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Soul and Spirit of Elixir-Alchemy
The systems which confront the intelligence remain basically unchanged
throughout the ages, although they assume different forms …
there is nothing so disastrous in science as the arrogant dogmatism
which despises the past and admires nothing but the present.
Ferdinand Hoefer
It is natural but somewhat incorrect to approach an understanding of
early alchemy by examining the subject through the lens of modern
perspective. By placing ourselves inasmuch as is possible into the culture,
history and philosophy of the environment from which alchemical
traditions emerged, we can gain unique insight into elixir‐alchemy’s
meaning, motivation and language. When approaching the subject from
the mindset of a time‐traveler one thing becomes evident, philosophical
and religious motivation was far more prevalent in the past than the
prime motivating factors of production and profit that motivate
contemporary research and discovery. Alchemy originated in the ancient
past and advanced in tune with the religious, philosophical and cultural
values of the day.
As soon as primitive man began to quest for knowledge, initiatic spiritual
practices arose and along with them, an early relationship between
spirituality and the use of substances to attain health, insight, longevity
and immortality. In the Eastern tradition of alchemy, these substances
took the form of elixirs; the earliest of which were calcined metals, (or
metal‐ash, types of rust in simple terms) and later mercury‐based
compounds. Alchemy addressed the manipulation of minerals, metals
and above all gold, while seeking meaning in everything they represented
in the natural world. Alchemists intuitively realized the importance of
J. ERIK LAPORT
xiv
minerals to health and longevity, reinforcing this stance through
experiment, observation and direct experience. They ascribed the most
value to gold, the King of Metals, due to its incorruptible and enduring
nature.
Gold’s indestructibility and immortal character, combined with its
characteristic incorruptibility defined its potential as the basis for the
ultimate elixir. To an elixir‐alchemist however, due to its inert character,
metallic gold contained a very weak life‐essence. Indian and Chinese
alchemists discovered methods by which they believed infused gold with
life‐essence, animating soul‐spirit. A donor was needed that would
transplant life‐essence into the perfect body of gold thus transforming
gold into an elixir. The catalyst, generally but not always crimson in color,
was originally sourced from the plant kingdom and later from the mineral
kingdom. Finding a catalyst did not present much of a challenge as early
Indian and Chinese experimenters were intimately familiar with every
leaf, fruit, root and bark in their immediate environment imbued with
therapeutic potential. They believed that the resulting gold elixirs
contained a perfect combination of living and immortal properties. The
indicator that gold had been fused successfully and inextricably with life‐
essence was a resulting heavy yet extremely fine crimson colored ash or
powder. The hard metallic nature of gold had been replaced with soft
yielding one. Metallic gold’s color had been magically transformed from
lustrous golden to crimson blood red and consequently the gold‐elixir
was believed to be alive.
Defining alchemy has always proven problematic. The enthusiast, elixir‐
alchemist, historian of chemistry and spiritual seeker will all offer
different definitions of alchemy. Elixir‐alchemy is a term used in this
treatment to indicate traditions of alchemy specifically concerned with
creating bio‐available mineral/metal medications with an emphasis on
gold as an ingestible substance. In Eastern medical traditions, pharmacy
has historically been divided into two branches – 1) curative, and 2)
INTRODUCTION
xv
rejuvenative (Indian) or tonifying (Chinese). It may initially appear as
though elixir‐alchemy from the various traditions is each unique, distinct
and quite separate, but they all share commonalities arising from
complex cultural intercourse and shared philosophical currents. The basis
and common denominator for any form of elixir‐alchemy was the idea of
an animating spirit, organic life‐essence bound with or impregnated into
an inorganic alchemical substance, usually a metal. This animating spirit
and / or soul were accepted as the source of life and growth. If elixir‐
alchemy is defined by the attempt to infuse animating spirit, soul or life‐
essence into calcined metals, then India may rightly claim the most
ancient tradition of alchemy. If however, as is believed by alchemists
known as mercurialists, elixir alchemy is defined by the introduction of
sulfur and mercury to create alchemical substances, China lays claim to
the most ancient mercurialist alchemical tradition.
Originally, humans experimented with herbs, plants and other organic
matter to affect health, but it turned out that herbal preparations served
best to maintain health or restore balance once a person’s health began
to fail. Initiated spiritual practitioners also discovered that certain plants
and fungi could engender profound non‐ordinary states of
consciousness. The origins of the healer and shaman stem from such
early experimentation and discovery in the vegetable kingdom. Although
the plant kingdom did supply the means to maintain health and afford
the potential for spiritual insight using visionary plants, florae alone
offered very little in the search for longevity and immortality. It took a
new class of seeker to explore the potential for these in the mineral
kingdom ‐ the elixir‐alchemist.
Alchemically speaking, plants served as a source of life‐essence but were
too short lived to donate properties of longevity and immortality. Yet,
these properties were abundant and available in the mineral kingdom.
As early man discovered minerals and metals, he developed the
technology to manipulate and ultimately calcine them to a soft ashy
J. ERIK LAPORT
xvi
powder through simple open‐calcination or by the use of various plant
extracts and juices. The metal powder contained the life‐essence of the
plant, which made it alive and more herbal than metal from the
alchemical perspective. In ancient India, this technology attained a high
degree of sophistication; processes of which have changed very little and
are still in practice today. India’s surviving tradition of elixir‐alchemy
offers a unique window into the past, allowing researchers to analyze
elixirs and test their efficacy alongside modern pharmaceutical
counterparts. As we will discover, in many ways surviving traditional gold‐
elixirs have proven equal to, or far superior in side‐by‐side studies.
Later along the timeline of elixir‐alchemy, the Chinese discovered and
became fascinated by a beautiful red crystal known as cinnabar, which
upon heating, reduced to liquid mercury and dry sulfur. This was an
important discovery. The uses for cinnabar within the realm of calcined‐
metals and specifically gold‐based elixirs offered many new possibilities.
The introduction of mercury and sulfur to alchemy would ripple through
every alchemical tradition throughout history in some form or another.
Alchemists saw profound potential for change in calcined metals,
mercury, sulfur and most importantly gold. To grasp a true understanding
of elixir‐alchemy’s theory and technology, it is necessary to approach the
subject from two perspectives ‐ philosophical and technological. The
philosophical frame of reference had a profound influence on
technological advances in elixir‐alchemy traditions. The primary
philosophical or spiritual influences were first Animism followed later by
Dualism and Dialectics.
INTRODUCTION
xvii
Animism & Calcined Elixirs
Merriam‐Webster Dictionary definition of animism: an‐i‐mism, noun
1. : a doctrine that the vital principle of organic development is
immaterial spirit
2. : attribution of conscious life to objects in and phenomena of nature
or inanimate objects
3. : belief in the existence of [animating] spirit separable from bodies
In addition;
"… the general doctrine of souls and other spiritual beings in general"
– Sir Edward Taylor, Anthropologist
Animism was man’s earliest attempt at understanding life and growth.
Anything alive contained inherent potential for growth. From the
perspective of alchemy, the Merriam‐Webster definition #1 above is
most applicable to this discussion. Origins of the animistic world‐view are
prehistoric, stemming from that terrifying and wonderful time in human
history when people knew how to live in harmony with their
environment. Tribal bands of hunter‐gatherers experienced direct
contact with the natural world and sensed a meaning and role in ongoing
partnership with the drama of life. Animals, plants, the landscape and
forces of nature all interacted with each other in a world where humans
were simply a part of nature, rather than separate from, superior to or
holding dominion over it. This world‐view afforded primitive man the
beatific experience of the mysterious. It was this profound experience of
the unknown, and the primal fear accompanying it, which prompted man
to question the nature of existence and his place in it.
Throughout human history, man has naturally contemplated the
possibility of an animating spirit or soul in animals, plants and people. An
early hunter observed a living animal full of vitality one minute, only to
lay dead at his feet the next; body still warm and apparently the same yet
J. ERIK LAPORT
xviii
completely devoid of life. He reasoned that invisible animating spirit, soul
or life‐essence was responsible for life and growth principles thus
departed. In some cases early man believed that animating spirit would
enter a new body stimulating a renewed growth process, whereas other
traditions held that animating spirit transmigrated from a dead body to a
new one, thus infusing it with a continuation of life and growth principles.
Animism has served as the foundation for many ancient philosophical
systems in both the Eastern and Western traditions. Most early
philosophical systems accepted the basis of Animism. Noted
anthropologist Sir Edward Taylor, responsible for the definition of
Animism currently accepted in anthropology, viewed all forms of religion,
both primitive and modern, as animistic. With the discovery of the DNA
molecule, modern science has vindicated the ancient spiritual animistic
world‐view insofar as organic matter is concerned in that all organic life
is an extended family billions of years old.
Primitive man did not limit the presence of life‐essence to merely the
animal and plant kingdoms. The life cycle of a plant is apparent to even
the most untrained eye. Conversely, alchemists observed crystals such as
salt seemingly growing from seawater or gold veins located in the
presence of cinnabar and other sulfur‐containing ore deposits. From this,
they formed a theory of organic geology in which minerals also were
understood to be alive and growing. Animism postulated that life‐
essence resided in any form of matter as a spark or fractal of the greater
collective spirit ‐ an interesting concept for primitive man and, in a
manner of speaking, scientifically accurate from a modern frame of
reference where we understand life‐essence to be energy in
transformation. Modern science has revealed that no matter is free from
energy and in fact, they are one and the same, yet somehow even more.
Even the Universe contains a life‐essence, obvious to primitive man in the
life‐giving power of the sun and the animation of heavenly bodies in the
night sky.
INTRODUCTION
xix
Life‐essence was hidden energy housed in the matter of a body
responsible for its growth, whether that body took the form of an animal,
plant or mineral. The difference between them was understood as being
related to strength or quality of life‐essence varying from one body to
another.
In Animism Soul and Body are really one, like steam and ice, or like
energy and matter, when one can change into another.
… And elsewhere,
Energy tends to expand but enclosed in matter forces the latter to grow
as much as it can. – Dr. S. Mahdihassan
Things that were more animated contained a stronger animating spirit
but usually a very weak body. Animals and plants fell into this category.
Minerals and metals however, contained very strong bodies housing very
weak, yet still present, life‐essence. The question then became whether
it was possible to remove a weak soul from a strong body such as gold,
and replace it with a strong life‐essence as a transplant derived from a
plant or animal.
Ancient Indians found a unique answer to this challenge in the form of
calcined minerals and metals. Renowned biochemist and alchemy
historian, Dr. S. Mahdihassan wrote at length on the subject and
employed a useful tool in the form of simple equation format to aid
understanding the basic principles of elixir‐alchemy, which I have
adopted throughout this treatise. According to Mahdihassan, the simple
equation for the creation of an alchemical calcined organometallic elixir
as follows:
Metal = Strong Body + Weak Life‐Essence
Plant = Weak Body + Strong Life‐Essence
Elixir = Metal Body + Plant Life‐Essence
J. ERIK LAPORT
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The Indian alchemist‐physician began with minerals and metals and
attempted to infuse a stronger, more vibrant life‐essence into them. This
process is the very bedrock on which the foundations of Indian elixir‐
alchemy were first laid. Once the process was complete, the mineral or
metal had changed color and was no longer hard or brittle but rather a
soft, extremely fine and subtle powder. Since the soft and yielding was
associated with life and the hard and brittle with death, the soft, fine
powdery texture of the calcined metal was clear evidence that life‐
essence of the organic donor had successfully been transplanted and
conjoined with the mineral or metal body. The new substance contained
a fresh union of incorruptible body infused with vibrant life‐essence. The
result was viewed as a living elixir with the potential to transfer its
properties to a subject in the form of increased and emergent life‐
essence and longevity.
Animistic belief systems hold that one’s life‐essence, soul or animating
spirit survives the body’s death. This view is paralleled in the process of
creating alchemical elixirs. In somewhat simplistic terms, the method of
calcining metals can be understood as a form of reincarnation in that the
alchemist was causing the transmigration of the plant’s soul away from
its dead body and into a new metallic body, resulting in an improved new
substance. Transmigration of the soul was the animistic explanation for
birth. The process may also be seen as a form of resurrection, where the
body of the metal is first killed then given new life‐essence after its death,
resulting in an improved, purified and resurrected form as an elixir. In
either case, the alchemist believed he was simply replicating a natural
process to improve the raw starting materials. The calcined metal was
considered alive with the potential for growth, much like a seed.
Ingesting the elixir converted growth‐potential into the dynamic life‐
process in the body of the person ingesting it.
As a seed, the purified life‐essence originating from the organic matter
would engender more life and growth while the improved metallic body
INTRODUCTION
xxi
would transmit its incorruptibility, suppleness and longevity to the user.
Once ingested, such an elixir was believed to bring man to a state of
perfection. When cast upon a base metal, it was believed to transmute
the metal to the ultimate perfection of gold. Indian calcined‐metal elixirs
were considered organometallic, not because the product contained
both, but rather because of the raw materials used in the process. The
resulting elixir was not quite herbal nor was it metal either. It was viewed
as a unique new substance containing properties of both. Herbal and
organo‐mineral substances such as coral, pearls and shells of eggs or
marine‐life could be found occurring naturally, but organo‐metallic elixirs
could only be brought about artisanally by the skilled hand of an elixir‐
alchemist.
Blood - the Essence of Life
Life‐essence or soul was intimately associated with blood. Greek
philosophers such as Democritus contemplated whether the seat of the
soul was the brain or heart. Chinese philosophers made no distinction
between heart and mind whereas Indian traditions pay special
importance to several centers and especially the third eye. René
Descartes expanded the idea by identifying the pineal gland as the seat
of the soul. Early animists however, understood blood, milk and their
byproducts to be the carrier of life‐essence or soul in animals, and found
counterpart in the vegetable kingdom in plant extracts and juices. These
substances served as donors of life‐essence in the production of calcined
minerals and metals. The parallel between blood, juice and life‐essence
as understood by early animists can be grasped by the following
equations:
Life = Growth & Reproduction
Growth & Reproduction = Body + Animating Spirit (Life‐Essence)
Life‐Essence = Animal Blood = Plant Fruit Juice & Extracts
J. ERIK LAPORT
xxii
The Sanskrit word for life‐essence is Satva, which translates loosely as
vital breath. Satva has a very close parallel in the Chinese word Qi
(pronounced ‘chee’), which translates loosely as breath, air, energy or
vitality; in other words, animating spirit or life‐essence. In both traditions,
these concepts correlate to blood. For example, the juice or extract of a
plant, its blood, contains the largest concentration of the plant’s life‐
essence, or in today’s terms its bioactive substances.
According to Mahdihassan, Indian and Chinese alchemists would
eventually consider crimson or blood coloring in nature as an indicator of
strong life‐essence with the capacity to transfer or donate its life‐essence
to the user. They observed life‐essence, Satva or Qi in the plant kingdom
manifest as growth, flowering and fruiting. Plants were alive and growing
thus, they contained Satva or Qi as the active principle of growth. Red
plants or plants with red or heart‐shaped fruit, especially crimson ones,
were uniquely important as they indicated the most potential for
containing blood‐juice‐life‐essence. Fruit symbolized the final emanation
of life‐essence of the plant kingdom at its peak, therefore fruit juice was
considered very potent; all the more so if it was from crimson colored
fruit. The highest concentration of life‐giving nutrients is often found in
fruit and their juices, whereas many medicinal phytochemicals tend to be
concentrated in the roots, bark and leaves. To a modern chemist, plants
are a storehouse of unique phytochemicals and bioactive components. In
addition to the obvious presence of Satva and Qi in the animal and plant
kingdoms, indication of life‐essence could also be directly observed in the
mineral kingdom in the form of crimson or blood red colored minerals;
the most ancient of which was red‐ochre. An understanding of what red
ochre symbolized to early man will aid in an apperceiving how alchemists
viewed life‐essence as it pertains to the mineral kingdom.
INTRODUCTION
xxiii
Red Ochre - Blood of Mother Earth
Red ochre occurs naturally as the mineral hematite consisting of dry iron
oxide (Fe2O3), or in simple terms, pure dry rust. Something about ochre
must have fascinated prehistoric man, who utilized it for at least a million
years as a body‐adornment, to paint his cave walls, adorn his weapons,
employ in ancient funerary rites and later as an ingested medicine.
Crimson in color, red ochre was powerful magic to our ancient ancestors
and an appreciation of exactly what this magic signified is crucial to a
further understanding of the development of elixir‐alchemy. Paleolithic
man intuitively understood blood as correlating to vitality through the
inevitable combination of birth, injury and hunting. When birth brings
new life into the world, at the wounding of a hunter or prey and at a kill,
blood was present in abundance. Circulation meant life and to bleed
implied weakening and possible death. This would have been an easy
intuitive observation for early man witnessing the death of a wounded
hunter or his prey. Naturally, blood came to represent life‐essence or
soul. Ochre was revered by primitive man as Mother Earth’s blood and
soul and as such, it occupied a central role in Paleolithic life. Ochre came
to characterize or symbolize life‐essence of the earth manifested in art,
ceremony, personal adornment and funerary rites. It was present in
ancient African burial grounds, European Neanderthal sites, with China’s
Peking Man and is still a widely used pigment with native populations the
world over. It was the blood of the earth and its ritual use bound the life‐
essence of earth to that of man. It infused the earth’s soul into the art or
ceremony. Native populations still use ochre ceremonially and for
everyday adornment in India, the Middle East and Africa.
Prehistoric use of ochre as a medicine may have a scientific basis in that
blood, iron and oxygen are intimately related. Today we understand that
hemoglobin is an iron‐containing protein that facilitates transportation of
oxygen ultimately responsible for the crimson color of blood. In India,
ochre survives as a medical remedy for blood‐related ailments in the
J. ERIK LAPORT
xxiv
Unani (pronounced yunani) branch of medicine. Traditional Chinese
Medicine (TCM) still values ochre as a blood and liver tonic to counteract
iron deficiency. Because of this, ochre qualifies as one of the most
ancient, if not the most ancient, natural mineral‐metal elixirs to remain
in use throughout human history. Reverence for Ochre established that
the Earth also had a blood permeated with life‐essence. The notion of a
technique for removing life‐essence from a plant and transplanting it into
a metal such as gold was based on a hypothetical model derived from
Animism. However, once the process seemed to show all indications of
success, this observation confirmed the hypothetical model as a reality
to the alchemist. Indian, Chinese and Persian alchemist‐physicians’
processes worked, but not for the reasons they thought they did.
Alchemists would eventually replace Ochre with Cinnabar as their vitality‐
containing mineral of choice.
Modern research has revealed that the organic matter derived from
plants and animals to impart soul acted as a reducing agent, which
through a chemical reaction either broke down the metallic electron
bonds of gold or chemically reacted with it. Modern analysis has also
demonstrated that ancient Indian processes to create calcined gold
elixirs, called Bhasma or Kushta, resulted in medicinal dry gold
nanoparticles. This particle size is important because it makes gold
nanoparticles bio‐available in the digestive tract and thus effective when
taken orally. The most ancient form of gold‐elixir technology, calcined
gold as Indian Swarna Bhasma, was very likely the earliest gold nano‐
technology known to man. Indian elixir‐alchemists’ immensely important
contribution to alchemy was the discovery of fantastic low‐tech methods
to create a number of other calcined minerals and metals (metal‐salts,
metal‐ashes and nanoparticles) artisanally.
INTRODUCTION
xxv
Dualism & Mercurial Elixirs
Dualism addressed the inherent potential for reproduction. As primitive
people’s social structure evolved from Paleolithic hunting and gathering
to one of semi‐nomadic herding and Neolithic farming, so too did their
philosophical or spiritual frame of reference. Female gatherers, originally
relying on an incredibly varied number of species, realized they could
simply grow a somewhat restricted but more reliable crop to supply
nourishment. This marked the point where primitive man living in
partnership with nature, began his retreat from it resulting in the dualism
of humanity vs. nature in an attempt to dominate it. Life became more
sophisticated and thus his interpretation of existence and role within it
resulted in a dualistic view of reality. This perspecitve served as a model
to explain observed natural phenomena such as night/day, male/female,
sun/moon, hot/cold, dry/moist, young/old, sickness/health, etc. Dualism
seemed to provide an answer to the question of birth which animism
could not. Natural observations of the duality inherent in nature
ultimately resulted in a philosophical or spiritual frame of reference that
pervaded early civilizations and has continued till today. Although the
following may be criticized as oversimplification, matter‐energy, wave‐
particle, space‐time, energy‐momentum dualities illustrate a con‐
temporary scientific observation of dualism. Professor of Chemistry at
California State University, Dr. George B. Kauffman, in his series The Role
of Gold in Alchemy, borrows the Chinese term Tai‐chi to describe Dualism
explaining that:
The Tai‐chi, the first matter of the universe, is composed of yin and yang.
It is a 'mathematical model of the universe' and 'a fruitful conventional
representation of reality, as are the equations of physics and chemistry'.
Relativity theory, the binary system of computers, the proton and
electron, concepts of chemical valence and the wave‐particle nature of
light are modern illustrations of Tai‐chi. 'The organizing principle of Tai‐
J. ERIK LAPORT
xxvi
chi served very much the same function in Chinese culture and science
as has mathematics in Western science since the Renaissance'.
The simple concept of male and female principles provided the contrast
needed to distinguish reality and existence in a more sophisticated
philosophical manner. With the advent of agriculture, farmers came to
understand how to propagate plants and with animal husbandry came
the concept of breeding. It also answered the question of birth posed by
every small child who innocently asks their parents where babies come
from. The discovery that interdependent male and female life‐essences,
each with growth potential, upon uniting resulted in reproduction was a
philosophical step forward from animism.
Since we are approaching Dualism within the framework of the elixir‐
alchemy of China, India, Persia and the Islamic Empire, we must attempt
to understand Eastern Dualism relevant to this discussion. In the
naturalistic philosophies of the East, dualistic forces are seen as
complimentary rather than conflicting. In Eastern traditions, dualism
became a philosophy of reciprocal interaction witnessed ever‐present in
the natural world. Eastern Dualistic philosophies interpreted the
processes of nature as a self‐balancing act where seemingly opposite yet
co‐eternal binary principles are constantly in flux towards harmony and
balance.
Dualism provided a model where everything came into being through the
interaction of opposite yet complimentary forces and thus all of manifest
creation was recognized as being dual‐natured. It revealed the process of
birth; the requirements for coming into being and the interdependence
of dualistic forces in nature. With regards to elixir‐alchemy, Dualism
allowed for a quantum leap forward in both theory and practice by
allowing alchemists to understand organic bodies as being dualistic in
that they contained characteristics from both father and mother. If body
was dualistic, then animating spirit or life‐essence must also be dualistic.
INTRODUCTION
xxvii
It was from this perspective that the theoretical framework of dual‐soul,
so important to ancient philosophies and religions, was applied to elixir‐
alchemy.
Dual-Soul of Cinnabar
In ancient cultures, the shaman played a central role as spiritual advisor.
A fundamental aspect of shamanism is the spirit‐journey in which the
shaman’s spirit temporarily becomes disembodied making a spirit‐
journey to another dimension to seek guidance from his innate wisdom
and/or hyper‐dimensional spirit‐guides. Typically, visionary plant
substances were employed in order to achieve these states. In some
cases, the combination of rhythm, dance and ritual would suffice. In
other instances, this state may be brought on willfully through fasting,
prayer, meditation, sensory deprivation or any number of austerities. In
any case, the shaman would return from his spirit‐journey or trance
having experienced mystic ecstasy and a nonordinary state of
disembodied consciousness. The spirit‐world was as real to the shaman,
or possibly more so, as the conventional world was to non‐initiates in an
ordinary state of consciousness.
It was from moments of disembodied non‐ordinary states of
consciousness that the idea of Dual‐Soul emerged. The embodied‐soul,
connected to the body and its functions, stayed with the body and kept
it alive, while the spirit‐soul connected to consciousness took the spirit‐
journey. The ability to achieve a state of disembodied consciousness
while the body remained behind alive and functioning was best explained
by Dual‐Soul theory. In his book Indian Alchemy or Rasayana, Dr.
Mahdihassan describes the functions of the two sub‐souls in the Indian
tradition:
The male‐soul, or Yang‐soul is Spirit in English. It is responsible for life‐
span, the more of it, longer the life. Its synonym would be Growth‐Soul.
It is richest among plants and growth is nowhere so conspicuous as in
J. ERIK LAPORT
xxviii
the vegetable kingdom. The female‐soul, or Yin‐soul is merely Soul in
English, here called the Soul or Soul‐specific. It confers form, and
individuality, properties pertaining to matter or body as the vehicle of
Spirit, the life‐essence.
If the body is composed of male and female aspects from the father and
mother, then the soul must also be comprised of male and female sub‐
souls. Throughout this discussion, we shall refer to the male sub‐soul as
Spirit and the female sub‐soul as Soul. Spirit and Soul in combination will
be referred to as Dual‐Soul. In Dualism, the Body and Life‐Essence are
each dualistic in nature according to the following equations:
Life = Compound Body (Dual‐Body) + Life‐Essence (Dual‐Soul)
Body = Paternal + Maternal Contributions
Life‐Essence = Spirit + Soul
The idea of a Dual‐Soul can be found in many ancient cultures and
philosophical systems. Chinese Daoism is heavily dualistic as evidenced
by Daoist Yin/Yang theory. The peak of Indian Dualism can be found in
Tantra and the worship of Shiva and Parvati. One of the most highly
developed ancient civilizations, the Egyptians, advanced the Dual‐Soul
concept to a very high degree of sophistication. Hermeticism prevalent in
Alexandrian Egypt, Gnostic Christian and Islamic traditions all would
identify sub‐souls in some form or another.
Principle Egyptian Chinese Indian Greek‐Hellenic Arabic European
Growth Ka Shen Brahman Nous Nafs Spirit
Reproductive Ba Gui Atman Ennoia/Epinoia Ruh Soul
The determining factor in the above equations was a resistance to fire.
Fire destroys the weak principle in a plant or metal. The elixir‐alchemist
took advantage of this by using heat to kill the weakness in the plant and
metal while fusing their strengths. This process resulted in an elixir
composed of a reformed body containing strong growth and
INTRODUCTION
xxix
reproductive principles. To the elixir‐alchemist, an elixir contained the
best of both starting materials; the resulting product being a union of
opposites. Theoretically this sounds rather simple, yet discovering the
substances and developing processes to achieve this in practice took
centuries to perfect. From the alchemical perspective of Dualism,
organometallic elixirs can be better understood by the following
equations:
Plant Body = Strong Spirit + Weak Soul
Metal Body = Weak Spirit + Strong Soul
Elixir Body = Strong Spirit + Strong Soul
The Chinese, like their Indian counterparts, considered juice or extracts
commonly in the form of soups (or tāng; 湯) to be the blood or life‐
essence of the plant kingdom, but they were looking for a more enduring
life‐essence. Blood of the mineral kingdom in theory would provide a
longevity superior to blood of the plant kingdom (juice and extracts).
Originally, the Chinese experimented with lead, the product of minium,
as the blood of the mineral kingdom. Minium is a naturally occurring
scarlet to brownish‐red ore composed of lead and oxygen. Many early
Chinese alchemical recipes include lead derived from lead‐bearing ores
such as minium and litharge. Minium had its drawbacks however, and
eventually fell out of use. Minium and lead did not prove to be the correct
answer to their problem in finding the perfect mineral blood.
The final solution came in the form of cinnabar; a crimson ore sometimes
in the form of a ruby‐like crystal that often occurs near gold deposits. The
Chinese alchemists’ fascination with this crimson colored ore led them to
discover the hidden dual‐nature of cinnabr. Chinese alchemists
discovered that upon heating cinnabar it separated into its two main
components ‐ mercury and sulfur. They also discovered that mixing
mercury and sulfur together resulted in black cinnabar powder that upon
heating, changed back to crimson. This product is the Vermilion later used
by artists as a red pigment. From this, they deduced that mercury and
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sulfur were the sub‐souls of cinnabar and that cinnabar was the life‐
essence of the mineral kingdom. The process of change and the color red
symbolized life to the Chinese and since cinnabar could divide into its sub‐
souls easily and change from black to red, observation confirmed the
ore’s life‐essence.
As sub‐souls, mercury and sulfur were growth and reproductive
principles, sperm and egg, inherent in the body of cinnabar. Since
cinnabar contained the potential for growth and reproduction, elixir‐
alchemists reasoned that all metals grew towards perfection from a
sufur‐mercury basis. Sulfur was frequently present near gold mines and
mercury was used by miners to extract gold from crushed ore. The
ancients observed an intimate relationship between these three
substances. Gold was believed to occur because of the combination of
mercury and sulfur in perfect proportions and having undergone perfect
aging. Cinnabar was viewed by most alchemists, up until the 17th century,
as simply an immature form of gold growing towards the ultimate
perfection of metallic gold, yet first passing through all metallic forms
before reaching perfection. Not only had the Chinese developed the first
sulfur‐mercury theory, they had also discovered invaluable functional
substances for calcining gold.
Since cinnabar was viewed as being alive, growing and reproducing, it was
valued as the substance most suitable for a drug of rejuvenation and
longevity. Cinnabar’s mineral nature and association with gold made it
the perfect life‐essence donor to fuse with metallic gold. The elixir‐
alchemist assumed that by fusing a growth and reproductive principle
with gold, the properties of gold would grow and reproduce in the person
ingesting the elixir.
Life Essence = Blood = Redness = Cinnabar = Sulfur + Mercury
Elixir of Life = Gold + Cinnabar
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The alchemical Dualism of sulfur‐mercury theory would go on to
permeate all forms of alchemy. It was exported to India intact where
Indian alchemists would adopt it whole‐heartedly. Cinnabar served as a
substance whereby mercury‐amalgams could be produced and, since
mercury and sulfur both sublimate easily, provided new processes for
transforming gold to a fine ingestible powder. Persian alchemists of the
Islamic Empire conceptualized sulfur‐mercury theory in combination with
Aristotle’s theory of two fumes which emanate from the earth; wet‐
vaporous and dry‐smoky. Mercury was wet and vaporized readily, while
sulfur was certainly dry and created a smoke when burnt. This offered a
structure by which the sulfur‐mercury theory could be expanded.
Anything wet‐vaporous that could amalgamate or dissolve became
“mercury” in principle. Anything dry‐smoky that burnt like sulfur became
the “sulfur” principle. This allowed the archetypal sulfur‐mercury model
to be applied to many different substances such as stibnite and other
sulfide ores.
The combination of alchemical traditions from the Islamic Empire and
those of Alexandria were eventually transported into Europe where
European alchemists adopted and modified the sulfur‐mercury theory.
Regardless of the tradition or interpretation, all held that a self‐growing
animal, plant or mineral body contained life‐essence and as such could
grow and reproduce. Reproductive potential was seen as an indication
that the vital principle was dual‐natured. Dualism answered the question
of reproduction but also offered insight into the possibility of
rejuvenation and unnatural longevity. The perfect union of spirit and soul
fused with the perfect body of gold, as understood by elixir‐alchemists,
resulted in a living, growing, reproducing and everlasting form of gold in
the form of a fine red powder. When ingested, it was believed that such
an elixir would continue to produce new life‐essence the way a tree
continually produces fruit. The key to the entire process was the perfect
union of spirit and soul fused with the body. This union of opposites was
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the ultimate goal of alchemy and manifested in alchemical represent‐
ation as the androgyne, hermaphrodite, Rebis, etc.
Dialectics and Immortality
Over time, Dualism gradually transitioned to Dialectics as a model for
observed phenomena. With a greater degree of social and religious
sophistication, a more profound understanding of dichotomy evolved
into Dialectics. From the Dialectic perspective, positive and negative
forces were not opposing, nor merely complimentary but actually two
distinct aspects of a greater whole. Dialectics implied a synthesis of
opposites. If Dualism can be viewed as two substances with potential to
create a compound such as cinnabar, Dialectics can be viewed as not only
the final synthesis, but the reaction as well. The basic philosophical
Dialectic formula is as follows:
Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis
Dualism as a model was actually a consequence of various limitations of
the observer. Dialectics offered a perspective that allowed a more
inclusive and broader understanding of apparent duality. Early Greek,
Chinese and Indian philosophers were developing a Dialectic view of
reality long before modern physics and quantum mechanics would
vindicate their perspectives. Classical physics draws a Dualistic distinction
between particles and waves. Quantum mechanics offers a Dialectic view
of the subject because matter exhibits both wave and particle aspects.
Dialectics demonstrated that paradox was a fundamental property of the
universe. Phenomena was understood as existing in complimentary pairs
but implied the impossibility of any real separation between them. From
this perspective, opposing forces are not necessarily competing for
domination but rather engage in a give and take relationship reciprocally
to achieve harmony or balance.
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In scientific terms, this process may be understood as homeostasis. The
difference from the point of view of alchemy is that homeostasis implies
a settling or inaction that occurs at the culmination of the process. From
the alchemical frame of reference, the union of opposites is more like the
balance of positive and negative, which results in electromagnetic
energy. As opposing forces unite, they spark and become a single energy,
like an electrical current, or like sperm fertilizing an egg, which engenders
life, growth and reproduction in the form of cell division. Two units of
matter appearing at first to be opposites, actually prove to be
complimentary uniting in the form of a hermaphrodite as the source of
creative energy. The image of the hermaphrodite, androgyne or the two‐
headed Rebis may be viewed as a form of fertilized egg that will grow and
expand. A goal in alchemy was to create a compound elixir in the form of
a hermaphrodite‐like substance in accordance with this principle.
In eastern spiritual traditions, transcending duality to arrive at non‐dual
realization was the first stage of enlightenment. Through a union of
opposites, the result is not destruction but rather synthesis followed by
growth and renewal. This concept was portrayed in religious
iconography, art and literature by the image of male and female coitus or
a joining of two into one as a Hermaphrodite or Androgyne. Many early
religions describe a deity or primordial being that is androgynous.
European alchemical art and literature frequently portrayed a
hermaphrodite as a joining of King and Queen. This universal theme of
the union of opposing forces as occurs in alchemy first appeared in
Eastern alchemical traditions as a fully developed perspective centuries
prior to assuming its final forms in European alchemy. The theory that a
union of opposites resulted in growth and reproductive potential, which
could then be donated or seeded as a catalyst for transmutation, was
accepted by all schools of alchemy.
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The Elixir of Immortality
Originally, plant juices or extracts donated life‐essence to the gold in a
gold‐based elixir. Later, cinnabar replaced juice as the donor of life‐
essence because it was believed that, coming from the mineral kingdom,
cinnabar had a closer affinity to gold. In addition, because cinnabar
demonstrated a dual‐soul nature so powerfully and readily, it was
thought to have a more profound impact on gold; such that the hard
yellow lustrous metallic body of gold became fine, soft and matte red as
a result. Gold’s transformation happened much easier with sulfur‐
mercury than it did with juice. This was an indication that the powerful
dual‐soul of the mineral kingdom (cinnabar) was a more suitable match
to gold than life‐essence from the plant kingdom (juice). The basic
Dialectic formula as it applies to elixir‐alchemy is as follows:
Philosophical Dialectics: Thesis + Antithesis = Synthesis
Practical Elixir Synthesis: Gold + Cinnabar = Elixir
Alchemical Union of Opposites: Sulfur + Mercury = Salt
Synthesis = Hermaphrodite = Cinnabar / Gold‐Cinnabar = Elixir
All organometallic and mercurial elixirs were based on Dualistic
principles. Body / Life‐essence or Body / Dual‐Soul theories explain how
a metallic substance could be infused with life‐essence in order to serve
as an elixir to the user. The elixir itself was a hermaphrodite due to its
compounded nature. That these elixirs were believed to be crucial to
immortality is widely accepted within the history of the subject, but what
is less understood is the mechanism of action by which they were
supposed to work. What was the magic hiding within these elixirs that
drove elixir‐alchemists to attempt new elixir concoctions, or to be
convinced of their potential for imparting immortality?
Growth and regeneration as a binary principle was the source of creative
energy, resulting in a body as its creation. The creator entered into and
became one with its creation, thus achieving final synthesis. Elixir‐
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alchemists recognized a parallel in the manipulation of mercury, sulfur
and gold. The growth‐principle inherent in cinnabar allowed it ultimately
to mature to the perfection of gold. The problem was that once gold
achieved its final form, growth and reproduction ceased. Elemental gold,
in its purest form, demonstrated characteristics of incorruptibility and
everlastingness, yet because of this perfection, growth and reproduction
were no longer possible. By combining cinnabar with gold, alchemists
sought to reintroduce growth and reproductive principles into the
perfect body of gold.
By doing so, it was thought that the metallic gold would be transformed
into living‐gold with an incorruptible life‐essence, which would then
continue to grow and reproduce without end. Such an elixir could enter
and take‐over the system of the recipient, whether it be human or base
metal, causing it to grow to perfection by absorbing the qualities of the
elixir. Dr. Mahdihassan addresses the sulfur‐mercury theory as it pertains
to the concept of Elixir. As defined in the passage below, Elixir is best
understood as an active agent of transformation. In this example, Elixir
refers to both synthetic cinnabar (Vermilion) and gold:
The theory with its applied form is shared by Indian philosophy and
Indian medicine as also by Chinese philosophy and alchemy. The product
of alchemy is Elixir, union between sulfur and mercury, or better still
Ferment‐gold, which is Elixir in the vehicle of gold.
Synthetic cinnabar acted as an elixir to metallic gold thus bringing about
a profound change in gold’s appearance. The resurrected gold, given new
life, changed from hard yellow metallic in nature to soft, fine, red,
fireproof powder; indicating that it had indeed undergone renewal to a
sublime rejuvenated form. The hermaphrodite creator (cinnabar as Soul‐
Spirit) had entered and become one with its creation (metallic gold Body)
to become a compound elixir. This new enlivened gold‐elixir acted as an
agent to anyone who ingested it, meaning the gold‐elixir was supposed
to do for the human body what cinnabar‐elixir had done for the gold.
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Once ingested, the elixir played the role of hermaphrodite creator. The
person ingesting it, upon transforming, became the creation. The elixir
and the one ingesting it became unified resulting in an everlasting,
growing and reproducing incorruptible life‐essence ‐ in other words, an
immortal.
Cinnabar (elixir) + Gold (body) = Elixir of Immortality
Elixir (gold‐cinnabar) + Human Body (body) = Immortal
We must take into consideration that the language of alchemy in every
tradition is figurative. Those unfamiliar with its figurative linguistic
expressions have often interpreted this language naively and
pretheoretically at face value. Simply put, if one is unfamiliar with the
language and idiosyncrasies of a culture it is impossible to arrive at a
correct interpretation of the conversation. This is the root cause of many
misunderstandings with regards to alchemy. If the language of alchemy
is figurative, then we must approach an interpretation of every aspect of
alchemy representationally as well. It was likely understood by those
fluent in the language that immortality incarnate was impossible. We
may perhaps arrive at a more accurate interpretation of immortality by
looking at it from the perspective of predominant Eastern philosophical
views in which alchemists and those ingesting alchemical substances
would have been raised with and influenced by.
Early philosopher‐alchemists confronted and intuitively appercieved the
essence of life – the vast network of interdependent and continuous
processes – as a fundamental, universal and eternal principle. This
underlying principle inherent in all creation was given the term Dao by
the Chinese, the Indian counterpart being Dharma. The alchemist must
inevitably confront the dilemma of viewing reality from the conventional
individualistic perspective of ordinary consciousness, or a non‐ordinary
state in tune with Dao or Dharma with self as an aspect of the total
functioning of ultimate reality. Both Dao and Dharma presented an
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unconventional unified absolute view of reality where all things and
events in existence were interdependent, impermanent, and relative
parts of a unified whole. To a person ingesting an elixir, his life‐essence
was converted from one perceived as independent and individual with an
affinity toward the conventional material world to an ever‐increasing
new form with ability to experience the absolute, non‐dual and eternal
principle through the aid of the elixir and the alchemical process of its
creation. This metaphorical interpretation allows for a definition of an
immortal, in terms of alchemy’s union of opposites, as follows:
Immortal = changeable (Body) + eternal (Life‐Essence)
The immortal shifts identification from the changeable, to an
identification with the unchangeable, then ultimately realizes his nature
as a synthesis of both as the total functioning. The elixir and the
alchemical process by which it was compounded, served to awaken the
initiate to the infinite. This process in itself may be interpreted as a union
of opposites where the individual achieved union with the absolute. Such
an immortal had become undifferentiated from the eternal principle, had
transcended duality and achieved unicity and incorruptibility. An
immortal could have been a Daoist immortal living in a rugged mountain
hermitage, an aged yet supple and vibrant guru on the banks of the
Ganges in India or a widely traveled, multicultural, educated and wise Sufi
or Hakim under patronage of a Caliph. These immortals were considered
holy‐men and as such, living elixirs embodying a timeless principle and
able to bring about change and transformation in others. The tradition of
ingesting gold‐elixirs began with such ascetics and initiated priests, and
was later adopted by the great patrons of alchemy, royalty and nobility.
In China, India, Persia and the Islamic Empire, royalty and nobility sought
knowledge and alchemical substances from respected elixir‐alchemists
who sometimes doubled as physicians, philosophers, ascetics or hermit‐
monks.
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It was from this perspective that mercurialists argue the origins of
alchemy as beginning in Asia via sulfur‐mercury technology fused with
established organometallic rejuvenative medicine. Others argue that that
it is not mercury and sulfur per‐se, but rather the dualistic principle and
the union of opposites, the hermaphrodite principle, which marked the
beginning of alchemy. India began its tradition by perfecting the calcining
of minerals and metals using plants and juices to achieve a union of
opposites. China began similarly but later discovered and pioneered the
use of lead, mercury and ultimately sulfur‐mercury in the form of
cinnabar to achieve the same. Persian and Islamic alchemists would
adopt and expand these principles even further, merging them ultimately
with late‐Alexandrian alchemy. When Alexandrian and Islamic alchemy
entered Europe and merged with the cathedral‐craft and medical
traditions, alchemy evolved into a number of unique styles and
expressions.
Regardless of the tradition, union of opposites, creation of the
hermaphrodite as a principle of self‐ growth and vitality was the key to
elixir‐alchemy. A substance containing the hermaphroditic principle was
an elixir in that it contained inherent potential to affect change. When
bound with elemental gold of high purity, it became the ultimate elixir.
In India, gold‐elixirs survive in the form of Swarna Bhasma and Makara
Dhwaja. The only surviving gold‐elixir from Persian/Islamic alchemy is
Kushta Tila Kalan. Tibetan and Burmese traditions built upon Indian and
Chinese techniques to create Tibetan Jewel Pills, Chintamani Stone, Gold‐
Dust Ash and Burmese Gold‐Ash Powder, which have survived to today.
Alexandrian substances became known in Islamic alchemy as al‐iksir
(االكسير) and al‐kīmyāʼ eventually being ,(الخيمياء) transliterated to elixir
and alchemy respectively.
Elixir‐alchemy from Asia and the Middle East would ultimately find its
way into Europe where it was interpreted from the perspective of existing
medical and Cathedral‐craft traditions such as herbal distillery‐craft,
INTRODUCTION
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metallurgy, stained‐glass making, dye and pigment production and
gilding technologies. In Europe, alchemy would blossom into its own
eclectic form with an explosion of new discoveries, techniques and forms
of expression. Mercurial, antimonial, acetate‐tincture and mineral‐acid
based styles would evolve and borrow from one another to create
products such as the Philosophers’ Stone, the Universal Medicine, Phalaja
Stone, Fire Stone, Aurum Potabile and the Powder of Projection in various
forms. In early modern pharmacy and medicine, gold‐elixirs found
modern expression as gold‐salts, gold cordials, and colloidal‐gold in
addition to pharmaceutical gold‐drug compounds. Today gold is currently
being researched worldwide for therapeutic uses by exploring new
technologies for creating gold‐nanoparticles and novel organo‐gold
compounds. To gain a better understanding of the contributions each
culture’s tradition added to the collective knowledge of therapeutic gold,
the following chapters will explore each tradition along with their most
celebrated products or technological advances in some detail.