’. French Protestantism did not have strictly defined boundaries for much of this period, and similarly Protestant self-identity was constantly shifting. Protestants clung to their group identity, positively defining their experience in terms which were easy to understand – justification by faith, interpretation of the word of God, persecution by outside groups – rather than admit the differences between them. As the situation worsened, this reliance on a common group identity became even more critical and it was fully grounded in practical experience.22 In times of crisis, group identity could be immensely comforting. Many felt a strong need to belong to a group; Chandieu’s writing lets us survey how this group shifted its self-

21 Philip Benedict, Rouen during the wars of Religion (Cambridge, London and New York, 1981); Penny Roberts, A City in Conflict: Troyes during the French wars of religion (Manchester and New York, 1996); Barbara B. Diefendorf, Paris city councillors in the Sixteenth century: the politics of patrimony (Princeton, 1983); Stuart Carroll, Blood and Violence in Early Modern France (Oxford, 2006); Geneviève Guilleminot, ‘La polémique en 1561: les règles de jeu’, in Le Pamphlet en France au XVIe siècle. Actes du colloque organisé par le Centre V. -L. Saulnier le 9 mars 1983, (Paris, 1983); Davis Bitton, The French Nobility in Crisis, 1560–1640 (Stanford, 1969); Edith Weber, La musique protestante en langue française (Paris, 1979).

22 The Protestant appropriation of history and scripture to define themselves as a community has been investigated by Bruce Gordon: ‘… Protestant history-making was situational, that it varied greatly depending upon the particular circumstances in which it was being nurtured. Whether in positions of power or exile, the Protestant understanding of scripture and history provided individuals and communities with a set of models which served as raw materials for the creation of identities.’ Bruce Gordon, ‘The Changing Face of Protestant History and Identity in the Sixteenth Century’, in Bruce Gordon (ed.), Protestant History and Identity in Sixteenth Century Europe Vol II The Later Reformation, (Aldershot, 1996), p. 6.


definition as events unfolding around it impacted on their lives.23 Much as a modern individual might ask themselves ‘Who am I? What am I here for?’, the sixteenth-century Protestant seems to have needed some level of self-definition in order to sit easily with themselves and more pertinently, their fellow Protestants. And this identity was in turn reaffirmed by the publication of these ideas as books, which could be purchased, read and distributed amongst the Protestant community in order to sustain the faith through periods of difficulty.

Chandieu’s writings are then a window through which Protestant experience and self belief can be charted. His unique standpoint sheds light on the fortunes of Protestantism and challenges long-standing interpretations of what it actually meant to be a Protestant in France during the Wars of Religion. The opening chapter is a biographical study of Chandieu. It situates the man in his historical context, and identifies the key themes in his work. It also refers to the events of the Wars of Religion and their influence on Chandieu’s career and writings. Having established these criteria for examining Chandieu’s career, the chapters place Chandieu’s individual works in close context with the events of the wars and the ongoing trends of intellectual development. Chapter 2 explores Chandieu’s early career as a pastor during the formative years of the French Protestant movement. Looking specifically at his involvement in Church building, and the resultant Confession and Discipline, it demonstrates the extent to which Chandieu and his fellow pastors were aware of the debt they owed to native evangelical sympathies. Chapter 3 considers the emerging tensions between ‘noble’ and ‘religious’ factions within the Protestant community. It looks at the causes of the Conspiracy of Amboise, its main players and their motivations, and the ambiguous role the pastors of Geneva and Chandieu himself played in the unfolding of events. Chapter 4 examines the use of literary pamphlets at the outbreak of the wars, and Chandieu’s contributions to polemical literature. Chapter 5 focuses on Chandieu’s preoccupation with the Christian ideal, as expounded in his Histoire des persecutions de l’Eglise de Paris. It looks at the role Chandieu believed the Paris Church should play, before analysing the form and structure of the Histoire itself. Chapter 6 examines Chandieu’s antagonistic relationship with Jean Morély. The two men’s divergent views of how Protestantism should be structured in France dominated synods of the 1560s, and it was not at all clear that Chandieu’s view would come to prevail. As French Protestantism found itself in a weaker and weaker position following the St Bartholomew’s Day Massacres, so the themes discussed in poetry become more introspective. Chandieu’s later poetry is

23 Andrew Pettegree, Reformation and the Culture of Persuasion, (Cambridge, 2005), Chapter 9.

INTRODUCTION 11

discussed in Chapter 7, with its focus on death and the futility of earthly pleasures. Finally, Chapter 8 looks at Chandieu the elder statesman of the French Church, based in Geneva but still writing for his French co-religionists, with the culmination of his theological knowledge and stylistic expertise applied to the Response à la Profession de foy des moines de Bordeaux.

This study considers the multiple aspects of Chandieu’s career alongside each other. Chandieu’s works provide the core of the material used, along with his extant correspondence. These have been consulted in the original editions where possible. Each piece needs to be understood in terms of its conception, its place in Chandieu’s overall development, in relation to its intended audience, and what we know of its actual readership. How was his message served by the various styles – poetic, martyrological, scholastic – which he chose to use?24 Essentially, this is not the study of a man alone, but rather a man who represented the strengths and weaknesses of French Protestantism. In Chandieu, the Protestants of the French Wars of Religion found a voice whose mastery of genres ensured they would never be forgotten, and that their sufferings would never have been in vain.

24 The data gathered by the St Andrews Sixteenth Century French Vernacular Book Project has proved invaluable in giving a consolidated view of how the book world worked in the sixteenth century, and what a printed book, in its varying forms, might be expected to achieve.


References

APPENDIX B English Citations of Chandieu

Ames, William

(1576–1633) A fresh suit against human ceremonies in God’svvorship 6

Ames, William

(1576–1633) A reply to Dr. Mortons generall Defence ofthree nocent [sic] ceremonies 3

Bancroft,

Richard

(1544–1610) A suruay of the pretended holy discipline. 1

Barclay, Robert Quakerism confirmed, or, A vindication ofthe chief doctrines and principles of the people called 1

Barrow, Henry

(1550?–1593) A petition directed to Her Most ExcellentMaiestie 1

Baxter, Richard

(1615–1691) Against the revolt to a foreign jurisdiction 2

Baxter, Richard

(1615–1691) An answer to Mr. Dodwell and Dr. Sherlocke 1

Baxter, Richard

(1615–1691) Catholick communion defended against bothextreams 1

Baxter, Richard

(1615–1691) Certain disputations of right to sacraments 1Baxter, Richard (1615–1691) A Christian directory, or, Asumm of practical theologie and cases of consciencedirecting Christians how to use their knowledge and faith1 Baxter, Richard (1615–1691) A defence of the principlesof love, which are necessary to the unity and concord ofChristians and are delivered in a book called The cure of

churchdivisions 1 Baxter, Richard (1615–1691) The Englishnonconformity as under King Charles II and King James IItruly stated and argued by Richard Baxter 2 Baxter,Richard (1615–1691) The saints everlasting rest, or, Atreatise of the blessed state of the saints in theirenjoyment of God in glory 3 Church of Scotland GeneralAssembly., Commission. 1 Downame, George (d. 1634) Adefence of the sermon preached at the consecration of theL. Bishop of Bath and VVelles against a confutationthereof by a namelesse author. 2 Edwards, Thomas(1599–1647) Antapologia, or, A full answer to theApologeticall narration of Mr. Goodwin, Mr. Nye, Mr.Sympson, Mr. Burroughs, Mr. Bridge, members of theAssembly of Divines wherein is handled many of thecontroversies of these times 2 Gillespie, George(1613–1648) An assertion of the government of the Churchof Scotland in the points of ruling-elders and of theauthority of presbyteries and synods with a postscript inanswer to a treatise lately published againstpresbyteriall government. 2 Gillespie, George(1613–1648) A dispute against the English-popishceremonies, obtruded vpon the Church of Scotland 2

Hakewill,

George

(1578–1649) An ansvvere to a treatise vvritten by Dr.Carier 1

Hall, Thomas

(1610–1665) The pulpit guarded with XVII arguments provingthe unlawfulness, sinfulness and danger of sufferingprivate persons to take upon them publike preaching, andexpounding the Scriptures without a call 1

Jameson,

William

(1689–1720) Nazianzeni querela et votum justum, Thefundamentals of the hierarchy examin’d and disprov’dwherein the choicest arguments and defences of .. A.M. ..the author of An enquiry into the new opinions (chiefly)propagated by the Presbyterians in Scotland, 1

Keith, George

(1639?–1716) Quakerism no popery, or, A particular answere

to that part of Iohn Menzeis, professor of divinity inAberdeen, (as he is called) his book, intituled Romamendax 1

Leigh, Edward

(1602–1671) Foelix consortium, or, A fit conjuncture ofreligion and learning in one entire volume, consisting ofsix books 4

Leigh, Edward

(1602–1671) A systeme or body of divinity consisting often books 3

Leigh, Edward

(1602–1671) A treatise of religion & learning and ofreligious and learned men consisting of six books 3

Lewis, John

(b. 1595 or 6) The vnmasking of the masse-priest vvith adue and diligent examination of their holy sacrifice. 2

Lindsay, David

(d. 1641?) A true narration of all the passages of theproceedings in the generall Assembly of the Church ofScotland, holden at Perth the 25. of August, anno Dom.1618 1

London Provincial Assembly 1 Owen, James (1654–1706) Aplea for Scripture ordination, or, Ten arguments fromScripture and antiquity proving ordination by presbyterswithout bishops to be valid by J.O. 3 Perkins, William(1558–1602) A godlie and learned exposition upon the wholeepistle of Iude, containing threescore and sixe sermonspreached in Cambridge by that reverend and faithfull manof God, Master William Perkins, 1 Prynne, William(1600–1669) The antipathie of the English lordly prelacie,both to regall monarchy, and civill unity: 1 Rainolds,John (1549–1607) The summe of the conference betwene IohnRainoldes and Iohn Hart touching the head and the faith ofthe Church 1 Robinson, John (1575?–1625) A iustificationof separation from the Church of England Against MrRichard Bernard his invective, intituled; The separatistsschisme 1 Rutherford, Samuel (1600?–1661) The due rightof presbyteries, or, A peaceable plea for the governmentof the Church of Scotland 1 Rutherford, Samuel

(1600?–1661) A peaceable and temperate plea for Paulspresbyterie in Scotland, 2 Rutherford, Samuel(1600?–1661) A survey of the Survey of that summe ofchurch-discipline penned by Mr. Thomas Hooker .. whereinthe way of the churches of N. England is now re-examined2 Simson, Patrick (1556–1618) A short compend of thehistorie of the first ten persecutions moued againstChristians divided into III. centuries 1 Stubbe, Henry(1632–1676) A light shining out of darknes [sic], or,Occasional queries submitted to the judgment of such aswould enquire into the true state of things in our times1

Willet, Andrew

(1562–1621) Loidoromastix: that is, A scourge for a raylercontaining a full and sufficient answer vnto thevnchristian raylings, slaunders, vntruths, and otheriniurious imputations, vented of late by one RichardParkes master of Arts, against the author of Limbomastix 1THIS PAGE HAS BEEN LEFT BLANK INTENTIONALLY

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Musical resources

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