RESEARCH METHODS NOTES

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TOPIC ONE: INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Introduction

Research is the cornerstone of any science, including both the hard sciences such as

chemistry and physics and the social (or soft) sciences such as psychology, management,

or education. It refers to the organized, structured, and purposeful investigation aimed at

discovering, interpreting, and revising human knowledge on different aspects of the

world by someone first hand. The setting may vary from natural, real world too highly

constrained and carefully controlled laboratory environment.

Definition of Research

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to increase

our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the researcher to

contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to communicate that

understanding to others.

Research is a logical and systematic search for new and useful information on a particular

topic. It is an investigation of finding solutions to scientific and social problems through

objective and systematic analysis. It is a search for knowledge, that is, a discovery of

hidden truths. Here knowledge means information about matters. The information might

be collected from different sources like experience, human beings, books, journals,

nature, etc. A research can lead to new contributions to the existing knowledge.

It is only through research that it is possible to make progress in a field. Research is done

with the help of study, experiment, observation, analysis, comparison and reasoning.

Research is in fact ubiquitous.

Objectives of Research

The prime objectives of research are

(1) to discover new facts

(2) to verify and test important facts

(3) to analyze an event or process or phenomenon to identify the cause and effect

relationship

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(4) to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories to solve and understand

scientific and non-scientific problems

(5) to find solutions to scientific, nonscientific and social problems and

(6) to overcome or solve the problems occurring in our every day life.

Why People do Research

This is a fundamentally important question. No person would like to do research unless

there are some motivating factors. Some of the motivations are the following:

to get a research degree (Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)) along with its benefits like

better employment, promotion, increment in salary, etc.

to get a research degree and then to get a teaching position in a college or

university or become a scientist in a research institution

to solve the unsolved and challenging problems to get joy of doing some creative

work

to acquire respectability

to get recognition

curiosity to find out the unknown facts of an event

curiosity to find new things

To serve the society by solving social problems.

Some students undertake research without any aim possibly because of not being able to

think of anything else to do. Such students can also become good researchers by

motivating themselves toward a respectable goal.

Importance of Research

Research is important both in scientific and non-scientific fields. In our life new

problems, events, phenomena and processes occur every day. Practically implementable

solutions and suggestions are required for tacking new problems that arise. Scientists

have to under- take research on them and find their causes, solutions, explanations and

applications. Precisely, research assists us to understand nature and natural phenomena.

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Research helps us in many ways –

Removes the cobwebs of ignorance and doubt in our minds

We get to learn first hand from our works, instead of learning something by rote

and without understanding

Helps build the profession and make it even more autonomous

Ensures better client service and client satisfaction - through tested and refined

client care approaches

Ultimately, it helps make the world a better place   to live in

Research process

The task of research is a sequential process involving a number of clearly delineated

steps. There are some variations in the number of steps, their names and their sequence

suggested by different writers, but there is much similarity among their suggestions.

Some steps may be taken in a different order; some steps may have to be retraced; some

may be carried on simultaneously; some may be omitted; in some projects some steps can

be covered quickly, while in other cases, they may require longer time. In spite of these

variations it is desirable to determine the steps involved in the task of planning and

executing a project, and also the order in which they have to be taken.

According to Emory, the research sequence consists of four major stages:

1. Exploration of the situation

If the problem is in an area in which the investigator has previously conducted

research, he may start preparing a research proposal including time and budget

estimates. However, if the problem posed is an unfamiliar one, he may adopt two-

stage approach; first to propose a separate exploratory study, second, to develop the

main study after the exploratory study is over. The feasibility, the availability of data,

etc. will be explored at this stage.

2. Development of the research design: At this stage, the formal research plan is

developed.

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3. Data Collection. : Data are collected by adopting appropriate methods of data

collection

4. Analysis and interpretation of the results: After the fieldwork is over, the data are

processed and tabulated and analyzed. Then the findings are interpreted. Finally, a report

is written for communicating the findings.

A General Model

In general, a research process consists of the following steps:

1) Identification and selection of a research problem.

2) Review of literature: Preliminary review prior to problem selection; Systematic

review after selection; notes taking.

3) Formulation of the selected problem: definition of the problem, conceptual mode,

delimitation of the study, formulation of the objectives of the study, and the

hypotheses/ investigating questions.

4) Operationalisation of concepts: definition of concepts, construction of indexes/scales

for measuring variables.

5) Preparation of the research plan: statement of the problem, objectives of the study,

hypotheses, operational definition of the concepts, Geographical area of the study,

methodology (type of research and methods of collection of data), sampling design,

tools for collection of data, plan of analysis, over-view of the research report, time-

schedule. .

6) Construction of tools of data-collection: Identification of data needs, delineation of

data sources, drafting observation schedule, interview schedule/guide, mailed

questionnaire and/or check lists or experimental design, pre-testing and possible

revision.

7) Collection of data: Experimental/field work: Preparing sample frame, drawing

sample of respondents; Interviewing them/mailing questionnaires to them and follow-

up.

8) Processing of data: editing, coding, transcription, tabulation, construction of tables

and charts.

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9) Analysis of data: Statistical treatment, testing hypotheses, interpretation of findings.

10) Report-writing: Planning report-writing work, drafting the report and its finalisation.

The above steps or activities may be regrouped into the following three stages:

1. Planning

Selection of the problem

Formulaton of the selected problem

Operationalisation of concepts

Preparation of the research design

Planning report-writing work.

2. Operation

Construction of tools of data collection

Pre-testing tools and their revision

Collection of data

Processing of data

Analysis of data and interpretation of results.

3. Reporting

Drafting the report: Description of the research process; Summary of findings;

Suggestion for action and for further research Finalisation of the report.

Forwarding the report copies to the target audience / clients / users.

All the above steps involved in a research process do not constitute a time order linear

sequence. There can be overlapping and recycling depending on the nature of the study.

Nevertheless one should not fail to complete the sequence of steps required in scientific

procedure.

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PLANNING OF RESEARCH

Research is an organized endeavour. Like any other organized work, research requires

proper planning. Planning means deciding in advance. Planning of research means

deciding the question or issue to be studied, setting the objectives of the study and

determining the means of achieving those objectives. It is an intellectual process. It

requires intellectual curiosity, intelligence, imagination and vision, and knowledge of

methodology of research. Planning systematizes the research work. It eliminates aimless

intellectual wandering. It gives direction to the work.

Planning Process

The planning stage of a research project involves the following steps:

1. Selection of a problem for research: This involves identification of a few problems

and selecting one out of them, after evaluating the alternatives against certain

selection criteria.

2. Formulation of the selected problem: The selected problem is defined and

transformed into researchable questions.

3. Formulation of hypotheses: The propositions to be tested are set up.

4. Conceptualization: The concepts associated with the problem under study are

operationally defined and measurement devices are designed.

5. Research plan or design: This plan covers all the aspects of the selected research work

and serves as a blueprint for the endeavor.

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a) Selection of a Problem for Research

The selection of a problem is the first step in research. The term 'problem' means a

question or issue to be examined. The selection of a problem for research is not an easy

task; itself is a problem. It is least amenable to formal methodological treatment. Vision,

an imaginative insight, plays an important role in this process. This problem of selection

arises when a student has to undertake research as a part of his course requirement and he

student has to select a problem for his research.

The Mode of Selection

The students who undertake research as a course requirement do their research work

under the guidance of a professor. What should be the mode of selection in their cases?

Should a problem be suggested by the guide or be selected by the researcher himself?

One with a critical, curious and imaginative mind and is sensitive to practical problems

could easily identify problems for study.

Sources of Problems

Reading: When we critically study books and articles relating to subject of our interest,

pertinent questions may arise in our mind. Similarly, areas of research may strike to our

mind when we read research reports.

Academic Experience: Classroom lectures, class discussions, seminar discussions and

out-of-class exchanges of ideas with fellow students and professors will suggest many

stimulating problems to be studied.

Daily Experience: Life is dynamic. We learn new things and undergo new

experiences every day. If we are alert, inquisitive and sensitive to life situations, we

may hit upon questions worth of investigation. “It is a mark of scientific genius to be

sensitive to difficulties where less gifted people pass untroubled by doubt”.

Exposure to field situations: Field visits; internship training and extension work

provide exposure to practical problems that call for study.

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Consultations: Discussions with experts, researchers, ad-ministrators and business

executives will help a researcher to identify meaningful problems for research.

Brain storming: Intensified discussion within a group of interested persons may often

be a means of identifying pertinent questions, and of developing new ideas about a

problem.

Research: Research on one problem may suggest problems for further research.

Intuition: Sometimes new ideas may strike to one's mind like a flash. Reflective mind

is a spring of knowledge.

b) Formulation of the Selected Problem

The problem selected for research may initially be a vague topic. The question to be

studied or the problem to be solved may not be known. Why the answer/solution is

wanted also may not be known. Hence the selected problem should be defined and

formulated. This is a difficult process. It requires intensive reading of a few selected

articles or chapters in books in order to understand the nature of the selected problem.

The researcher should read selected literatures, digest, think and reflect upon what is read

and digested. He should also discuss with learned persons. Then only can he gain insight

into the selected problem and be able to define and formulate it.

What is Formulation?

Formulation means translating and transforming the selected research problem/topic into

a scientifically researchable question. It is concerned with specifying exactly what the

research problem is and why is it studied. The formulation should include both the and

the why aspects.

Formulation Process

The process of formulation involves the following steps:

1. Developing title

2. Building a conceptual model

3. Defining the Objective of the Study

4. Setting Investigative Questions

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5. Formulation of Hypotheses

6. Operational Definition of Concepts

7. Delimiting the Scope of the Study

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TOPIC TWO: SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH

Sciences are broadly divided into natural (or physical) sciences and social sciences.

Social Sciences include various disciplines dealing with human life, human behaviour,

social groups and social institutions. They consist of Anthropology, Behaviour Science,

Commerce, Demography, Economics, Education, Geography, History, Law, Linguistics,

Management, Political Science, Psychology, Public Administration, Sociology, and

Social Work. Though these sciences are treated as separate branches of knowledge for the

purpose of study, they are interdependent studies of the different aspects of the same

object, viz., man.

Social Sciences are not exact science like physical sciences, as they, unlike the latter, deal

with human beings. Human nature and man's environment are so complex that it is more

difficult to comprehend and predict human behaviour than the physical phenomena. No

two persons are alike in feelings, drives or emotions. No one person is consistent from

one moment to another. The behaviour of human beings is influenced by biological,

psychological, socio-cultural, temporal and environmental fac-tors. It is difficult to see

the underlying uniformities in the diversity of complex human behaviour. A controlled

experiment, which is sine qua non of an empirical science, is generally well nigh

impossible in social sciences.

Social Science Research

Social Science research is a systematic method of exploring, analyzing and

conceptualizing human life in order to extend, correct or verify knowledge of human

behaviour and social life. In other words, Social science research “seeks to find

explanations to unexplained social phenomena, to clarify the doubtful, and correct the

misconceived facts of social life.”

Objectives of Social Science Research

The aim of social science research, like research in physical sciences, is to discover new

facts or verify and test old facts. It tries to understand the human behaviour and its

interaction with the environment and the social institutions. It tries to find out the causal

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connection between human activities and natural laws governing them. Another purpose

of social science research is to develop new scientific tools, concepts and theories, which

would facilitate reliable and valid study of human behaviour and social life.

Functions or Uses of Social Science Research

The functions of Social Science Research are varied. They are:

o Discovery of facts and their interpretation.

o Diagnosis of Problems and their analysis.

o Systematization of knowledge.

o Control over Social Phenomena.

o Prediction.

o Development Planning.

o Social Welfare.

Scope of Social Science Research

The fields of social science research are virtually unlimited, and the materials of research

endless. Every group of social phenomena, every phase of human life, and every stage of

past and present development are materials for the social scientists.

Inter-disciplinary Approach

Social Science research calls for inter-disciplinary approach, human life cannot be

compartmentalised into psychological, social, economic or political aspects. “Man lives

in a socio-economic and political world and thrives on its varied relationships. It is

inconceivable that at study of bare and isolated events on anyone aspect of man's life

would yield any meaningful results”. A discipline-specific study of a social problem from

an angle of, say, economics or sociology or political science only cannot give a correct

and total view of the problem. For example, the problem of poverty cannot be just studied

as a mere economic problem or a social problem or a political issue. The approaches and

theories of all these disciplines must be blended to provide a meaningful and valid

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approach to the problem. This interdisciplinary approach facilitates better understanding

of the complex level of social-psychological-economic-political forces, intricately

interwoven in modern life.

Objectivity

Objectivity is sine qua non of the scientific - method. It means the willingness and ability

to examine evidence dispassionately. It is the first condition of research. Objectivity

means basing conclusion on facts without any bias and value judgement. The conclusion

should be independent of one's personal beliefs, likes, dislikes and hopes. Both the data

and the interference drawn from their analysis must be free from bias and prejudices.

The following approaches and measures may contribute to some degree of objectivity.

1. Patience and self-control.

2. Open mind.

3. Use of standardized concepts.

4. Use of quantitative method.

5. Co-operative research.

6. Use of random sampling.

Limitations of Social Science Research

Research in social sciences has certain limitations and problems when compared with

research in physical sciences. They are discussed below:

Scientist - a part of what is studied : The fact that a social scientist is part of the human

society which he studies given rise to certain limitations. .

Complexity of the subject matter : The subject matter of research in social sciences, viz.,

human society and human behaviour is too complex, varied and changing to yield to the

scientific categorization, measurement, analysis and prediction.

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Human Problems : A social scientist faces certain human problems, which the natural

scientist is spared. These problems are varied and include refusal of respondents,

improper understanding of questions by them, their loss of memory, their reluctance to

furnish certain information, etc. All these problems cause biases and invalidate the

research findings and conclusions.

Personal Values : Subjects and clients, as well as investigators, have personal values that

are apt to become involved in the research process. One should not assume that these are

freely exploitable. The investigator must have respect for the client's values.

Anthropomorphization

Another hazard of social science research is the danger of “the temptation to

anthropomorphize about humans”. It results in using observations obtained by sheer

intuition or empathy in conceptualizing in anthropomorphic manner.

Wrong decisions

The quality of research findings depends upon the soundness of decisions made by the

social scientist on such crucial stages of his research process as definition of the unit of

study, operationalization of concepts, selection of sampling techniques and statistical

techniques. Any mistake in any of these decisions will vitiate the validity of his findings.

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TOPIC THREE: TYPES AND METHODS OF RESEARCH

Classification of Research

Although any typology of research is inevitably arbitrary. Research may be classified

crudely according to its major intent or the methods. According to the intent, research

may be classified as:

Pure Research

Applied Research

Exploratory Research

Descriptive Study

Diagnostic Study

Evaluation Studies

Action Research.

According to the methods of study, research may be classified as:

Experimental Research

Analytical Study

Historical Research

Survey

The Nature of Classification

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just an approach to

differentiate the distinctive approaches to research for the purpose of understanding. The

different types of research are, of course, not sharply distinguishable from one another.

There may be overlapping between one type/method and another. For example, pure

research may involve experimentation or case study or analytical study; Evaluation

studies may apply experimental or survey methods; Experimental Re-search is

necessarily an analytical study; Survey Research may involve quasi-experimental

approach or analytical approach; and so on.

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2. PURE AND APPLIED RESEARCH

a) Pure Research

Pure research is undertaken for the sake of knowledge without any intention to apply it in

practice, e.g., Einstein's theory of relativity, Newton's contributions, Ga1i1eo's

contributions, etc.

Pure research is also known as basic or fundamental research. It is undertaken out of

intellectual curiosity or inquisitiveness. It is not necessarily problem-oriented. It aims at

extension of knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of

an existing theory. The development of various sciences owes much to pure research. The

findings of pure research enrich the storehouse of knowledge that can be drawn upon in

the future to formulate significant practical researches. Thus, pure research lays the

foundation for applied research. The findings of pure research formed the basis for

innumerable scientific and technological inventions like steam engine, machines,

automobiles, electronic gadgets, electronic data processing, telecommunication, etc.,

which have revolutionized and enriched our human life.

b) Applied Research

Applied research is carried on to find solution to a real-life problem requiring an action or

policy decision. It is thus problem-oriented and action-directed. It seeks an immediate

and practical result, e.g., marketing research carried on for developing a new market or

for studying the post-purchase experience of customers.

There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management,

commerce, economics and other social sciences. Innumerable problems are faced in these

areas. They need empirical study for finding solutions.

3. EXPLORATORY OR FORMULATIVE RESEARCH

Exploratory research is preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem about which the

researcher has little or no knowledge. It is similar to a doctor's initial investigation of a

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patient suffering from an unfamiliar malady for getting some clues for identifying it. “It

is ill-structured and much less focused on pre-determined objectives”. It usually takes the

form of a pilot study.

Though it is a separate type of research, it is appropriate to consider it as the first stage of

a three-stage process of exploration, description and experimentation.

Purposes

The purpose of an exploratory study may be:

to generate new ideas or

to increase the researcher's familiarity with the problem or

to make a precise formulation of the problem or

to gather information for clarifying concepts or

to determine whether it is feasible to attempt the study.

Sometimes, a scientist may find, after spending a tremendous amount of energy and time

on a research project, that it is not possible to secure the required data. A preliminary

exploration could help avoiding such dismay.

The Need for Exploratory Studies

Social sciences are relatively young. Researches in them are scarce. Many of them

inevitably have to be exploratory ones. Few well-trodden paths exist to follow for the

investigators of social life. Most existing theories in social sciences are either too general

or too specific to provide clear guidance for empirical research. Hence exploratory

research is necessary to get initial insight into the problems for the purpose of

formulating them for more precise investigation. Hence it is also known as formulative

research.

The Steps in Exploration:

a. A review of pertinent literature

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b. An Experience survey

c. An Analysis of 'insight stimulating' cases.

4. DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

Descriptive study is a fact-finding investigation with adequate interpretation. It is the

simplest type of research. It is more specific than an exploratory study, as it has focus on

particular aspects or dimensions of the problem studied. It is designed to gather

descriptive information and provides information for formulating more sophisticated

studies. Data are collected by using one or more appropriate methods like observation,

interviewing and mail questionnaire.

Criteria

All problems do not lend themselves to descriptive study. This method is applicable to

problems that satisfy certain criteria. First, the problem must be describable and not

arguable. For instance, philosophical and controversial issues are not suitable for

descriptive study. Second, the data should be amenable to an accurate, objective, and, if

possible, quantitative assemblage for reliability and significance. Third, it should be

possible to develop valid standards of comparison. Last, it should lend itself to verifiable

procedure of collection and analysis of data.

Objective

A descriptive study aims at identifying the various characteristics of a community or

institution or problem under study, but it does not deal with the testing of propositions or

hypotheses. However, it “can reveal potential relationships between variables, thus

setting the stage for more elaborate investigation later”.

A descriptive study also aims at a classification of the range of elements comprising the

subject matter of study. The classification must satisfy two criteria, viz.,

(1) Exhaustiveness and

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(2) Mutual exclusiveness.

Exhaustiveness is achieved when all the important elements are identified; Mutual

exclusiveness occurs when each item can be unambiguously placed in only one category

in the system. Descriptive information should also be useful for explanation, prediction

and awareness.

5. Diagnostic Study

This is similar to descriptive study but with a different focus. It is directed towards

discovering what is happening, why is it happening/ and what can be done about. It aims

at identifying the causes of a problem and the possible solutions for it

Purpose

A diagnostic study may also be concerned with discovering and testing whether certain

variables are associated, e.g., are persons hailing from rural areas more suitable for

manning the rural branches of banks? Do more villagers than city-voters vote for a

particular party?

Requirements

Both descriptive and diagnostic studies share common requirements, viz., prior

knowledge of the problem, its thorough formulation, clear-cut definition of the given

population, adequate methods for collecting ac-curate information, precise measurement

of variables, statistical analysis and test of significance. As the aim is to obtain complete

and accurate information about a given situation/phenomenon, the research design must

make much more provision for protection against bias than is required in an exploratory

study. Moreover, the amount of work involved is considerable and so concern with

economy of research effort is extremely important.

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6. Evaluation Studies

Evaluation study is one type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness

of social or economic programmes implemented (e.g., family planning scheme) or for

assessing the impact of developmental projects (e.g., irrigation project) on the

development of the project area.

Purpose

Evaluative research is, thus, directed to assess or appraise the quality and quantity of an

activity and its performance, and to specify its attributes and conditions required for its

success. It is also concerned with change over time. As Suchman puts it, “evaluative

research asks about the kind of change the program views as desirable, the means by

which the change is to be brought about, and the signs according to which such change

can be recognized.”

7. Action Research

Action research is a type of evaluation study. It is a concurrent evaluation study of an

action programme launched for solving a problem/ for improving an existing situation.

In the quest for development; advancement, excellence and promotion of welfare of

people, government, institutions and voluntary agencies undertake action programmes for

achieving specific goals or objectives. Land reform programmes, agricultural extension

programmes, social welfare programmes, human resource development programmes,

managerial improvement programmes, rural development programmes, programmes for

improving the quality of life in factories and offices, etc., are some examples of action

programmes. This plethora of development programmes has given impetus to action

research. With the pressing need to assess the relative effectiveness of different

approaches to the same goal or the worth-whileness of one goal as against another,

research has been called upon to play a closer and relevant role for action. The criterion

of relevance for action is of critical importance in action research.

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8. Experimental Research

There are various phenomena such as motivation, productivity, development, and

operational efficiency, which are influenced by various variables. It may become

necessary to assess the effect of one particular variable or one set of variables on a

phenomenon. This need has given rise to experimental research.

Experimental research is designed to assess the effects of particular variables on a

phenomenon by keeping the other variables constant or controlled. It aims at determining

whether and in what manner variables are related to each other. The factor that is

influenced by other factors is called a dependent variable, and the other factors, which

influence it, are known as independent variables. For example, agricultural productivity,

i.e., crop yield per hectare is a dependent variable and the factors such as soil fertility,

irrigation, quality of seed, manuring, and cultural practices which influences the yield are

independent variable.

9. Analytical Study or Statistical Method

Analytical study is a system of procedures and techniques of analysis applied to

quantitative data. It may consist of a system of mathematical models or statistical

techniques applicable to numerical data. Hence it is also known as the Statistical Method.

Aim

This study aims at testing hypothesis and specifying and interpreting relationships. It

concentrates on analyzing data in depth and examining relationships from various angles

by bringing in as many relevant variables as possible in the analysis plan.

Uses

This method is extensively used in business and other fields in which quantitative

numerical data are generated. It is used for measuring variables, comparing groups and

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examining association between factors. Data may be collected from either primary

sources or secondary sources.

10. Historical Research

Historical study is a study of past records and other information sources with a view to

reconstructing the origin and development of an institution or a movement or a system

and discovering the trends in the past.

It is descriptive in nature. It is a difficult task; it must often depend upon inference and

logical analysis of recorded data and indirect evidences rather than upon direct

observation. Hence it is aptly described as “the induction of principles through research

into the past and social forces which have shaped the present.”

Objective

Its objective is to draw explanations and generalizations from the past trends in order to

understand the present and to anticipate the future. It enables us to grasp our relationship

with the past and to plan more intelligently for the future. The past contains the key to the

present and the past and the present influences the future. Historical study helps us in

visualizing the society as a dynamic organism and its structures and functions as

evolving, steadily growing and undergoing change and transformation.

Sources of Data

The sources of data for historical research consists of (1) eyewitness accounts narrated by

an actual observer or participant in an event, (2) oral testimony by elders, (3) records and

other documentary materials and (4) relics. The data available from the above sources

may be scattered and discontinuous and fragmented. Personal accounts are mostly

subjective and so should be studied with great caution and corroborated with

documentary evidences. The origin and genuineness of the sources and the validity of

facts contained in them should be critically tested and examined. Their authenticity

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should be tested. Only authentic sources should be depended upon for collection of data.

It is essential to check and crosscheck the data from as many sources as possible.

11. Surveys

Survey is a ‘fact-finding’ study. It is a method of research involving collection of data

directly from a population or a sample thereof at particular time. It must not be confused

with the mere clerical routine of gathering and tabulating figures. It requires expert and

imaginative planning, careful analysis and rational interpretation of the findings.

Data may be collected by observation or interviewing or mailing questionnaires and

analysis may be made by using simple or complex statistical techniques depending upon

the objectives of the study.

The Characteristics of Survey Method

The survey method has certain characteristics:

1. It is always conducted in a natural setting; it is a field study.

2. It seeks responses directly from the respondents.

3. It can cover a very large population, thanks to sampling techniques.

4. A survey may involve an extensive study or an intensive study. An extensive

study covers a wider sample, an intensive covers a few samples and tends to dig

deeper.

5. A survey covers a definite geographical area: a city, or a district, or a state.

The quality of a survey depends upon the thoroughness of the planning, the soundness of

sampling, the adequacy and reliability of data, the quality of analysis and the

interpretation of the findings.

The Subject matter of Surveys

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All aspects of human behaviour, social institutions, economic system, and business

undertakings lend themselves to surveys. The subject matter of surveys may be broadly

categorized into:

A: Social surveys

1. Demographic characteristics of a group of people

2. Social environment of people

3. People’s opinions and attitudes

4. People’s behaviour and activities.

B: Economic surveys

1. Economic conditions of people

2. Working of economic units

3. Operations of an economic system.

12. Case Study

A Case study is an in-depth comprehensive study of a person, a social group, an episode,

a process, a situation, a programme, a community, an institution or any other social unit.

It is one of the most popular types of research methods. Its purpose may be to understand

the life cycle of the unit under study or the interaction between factors that explain the

present status or the development over a period of time. Some examples of a case study

are: a social-anthropological study of a rural or tribal community; a causative study of a

successful cooperative society; a study of the financial health of a business undertaking; a

study of labour participation in management in a particular enterprise; a study of life-

style of working women.

Functions

The case study method describes a case in terms of its peculiarities.

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It gives us an insight into the typical or extreme cases whose unique features are

not reflected by the usual statistical method.

A case study helps to secure a wealth of information about the unit of study,

which may provide clues and ideas for further research.

It examines complex factors involved in a given situation so as to identify causal

factors operating in it.

A case study aims at studying everything about something rather than something

about everything as in the case of a statistical method. While in a statistical

approach the 'individual' disappears from the analysis, in a case study the

'individual' representing the 'wholeness' is preserved, as it is an approach which

views any social unit as a whole.

A case study gives us a total view of a unit or a clear insight into a situation or

process in its total setting. Thus the perspective of a case study is both qualitative

and organic. It gives an overall generic picture of a problem.

It may also be useful for developing new concepts or testing existing concepts.

The case study, as a research method, often employs more techniques than one. Thus, for

tracing a developmental process, it uses historical method, it employs descriptive method

where a factual picture is needed, it employs interviewing, mail questionnaire, check lists,

rating scales, etc., to gather data, and it looks to statistics for testing hypotheses.

The aim of a case study is to ascertain the generic development of a social unit under

study, revealing the factors that moulded its life within its cultural setting. Burgess

termed the case study method as “the social microscope.”It is most valuable for

diagnostic, administrative and therapeutic purposes. It develops ideas, sometimes leading

to conclusion and sometimes to hypotheses to be tested.

13. Field Studies

Field studies are scientific enquiries aimed at discovering the relations and interactions

among sociological, psychological and educational variables in real social structures and

life situations like communities, schools, factories, organizations and institutions. A

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social or institutional situation is selected and the relations among the attitudes, values,

percep-tions and behaviours of individuals and groups in the selected situation are

studied.

Field Study vs. Surveys

Although it is not easy to draw a fine logical distinction between survey and field study,

there are practical differences between them.

First, a survey attempts to be representative of the universe under study and thus calls for

an adequate and representative sample. This emphasis on sampling may or may not be

found in a field study, because it is more concerned with a thorough account of the

processes under study than with their typicality in a large universe.

Second, while a field study aims at directly studying the interrelations of the parts of

social structure of a single community or a single group, a survey aims at covering a

larger universe, and it may indirectly deal with social and psychological processes,

through inference from the statistical analysis rather than through direct observation.

Thus, field study will pro-vide a more detailed natural picture of social interrelations of

the group.

14. Participatory action research

Participatory action research [PAR] is a methodology which evolved to support

deliberate, committed action for change in urban community projects. It proposes that the

definition, and subsequent study of the causes of a problem by those affected by it is a

way of bringing about group involvement in the design of coherent action strategies for

the solution of problems. In many of the cities of Latin America, the methodology has

been used to find solutions to sanitation, transportation, health and political

representation problems through the mobilization of group resources and / or group

pressure on local governments. The objective is to build an awareness of the causes of

problems faced by a community and to reinforce people’ capacity to gain control over

their collective destiny through joint planning and evaluation of change efforts.

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In traditional research efforts, research and action rely on external expertise, capital,

know-how and equipment, resulting in dependence. Research methods use western

models which orient development towards the use of imported technology and the

increase of the Gross National Product. It is the researcher who decides on the focus,

methods and outcomes of the study in question.

Alternatively, PAR presupposes that the directions of change are locally rooted

And that the peasant farmer takes an active part in the definitions of problems and the

design of their solution. There is tacit recognition that participation must take place from

the definition and study stages of a problem through the action and evaluation phases.

Action directed research is not mechanistic or task oriented. It implies the creative and

analytical observation and understanding of socio-political, ecological and technical

phenomena and of how these interact with other components of a system in a historical

context.

The outside agent here becomes a facilitator / catalyst as well as an information source

who is conscious that change through PAR will ultimately will empower him within the

society. PAR is a methodology which attempts to overcome the historical constraints

which have limited the peasant’s ability to maintain the initiative over a process of

autonomous self-directed change.

PAR has not often been used to generate and test hypotheses, but to provide information

that can be used to improve a programme of joint social action. Once the research needs

have been defined by the farmers in a joint effort with researchers, the research design

appropriate for the evaluation of a given technological alternative is decided upon.

Researchers must be willing to take part in a mutual learning process with the community

as well as to contribute strongly with specialized information in down to earth language

which will stimulate the process itself. The research plans must be simple and specific.

Research results must be analyzed rapidly and written up in ways which are easy for the

farmer to understand.

Ethical issues in Research

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Most research benefits both the sponsoring company and its consumers. Through

research, companies learn more about consumers’ needs, resulting in more- satisfying

products and services. However, the misuse of marketing research can also harm or

annoy consumers. Two major public policy and ethic issues in marketing research are

intrusions on consumer privacy and the misuse of research findings.

Intrusions on consumer privacy

Many consumers feel positively about marketing research and believes that it serves a

useful purpose. Some actually enjoy being interviewed and giving their opinions.

However, others strongly resent or even mistrust marketing research. A few consumers

fear that researchers might use sophisticated techniques to probe their deepest feelings

and then use this knowledge to manipulate their buying. Or they worry that marketers are

building huge data bases full of personal information about customers.

Other consumers may have been taken in by previous research surveys that actually

turned out to be attempts to sell them something. Still other consumers confuse legitimate

marketing research studies with telemarketing efforts and say ‘no’ before the interviewer

can even begin. Most, however simply resent the intrusion. They dislike mail or

telephone surveys that are too long or too personal or that interrupt them at inconvenient

times. Increasing customer resentment has become a major problem for the research

industry.

Any business that deals with consumers’ information has to take privacy issues seriously.

Some companies view privacy as way to gain competitive advantage as something that

leads consumers to choose one company over another. The best approach is for

researchers to ask only for the information they need, to use it responsibly to provide

value, and to avoid sharing information without customers’ permission.

Misuse of Research Findings

Research studies can be powerful persuasion tools; companies often use study results as

claims in their advertising and promotion. Today, however, many research studies appear

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to be little more than vehicles for pitching the sponsor’s products. In fact, in some cases,

the research surveys appear to have been designed just to produce the intended effect.

Few advertisers openly rig their research designs or blatantly misrepresent the findings;

most abuses tend to be subtle stretches. Subtle manipulations of the study’s sample or the

choice or wording of questions can greatly affect the conclusions reached.

In other cases, so-called independent research studies are actually paid for by companies

with an interest in the outcome. Small changes in the study assumptions or in how results

are interpreted can subtly affect the direction of the results.

Recognizing that surveys can be abused, several associations in United States have

developed codes of research ethics and standards of conduct. However, unethical or

inappropriate actions cannot simply be regulated away. Each company must accept

responsibility for policing the conduct and reporting of its own marketing research to

protect consumers’ best interests and its own.

Online privacy and security

From a broader social view point, internet marketing practices have raised a number of

ethical and legal questions. There are certain negatives associated with internet such as

unwanted e-mail and the annoyance of pop-up ads.

Online privacy is perhaps the number-one e- commerce concern. Most e-marketers have

become skilled at collecting and analyzing detailed consumer information. Marketers can

easily track Web site visitors, and many consumers who participate in Web site activities

provide extensive personal information. This may leave consumers open to information

abuse if companies make unauthorized use of the information in marketing their products

or exchanging data bases with other companies. Many consumers and policy makers

worry that marketers have stepped over the line and are violating consumer’s right to

privacy.

Many consumers also worry about online security. They fear that unscrupulous snoopers

will eavesdrop on their online transactions or intercept their credit card numbers and

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make unauthorized purchases. In turn, companies doing business or marketing research

on line fear that others will use the internet to invade their computer systems for the

purpose of commercial espionage or even sabotage. There appears to be an ongoing

competition between the technology of internet security systems and the sophistication of

those seeking to break them.

Beyond issues of online privacy and security, consumers are also concerned about

Internet fraud, including identity theft, investment fraud, and financial scams.

The following is a rough and general summary of some ethical principles that various

codes address*:

1. Honesty

Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data, results, methods

and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or misrepresent data. Do

not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.

2. Objectivity

Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data interpretation, peer review,

personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and other aspects of research where

objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize bias or self-deception. Disclose

personal or financial interests that may affect research.

3. Integrity

Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency of thought

and action.

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4. Carefulness

Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own work

and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as data

collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.

5. Openness

Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.

6. Respect for Intellectual Property

Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use

unpublished data, methods, or results without permission. Give credit where credit is due.

Give proper acknowledgement or credit for all contributions to research. Never

plagiarize.

7. Confidentiality

Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants submitted for publication,

personnel records, trade or military secrets, and patient records.

8. Responsible Publication

Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to advance just your own

career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.

9. Responsible Mentoring

Help to educate, mentor, and advise students. Promote their welfare and allow them to

make their own decisions.

10. Respect for colleagues

Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.

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11. Social Responsibility

Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social harms through research,

public education, and advocacy.

12. Non-Discrimination

Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race, ethnicity, or

other factors that are not related to their scientific competence and integrity.

13. Competence

Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise through lifelong

education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science as a whole.

14. Legality

Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.

15. Animal Care

Show proper respect and care for animals when using them in research. Do not conduct

unnecessary or poorly designed animal experiments.

16. Human Subjects Protection

When conducting research on human subjects, minimize harms and risks and maximize

benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy; take special precautions with

vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the benefits and burdens of research fairly.

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TOPIC FOUR: RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODOLOGY

4.1 Research design

According to Kerlinger (1986) “research design is the plan and structure of investigation

so conceived so as to obtain answers to research questions. The plan is the overall

program of the research and includes an outline of what the investigator will do from

writing of the hypothesis and their operational implications for the final analysis of data.

Cooper and Schindler (2003) summarizes the essentials of research design as an activity

and time based plan; always based on the research question; guides the selection of

sources and types of information; a framework for specifying the relationship among the

study variables and outlines the procedures for every research activity.

The researcher used descriptive research design in collecting the data from respondents.

The design is preferred because it is concerned with answering questions such as who,

how, what which, when and how much (Cooper and schindler, 2003). A descriptive study

is carefully designed to ensure complete description of the situation, making sure that

there is minimum bias in the collection of data and to reduce errors in interpreting the

data collected.

4.2 Population

The study population is the collective of study units for which the values of the variates

of interest could possibly be determined. This notion corresponds directly to the frame in

sample survey literature. The difference between the attributes of interest in the study

population and the corresponding attributes in the target population is called the study

error. This is a simple quantitative assessment for numerical attributes but can be

challenging to define for graphical ones.

The study units may or may not be part of the target population, as is the case in

Michelson's study. Because the distances required to measure the speed of light were so

large, it was not practical to have the light travel through even a partial vacuum. All of the

units in Michelson's study involved the transmission of light through air at a particular

location over a specified time period. The source and destination were a fixed distance

33

apart and both remained stationary over the course of the study. Michelson decided to

look at transmission of light at one hour before sunset or one hour after sunrise during a

few days in June 1879. Within these constraints, he was free to choose the units on which

he would determine the speed of light.

The study population and the study units were very different from the target in this

instance. Michelson recognized that measuring the speed of light in air would result in a

study error. He planned to correct the error by using a factor based on the refractive index

of air. Note that this correction is outside the purview of statistical method. It requires

contextual knowledge.

The statistical method ensures consideration of the relevance of the study population to

the target population by forcing investigators to deal directly with the study error. Criteria

beyond the study error such as cost, convenience, and ethics will also be important in

determining the study population.

4.3 Sampling Design and Sample size

According to Trochim (2005), Sampling is the process of selecting units (people,

organizations) from a population of interest so that by studying the sample we may fairly

generalize our results back to the population from which they were chosen.

A survey may be conducted by Census Method and Sample Method. When the whole

area or population of persons is contacted the method is known as census method. When

a small group is selected as representative of the whole mass it is known as Sampling

Method.

Merits of Census Method

1. Data are obtained from each and every unit.

2. Accurate and Reliable

3. Can be exploited as a basis for various surveys.

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Demerits

a. The effort, money and time-extremely large.

b. Population is infinite.

c. Exhaustive and intensive study-impossible.

Sampling

Is simply the process of learning about the population on the basis of a sample drawn

from it.

Process of Sampling

a. Selecting the sample

b. Collecting the information and,

c. Making an inference about the populations

Importance of sampling in Social Research

a. A large number of units can be studied.

b. It saves a lot of time, energy and money.

c. Homogeneous universe sampling is very useful.

d. Intensive study is possible.

e. When the data are unlimited – highly useful.

f. When cent per cent accuracy is not required.

g. It makes easier for tabulation and analysis.

Size of the sample

How big a sample do I need? The size depends upon:

a. The Nature of the universe – homogenous/ heterogeneous.

b. Nature of the study i.e., intensive/extensive.

c. Availability of finance, time and personnel.

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d. Standard of accuracy.

e. Size of the schedule/questionnaire.

f. Nature of the cases to be contacted – geographically scattered.

g. Type of sampling used.

A sample will be a non-representative one due to

a. Imperfect stratification.

b. Too small sample

c. Purposive selection

d. Selection of / by field wonders.

e. Convenient sampling.

f. Inadequate random

g. Nature of the universe.

Theory of sampling based on Two ‘LAWS’

a. Law of ‘Statistical Regularity’, and

b. Law of ‘Inertia of Large Numbers’

c. If a sample is taken at random from a population it is likely to possess almost the

same characteristics as that of the population. Points out-choosing the sample at

Random.

d. Other things being equal, larger the size of the sample, more accurate the results are

likely to be.

A. Random Sampling Method

a. Simple Random Sampling: In which each and every item of the population is given

an equal chance of being included in the sample.

b. Stratified Sampling: The population be divided into homogenous groups called

strata’s, then a sample may be drawn from each group by simple random method, and

the resulting sample is called Stratified Random Sampling.

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c. Systematic Sampling: Used in those cases where a complete list of the population

from which sampling is to be drawn is available. The method is to select every kth

item from the list where ‘k’ refers to the sampling interval.

k = 

N

—

n

The starting point between the first and the kth items is selected at random.

Multi-stage Sampling/Cluster: Refers to a sampling procedure, which is carried out

in several sages. The material is regarded as made up of number of first stage

sampling units, each of which is made of number of second stage units, etc.

B. Non-Random Sampling

a. Judgement Sampling: The choice of the sample items depends exclusively on the

discretion of the investigator. The investigator exercises his judgement in the choice

of the sample items.

b. Quota Sampling: Quotas are set up according to given criteria but within the quotas

the selection of sample items depends on personal judgement.

c. Convenience Sampling: Also called the chunk, a chunk is a fraction of the

population taken for investigations because of its convenient availability.

Advantages of Sampling

a. Saving of time

b. Saving of Money

c. Detailed study

d. More reliable

e. The destructive nature of certain tests

Disadvantages

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a. Sometimes inaccurate and misleading/ biased

b. Selection of completely representative sample

c. If too small or too heterogeneous – impossible to draw representative sample.

The adequacy of samples

Adequacy of good sampling is one of the requirements of good sampling.

A sample not only needs to be representative, it needs also to be adequate. A sample is

adequate when it is of sufficient size to allow confidence in the stability of its

characteristics. This in turn requires a measure of sampling error. So, the arithmetic

mean, standard deviation and standard error are to be calculated. Normally, the

probability proportionate to size of population is worked out to determine the sample

size.

4.4 Data Instruments and Data Collection

Types of Data

The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into (a) Data

pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organisations, and (c) Data pertaining to

territorial areas.

Personal data or data related to human beings consist of Demographic and socio-

economic characteristics of individuals like age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital

status, education, occupation, income, family size, location of the household, life style,

etc. and Behavioural variables like attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice,

intentions, etc.

Organizational data consist of data relating to an organization’s origin, ownership,

objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.

Territorial data are related to geophysical characteristics, resources endowment,

population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, economic structure, degree of

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development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, Tabias, Woredas, state/ regions

and the nation.

Importance of data

The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual

data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the questions under study. Inferences based

on imagination or guesswork cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The

relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a

study.

Data form the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a Study. Data also provide

the facts and figures required for constructing measurement scales and tables, which are

analyzed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical, analysis and

tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus the scientific process

of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant

data and their accuracy. Hence the importance of data for any research studies.

Sources of Data

The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.

Primary Sources

Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that

have not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on

brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer

behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first-hand

information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing

etc.

Secondary Sources

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These are sources containing data that have been collected and compiled for another

purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily available compendia and already

compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researches for

their studies, e.g., census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies,

Statistical statements, Reports of Government Departments, Annual Reports on currency

and finance published by the Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Statements relating

to Cooperatives, Commercial Banks and Micro Finance Credit Institutions, Reports of the

National Sample Survey Organization, Reports of trade associations, publications of

international organisations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and

Financial Journals, newspapers, etc.

Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished

records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by firms

and organizations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of

members, minutes of meetings, inventory records, etc.

Features of Secondary Sources:

Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have

certain common characteristics.

First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of

constructing tools and administering them.

Second, they consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over

collection and classification. Others shape both the form and the content of secondary

sources. Clearly, this is a feature, which can limit the research value of secondary

sources.

Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using

them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.

Use of Secondary Data

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a. The secondary data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some

specific information from secondary sources may be used for reference purposes.

b. Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of

a research may be tested.

c. Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a

research project. Such studies as Securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis

of Companies, and Trends in credit allocation in commercial banks, Sociological

Studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like depend primarily on secondary data.

Year books, Statistical reports of government departments, reports of public

organizations like Bureau of Public Enterprises, Census Reports etc. serve as major data

sources for such research studies.

Advantages

a. Secondary data, if available, can be secured quickly and cheaply.

b. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much

cost. Thus the use of secondary data extends the researcher's space and time reach.

c. The use of secondary data broadens the database from which scientific

generalizations can be made.

d. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings based on

primary data.

Disadvantages/limitations

a. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet, our specific

research needs.

b. The available data may not be as accurate as desired.

c. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print,

because of time lag in producing them.

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d. Finally information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all

social scientists.

Methods of Collecting Primary Data: General

The researcher directly collects primary data from their original sources. In this case, the

researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs, he can

collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of

Primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science

research such as socio-economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural

communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social

institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys,

readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice

(KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies, etc., required

data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from

the primary sources.

In all cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary

data have to be gathered. .

Methods of Primary Data Collection

There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’.

While a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument used

for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods

are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e)

simulation, and (f) projective technique.

Observation involves gathering of data relating to the selected research by viewing and/or

listening. Interviewing involves face-to-face conversation between the investigator and

the respondent. Mailing is used for collecting data by getting questionnaires completed

by respondents. Experimentation involves a study of independent variables under

controlled conditions. Experiment may be conducted in a laboratory or in field in a

42

natural setting. Simulation involves creation of an artificial situation similar to the actual

life situation. Projective methods aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of

respondents by presenting to them stimuli. Each method has its advantages and

disadvantages.

Choice of Methods of Data Collection

Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed research

project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the research plan.

One or More methods has/have to be chosen. No method is universal. Each method's

unique features should be compared with the needs and conditions of the study and thus

the choice of the methods should be decided.

Observation

Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing something or other while we

are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and have no specific purpose. But

observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.

Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its

proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation

as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.

Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social

sciences. Behavioural scientists observe interactions in small groups; anthropologists

observe simple societies, and small com-munities; political scientists observe the

behaviour of political leaders and political institutions.

Types of Observation

Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference to the investigator’s role,

it may be classified into (a) participant observation, and (b) non-participant observation.

In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation, and (d)

43

indirect observation. With reference to the rigour of the system adopted, observation is

classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation

Experimentation

Experimentation is a research ‘processes used to study the causal relationships between

variables. It aims at studying the effect of an independent variable on a dependent

variable, by keeping the other independent variables constant through some type of

control. For example, a -social scientist may use experimentation for studying the effect

of a method of family planning publicity on people's awareness of family planning

techniques.

Why Experiment?

Experimentation requires special efforts. It is often extremely difficult to design, and it is

also a time consuming process. Why should then one take such trouble? Why not simply

observe/survey the phenomenon? The fundamental weakness of any non-experimental

study is its inability to specify causes and effect. It can show only correlations between

variables, but correlations alone never prow causation. The experiment is the only

method, which can show the effect of an independent variable on dependent variable. In

experimentation, the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and measure its

effect on the dependent variable. For example, the effect of various types of promotional

strategies on the sale of a given product can be studies by using different advertising

media such as T.V., radio and Newspapers. Moreover, experiment provides “the

opportunity to vary the treatment (experimental variable) in a systematic manner, thus

allowing for the isolation and precise specification of important differences.”

Applications

The applications of experimental method are ‘Laboratory Experiment’, and ‘Field

Experiment’.

Simulation

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Simulation is one of the forms of observational methods. It is a process of conducting

experiments on a symbolic model representing a phenomenon. Abelson defines

simulation as “the exercise of a flexible imitation of processes and outcomes for the

purpose of clarifying or explaining the underlying mechanisms involved.” It is a

symbolic abstraction, simplification and substitution for some referent system. In other

words, simulation is a theoretical model of the elements, relations and processes which

symbolize some referent system, e.g., the flow of money in the economic system may be

simulated in a operating model consisting of a set of pipes through which liquid moves.

Simulation is thus a technique of performing sampling experiments on the model of the

systems. The experiments are done on the model instead of on the real system, because

the latter would be too inconvenient and expensive.

Simulation is a recent research technique; but it has deep roots in history. Chess has often

been considered a simulation of medieval warfare.

Interviewing

Interviewing is one of the major methods of data collection. It may be defined as two-

way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for

obtaining information relevant to as a specific study.

It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents’ gestures, facial

expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face-to-face contact

or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured

schedule or an unstructured guide.

Importance

Interviewing may be us either as a main method or as a supplemen-tary one in studies of

persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate

or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from factual

demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a person's

opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, past experience and future intentions. When

45

qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, then

interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a

sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.

Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more

willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential information

may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.

Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the inves-tigator to grasp the

behavioural context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to

seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, that, for one reason or

another, respondents do not want to answer.

Types of Interviews

The interviews may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b)

unstructured or non-directive interview, (c) focused inter-view, and (d) clinical interview

and (e) depth interview.

a. Telephone Interviewing: Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data

collection.

b. Group Interviews: Group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary

data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each

other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multidimensional.

Interviewing Process

The interviewing process consists of the following stages:

a. Preparation.

b. Introduction

c. Developing rapport

d. Carrying the interview forward

e. Recording the interview, and

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f. Closing the interview

Panel Method

The panel method is a method of data collection, by which data is collected from the

same sample respondents at intervals either by mail or by personal interview. This is used

for longitudinal studies on economic conditions, expenditure pattern; consumer

behaviour, recreational pattern, effectiveness of advertising, voting behaviour, and so on.

The period, over which the panel members are contacted for information may spread over

several months or years. The time interval at which they are contacted repeatedly may be

10 or 15 days, or one or two months depending on the nature of the study and the

memory span of the respondents.

Characteristics

The basic characteristic of the panel method is successive collection of data on the same

items from the same persons over a period of time. The type of information to be

collected should be such facts that can be accurately and completely furnished by the

respondent without any reservation. The number of item should be as few as possible so

that they could be furnished within a few minutes, especially when mail survey is

adopted. The average amount of time that a panel member has to spend each time for

reporting can be determined in a pilot study. The panel method requires carefully selected

and well-trained field workers and effective supervision over their work.-

Types of Panels

The panel may be static or dynamic. A static or continuous panel is one in which the

membership remains the same throughout the life of the panel, except for the members

who drop out. The dropouts are not replaced.

Mail Survey

The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves

sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return

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them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail

questionnaire should be simple so that the respondents can easily understand the

questions and answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-end and multiple-

choice questions so that it could be completed within a few Minutes.

The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by

the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them, and not by the

investigator as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face

conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is carried out

only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the respondents than does verbal

communication.

Alternative modes of sending questionnaires

There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents.

They are: (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching questionnaire to a, product, (3) advertising

questionnaire in a newspaper or magazine, and (4) newsstand inserts.

Projective Techniques

Projective techniques involve presentation of ambitious stimuli to the respondents for

interpretation. In doing so, the respondents reveal their inner characteristics. The stimuli

may be a picture, a photograph, an inkblot or an incomplete sentence. The basic

assumption of projective techniques is that a person projects his own thoughts, ideas and

attributes when he perceives and responds to ambiguous or unstructured stimulus

materials. Thus a person's unconscious operations of the mind are brought to a conscious

level in a disguised and projected form, and the person projects his inner characteristics.

Types of Projective Techniques

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Projective Techniques may be divided into three broad categories: (a) visual projective

techniques (b) verbal projective techniques, and (c) Expressive techniques.

Sociometry

Sociometry is “a method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status,

structure, and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection

between individuals in groups.” Franz defines sociometry as “a method used for the

discovery and manipulation of social configurations by measuring the attractions and

repulsions between individuals in a group.” It is a means for studying the choice,

communication and interaction patterns of individuals in a group. It is concerned with

attractions and repulsions between individuals in a group. In this method, a person is

asked to choose one or more persons according to specified criteria, in order to find out

the person or persons with whom he will like to associate.

Sociometry Test

The basic technique in sociometry is the “sociometric test.” This is a test under which

each member of a group is asked to choose from all other members those with whom he

prefers to associate in a specific situation. The situation must be a real one to the group

under study, e.g., 'group study', 'play', 'class room seating' for students of a public school.

A specific number of choices, say two or three to be allowed is determined with reference

to the size of the group, and different levels of preferences are designated for each choice.

Suppose we desire to find out the likings and disliking of persons in a work group

consisting of 8 persons. Each person is asked to select 3 persons in order or preference

with whom he will like to work on a group assignment. The levels of choices are

designated as: the first choice by the' number 1, the second by 2, and the third by 3.

Rating Scale

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This is a recording form used for measuring individual's attitudes, aspirations and other

psychological and behavioural aspects, and group behaviour.

Checklist

This is the simplest of all the devices. It consists of a prepared list of items pertinent to an

object or a particular task. The presence or absence of each item may be indicated by

checking 'yes' or 'no' or multipoint scale. The use of a checklist ensures a more complete

consideration of all aspects of the object, act or task. Checklists contain terms, which the

respondent understands, and which more briefly and succinctly express his views than

answers to open-ended question. It is a crude device, but careful pre-test can make it less

so. It is at best when used to test specific hypothesis. It may be used as an independent

tool or as a part of a schedule/questionnaire.

Document Schedule/Data Sheet

This is a list of items of information to be obtained from documents, records and other

materials. In order to secure measurable data, the items included in the schedule are

limited to those that can be uniformly secured from a large number of case histories or

other records.

Schedule for Institutions

This is used for survey of organizations like business enterprises, educational institutions,

social or cultural organizations and the like. It will include various categories of data

relating to their profile, functions and performance. These data are gathered from their

records, annual reports and financial statements.

4.5 CONSTRUCTION OF SCHEDULES AND QUESTIONNAIRES

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Schedule v. Questionnaire

Schedules and questionnaires are the most common instruments of data collection. These

two types of tools have much in common. Both of them contain a set of questions

logically related to a problem under study; both aim at eliciting responses from the

respondents; in both cases the content, response structure, the wordings of questions,

question sequence, etc. are the same for all respondents. Then why should they be

denoted by the different terms: 'schedule' and 'questionnaires'? This is because the

methods for which they are used are different. While a schedule is used as a tool for

interviewing, a questionnaire is used for mailing.

This difference in usage gives rise to a subtle difference between these two recording

forms. That is, the interviewer in a face-to-face interviewing fills a schedule, whereas the

respondent himself fills in a questionnaire. Hence the need for using two different terms.

The tool is referred to as a schedule when it is used for interviewing; and it is called a

questionnaire when it is sent to a respondent for completion and return.

The process of construction

The process of construction of a schedule and a questionnaire is almost same, except

some minor differences in mechanics. This process is not a matter of simply listing

questions that comes to researchers mind. It is a rational process involving much time,

effort and thought. It consists of the following major steps:

1. Data need determination: As an interview schedule or a mailed questionnaire is an

instrument for gathering data for a specific study, its construction should flow

logically from the data required for the given study.

2. Preparation of “Dummy” tables: The best way to ensure the requirements of

information is to develop “dummy” tables in which to display the data to be

gathered.

3. Determination of the respondents’ level: Who are our respondents? Are they

persons with specialized knowledge relating to the problem under study? Or are

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they lay people? What is their level of knowledge and understanding? The choice

of words and concepts depends upon the level of the respondents' knowledge.

4. Data gathering method decision: Which communication mode is most appropriate

- face-to-face interview or mailing? The choice of question structure depends

largely on the communication mode chosen.

5. Instrument drafting: After determining the data required for the study, first, a

broad outline of the instrument may be drafted, listing the various broad

categories of data. Second, the sequence of these groupings must be decided.

Third, the questions to be asked under each group heading must be listed. All

conceivable items relevant to the 'data need' should be compiled.

6. Evaluation of the draft instrument: In consultation with other qualified persons,

the researcher must rigorously examine each question in the draft instrument.

7. Pre-testing: The revised draft must be pre-tested in order to identify the

weaknesses of the instrument and to make the required further revisions to rectify

them.

8. Specification of procedures/instructions: After the instruction is finalised after

pre-tests, the procedures or instructions, relating to its use must be specified.

9. Designing the format: The format should be suited to the needs of the research.

The instrument should be divided into different sections relating to the different

aspects of the problem.

Question Construction

A survey instrument - interview schedules or questionnaire - is useful for collecting

various types of information, viz., (a) factual information - facts about the respondents:

sex, age, marital status, education, religion, caste or social class, income and occupation;

and facts about events and circumstances, (b) psychological information such as attitudes,

opinions, beliefs, and expectations, and (c) behavioural information, like social

participation, and so on.

Once the information need is determined as explained in the previous topic, we can begin

question construction. This involves four major decision areas. They are: (a) question

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relevance and content, (b) question wording, (c) response form, and (d) question order or

sequence.

Question relevance and content

My question to be included in the. instrument should pass certain tests. Is it relevant to

the research objectives? Can it yield significant information for answering an

investigative question? If not, it should not be included in the instrument.

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Question wording

This is a difficult task. The function of a question in a schedule/questionnaire is to elicit

particular information without distortion. “Questioning people”, says Oppenheim, “is

more like trying to catch a particular elusive fish, by hopefully casting different kinds of

bait at different depths, without knowing what goes on beneath the surface.” As the

meaning of words differs from person to person, the question designer should choose

words which have the following characteristics:

a. Shared vocabulary.

b. Uniformity of meaning.

c. Exactness.

d. Simplicity.

e. Neutrality. The words to be used must be neutral ones, i.e., free from the

distorting influence of fear, prestige, bias or emotion.

Certain other problem areas of question wording are

a. Unwarranted assumptions,

b. Personalization,

c. Presumptions,

d. Hypothetical question,

e. Questions in embarrassing matters.

Some of the approaches to deal with this problem are:

i. to express the question in the third person; instead of asking the respondent for his

views, he is asked about the views of others:

ii. to use a drawing of two persons in a certain setting with 'balloons' containing

speech coming from their mouths, as in a cartoon - leaving one person's balloon

empty and asking the respondent to put himself in the position of that person and

to fill in the missing words; and

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iii. to use sentence completion tests.

Response form or types of Questions

The third major area in question construction is the types of questions to be included in

the instrument. They may be classified into open questions and closed questions. Closed

questions may be dichotomous, multiple choice or declarative ones.

Types of questions to be avoided

The question designer should avoid the following types of questions: (a) Leading

questions, (b) 'Loaded' questions, (c) Ambiguous questions, (d) Double-barrelled, (e)

Long questions, (t) Avoid double negative.

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Question order or Sequence

The order in which questions are arranged in a schedule/questionnaire is as important as

question wording. It has two major implications. First, an appropriate sequence can ease

the respondent's task in answering. Second, the sequence can either create or avoid biases

due to context effects, i.e., the effects of preceding questions on the response to later

questions.

Mechanics of the Schedule and Questionnaire

In addition to question wording and question construction, the mechanics of the form

should also be considered in the design of a schedule/questionnaire. The mechanics of the

form has several aspects: items of the form, instruction, pre-coding, sectionalisation,

spacing, paper, printing, margins, etc.

Items of the form: The following items are mandatory for schedules and questionnaires.

1. The name of the organization collecting the data should appear at the top of front

-page. The name of the sponsor, of the study, if any should also be shown.

2. The title of the study should appear in large print next to the name of the

organization on the first page. Below this title, the title of the tool - e.g., 'Schedule

for-consumers; - may be noted. .

3. The confidentialness of the data should be made cleat.

4. A place for writing the date of filling in the form should be provided.

5. A serial number to each copy of the tool may be assigned.

6. The pages of the instrument should be numbered.

Instructions: In the face sheet below the title of the questionnaire, a brief statement of the

objective of the study, the confidentialness of the data, and instructions relating to

answering the questions may be provided. .

Pre-coding: Items in the tool should be pre-coded so as to facilitate transcription of data.

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Sectionalization: There should be a separate section for each topical area.

Spacing: For each open-ended question, an adequate space should be provided for

answer. There should, indeed more space than seems necessary, for some interviewers/

respondents may write in a large script for legibility. Moreover, liberal spacing is a

stimulus for the questionnaire respondent to write more fully. Even short-answer

questions should be spaced, so that the interviewer/respondent will not easily confuse the

line, from which he is reading.

Paper: The paper used for mimeographing/printing should be of good quality.

Printing: Mailed questionnaire should necessarily be printed in order to make it attractive

and to minimize the postal expenditure.

Margins: One inch margin on the left side of the sheet and one-half inch margin on other

sides may be provided. If the instrument is to be bound, left-side margin should conform

to the type of binding used.

Indentation: This is required for 'yes' or 'no' questions. If the respondent's answer is 'yes',

then a series of questions is offered. If the answer is 'no' a different series of questions is

offered.

Note of thanks: A final note or comment of thanks for the cooperation of the respondent

should be included at the end of the instrument.

Concluding remarks

Question designing remains primarily a matter of common sense and experience and of

avoiding known pitfalls, as there are no hard and fast rules relating to it. Hence

alternative versions of questions must be rigorously tested in pre-tests. Test-revision-

retests play a crucial role in questionnaire construction.

MEASUREMENT SCALES AND INDICES

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Scales are devised for measuring variables in social science research. During the past few

decades thousands of scales have been designed by researchers in sociology, psychology,

education, psychiatry, ethics, behavioral science, economics, administration and other

fields.

Indices and scales are often used interchangeably to refer to all sorts of measures,

absolute or relative, single or composite, simple or elaborate. “Scaling” refers to the

procedure by which numbers or scores assigned to the various degrees of opinions,

attitude and other concepts.

PILOT STUDIES AND PRE-TESTS

Pilot Study

The need for Pilot Study

It is difficult to plan a major study or project without adequate knowledge of its subject

matter, the population it is to cover, their level of knowledge and understanding and the

like. What are the issues involved? What are the concepts associated with the subject

matter? How can they be operationalised? What method of study is appropriate? How

long the study will take? How much money it will cost? These and other related

questions call for a good deal of knowledge of the subject matter of the study and its

dimensions. In order to gain such pre-knowledge of the subject matter of an extensive

study, a preliminary investigation is con-ducted. This is called a pilot study.

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Pre-test

Meaning

While a pilot study is a full-fledged miniature study of a problem, pre-test is a trial test of

a specific aspect of the study such as method of data collection or data collection

instrument - interview schedule, mailed questionnaire or measurement scale.

Need for Pre-testing

An instrument of data collection is designed with reference to the data requirements of

the study. But it cannot be perfected purely on the basis of a critical scrutiny by the

designer and other researchers. It should he empirically tested. As emphatically pointed

by Goode and Hatt, “no amount of thinking, no matter how logical the mind or brilliant

the insight, is likely to take the place of careful empirical checking”. Hence pre-testing of

a draft instrument is indispensable. Pre-testing-means trial administration of the

instrument to a sample of respondents before finalizing it.

Purposes of Pre-testing

Pre-testing has several purposes:

a. to test whether the instrument would elicit responses required to achieve the

research objectives,

b. to test whether the content of the instrument is relevant and adequate,

c. to test whether wording of questions is clear and suited to the understanding of the

respondents,

d. to test the other qualitative aspects of the instrument like question structure and

question sequence, and

e. to develop appropriate procedure for administering the instrument with reference

to field conditions.

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TOPIC FIVE: DATA ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION

5.1 Introduction

This involves qualitative and quantitative analysis. The data collected by use of the

various instruments will first be thoroughly edited and checked for completeness and

comprehensibility. The edited data is summarized and coded for easy classification in

order to facilitate tabulation. The tabulated data is then analyzed by calculating various

percentages where possible. Descriptive statistics especially, frequencies and cross

tabulation are applied to help establish patterns, trends and relationships and to make it

easier for the researcher to understand and interpret implications of the study.

Presentation of data was in form of Tables, Pie-charts and Bar graphs only where it

provide successful interpretation of the findings. Descriptive data was provided in form

of explanatory notes.

5.2 Processing of Data

Data processing is an intermediary stage of work between data collection and data

analysis. The completed instruments of data collection, viz., interview schedules/

questionnaires/ data sheets/field notes contain. a vast mass of data. They cannot

straightaway provide answers to research questions. They, like raw materials, need

processing. Data processing involves classification and summarisal1on of data in order to

make them amenable to analysis

Processing of data requires advance planning at the stage of planning the research design.

This advance planning may covey such aspects as categorization of variables and

preparation of dummy tables. This should be done with reference to the requirements of

testing hypotheses/inves-tigative questions. This type of preplanning ensures better

identification of data needs and their adequate coverage in the tools for collection of data.

Data processing consists of a number of closely related operations, viz.

(1) editing, (2) classification and coding, (3) transcription and (4) tabulation.

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5.3 Editing

The first step in processing of data is editing of complete schedules/questionnaires.

Editing is a process of checking to detect and or correct errors and omissions. Editing is

done at two stages: first at the fieldwork stage and second at office.

Field editing

During the stress of interviewing the interviewer cannot always record responses

completely and legibly. Therefore after each interview is over, he should review the

schedule to complete abbreviated responses, rewrite illegible responses and correct

omissions.

Office editing

All completed schedules/questionnaires should be thoroughly checked in the office for

Completeness, accuracy and. Uniformity

5.4 Classification and Coding

Categorization and classification

The edited data are classified and coded. The responses are classified into meaningful

categories so as to bring out essential pattern. By this method, several hundred responses

are reduced to five or six appropriate categories containing critical information needed

for analysis.

When to classify: Classification can be done at any phase prior to the tabulation. Certain

items like sex, age, type of house, and the like are structured and pre classified in the data

collection form itself. The responses to open-ended questions are classified at the

processing stage.

Categorization Rules: A classification system should meet certain requirements or be

guided by certain rules.

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First, classification should be linked to the theory and the aim of the particular study.

Second, the scheme should be exhaustive. That is, there must be a category for every

response.

Third, the categories must also be mutually exclusive, so that each case is classified only

once.

Number of categories: How many categories should a scheme include? It is preferable to

include many categories rather than a few, since reducing the number later is easier than

splitting an already classified group of responses. However, the number of categories is-

limited by the number of cases and the anticipated statistical analysis.

Coding

Coding means assigning numerals or other symbols to the categories or responses. For

each question a coding scheme is designed on the basis of the con med categories. The

coding schemes with their assigned symbols together with specific coding instructions

may be assembled in a book. The codebook will identify a specific item of

variable/observation and the code number assigned to each category of that item. If the

data are to be transferred to machine punch cards, the codebook will also identify the

column in which it is entered.

5.5. Transcription

When only a few schedules are processed and hand-tabulated, tabulation can directly be

made from the schedules. On the other hand, direct tabulation from the edited schedules/

questionnaires is difficult if the number of the schedules and the number of responses in

them are large/ suppose an interview schedule contains 180 responses requiring

tabulation and 210 simple and cross tables are to be constructed, each schedule has to be

handled at least 210 for tabulation. This will result in mutilation of the schedule, and.

omissions and commissions may easily occur in tabulation. In order to avoid these

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drawbacks, data contained in schedules/questionnaires are transferred to another material

for the pur-pose of tabulation. This intermediary process is called 'transcription.’

Methods of Transaction

The material to be used for transaction depends on the method of tabulation - manual or

mechanical. Long work sheets, sorting cards or sorting strips are used for transcription

when tabulation is done manually, and punch cards or magnetic tape (or disks) are used

in a system of machine sorting and tabulation.

5.6 Tabulation

After the transcription of data is over, data are summarised and arranged in a compact

form for further analysis. This process is called tabulation. Thus, tabulation is the process

of summarizing raw data and displaying them on compact statistical tables for further

analysis. It involves counting of the number of cases falling into each of several

categories.

Tabulation can be done by hand or by mechanical or electronic devices. The choice

depends upon the size and type of study, cost considerations, time pressures and the

availability of tabulating machines or computers. Hand tabulation is suitable for small

and simple studies. Electronic or mechanical tabulation is more appropriate for large and

complex studies.

Electronic Computers

The uses of electronic computers have revolutionized data analysis. They can perform all

the specialized functions at a much higher speed. The use of computers has facilitated

large-scale studies and above all the use of complex techniques of analysis such as

multivariate analysis, factor analysis and the like. The operating speed of computers is

fantastic. The time required for computers to perform such basic operations as adding and

subtracting is less than a billionth of a second. The large computers can perform many

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million operations in a second. In addition to being very fast, computers are very

accurate.

Construction of Tables

After the data have been tabulated, they are arranged in statistical tables in vertical

columns and horizontal rows according to some classification. Tables provide a

“shorthand” summary of data. The importance of presenting statistical data in tabular

form needs no emphasis. Tables facilitate comprehending masses of data at a glance; they

conserve space and reduce explanations and descriptions to a minimum; they give a

visual picture of relationships between variables and categories; they facilitate summation

of items and the detection of errors and omissions; and they provide a basis for

computations.

It is important to make a distinction between the general-purpose tables and the special

tables. The general-purpose tables are primary or reference tables designed to include

large amounts of source data in convenient and accessible form. The special purpose

tables are analytical or derivative ones, which demonstrate significant relationships in the

data or the results of statistical analysis. Tables in reports of government on population,

vital statistics, agriculture, industries etc. are of general-purpose type. They represent

extensive repositories of statistical information. Special purpose tables are found in

monographs, research reports and articles, and are used as instruments of analysis. In

research we are primarily concerned with special purpose tables.

Components of a Table

The major components of a table are:

A. Heading

1. Table Number

2. Title of the table

3. Designation of units

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B. Body

1. Stub-head - heading of all rows or blocks of stub items.

2. Boxhead - headings of all columns or main captions and their sub captions

3. Field or body - the cells in rows and columns

C. Notations

1. Footnotes, if necessary

2. Source

Principles of Table construction:

There are certain generally accepted principles of rules relating to construction of tables.

They are:

1. Every table should have a title.

2. Every table should be identified by a number to facilitate easy reference

3. The captions (or column headings) should be clear and brief.

4. The units of measurement under each heading must always be indicated.

5. Any explanatory footnotes concerning the table itself are placed directly beneath

the table and in order to obviate any possible confusion with the textual footnotes

such reference symbols as the asterisk (*) dagger (+) and the like may be used.

6. If the data in a series of tables have been obtained from different sources, it is

ordinarily advisable to indicate the specific sources in a place just below the table.

7. Usually columns are separated from one another by lines. Lines are always drawn

at the top and bottom of the table and below the captions.

8. The columns may be numbered to facilitate reference.

9. All column figures should be properly aligned. Decimal points and 'plus' or

'minus' signs should be in perfect alignment.

10. Columns and rows which are to be compared with one another should be brought

close together.

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11. Totals of rows should be placed at the extreme right column and totals of columns

at the bottom.

12. In order to emphasize the relative significance of certain categories, different

kinds of type, spacing and indentations can be used.

13. The arrangement of the categories in a table may be chronological, geographical,

alphabetical or according to magnitude. Numerical categories are usually arranged

in descending order of magnitude.

14. Miscellaneous and exceptional items are generally placed in the last row of the

table.

15. Usually the larger number of items are listed vertically. This means that a table's

length is more than its width.

16. Abbreviations should be avoided whenever possible and ditto marks should not be

used in a table.

17. The table should be made as logical, clear, accurate and simple as possible.

Analysis and Interpretation of Data

Data analysis involves critical thinking. This is done only after collecting all the data and

always focused on the research problems and the hypothesis and questions rose in the

statement of the problem. Here the research compiles or summarizes the results in a

logical order usually in relation to the hypotheses and objectives of the study. After a

brief introduction on the main results or features of the findings of the study, the data are

described and interpreted in sufficient detail leading to the ultimate conclusion. Tables,

graphs and illustrations are used to present the data more clearly and economically.

In brief, analysis involves examination and evaluation of some phenomenon by dividing

it into some constituent parts and identifying the relationships among the parts in the

context of the whole. You then interpret the relationships to explain or make some

intended generalization governing the behaviour of the phenomenon.

Drawing Conclusions and Recommendations

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The researcher summarizes the main findings of his study and the implications.

Conclusions summarize the main results of the research and describe what they mean for

the general field. Briefly describe what you did, consider suggesting future research to

follow up where your research ended.

5.7 Graphic Representations

Graphic presentation involves use of graphics, charts and other pictorial devices. These

forms and devices reduce large masses of statistical data to a form that can be quickly

understood at a glance. The meaning of figures in tabular form may be difficult for the

mind to grasp or retain. “Properly constructed graphs and charts relieve the mind of

burdensome details by portraying facts concisely, logically and simply.” They, by

emphasizing new and significant relationships, are also useful in discovering new facts

and in developing hypotheses.

The device of graphic representation is particularly useful when the prospective readers

are non-technical people or general public. It is useful to even technical people for

dramatizing certain points about the data, for important points can be more effective

captured in pictures than in tables. However, graphic forms are not substitutes for tables,

but are additional devices.

Types and General Rules

The most commonly used graphic forms may be grouped into the following categories:

1. Line graphs or charts

2. Bar Charts

3. Segmental representations

4. Pictographs.

Line Graphs

The line graph is useful for showing changes in data relationships over a period of time.

In this graph, figures are plotted in relation to two interesting lines or axes. The

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horizontal line is called the abscissa or X-axis and the vertical, the ordinal or Y-axis. The

point at which the two axes, interest is zero for both X and Y. The '0' is the origin of

coordinates. The two lines divide the region of the plane into four sections known as

quadrants, which are numbered anti-clockwise. Measurements to the right and above '0'

are positive (plus), and measurements to the left and below '0' are negative (minus). Any

point in the plane of the two axes is plotted in terms of the two axes reading from the

origin '0'. Scale intervals in both the axes should he equal. If a part of the scale is omitted,

a set of parallel jagged lines should be used to indicate the break in the scale. The time

dimension or independent variable is represented by the X-axis and the other variable by

Y-axis.

Histogram.

This is another form of line chart used for presenting a frequency distribution. It is

constructed by erecting vertical lines on the limits of the class intervals marked on the

base line. The vertical lines so drawn from a series of contiguous rectangles or columns.

The Width of each rectangle represents its class interval, and the height represents the

class frequency.

Frequency Polygons

It is often more convenient to draw a frequency polygon instead of drawing a histogram

of a distribution. In laying out a frequency polygon, the frequency of each class is located

at the midpoint of the interval and the plotted points are then connected by straight lines.

If two or more series are shown on the same graph, the curves can be made with different

kinds of ruling. If the total number of cases in the two series is of different size, the

frequencies are often reduced to percentages. The frequency polygon is particularly

appropriate for portraying continuous series. It is sometimes desirable to portray the data

by a smoothed curve. The chart is then called a frequency curve.

Ogive

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The ogive is a line chart plotted on arithmetic graph paper from a cumulative frequency

distribution, which may be cumulated downward or upward. It is useful in representing

population, per capita income, per capita earnings etc. Two or more distributions may be

compared by converting the data of the distributions to percentages of the total, then

cumulating the percentages and plotting the ogives on the same grid. The differences in

steepness and shape of the ogives facilitate comparative observations.

Lorenz Curve

The Lorenz Curve is a line chart used to compare the proportionality in two quantitative

variables. It is commonly used to show the degree by which the distribution of income

per family departs from the distribution' of the number of families; it shows that it

disparate proportion of the income goes to a few families.

Bar Charts

These charts consist of either vertical or horizontal bars to represent variables. The length

of the bars varies corresponding to the values of the variable. Bar charts are the most

effective pictorial device for comparing data. The bars may be depicted in solid blocks or

in patterns of dots, dishes etc. They may be of different forms: (1) linear or one-

dimensional, (2) areal or two-dimensional, and (3) cubic or three-dimensional. The actual

numerical values may be shown on the X-axis or Y-axis, as the case may be, or at the

immediate ends of the bars.

Pie or Circle Charts

The circle or pie chart is a component parts chart. The component parts form the

segments of the circle. The circle chart is usually a percentage chart. The data are

converted to percentage of the total; and the proportional segments, therefore, give a clear

picture of the relationship among the component parts.

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Pictograms

A pictogram is a variation of the bar chart. In it the values are represented by identical

symbol or pictures. Each one representing a fixed size of the variable. The symbols used

may be appropriate to the type of data.

Preparing research report and scientific papers

Preparing a Research Report

Research has little value if it is not put together into some form of report. We have said

that research represents a scientific method of establishing knowledge that is cumulative.

And therefore, scientific findings must be properly documented and reported through

appropriate media. Effective communication of research findings, both to scientist and to

the general audiences, is a very important component of the research process. Decisions

on writing style and method of presentation must depend on the intended purposes and

prospective readers. Any researcher who hopes to do an effective report should have

some idea of his probable readers or audience, some understanding of the needs, interests

and capability will help him decide which points to stress in his presentation.

The significance of a research report

As noted above, research findings must be communicated in one way or another.

First and foremost, reports are necessary to account to the funding body the

expenditure of the funds allocated, manpower and other resources.

Even more importantly, research reports make scientific information more

accessible to people and social groups or organizations interested in particular

research data. In doing so, the researcher must have some understanding of the

needs, interests and capability of the target audience.

This will help him decide the format and points he needs to elaborate and stress in

his report.

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If the audience constitutes the scientific community, his emphasis would be the

results, methods, and scientific tools he employed to analyze, interpret, and

conclude from the findings of his study. His work may be published as an article

in a journal, or bulletin.

If the target audience is made up of extension agents, development workers,

policy makers, etc. his emphasis will be the conclusion and recommendations

drawn from the study.

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TOPIC SIX : FORMAT OF THE RESEARCH REPORT

Guidelines for preparing the research report

A. Preliminary section

1. Title page: Some basic considerations

The title page usually includes:

o The name of the topic

o The name of the author

o The relationship of the report to a course or degree requirement

o The name of the institution where the report is submitted

o The date and place of the presentation

Any research work starts with a title that will almost certainly change before the research

is completed and reported. It is very wise, therefore, to think of an effective title that will

be finally adopted. So it is a good idea to keep notes of alternative titles or ideas as you

proceed in preparing and writing the research report. The title should catch the readers’

attention while informing them about the main thesis of the study. First impressions are

strong and can attract attention. The title should be concise and should give a precise

indication of what is to come. It should not claim more than what the study actually

delivers. The title should be typed in capital letters, single spaced and centered between

the right and left margins of the page.

2. Acknowledgement (if any)

An acknowledgement page is included if the writer has received unusual assistance in the

conduct of the study. The author gives credit for external support received during the

conduct of the study. Acknowledgement also expresses gratitude for the use of

copyrighted or otherwise restricted materials. A doctoral candidate may choose to

dedicate the dissertation to a person(s) who has had significant impact on his work.

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3. Table of contents:

A good table of contents serves as an important purpose in providing an outline of the

content of the report. The relationship between principal and minor divisions is indicated

by capitalization of chapter numbers and titles, with subheadings in small letters and with

capitalized principal letters.

B. Main body of the report

1. Introduction

As in the proposal, the introduction presents the problem addressed by the

research.

Gives sufficient background information to allow readers to understand the results

of the study.

It is written in such a way that readers will know the current status of research

conclusions on the topic, the theoretical implications associated with the results of

previous research on the subject, and the statement of a hypothetical resolution of

the issues to be tested by the research described.

As in the proposal, the introduction should describe the nature and purpose of the

study, present the guiding research questions, and explain the significance of and

justification for conducting the study. Terms likely to be used throughout the

paper should be defined in this section.

A statement of objectives is included and a research hypothesis

2. Review of Related literature

A literature review must be organized in relation to research topic you are developing. In

the process you should synthesize results into a summary of what is and is not known;

identify areas of controversy in the literature; formulate questions that need further

research.

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3. Materials and Methods (Methodology)

The methodology section is used to describe what the researcher did and how the study

was conducted. One important purpose is to enable others repeat the experiment and

verify the results if they wish to. In doing so, you should summarize the procedures in the

execution of each of the stage of your work. This section should build on the description

of methods outlined in the proposal. You should label subsections similar to those in the

proposal. It may include subsections describe participants or subjects, another describing

testing or measurement procedures undertaken with the participants, and a section

describing limitations of the methodology. These are all done in the past tense or past

perfect tense.

This section should present the following:

1. Procedures used and kind of design

2. Sources of data

3. Methods of gathering data

4. Description of data gathering instruments used

4. Analysis of data/Results

This section summarizes the data collected and details the statistical treatment of

that data.

Present your results in a logical sequence using only observations pertinent to

your stated objectives.

After a brief statement of the main results or findings of the study, the data are

reported in sufficient detail to justify the conclusions.

Tables and illustrations may be used to report data when these methods are seen

to present the data more clearly and economically.

Do not replicate observations in your tables. Give only means and measures of

variability.

Use tables to present exact values and figures to show trends and relationships.

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All tables and illustrations should be mentioned in the text, with appropriate titles

or captions and enough explanations to make them readily identifiable.

Avoid repetition of numerical data from the tables and figures in the text.

5. Discussion

This section should reflect the implications of the study. Here the researcher evaluates the

data and interprets the findings in the context of the research questions or hypothesis. He

is guided by questions like the following.

What do my results mean and what are their implications?

Should interpret your results clearly, concisely and logically. For each objective,

describe how your results relate to meeting the objectives.

Here, the major results are picked or summarized, evaluate, and interpreted with

respect to the original research questions and hypotheses and related with

previous works.

Theoretical and practical consequences of the results and the validity of

conclusions may appropriately be discussed in this section.

The limitations of the study and suggestions for future work may also be included.

Emphasize on new results and suggest new lines of work or further research.

6. Conclusions and Recommendations

In this section you should describe briefly what you did, the main results and

recommendations for further research or applicability. Implications what the findings of

the research imply (consider suggestions).

7. References

At the end of your report you need to list all the sources cited in the text. Details

regarding citations and references are given part four.

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Characteristics of a Good Report

A good report results from slow, pain taking and ac- curate inductive work. To attract a

reader, the reading matter of a report should be clear and interesting. It should not be

obscure and dull. The write-up should be logical, clear and concise. The basic quality or

characteristics of a good scientific report/paper and thesis are the following:

(1) good presentation

(2) good organization of various chapters/sections

(3) accuracy

(4) clarity

(5) free from contradictions and confusion.

BIBLIOGRAPHIC CITATIONS

Introduction

The principle of fairness and the role of personal recognition within the reward system of

science account for the emphasis given to the proper allocation of credit. In the standard

scientific paper, credit is explicitly acknowledged in three places: in the list of authors, in

the acknowledgments of contributions from others, and in the list of references or

citations. Conflicts over proper attribution can arise in any of these places. Citations serve

many purposes in a scientific paper. They acknowledge the work of other scientists,

direct the reader toward additional sources of information, acknowledge conflicts with

other results, and provide support for the views expressed in the paper. More broadly,

citations place a paper within its scientific context, relating it to the present state of

scientific knowledge. Failure to cite the work of others can give rise to more than just

hard feelings. Citations are part of the reward system of science. They are connected to

funding decisions and to the future careers of researchers. More generally, the

misallocation of credit undermines the incentive system for publication. In addition,

scientists who routinely fail to cite the work of others may find themselves excluded from

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the fellowship of their peers. This consideration is particularly important in one of the

more intangible aspects of a scientific career-that of building a reputation. Published

papers document a person's approach to science, which is why it is important that they be

clear, verifiable, and honest. In addition, a researcher who is open, helpful, and full of

ideas becomes known to colleagues and will benefit much more than someone who is

secretive or uncooperative.

Features of citations

(a) Footnoting

Footnotes are very useful devices because they serve a number of purposes

They enable you to substantiate your presentation by citing other authorities

They also enable you to present explanatory statements that would interfere with

the logic of your text

Traditionally, footnote citations are placed at the bottom of the page

They are separated from the text by a horizontal line from the text margin.

(b) Abbreviations

o You may use abbreviations in bibliographic and footnote citations if you want to

conserve space. Examples: bk., bks. = book, books.

(c) Bibliography (Reference/Literature Cited)

Points to consider in preparing the references:

o The reference list at the end of the paper should list all works cited in the paper,

and all items listed as references must have been cited in the text.

o Special attention should be given to ensure appropriate citations of less common

sources, such as unpublished manuscripts.

o There are many ways of presenting the bibliography but be accurate and

consistent in the way you list

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o Follow guidelines required by the particular journal, proceeding, etc. They do

have their own style of citations.

o Citing a source without having read/seen the original can lead to embarrassment

and loss of credibility if the secondary source from which you gained the

information is in error.

o Again, the APA Manual can provide guidance for ensuring accuracy in these

details.

o General rule: Author (s). Year of Publication. Title of Work. Publication data.

(i) In-text references (citations)-References are citations of other works such as books,

journal articles, or private communications. References in text are treated somewhat

differently from references in the complete list at the end of a paper.

Use the author-date format to cite references in text. For example: as Smith

(1990) points out,

For two-author citations, spell out both authors on all occurrences.

For multiple-author citations (up to five authors) name all authors the first time,

then use et al., so the first time it is Smith, Jones, Pearson and Sherwin (1990), but

the second time it is Smith et al., with a period after “al” but no underlining.

For six or more authors, use et al. the first time and give the full citation in

references.

Include page reference after the year, outside quotes but inside the comma, for

example: The author stated, “The effect disappeared within minutes” (Lopez,

1993, p. 311) , but she did not say which effect. Another example would be:

Lopez found that “the effect disappeared within minutes” (p. 311). Notice also

that the sentence is capitalized only if presented after a comma, as a complete

sentence.

If two or more multiple-author references which shorten to the same “et al.” form,

making it ambiguous, give as many author names as necessary to make them

distinct, before et al. For example: (Smith, Jones, et al., 1991) to distinguish it

from (Smith, Burke, et al., 1991).

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Join names in a multiple-author citation with and (in text) or an ampersand (&) in

reference lists and parenthetical comments. For example: As Smith and Sarason

(1990) point out, the same argument was made by in an earlier study (Smith &

Sarason, 1990).

If a group is readily identified by its initials, spell it out only the first time. For

example, “As reported in a government study (National Institute of Mental Health

[NIMH], 1991), blah blah...” and thereafter, “The previously cited study (NIMH,

1991) found that...

If the author is unknown or unspecified, use the first few words of the reference

list entry (usually the title), for example: (“Study Finds,” 1992).

If citing multiple works by the same author at the same time, arrange dates in

order. In general, use letters after years to distinguish multiple publications by the

same author in the same year. For example: Several studies (Johnson, 1988,

1990a, 1990b, 1995 in press-a, 1995 in press-b) showed the same thing.

For old works cite the translation or the original and modern copyright dates if

both are known, for example: (Aristotle, trans. 1931) or (James, 1890/1983).

Always give page numbers for quotations, for example: (Cheek & Buss, 1981, p.

332) or (Shimamura, 1989, chap. 3, p. 5).

For e-mail and other “unrecoverable data” use personal communication, for

example: (V.-G. Nguyen, personal communication, September 28, 1993). These

do not appear in the reference list.

Abbreviating within a reference

Here are approved abbreviations for use in a reference list:

chap. for chapter

ed. for edition

rev. ed. for revised edition

2nd ed. for second edition

Ed. for Edited by

(Eds.) for multiple editors

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Trans. for Translated by

p. for page number, with a space after the period

pp. for page numbers in encyclopaedia entries, multi-page newspaper articles,

chapters or articles in edited books, but not in journal or magazine article

citations, where numbers alone should be used (see examples of reference

formats).

Vol. for Volume

vols. for volumes

No. for Number

Pt. for Part

Suppl. for Supplement,

Tech. Rep. for Technical Report

Quotations: When a direct quotation is used, always include the author, year, and page

number as part of the citation.

A. A quotation of fewer than 40 words should be enclosed in double quotation marks

and should be incorporated into the formal structure of the sentence. Consider the

following example:

Patients receiving prayer had “less congestive heart failure, required less diuretic

and antibiotic therapy, had fewer episodes of pneumonia, had fewer cardiac

arrests, and were less frequently incubated and ventilated” (Byrd, 1988, p. 829).

B. A lengthier quotation of 40 or more words should appear (without quotation

marks) apart from the surrounding text, in block format, with each line indented

five spaces from the left margin.

(ii) Lists of References

General Rule:

Pagination: The References section begins on a new page.

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Format: The references lists are organized alphabetically by surnames of first

authors.

Most reference entries have three components:

Authors: Authors are listed in the same order as specified in the source, using

surnames and initials. Commas separate all authors. When there are seven or more

authors, list the first six and then use “et al.” for remaining authors. If no author is

identified, the title of the document begins the reference. The first author always

starts with its surname followed by initials. The rest of authors are listed

following the first author either starts by initials followed by surnames or vice

versa.

Year of Publication: In parentheses following authors, with a period following the

closing parenthesis. Or without parenthesis following authors, with a period

following authors and after it. If no publication date is identified, use “n.d.” in

parentheses or without parenthesis following the authors.

Source Reference: Includes title, journal, volume, pages (for journal article) or

title, edition, city of publication, publisher (for book). [Note: Italicize titles of

books, titles of periodicals, and periodical volume numbers.]

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Examples of sources

i. Journal article

Murzynski, J., & Degelman, D. (1996). Body language of women and judgments

of vulnerability to sexual assault. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 26, 1617-

1626.

ii. Book

Paloutzian, R. F. (1996). Invitation to the psychology of religion (2nd ed.).

Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

American Psychiatric Association. (1990). Diagnostic and statistical manual of

mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

(note: “Author” is used as above when author and publisher are identical.)

iii. Article or chapter in an edited book

Shea, J. D. (1992). Religion and sexual adjustment. In J. F. Schumaker (Ed.),

Religion and Mental Health (pp. 70-84). New York: Oxford University Press.

iv. Web document on university program or department Web site

Degelman, D., & Harris, M. L. (2000). APA style essentials. Retrieved May 18,

2000, from Vanguard University, Department of Psychology Web site:

http://www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/index.cfm?doc_id=796

v. Stand-alone Web document (no date)

Nielsen, M. E. (n.d.). Notable people in psychology of religion. Retrieved August

3, 2001, from http://www.psywww.com/psyrelig/psyrelpr.htm

vi. Stand-alone Web document (no author, no date)

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Gender and society. (n.d.). Retrieved December 3, 2001, from

http://www.trinity.edu/~mkearl/gender.html

vii. Journal article from database

Hien, D., & Honeyman, T. (2000). A closer look at the drug abuse-maternal

aggression link. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 15, 503-522. Retrieved May

20, 2000, from ProQuest database.

viii. Abstract from secondary database

Garrity, K., & Degelman, D. (1990). Effect of server introduction on restaurant

tipping. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 168-172. Abstract retrieved

July 23, 2001, from PsycINFO database.

ix. Letter to the editor

O'Neill, G. W. (1992, January). In support of DSM-III [Letter to the editor]. APA

Monitor, 4-5.

x. Magazine article

Gardner, H. (1991, December). Do babies sing a universal song? Psychology

Today,70-76. (xi) Newsletter article

Brown, L.S. (1993, Spring). My research with oranges. The Psychology

Department Newsletter, 3, 2.

xi. The date is given as it appears on the publication. For anonymous newspaper

articles.

xii. Pamphlet

Just Say No Foundation. (1992). Saving our youth. (9th ed.) [Brochure].

Washington, DC: Author.

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xiii. Anonymous or unknown author (common in newspapers):

Caffeine linked to mental illness. (1991, July 13). New York Times, pp. B13,

B15.

84