Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Anthropological Archaeology

journal homepage: www.elsevier .com/ locate/ jaa

Socio-economic organization of Final Paleolithic societies: Newperspectives from an aggregation site in Western France

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2014.05.0040278-4165/� 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

⇑ Corresponding author at: Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, UMR 7264 CNRSCEPAM, Campus Saint-Jean-d’Angély, 24, avenue des Diables Bleus, 06357 NiceCedex, France.

E-mail addresses: nicolas.naudinot@cepam.cnrs.fr (N. Naudinot), jacquier.jeremie@gmail.com (J. Jacquier).

Nicolas Naudinot a,⇑, Jérémie Jacquier b,c

a Université de Nice Sophia Antipolis, UMR 7264 CNRS CEPAM, Campus Saint-Jean-d’Angély, 24, avenue des Diables Bleus, 06357 Nice Cedex, Franceb Université de Rennes 1, UMR 6566 CNRS CReAAH, Campus de Beaulieu, Bâtiments 24-25, 35042 Rennes Cedex, Francec University of Nice-Sophia Antipolis, UMR 7264 CNRS CEPAM, France

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:Received 16 May 2013Revision received 11 February 2014Available online 26 June 2014

Keywords:Aggregation siteFunctional analysisLateglacialLithic technologyMobility strategiesNorthwestern FranceSite function

a b s t r a c t

Overlooked in larger European syntheses for some time, northwestern France now plays an importantrole in a dynamic research program investigating the very end of the Lateglacial in Western Europe.The discovery of the well-preserved open-air site of La Fosse has allowed for significant advances inour understanding of different aspects of the Younger Dryas-Holocene transition in this region. Thishomogenous lithic assemblage adds further precision to the Lateglacial chrono-cultural sequence andprovides essential new information for investigating techno-economic changes that appeared during thisperiod. A techno-functional study of the lithic material combined with a spatial analysis of artifact dis-tribution provides insights concerning the site’s function. Several lines of evidence also shed light onoccupation duration, activities carried out on-site, and the likely composition of the groups who occupiedthe site. The combination of the above lead us to interpret La Fosse as a large residential site. Followingthis, we propose a new mobility and land-use model for hunter-gatherer groups from the Younger Dryas-Preboreal transition in which La Fosse functioned as an aggregation site. This model confirms several pre-vious hypotheses emphasizing the logistical character of mobility strategies of these societies. Finally,this scenario adds further details and precision concerning both the status and connections between dif-ferent groups of sites within a complex socio-economic system.

� 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction

Research concerning the end of the Lateglacial in northwesternEurope has recently benefited not only from the discovery of newsites but also the emergence of an important new researchdynamic combining the reassessment of old collections withrenewed fieldwork. Following a nearly two thousand years periodwhere substantial technological simplifications are evident in boththe methods and objectives of stone tool production (Célérier,1994, 1998; Valentin, 1995, 2008; Bodu and Valentin, 1997;Chollet and Dujardin, 2005; Naudinot, 2010; Mevel, 2011), muchmore elaborate and technically demanding debitage patterns re-emerged during the second half of the Younger Dryas. This newdesire for flat, regular and standardized blades with rectilinear

profiles can be seen across a significant geographic area spanningfrom southwestern France to southern Scandinavia. This wide dis-tribution demonstrates the circulation of particularly robust tech-nical concepts incorporated within a substantial techno-complex(Valentin, 2008; Naudinot, 2010, 2013). We proposed ‘‘Pre-Meso-lithic straight and bladelet industries’’ these last years to name thistechno-complex (Naudinot, 2010, 2013). We admit that the choiceof P2SBI is not necessarily the best to render the particularities ofthe industries of these groups. As we developed these last years,the flatness of the blades and bladelets produced is probably abetter structural character of this system than the straightness ofthe blanks. We demonstrate this hypothesis in Western France(Naudinot, 2013) and tracked it in other areas like in SouthwestFrance. Recently, B. Valentin tested our hypothesis in the ParisBasin and Northern France and found the same phenomenon(Valentin et al., 2013). We thus propose to make this structuralcharacter the common denominator of these industries and pro-pose a new term to designate this techno-complex: ‘‘Flat Bladesand Bladelets Techno-complex’’.

Several different, nearly contemporaneous technologicaltraditions with still unclear internal trajectories of change are

178 N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

subsumed within the FBBT: (1) the Ahrensburgian/Epi-Ahrensbur-gian on the Northern European Plain, extending into Southern Eng-land and across northern France, (2) the Swiderian spread acrosswestern Poland and into the southern Ukraine, and (3) the Labori-an/Epi-Laborian cultural complex, which is essentially concen-trated in the southern half of France from the Paris Basin to thePyrenees and bordered to the southeast by the Epigravettiantechno-complex. While Epi-Paleolithic micro-blade traditions fromthe Iberian Peninsula differ substantially from these industries, theso-called Carneira facies of the Magdelanian in Portugal (Zilhao,1997) shows some similarities with laborian/epi-Laborian lithicequipment to the FBBT. Alongside these traditions, certain siteswith distinctive characteristics are found in areas of northernFrance and southern England that are particularly rich in high-quality siliceous raw materials. These sites have been groupedtogether as Long Blade, Bruised blade, or ‘‘Belloisian’’ assemblagesand share stone tool production systems geared around the manu-facture of regular blades of sometimes extraordinary size. Previ-ously viewed simply as workshop sites (Bodu and Valentin,1992; Fagnart, 1988, 1997; Valentin, 1995), they are today consid-ered specialized Laborian/Epi-Laborian and/or Ahrensburgian/Epi-Ahrensburgian occupations (Valentin, 2008; Fagnart, 2009)situated in close proximity to both hunting grounds and flintsources (Valentin, 2008). Current research on societies from thePleistocene-Holocene transition focus on investigating sites func-tion, links between sites, mobility strategies, and land-use patterns(Valentin, 2008; Fagnart, 2009; Naudinot, 2010, 2013; Bodu et al.,2011; Jacquier, in preparation, 2014 and in press).

This article forms part of this new research dynamic and pro-vides fresh perspectives concerning work carried out in northwest-ern France. Having been neglected for some time, this region isnow a key area for addressing these types of socio-economic ques-tions thanks to the re-analysis of old collections alongside the dis-covery of new sites. With the chrono-cultural backgroundfundamental to any palethnological study now well established(Marchand et al., 2004; Naudinot, 2008, 2010, 2013), our workfocuses on the socio-economic organization of these Lateglacialsocieties.

The favorable preservation conditions of the archaeological lev-els at the site of La Fosse near Villiers-Charlemagne (Mayenne,France; Naudinot and Jacquier, 2009, 2013), hitherto unknown inthe region, have rapidly progressed our understanding of these dif-ferent aspects. Although the substantially acidic soils of the Armor-ican Massif have unfortunately destroyed all organic materials, thetechno-cultural homogeneity of the well-preserved lithic assem-blage nevertheless makes the site particularly informative. An inte-grated techno-functional approach combined with an investigationof the spatial distribution of the archaeological material hasallowed us to address questions concerning the site’s socio-economic status as well as more general questions concerningmobility strategies and the ways in which these hunter-gatherergroups exploited the landscape during the Pleistocene-Holocenetransition.

The site of La Fosse

The site of La Fosse lies on the left bank of the Mayenne River.Located on a small alluvial plain near a large meander, the site isdominated by an imposing landscape of marked relief culminatingsome 100 m above the valley (Fig. 1). The remains of the Lateglacialoccupation were found lying directly on a thick bed of colluvialsediments composed of variously sized blocks and pebbles (some-times as large as 1 m) that was sealed by a clayey-silt matrix. Thelithic material was concentrated at the summit of this stratigraphicunit. It is covered by approximately a meter of fine silt. This silt

deposit is particularly homogenous in terms of texture, granulom-etry, and color (Naudinot and Jacquier, 2013). The excavated sur-face currently extends over 90 square meters from which morethan 30,000 lithic objects have been recovered.

Located on the margins of a large crystalline massif, the site is ata significant distance from the nearest sources of raw materials,forcing flintknappers from La Fosse to provision themselves fromdistant flint outcrops in order to fulfill technically demandingdebitage objectives. All of the extremely varied lithic materials(all flint) exploited at the site are non-local and provide evidencefor an extensive provisioning territory (more than 200 km for someflint types). While most of the provisioning zones have alreadybeen documented, determining the origin of several different flinttypes remains problematic as they were procured from secondarycontexts along waterways, such as the Loire River, draining theregion’s sedimentary basins. Additional petrographic analysis isongoing and will undoubtedly provide more details concerningthe sources of the different raw materials.

Like other terminal Lateglacial sites in Western Europe, thelithic technology of La Fosse was geared around the productionof flat blades, sometimes of substantial size, and rectilinear blad-elets integrated within the same chaîne opératoire. These regularproducts come from specific, standardized debitage methods thatrequire significant skill (Naudinot, 2010, 2013) – blocks of rawmaterial with rigorously prepared crests were exploited usingsoft-stone percussion from two opposed and carefully abradedstriking platforms. Such preparation and reduction strategies per-mitted the sought-after flat and rectilinear blanks to be detachedfrom large surfaces with minimal longitudinal and transverseconvexities.

Unlike the dedicated production of blades and bladelets, theflake component of the assemblage represents by-products fromthe shaping and management of blade and bladelet cores. Numer-ous un-modified blanks were used in various activities, whileothers were transformed into different types of retouched tools;predominantly end-scrapers, truncated tools, and burins (Fig. 2).On the other hand, bladelets were reserved for the manufactureof projectile elements. These particularly well-represented weap-ons portray substantial typological variability when compared tothe more consistent hunting equipment of Azilian groups fromthe Bølling-Allerød interstadial.

The socio-economic role of La Fosse

Evidence for a wide range of activities carried out on-site

Despite the considerable distance separating La Fosse from theexploited flint outcrops, the production of blanks and their trans-formation into tools is very well represented. Moreover, evidencefor the entire chaîne opératoire from the introduction of entirecortical nodules to the ultimate discard of used tools is present.A technological analysis of the lithic material reveals two mainproduction objectives: (1) different-sized blades destined for vari-ous domestic activities and (2) bladelets primarily designed to betransformed into projectile points (Fig. 3).

Hunting activities are well-attested too by the presence of 665projectile points and fragments, certain of which bear diagnosticimpact fractures based on the criteria outlined by Fischer et al.(1984) and O’Farell (2004). Macro- and microscopic use-wear anal-ysis of 2108 pieces, 185 of which were retouched tools, alsorevealed evidences for a range of other activities (Fig. 4, Jacquier,2014, in preparation). Butchery traces are evident on 22% of usezones (UZ), primarily the edges of un-retouched blades. Hide work-ing is also especially well represented, evident on slightly less than50% (n = 225) of UZ, approximately half (n = 88) of which can be

LA FOSSEMayenne

La Chauvinière La Jouannerie

La Maroquinière

La Chaponnière

Les Cartiers

0 1km

Charente

LA ROCHELLE

NIORT

POITIERS

PARTENAY

CHÂTELLERAULT

LOIRE - ATLANTIQUE MAINE - ET- LOIRE

VENDÉE

Sèvre Niortaise

Sèvre Nantaise

0 50 100 150 km

Auln

e

Rance

Oust

Ille

Vilaine

Loire

Vire Orn

e

Dives

Touques

Risle

May

enne

Sarthe

Loir

Sèvre niortaise

Thou

et

Lay

Sèvre nantaise

D.A.O L.Quesnel (UMR 6566 CReAAH du C.N.R.S)

Fig. 1. Location of La Fosse (Drawing L. Quesnel).

N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189 179

attributed to a scraping motion. Traces of hide working are primar-ily present on the fronts of end-scrapers as well as on the convex orrectilinear un-retouched edges of blades. The other half of the UZ(n = 137) is mainly found on the sharp and regular un-retouchededges of blades and is referable to cutting hides. This substantialproportion of cutting motions connected to hide working is fairlyunique and suggests that leather objects were made on-site.Although less well represented (14 UZ), other activities involvingbone or antler materials were also carried out during the site’soccupation. These materials were worked uniquely by scrapingand involved almost exclusively burins.

While traces of woodworking were not identified, those charac-teristic of processing plant materials are present on 11 sharp, occa-sionally slightly concave, un-retouched edges and are referable toscraping. As with the osseous materials, the absence of organicremains, and still sparse information concerning craft activitiesinvolving both osseous and vegetal remains, precludes assigningthese un-retouched tools specific tasks.

The working of stone is evinced by 46 UZ incorporating threetechnical motions: (1) percussion (20 UZ), (2) scraping (19 UZ),and (3) grooving (7 UZ). The latter two can be present on the sametool and may therefore reveal different motions integrated within

the same activity. As no scraped or grooved mineral objects wererecovered during excavations, it is difficult not only to identifythe exact function of these tools but also whether the relatedmotions were designed to modify surfaces or extract powders.However, it is worth noting that an approximately 5 cm corticalflake with an engraved outline resembling an animal’s head wasfound at the time of the site’s discovery. Unfortunately, this surfacefind lacks any contextual information, making it impossible todefinitively associate it with the Lateglacial occupation. Engravedminerals are however known from several contemporaneous sites(Bohmers and Wouters, 1962; Vermeersch, 2008; Pasty et al.,2002).

Finally, percussion traces were identified on the edges of robustblanks (large flakes, large thick blades, and crested blades). Thesebruised blades are ubiquitous on contemporaneous sites and havebeen considered for some time as a diagnostic element of theseindustries. On certain sites, some of these tools show use tracesthat testify their use for chopping hard organic materials likewood, bone or antler (Barton, 1986; Plisson in Bodu and Valentin,1992; Naudinot, 2013; Jacquier, 2014, in press, in preparation),but at La Fosse, bruised artifacts were only employed on mineralmaterials. As suggested by Fagnart and Plisson (1997) for the

Fig. 2. Retouched tools from La Fosse (Drawings F. Blanchet). 1–5: Endscrapers; 6–9: burins; 10–12: truncations; 13: blade resharpened after use.

180 N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

bruised blades of 3 belloisian sites located in northern France,these tools may have been used during the knapping activities tomaintain soft-stone hammers. However, several studies suggest

that they may also have been used to prepare the overhang ofstriking platforms on certain cores (Froom, 2005; Fagnart, 2009;Jacquier, 2014, in preparation). Since mineral scraping and

?

burins, scrapers and

other tool types

Recycling

Re-use or Resharpening

and re-useResharpening

and re-use

Flake reduction

Flake reduction

Reduction ofcore fragments

Reduction ofcore fragments

Introduction of prepared blocs

MAI

N P

RO

DU

CTI

ON

SC

HEM

E

RETOUCH

Introduction of blanks

Sequential reduction

Fig. 3. Curation strategies inferred from the chaîne opératoire of stone tool production and use.

N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189 181

grooving have been carried out at La Fosse, we should not rule outthe possibility that some of the bruised elements have participatedto the carving of stone artifacts.

Evidence for a long-term occupation

The substantial amount of lithic material recovered from LaFosse (33,301 pieces) alone could suggest a long-term occupation;a likelihood lent further, more robust support by technological andfunctional studies combined with a spatial analysis of artifactdistributions.

Evidence from tools production and use for patterns of intensive rawmaterial exploitation

The above-mentioned techno-functional studies demon-strate raw materials to have been heavily exploited on-site; a

phenomenon evident from the identified phases of blank pro-duction and the way in which blanks were subsequently used(Fig. 3).

Debitage methods of the Younger Dryas-Holocene transitionsocieties are extremely standardized across northwestern Europe(Valentin, 2008; Naudinot, 2010, 2013) and La Fosse is no excep-tion, several divergent technical choices notwithstanding. Whileflint nodules were preferentially selected at La Fosse, flakes andby-products from the management of blade and bladelet coreswere also used to produce further blanks (Fig. 3). Several refits alsoshow debris and core fragments to have been recycled to extractsmall blades and bladelets. A similar pattern has also beenobserved on contemporaneous sites; however, unlike these sites,the cores from La Fosse are heavily reduced and pushed to exhaus-tion (average length at abandonment is 44.5 mm with a standarddeviation of 11.07).

Fig. 4. Selected photos of use wear traces found on artifacts from La Fosse – (a and b) edge rounding and polish from scraping dry hides on the non-contact surface of twoend-scrapers fronts, (c) polish and striations from cutting dry hide with an acute edge, (d) flat, polish bevel on the edge of a burin from scraping bone material, (e) edgedamage and rounding on an unmodified acute edge from scraping hard and abrasive mineral, (f) polish and oblique striations on an unmodified acute edge from scraping anon-woody plant.

182 N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

This intensive reduction of raw materials is even more notice-able when viewed from a functional perspective (Fig. 3). In fact,the overwhelming majority of regular laminar blanks and a portionof flakes with sharp, regular edges frequently show traces of multi-ple episodes of use. Furthermore, the active zones on a range of dif-ferent tools were often managed over several successive phases.For example, the fronts of endscrapers were often resharpened, apattern also observed with certain un-modified cutting edges.Cutting edges were maintained in one of two ways; regular edgeswere resharpened with a flat retouch or, in a more original fashion,a burin-like removal, often originating from an inverse truncation,was detached from the dorsal surface in order to rejuvenate theedge in a manner reminiscent of the Kostienki technique (Guiriaand Leon, 2002) (Fig. 2: n�13). These resharpened edges were thenused to cut soft animal materials (Jacquier, in preparation).

Finally, evidences for recycling is very frequent, observed on50% of the analyzed burins and endscrapers. These implementswere reworked before or after single or multiple episodes of use.In the sample of retouched tools with unmodified edges bearingtraces of use, it was not always possible to discern the chronology

between edge-use and tool transformation. When decipherable, apattern emerged whereby blades with regular, sharp cutting edgeswere frequently used unmodified and then transformed into eitherburins or endscrapers (32% of the endscrapers and burins weremade on blanks previously used unmodified). The use of theseunmodified and subsequently recycled blanks, although varied(scraping hides and vegetal materials, percussion of hard mineralmaterials), predominantly involved cutting soft animal materials.Once retouched, tools assumed new functions; endscraperswere used for hide-scraping and the majority of the burins wereinvolved in scraping osseous materials. Certain endscrapers werethemselves transformed into burins following use, while others,after having scraped hides, were re-used for a new activity (scrap-ing osseous materials or percussion on a hard material) withoutfurther modification.

The structure and use of spaceSedimentary conditions at La Fosse sealed the site’s occupation

level, preserving a very clear spatial patterning which lendsitself to detailed paleoethnographic reconstructions. The spatial

N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189 183

distribution of the lithic artifacts revealed several concentrations(Fig. 5). The first, a semi-circular unit five meters in diameterwhose very clear limits are the product of a border effect, is situ-ated at the center of the excavated area. This unit is centeredaround an approximately 1 m unstructured hearth containing alower density of remains, but proportionally rich in burnt ele-ments. Although the presence of packing stones cannot be ruledout, the fact that this living area was found lying on a level of largecolluvial blocks made it impossible to identify any remnantstructures.

The second concentration is partially excavated and located inthe northern part of the site. In the center of this much denser con-centration (more than 500 pieces in certain square meters) lays anequally high density of burnt material suggesting a second hearth.Although further concentrations were uncovered to the west and

AB AA

D.A.O L.Quesnel (UMR 6566 CReAAH du C.N.R.S)

6

5

4

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

3

2

1

-1

AE CADAFA

Fig. 5. Distribution o

south of the excavated area, they are yet to be more extensivelyexcavated. The two main concentrations clearly correspond tostructured occupation units, suggesting this section to be the prod-uct of a relatively long-term occupation.

The now completely excavated central unit (unit 1) providesinteresting palethnographic insights concerning the site’s occupa-tion. This circular unit was documented in a section of the site witha lower density of colluvial pebbles compared to the rest of theexcavated area (Fig. 6). This phenomenon is probably the resultfrom the preparation of the area prior to the installation of thestructure. Furthermore, the large majority of cores are locatedagainst the internal wall of the structure, as are the majority oflarger pieces. At the contrary, the smallest knapping wastesare concentrated around the combustion zone (Fig. 7), indicatingsubstantial core reduction as well as tool manufacture and

A B C D E F

1 m

Approximative boundary of the dwelling structures

Approximative boundery of the combustion areas

Burned lithic artifacts

Lithic artifacts

f lithic artifacts.

AAB AA B C D E F

1 mD.A.O L.Quesnel (UMR 6566 CReAAH du C.N.R.S)

6

5

4

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

3

2

1

-1

AE CADAFA

Approximative boundary of the dwelling structures

Approximative boundery of the combustion areas

Fig. 6. Evidence for the possible preparation of a dwelling structure.

184 N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

management to have taken place in its vicinity. The differential dis-tribution of cores and other large pieces compared with that of thesmall flakes (e.g. <1 cm) suggests the area to have been cleanedfollowing activities linked to stone tool production. Finally, onlythe small flakes remained undisturbed in their initial position.

A hypothesis concerning the site’s socio-economic function

Several concentrations identified on the site have been orremain to be excavated and numerous artifacts attributable tothe same cultural tradition have been discovered by the ownersof the adjacent fields, suggesting the site to extend over at leasttwo hectares. These informations suggest a dense frequentationof the alluvial plain on the banks of one of the largest meandersof the Mayenne River at the end of the Lateglacial. However, it is

still difficult to determine if the different concentrations excavatedat La Fosse result from successive visits or a single occupation.Renewed excavations combined with a planned refitting programdesigned to test relationships between the different concentrationswill undoubtedly provide new information for addressing thisimportant question. In any case, the techno-functional study pro-duced a suite of coherent evidence for investigating the site’ssocio-economic function. This issue can be addressed using a com-bination of several lines of evidence: (1) the activities carried outon-site and the possible motivations underlying the site’s occupa-tions, (2) the composition of the group or groups who frequentedthe site, and (3) the duration of the occupation.

In the absence of organic material, deciphering the activitiescarried out on-site rests solely on information derived from thetechno-functional analysis of the lithic material. A wide range of

AAB AA B C D E F

D.A.O L.Quesnel (UMR 6566 CReAAH du C.N.R.S)

6

5

4

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

3

2

1

-1

AE CADAFA AAB AA B C D E F

D.A.O L.Quesnel (UMR 6566 CReAAH du C.N.R.S)

6

5

4

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

3

2

1

-1

AE CADAFA

Chips density

0 - 20

21 - 100

101 - 300

301 - 600

601 - 1000

1000 - 1400

Core

1 m

Fig. 7. Differential distribution of small flakes (i.e. <1 cm) and cores.

N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189 185

activities were carried out at La Fosse, ranging from the productionof blanks for stone tools to hunting related activities and domestictasks dominated by hide-working and the production of leatherobjects. These diverse activities implicate sophisticated technicalknowledge and would imply the presence of specialists experi-enced in several technical domains. The identification of a widerange of activities and poor quality debitage sequences producedby apprentice knappers also suggests the presence of an extendedgroup at La Fosse (men, women, and children).

In terms of occupation duration, besides the substantial quan-tity of documented artifacts, several additional lines of evidenceargue in favor of a long-term occupation: (a) the spatial analysisdemonstrating habitation structures and the cleaning of livingfloors and (b) the techno-functional study, which revealed evi-dence for significant and repeated incidences of tool curation.

The combination of (1) a wide range of activities, (2) an extendedgroup, and (3) a long-term occupation all argue for La Fosse beinga large residential site.

An aggregation site integrated within a predominantlylogistically organized mobility system

Information concerning site function and the socio-economicorganization of Lateglacial hunter-gatherers is extremely unequalfor northwestern Europe. The available data nevertheless suggestsan increasing number of specialized sites. This contrasts with whatis known from the archaeological record of the preceding Allerødinterstadial, leading some to suggest an increase in logisticalmobility towards the end of the Younger Dryas and the very

1

2

3

4

5

6

7 89

10

11

1213

1415 16

1718

19

Groupe 1: activities essentially oriented around the production and export of long blades

Groupe 2: small sites with evidence for various activities

Groupe 2’: small sites with evidence for various activitiesincluding the production and export of long blades

Groupe 3: large sites with diversified activities

1: La Vigie Romaine (Sicard-Marchand et al., 2004) 2: La Cadiais (Blanchet, 2000)

3: La Fosse4: La Guichaumerie (Naudinot, 2010)5: Le Camp d’Auvours (Naudinot, 2010)6: Les Blanchères (Valentin, 1995)

7: Le Buhot (Biard et Hinguant, 2011)8: Les Diguets (Biard, 2010)9: Alizay (Biard, 2013) 10: Les Coteaux de la Jonchère (Teyssandier, 2000)11: La Fouillotte (Valentin, 1995)12: Hangest-sur-Somme (Fagnart, 1997)

13: Belloy-sur-Somme (Fagnart, 1997)14: Avington (Barton et Froom, 1986)15: Gatehampton Farm (Allen, 1996)16: Three Ways Wharf (Lewis et Rackham, 2011)17: Launde (Cooper, 2006)18: Titchwell (Wymer et Robins, 1994)

19: Sproughton (Wymer, 1976)

Fig. 8. Classification of several sites from the Younger Dryas-Preboreal transition in northern France and southern England according to the model developed in this article.(See above-mentioned references for further information.)

1 Biard and Hinguant (2011).2 Teyssandier (2000).

186 N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

beginning of the Preboreal (Valentin, 2008; Naudinot, 2010, 2013;Bodu et al., 2011). In our view, three site types portraying differentsocio-economic characteristics can be distinguished:

– The first type sites (type 1) are located directly on high-qualityflint sources and lack dwelling structures (Fig. 8). Most of thesesites only contain a succession of knapping areas, withretouched tools and projectile points being extremely rare ifnot absent. They are considered as large blade production sitesoccupied by specialists. Blades produced on these sites areessentially intended to be exported. With that said, a few largeblades have occasionally been introduced to the site and severalblades seem to have been used on these production sites (Boduand Valentin, 1992; Fagnart, 1997; Valentin, 2008). The fewlarge blades that have been examined for use-wear show tracesreferable to butchery (Fagnart and Plisson, 1997). It has beensuggested that these production sites were probably occupiedby specialists and situated in close proximity to huntinggrounds where stone knives were used (Valentin, 2008). Thislikelihood is corroborated by the presence of rare faunalremains on several sites. We propose to save the use of the term‘‘belloisian’’ only for this site type.

– The second type sites (type 2) are associated with lithic assem-blages containing numerous diverse tool types indicative of awider range of activities than those identified on the first type.This type of site was probably occupied by a larger group thatincluded men, women and children (Fig. 8). The majority ofsites currently known from Western France belong to this cate-gory. On these sites, debitage was not systematically geared

around the production of large laminar blanks, but includedequally regular and standardized shorter blades. The variabilityof these end-products is without doubt linked to raw materialavailability and sites’ function. This site type most likelysubsumes a substantial variety of occupations with differenteconomic roles. Unfortunately, the often non-exhaustive exca-vation of these sites, coupled with the absence of use-wearanalyses and the lack of organic remains, currently precludesidentifying their exact functions. Nevertheless, several sitesstand out within this second category such as Buhot at Callevillein the Eure1 and Les Coteaux de la Jonchère at Rueil-Malmaisonin Hauts de Seine2 (Fig. 8). Much like the type 1 sites, they arelocated on sources of high-quality raw materials and have pro-duced diverse assemblages associated with the production oflarge blades. The only site subject to a use-wear analysis (LeBuhot) has provided evidence for specialized activities connectedto the initial processing of game (Jacquier, in press). Large bladessimilar to those produced on the type 1 sites had a central role inthese activities. Although indications of other activities have beenidentified at these sites, they seem to play a secondary role.

– The third type sites (Fig. 8) combine an exceptional quantity ofmaterial, a less important focus on blade length and a highnumber of retouched tools and projectile elements. The evi-dences from Le Fosse indicate it to belong to this final sitecategory.

1 2

3 4

EPI-LABORIAN

EPI-AHRENSBOURGIAN

7 8

5 6

La Fosse

Fig. 9. Projectile points portraying various cultural influences. 1: Tanged point (La Fosse, Naudinot, 2013); 2: Zonhoven point (La Fosse); 3: Blanchères point (La Fosse, ibid.);4: Bitruncated trapezoid (La Fosse, ibid.); 5: Tanged point (Oudehaske, Johansen and Stapert, 1998); 6: Zonhoven point (Gramsbergen, ibid.); 7: Blanchères point (La Borie delRey, Langlais et al., in press); 8: Bitruncated trapezoid (La Borie del Rey ibid.) (Map compiled by S. Grimm (http://web.rgzm.de/late-glacial-nw-europe.html) after Weaveret al., 2003; Björck, 1995; Lundqvist and Wohlfarth, 2001; Boulton et al., 2001; Ivy-Ochs et al., 2006; Clark et al., 2004).

N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189 187

These three site types articulate within a settlement modelwhereby the type 1 sites correspond to task-specific activities cen-tered around the production of large blades designed to beexported. However, some of these tools may occasionally havebeen used in the initial processing of large-bodied prey hunted inthe vicinity of the site, but consumed elsewhere (Valentin, 2008).Forays of this type would have involved small groups of specialistsoperating out of type 2 or 3 sites. The composition of the groupswho occupied type 2 sites seems to be more inclusive given the rel-ative diversity of activities carried out on these sites. These occupa-tions nevertheless remain modestly sized and may suggest thesesites to represent the traces of a family unit. For certain sites, suchas Le Buhot, this possibility, combined with evidence for special-ized activities focused on the initial processing of carcasses, mayalso represent the installation of family units on a kill-site. In thiscase, the At certain times of the year, occupants of type 1 and 2sites might regroup at a type 3 site such as La Fosse. In such amodel, these type 3 occupations would represent aggregation sites.

The greater part of ethnographic work dedicated to the study ofhunter-gatherer groups demonstrates episodes of aggregation tobe particularly common (Damas, 1969; Lee, 1979; Conkey, 1980;Hayden, 1993; Hofman, 1994; Kelly, 2007). All of these researchersemphasize the inherent variability of aggregations (duration, com-position, activities, cycles, etc.) and their underlying motivation(economic and/or social). Moreover, these meetings are not

necessarily planned in advance and may arise fortuitously, espe-cially in cases were a predictable, concentrated or seasonalresource is concerned. The location of such meetings may thereforehave been determined by particular ecological conditions such asthose presented by the large meander of La Fosse. The arrival ofgroups from different regions is also illustrated by the petrographicsignal identified amongst the La Fosse raw materials. Unmodifiedor prepared flint nodules imported to the site are in fact highlydiversified, collected from northern, southern, and eastern out-crops sometimes separated by several hundred kilometers.

A final phenomenon alone suggests the presence of individualsbearing stylistic and/or technical ideas that are particularly reveal-ing in terms of different geographic traditions. Typical Epi-Laborianprojectile points from western and southwestern France wererecovered at La Fosse alongside more western Ahrensburgian/Epi-Ahrensburgian examples (Fig. 9). These moments of groupfusion would have presented ideal occasions for exchanging ideasacquired during dispersion phases that incorporated contacts withother cultural groups. This idea and those presented above are fullyconsistent with the large majority of criteria shared by historicand modern hunter-gatherer aggregation sites as discussed byM. Conkey:

‘‘larger group size and its relationship to the spatial extent ofthe occupation; (2) seasonal occupation that may or may nothave been repeated, the duration of which may be congruent

188 N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189

with the length of the ‘‘harvesting’’ season; (3) site structuring(how the different activities were carried out); (4) mainte-nance of relevant site features; (5) a greater total range ofactivities than at any one other (presumably dispersion) site;(6) at least some activities different from those that took placeat smaller, presumably dispersion sites; (7) ecological factorsthat may have prompted or contributed to the aggregation;and (8) a ‘‘mixture’’ of regional personnel.’’ (Conkey, 1980:p. 612).

Conclusion

The discovery of La Fosse has left a profound mark on researchconcerning Lateglacial societies in Western France; the favorablepreservation conditions of the occupation level and a particularlyhomogenous lithic industry have added precision to what had beena somewhat uncertain chrono-cultural framework (Naudinot,2010, 2013). The combined technological and functional analysisof the lithic industry has also brought to light essential new infor-mation for our understanding of techno-economic changes at theend of the Lateglacial. It also allowed highlighting the emergenceof transverse arrowheads as trapezoid bitruncatures for the firsttime of Western Europe prehistory (ibid.).

An integrated techno-functional analysis focused on a numberof common lines of inquiry combined with a detailed spatial anal-ysis of the material has also made it possible to make headway inthe palethnological study of the site despite the absence of organicremains. It was possible to address questions concerning the activ-ities carried out on-site, the social composition of the group andthe duration of the occupation. Investigating these differentparameters ultimately allowed us to discuss the site’s socio-eco-nomic status. This large residential site may have been inhabitedover a significant period of time by groups who broke into smallerunits at different times of the year. During this time, they wouldhave circulated over a vast territory and come into contact withgroups bearing different cultural traditions.

The site of La Fosse was also considered in its much larger con-text in order to investigate the socio-economic organization ofnorthern European Lateglacial societies during the Pleistocene-Holocene transition. It is generally agreed that this period wit-nessed profound alterations in socio-economic strategies, espe-cially in terms of mobility, when compared with the precedingAzilian. A pattern further illustrated by the resurgence of task-spe-cific sites during the second half of the Younger Dryas (Valentin,2008; Naudinot, 2010, 2013; Bodu et al., 2011). The combinationof evidence discussed above supports La Fosse being a Lateglacialaggregation site integrated within a complex, logistically-orga-nized mobility system connecting complementary sites in a vastsocio-cultural network.

These especially promising results present numerous researchperspectives, including the necessity of investigating new sites byapplying the same techno-functional approach. In regions whichdo preserve organic remains, the integration of zooarcheologicalanalyses will undoubtedly bring indispensable new elements tothe discussion, while at the same time uncovering new questions.The creation of an international research project drawingtogether researchers interested in addressing socio-economicchanges associated with these hunter-gatherer groups from theYounger Dryas-Holocene transition in Western Europe is incourse and will further progress this research dynamic that isalready well underway. Finally, evaluating the impact of the per-iod’s substantially changeable environmental conditions on thecomplex interactions underlying the general socio-economictransformations of these societies should become a researchpriority.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank the Regional Archaeology Service of thePays de la Loire for their support and interest in our research dur-ing the five years of excavations. We are also grateful to BernardBodinier for having contacted us following his discovery of the siteand for his help during excavations. Finally, thanks go to our col-leagues at the UMR 6566 CReAAH and 7264 CEPAM CNRS for theirvarious contributions to this project, to Brad Gravina for the trans-lation of this article, and to the anonymous reviewers whose com-ments helped to improve this paper.

References

Allen, T.G., 1996. Lithics and Landscape: Archaeological Discoveries on the ThamesWater Pipeline at Gatehampton Farm, Goring, Oxfordshire 1985–92 – ThamesValley Landscapes Monograph S. No. 7 (Paperback).

Barton, R.N.E., 1986. Experiments with long blades from Spoughton, near Ispwich,Suffolk. In: Roe, D.A. (Dir.), Studies in the Upper Paleolithic of Britain andNorthwest Europe. BAR International Series 296, pp. 129–141.

Barton, R.N.E., Froom, F.R., 1986. The long blade assemblage from Avington VI,Berkshire. In: Collcutt, S.N. (Ed.), The Palaeolithic of Britain and its NearestNeighbours: Recent Trends, Sheffield, University of Sheffield Department ofArchaeology and Prehistory, pp. 80–84.

Biard, M., 2010. Aquigny, Eure, Les Diguets, La Noé. Les tailleurs de lames del’extrême fin du paléolithique supérieur : Deux derniers locus, Rapportd’opération préventive INRAP.

Biard, M., 2013. Une chasse à l’aurochs attribuée à l’extreme fin du Paléolithiquesupérieur en basse vallée de la Seine à Alizay (Eure). In: Valentin, B. (Dir.),Rapport d’activité PCR Paléolithique final et Mésolithique dans le Bassinparisien et ses marges : Habitat, societies et environnements, pp. 189–193.

Biard, M., Hinguant, S., 2011. Le bivouac préhistorique du Buhot à Calleville (Eure),Recherches archéologiques, CNRS editions.

Björck, S., 1995. Late Weichselian to early Holocene development of the Baltic Sea -with implications for the coastal settlements in the southern Baltic region. In:Fischer, A. (Ed.), Man and Sea in the Mesolithic. Coastal settlement above andbelow present sea level. Proceedings of the International SymposiumKalundborg, Denmark 1993, Oxford, pp. 23–34.

Blanchet, S., 2000. Contribution à l’étude de l’Épipaléolithique et du Mésolithiquedans la vallée de la moyenne Vilaine: Rapport de synthèse, Sondages etprospection thématique (Programme 10), service régional de l’archéologie deBretagne, Rennes.

Bodu, P., Valentin, B., 1992. Donnemarie-Dontilly, la Fouillotte, Direction desantiquités d’Ile-de-France.

Bodu, P., Valentin, B., 1997. Groupes à Federmesser ou aziliens dans le Sud et l’Ouestdu Bassin parisien. Proposition pour un nouveau modèle d’évolution. Bull.Société Préhistorique Française 94 (3), 341–347.

Bodu, P., Olive, M., Valentin, B., Bignon-Lau, O., Debout, G., 2011. Où sont les haltesde chasse? Discussion à partir des sites tardiglaciaires du Bassin parisien. In:Bon, F., Costamagno, S., Valdeyron, N. (Dir.), Haltes de chasse en Préhistoire.Quelles réalités archéologiques ?, Actes du colloque international du 13 au 15mai 2009, université Toulouse II - Le Mirail, P@lethnologie, 3, pp. 231–252.

Bohmers, A., Wouters, A., 1962. Belangrijke Vonsteen van de Ahrensburg cultuur inde Gemente Geldrop. Brabants Heem 14, 3–20.

Boulton, G.S., Dongelmans, P., Punkari, M., Broadgate, M., 2001. Palaeoglaciology ofan ice sheet through a glacial cycle: the European ice sheet through theWeichselian. Quatern. Sci. Rev. 20, 591–625.

Célérier, G., 1994. L’abri sous roche de Pont d’Ambon à Bourdeilles (Dordogne).Gallia Préhistoire 36, 65–144.

Célérier, G., 1998. L’abri sous roche du Pont d’Ambon à Bourdeilles (Dordogne,France). Perspectives synthétiques. Paléo 10, 233–264.

Chollet, A., Dujardin, V., 2005. La grotte du Bois-Ragot à Gouex (Vienne),Magdalénien et Azilien, essais sur les hommes et leur environnement,Mémoire de la Société préhistorique française, 38.

Clark, C.D., Evans, D.J.A., Khatwa, A., Bradwell, T., Jordan, C.J., Marsh, S.H., Mitchell,W.A., Bateman, M.D., 2004. Map and GIS database of glacial landforms andfeatures related to the last British Ice Sheet. Boreas 33, 359–375.

Conkey, M.W., 1980. The identification of prehistoric hunter-gatherer aggregationsites: the case of Altamira. Curr. Anthropol. 21 (5), 609–630.

Cooper, L.P., 2006. Launde, a terminal Palaeolithic camp-site in the EnglishMidlands and its North European context. Proc. Prehist. Soc. 72, 53–93.

Damas, D., 1969. The Diversity of Eskimo Societies. In: Lee, R.B., Devore, I. (Eds.),Man the Hunter: the First Intensive Survey of a Single, Crucial Stage of HumanDevelopment-man’s Once Universal Hunting Way of Life. Aldine de Gruyter,New York, pp. 111–117.

Fagnart, J.-P., 1988. Les industries lithiques du Paléolithique supérieur dans le Nordde la France, numéro spécial de la Revue archéologique de Picardie.

Fagnart, J.-P., 1997. La fin des temps glaciaires dans le Nord de la France. Approchearchéologique et environnementale des occupations humaines duTardiglaciaire, Mémoires de la Société Préhistorique Française 24.

Fagnart, J.-P., 2009. Les industries à grandes lames et éléments mâchurés duPaléolithique final du Nord de la France : une spécialisation fonctionnelle des

N. Naudinot, J. Jacquier / Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 35 (2014) 177–189 189

sites Épiahrensbourgiens. In: Crombé, P., Van-Strydonck, M., Sergant, J., Boudin,M., Bats, M. (Eds.), Chronology and Evolution within the Mesolithic of North-West Europe: Proceedings of an International Meeting, Brussels, May 30th–June1st 2007. Cambridge Scholars Publishing, Brussels, pp. 39–56.

Fagnart, J.-P., Plisson, H., 1997. Fonction de pièces mâchurées du paléolithique finaldu Bassin de la Somme : caractères tracéologiques et données contextuelles. In:Fagnart, J.-P., Thévenin, A. (Eds.), Le Tardiglaciaire en Europe du Nord-Ouest.Actes du 119e congrès national des sociétés historiques et scientifiques(Amiens, 1994), pp. 95–106.

Fischer, A., Vemming, Hansen P., Rasmussen, P., 1984. Macro and micro wear traceson lithic projectile points. Experimental results and prehistoric examples. J.Dan. Archaeol. 3, 19–46.

Froom R., 2005. Late Glacial Long Blade Sites in the Kennet Valley: Excavations AndFieldwork at Avington VI, Wawcott XII And Crown Acres, Bloomsbury Press,British Museum Research Publication, London.

Guiria, E.Y., Leon, A.R., 2002. S. A. Semenov, Kostenki, Paleolitovedenie,Arkheologicheskie vesti, vol. 9, pp. 173–190.

Hayden, B., 1993. Archaeology, The science of once and future things. Freeman, NewYork.

Hofman, J.L., 1994. Paleoindian aggregations on the great plains. J. Anthropol.Archaeol. 13, 347–370.

Ivy-Ochs, S., Kerschner, H., Kubik, P.W., Schlüchter, C., 2006. Glacier response in theEuropean Alps to Heinrich Event 1 cooling: the Gschnitz stadial. J. Quat. Sci. 21,115–130.

Jacquier, J., 2014. Analyse fonctionnelle des outillages lithiques et interprétationssocio-économique du statut des sites tardiglaciaires du Buhot à Calleville (Eure)et de la Fosse à Villiers-Charlemagne (Mayenne). In: Langlais, M., Naudinot, N.,Peresani, M., (coord.), Les sociétés de l’Allerød et du Dryas récent entreAtlantique et Méditerranée, Séance de la Société Préhistorique Française,(Bordeaux, 24–25 mai 2012), Mémoire de la société préhistorique française,pp. 221–246.

Jacquier, J., in press. A specialized occupation despite appearances. Function of theBuhot late glacial site (Calleville, North-western France). In: Bicho, N., Gibaja,J.-F., Marreiros, J., (coord.), Use-Wear 2012, International conference on Use-Wearanalysis, (Faro, Portugal, 10–12 october, 2012), Cambridge Schools Publishing.

Jacquier, in preparation. Fonctions et gestions des outillages lithiques chez lesgroupes humains de la transition Pléistocène-Holocène dans le Nord-Ouest dela France, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Rennes 1.

Johansen, L., Stapert, D., 1998. Two «Epi-ahrensbourgian» sites in the northernNetherlands: Oudehaske (Friesland) and Gramsbergen (Overijssel).Paleohistoria 39–40, 1–87.

Kelly, R.L., 2007. The Foraging Spectrum: Diversity in Hunter-Gatherer Lifeways.Percherron Press, New York.

Langlais, M., Detrain, L., Ferrie, J.-G., Boudadi-Maligne, M., Mallye, J.-B.,Marquebielle, B., Rigaud, S., Bonnet-Jacquement, P., Fat Cheung, C., Naudinot,N., Valdeyron, N., Turq, A., in press. Réévaluation d’une série éponyme etperspectives pour le Laborien du sud-ouest, In: Langlais, M., Naudinot, N.,Peresani, M. (coord.), Les sociétés de l’Allerød et du Dryas récent entreAtlantique et Méditerranée, Séance de la Société Préhistorique Française,(Bordeaux, 24-25 mai 2012).

Lee, R.B., 1979. The !Kung San: Men, Women and Work in a Foraging Society.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Lewis, J., Rackham, J., 2011. Three Ways Wharf, Uxbridge, Museum of LondonArchaeology.

Lundqvist, J., Wohlfarth, B., 2001. Timing and east-west correlation of southSwedish ice marginal lines during the Late Weichselian. Quatern. Sci. Rev. 20,1127–1148.

Marchand, G., Blanchet, S., Chevalier, G., Gallais, J.-Y., Le Goffic, M., Naudinot, N.,Yven, E., 2004. La fin du Tardiglaciaire sur le Massif armoricain: territoires etcultures matérielles. Paléo 16, 137–170.

Mevel, L., 2011. Des sociétés en mouvement: Nouvelles données sur l’évolution descomportements techno-économiques des sociétés magdaléniennes etaziliennes des Alpes du nord française (14000–11000 BP), DoctoralDissertation, University of Paris Ouest Nanterre La Defense.

Naudinot, N., 2008. Lithic weapon elements in Western France (Brittany and Paysde la Loire) during the late glacial period: a proposed chrono-culturalorganization, In: Pétillon, J.-M., Dias-Meirinho, M.-H., Cattelain, P., Honegger,M., Normand, C., Valdeyron, N. (coord.), Projectile weapon elements from theupper Paleolithic to the Neolithic (Proceedings of session C83, XVth WorldCongress UISPP, Lisbon, September 4–9, 2006), Palethonologie, t. 1, pp. 241–268.

Naudinot, N., 2010. Dynamiques techno économiques et de peuplement auTardiglaciaire dans l’Ouest, Doctoral Dissertation, University of Rennes 1.

Naudinot, N., 2013. La fin du Tardiglaciaire dans le Nord-Ouest de la France et laquestion d’un techno-complexe post-azilien paneuropéen. Bull. SociétéPréhistorique Française 110 (2), 233–255.

Naudinot, N., Jacquier, J., 2009. Un site tardiglaciaire en place à la Fosse (Villiers-Charlemagne, Mayenne): premiers résultats et implications chrono-culturelles.Bull. Société Préhistorique Française 106 (1), 145–158.

Naudinot, N., Jacquier, J., 2013. Le site Paléolithique final de la Fosse (Mayenne):Approche palethnologique d’une occupation de la transition Pléistocène-Holocène sur les bords de la Mayenne, Rapport final d’opération, ServiceRégional de l’Archéologie des Pays de la Loire.

O’Farell, M., 2004. Approche fonctionnelle des pointes de la Gravette de Corbiac(Dordogne, France): fonction du site et modes de chasse. In: Bodu, P.,Constantin, C. (Eds.), Approches fonctionnelles en Préhistoire. Actes duXXVème Congrès Préhistorique de France, Nanterre 24–26 novembre 2000.Mémoire de la Société Préhistorique Française, pp. 121–138.

Pasty, J.-F., Alix, Ph., Ballut, C., 2002. Le gisement épipaléolithique à pointes deMalaurie de Champ-Chalatras (Les Martres d’Artière, Puy-de-Dôme). Paléo 14,101–176.

Sicard-Marchand, S., Rouzeau, M.-H., Rouzeau, M., 2004. ‘‘La Vigie Romaine’’ un sitede la fin du Paléolithique supérieur sur la côte sauvage du Croisic (Loire-Atlantique). Revue archéologique l’ouest 21, 5–17.

Teyssandier, N., 2000. Un gisement belloisien sur les bords de la Seine : le Closeau àRueil-Malmaison (Hauts-de-Seine). Bull. Société Préhistorique Française 97 (2),211–228.

Valentin, B., 1995. Les groupes humains et leurs traditions au Tardiglaciaire dans leBassin parisien. Apports de la technologie lithique comparée, DoctoralDissertation, University of Paris 1.

Valentin, B., 2008. Jalons pour une paléohistoire des derniers chasseurs, (XIV-VIemillénaire avant J.-C.), publications de la Sorbonne, Paris.

Valentin, B., Weber, M.-J., Bodu, P., 2013. Révision des méthodes de taille sur le sitebelloisien de Donnemarie-Dontilly (Seine-et-Marne, France). Nouveaux élémentsde comparaison. Rapport du PCR « Paléolithique final et Mésolithique dans leBassin parisien et ses marges: habitats, sociétés et environnements ».

Vermeersch, P.-M., 2008. La transition Ahrensbourgien-Mésolithique ancien enCampine belge et dans le sud sableux des Pays-Bas. In: Fagnart, J.-P., Thévenin,A., Ducrocq, T., Souffi, B., Coudret, P. (Dir.), Le début du Mésolithique en Europedu Nord-Ouest, Actes de la table ronde d’Amiens (9 et 10 octobre, 2004), Paris,Société préhistorique française, (Mémoire 45), pp. 11–29.

Weaver, A.J., Saenko, O.A., Clark, P.U., Mitrovica, J.X., 2003. Meltwater pulse 1A fromAntarctica as a trigger of the Bølling-Allerød warm interval. Science 299, 1709–1713.

Wymer, J.J., 1976. A long blade industry from Sproughton, Suffolk. East AnglianArchaeol. 3, 1–10.

Wymer, J.J., Robins, P.A., 1994. A long blade flint industry beneath boreal peat atTitchwell, Norfolk. Norfolk Archaeol. 42, 13–37.

Zilhao, J., 1997. O Paleolitico superior da Estramadura portuguesa, Lisboa, EdiçõesColibri.