Teachers Understanding of Child Protection Issues- Pakistan

Teachers Understanding of Child Protection Issues- Pakistan

Mehek Naeem

Master’s Thesis Master of Philosophy in Special Needs Education

Department of Special Needs Education Faculty of Educational Sciences

University of Oslo

Spring 2014

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Teachers Understanding of Child

Protection Issues-Pakistan

IV

© Mehek Naeem

2014

Title: Teachers Understanding of Child Protection Issues-Pakistan

Mehek Naeem

http://www.duo.uio.no/

Print: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo

http://www.duo.uio.no/

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Abstract

Protecting children is a collective responsibility. Different stakeholders - including parents,

teachers, and medical staff - should all be involved in the process of detecting, managing and

preventing maltreatment of children. In order to do this, these stakeholders need to be

adequately trained in issues of child protection. Associated laws, policies and regulating

systems in the country should oversee and facilitate this process.

The first step in implementing effective policies is gauging how child protection issues such

as child abuse, neglect, exploitation and exposure to violence are generally understood within

the social fabric. This preliminary study aimed to investigate the level of existing knowledge,

as well as the associated attitudes and practices of teachers, regarding issues of child

protection. In doing so, differences between school systems were also investigated. It was a

quantitative study and data was compiled from four mainstream educational systems in

Pakistan. 270 teachers from across Lahore participated in this study: 86 teachers from private

schools, 67 teachers from public schools, 89 teachers from Islamic schools, and 27 teachers

from NGO-run school settings.

Results were analysed according to various issues of child protection including child physical

abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect and exposure to

violence. Results showed that only around 15 % of the participating teachers had previously

received any formal training on child abuse and neglect. Although the sample of teachers in

this study were more qualified than average teachers in the country and taught in well-reputed

schools of the region, they showed lack of understanding in critical areas regarding child

protection. This was especially the case in child physical abuse and sexual abuse. They

showed a reasonably better understanding about child emotional abuse, emotional neglect,

physical neglect, and exposure to violence.

Across school settings, teachers from private schools showed the highest understanding

regarding physical abuse and emotional neglect. Alternatively, teachers from the public

school setting showed the highest understanding of issues related to exposure to violence

whereas teachers from the NGO school setting showed the highest understanding of sexual

abuse, emotional neglect and physical neglect. Teachers from the Islamic school setting

showed an average understanding of all issues highlighted in the study.

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In the future, the need to train teachers in the field of child protection will be necessary so

they can detect, manage and prevent child maltreatment at primary, secondary and tertiary

levels. This study’s results has attempted to gauge the knowledge and attitudes of teachers

regarding child abuse, neglect and exposure to violence at a preliminary level. Hence, all

issues that are touched upon in the study need to be thoroughly further investigated.

Further research needs to be conducted regarding teachers and school characteristics

associated with child maltreatment, the use of different approaches in preventing child

maltreatment, and the identification of factors influencing, moderating and protecting child

maltreatment as well as child protection issues in Pakistan.

VII

Foreword

First of all, I would like to thank my father for his guidance and inspiration. His vision for

children in Pakistan has directed and inspired me to take up this life long journey. Secondly, I

would like to thank Rabiya Anjem for her support and care throughout my master’s program.

Without her support, this research would have been impossible.

Moreover, I would also like to thank my supervisor Lage Jonsborg for his patience and

guidance in my master thesis, Mohammad Abbas for his help in data collection, my

wonderful colleagues for their amazing support, and my professors at SNE master program. I

would also like to thank, Katelijne Kijlstra, Rafay Naeem, Haadi Naeem, Fede, Zoya

Rehman and Muhammad Abdullah Gardezi for giving me happiness and helping me cope.

Last but not least. I would like to express my gratitude to my mother and the Anjem family

for everything.

Kind Regards,

Mehek Naeem

Oslo, May 2014

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Table of Contents

Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... V

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 1

1.1 Research Questions...................................................................................................... 5

2 Literature Review ............................................................................................................... 7

2.1 Issues of child protection ............................................................................................. 7

2.1.1 Physical Abuse ..................................................................................................... 8

2.1.2 Child Sexual Abuse ............................................................................................ 10

2.1.3 Emotional abuse ................................................................................................. 12

2.1.4 Neglect; emotional and physical ........................................................................ 14

2.1.5 Exposure to violence .......................................................................................... 17

2.1.6 Children in special circumstances ...................................................................... 20

2.2 Child maltreatment from a psychological and ecological theory approach .............. 23

2.2.1 Involvement of schools and teachers to protect children ................................... 25

2.3 Protection Rights of a Child in Pakistan .................................................................... 27

2.4 Education in Pakistan; systems, teachers and school practices ................................. 32

2.5 Pakistan’s Challenges in Child Protection ................................................................. 34

3 Methodology .................................................................................................................... 37

3.1 Design and Approach ................................................................................................ 37

3.2 Population, Sample selection and Participants .......................................................... 38

3.2.1 Population ........................................................................................................... 38

3.2.2 Sample selection ................................................................................................. 38

3.2.3 Participants ......................................................................................................... 39

3.3 Instrument .................................................................................................................. 39

3.3.1 Developing the questionnaire; literature review and pilot study ........................ 40

3.4 Data Collection Procedure ......................................................................................... 42

3.5 Reliability and Validity ............................................................................................. 42

3.6 Ethical Considerations ............................................................................................... 44

4 Results and discussion ...................................................................................................... 46

4.1 Demographic data ...................................................................................................... 46

4.2 Selection of statements for final analysis .................................................................. 51

4.3 Analysis of individual statements: understanding issues of child protection ............ 54

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4.3.1 Physical abuse .................................................................................................... 54

4.3.2 Sexual Abuse ...................................................................................................... 56

4.3.3 Emotional Abuse ................................................................................................ 59

4.3.4 Emotional Neglect .............................................................................................. 62

4.3.5 Physical Neglect ................................................................................................. 64

4.3.6 Exposure to violence .......................................................................................... 66

4.3.7 General Issues .................................................................................................... 69

4.4 Limitations and Implications ..................................................................................... 73

4.4.1 Study Challenges ................................................................................................ 73

4.4.2 Reliability and Validity of the findings .............................................................. 74

4.4.3 Study Contribution ............................................................................................. 75

4.4.4 Study recommendations and implication ........................................................... 78

4.5 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. 80

References ................................................................................................................................ 82

Appendices ............................................................................................................................... 99

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List of Tables

Table 4.01 Gender of participants ............................................................................................ 46

Table 4.02 Age of participants ................................................................................................. 47

Table 4.03 Qualification of participants ................................................................................... 48

Table 4.04 Teaching experience of participants ....................................................................... 49

Table 4.05 Professional training received by participants ....................................................... 49

Table 4.06 Child Abuse and Neglect (CAN) training received by participants ....................... 50

Table 4.07 Gender of pupil taught by the participants ............................................................. 50

Table 4.08 Age of pupil taught by the participants .................................................................. 51

Table 4.09 Relationship between positive and negative statements about children’s exposure

to violence. ............................................................................................................................... 52

Table 4.10 Median Score of statements about Physical Abuse ................................................ 54

Table 4.11Median scores of statements about Sexual Abuse .................................................. 56

Table 4.12 Median scores of statements about Emotional Abuse ............................................ 59

Table 4.13 Median scores of statements about Emotional Neglect ......................................... 62

Table 4.14 Median Scores of statements about Physical Neglect ............................................ 65

Table 4.15Median Scores of statements about children’s exposure to violence ...................... 67

Table 4.16 Median scores of statements about general issues related to maltreatment ........... 70

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List of Figures

Figure 4.1 Teachers understanding of child physical abuse ..................................................... 55

Figure 4.2 Teachers understanding of child sexual abuse ........................................................ 57

Figure 4.3 Teachers understanding of child emotional abuse .................................................. 60

Figure 4.4 Teachers understanding of child emotional neglect ............................................... 63

Figure 4.5 Teachers understanding of child physical neglect .................................................. 65

Figure 4.6 Teachers understanding of children’s exposure to violence ................................... 67

Figure 4.7 Teachers understanding of general topics about issues of child protection ............ 70

XII

Abbreviations

C.A.N Child abuse and neglect

FATA Federally Administered Tribal Area

KPK Kyber Pakhtunkhwa Province

UN United Nations

UN CRC UN Convention on the Rights of the Child

UNICEF UN Children’s Fund

UNESCO UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

WHO World Health Organization

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1 Introduction

"Safety and security don't just happen, they are the result of collective consensus and public

investment. We owe our children, the most vulnerable citizens in our society, a life free of

violence and fear." - Nelson Mandela

I started working in the field of child protection from a very early age. While working closely

with a child protection organization called Protection and Help of Children Against Abuse

and Neglect (PAHCHAAN), I had the chance to work for psycho-social rehabilitation of

street children, abuse victims, internally displaced children and children from other

disadvantaged backgrounds. I feel it is very important to train the primary stakeholders -

namely parents, teachers, nurses and other medical professionals - for early prevention of

abuse. For adequate training of these stakeholders, research-based training manuals and

prevention strategies need to be employed. I have previously collected data and conducted

research on topics related to the exposure of children to pornography (Lahore, Pakistan), the

psychological state of internally displaced children in camps in Pakistan, and the association

of childhood trauma with depression and anxiety among a cross-cultural sample. As someone

who has worked closely with child protection issues, I understand the barriers that exist in my

society regarding the disclosure and exploration of such issues, but I feel that it is vital for us

to recognize the problems as a first step to be able to start working towards a substantial

solution. I hope that this research will help professionals and organizations working in the

field of child protection to understand where we stand in preventing child maltreatment in

schools.

Conditions related to the practical field

It is the responsibility of every individual in the society to protect children and provide them

with an environment that caters to their healthy development. There are many types of

maltreatment that fall under the wider categories of abuse, neglect, violence and exploitation

(as explained in Section 2). Children need to be protected against all sorts of physical, mental,

sexual abuse and/or violence, neglect, and exploitation while in the care of a caregiver,

including parents or legal guardians.

Over the past few decades, effort has been made by different stakeholders to protect children

around the world. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (UN CRC) was

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passed in 1989 whereby rights pertaining to survival, protection, development, participation

of the child were established and agreed upon.

The CRC provides a framework for countries to reformulate laws affecting children in several

countries. Almost all UN member countries except Somalia, Sudan and the United States of

America have signed this convention. According to the UN CRC (1989), all children have

the right/must to be protected from all forms of abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence.

Article 19 of the convention states that it is an individual state’s duty to take all possible

protective measures: enforce policies, implement laws, as well as establish appropriate

systems and institutions to ensure the safety of all children under her care.

Although the UN CRC (1989) provides a framework for child protection and development,

the cultural norms, traditional practices and social acceptance /tolerance vary across the globe.

Therefore, it is important to look at child protection from a more culturally sensitive point of

view. This is to say that the cultural norms and traditional practices of child rearing in a

region should be given due significance whilst developing policies and laws in a specific

country. Country and cultural- based studies are also needed to look at factors that can

precipitate child maltreatment (WHO, 1999).

National and cultural framework/ conditions

Pakistan signed the CRC on 20th September 1990 and ratified it on 12th November 1990.

Over more than two decades after the signing and ratification of the CRC, Pakistan is still

struggling with providing its children with adequate rights and protecting them from harm.

Pakistan, officially called the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, was formed in 1947, after gaining

independence from Great Britain. It has a population of 180.44 million (World Population

Statistics, 2013). It is located on the geo-political and strategically significant crossroads of

South Asia where it borders India, Afghanistan, Iran and China. Hence, it is influenced by a

number of cultures and traditions by virtue of its bordering countries. The country itself is

formed of four provinces; Punjab, Sindh, Baluchistan and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. The major

cities of these provinces are Lahore, Karachi, Quetta and Peshawar respectively.

Pakistan has gone through major social and political turmoil over the past decades. It has been

affected by a series of natural disasters including the massive earthquake in 2005 and the

floods in 2010 affecting millions of inhabitants (Javed & Arshad, 2011). In the floods alone,

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at least more than 20 percent of the land and 14 million people were directly affected,

resulting in huge financial and personal loss suffered by numerous families as well as the

county at large (World Food Programme, 2010). An influx of refugees moved to Pakistan

after the Soviet war in Afghanistan (1979 - 1989) and America’s war in Afghanistan (2001-

present). Pakistan currently hosts some 1.6 million registered Afghans, making it the largest

protracted refugee situation globally (UNHCR, 2014). Additionally, Pakistan has also been

fighting terrorism as a frontline state since the US war in Afghanistan began, after 9/11 in

2001. It has been fighting terrorism within the country as well as supporting the international

war on terror. By the end of July 2013, more than a million people were affected due to an

ongoing security operation in Federally Administered Tribal Areas (FATA) and Khyber

Pakhtunkhwa (KPK) (UNHCR, 2014). The economy has virtually collapsed and the social

fiber is disrupted due to continuous war against terrorists from adjacent Afghanistan and

militants from within Pakistan. The war on terror has led to violence along with hundreds of

suicide and remote-controlled bombs all over the country (Zafar & Naeem, 2013).

While trying to rebuild the nation and fighting the internal and external forces, Pakistan is

struggling with its social, health and education issues. Comparative health indicators show

that the life expectancy for Pakistanis at birth in 2001 was 67 years for both sexes. Stillbirth

rate was 47 - 1000 births in 2009. This particular statistic indicates the highest number of

stillbirths in a country in 2009 throughout the world. The neonatal mortality rate in 2011 was

36 - 1000 total births. In 2011, the infant mortality rate was 59 - 1000 live births and the

under-five mortality rate was 72 - 1000 live births. The neonatal mortality rate, infant

mortality rate and the under-five mortality rate were above the average for South Asian region

of 29 - 1000 births, 42 - 1000 live births, and 55 - 1000 live births respectively (World Health

Organization, 2013. pp56-61).

Additionally, Pakistan also has one of the worst education indicators globally. It has the

world’s second highest number of children out of primary school. Two- thirds of these are

girls (numbering at more than 3 million girls) and one-third are boys (numbering more than

1.5 million). The net enrolment ratio of girls and boys is not equal and only eight girls to

every ten boys are enrolled in primary school. The female literacy rate in some regions of the

country is as low as 6 - 8 % , being the lowest in the world. In the Education Development

index, Pakistan is currently ranked 113 out of 120. In 2013, it was estimated that the number

of illiterate adults would increase to 51 million by 2015 (NEMIS-AESAM, 2013; UNESCO,

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2012). The adult literacy rate was 54.9% and youth literacy rate was 70.7 in 2009

(“UNESCO, Institute for Statistics”). This literacy rate figure also includes individuals who

are only able to write their names in the literate population. Hence, it can be assumed that the

actual figure is considerably lower than the mentioned figure.

While the state is struggling with natural disasters, political crisis situations, increased

violence and terrorist activity, deteriorating health, education, and social conditions, children

have not been on the state’s priority list at all. The prevailing conditions have made them

more vulnerable but the issue of child protection has still been largely neglected.

Framework of research

The focus of this research is to assess teachers’ understanding about issues pertaining to child

protection in the city of Lahore. Issues of child protection that are briefly covered in this study

are related to child maltreatment; child physical abuse, child sexual abuse, child emotional

abuse, child neglect (physical and emotional), children’s exposure to violence (domestic,

school and community) and children in special circumstances (including children living and

working on the streets, child domestic workers and, child labourers). Details of each are

addressed presented in the literature review (chapter 2).

As mentioned earlier, protecting children is a collective responsibility. It requires an adequate

understanding of issues concerning children by all major stakeholders. At a micro and macro

level (Bromferbrenner,1979), these stake holders include parents and family, doctors, nurses

and other health providers, and teachers and other school staff. This study aims to address the

involvement of teachers only.

A school-going child spends a major chunk of his/ her day at school. Teachers play a very

important part in the child’s development by listening to, interacting with and monitoring the

lives of these children. If they have enough understanding about the safety and protection of

the child, they can identify and flag potentially suspicious cases. Additionally, they can act as

key persons in counselling, managing and reporting processes regarding child abuse and

neglect. They can also facilitate programs within the school setting to combat bullying and

peer violence, teach positive attitudes in children, build resilience and provide tools and

methods of how to protect themselves (in a child friendly way). Thus, teachers can be play a

central role in the primary, secondary and tertiary intervention phases as and when needed.

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In Pakistan, very little formal training is given to teachers about the issues of child abuse,

neglect, violence and exploitation. At a national level, no child protection training has been

given to the teachers. It is not a part of their training curriculum. As a part of their training,

they are taught to only focus on the academics side of a child’s development. Hence, even

though teachers can have an important role in psycho-social rehabilitation, most teachers only

focus on academic development.

Due to lack of knowledge of child protection issues, there are numerous myths and

misunderstandings that blindfold teachers and other stakeholders. This study focusses on the

understanding of issues related to child protection. The word “understanding” refers to

aspects of 1)Knowledge 2)Attitudes 3) Practices about a given theme/issue. In this study,

knowledge is referred to how much the participants are acquainted with the concepts /

definitions of different forms of abuse and neglect and what are the common myths and

misunderstandings that are related to child protection. Attitudes refer to what are the common

beliefs and outlooks about issues related to child protection in the Pakistani society. Practices

refer to the procedures that are applied in school settings regarding the highlighted issues;

detection and management of abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence in schools

1.1 Research Questions

The overall aim of the study was to investigate the prevailing level of understanding regarding

issues of child protection of teachers within four different educational systems of Pakistan;

private schools, public schools, Islamic schools and NGO schools. The main issues of child

protection which are included in this study were child physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional

abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect and exposure to violence. This was only a

preliminary study to investigate issues of child protection.

The research questions for this study were as follows:

Main: What are the prevailing levels of knowledge, associated attitudes and practices of

teachers regarding issues of child protection across mainstream educational systems in

Lahore, Pakistan?

Sub: Between school settings, what are the main differences related to teachers

understanding about issues of child protection.

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Location and participants

This study was carried out in the city of Lahore, Pakistan. Data was collected from teachers

who taught in 1) Private schools 2) Public schools 3) Islamic/ Madrassa Schools and 4) NGO

run slum schools. All teachers were employed by the schools at the time of the study. The

variables of teacher’s knowledge, attitude and practices regarding child protection were

investigated.

Lahore city is the provincial capital for the province of Punjab with a population of 7.132

million people. (Central Intelligence Agency, 2013 ). This city was chosen as it is one of the

major cities of Pakistan and is the second largest in the country. Due to costs, availability of

resources, and safety and security situation in other parts of the country, the study was only

limited to this relatively stable and safe city. There are three main types of schools in

Pakistan: private schools, public/government run schools and Islamic madrassas/madrassa

schools. These three school systems are different in their approaches, curriculums and

teaching methods (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013). The fourth type of school included in the study

was a Non-Government Organization (NGO ) run school that taught children living on the

streets, nomad/gypsy children, and children from very poor communities not catered by the

earlier mentioned three more organised schooling systems. Philanthropists and donors

supported their uniforms and fee whereas the books were provided by the government. Such

schools are very few in number and usually operate as self-initiated programs by

philanthropists. (Details of each school type are presented in Section 2.4). For the purpose of

this research, teachers from all mentioned school settings were included. Other type of

schools, for example, special schools, schools run inside orphanages, vocational training

institutes, and catholic schools were not included.

Justification for the research

Teachers are an important stake- holder for children. No research study has been published

which looks at teachers knowledge and perspectives on child abuse, neglect, exploitation and

violence in Pakistan. This research focuses in the field of psycho-social conditions which may

affect learning. Pakistan is already facing an issue that there is very little research in the field

of education. (Memon, 2007). This research aims to help to recognize and identify key

problem areas in which more work is needed. It can have implications in the field of General

Education and Special Needs Education.

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2 Literature Review

2.1 Issues of child protection

Every year tens of millions of children are abused and neglected worldwide. According to the

World Health Organization, it has been estimated that 53,000 children are murdered each

year. For every homicide among young people there are 20–40 non-fatal cases which require

hospital care (WHO, 2004). Although the figures may seem horrendous, it can be assumed

that this is just the tip of the iceberg and a large number of cases remain unnoticed, undetected

and unreported. (WHO, 2002). It has also been estimated that up to 1.5 billion children are

affected by violence (UNICEF, 2009a).

Child protection is an umbrella term covering a range of topics and themes related to child

maltreatment. It refers to preventing, and responding to violence, exploitation and abuse

(UNICEF, 2009b). Child abuse, neglect, exploitation and violence are the core issues that

underlie child protection. These issues are ingrained in the cultural, economic and social

practices and have detrimental consequences on the individual and the society (WHO, 2002).

The most popular definition of Child Abuse is that proposed by WHO in 1999. It states that

‘‘Child maltreatment constitutes of all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment,

sexual abuse, neglect or negligent treatment or commercial or other exploitation, resulting in

actual or potential harm to the child’s health, survival, development or dignity in the context

of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power”. (WHO, 1999). Although the concepts of

child abuse and neglect are becoming clearer with ongoing research, this issue of

classification has faced a range of misinterpretations and misunderstandings (WHO, 2002).

While some definitions focus on the harm to the child, whether actual or potential harm,

others focus on the actions and behaviors of the perpetrator/ adult. This has led to a series of

discussions and debates on what child maltreatment comprises of. A WHO (1999)

consultation report refers to child abuse as “any act or failure to act that violates the rights of

the child that endangers his or her optimum health, survival or development”. This WHO

consultation report provides a guideline on child abuse prevention and has been a framework

for many researches, legislations and laws. However, other definitions draw a finer line

between abuse and neglect. The act of harm is associated with abuse and the negligence to

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prevent something harmful from happening to the child (English et al, 2005; Dubowitz et al,

1993).

Child abuse consists of three main types; physical, sexual and emotional

2.1.1 Physical Abuse

“Physical abuse of a child is that which results in actual or potential physical harm from an

interaction, or a lack thereof, which is reasonably within the control of a parent or the person

in a position of responsibility, power or trust (WHO, 1999). “It refers to any non-accidental

injury that is perpetrated on the child, resulting from practices such as punching, beating,

kicking or otherwise harming the child” (South Australian Child Protection Council, 1989).

This physical injury can be resultant from either a single or multiple episodes. “The severity

also varies from minor bruises to death” (DePanfilis & Salus, 1992). Two possible reasons for

this could be either corporal punishment with the intention of disciplining or uncontrolled

anger of the caregiver.

Physical punishment is an important concept that is linked to child physical abuse. It may be

that the caretaker does not intend to hurt the child but only wants to discipline him/her. The

injury may be a result of strict discipline or physical punishment that may be inappropriate

considering the child’s age or condition. The line between physical abuse and disciplining via

physical punishment is blurry at best. The risk factors for both child physical abuse and

physical punishment are considered very similar (Straus, 1983); they are both detrimental for

the well-being of the child (Durrant & Ensom, 2012). It is also seen that parents who

demonstrated poor or lack of empathic ability on an analog task were more likely to punish

their children and their children were more liable to physical abuse (Rodriguez, 2013).

However, the general public's views about physical punishment and physical abuse are very

different. Where abusive behavior is commonly frowned upon and is regarded unacceptable,

opinions and attitudes towards physical punishment vary across individuals and cultures.

Over the past two decades, there has been an increased awareness of the effects of physical

punishment on the wellbeing of the child. (Durrant & Ensom, 2012). Research findings

suggest physical punishment is detrimental for the child’s psychological and physiological

health. Studies show that physical punishment is associated with increased risk of major

depression, alcohol abuse/dependence and externalizing problems in adulthood (Afifi et al,

9

2006, Rodriguez, 2003). Due to research findings related to the effects of physical punishment

on the child's wellbeing, 37 countries, including 18 European nations have now taken legal

action against all forms of corporal punishment on children. (Bussmann et al, 2009).

Physical abuse and corporal punishment is prevalent in homes, school and places of work.

Using participatory research techniques, a study by Save The Children, UNICEF and the

government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa was conducted in Pakistan. This consultation with 3,582

children (aged between 6 and 14), 1,231 parents and 486 teachers from government and

religious schools in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa found that all children reported receiving corporal

punishment. They identified 28 types of punishment used at homes, which included caning,

beating with shoes, belts, wood slabs, brooms or whips, smacking, kicking, hair-pulling, ear-

twisting, biting, pinching, burning, giving electric shocks and pouring hot or cold water on the

body. 43 types of punishment were identified in schools, including smacking, hitting with an

object and hair-pulling, ear-twisting, Among school related abuses, 43% of all punishments

that were identified were reported by children in government run (public) primary schools,

30% in government middle schools, 10% in government high schools and 16% in private

schools.

It was also reported in this study that corporal punishment in homes was also widely

practiced. It was reported as being inflicted by immediate family members such as parents

(20.22%), grandparents (24.04%) and older siblings (18.91%) and uncles and aunts (27.31%)

or by other close relatives such as cousins and in laws (Save the Children, UNICEF &

Schools and Literacy Dept, Government of NWFP 2005). Children who are not living with

their immediate family or those who are working (for example domestic or commercial child

labourers and children living on the streets) are also very vulnerable to physical abuse

(Caesar-leo, 1999; Ali et al, 2004; Iqbal, 2008).

Both children and parents try to keep the abuse a secret. However, teachers or other

sympathizers can detect it by observing some behavioural and physical cues. These cues

include observing where the bruise is located and whether it corresponds to the story the child

has told about the accident. If the child is wearing long sleeves (trying to hide a bruise or a

wound) when others are wearing shorts and T-shirts, whether the child is more frequently

absent from class, and is there a history of recurring injuries and inconsistent accounts for the

cause of his/her injury. Additionally, observable cues such as withdrawing or aggressive

10

behaviour, self-destructive behaviour and hyper-vigilance are also indicators of child physical

abuse (Loar, 1998).

2.1.2 Child Sexual Abuse

“Child sexual abuse is the involvement of a child in sexual activity that he or she does not

fully comprehend, is unable to give informed consent to, or for which the child is not

developmentally prepared and cannot give consent, or that violates the laws or social taboos

of society. Child sexual abuse is evidenced by this activity between a child and an adult or

another child who by age or development is in a relationship of responsibility, trust or power,

the activity being intended to gratify or satisfy the needs of the other person. This may include

but is not limited to: 1) The inducement or coercion of a child to engage in any unlawful

sexual activity. 2) The exploitative use of child in prostitution or other unlawful sexual

practices. 3) The exploitative use of children in pornographic performances and materials.”

(WHO, 1999)

Hence, child sexual abuse can consist of a range of touching and/or non-touching behaviours

directed to the child. It includes inappropriate comments, touching, sharing of pornographic

material, and the like, with the child, exhibitionism (by anyone of the party) and rape. It could

consist of both violent and nonviolent nature. (Loar, 1998).

Sexual abuse occurs in all countries and across different races and ethnicities. A meta-analysis

report conducted on 217 publications between 1980-2008 concluded that child sexual abuse is

a global issue. It is estimated that the global prevalence rate is 11.8 % or 118 per 1000

children. This was based on 331 independent samples with a total of 9, 911, 748 participants.

The prevalence was highest in the African continent and the lowest in Europe. This could be

due to a number of reasons including the myths and cultural acceptance of some practices in

Africa and stronger law enforcement in Europe. The meta-analysis also confirmed that child

sexual abuse was more prevalent in girls than boys. The problem with the range of

definitions that were used for sexual abuse and the issue of far less cases being reported than

the actual number of incidents was also highlighted in this meta-analysis. In most societies,

taboos regarding females losing their virginity before marriage and taboos related to male

homosexual experience contribute to under-reporting. (Stoltenborgh, 2011)Earlier studies also

indicate that the prevalence of childhood sexual abuse rose from 20 % in women and 10% in

males in 1994 (Finkelhor, 1994a; Finkelhor 1994b) to be as high as 25% for females and 16%

11

in males (Center of Disease Control and Prevention, 2005 ) in the following 11 years.

Increased awareness about child sexual abuse may contribute to increased reporting of child

sexual abuse.

Although the age of disclosure is often later, children of all ages can be sexually abused. The

perpetrator can be anyone from the childs family (for example father, step father, uncle or any

other family member), a caregiver or anyone known to the child (extrafamilial for example

sports coach, baby sitter or a school teacher). Children are rarely abused by strangers and are

usually convinced by people they trust and know. Girls are more likely to be abused by a

family member while boys by other caregivers. (Loar, 1998). Over the past few years

organizations working with children have become increasingly careful. It was found that

molesters who were professionals (similar to extrafamilial offenders generally) were likely to

have sexually abused male, or both male and female, children. Professionals were also

significantly more likely to have offended against post-pubescent minors than were extra-

familial or intra-familial offender.(Sullivan et al, 2011)

The perception of childhood abuse is surrounded by myths and misunderstandings. A child

can never be responsible for sexual abuse as there is always a victim culpability that exists.

One of the popular myths is that the child may be held partly responsible for the sexual crime

against him/her. This could consist of a range of beliefs such as the juveniles seducing the

perpetrators; the victims have the duty to physically resist and say no to any sexual

advancement made towards them (Collings, 2002). Attributions such as the “just world”

phenomenon (bad things happen to people who deserve it) are ascribed to the victim (Hafer,

2000) which makes it easier for the person to feel a decreased sense of susceptibility to abuse.

The credibility of the victims is also at a stake. People may believe that juveniles often

fabricate stories to gain attention (Cromer & Goldsmith, 2010). The age of the child is

associated with the perception of the credibility and culpability. Younger children are

considered more credible and less culpable compared to older children, especially teenagers

(Schmidt & Brigham, 1996). These perceptions cloud the judgment of the victim of sexual

abuse. A meta-analysis conducted on the perceptions about CSA showed that the effect sizes

for both victim age and respondent gender on victim credibility were inversely moderated by

the presence of perpetrator force and/or victim resistance (Font, 2013).

Child sexual abuse has harmful effects on the wellbeing of the child. According to a meta-

analysis of thirty seven studies, between 1981 and 1995 which involved 25,367 people, the

12

link between child sexual abuse and effects on long term and short term on the development

of the child were analysed. Child sexual abuse has a considerable effect on the outcomes of

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), Depression, Suicide, sexual promiscuity, sexual

perpetration and academic achievement (Paolucci et al, 2001). It is also seen that childhood

sexual abuse increases the likelihood of suffering from subsequent psychiatric disorders in

both childhood and adulthood. These psychiatric disorders also include psychosis, substance

abuse, personality disorders and affective disorders. The study concluded that child sexual

abuse accounted for approximately 7.83% of mental health contact (Cutajar et al, 2010).

If a child knows how to protect his/her body, sexual abuse can be prevented. Schools are an

ideal place for primary prevention programs; in addition to being economically conducive,

classrooms also provide an excellent environment to promote discussions and opportunity for

participants to reflect on course content. Many school based programs aim to provide children

with adequate knowledge and self-protection skills. A meta-analysis of 16 evaluation studies

of school programs for prevention of sexual victimisation found that programs that include

explicit training of self-protection skills were more effective than those which only

concentrated on teaching concepts related to sexual abuse. It was also found that children who

are less than five and half years benefit more from intervention programs and most programs

were conducted in schools (Rispens, 1997).

If teachers are trained and are able to detect early signs of abuse, secondary intervention can

be more effective. The teacher needs to carefully analyse the child’s physical condition,

behavioural indicators of the child as well as behavioural indicators of the parent/ family.

These cues include whether the child is engaged in activities that a child of his/her age would

know, whether the child is terrified or preoccupied by sexual matters, whether he/she is

exhibiting withdrawn or aggressive behaviour, if the child has a sudden change in

relationships and academic performances, if he/she has a “special” relationship and a “secret”

with a parent or a relative, and whether the child has any self-mutilating and self-destructive

behaviour. (Loar,1998 )

2.1.3 Emotional abuse

Emotional abuse refers to the failure of providing children with an emotional environment

which is adequate for their psychological, developmental and physical progress. The

definition of emotional abuse is often vague and there have been dire consequences due to

13

unclear literature found on emotional abuse (Rees, 2010). This form of abuse includes “the

failure to provide a developmentally appropriate, supportive environment, including the

availability of a primary attachment figure, so that the child can develop a stable and full

range of emotional and social competencies commensurate with her or his personal potentials

and in the context of the society in which the child dwells. There may also be acts towards the

child that cause or have a high probability of causing harm to the child’s health or physical,

mental, spiritual, moral or social development. These acts must be reasonably within the

control of the parent or person in a relationship of responsibility, trust or power. Acts include

restriction of movement, patterns of belittling, denigrating, scapegoating, threatening, scaring,

discriminating, ridiculing or other non-physical forms of hostile or rejecting treatment”

(WHO, 1999).

Child emotional abuse is a universal issue affecting millions of children worldwide. The

prevalence rate and the aspect associated with emotional abuse vary across cultures. In a meta

analysis of 29 studies consisting of 46 independent samples with a total of 7,082,279

participants, it was concluded that emotional abuse was estimated at 36.3% or 363 per 1,000

children. Gender was not a significant moderator demonstrating that it occurs at the same

percentage in boys and girls. Geographic origins influence its prevalence greatly. Unlike

individualistic cultures, family honour, harmony and interdependence are regarded very

important in collective cultures. Hence, when the child breaks rules, the parents might use

extreme form of disciplining to induce guilt and shame. These cases may never be reported as

they would bring shame to the family. This concept was supported in the meta-analysis, it was

seen that the prevalence of two Asian- American samples was more than twice the combined

prevalence of the seven Asian samples. Hence, it could be that the prevalence in Asia or more

collective cultures is underestimated. (Stoltenborgh, 2012).

Some practices like using children for personal motives ( for example even in fundraising) are

considered emotional abuse and strict ethical codes apply to minimise such practices (FIA,

2011). However, the definition of normal and acceptable in one society may be different in

the other. For example showing affection by close contact to children in Western cultures is

desirable and normal. But in some cultures (for example Chinese) praise is regarded

undesirable as it encourages arrogance. In African countries, it is acceptable to threaten

children with bogyman which would be unacceptable in other cultures (Iwaniec, 2003).

14

Hence, cultural perspectives and perceptions are important to consider when emotional abuse

is concerned.

Emotional abuse is common in homes as well as schools. A study conducted on Yemen

school children found that pupil reported high levels of emotional abuse at least once in their

life with a prevalence of 72.6% in male pupils and 26.1% in females. The same study also

identified that emotional abuse is more likely if the child is 16-17 years old, lives in joint

families and has divorced parents. Father’s education is a protective factor against emotional

abuse. (Ba-Saddik & Hattab, 2012). Another study from India found that 47.9% of boys and

52.1% of girls who were surveyed were emotionally abused in schools (Kachar et al, 2007).

Emotional abuse is hidden and often not recognized and noticed. However, it has its

damaging effects on the child’s perception of relationships, self-perception, use of

relationships, adaptability, development and psychological and physical health. Some risks

factors that increase the likelihood of emotional abuse include the child’s temperament,

parental mental health issues, for example depression, parental abuse of drugs and parental

inconsistency in attachment behaviour (Rees, 2010). Teachers can recognize whether a child

is emotionally abuse by looking at his/her behaviour and physical cues. These include

unprovoked crying or yelling, developmental lags, self-depreciation and poor sense of worth

and lack of self-confidence (Loar, 1998). Emotional abuse is harder to detect as compared to

sexual and physical abuse (Iwaniec, 2003) and requires a more holistic approach for detection

as well as prevent abuse.

Attachment is the key to emotional abuse. Ineffective parental behaviour is described as

passive or passive/aggressive towards the child emotional needs (Iwaniec, 2003). Parents with

mental problems usually exhibit more inconsistent attachment style with the child . Hence,

most interventions are directed towards building a positive relationship between the child and

the parent/caregiver (Meintjes et al, 2010). These include developmental counselling, stress

management, work on attachment, video recording, feedback and working directly with

children. (Iwaniec, 2003)

2.1.4 Neglect; emotional and physical

“Neglect is the failure to provide for the development of the child in all spheres: health,

education, emotional development, nutrition, shelter, and safe living conditions, in the context

15

of resources reasonably available to the family or caretakers, and causes, or has a high

probability of causing harm to the child’s health or physical, mental, spiritual, moral or social

development. This includes the failure to properly supervise and protect children from harm

as much as is feasible.” (WHO, 1999)

Neglect can be physical and emotional. While physical neglect refers to physical aspects like

food, shelter, and medication; emotional neglect refers to failure in providing enough love and

care to support the child’s psychological development. Emotional neglect also refers to the

psychological unavailability of the caregiver inability to give enough time and attention to the

child’s needs (Iwaniec, 2003). This could be due to their own perception and attitudes towards

child rearing, nature or timing of the parents` jobs, family breakdowns, father’s absence or

lack of interest and increased reliance on housemaids for raising children. (Al-lamky, 2004).

As both emotional and physical neglect are a manifestation of negligence by a caregiver, they

share very similar causes and risks. Child neglect has received the least attention out of all

sorts of child maltreatment and has been the least examined in terms of academic research. In

a meta-analysis of 13 independent samples with a total of 59,406 participants, it was

estimated that the prevalence was disturbingly high. The prevalence for physical neglect was

estimated to be 163/1,000 for physical neglect and 184/1,000 for emotional neglect. More

than 15% of all children are neglected. No gender differences were found in the study.

However, this estimation was not from low income countries. There has been very little/ no

research conducted in low-resource countries. (Stoltenborgh, 2013). It could be assumed that

the prevalence might be higher. Research suggests that mothers and children in disadvantaged

communities may be at a higher risk for child neglect (Drake & Pandey, 1996).

Risk factors for neglect are associated with parental psychological variables (including self-

esteem, impulsivity, annoyance, substance abuse diagnoses, lack of social support, daily

stresses, maternal expectations and attribution for child behaviour), child variables (including

age, child behaviour problems), family variables and community variables(including higher

poverty, large urban cities etc) (Schumacher et al, 2001). Other factors of bad parenting

styles, economic resources and hardships are also potential risks for neglect. Additionally,

parental depression, self-efficacy, involvement with child’s activities, and parenting stress

also predict neglect (Slack et al, 2011). Moreover, research suggests that maternal neglect is

independently associated with breast feeding duration. In a study by Strathearn et al (2009),

nearly fourfold increase in the odds of maternal neglect was found for non-breastfed children

16

as compared to those who were breastfed for at least 4 months. Hence, breastfeeding may

play a protective role in helping prevent maternal neglect. It is important to note that all these

factors interplay to either increase the risk of child neglect or protect against it. Hence, a

prevention strategy/ intervention needs to focus on all these elements for a better result.

Child neglect has severe consequences on the child’s health and wellbeing. It has both short

and long term effects on the spheres of social, cognitive and behavioural development. As

compared to children who are physically abused , children who have been neglected have

more grave outcomes. These include cognitive and academic deficits, social withdrawal and

limited peer interactions, and internalizing (as opposed to externalizing) problems (Hildyard

& Wolfe, 2002). The aspect of attachment is severely affected and the child may develop

disorganized attachment (Carlson et al,1989). Moreover, physical neglect has caused an

alarming number of fatalities in children. In a study looking at fatalities caused by

maltreatment, it was found that neglect accounted for the majority (51%) of deaths. In these

cases, the ages of the children in the sample were mostly younger than 5 and parents were

most often the alleged perpetrators (Damashek et al, 2013). In another study, a high

occurrence of deaths was caused by supervisory neglect as compared to deprivation of needs

and medical neglect. (Welch & Bonner, 2013). Hence, while neglect has been one of the most

overlooked issues, the impact is great, and in terms of fatalities specifically it is even greater

than any other form of maltreatment.

Neglect, especially emotional neglect is harder to detect. However if teachers and other

stakeholders are trained, they can be more vigilant in detection. These indicators include the

child being dirty and hungry, engaging in recessive behaviour (e.g thumb sucking, head

banging), and engaging in behaviours like begging and stealing (Loar, 1998). Recently, it has

also been noted that children spend excessive amounts of time in front of the television/

computer/ smart phones and playing video/online games. The caretaker is sometimes

consciously aware of it but uses it to distract the child. This may also be a behaviour

associated with neglect. In a study in Iran, it was found that children spend at least 6.3 hours

per week playing video games. (Allahverdipour et al, 2010). In a qualitative study of sixteen

households, conducted in Lahore, it was also found that one thirds of sample shared that their

children watch four to five hours of television daily (Zafar et al, 2006). However, in the times

of social media, smartphones and easy to use technology, these numbers are just the tip of the

17

iceberg. More research is needed to explore the relationship of neglect and excessive use of

technology.

2.1.5 Exposure to violence

The World Health Organization defines violence as “the intentional use of physical force or

power, threatened or actual, against oneself, another person, or against a group or community,

that either results in or has a high likelihood of resulting in injury, death, psychological harm,

maldevelopment or deprivation” (WHO, 1996).

Violence is a broad topic even covering other forms of maltreatments like sexual and physical

abuse. However this section will only refer to some forms of exposure to violence. It will

briefly cover children’s exposure to indirect violence ( for example video games and

television), domestic violence, school violence and community violence.

In today’s world children are exposed to all forms of violence either indirectly, via media and

advancing technology, or directly. This has harmful effects on their maturing mind and they

tend to develop cognitive schemas that are associated with negative behaviours. Research

suggests that there is a strong link between exposure to violence and aggression. Children

exposed to violence exhibit violence towards animals and their peers (WHO, 2002; WHO

2004). Research also suggests that cognitive schemes of violence and narcissism are

associated with proactive aggression while the abuse schema is associated with reactive

aggression. Proactive aggression refers to one in which the individual anticipates a reward or

expects a favourable outcome. Alternatively, reactive aggression is a response to a threat or

perceived provocation. (Calvete & Orue, 2010).

Children spend a major chunk of their time in front of a screen. It could be watching

television, playing online/ video games or even skimming through their smart phones and

apps. In a study, 47% of participants who were recruited from middle school reported that

they had played one or more intensely violent games (Allahverdipour et al, 2010). Children

tend to watch/ observe their parents watching television with flashing images of violence or

civil unrest, for example, in the news or other programs (WHO, 2004). Even programs that

are targeted towards children contain more violence than some other types of programs. It

may be as glamorized in children’s shows as other shows. These may heighten the risk of

children learning aggression and becoming desensitized to violent representations (Krahé et

18

al, 2011; Wilson et al, 2002). Aggression can be learnt via watching television. There is a

significant association between the amount of time spent watching television during

adolescence and early adulthood and possibility of using aggressive acts against other people,

with or without the history of aggressive behaviour (Johnson et al, 2002). It is important to

supervise the child while they are on the internet, watching television and playing games.

Some children are exposed to violence in their own homes. Domestic violence refers to the

“assaultive and coercive behaviors that adults use against their intimate partners” (Holden,

2003, p. 155). It is a global issue and has immense implications on children. It is estimated to

be higher in underdeveloped/low income countries than in higher income countries. A study

conducted on urban couples in Pakistan, with a higher level of education than the general

population, found that 93% experienced some form of domestic violence. This was mostly

verbal and physical abuse including slapping. Women in this study were from a range of

backgrounds (Shaikh, 2003). In severe cases, some women run away from their homes and

start living in shelter houses with or without their children (Critelli, 2012). Another study

conducted on 69,484 married women in India showed 31% of the respondents experienced

physical violence and 8.3% experienced sexual violence within the past 12 months before the

survey. Interestingly, those respondents who believed that wife-beating was justified under

certain circumstances were more likely to experience domestic violence. The study concluded

that gender role conditioning and cultural norms both contributed to domestic violence

(Kimuna, 2013). Moreover, research also found that women who justified husbands hitting

their wives also believed that corporal punishment was important in child rearing. (Lansford

et al, 2014). Hence, cultural acceptance of domestic violence increases the likelihood of

women experiencing domestic violence and transferring their psychological aggression to

their children.

Children are most often witnesses to domestic violence and are either silent observers or

acting as protecting figures for the victim (usually mothers). There are many implications for

children. These include different types of maltreatment (including psychological, physical,

sexual), specific acts of abuse (for example threatening, hitting, using weapons), severity or

injurious effects (for example bruises, hospital visits), even death all dependent on the timing,

frequency, duration, and age of exposure (Holden, 2003).

Domestic violence can have harmful effects on the child. Findings from a review of existing

literature suggests that children exposed to domestic violence are more susceptible to other

19

forms of abuse (for example, physical abuse if they get in the middle of a fight), are more

prone to exhibit anxiety, aggressive behaviour and problems with peer interaction. Since the

parenting is usually compromised in situations of domestic violence, the child may also have

difficulty developing a logical approach for getting comfortable with the parents and others

around him/her (Holt et al 2008). Domestic violence predicts poorer health and development

(Yount, 2011), and also increases the likelihood of exhibiting internalizing and externalizing

outcomes later in adolescent life (Moylan, 2010).

Some children exposed to violence at their schools are bullied by their peers. Bullying is

commonly defined as acts of aggression repeated over time and those involving a power

imbalance between the perpetrator and his or her targets (Olweus,1993). Traditional bullying

involves use of direct aggression on the target. The most common place for bullying has

traditionally been schools, where the perpetrator could be of the same age or older. Another

type of bullying that has recently emerged is cyber-bullying. This form of bullying is done

through the use of electronic venues such as instant messaging, e-mail, chat rooms, websites,

online games, social networking sites, and text messaging (Kowalski, 2012).

In traditional bullying, bullies often have low self-esteem and their behaviour could be

attributed to seeking attention(Moon et al 2008) Other factors are associated with school-

generated strains, for example teachers’ physical and emotional punishment and examination

related strain (Moon et al 2008). However, cyber-bullying is far more complicated than

traditional bullying. Both traditional bullying and cyber-bullying have harmful effects on

academic achievement, psychological well-being and physical health of the victim (Kowalski

& Limber, 2013; Nakamoto & Schwartz, 2009). Depression could also be a mediating factor

between suicide attempts and bullying (Bauman et al, 2013). Bullying also has negative

influences on a child’s ability to form social bonds; his/ her attachment, commitment, and

belief towards schooling suffer (Popp & Peguero,2012).

Lastly, another factor that relates to the issue of bullying is a child’s exposure to violence in

the community he/she dwells in. Children are exposed to a range of violent behaviours in their

communities, ranging from witnessing physical assaults to death (for example, someone

threatened with serious physical harm, beaten up or mugged, attacked or stabbed with a

knife/piece of glass, or seriously wounded or killed in an incident of violence) (O'Donnell et

al, 2011).This depends greatly on the violence that is prevalent in the community. Examples

of this can be found in places of civil unrest or war zones. Community violence has a serious

20

impact on the child’s mind. Both externalizing and internalizing behaviours including Post

Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD), aggression, depression and substance abuse are associated

with witnessing violence (Buka t al, 2001). Furthermore, research suggests that perceived

neighbourhood violence is associated with an increased use of aggressive disciplining

practices by the parent. (Winstok & Straus, 2011)

In some cases, community violence erupts due to differences in people’s views, beliefs and

attitudes (for example: race, ethnicity and religious ideologies). In other situations, it could be

due to power struggles or an economical divide between different sections of society. It can

also be due to unresolved issues from the past and deep-rooted negative feelings toward

oneself or others (Zaman & Sabir, 2013).

Family environment can play a very important part in building the child’s resilience and

moderating the negative effects of exposure to violence (Proctor, 2006). It has been deduced

that family cohesion moderates the impact of witnessed community violence on delinquent

behaviour (Barr et al, 2012). Moreover, it has also been seen that parents’ exposure to

violence can have a negative effect on the child. In a study conducted on mothers from low-

income backgrounds, the intensity of community violence exposure was positively associated

with both types of aggressive parenting practices, both psychological and physical. (Zhang &

Anderson, 2010). Similarly, a positive school environment is also found to be a moderating

factor for negative outcomes (O'Donnell t al, 2011). Prevention strategies focussing on

creating a positive environment, at school and at home, and increasing tolerance can help

minimize the negative effects of violence.

2.1.6 Children in special circumstances

All children need to be protected from harm. Nonetheless, some children are more at risk of

maltreatment than others. These include children living and/or working on the streets (Lund &

Vaughn-Jensen, 2012; Jones et al, 2012; Fazal,2012), children with disabilities, children

during or after a disaster (manmade or natural) and child labourers, including domestic child

workers and children under institutional care. Children who are exploited, for example, for

child trafficking (Vinkovic, 2010; Conradi, 2013), child prostitution (Muhammad & Zafar,

2006) and child soldiers (Conradi, 2013) are also at a huge risk. For the scope of this study,

only a few of these will be discussed briefly.

21

Children on the street are the most vulnerable to maltreatment, which can take different

forms. In a study conducted on street children in India, children were interviewed and asked

questions related to “general abuse,” “health abuse,” “verbal abuse,” “physical abuse,” and

“psychological abuse”. It was found that the highest percentage was found for verbal and

psychological abuse, and that up to 61.8% scored in the “moderate” category of abuse while

36.6% children indicated abuse in the “severe” and “very severe” categories in terms of

intensity of experienced abuse (Mathur et al, 2009).

Children who are living on the streets are sometimes either runaway children or are living

with their families/ caregivers who are also living on the street. The reasons for running away

include those related to their families, where the family system is somewhat dysfunctional,

domestic violence, parental divorce and separation, parental drug addiction and violence.

Sense of isolation, feeling unwanted (emotional neglect) and physical punishment in schools

is also a noted reason for running away. Runaway children usually have no caregiver and are

easily accessible to pedophiles and exploiters. They may be emotionally, sexually and

physically abused. They are more likely to get addicted to drugs and addictions, like glue

sniffing, and get involved in street gangs (Ali et al, 2004). Moreover, they have no access to

proper healthcare and community service, making them ever more susceptible to infections

and diseases (Woan et al, 2013).

Alternatively, children living with their parents/caregivers, on the streets or nearby slums, are

slightly less vulnerable to abuse and neglect than runaway children but are at a significant risk

compared to the rest of the population. Parents either leave them to survive on their own, or

take them along to work in households or to beg. Children in the slums sometimes organise

themselves in a manner that could protect them, like joining a children’s gang. They become

more vigilant, which makes it difficult for an outsider to gain access into the group (Sen,

2011).

Some children are either forced to beg or work on the streets or at other people’s houses.

Child labour and beggary are very important issues in the developing world. Since some

families live in extreme poverty, child labour and beggary has become a source of income for

sustenance to the extent of being considered “normal and acceptable”. However, in case of

child beggary, big groups/ gangs sometimes use children to gain more empathy. These

children are often subjected to the worst forms of maltreatment. Young children are often

drugged and older children are made to live with a disability (Dubowitz et al, 2009). In South

22

Asia and some other countries, child labour is very common .It is a source of income for

families living in poverty. However, child labour and poverty are mutually reinforcing.

Poverty forces a child to work and hinders educational attainment, it also handicaps

educational and upward social mobility. This, in the long run, reduces lifetime earnings and

leads child labourers back to poverty (Caesar-leo, 1999). Children can either be employed in

homes (domestic child labours) or other places like street restaurants, workshops and shops.

Sometimes, children are forcefully employed at hazardous workplaces where they are not

only maltreated but are exposed to conditions which can be fatal for them (Caesar-leo, 1999;

Öncü et al, 2013; Al-Gamal). In a comparative study targeting six countries where domestic

child labour is very common, it was found that children working as domestic labourers are

sometimes required to work long hours, suffer from physical punishment, and are more

susceptible to psychosocial harm. These vary from country to country. For example, children

in India suffered from more negative psychosocial effects and physical punishment. Instead,

countries where minor domestic workers received some education (Peru, Philippines and

Tanzania), children showed a positive outlook related to psychosocial outcomes (Gamlin,

2013). Hence, even if child labour assists in providing resources to the family, it has

detrimental short term and long term consequences on a child’s health, though education may

be a protective factor in guarding children against some of the negative effects of child labour.

Non-formal education could be an answer in providing education to child labourers, children

on the streets and children who are deprived of basic education. Research suggests that in

India, non-formal schools were effective in providing a substitute to formal primary education

for child labourers. As compared to the control group (equivalent population comparison

group), children who studied in non-formal educational schools showed a higher success rate

in mainstreaming and maintaining education during post primary education (Sud, 2010).

Child labourers, along with children living/working on the streets, are exposed to a lot of

street violence and maltreatment; they are sometimes very emotionally troubled. Art and play

can be used to help resolve their psychological issues and help them build resilience (Tissue

& Korz, 1998).

Children with disabilities are also vulnerable to all forms of abuse and neglect. In a meta-

analysis of 17 studies, it was estimated that the pooled prevalence was 26.7% for combined

violence measures, 20.4% for physical violence, and 13.7% for sexual violence (Jones et al,

2013). Although this analysis was constricted to studies from English-speaking countries (for

23

example Australia, United States of America and countries from Europe), it can be estimated

that the rate is a lot higher in more underdeveloped countries (Lund et al, 2012). In some

countries, the taboo and stigma related to children with disabilities have led people to believe

that these children should be kept at homes. They are severely neglected and are not admitted

in schools (special or inclusive). Hence, teachers lack the knowledge and framework to handle

them. In Pakistan, a study reported that 100% of school administrators reported having

problems handling children with disabilities in mainstream classrooms and a majority of these

administrators lagged knowledge of specific disabilities and special needs (Fazal, 2012).

2.2 Child maltreatment from a psychological and

ecological theory approach

Child maltreatment has a lasting impression on the victim’s mind. There are two main

concepts that are linked to the research on child maltreatment: constructivism with the child

as an active learner (by Jean Piaget), and the ecology of human development (by Urie

Bronfenbrenner).

Research findings in developmental psychology and other disciplines indicate that children

are socially interactive from birth. Cognitive development theories such as that of Jeans

Piaget theory of construction of reality in the child (Piaget, 1956) demonstrates that a child is

an active learner. They “actively” initiate and explore their relationship to their environment

and are actively involved in comprehending, organizing, selecting and processing

information. The child tries to make sense of his/ her environment by giving meaning to it via

the process of accommodation and assimilation. Piaget emphasises how the child becomes

capable of creating and imagining a world, as his\her own, that is reflective of his

psychological state. This theory is ingrained in the concept of “constructivism”, which refers

to how the child is actively involved in constructing and interpreting his\her environment via

self-regulated cognitive activity (Cicchetti & Tucker, 1994).

The concept of constructivism and construction of reality are linked to how the child

perceives acts and behaves when he\she is maltreated. Research suggests that maltreated

children actively construct their reality at both, a biological and a psychological level of

analysis. This construction of reality due to maltreatment affects both biological and

24

psychological functioning; various neurobiological systems and their internal psychological

organization are affected (Cicchetti, 2004; Twardosz & Lutzker, 2010).

The child’s interaction with his/her surrounding influence his/her learning and behaviour.

According to Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological System theory (1979), children interact with

their surroundings and the people within each setting: microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem

and macrosystem. The microsystem refers to the “pattern of activities, roles, and interpersonal

relations experienced by the developing person in a given setting with particular physical and

material characteristics” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). It includes family, school(s), neighbours

and peers. Mesosystem refers to the “interrelations between two or more settings in which the

developing person actively participates” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). It includes interaction

between the teachers and the family, family and the peers, and teachers and the peers.

Exosystem refers to one or more settings that do not involve the developing person as an

active participant, but in which events occur that affect, or are affected by, what happens in

the setting containing the developing person” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979). It includes parents’

workplace, parents’ network of friends and activities of the local school board. Macrosystem

refers to the “consistencies in the form and context of lower-order systems (micro-, meso- and

exo-) that exist or could exist at the level of the sub-culture or the culture as a whole, along

with any belief system or ideology underlying such consistencies” (Bronfenbrenner, 1979).

The cultural contexts include socio-economic status, poverty and ethnicity. The Macro system

of a child living in one culture would be different from a child living in another culture.

Hence, it a responsibility of all individuals of the society to protect and enrich its children,

and to make sure that their interaction with the caregiver and the environment is positive.

To look at reasons, risk factors and preventions of child maltreatment, it is important to look

at child protection issues from a more ecological model/theory approach. It is important to

look at it from the point of view of the individual, relationship, community and the society at

large (Lynch & Cicchetti, 1998). The risk to an individual from interpersonal violence (e.g.

history of violent behaviour, substance abuse), relationship factors (e.g. poor parenting,

domestic violence), community factors (e.g. poverty, high crime rate) and societal factors

(e.g. poor rule of law, cultural norms that support violence) all interplay and increase the

likelihood of taking part in further acts of violence (WHO, 2004). In the same way, to protect

children and prevent child maltreatment, different stakeholders including those with direct

(family, teachers, and pediatricians) and indirect contact (school board, NGOs and

25

government) with the child need to work together. Rather than just focusing on individual

cases, a system needs to be established this has a multidisciplinary and all-encompassing

approach. This is because sometimes focusing on fragmented and individual child protection

issues may be insufficient in providing a comprehensive solution to the problem. Hence, a

system, consisting of all stakeholders is important in providing multi-pronged assistance to

the victims (Wulczyn et al, 2010).

All stakeholders, especially those in close contact with the child (for example teachers,

doctors) need to be adequately trained to detect, manage and report any cases of maltreatment

(Feng et al, 2010; Wulczyn et al, 2010).

2.2.1 Involvement of schools and teachers to protect children

Teachers and schools can play a crucial part in preventing child maltreatment. Schools

provide an excellent platform for prevention programs; they provide a safe and stable

environment especially to those who are maltreated, and are embroiled in poverty and

disaster. It may also provide a platform for discussion and interaction with peers (Boothby &

Mervin, 2003). Furthermore, teachers can play an important part in detection, management

and reporting of maltreated pupil. (Walsh et al, 2005). Prevention of child maltreatment can

be primary, secondary or tertiary. Primary prevention refers to stopping the occurrence of

maltreatment in the whole population (WHO, 1999). Primary preventive measures of

maltreatment in schools include school based activities towards non-violence (Crooks et al,

2011) and programs promoting “Good touching & bad touching”, “My body is my own” and

“Kids can say No” concepts to all children (WHO, 1999). Secondary prevention refers to

interventions for those individuals who are at risk of maltreatment (WHO, 1999). It includes

school based social services for high stress environments (WHO, 1999), “Safe play programs”

in disaster situations, “school based psycho-social support for children living in stressful

situations” (for example in Palestine), “class room based initiatives with distinct

psychological recovery component”, “peer-peer groups” (Boothby & Mervin, 2003) and

school based social support for high stress environments (WHO, 1999). Tertiary prevention

refers to stopping further harm after the maltreatment has already occurred (WHO, 1999).

Programs working on tertiary implementation include school based counselling (Boothby &

Mervin, 2003), school based trauma intervention (Nadeem et al, 2011) and Traumatic Grief

Cognitive Behaviour Therapy (Cohen et al, 2006)

26

Teachers are important individuals who can play a vital role in a child’s development. They

interact with the child on a regular basis enabling them to observe and monitor slight

deviations in the child’s behaviour. Moreover, the child sometimes develops a close

relationship with the teachers and becomes willing to disclose family life and maltreatment

(Laksy, 2005). In some countries, teachers are obligated to report any cases of suspected

maltreatment to the authorities. Countries in which it is mandatory to report include Australia

(Harries et al, 2002), United States of America (McIntyre, 1987), United Kingdom (Laksy,

2005), Canada (Wekerle & Wolfe, 2013) Netherland and most of other European countries

(Schols et al, 2013). In these countries, child protection laws have been enforced and

implemented, systems are in place to prevent maltreatment, and teachers and other

stakeholders have been trained about child safeguarding issues. Most research about teachers’

understanding of issues of child protection is concentrated in these countries and very little

research has been done on low income/ developing countries. However, systems in developed

countries including UK, USA, and Australia are a lot more advanced. Recent studies have

focused on trends with respect to reporting by teachers in these countries (Laksy, 2005;

O’Toole, 1999; Schols et al, 2013; Tite, 1993; Walsh et al, 2005; Wekerle, 2013). Therefore,

their example can be used as torch-bearing models of how child protection services/ systems

and understanding of teachers have developed over time.

As a case in point, the British government has taken a top-down approach to create standard

procedures, roles and responsibilities for all professionals who are in close contact with the

child. In “The Government's guidance to Working Together to Safeguard Children”, these

procedures and roles are clearly outlined. For effective implementation, each local authority

has set up its own Local Safeguard Children’s Board (LSCB). This board includes the police,

the health council and other bodies like schools, domestic violence forums etc. This board

covers areas of helping in implementation of policies and procedures, spreading awareness

among masses, monitoring, and evaluating and reviewing serious cases including deaths

(Gray, 2009).

Although the Child Protection System in England and the rest of the United Kingdom has

been evolving for over a century (Gray, 2009), it was only recently in 2002 that an

amendment to legislation was passed regarding schools and child protection. According to

this amendment, it was the schools and local authorities’ duty to make sufficient arrangements

to protect its children and promote their welfare. While the enforcement of this amendment

27

took time, a considerable amount of literature was published and made public following its

approval. The amendment was with regards to helpful advice to not only identify and report

cases of abuse but also on collaborating with other professionals to prevent child

maltreatment (Laskey, 2005).

On implementation, a Child Protection Coordinator was appointed within every school who

was assigned the responsibility of communicating with local social services department. The

same co-ordinator would make the decision to report a case of child abuse, as well as ensure

that all employees and teachers are aware of the signs of and procedures related to child

maltreatment. This Child Protection Coordinator is usually the head teacher of the school. The

teachers are trained regarding these signs and procedures during their teacher training

qualification and/or in-house workshops or external courses. Although there have been

problems regarding the length and content of these courses, they have been useful in training

teachers to recognize and detect child abuse and neglect (Laskey, 2005).

2.3 Protection Rights of a Child in Pakistan

Pakistan signed and ratified the United Nations Child Rights Convention (UN-CRC) in 1990.

The UN-CRC consists of 54 articles which focus on 5 basic areas. These include 1) basic

survival needs of the child; 2) protection rights; 3) development rights; 4) participation rights;

and 5) the implementation of the CRC. It consists of a number of articles which focus on

child’s right to live a safe and healthy life. Article 19 is about protection from abuse and

neglect. It states that “1. State parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative,

social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental

violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation,

including sexual abuse, while in the care of parent(s), legal guardian(s) or any other person

who has the care of the child. 2) Such protective measures should, as appropriate, include

effective procedures for the establishment of social programmes to provide necessary support

for the child and for those who have the care of the child, as well as for other forms of

prevention and for identification, reporting, referral, investigation, treatment and follow-up of

instances of child maltreatment described heretofore, and, as appropriate, for judicial

involvement” (Ali, 1994).

28

Other articles that focus on protection and children in special circumstances include: Article 9

(separation from parents), Article 20 (protection of children without families), Article 22

(refugee children), Article 23 (children with disabilities), Article 30 (children with minorities

or of indigenous people ), Article 32 (child labour), Article 33 (drug abuse), Article 34 (sexual

exploitation), Article 35 (sales, trafficking and abduction), Article 36 (other forms of

exploitation), Article 37 (torture and deprivation of liberty), Article 38(armed conflicts) and

Article 40 (administration of juvenile justice) (Ali, 1994).

Pakistan has also signed a number of human rights treaties including Convention concerning

Forced or Compulsory Labour, Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution

and Child Pornography, United Nations Convention against Torture, Convention on the

Rights of Persons with Disabilities, Minimum Age Convention, 1973, Pakistan signed

conventions, The Stockholm Declaration and Agenda for Action against Commercial Sexual

Exploitation, ILO Convention 182 against the Worst Forms of Child Labour, UN Convention

on International Organized Crime against human trafficking, SAARC Convention on

Trafficking in Women and Children Yokohama Global Commitment and South Asian

Strategy to counter child sex abuse and commercial sexual exploitation (Muhammad & Zafar,

2006)

To eliminate violence and maltreatment of children, several federal and provincial laws have

also been passed in Pakistan. These include The Punjab Children Ordinance 1983, Sindh

Children’s Act 1955, Juvenile Justice System Ordinance (JJSO) Pakistan Penal Code, Punjab

Bonded Labor System Act. The Punjab Children Ordinance 1983, Sindh Children’s Act 1955

address the protection of children from all forms of physical and mental (emotional) abuse

(Ali, 1994). The Juvenile Justice System Ordinance (JJSO) prohibits the death penalty of

individual below the age of 18. Pakistan Penal Code contains a number of provisions against

trafficking, forced and underage marriages, sexual abuse, and exploitation. However, most

laws relating to early marriage and sexual exploitation only concern girls, not boys (Save the

Children, 2010). The government has also recently passed a Punjab Bonded Labor System

Act (United States Department of Labor). “National plan of action for children” and “Child

protection bill” is still pending to be approved (Muhammad, 2009)

Within the framework of national laws and policies, the definition of a child is not clear. It

varies from 14-18 years. In matters of marriage and divorce, a girl under 16 and a boy under

18 is considered a child. However in matters of labour, a child is anyone under the age of 15.

29

This variation in definition has caused confusions and contradictions in the implementation of

these laws. (Ali, 1994)

There is no structured child protection system in Pakistan; the reporting of child abuse and

neglect is not mandatory on professionals. Typically, only medical attention is provided to the

victim of child abuse/ neglect. Additionally, the police only investigates serious cases or cases

in which the parents are willing to file for an investigation. No psycho-social services are

provided (Muhammad, 2009). However, a number of initiatives have been started to combat

child maltreatment. These include Child Protection Bureau for street children, training of law

enforcement personnel, coordination and co-operation at a local and national level, regional

and international level. International and national NGOs have initiated a number of child

protection programmes and projects focusing on awareness and psycho-social rehabilitation

of abused children. (Muhammad & Zafar, 2006).

Overall instability in the country, lack of adequate institutions, pre-existing attitudes about

child rearing, preconceived notions about child rights, social acceptance of some forms of

exploitation including child labour and social taboos are all related to sexual abuse.

Traditional practices and lack of general knowledge about issues revolving around child

protection contribute to the complexity of implementing laws, hampering the process of

system building and training individuals on issues of child protection.

Corporal punishment is such an accepted form of disciplining that the police, school

principals, community leader and other governing bodies fail to see it as a concern. Physical

punishment is commonly used in homes, schools, prisons and other places (Save the Children,

2010). The line between disciplining and abuse has blurred so much that the community as a

whole is sometimes responsible for very inhuman acts. In August, 2010, an angry crowd in

Sialkot, Punjab lynched and beat two teenagers aged 17 and 15 to death. They used hockey

sticks, iron rods and other improvised weapons. Although later proven innocent, these boys

were suspected of armed robbery by the crowd. The angry crowd along with some policemen

decided to “punish” these boys (Amnesty International, 2010). A video footage was later

shown on national television and it was seen that the crowd consisted of people from all ages,

including young children.

Talking about sexual abuse and exploitation is a taboo subject in Pakistan. This is reflected in

negligible to little research found on the attitudes about child sexual abuse in Pakistan. A

30

study conducted on the Asian community (mainly Pakistani women) in Bradford, England,

found that the complex concepts of “Izzat” (direct translation is honour/respect but used here

in terms of community standing), “haya” (direct translation modesty) and “sharam” (direct

translation is shame/embarrassment but usually used in the context of bringing shame to the

family) impacted the response to questions on child sexual abuse (Gilligan & Akhtar, 2005).

Even though talking about sexual abuse is a taboo subject, a situational analysis in Lahore

showed interesting results. In this study, older children and different stakeholders including

parents, net cafe owners, book shop owners and mini-cinema owners (a room with a

television) were asked about children’s exposure to pornography. While only two mothers of

teenage boys responded that there could be a possibility that her child could watch

pornographic material, most net café owners, book/magazine shop and mini-cinema owners

frequently reported selling/ showing children as young as 8 years pornographic material. This

study included participants from a range of socio/economic, educational backgrounds (Zafar,

2006). Hence, the commonly held perception by parents is naïve that children in Pakistan are

not exposed to excessive sexual images and information. It is important that this information

is provided and channelized in a more child-friendly and safer way. Sexual health education

has been a very controversial topic. While many saw the necessity of it to protect young girls

and boys, other saw it as inappropriate and against religious beliefs. The first sexual health

curriculum was launched in September 2013 after a close collaboration with religious

scholars, government officials, parents, teachers and children (Tribune, 2013). This is a

welcomed step to help increase awareness, thereby reducing subsequent sexual abuse and

exploitation.

Children living/ working on the streets and those who are involved in any form of informal

labour are especially vulnerable to the different forms of sexual exploitation. Child

prostitution is a taboo but a not so uncommon phenomenon. Although the exact figure of

street children is unknown, it is estimated that at least 7000 children live on the streets of

Lahore alone. (SPARC & Plan, 2005). These children are especially vulnerable to sexual

exploitation. In a situational analysis report on boy prostitution in cities of Lahore and

Peshawar, it was found that most runaway and street children get into prostitution for basics

like food, clothing, accommodation and money. This can be undertaken as a full-time or part-

time occupation, combined with begging, scavenging, apprenticeship and other informal

work. Having been sexually abused once increases their likelihood of getting into commercial

31

sex trade. Moreover, Afghan refugee children are especially at risk because of extreme

poverty and lack of parental supervision. This study also touched upon how strict gender

segregation and male control prevails in these spaces and the complex concepts of

“Izzat”(honour) and “Sharam”(shame/ dishonour) helps create and maintain this social control

(Muhammad & Zafar, 2006). Although some local and international NGOs are working with

street children, the government has failed to protect this vulnerable segment of society. Even

after the much publicised case of the serial killer Javed Iqbal, who confessed op sexually

abusing, torturing and killing a hundred children, all from the streets of Lahore in 1999, the

government has failed to implement adequate child protection policies.

Gender discrimination, and in some cases ethnic and religious discrimination, is also

prevalent. It is a socio-cultural norm to assign women and girls primary domestic and

caregiving roles, sometimes depriving them of basic rights including education. They face

protection issues regarding early and forced marriages, are victims of honour killing and

cultural customs such as that of “vani”(young girls married off as compensation to the crime

committed by their male relatives). Blasphemy laws have existed in Pakistan since colonial

times but they became an instrument for religious intolerance in the 80s when the punishment

was increased to death sentence. Since then, hundreds of non-Muslims have been emotionally

abused and even killed by religious fanatics, including children (Berti, 2003 September).

Since a major chunk of the population lives under poverty, neglect is a complicated issue.

One cannot ignore poverty and lack of resources while talking about how the basic needs of

the child are neglected. According to the raw data from the Child Protection Unit (CPU) in

Children Hospital Lahore, 71.1% of all cases of child maltreatment were of neglect. However,

these included children who were severely malnourished due to poverty. This data was from

the year 2009 -2013 and was of all children who came to the hospital to seek medical

assistance (Zafar & Naeem, 2014).

Pakistan has been the frontline ally in fighting the United States ‘war on terror’. This has

caused a lot of civil unrest and violence in Pakistan. While some children are recruited as

suicide bombers by some terrorist agencies, others are exposed and constantly under threat.

During the military operation against the Taliban in 2009, approximately 2.9 million people

were internally displaced. A training manual for psycho-social rehabilitation of children living

in camps pointed out that children displayed clear signs of Post Traumatic Stress Disorder

(PTSD), externalizing (for example, aggression) and internalizing behaviours (for example

32

depression). However, no or little psychological help was provided by the government and a

large majority of them returned without any psychological assistance (Din, 2010). The

existent socio-political conditions and the exposure to (direct/ indirect) violence has created

an environment where behaviours such as youth street violence is also gaining ground rapidly

(Zaman & Sabir, 2013).

The list of acts and maltreatments against children in Pakistan is very long. Children in

Pakistan are subjected to inhumane acts of abuse and violence. Other forms of maltreatment

include acid throwing (especially on females), juvenile torture by the police and authorities,

“qisas” (punishment by causing similar hurt) or “diyat” (compensation), exploitation of

children for beggary, domestic and commercial labour, child trafficking for prostitution and as

camel jockeys (Berti, 2003).

2.4 Education in Pakistan; systems, teachers and

school practices

The educational system of Pakistan comprises of 260,903 institutions and is facilitating

41,018,384 students with the assistance of 1,535,461 teachers (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013).

The three main educational systems in Pakistan are namely: public, private and Islamic

schooling systems. Public schools are those that run by the government. Recently, NGO

schools are also emerging, catering to children either living in rural settings or in special

circumstances, for example, those living and working on the streets.

Public schools are those that are funded and governed mainly by the government. There are

180,846 public institutions in Pakistan (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013). According to Pakistan

Education Statistics, in 2011-2012, in Punjab there are a total of 44,064 primary schools,

7,756 secondary schools and 5,590 high schools. Out of these 3,736 primary schools, 957

secondary schools and 1,316 are located in urban areas. There were around 110,546 teachers

in primary schools, 70, 256 schools in middle school and 107, 186 high schools in Punjab

province. Out of these, 17,776 primary schools, 14,123 middle schools and 42,162 high

schools were located in urban Punjab respectively. It was also seen that 47,937 teachers were

males and 51,460 were females. (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013). The language of instruction in

public schools is both English and Urdu, however Urdu language is more dominant (Rahman,

2004). The Pakistan National Curriculum is usually taught in schools (UNESCO, 2011).

33

Private schools are those that are commercially run by individuals/private educators to

provide quality education to children. According to Pakistan Education Statistics, in 2011-

2012, there were a total of 11, 488 primary, 18,638 middle and 11,848 private high schools in

Punjab. Out of these, 3,466 primary, 6,824 middle and 6,312 private high schools are located

in urban areas of Punjab. A total of 49,074 primary teachers, 163,486 middle school and

169,642 high school teachers teach in Punjab. Out of these 24,276 primary teachers, 67,957

middle and 103,648 high schools teachers teach in urban Punjab. Moreover, in urban Punjab,

from a total of 215,934 teachers 38,815 are males and 177,119 are females. (NEMIS-

AEPAM, 2013). The medium of instruction is both English and Urdu, however English

language is more dominant (Rahman, 2004). Children are either taught the Pakistan National

Curriculum or are taught for preparation of GCE O level International exams or International

Baccalaureate (IB) exams.

Islamic or “Madrassa” schools are those that emphasize on Islamic education. They also teach

other subjects. These schools could be funded and governed by the government (public) or by

individuals or organizations (privately). However, no/ very little fee is charged from the

student. The total male enrolment in Islamic schools is 1.073 million (62%), whereas, the

female enrolment is 0.650 million (38%)(NEMIS-AEPAM, 2011). According to the Pakistan

Education Statistics, in 2011-2012, there were a total of 6,522 institutions in Pakistan out of

which 2,475 were located in Punjab. The total numbers of teachers in Punjab were 24,694;

6,936 were females and 17,758 were male teachers (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013). The medium of

instruction is usually Urdu. There are five madrassa boards; Wafaq ul-Madaaris al-Arabia

(Deobandi), Tanzeem ul-Madaaris (Barelvi), Wafaq ul-Madaaris al-Salafia.(Ahl-e-Hadith),

Wafaq ul-Madaaris al-Shia (Shia), Rabita ul-Madaaris al-Islamia (Jama’at-e-Islami). Four out

of these five boards teach according to their Islamic sects (Manzar & Zaidi, 2013).

In order to cater to children in special circumstances, for example, those living on the streets,

or engaged in manual labour, the government started Basic Education Community schools.

These schools are based on non-formal basic education system in which a group of children

from class 1-5 study in the same room/centres (“Government of Pakistan”, 2014). There are a

total of 6,040 institutions in Punjab with 6,040 teachers. 211 teachers are males and 5,829 are

female teachers. On the same model, some NGOs have started their own initiatives in which

they provide education to underprivileged children including children from the slums, gypsy

children, and children living and working on the streets, domestic labours and child labours.

34

These NGO centres/schools provide education and vocational skills to children. They are

funded by local philanthropists and sometimes supported by local/international charity

organization. Textbooks in these centres are provided by the government (“Doors of

Awareness”, 2014). The exact number of NGO run schools operating across the country is

unknown.

Pakistan is facing a number of issues in education. Dual languages of instruction and a variety

of curriculums taught in schools contribute in raising socio-economic disparity of the masses.

Moreover, the quality of teachers is poor. In public/ government schools, a low level of

education including ten years of schooling and an eleven month certificate is required to

become a primary school teacher. Due to the lack of teachers in some areas, individuals who

have only finished eight years of education are also employed as teachers. Furthermore, there

is a lack of adequately trained master trainers, support/ monitoring system for teachers and in-

house training for teachers which could improve the overall quality of instruction. In private

schools, the quality is comparatively better. As a minimum, teachers who have up till twelve

years of education are employed here. The preference for English language fluency is the

main priority for employing a teacher thus very few teachers have had any pre-service

training before (Memon, 2007). According to Pakistan Education statistics, Punjab province

has a total of 60 institutions, training around 1,837 teachers each year (NEMIS-AEPAM,

2013). This shows that only a handful of teachers are trained each year, leaving a large

number of teachers under-trained. Training regarding child abuse and neglect is not provided

by the government. Some individuals and charity organizations have initiated trainings for

awareness purposes.

2.5 Pakistan’s Challenges in Child Protection

Along with the lack of adequate laws and policies, child protection system and trained

professionals, there are other factors that may also influence child protection in Pakistan.

Some factors including vague definitions, lack of research, prevailing attitudes about child

rearing, social stigmas and taboos are barriers of effectively protecting children.

Although the definitions and concepts of various forms of maltreatment have evolved over

time, some concepts are still vague (WHO, 2002). For instance, in Pakistan, there is no legal

definition of different forms of child maltreatment. The definitions by WHO are used for any

35

procedure regarding child abuse and neglect by professionals. There is a general lack of

awareness and knowledge especially about non-contact forms of child sexual abuse and

neglect (Muhammad, 2009).

Secondly, there is a lack of adequate data/ research on issues of child protection in developing

countries. Research conducted on child abuse, neglect and violence is concentrated in high

income countries. Very little research has been conducted in countries with lower economic

income and/or an unstable socio-political situation. Data concerning fatalities often exists but

systematic data on non-fatal outcomes of violence and child maltreatment is not available.

The data that has been collected is often done so by private organizations, NGOs, individual

agencies and institutions. This is used for their own record keeping, may have incomplete/

insufficient information about the issue and/or may have personal biases. Hence, the quality

of data/research may be compromised (WHO, 2002). There is no existing central database on

various forms of violence in most South Asian countries (Save the Children, 2010). In

Pakistan, it is very difficult to obtain reliable information on the issues of child protection.

Child maltreatment, especially sexual abuse is a highly sensitive and stigmatised issue.

Therefore, children cannot/ do not disclose their experiences, and even if they do the parents

often feel reluctant to report or disclose it (Muhammad, 2009).

Thirdly, joint family system still prevails in most South Asian families. These existing

institutes provide emotional and social support to the victims in need (Muhammad, 2009). For

example, during flood disasters in Pakistan, many families supported and took care of their

children from their extended families who had lost their parents. This reduced the risk of child

trafficking and commercial exploitation. Although this partly compensates for the lack of

social support services, it puts children at risk of other forms of maltreatment (Zafar &

Naeem, 2013).

Lastly, the roles and responsibilities of professionals, including those of teachers, are not

defined. In Pakistan there is no child protection structure and children are regarded as the

property of their parents and families. The state or any individual from the society is not

supposed to question the parents/ families on their child rearing practices. The family is

considered a “strictly private domain” and no outsider is allowed to interfere (Muhammad,

2009). The issues of family’s honour and shame are very important concepts which impact

family’s attitudes in rearing their children (Gilligan & Akhtar, 2005).

36

There are many other barriers including financial costs and human resources for all

individuals involved in the process of child protection, attitudes about disciplining and

corporal punishment, exposure to intense violence in the community and lack of knowledge

about various forms of abuse and neglect that contribute to the increased prevalence of child

abuse and neglect cases in Pakistan (Muhammad, 2009; Svevo-Cianci et al, 2011; Save the

Children, 2010; WHO, 2002).

37

3 Methodology

3.1 Design and Approach

The study was conducted by applying a quantitative approach based on survey design. This

was carried out by using a self-administered questionnaire in a group setting as the sole

research instrument. This mode of collecting data was chosen for this study due to the

following reasons:

Firstly, self-administered questionnaire maintained anonymity of the participant, which

allowed adequate responses when sensitive topics are involved. The topic of violence, abuse

and neglect is sensitive. Especially, in Pakistan, talking about child violence and sexual abuse

is a taboo. Face-face interview or even telephone questionnaire may not be appropriate as the

respondent may be shy or reluctant to answer.

Secondly, self-administered questionnaires provide a simple and straightforward approach to

study attitudes and values of the participants. The variable of attitude regarding child

protection needed to be measured in a way that would minimize the social desirability bias.

For this the attitude scale was worded such that it was indirectly asking the participants their

attitudes. For example “occasional hitting of the child is acceptable”

Thirdly, self-administered questionnaires are a very cost effective way of collecting data from

a large number of participants. It may also be adapted to collect generalizable information for

almost any kind of population. This was especially important as the data was to be collected

from teachers who were from three different settings; private, public and madrassa/Islamic

schools across the city of Lahore. The master thesis was self-financed and collecting data

from a larger population would have been very costly otherwise.

Alternatively, self-administered surveys/ questionnaires have some disadvantages. They

typically have a lower response rate and since the characteristics of the non-respondents are

unknown, the sample may not be as representative. To avoid this issue and to increase

response rate, permission was asked from the school management if the questionnaires could

be filled out in a group setting. The school management organized a time in their school

building where the teachers filled out the questionnaires.

38

Another disadvantage of the self-administered questionnaires typically face is that

respondents may not report their beliefs and attitudes accurately due to the social desirability

response bias. They want to respond in a way that shows them in a good light. This effect is

more predominant in face to face interviews or telephone questionnaire but it still prevails in

self-administered surveys. To minimize this bias, they were specially told that the survey is

anonymous and that there is no right or wrong answer. They were also asked to answer the

questions as close as they can to what they believe is the right response. (Robson, 2002)

3.2 Population, Sample selection and Participants

3.2.1 Population

The criteria for the targeted population for this study were:

1) Regular school teacher by profession.

2) Currently employed by a school in the area of Lahore, Pakistan,

Even though, the role of the teachers vary from class teacher, subject teacher to head teacher,

it was important for the target population to interact with the children on a regular bases. No

members from administrative/ managerial posts of the school were included in the study.

It was also important that the teachers were employed by the school. Interns and volunteer

teachers were not included in the study as they usually work for shorter time duration and

have lesser hours with the children.

To ensure representativeness of the study, the target population was teachers from three

different school systems; private, public and Madrassa/Islamic Schools.

3.2.2 Sample selection

After defining the population for the study, a sample was selected.

This was done in 3 stages:

Stage 1: Identified schools which falls in the study’s population criteria, were easily

accessible and were more likely to positively respond to participate in the study.

39

Stage 2: Letter of Invitation was dispatched either by post or email. Contact was established

with the schools. (Please see appendix C)

Stage 3: The principal was asked to further invite the teachers to participate in the study. The

time and place was organized for the teachers to fill out the questionnaire in a group setting.

Several meetings with the principle/contact person were held in this process, when necessary.

Hence, participants were selected via convenience sampling. Although convenience sampling

does not give everyone an equal chance of participation and results may be not be generalized

(affecting the external validity), it was done so due to practical constraints. (Johnson &

Christensen 2012)

3.2.3 Participants

Eventually, data was collected from 6 schools. Each school had 2-4 branches, making a total

of 13 branches spread across the city. Though, the schools were located in areas covering all

social-economical classes of the society, the participating schools were amongst the most well

reputed schools in those areas.

The initial plan was to have at least 40 participants from each school but a much larger

number of participants took part in this study.

3.3 Instrument

A self-administered questionnaire was developed as the main instrument of gathering

information from the participants.

This questionnaire was developed in English and was also translated in Urdu (Please see

appendix B) for administration in Madrassa/Islamic and public schools.

The questionnaire was divided in two main sections. Section A and Section B. (Please see

Appendix A)

Section A comprised demographic information related to participants information, pupil in

class and school characteristics. It consisted of a total of 12 items including 2 sub items and

was diversified with different types of questions. It included contingency questions (Item 5b

40

& 7b), numeric open ended question (item 2, 6, 11), text open ended question (item 4, 3),

multiple choice with closed ended answers (items 1,8,9,10, 5a and 7a) and multiple answer

question (item 12).

Section B consisted of three subsections; Knowledge, Attitude and Practices. Each of the

subsections were made of 30 four point Likert scaled items, making a total of 90 items. In the

Likert scale items, the participants were to tick numeric values (1-4) indicating whether they

Strongly Agree, Agree Disagree or Strongly Disagree with the given statement. Likert scale

was suitable as the responses are easily quantifiable, quick and efficient. This section also

consisted of reverse order statements which were in random order to increase the reliability of

the questionnaire. (Further explained Section 3.5)

Each subsection had statements related to components of childhood trauma including child

physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect and

exposure to violence. It also consisted of statements targeting specific segments of children in

Pakistan for example child domestic workers, children working/living on the streets, children

with disabilities and children used in beggary.

The first subsection of Knowledge entailed of statements focusing on factual knowledge of

what different forms of abuse are, myths/misunderstanding and incidence of child abuse and

neglect in Pakistan. The subsection of Attitudes entailed of statements focusing on beliefs and

values that exist in the Pakistani society regarding aspects of child protection in urban and

rural settings. The third subsection of Practices concentrated on recognizing signs or abuse,

general practices in schools, and child protection systems in Pakistan.

3.3.1 Developing the questionnaire; literature review and pilot study

According to Czaja and Blair (1996), cited (Robson, 2002. p 241) “the survey questionnaire

should be designed to help achieve the goals of the research and in particular answer the

research questions.”

Hence, the questionnaire was designed in accordance to the main research question i.e.:

The purpose of the study was to investigate what are the prevailing levels of knowledge,

attitudes and practices of teachers regarding issues of child protection across mainstream

educational systems in Lahore. Pakistan.

41

Since the questionnaire aimed to touch upon a variety of areas under child protection,

especially in the context of Pakistan, a self-constructed questionnaire was used. This

questionnaire was developed in 4 stages. 1) Cultural overview and literature review of pre-

existing child abuse, neglect and violence questionnaires, reports and modules on child

protection. 2) Formulating a large set of statements 3) Pilot study 4) Finalizing the

questionnaire.

Stage 1: There was no available childhood abuse and neglect questionnaire especially

targeting the Pakistani population. Training materials from various organizations and existing

literature regarding child protection in developing countries was looked at and information

about the six forms of childhood abuse was gathered.

Stage 2: A large set of statements were written according to the concurring themes of child

protection. Each form of childhood trauma had at least four statements (and their reverse)

within subsections of knowledge, attitude and practices respectively. Each statement was

scored according to the relevance to the study, cultural relevance and linguistic simplicity.

These were then short listed to 2/3 statements (and their reverse) per form of trauma per

subsection.

Stage 3: A pilot study was conducted where five teachers were asked to fill out the

questionnaire and give feedback on how to improve it. They were specifically asked to point

to any statement they find misleading or misunderstood. The time taken, errors and shortfalls

were noted.

Stage 4: After integrating the feedback from the pilot study, supervisor’s feedback and other

expert opinion, a questionnaire was devised. The questionnaire was then translated in Urdu.

Since this questionnaire was focusing on sensitive and taboo information from the

participants, special attention was paid on the wordings of the statements. The Urdu version

was not translated word by word from the original questionnaire but it was done in a way

which was closest to the English translation and could be easily understood.

42

3.4 Data Collection Procedure

After ethical clearance from NSD, sample for the study was selected (Please see sample

3.2.2). The school principal and/or contact person organized a time and place for the teachers

to fill out the questionnaire in a group setting.

Once the willing teachers were assembled, a brief introduction was made about the study.

They were told that they had the right to leave at any point in the study, there were no right

and wrong answer and that it was anonymous. They were given further instructions and were

asked to fill out the questionnaire without consulting the other participants.

The questionnaire took approximately 25-35 minutes, depending on the speed of the

participant. If they had any issue with the question or they wanted more clarification, help

was provided in a neutral way.

Once the questionnaire was filled, the participants were debriefed and thanked.

3.5 Reliability and Validity

Validity and reliability was considered to evaluate the inferences made from the data that was

collected. Validity refers to the accuracy of the inferences, interpretation, or action made on

the basis of the test score.(Johnson & Christensen 2012 p 143) The concept of validity

includes internal validity, construct validity, external validity and Statistical conclusion (Cook

and Campbell, 1979).

The first type of validity is internal validity. It refers to the “validity with which statements

can be made about the whether there is a causal relationship from one variable to another in

the form in which the variables were manipulated of measured” (Cook and Campbell, p 38).

Threats to internal validity include history, maturation, testing, instrumentation, statistical

regression, selection, and interaction with selection, diffusion or imitation of treatments,

approximate validity with which we refer that a relationship between two variables is causal”:

Adequate steps need to be taken to minimize threats to the internal validity.

To insure minimal threat to internal validity the respondents could be insulated from outside

influence, choosing a time which results in optimal performance (countering threat in history),

presenting statements which the participant does not predict (countering threat in testing), try

43

to use random sampling while selecting the sample (minimize threat in selection) and

selecting participants of the same age, same setting and using the same instrument on all

participants (minimize the threat of interaction with selection) asking the participants not to

communicate or imitate answers while filling out the questionnaire (minimize threat to

diffusion or imitation of treatment) (Cook and Campbell, 2002). In this study efforts were

made to minimize threats in history, testing and diffusion and imitation of treatment. It was

not possible to select a random sample and sample of the same age due to practical

constraints. The aim of the study was to investigate understanding between different groups.

Data regarding participant’s demographic information was collected and analyzed.

The second type of validity is Construct Validity which is sometimes referred to as

“inadvertent confounding” validity (Campbell, 1979, p 38). Threats to construct validity

include inadequate preoperational explication of constructs, mono-operation bias, hypothesis-

guessing within experimental conditions, experimental expectancies and restricted

generalizability across constructs (Campbell, 1979) . Attitudes are for example defined as a

stable predisposition to respond. This could either be across the individuals mode of

responding or across time. Due to practical constraints, this study could only gauge the

attitudes and understanding of issues related to child protection once which might be a threat

to “inadequate preoperational explication of constructs”. In one pair (related to an issue) two

statements (one positively and the other negatively worded) were used to minimize the threat

of mono-operational bias. Since this study was conducted by only one person, the threat to

experimenter expectancy could be a problem.

The third type of validity is External validity. It refers to “the extent to which the results of a

study can be generalized to and across population of persons, settings, times and outcomes”

(Cook and Campbell, 1979). Threats to external validity include 1) interaction of selection

and treatment and 2) interaction of history and treatments. (Cook & Campbell, 1979).

Although convenience sampling was used, steps were taken to increase representativeness as

much as possible. Data was collected from four school settings across the city of Lahore.

The fourth type of validity is Statistical conclusion validity. It refers to the “validity in which

we can infer that the two variables are related and the strength of that relationship” (Johnson

& Christensen, 2012 p 263). Threats to this kind of validity include low statistical power and

violated assumption of statistical tests. This study does not aim to draw inferences between

two or more variables. This would be important if analytic analysis is performed on the data.

44

Reliability refers to “the consistency or stability of test scores” (Johnson & Christensen 2012

p 138). It means that a test/ assessment procedure would provide similar results on different

occasions. A reliability coefficient can be calculated to measure reliability. In this, coefficient

of zero would stand for no reliability and coefficient of one would stand for perfect reliability.

It is also very important to check for internal consistency. Internal consistency, within

reliability refers to the “consistency with which the items on a test measure a single construct”

(Johnson & Christensen 2012 p 140). Cronbach’s alpha could be used to check the internal

consistency of a given construct. (Johnson & Christensen 2012)

3.6 Ethical Considerations

Ethical approval was gained from NSD (See appendix D). According to NSD

recommendations, alterations were made in the study. Initially it was planned to asked

participants to sign the consent form before filling out the questionnaire. However, the NSD

recommended that it was not needed and hence that component was removed from the final

research procedures.

Participants were specifically told that they were not required to write their names on the

questionnaires as this research will maintain their anonymity. They were also told that they

had the right to leave the experiment at any point and that they can choose not to answer all

the questions.

Additionally, they were briefly told about the nature of the research-it is looking at

knowledge, attitudes and practice of the teachers regarding issues of child protection. The key

terms of protection were briefly explained to avoid any confusion later. If any participant

wanted to know more about the research they were told adequately before the participation.

At the end of their participation, the participants were thanked and were given the email

address for further correspondence, if needed. They can be given a full description of the

study at the end.

Many participants were reluctant to provide information which may reflect negatively about

school and teacher characteristics. They were also reluctant to share information they feel are

very sensitive and taboo subjects in the society. Hence, it was important to point to the

participants that all the information they will provide will be kept strictly confidential. If the

school asked for the findings of the research, small parts and conclusions related to the

45

participants were not given to them. Only the final report, reflecting anonymity will be shared

with them.

However, it was likely that the participant may seek out assistance after filling out the

questionnaire. He/she was more likely to suspect serious abuse/harm of one of the students

and ask for advice. This requirement over-rides the issue of confidentiality. She/ he was

directed to a governing body, stakeholders of the child or at least to an organization having

expertise in the field of child protection. (Johnson & Christensen, 2012).

After the participant has filled out the questionnaire, data was coded and was transferred on a

personal computer safeguarded with a password. Untrained persons were not allowed to

access the raw data from the questionnaire. The interpretations from the whole data set will be

allowed with permission.

The research was not intended to point the flaws of one school system over the other. It was

designed to look at general characteristics of teachers and schools to promote practices which

may help the learning environment and the psychosocial conditions of the students. Since

each school system is different from the other, each will have its own set of strengths and

weaknesses. Maximum efforts were made to ensure that personal biases and preferences do

not interfere with the research throughout the process. While reporting the results, the critical

evaluation along with positive points of each school system was looked at and future

implementations were given accordingly. (Robson, 2002)

46

4 Results and discussion

Data was computed and analysed using SPSS. Results and discussion is presented regarding

the demographics of the participants, selection of questionnaire statements for final analysis,

comparison of the selected statements between school settings and overall discussion

including limitations and future implication. Due to the scope of this master thesis, some

results are not included in this section.

The number of participants that took part in the study was 270; 86 individuals from private

schools, 67 from public schools and 89 from madrassa/Islamic schools and 27 from NGO

school setting. Although the initial plan was to have at least 40 teachers from each school

setting, not many teachers from an NGO school setting were approached for this study. The

NGO school organization which was approached had a total 40 teachers but only 27

participated in the study. In Lahore there were only 2 or 3 organizations working on this

model but it was difficult to gain access to them. A much larger number of participants took

part in this study from other settings.

The age range of the participants was from 19-66 years. The gender of the participant varied

according to the type of school system. Overview of the participants is presented in Section

3.2 below.

4.1 Demographic data

Descriptive analysis was performed on the data from Section A of the questionnaire. The

tables below show the frequency and percentage of all the participants who took part in the

study:

Table 4.01 Gender of participants

Gender School type

Private Public Islamic NGO. Total

N % N % N % N % N %

Females 72 84.7 64 95.5 40 44.9 27 100.0 203 75.2

Males 9 10.6 2 3.0 48 53.9 59 21.9

Total

Answered

81 95.3 66 98.5 88 98.9 262 97.0

47

According to Pakistan Education Statistics (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2011) the percentage of male

teachers is 44% and female teachers is 55%. In this study, the percentage of females from all

schools, private schools and public schools is represented far more than compared to

statistical data of Pakistan. For Islamic school, the Pakistan Education Statistics states that

77% are males and only 23% are females. Hence, official numbers lean towards a higher

male: female ration. This sample includes around 45 % of female teachers and around 54% of

male teachers. A possible reason for this is that the study was based in Lahore city. Sarwar &

Abbasi (2013 p 211) in their paper show that the percentage of women employed in the field

of education in urban areas (4.16 % out of 6.25% female labour) is more than in rural areas

(2.36% out of 6.52% female labour). This may have contributed to the large percentage of

female teachers as participants in the study. It is also noteworthy that the percentage of female

teachers in Punjab province is also higher than in other provinces (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013)

Table 4.02 Age of participants

School types

Age Private Public Islamic NGO Total

N % N % N & N % N %

18-24 y 41 48.2 18 26.9 33 37.1 9 33.3 101 37.4

25-34 y 27 31.8 23 34.3 30 33.7 7 25.9 87 32.2

35-44 y 11 12.9 17 25.4 17 19.1 3 11.1 48 17.8

45-54 y 5 7.5 4 4.5 2 7.4 11 4.1

55-64 y 2 3.0 3 11.1 5 1.9

65-74 y 1 1.1 1 .4

Total

answered

79 92.9 65 97.0 85 95.5 24 88.9 253 93.7

The highest numbers of participants are within the age brackets of 18-24 and 25-34. This is

consistent across all school types (private, public, Islamic, NGO).

48

Table 4.03 Qualification of participants

School types

Qualification Private Public Islamic NGO Total

N % N % N % N % N %

Middle 8th 8 9.0 8 3.0

SSC (Metric) 4 6.0 4 4.5 8 3.0

HSC (Intermediate) 1 1.2 6 9.0 8 9.0 11 40.7 26 9.6

Bachelors 31 36.5 11 16.4 26 29.2 7 25.9 75 27.8

Masters 41 48.2 17 25.4 17 19.1 4 14.8 79 29.3

Masters or equivalent-

Religious (Islam, Arabic,

Hafiz/ Dars)

1 1.2 17 19.1 18 29.3

Bachelor/Master in

education

6 7.1 29 43.3 5 5.6 1 3.7 41 15.2

Other certification 3 3.5 3 1.1

Total

answered

83 97.6 67 100.0 85 95.5 23 85.2 258 95.6

The Education Census 2005 (NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013) suggests that teachers in Punjab urban

setting have a range of qualifications. A common trend that is seen in the census data of 2005

is that the average qualification of teachers in private, public and Islamic schooling is

graduate, post graduate and below SSC respectively. In public settings schools the percentage

of postgraduate teachers is only slightly higher than graduate teachers. Overall, a higher

percentage has qualified till Middle (ie 8th grade) and SSC (ie 10th) grade, there is reduced

percentage of teachers with graduate and further decreased percentage with postgraduate

qualification. Although this data is from census is from a census held in 2005, it gives a rough

estimation of the situation in the field of teacher education in Pakistan. There was no data

available for NGO run slum school.

As compared to the Census of 2005(NEMIS-AEPAM, 2013), the participants in this study

had a noteworthy higher percentage of graduate and post graduate qualification (in any

discipline). They also had a much lower percentage of teachers with just a Middle and SCC

qualification. The highest percentage of teachers who had attained a graduate or a post

graduate qualification in Education was in the public sector and the highest percentage of

teachers who had attained a postgraduate qualification in Islamic studies or related fields were

in Islamic schools. This demonstrates that the average qualification had either dramatically

increased over the years or that the participants in the study are more qualified than the

average population of teachers in urban Punjab. As the participants were chosen from

49

reputable schools in Lahore, there is a possibility that the teachers are more qualified than the

average teacher population.

Table 4.04 Teaching experience of participants

Teaching experience Private Public Islamic NGO Total

N % N % N % N % N %

less than 1 year 12 14.1 2 3.0 3 3.4 3 11.1 20 7.4

1-5 y 47 55.3 15 22.4 35 39.3 5 18.5 102 37.8

6-10 y 15 17.6 14 20.9 24 27.0 9 33.3 62 23.0

11-15 y 3 3.5 8 11.9 7 7.9 1 3.7 19 7.0

16- 20 y 6 9.0 6 6.7 12 4.4

21- 25 y 1 1.5 1 1.1 2 .7

more than 25 y 6 9.0 1 1.1 2 7.4 9 3.3

Total answered 77 90.6 52 77.6 77 86.5 20 74.1 226 83.7

The teaching experience of the sample ranged from those who had less than 1 year of

experience to those who had more than 25 years of experience. The highest number of

teachers in the data set had 1-5 years of experience in private, public and Islamic schools. In

NGO slum school, the highest percentage of teachers had a teaching experience of 6- 10

years.

Table 4.05 Professional training received by participants

School types

Professional

Training

Private Public Islamic NGO Total

N % N % N % N % N %

No 44 51.8 6 9.0 37 41.6 3 11.1 90 33.3

Yes 34 40.0 59 88.1 50 56.2 21 77.8 164 60.7

Total 78 91.8 65 97.0 87 97.8 24 88.9 254 94.1

Majority of the teachers answered that they had received professional training of some sort.

For the scope of this thesis, an indepth analysis of the type of training and its duration was not

undertaken. However, it can be seen from the questions about the place and duration of

50

training that the place varied from professional teacher training institutions, universities,

various non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to in house training. Similarly, duration of

training ranged from 1 hour to 2 years.

Table 4.06 Child Abuse and Neglect (CAN) training received by participants

School types

CAN Training Private Public Islamic NGO Total

N % N % N % N % N %

No 65 76.5 50 74.6 62 69.7 23 85.2 200 74.1

Yes 8 9.4 14 20.9 20 22.5 1 3.7 43 15.9

Total answered 73 85.9 64 95.5 82 92.1 24 88.9 243 90.0

Majority of participants had not received any training specifically aimed towards protection

of children against abuse and neglect. There was a small percentage of participants who had

received some form of training. For the scope of this thesis, an in-depth analysis of the kind of

training and its duration was not conducted. However, it can be seen from the questions about

the place and duration of training, the place varied from hospitals and mental health services,

professional teacher training institutions, universities, various non-governmental

organizations (NGOs) to in house training. The duration of training ranged from 30 minutes

to 1.5 years Most of the participants from Islamic Schools had received in house training

Table 4.07 Gender of pupil taught by the participants

School types

Pupil gender Private Public Islamic NGO Total

Pupil gender N % N % N % N % N %

boys only 7 8.2 20 29.9 43 48.3 1 3.7 71 26.3

girls only 2 2.4 17 25.4 6 6.7 25 9.3

boys and girls together 60 70.6 30 44.8 33 37.1 21 77.8 144 53.3

boys and girls separate 7 8.2 5 5.6 2 7.4 14 5.2

boys and girls

seperate+together

1 1.2 1 1.1 1 3.7 3 1.1

Total answered 77 90.6 67 100.0 88 98.9 25 92.6 257 95.2

51

Table 4.08 Age of pupil taught by the participants

Pupil Age Private Public Islamic NGO Total

N % N % N % N % N %

Upto 5 years 24 28.2 7 10.4 7 7.9 3 11.1 15 5.6

6-10 years 21 24.7 19 28.4 19 21.3 12 44.4 9 3.4

11-15 years 16 18.8 36 53.7 25 28.1 4 14.8 71 26.5

16 and above 5 5.9 2 3.0 14 15.7 81 30.2

1 & 2 (upto 5 y, 6-10y) 1 1.1 1 3.7 21 7.8

2 & 3 (6-10, 11-15) 3 3.5 1 1.5 6 6.7 2 7.4 2 .7

3 & 4 (11-15, 16 and

over)

4 4.7 1 1.5 5 5.6 1 3.7 12 4.5

1,2, 3 (upto 5y, 6-10y,

11-15y)

1 1.2 1 1.1 2 7.4 11 4.1

2,3,& 4 (6-10y, 11-15y

16 and above)

1 1.2 3 1.1

1,2,3 & 4 (all) 9 10.1 41 15.3

Total answered 85 100.0 67 100.0 89 100.0 27 100.0 2 .7

The age and gender of pupil taught by the participants varied between different groups.

Public schools are often coeducational till primary level. Post-primary schooling is conducted

in a gender segregated setting (Aslam, 2012)Private schools are extremely important in

promotion of co-education in Pakistan (Andrabi et al, 2002). In Islamic schools, younger

children are sometimes taught together but overall the segregation of gender is the norm in the

system. In the NGO run schools, children are taught together due to lack of funds and space.

These trends are clearly visible on tending to age and gender data. (age and gender of pupil)

together.

4.2 Selection of statements for final analysis

In Section B of the questionnaire, participants were asked to agree or disagree with a given

statement. Half the statements were reversed. As an example, the category of children’s

exposure to violence is only discussed here.

Table 4.09 shows the correlation between statement about children’s exposure to violence and

the percentage of participants who agreed to each statement. Statements about the knowledge,

52

attitude and practice of teachers are mentioned in the table. The table shows the Serial number

(Sr No.) showing where the statements were placed in the questionnaire, the positive and

negative statements, the mean percentage of the population that agreed to the statement and

Spearman correlation to determine the link between both types of statements. This table only

shows the percentage of population that agrees (Strongly Agree and Agree cumulative

percentages) to the statement. It can be assumed that the rest of the population answered by

saying that they disagreed to that specific statement. Hence idealistically, if the percentage

mean is high in one statement, it should be low in the other statement. However, it should be

noted that the Spearman correlation presented below is done on the reverse statement of the

negative statement and between the positive statements. So it is presenting the association of

the scores on the positive statement and the reversed scores on the negative statements.

Table 4.09 Relationship between positive and negative statements about children’s exposure to violence.

Sr

No.

Statement about Exposure to Violence Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K30+ Domestic violence mainly poses a risk to children because they

might get injured if they are caught up in fights between adults.

30.7 .026

.669

263 K13- Domestic violence does not pose a risk to children. Children rarely

get hurt during fights between adults

76.8

K22+ Repeated exposure to violence is associated with increased

aggressive behaviour

87.8 .138*

.030

246 K3- After repeated exposure to violence, the child’s defences get strong

and he does not suffer from any psychological effect.

25.3

A5+ Domestic violence mainly poses a risk to children because they

might get injured if they are caught up in fights between adults.

80.7 .205**

.001

252 A17- Domestic violence does not pose a risk to children. Children rarely

get hurt during fights between adults.

23.0

A10+ Images and videos of violence shown in children’s programs can

cause lasting impressions.

88.6 .175**

.005

259 A25- Children hardly notice images of violence shown on television

during news broadcasts.

24.6

P5+ Teachers can play an important role to promote peace. They can

include components of religious and ethnic tolerance, humanity and

awareness in their classes.

55.1 -.189**

.002

259

P17- Teachers should focus only on teaching their course content. Other

school activities including after assemblies and school clubs can

focus on humanitarian and awareness issues

51.0

P25+ If a child has witnessed a violent scenario, it is better to discuss it

with him.

83.3 .043

.498

251 P10- If a child has witnessed a violent scenario, it is better not to talk to

him about it.

73.9

53

From Table 4.09, it can be seen that there was a very weak correlation between both positive

and negative statements. It can also be seen that in some cases, the percentage of participants

agreeing on statement is very close to that of the percentage agreeing to the reverse statement.

This was consistent among statements of other forms of maltreatment as well. (Please see

appendix E for similar tables for other forms of maltreatments). Moreover, Cronbach’s alpha

was also applied to check the reliability between statements of a given category. The values

were very low, showing no or very little internal consistency.

This result was very surprising and unexpected as the questionnaire was carefully worded,

revised and a pilot test was conducted beforehand to see if the statements were adequate and

valid. However, there might have been some shortcomings which were overlooked, resulting

in low correlation. Firstly, it was a long questionnaire. The participants might be bored and

tired. Hence there is a possibility that some of them answered without reading the statement

properly. Secondly, it could be that the participants had a low general knowledge of the issues

related to protection. As shown earlier (in Table 4.06) only 15.9 % of the total participants

had been trained about child abuse and neglect. The rest answered that they had not received

any kind of training regarding this issue. The participants might have not developed any fixed

ideas/ opinions about the issues raised in the questionnaire. Moreover, they could have also

had a discrepancy between personal values, traditional norms and the “western view of

rearing children”. Furthermore, although they were explicitly told that the questionnaires were

anonymous, participant bias might have confounded the results.

Initially, it was planned to take the average score of both positive and negative (reversed)

statements. However after checking Cronbachs Alpha and Spearman Correlation, it was

decided to select only one statement from the pair for further analysis. The criterion for

choosing these statements was to prefer those statements that were easier to understand for

the user and b) select statements which had less evenly spread out. Pairs where both the

responses were completely opposite to each other or in which both the responses were evenly

spread out were eliminated.

54

4.3 Analysis of individual statements:

understanding issues of child protection

The tables below show the responses of participants in each setting. Chosen negative

statements were reversed. “% Agree” indicates percentage of participants who responded in a

way that showed greater understanding of the issue. Median scores are arranged such that

higher end of the median scores signify lack of understanding and the lower end signify a

higher understanding amongst the group.

4.3.1 Physical abuse

The table 4.10 below show the selected statements for physical abuse and its median in

different school settings. Out of 6 pairs, only 5 statements were chosen. One pair was

eliminated (que: P1 & P22) due to strong opinion of both the statement and its reverse order.

This statement was related to the practice of corporal punishment by teachers in rural areas.

Table 4.10 Median Score of statements about Physical Abuse

No. Physical Abuse Statements School Types

Pri. Pub. Isl. NGO Total

M M M M M

K1R) Physical punishment is not prevalent in our schools

anymore

3 3 4 4 3

K24) Even if parents hit their child with a good intention

and it causes a bruise or abrasion, it constitutes as

child physical abuse.

3 3 3 3 3

A1) Hitting the child is not acceptable under any

circumstance.

2 2 2 2 2

A29) It is frequently said “we were hit when we were

young and it has shaped us well” But some

psychological effects may not be evident

2 2 2 2 2

P29) An 8 year old child comes to school with plaster cast

on his left arm. When asked, he answers by giving

inconsistent accounts for the cause of his injuries.

There is a possibility that it may be a non-accidental

injury.

2 2 2 2 2

Note: The Median scores are such that the higher median scores signify lack of understanding

and the lower signify a higher understanding of the group.

55

Figure 4.1 Teachers understanding of Child physical abuse

It can be seen that participants showed a somewhat low knowledge of physical abuse. Only a

total of 14.1% agreed that physical punishment is still prevalent in schools. The reason for

this could also be that the participants might have interpreted this question only in relation to

their specific school. In all the schools where the participants were recruited from, physical

punishment was not allowed. Hence, either there was no/little physical punishment prevalent

in their school or the participant feared of any sort of disclosure. Moreover, only 43.7 % of

the participants agreed that harsher punishment, even with a good intention constitute as child

abuse. As corporal punishment is a cultural practice for disciplining children, it is an

acceptable practice. It is harder to distinguish it as abuse which shows that the line between

punishment and abuse is blurred.

Moreover, a total of 70.9 % of the participants answered that hitting is not acceptable under

any circumstance. Around 75.4% of the participants recognised that even though physical

punishment is a cultural norm, there are psychological effects of it that are not that visible.

0 20 40 60 80 100

K1)Prevelance: schools

K24) P.A Defination

A1) Hitting unacceptable

A29) Psychological affects

P29) Identify physical cue

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Private

56

Around 65.9% of the participants were able to detect non- accidental injury, a sign of physical

abuse.

Although a slight majority of the teachers agreed that physical punishment has harmful

effects, psychologically, less teachers agreed that it is not an acceptable behaviour. This

disparity in opinion was more prominent in teachers from the Islamic school where 78.2%

agreed that physical punishment can have psychological effects but only 51.7% agreed that it

is unacceptable behaviour. The inconsistency could be due to what they think is right

(according to their pre-existing cultural norms/ practices) and what they are told is right

(according to the human rights values).

4.3.2 Sexual Abuse

Table 4.11 below show the selected statements for sexual abuse and its median in different

school settings. One statement from each pair was selected; 3 statements about knowledge, 3

statements about attitudes and 3 statements about practices making a total of 9 statements.

Out of the total of 9 statements, 3 statements were negative statements. They were reversed

accordingly.

Table 4.11Median scores of statements about Sexual Abuse

No. Sexual Abuse Statements School Types

Pri. Pub. Isl. NGO Tot.

M M M M M

K9R In an Islamic country like Pakistan, sexual abuse in children

is very rare

2 2 2 1 2

K18 Children are more likely to be sexually abused by someone

that they or their family already know.

3 2 2 2 2

K25 Both boys and girls are sexually abused. 2 2 2 1 2

A3 If a young child is sexually abused, it is never his/ her fault. 2 2 2 1 2

A13 Children should not be left unsupervised even with their

close relatives.

2 2 2 2 2

A23R Sexual abuse only consists of rape 2 3 3 4 3

P3 Sexual Abuse is a possibility in an above average student

who suddenly becomes excessively

2 3 3 2 2

P13 An eleven year old boy has started smoking and being over

friendly with 16 year old boys. He has been caught talking

about girls in an inappropriate way. There is a possibility

that he is being sexually abused

2 2 2 2 2

P23R Children usually make up stories about sexual harassment to

gain sympathy and attention

3 3 3 3 2

57


and the lower scores signify a higher understanding of the group. K, A, P represents

statements about Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices respectively in the number (No.)

column. R denotes negative statement. The R statement (result) is reversed in accordance with

the rest of the positive statements.

Figure 4.2 Teachers understanding of child sexual abuse

Figure 4.2 shows teacher understanding of child sexual abuse. It can be seen that participants

showed mixed responses to different statements. All of them showed a good knowledge about

the prevalence of sexual abuse in both genders. However, as sexual abuse is a taboo and a

sensitive issue, some gaps in understanding can also be seen. Only around 54% of the

participants agreed that the perpetrator is more likely to be someone “known” to the child or

family. This shows lack of knowledge about how a child is more at risk with individuals who

are trusted and known. As mentioned earlier, joint family/ or very tightly knit family structure

prevails in Pakistan (Muhammad, 2009) which increases the risk of abuse. The concepts of

family honour and shame are also very important to create social control (Muhammad &

0 20 40 60 80 100

K9R) Prevalence

K18) Perpetrator

K25) Genders affected

A3) SA never childs fault

A13) Supervision

A23R) only consist of rape.

P3) SA Recognize cue- withdrawl

P13) Recognize cue- ageinappropriate

P23R) Children reporting SA

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Private

58

Zafar, 2006). However, around 77 % of the participants did agree that close supervision is

important even with close relatives. This shows that even though around 45 % of the

participants did believe that strangers/ people unknown to the child or family are more likely

to abuse the child, a moderate majority of the participants did understand that children should

be supervised at all times, even with the close relatives.

Additionally, only 19% of total participants and around 4% of participants from an NGO

school setting agreed that sexual abuse does not only consist of rape. This shows a common

misconception among general public of how only a violent act in which the child/ person is

disapproving classifies as abuse. It reaffirms the finding that there is a lack of knowledge/

awareness about non-contact forms of child sexual abuse. (Muhammad, 2009). More research

needs to be conducted on child pornography/ exposure to pornography, use of inappropriate

language and contact with the child.

Moreover, it can be seen that a moderate majority has adequate knowledge about the

prevalence of child sexual abuse in both genders in Pakistan. Although most of the laws about

sexual violence and abuse are directed towards females, it can be seen that the general public

is somewhat aware of sexual abuse in boys. This may be due to increased child prostitution

and sexual abuse of children living on the street especially through cases of sexual abuse in

boys highlighted in popular media (For example, 100 boys raped and killed by a serial killer

in Lahore).

Furthermore, it can also be seen that a considerably low percentage (33.7%) of participants

and an even lower percentage (13%) of participants from the NGO school setting answered

that children do not make stories about sexual harassment to gain sympathy and attention.

This may be due to perception about victim culpability ( believing that a child seducing the

perpetrator and that children have a duty to say no) and lack of victim credibility. In NGO

school setting it is even more surprising as they interact with children from the streets and

these children are more vulnerable to sexual abuse compared to the normal population. For a

comprehensive picture of children at risk, the relationship of a child’s age, gender and social

class/setting should be further investigated.

Furthermore, all participants demonstrated a reasonably low understanding of behavioral

signs for detection of child sexual abuse (age inappropriate behaviour and withdrawal).

Teachers from the NGO school setting showed better understanding of signs for detection of

59

child sexual abuse. Overall, they also showed a better understanding in statements about risk

to a child of sexual abuse from individual known to the child/ family, need for supervision

and prevalence in both genders and in Pakistan. An overall understanding of the topic and

increased exposure to children who are more at risk may be associated with the knowledge

about behavioural signs and cues from an abused child.

Between school settings, teachers from the private school setting showed the lowest

knowledge about the prevalence of child sexual abuse in Pakistan, that in both genders and

knowledge about the possible perpetrator. Teachers from Islamic school settings showed

higher understanding that both genders are sexually abused, moderate understanding of

prevalence in Pakistan and behaviour signs of an abused child and lower understanding lower

understanding of child’s need for constant supervision. Teachers from public school setting

showed the lowest understanding of behaviour cues of an abused child.

4.3.3 Emotional Abuse

The table 4.12 below show the selected statements for emotional abuse and its median in

different school settings. All 6 pairs were selected for analysis.

Table 4.12 Median scores of statements about Emotional Abuse

Statements about Emotional Abuse

Statements

School Types


M M M M M

K6 Parents who have mental health problems are more

likely to abuse their children.

2 2 2 2 2

K10 Emotional Abuse is about calling your children

names and telling them they are worthless

2 2 1 1 2

A21 Children should not be used as baits for donation

drives.

2 2 2 1 2

A28 Children with disability should be encouraged to

attend schools

2 1 1 1 1

P21

R

A mother repeatedly calls her daughter stupid and

fat in front of her school friends and family. Being a

mother, she knows best how to treat her daughter.

2 2 2 2 2

P14 Using art and play, a teacher can help to resolve

conflicts of emotionally troubled children.

2 2 2 2 2


and the lower signify a higher understanding of the group. K, A, P represents statements about

Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices respectively in the number (No.) column. R denotes a

negative statement. The R statement (result) is reversed in accordance with the rest of the

positive statements.

60

Figure 4.3 Teachers understanding of child emotional abuse

It can be seen that teachers have a moderate to good understanding of child emotional abuse.

Firstly, a reasonably good majority of the teachers knew the definition of child emotional

abuse and could recognise parental mental illness risk factor. As attachment is the key to

emotional abuse. Parents with passive aggressive attachment and/ or inconsistent attachment

styles like (those with mental problems) put children at risk (Iwaniec, 2003). It was also seen

that around 80 % of the teachers in the study recognized/ disapproved of the mother’s

emotional abuse behaviour towards the child (statement P21R). Even though a child is usually

regarded as the “property” of the parents (Muhammad, 2009), this shows that teachers can

recognize and point out unsuitable behaviour of the parents.

Only around 32% of all teachers agreed that children should not be used for personal or

organizational benefits. Although ethical codes exist regarding children (FIA, 2011) and use

in fundraising, there are no such codes followed in Pakistan. This can be reaffirmed by the

lack of understanding of teachers about this issue. Teachers from private schools showed the

highest understanding of this issue and teachers from public schools showed the lowest

understanding.

0 20 40 60 80 100

K6)Parental risk factor

K10)Definatiom

A21) E.A in fundraising

A28) Children with disabilities-schooling

P21)Recognizing EA parental cue-namecalling

P28) Non-conventional methods foremotionally troubled children

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Privat

61

Additionally, it can also be seen that around 76% of the participants agreed that children with

disabilities should be encouraged to attend school. This is a considerably reasonable number

in relationship to the general attitude about children with disabilities. In Pakistan, children

with disability have stigmatized image and are sometimes kept at homes/ home schooled. The

study by Fazal, 2010 also found that 100% of the school administrators reported having

problems admitting these children in mainstream classroom. More research needs to be

conducted on the issue of inclusion of children with disabilities in mainstream and special

classrooms and on how keeping these children home can influence their mental health.

Moreover, the results demonstrate that around 87% of the inquired teachers agree that un-

conventional ways of teaching, for example using art and play, can be used for emotionally

troubled children. For example a high percentage of verbal and psychological abuse was

found in street children in India (Mathur et al, 2009). These children were susceptible to other

forms of maltreatments along with emotional abuse. Art and play can help resolve their

psychological issues and build resilience. (Tissue & Korz, 1998). In this study, 100 % of the

teachers who were working with such children (NGO school system) agreed with this

statement. Also, teachers from private schools, who were least exposed to children in such

circumstances showed the least amount of understanding as compared to the rest of the

sample.

Between the four types of school settings, the understanding of child emotional abuse was

mixed. Private schools showed the least understanding of the definition of emotional abuse

and consequently the least number of teachers in these schools were able to disapprove/ detect

a mother’s inappropriate behaviour towards her daughter (related to emotional abuse).

However they showed the most understanding of children at risk due to disability (statement

A28), parental mental health (statement K6) or children being used as baits in donation drives

(statement A21). On the contrary, teachers from public schools were fairly better at knowing

the definition of emotional abuse and consequently better at detecting/ disapproving mother’s

inappropriate behaviour towards the daughter. Although most teachers from public schools

were able to recognize the risk of parental mental health problems, fewer (compared to the

rest of the groups) agreed that children with disabilities should be encouraged to attend

schools and how children should not be exploited for fundraising. In contrast, teachers from

Islamic school setting showed an average score on all dimensions across the board about

emotional abuse. However, they showed the least (compared to the rest of the settings)

62

understanding of the risk attached to parental mental health. Furthermore, the results of

teachers from NGO school setting showed a range of results. They showed the most

knowledge of the definition of child emotional abuse and consequently good understanding of

the behavioral signs of maternal emotional abuse. They also showed a good understanding of

the risks of having parents with mental health problems and an excellent understanding of

how unconventional ways of teaching could help emotionally trouble children. However, they

showed a somewhat low (compared to the rest of the settings) understanding about children

with disabilities and how children should not be directly involved in fundraising. A more

thorough analysis of these variables is needed to show a better picture of teachers

understanding in different settings and to be able to eventually fill in the gap of understanding

amidst teachers from different schooling setups.

4.3.4 Emotional Neglect

The table 4.13 below shows the selected statements for emotional neglect (EN) and its median

in different school setting.

Table 4.13 Median scores of statements about Emotional Neglect



Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices respectively in the number (No.) column.

Statement about Emotional Neglect School Types


M M M M M

K28 If children feel that nobody needs them at home,

they are more likely to run away.

2 2 2 2 2

K20 Children usually become a bully because they are

seeking attention

2 2 2 2 2

A11 Even if a father is working, it is important that he

spends some time with his child.

1 1 1 1 1

A18 Some parents are too busy earning for their

families. Even if they have a maid or a relative

looking after the children, it is primarily their duty

to attend to their children’s emotional needs

2 2 1 1 1

P11 It is alright for a child to play videogames/watch

television only for a few hours a day.

2 2 2 2 2

P18 A nine year old is allowed to watch TV in his

bedroom. He tells the teacher that he watched a

horror film at 11.00 the previous night. The teacher

should talks to his parents about it.

2 2 2 2 2

63

Figure 4.4 Teachers understanding of child emotional neglect

As seen in figure 4.4, teachers demonstrate a reasonably good level of understanding about

emotional neglect. Usually the known causes of emotional neglect include the nature and

timing of the parent’s job and increased reliance on housemaids for raising children (Al-

lamky, 2004). Around 95 % of all participants acknowledged the importance of father’s time

(statement A11) and around 86 % of all participants accepted that it is primarily the duty of

the parents to look after their child. This shows an increased awareness of teachers about the

emotional needs of children at homes. Moreover, around 77% of the teachers agreed that it’s

alright for a child to watch television/ play video games for only a limited number of hours a

day (statement P11) and around 80 % recognized that there is a need to talk to the parents if

the child is watching a film late at night, unsupervised in his bedroom. Hence, teachers also

recognize the need to restrict the number of hours the child spends on television and how the

parent needs to keep an eye on what the child is watching. Additionally, teachers showed a

moderate knowledge of how children who are exhibiting antisocial behaviours for example

bullying are seeking some form of emotional attention. Other factors including school

generated strain; school and teacher strain and examination related strain (Moon et al, 2008)

needs to be further investigated in future research. Furthermore, as sense of isolation and

0 20 40 60 80 100

K28) E.N runaway risk

K20) Bully attention seeking

A11)Fathers time

A18) Parental responsibility

P11) Limited TV/ games

P18) Recognizing cue

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Private

64

feeling of being unwanted are reason to runaway (Ali et al, 2004). Overall, around 76% of

teachers showed a moderate understanding of the consequence of extreme emotional neglect.

Across, school settings, teachers belonging to the NGO schools showed the most

understanding of the need of parents to spend time with the child (even if they are working or

someone is looking after the child in their absence) and regarding how it is important to

supervise and limit the time the child spends watching television/ playing games. Secondly,

all teachers (100%) from public schools showed excellent understanding that the fathers need

to spend time with the child even if he is working (statement A11). However they showed a

comparatively average (compared to the rest of the school setting) understanding about the

rest of the highlighted issues. Thirdly, teachers from the private school setting were the most

knowledgeable about the need of attention by bullies and how extreme emotional neglect

could result in the child running away his/her home. However, they showed the lowest (out of

all school setting) understanding of how it is primarily the responsibility of the parents to

attend to the emotional needs of the children even if a maid/ relative is looking after the child.

Lastly, teachers from the Islamic school setting showed an average (out of the school setting)

understanding of all issues highlighted in the study.

4.3.5 Physical Neglect

Table 4.14 shows the selected statements for physical neglect and its median in different

school settings. Two pairs were eliminated for final analysis. One selected statement was

reversed accordingly. One pair was about teachers attitude regarding eating habits and the

other was regarding teachers recognising physical cues of physical neglect

65

Table 4.14 Median Scores of statements about Physical Neglect

Statement about Physical Neglect

School Types


M M M M M

K14 Beggar women are seen holding a sleeping infant

on major traffic intersections. These babies are

sleeping as they may be drugged.

2 2 2 2 2

K12 Children who are not breastfeed are at least 4

times more likely to fall ill even during their early

school years

2 2 2 2 2

A12 Bottle feeding should be stopped at two years of

age.

2 2 2 1 2

P30R A girl is caught stealing other children’s food and

stationary. She is likely to be a bad influence and

should be immediately expelled from school.

2 2 2 2 2



Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices respectively in the number (No.) column. R denotes

negative statement. The R statement (result) is reversed in accordance with the rest of the

positive statements.

Figure 4.5 Teachers understanding of child physical neglect

From the figure it can be seen that teachers have moderate level of understanding about child

physical neglect. Around 75 % of all teachers knew that children who are not breastfed are

more likely to fall ill As maternal neglect is independently associated with breast feeding

(Strathearn et al, 2009) general knowledge about breast feeding can help teachers to

0 20 40 60 80 100

K14)Children with begging women

K12) Not breastfeed: increase susceptibility

A12)Bottle feeding

P30R) Behaviour cue

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Private

66

encourage mothers. Additionally, around 80% believed that bottle feeding should stop at two

years of age (statement A12). This shows that even if the mother bottle feeding the child,

teachers are aware that it can be unhealthy for the child. Moreover, a substantial percentage of

around 86% of teachers could recognize the behavior indicator of physical neglect i.e. stealing

(Loar, 1998). This shows a good understanding of physical neglect in children they are

dealing with. However, results also demonstrate that only around 66% of teachers had

knowledge about physical neglect of children used for begging. Teachers from the NGO

school setting (that indirect contact with children from the streets, gypsy children and families

from the slums) showed far greater understanding of how infants may be drugged. (Dubowitz

et al, 2009)

Between school settings, teachers from NGO school setting showed the most understanding

about some highlighted issues of child physical neglect. As compared to teachers from other

school setting they showed the most understanding about children with begging women

(statement K14), bottle feeding (A12) and probed indicator for physical neglect. However,

they showed the least understanding about breast feeding. On the contrary, teachers from

private school showed the most knowledge about breast feeding but least about bottle feeding

and indicator of child physical neglect. Moreover, teachers from public schools showed the

least understanding of physical neglect of children with beggar women and the health benefits

of breast feeding. Furthermore, teachers from Islamic school showed an average

understanding of all issues raised in the questionnaire about physical neglect. Hence, it can be

seen that teachers who are usually more exposed to children at risk have a better

understanding about child physical neglect. On the other hand, teachers from private schools

have a better understanding about breastfeeding. Further research needs to be conducted to

explore these patterns in depth.

4.3.6 Exposure to violence

Table 4.15 below shows the selected statements for children’s exposure to violence, and its

median in different school settings. Out of 6 pairs, only 4 statements were chosen. Two pairs

were eliminated. Statements related to teacher role in promoting peace (statement P5-P17, see

in Appendix 1) were eliminated due to evenly spread out responses. The statements related to

whether or not it’s better to talk to the child about the experience of a violent situation

67

(statement P25-P10, please see appendix 1) were eliminated due to strong opinion of both the

statement and its reverse order.

Table 4.15Median Scores of statements about children’s exposure to violence

Statement about Exposure to violence School type

Total Private Public Islamic NGO

Statement Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

K22 Repeated exposure to violence is associated

with increased aggressive behaviour

2 2 1 1 2

K30 Domestic violence mainly poses a risk to

children because they might get injured if

they are caught up in fights between adults.

2 2 2 1 2

A5 Even if the child is not hurt, it is not alright

for children to see their mother being hit by

their father.

2 1 1 1 1

A10 Images and videos of violence shown in

children’s programs can cause lasting

impressions.

2 1 1 1 1



Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices respectively in the number (No.) column.

Figure 4.6 Teachers understanding of children’s exposure to violence

0 20 40 60 80 100

K22) Association with aggression

K30) Domestic violence physical risks

A5)Domestic violence exposure

A10) Violent image affects

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Private

68

From figure 4.6 it can be seen that teachers have a reasonably good understanding about

child’s exposure to domestic violence, violence from television and how violence is

associated with increased aggression.

As found in the study by Shaikh (2003), a large majority of women (93% ) experience some

form of domestic violence in Pakistan. It can be assumed that the majority of Pakistani

population is aware of this issue; they may either be directly exposed to it or indirectly aware

of it. The review on existing literature suggested that children who are exposed to domestic

violence are more susceptible to other forms of abuse and are more disposed to to anxiety,

aggressive behaviour and problems with peers, They may also have difficulty developing

comfortable relationship with their parents (Holt et al 2008). From figure it can be seen that

91% of all teachers knew that domestic violence poses a risk to children if they are caught in a

fight and 80.7 % agreed that it’s not alright for children to be exposed to violence against their

mother, even if they are not hurt. This shows that even though domestic violence is so

prevalent in Pakistan, people (at least the participants of the study) are aware of how it can

negatively impact the child. A further analysis in future studies should be made on the

relationship of individual/demographic characteristics (for example, qualification, age,

gender) with opinions about domestic violence of teachers and other professionals who are in

close contact with the child.

Moreover, it is also found that 88.6% of the teachers agreed that images of violence and

videos in children program can cause a lasting impression (statement A10). As images of

violence may be glamourized in children’s programs, these may increase the risk of the child

learning aggression and becoming desensitized to violent images (Wilson et al, 2002).

Repeated exposure to these television shows (Johnson et al, 2002), ongoing community

violence (Buka t al, 2001), and others forms of violence contribute to increased aggressive

behaviour in children. Around 88 % percent of all teachers showed knowledge of repeated

exposure association with increased aggressive behaviour.

Between school settings, public school teachers showed the deepest understanding over

children’s exposure to violence. The highest percentage of teachers (amongst all school

settings) showed an increased understanding about violence and its association with

aggression, violence in children’s programs and how it is unacceptable for children to see

their mother being hit in domestic violence. They also showed a good understanding of how

domestic violence poses a risk to children if they get into fights. On the other hand, teachers

69

from the private school setting showed the lowest understanding on three out of four

statements. These included understanding about violence and its association with aggression,

violence in children’s programs and how domestic violence poses a risk of injury of the child.

Additionally, teachers from Islamic school setting showed an average understanding of

children’s exposure to violence (within the group of participants). Surprisingly, teachers from

the NGO school setting showed the highest knowledge of how there is a risk of child injury in

domestic violence but the lowest on the belief that it is unacceptable for children to see their

mother being hit. Since the risk factors of domestic violence are more in communities reached

by teachers in the NGO school setting, they might be more exposed to it. They acknowledged

that it can be harmful physically but may have become desensitized to it. In the same way,

teachers from private school setting teach children from advantaged backgrounds, who have

privileges of new video games, and children’s programs and films. Although most of them

agree that violence in those programs can have a lasting impression on the child, some of

them might be desensitized/ unaffected to it. Moreover, as teachers from private schools teach

children from advantaged communities, they might have a lower exposure to issues related to

violence. Hence, they might show lower understanding of both knowledge statements (K22,

K30). Teachers from public school setting teach children from a slightly less advantaged

community (not very disadvantaged) , being moderately exposed to violence. Although this

correlation was not analysed in this study, future research should focus on how pupils

backgrounds are associated with knowledge and perception of exposure to violence.

4.3.7 General Issues

Table 4.16 show the selected statements for general issues about child maltreatment and

children in special circumstances and its median in different school settings. One statement

from each pair was selected. Out of the total of 6 statements, 3 statements were negative

statements. They were reversed accordingly.

70

Table 4.16 Median scores of statements about general issues related to maltreatment

No. Statement about general issues School type

Total Private Public Islamic NGO

Mean Mean Mean Mean Mean

K16R Child abuse usually does not happen in well to

do, literate families

3 3 3 3 3

K23 Once a child has been abused, he/she is more

likely to be re-victimised.

2 2 2 3 2

A7R Young boys and girls who come from under

privileged backgrounds do not have any food,

clothing or education in their own homes. By

making them work in our homes, we are doing

them a favour.

3 3 3 3 3

A9 Children living/working on the streets should be

allowed to study in regular schools.

2 2 1 1 2

P7R If the child labourers cannot attend school during

normal hours, they cannot be taught.

2 2 2 2 2

P16 Abusers try to find a job in orphanages and places

where they may have easy access to children

2 2 2 2 2



Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices respectively in the number (No.) column. The R

statement (result) is reversed in accordance with the rest of the positive statements.

Figure 4.7 Teachers understanding of general topics about issues of child protection

0 20 40 60 80 100

K16R) Abuse prevalence

K23) Revictimization

A7R)Domestic labour

A9)Children working/living on streets:inclusion

Child labourers:Non-formal education

P16)Risk by proffesionals in institutional care

Total

NGO

Islamic

Public

Private

71

In this section some general aspects of child maltreatment are emphasized. These included

common misconception over prevalence of abuse and specific issues of child labour in

Pakistan. In this section all teachers showed a range of understanding levels across various

themes. An alarmingly low percentage (around 24%) of teachers knew about the likelihood of

abuse in literate, well to do families. Majority of teachers underestimated the prevalence of

abuse. In case of child sexual abuse for example, the perpetrators are sometimes family

members (Loar, 1998). This misunderstanding could blindfold the teachers from a large

number of suspected cases of abuse. A moderately low percentage of teachers also showed a

lack of knowledge of how if a child has been abused, he/ she is more likely to be victimized

(statement K 23). This information is essential for understanding child maltreatment. It is

applicable to nearly all forms of maltreatment. In extreme cases, it is also seen that having

been sexually abused once, increases the possibility of getting into commercial sex trade.

(Muhammad & Zafar, 2006). These two statements (K16R & K23) are one of the most

important concepts in child protection. A lack of these concepts shows how important it is to

provide formal training about the issue to teachers.

Moreover, a majority of the teachers believed that providing work to children from

underprivileged backgrounds is better for the child. Providing work to child labourers has

been a controversial topic in Pakistan. Whilst most people believe that providing work to

children provides children with some resources for food and safe shelter, only very few

provide these children education and training which they could use in the long run to climb

the social ladder. Even though the government has signed the ILO against child labour and the

UN-CRC article 32 specifically relates children’s protection from child labour, there is no

established mechanism in place to provide children resources for basic necessities in life.

Hence, most people only foresee the short term benefit of employment, aiding the cycle of

poverty and child labour to continue (Caesar-leo, 1999). However, it can be seen that around

75% of all teachers agreed that child labourers can be taught even if they cannot be taught

during normal school hours. This is a positive attitude of teachers towards non formal

education. As shown by Sud, 2010, non- formal schools were effective in providing a

substitute for formal primary education. They were also effective in providing a base for post-

primary education in India. Similar initiatives have been taken by some NGOs and by the

government in the form of Basic Education Community schools (“Government of Pakistan”,

2014). This may provide a solution to education of child labourers. Moreover, around 86% of

all teachers in this study agreed that children living/ working on the streets should be allowed

72

to study in regular schools. This shows readiness of teachers to include children from

underprivileged backgrounds to mainstream education.

Lastly, it can be seen that teachers show a moderately good understanding about the risk of

abuse by officials working in institutions such as orphanages. In most developed countries,

organizations working with children have become increasingly careful about individuals

working with children in the role of authority (Sullivan et al, 2011). While in some countries,

there are mechanisms like (record checks by police for any criminal conviction in relation

with children), there is no such procedure practiced in institutions in Pakistan. Hence it is

important for individuals (and other professional working with children) to have some

minimal awareness about dangers involved, and establish relevant checks and balances.

In different school settings, it was seen that teachers from a private school setting showed the

most understanding about knowledge of abuse in all kinds of families (statement K16) and the

likelihood of re-victimization of a previously abused child (statement K23). They also agreed

that children living/working on the streets should be allowed to study in regular schools to the

highest extent recorded. However, they showed the least understanding of how child labourers

can be taught outside of normal school hours. It was seen that teachers have a better

understanding of issues related to inclusion but lacked a similar perspective with regards to

alternative forms of education. Surprisingly, even though teachers from NGO setting had the

most exposure to children at high risk of abuse they showed, compared to teachers from other

settings, the least knowledge about victimization of an abused child. There teachers also

showed a lower resolve to see children living/working on the streets being allowed to study in

regular schools. However the highest percentage of teachers from the NGO school setting

showed an understanding that child labourers could be taught even if they cannot attend

school during normal hours. Future research needs to focus on teacher characteristics

including relevant experience, qualifications, training regarding child abuse and neglect as

well as their knowledge and attitudes about prevalence of abuse, associated risk factors,

education and inclusion of children from underprivileged backgrounds.

73

4.4 Limitations and Implications

4.4.1 Study Challenges

As topics of child maltreatment are taboo and sensitive, some challenges were faced while

conducting this study. Very little supporting research/ literature was found about child

maltreatment in Pakistan. Any relevant research found was dominated by international charity

organizations and local NGOs working in the field of child protection. While some of their

reports were their own annual/ performance reports, others were a part of recommendations

for WHO or their government. As most developed countries are on mandatory reporting

stage, very little substantial research has been conducted about teachers initial understanding

of issues related to child abuse and neglect.

Moreover, due to the overall socio-political climate of the country and other issues, sampling

and getting past the gatekeeper was a bit problematic. In private school systems, it was hard

for teachers to take time out to fill out the questionnaires. As mentioned earlier, most private

schools usually have a chain of schools running across the country/city. To get permission to

conduct a survey/ research, it is sometimes necessary to contact either the owner/ head of all

schools or a principal who has enough influence/ is interested. In this study, five different

private school owners/ principals were contacted but only one responded positively. In public

schools, as in most government institutions, there is a strong hierarchy. It was sometimes a

long procedure to wait for an answer from one person who would lead to the other person in

charge. Other issues included a general negative attitude and government officials/

gatekeepers asking for some form of favour or bribe. Islamic schools were hard to enter due

to reasons of safety and security. Recently, Islamic schools have been a target of both

terrorists and international criticism. While some schools have been targeted by extremists for

teaching “secular” teachings, others have been criticised for teaching extremism and religious

intolerance to children. These schools usually try to stay away from any form of social

controversies and avoid research especially by students from international institutions. To

convince the principals/owners/ religious scholars of these schools was challenging.

Additionally, according to cultural practices, to show respect to a religious scholar/ leader a

code of conduct is followed by females. This could hinder communication and limit

participation. Therefore, male was trained to communicate with the owners/ religious scholar/

principal of the school, distribute and collect data from the Islamic schools. Even though,

74

without this alteration, it would have been very problematic to collect data, this adaptation

could create a bias and affect the external validity of the study. In NGO school setting, the

staff was very enthusiastic. However, there are very few NGO schools in Lahore;

consequently, very few teachers from NGO schools participated in this study compared to

other settings.

4.4.2 Reliability and Validity of the findings

Some threats to validity and reliability existed even though efforts were made to minimise

these threats.

To increase representativeness and external validity, participants were selected from four

different settings, from across the city of Lahore. However, the results cannot be generalized

to a bigger population as the participatory schools were among the most reputable schools of

the area, the sample did not include enough teachers from the NGO school setting and there

were no teachers from special schools for children with disabilities, vocational training

institutes and/or government run community school.

Initial steps were taken to minimise threats to internal validity. To minimize the threat in

history and construct validity, the respondents were insulated from outside influences.

Questionnaires were filled in a staff room of the school building. A staff room provides a

comfortable and a familiar environment for the teachers. They are accustomed to the

atmosphere and the lights of the place. The noise level was also controlled. The principal/

teachers were asked to decide the time. To minimize the threat to diffusion or imitation of

treatment, participants were asked not to communicate or imitate answers while filling out the

questionnaire. However, in this study, as groups were taken from four different settings and

there was no control group, differential selection could be a threat to the internal validity. This

occurs when differences exist, at the outset of the study, between the characteristics of the

participants forming the various comparison groups. (Johnson & Christensen, 2012).

Demographic questions including questions about their own characteristics and school

characteristics. This was later analysed to see where the differences lie within groups of

teachers (Section about demographic data).

The Child Protection Questionnaire for teachers was designed keeping the main questions in

mind. To increase the construct validity and reliability of this instrument two important steps

75

were taken. Firstly, a pilot study was conducted and necessary steps were taken to improve

the questionnaire. Individuals from the pilot study, supervisor and other experts evaluated

and critiqued the questionnaire. Suggestions were appreciated and the questionnaire was

improved accordingly. Secondly, each statement in section B (subsection: knowledge,

attitudes and practices) had a reverse order statement, randomly placed within the sub section.

This indicated the seriousness, motivation and boredom of the participant to participate in the

study and errors in interpretation of the statements. However as it can be seen is section

(results regarding selection of statements for final analysis and appendix E), very little

correlation was found between the positive and reversed ordered statements, from Spearman

test and Cronbachs Alpha. The study was then adapted and it was decided to select only one

statement from the pair. Pairs in which the statement results were either strongly opposing

each other or had evenly distributed results were eliminated. Maximum efforts were made to

select these statements but very useful information was lost and this selection could be

affected by researcher bias. Due to the scope of the study and the issues of construct validity,

only descriptive analysis was performed on selected statements. No inferential statistics were

performed which was a limitation to the study.

4.4.3 Study Contribution

No published research was found regarding teachers understanding of child protection issues

in Pakistan. The purpose of this study was to investigate what are the prevailing levels of

knowledge, attitudes and practices of teachers are regarding issues of child protection across

mainstream educational systems in Lahore. Pakistan.

This study briefly looked at a range of issues pertaining to neglect, exploitation, exposure to

violence and child abuse of various forms including physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual

abuse. It tried to access preliminary understanding of teachers regarding these issues. The

results from the demographic data show that the participants in this study had a significantly

higher percentage of graduate and post graduate qualification (in any discipline) compared to

data from the Census held in 2005 (“Pakistan Bureau of Statistics, Government of Pakistan”,

2005). Teachers from the public schools had attained the highest percentage of graduate

and/or post graduate degree in education and professional training. Private school setting also

had the highest percentage of teachers who had an experience of 11 years or more. However,

teachers from private school settings had the lowest percentage (in all participants) of

76

graduate and/ or post graduate degree in education and professional training. They also had

the lowest percentage of teachers who had an experience of 11 years or more in teaching. A

very small percentage (around 16%) of all participants had received any sort of training

related to child abuse and neglect. The highest percentage of teachers from Islamic school

setting had received some sort of training (out of all participants). However, the duration of

this training ranged from thirty minutes to one and a half years and the location ranged from

hospitals, non-government organization to in-house training. This indicates that a very small

percentage of teachers working in Lahore are trained in issues of child protection. Although

no literature was found on teaching about child protection in teacher training institution, it can

be seen that even those who have received professional training did lagged formal training on

this sensitive and significant set of issues.

Most teachers had a moderate -good understanding about definition, prevalence, risk factors,

and behavioral signs of child emotional abuse, emotional neglect, physical neglect and

exposure to violence. However they showed inconsistent knowledge and attitudes about

physical abuse, sexual abuse and statements related to general topics of child protection.

While a moderate majority of teachers believed that physical punishment is not acceptable

under any circumstances, a considerably low percentage of participants knew that hitting even

with a good intention constitutes as child abuse (if it causes a bruise or abrasion). Physical

punishment is a common way of disciplining the child in Pakistan and the line between

punishment and abuse is very blur. Punishments range from ear twisting to pouring hot/cold

water over the childs body (Save the Children,UNICEF & Schools and Literacy Dept,

Government of NWFP 2005). As the risk factors (Straus, 1983) and effects (Durrant &

Ensom, 2012) of both physical punishment and physical abuse is very similar, raising

awareness raising and awareness campaigns need to focus on both forms of abuse. Moreover

the tense/violent socio-political situation (Zaman & Sabir, 2013), lack of psychological

support to those who have witnessed a violent situation (Din, 2010), inhumane acts of

violence (Amnesty International, 2010), and exposure to media and news (Amnesty

International, 2010; WHO, 2004), may either desensitize and/or increase aggressive

behaviour of children and the general public (Krahé,et al, 2011; Wilson et al, 2002).

Increased exposure to violence in adults may have direct or indirect consequences for the

child. Parental acceptance of domestic violence (Lansford et al, 2014), perceived

neighbourhood violence (Winstok & Straus, 2011) and the intensity of community violence

77

exposure (Zhang & Anderson, 2010) is associated with increased likelihood of aggressive

parenting practices and use of severe physical punishment to discipline the child. Hence,

especially in countries like Pakistan, there is an increased need for teaching parents, teachers

and other stake-holders alternative disciplining strategies, and implementing laws and policies

against all forms of corporal punishment (Bussmann et al, 2009)

Child sexual abuse is a taboo, sensitive and stigmatized topic in Pakistan (Muhammad, 2009).

As assessed in this study, teacher understanding regarding this issue was low to moderate at

best. Most teachers showed a good understanding of its prevalence in Pakistan, prevalence in

both genders and the need to constantly supervise the child. However, very few teachers knew

what constitutes as sexual abuse and the value or credibility of children’s stories about sexual

harassment. It was seen that while most teachers observed and understood what sexual abuse

is from their surroundings, they lagged substantial information about child sexual abuse. This

could either be due to the association of concepts of “Izzat”(honour), “haya”(modesty) and

“sharam”(shame), all of which create social control in children and in adults(Gilligan &

Akhtar, 2005; Muhammad & Zafar, 2006) or/and due to lack of proper training/education

about sexual abuse and sexual health (Tribune, 2013) at any stage. Only recently, the first

sexual health curriculum was launched in close mediation with religious leaders (Tribune,

2013). This may prove to be a substantial step towards eradicating the taboos and

stigmatization, increasing awareness and educating children and as well as teachers/ parents

(and other stake holders) about sexual abuse.

Attitudes about children in special circumstances need extraordinary attention in Pakistan.

Although in Pakistan the number of children living/working on the streets, child labourers

including domestic labourers and child beggars cannot be overlooked (Dubowitz et al, 2009;

Iqbal, 2008; SPARC & Plan, 2005), these children are often ignored. Teachers from NGO

school setting, taught children living/working on the streets, gypsy children (children from the

slums) and children involved in some form of labour (domestic or commercial). Having dealt

with these children from this deprived social class on a regular basis these children are well

acquainted with problems relating to beggary, domestic violence, poverty and issues dealing

with health and safety that these children undergo. Direct exposure and contact with such

children influenced their increased understanding of recognizing behavioural signs of child

sexual abuse, physical abuse, emotional abuse, emotional neglect and physical neglect. This

may directly be linked to the increased number of students thet come across,who might be

78

maltreated. Since very little research has been conducted on these children from vulnerable

segments of the society, a professional approach to tackling some of the issues these children

face can give important insights as well as help develop a more supportive and conducive

social fabric.

4.4.4 Study recommendations and implication

Children are active learners (Piaget, 1956) who construct their reality interpreting their

environment, and giving meaning to their experiences (Cicchtti & Tucker, 1994). Child

maltreatment can have an effect on both biological and psychological functioning (Cicchetti,

2004; Twardosz & Lutzker, 2010; Whittle et al, 2013). Hence, it is important that adequate

systems are established for prevention at all levels. At a micro-system level training needs to

be provided to parents, teachers and all relevant stakeholders who are in close contact with the

child. This training should components of child abuse and neglect: its definition, prevalence,

effects on wellbeing of the child, risk and protective factors, behaviour based and physical

cues for detection/ recognition of maltreatment and post- recognition procedures. At a Meso-

level, a liaison body between different stakeholders needs to be made. All stake-holders need

to cooperate with each other, learn about each other’s roles and procedure in working/ dealing

with children. At an Exo-level, while certain aspects cannot be controlled, some aspects may

be influenced. For example, assisting/ adapting work placed to fit the needs of parents,

providing support for parents living under poverty, controlling crime rate in the society and

improving adult education. At a macro-level, children should be the focus for all laws and

policies, framework to implement these policies, public awareness and mass campaigns to

target the root of cultural/ traditional practices of corporal punishment, domestic violence,

child labour and other maltreatments needs to be established.

Idealistically, a top down approach would be very beneficial in tackling the issue of teacher

training, providing assistance to those in need and preventing child maltreatment. Using

England as an example (Laskey, 2005), the government/ state could initiate/ assist in making

a multidisciplinary system of child protection. In short, government/ state could make and

implement laws related to protecting children, provide financial support and assist in human

resources. This could be done by making a framework for implementing policies through

which public awareness campaigns, department for social services department and training of

different stakeholders could be initiated. Seasoned trainers could provide training to a child

79

protection officer who could in turn provide training and guidance to teachers about their

roles and procedures in preventing abuse and neglect. This could help in primary, secondary

and tertiary prevention of maltreatment.

However, in Pakistan, there is no child protection system and reporting has not been

mandatory for all professionals in the field of child care (Muhammad, 2009). Although the

government has signed the UN-CRC (Ali, 1994) and other international treaties (Muhammad

and Zafar, 2006) made laws and legislations for protecting children (Ali, 1994), the state of

children in Pakistan remains inhumane by international standards (Amnesty International,

2010; Berti, 2003; SPARC & Plan, 2005; Save the Children, 2010;Muhammad & Zafar,

2006) No psychological support is provided to the victims of abuse and medical attention is

provided only to those with violent injury or extreme neglect (Muhammad, 2009). Hence, a

bottom-up approach could be beneficial. Teachers trained about child maltreatment could

work at a personal level, school level and in collaboration with other organizations working in

the field of child protection. At a personal level, they could show more consideration, help in

understanding pupil behaviour and become more careful/ vigilant with children. At a school

level, they can create child friendly material for awareness raising for primary prevention,

take adequate preventive measures for children who are at risk (as a mean of secondary

prevention), suspect and detect at an early stage, communicate with parents of suspicious

cases, build stronger relationship with the child and refer children in need to the school

counsellor/ psychologist (tertiary prevention). They can also work in close collaboration with

other organizations in the field of child protection, who are working to push the government

for a proper system to be established and laws to be implemented. They can also partner with

teacher training institutes to train further teachers and assist in developing a permanent

curriculum regarding child maltreatment. Although this approach could initiate the process of

child protection in one segment of stakeholders, the resulting process could be slow and time

consuming.

However in case of Pakistan, a robust strategy is needed to combat issues of child protection.

Ideally, a combination of top-down and bottom-up approach would be more beneficial. The

government could work in close collaboration with the child protection organizations to fulfil

the developing child protection system with various stake holders collaborating with each

other. Furthermore, concerned organizations can also work on public awareness campaign

and contribute towards setting up an umbrella. The government can also train master trainers

80

who can in turn train head teachers. These head teachers can work at a personal level, school

level and with child protection organisations. They can also work to assist the government to

outline various procedures and roles, give insights on the situation of children in special

circumstances and push for the system to keep accelerating.

This study identifies the main areas of child maltreatment. It gives an insight of what/ how

much teachers of Lahore understand about child protection. These results could assist in 1)

developing a framework for child protection system in Pakistan, 2) defining roles,

responsibilities and procedures to be followed by teachers, 3) support the need for a

multidisciplinary approach and a child protection system in Pakistan and 5) reinforce the need

of teachers to be adequately trained in issues of child protection (in training institutions and

in-house).

4.5 Conclusion

The study aimed to investigate the prevailing levels of understanding of teachers regarding

issues of child abuse, neglect, exploitation and exposure to violence across mainstream

educational systems of private, public, Islamic and NGO school settings in Lahore, Pakistan.

Most teachers showed a reasonable understanding of issues regarding child emotional abuse,

emotional neglect, physical neglect and exposure to violence. However most teachers showed

inconsistent and inadequate knowledge and attitudes about physical abuse, sexual abuse and

statements related to general topics of child protection.

Even though the teachers were more qualified than average teachers in the country and

majority of them had more than 1 year of teaching experience and taught in schools which

were amongst the most well reputed schools in those areas, they displayed a lack of

understanding in some areas of child protection. Cultural practices of corporal punishment,

social stigma associated with child sexual abuse, social control concepts of shame and

honour, lack of infrastructure for protecting children in special circumstance and general lack

of awareness may contribute to teacher’s gap in understanding issues related to child

protection.

Between school settings, teachers from the private school setting had the highest

understanding about physical abuse and emotional neglect. They also showed the most

knowledge about prevalence of abuse in literate families and re-victimization of an already

81

abused child. They showed the lowest understanding of issues related to exposure to violence.

Alternatively, teachers from the public school setting showed the highest understanding of

issues related to exposure to violence. Moreover, teachers from the NGO school setting

showed the highest understanding of sexual abuse, emotional neglect and physical neglect.

Teachers from the Islamic school setting showed an average understanding of all issues

highlighted in the study.

There is a need for training future teachers in the field of child protection so that they can

detect, manage and prevent child maltreatment at primary, secondary and tertiary level. This

study’s results are only preliminary in gauging teacher’s knowledge and attitudes about child

abuse, neglect and exposure to violence. All issues that are touched upon this study need to be

thoroughly investigated. Further research needs to be conducted regarding teacher and school

characteristic associated with child maltreatment, identifying factors influencing, moderating

and protecting child maltreatment and about general understanding of child protection issues

in Pakistan.

82

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Appendices

Appendix A : Questionnaire in English

*In case your students fall in more than one category, please mention only your primary

responsibility.

Read the following statements and decide whether you AGREE or DISAGREE with each of them. Mark your score by ticking the appropriate box. 1 = STRONGLY AGREE 2 = AGREE 3 = DISAGREE 4 = STRONGLY DISAGREE

Gender: Male Female

Age __________

Do you have any offspring?

Qualification __________

Received professional teacher training

No Yes : Duration of training__________, Please state from where_____________

Years in teaching profession

__________

Received additional training related to child abuse and neglect

No Yes: Duration of training: __________ Please state from where: __________

*Age group of pupils in your classes

Up to 5 years 6-10 years 11-15 years 16 and above

Gender of pupil in class Only boys Only girls Co-education Boys and girls separate classrooms

Type of school Private School Government run/Public School Islamic School

*No of students in your class

_____________

School facilities (You can tick more than 1, which applies)

___Staff room ___Tables and Chairs for students ___Separate classrooms for each class ___Clean drinking water ___Clean toilets ___Safe building ___Playground ___Library ___Computer room

100

Knowledge

No. Statements 1 2 3 4

1 Physical punishment is not prevalent in our schools anymore

2 Child abuse happens in all kinds of families.

3 After repeated exposure to violence, the child’s defences get strong and he does not suffer from any psychological effect.

4 Beggar women are seen holding a sleeping infant on major traffic intersections. These babies are comfortable in their mother’s laps.

5 Children usually become a bully because they have a high self esteem.

6 Parents who have mental health problems are more likely to abuse their children.

7 Children are more likely to be sexually abused by a stranger

8 Minor cuts, bruises or abrasions due to parent’s disciplining the child do not constitute as child physical abuse.

9 In an Islamic country like Pakistan, sexual abuse in children is very rare

10 Emotional Abuse is about calling your children names and telling them they are worthless

11 Most children run away from their homes because they don’t want to study

12 Children who are not breastfeed are at least 4 times more likely to fall ill even during their early school years.

13 Domestic violence does not pose a risk to children. Children rarely get hurt during fights between adults

14 Beggar women are seen holding a sleeping infant on major traffic intersections. These babies are sleeping as they may be drugged.

15 Once a child has been abused, he/she knows how to prevent him/herself from being abused.

16 Child abuse usually does not happen in well to do, literate families

17 Physical punishment is still prevalent in our schools

18 Children are more likely to be sexually abused by someone that they or their family already know.

19 Abuse is as common in children of parents with mental health problems as of those with normal mental health.

20 Children usually become a bully because they are seeking attention

21 Breastfeeding is protective only during the first 2 years of life.

22 Repeated exposure to violence is associated with increased aggressive behaviour

23 Once a child has been abused, he/she is more likely to be re-victimised.

24 Even if parents hit their child with a good intention and it causes a bruise or abrasion, it constitutes as child physical abuse.

25 Both boys and girls are sexually abused.

26 Scolding your children when they have misbehaved also constitutes ‘Emotional Abuse’

27 1 in 6 children are sexually abused at least once in their life.

28 If children feel that nobody needs them at home, they are more likely to run away.

101

29 Boys are rarely sexually abused

30 Domestic violence mainly poses a risk to children because they might get injured if they are caught up in fights between adults.

Attitudes

Statements I 2 3 4

1 Hitting the child is not acceptable under any circumstance.

2 It is acceptable for orphans to collect money for their orphanages

3 If a young child is sexually abused, it is never his/ her fault.

4 Some parents are too busy earning for their families. If a maid or a relative is looking after their children, there is nothing wrong with it.

5 Even if a child is not hurt, it is not alright for children to see their mother being hit by their father.

6 Children are usually malnourished due to their own bad eating habits

7 Young boys and girls who come from under privileged backgrounds do not have any food, clothing or education in their own homes. By making them work in our homes, we are doing them a favour.

8 It is alright to leave your child with a trusted servant when you go out for a social evening.

9 Children living/working on the streets should be allowed to study in regular schools.

10 Images and videos of violence shown in children’s programs can cause lasting impressions.

11 Even if a father is working, it is important that he spends some time with his child.

12 Bottle feeding should be stopped at two years of age.

13 Children should not be left unsupervised even with their close relatives.

14 A child with disabilities should be taken care of and taught only at home.

15 The phrase “we were hit when we were young and it has shaped us well” is frequently used in our society. This phrase has some value.

16 Young boys and girls who come from under privileged backgrounds do not have any food, clothing or education in their own homes. Employing them is still considered as child abuse and should not be allowed in any circumstance.

17 As long as children are not involved in a fight, it is acceptable for them to see their mother being hit by their father.

18 Some parents are too busy earning for their families. Even if they have a maid or a relative looking after the children, it is primarily their duty to attend to their children’s emotional needs

19 If a young child is sexually abused, he/she may also be at fault.

20 Children are usually malnourished due to circumstances at home

21 Children should not be used as baits for donation drives.

22 Occasional hitting of the child is acceptable

102

23 Sexual comments and inappropriate touching is also a form of sexual abuse.

24 Children living /working on the streets can be a bad influence on other children and should not be admitted in regular school.

25 Children hardly notice images of violence shown on television during news broadcasts.

26 It is acceptable if a working father cannot spend time with his child.

27 Sexual abuse only consists of rape

28 Children with disability should be encouraged to attend schools

29 It is frequently said “we were hit when we were young and it has shaped us well”. But some psychological effects may not be evident.

30 It is acceptable to bottle feed children even during early school years.

Practices

1 When a child is sent to the school in rural areas, the parents tell the teacher “The bone is mine, the skin is yours”. This practice should be condemned

2 A mother repeatedly calls her daughter stupid and fat in front of her school friends and family. This is emotional abuse.

3 Sexual Abuse is a possibility in an above average student who suddenly becomes excessively withdrawn, fearful or fails in class tests

4 A nine year old is allowed to watch TV in his bedroom. He tells the teacher that he watched a horror film at 11.00 the previous night. The teacher may ignore it as the student has completed his home work

5 Teachers can play an important role to promote peace. They can include components of religious and ethnic tolerance, humanity and awareness in their classes.

6 A child is usually absent from school. When she is present, she is usually late and dirty. There is a possibility she dislikes coming to school.

7 If the child labourers cannot attend school during normal hours, they cannot be taught.

8 An eleven year old boy has started smoking and being over friendly with 16 year old boys. He has been caught talking about girls in an inappropriate way. It is a normal growing up behaviour

9 The staff of orphanages and children’s institutions is always trustworthy.

10 If a child has witnessed a violent scenario, it is better not to talk to him about it.

11 It is alright for a child to play videogames/watch television for a few hours a day.

12 A girl is caught stealing other children’s food and stationary. Her family circumstances must be explored as she may be physically neglected.

103

13 An eleven year old boy has started smoking and being over friendly with 16 year old boys. He has been caught talking about girls in an inappropriate way. There is a possibility that he is being sexually abused

14 Using art and play, a teacher can help to resolve conflicts of emotionally troubled children.

15 An 8 year old child comes to school with a plaster cast on his left arm. When asked, he answers by giving inconsistent accounts for the cause of his injuries. Young children are easily confused and cannot be a valid source or information.

16 Abusers try to find a job in orphanages and places where they may have easy access to children

17 Teachers should focus only on teaching their course content. Other school activities including after assemblies and school clubs can focus on humanitarian and awareness issues

18 A nine year old is allowed to watch TV in his bedroom. He tells the teacher that he watched a horror film at 11.00 the previous night. The teacher should talks to his parents about it.

19 Children who have been sexually abused usually show no psychological effects

20 A child is usually absent from school. When she is present, she is usually late and dirty. There is possibility she is physically neglected.

21 A mother repeatedly calls her daughter stupid and fat in front of her school friends and family. Being a mother, she knows best how to treat her daughter.

22 When a child is sent to school in rural areas, the parents tell the teacher “The bone is mine, the skin is yours”. This practice has some value.

23 Children usually make up stories about sexual harassment to gain sympathy and attention

24 Child labourers can be taught for less hours using specialized curriculum.

25 If a child has witnessed a violent scenario, it is better to discuss it with him.

26 There is no harm if a child finishes his homework and then spends the rest of his day playing video games and watching television.

27 Every complaint made by a student about sexual harassment should be reported to the schools administration.

28 Conventional methods of teaching are the most efficient in teaching emotionally troubled children

29 An 8 year old child comes to school with plaster cast on his left arm. When asked, he answers by giving inconsistent accounts for the cause of his injuries. There is a possibility that it may be a non accidental injury.

30 A girl is caught stealing other children’s food and stationary. She is likely to be a bad influence and should be immediately expelled from school.

104

Is there anything you would like to add? ______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________

105

Appendix B: Questionnaire in Urdu

106

107

108

109

110

Appendix C: Letter of invitation to the school principal

Teacher’s Understanding of Child Protection Issues- Pakistan

Project Information Statement/Letter of Invitation to the School Principal

Dear Sir/ Madam,

My name is Mehek Naeem and I am an International Masters of Philosophy degree student at

University of Oslo (UiO), Norway. I am conducting research on Special Needs Education under the

supervision of Lage Jonsborg, University of Oslo. The Norwegian Social Science Data Services has

given approval to approach schools for my research. A copy of their approval is contained with this

letter. I invite you to consider taking part in this research.

Aims of the Research The research aims to:

Investigate the understanding of teachers related to child protection issues (Child abuse,

neglect and exposure to violence) in four different settings; public, private, Islamic and

NGO run schools in Pakistan.

The main question is: What are the prevailing levels of knowledge, associated attitudes

and practices of teachers regarding issues of child protection across mainstream

educational systems in Lahore, Pakistan?

Research Plan and Method Permission will be sought from the principal and the teachers prior to their

participation in the research. Only those who consent will participate. They will be asked to

fill out a questionnaire focussing on the knowledge, attitudes and practices about child abuse,

neglect and exposure to violence. This will take approximately 45 min-1 hour. The

questionnaire will be available in both English and Urdu language. All information collected

will be treated in strictest confidence and the individual teachers will be unidentifiable in any

reports that are written. Participants may withdraw from the study at any time without

penalty. The role of the school is voluntary and the School Principal may decide to withdraw

the school’s participation at any time without penalty. If a learner requires support as a result

of their participation in the survey, steps can be taken to accommodate this.

Questionnaire summary

The questionnaire consists of two sections. The first section asks about demographic

information of the participant and his/her school. To maintain anonymity, the participant is

not required to write his/ her name.

Section 2 is divided in 3 subsections: Knowledge, Attitudes and Practices about Child

Abuse and Neglect. Questions focus on different forms of childhood trauma including child

physical abuse, sexual abuse, emotional abuse, physical neglect, emotional neglect and

111

exposure to violence. Issues prevailing in Pakistan related to child protection including

domestic labour, street children, child beggary and children with disability are also included.

Significance of the Research Project The research is significant in three ways:

1. It will provide information about the teachers pre-existing knowledge, attitudes and

practices related to child protection issues.

2 It will provide an insight on how much training and research is necessary in the future.

3 It will provide schools and teachers with greater understanding about child abuse,

neglect and exposure to violence.

Benefits of the Research to Schools 1. Findings of the research will be shared with the school.

2. There are many aspects of the child protection that are covered in the questionnaire.

This will provoke interest and curiosity amongst teachers. They can also implement

some of the useful practices in their classrooms.

Invitation to Participate

If you would like your school to participate in this research, please contact:

Mehek Naeem

[email protected]

(0092)3338456141.

Thank you for taking the time to read this information.

Mehek Naeem Lage Jonsborg

Student Supervisor

(0092)03338456141 (0047)22858147

mailto:[email protected]

112

Appendix D: Permission letter from NSD

113

114

Appendix E: Correlation table for statements and their reverse

This section shows the link between a statement and its negative statement, as asked in the

questionnaire. In the tables below, each variable of the type of maltreatment is written with

questions from the knowledge, attitude and practice section. They show the Serial number (Sr

No.) showing where the statements were placed in the questionnaire, the positive and the

negative statements, the mean percentage of the population that agreed to the statement,

spearman correlation to see the link between both the statements and concluding comments.

This table only shows the percentage of population that Agrees (Strongly Agree & Agree

cumulative percentage) to the statement. It can be assumed that the rest of the population

answered by saying that they disagreed to that specific statement. Hence idealistically, if the

percentage mean is high in one statement, it should be low in the other statement. However, it

should be noted that the Spearman correlation presented below is done on the reverse

statement of the negative statement and between the positive statements. So it is presenting

the association of the scores on the positive statement and the reversed scores on the negative

statements.

Sr

No.

Statement about Physical Abuse Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K 1

- Physical punishment is not prevalent in our schools anymore 85. 9 .160*

.010

257 K

17 + Physical punishment is still prevalent in our schools 51.0

K

24 + Even if parents hit their child with a good intention and it causes a bruise or abrasion, it constitutes as child physical abuse.

43.7 .116

.064

254

K 8

- Minor cuts, bruises or abrasions due to parent’s disciplining the child do not constitute as child physical abuse.

51.4

A 1

+ Hitting the child is not acceptable under any circumstance. 70.9 .209**

.001

257 A22

- Occasional hitting of the child is acceptable 61.6

A29

+ It is frequently said “we were hit when we were young and it has shaped us well”. But some psychological effects may not be evident.

75.4 .040

.522

255

A

15 - The phrase “we were hit when we were young and it has shaped us well” is frequently used in our society. This phrase has some value.

52.1

P 1

+ When a child is sent to the school in rural areas, the parents tell the teacher “The bone is mine, the skin is yours”. This practice should be condemned

85.9 -.103

.105

249

P 22

- When a child is sent to school in rural areas, the parents tell the teacher “The bone is mine, the skin is yours”. This practice

87.8

115

has some value. P 29

+ An 8 year old child comes to school with plaster cast on his left arm. When asked, he answers by giving inconsistent accounts for the cause of his injuries. There is a possibility that it may be a non accidental injury.

39.2 -.141*

.023

258

P 15

- An 8 year old child comes to school with a plaster cast on his left arm. When asked, he answers by giving inconsistent accounts for the cause of his injuries. Young children are easily confused and cannot be a valid source or information.

55.0

Sr

No.

Statement about Sexual Abuse Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K27

+ 1 in 6 children are sexually abused at least once in their life. 42.1 -.218**

.001

250 K9 - In an Islamic country like Pakistan, sexual abuse in children is very rare

27.9

K25

+ Both boys and girls are sexually abused. 83.3 .118

.060

253 K29 - Boys are rarely sexually abused 39.2

K18+ Children are more likely to be sexually abused by someone that they or their family already know.

55.0 -.203**

.001

252 K7 - Children are more likely to be sexually abused by a stranger 57.3

A3 + If a young child is sexually abused, it is never his/ her fault. 70.9 .235**

.000

257 A19 - If a young child is sexually abused, he/she may also be at

fault.

36.6

A13

+ Children should not be left unsupervised even with their close relatives.

76.8 .239**

.000

259 A 8 - It is alright to leave your child with a trusted servant when you go out for a social evening.

23.5

A27

+

Sexual comments and inappropriate touching is also a part of

sexual abuse

81.0 .079

.231

232 A23 - Sexual abuse only consists of rape 39.8

P 3 + Sexual Abuse is a possibility in an above average student who suddenly becomes excessively withdrawn, fearful or fails in class tests

25.3 -.010

.878

257

P 19

- Children who have been sexually abused usually show no psychological effects

35.8

P13

+ An eleven year old boy has started smoking and being over friendly with 16 year old boys. He has been caught talking about girls in an inappropriate way. There is a possibility that he is being sexually abused

75.7 -.131*

.036

256

P 8 - It is very difficult to access the psychological affects in a child who has suffered sexual abuse.

51.4

P + Every complaint made by a student about sexual 42.1 -.152*

116

27 harassment should be reported to the schools administration.

.017

248

P23 - Children usually make up stories about sexual harassment to gain sympathy and attention

65.0

Sr

No.

Statement about Emotional Abuse Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K 6 + Parents who have mental health problems are more likely to abuse their children.

81.9 -.126*

.044

255 K19 - Abuse is as common in children of parents with mental health problems as of those with normal mental health.

35.6

K10+ Emotional Abuse is about calling your children names and telling them they are worthless

86.0 .030

.634

256 K26 - Scolding your children when they have misbehaved also constitutes ‘Emotional Abuse’

57.3

A21+ Children should not be used as baits for donation drives. 80.3 .328**

.000

245 A2 - It is acceptable for orphans to collect money for their

orphanages

34.2

A28+ Children with disability should be encouraged to attend schools

87.4 .277**

.000

260 A14- A child with disabilities should be taken care of and taught only at home.

34.5

P2 + A mother repeatedly calls her daughter stupid and fat in front of her school friends and family. This is emotional abuse.

44.9 .092

.136

262

P21- A mother repeatedly calls her daughter stupid and fat in front of her school friends and family. Being a mother, she knows best how to treat her daughter.

31.9

P14+ Using art and play, a teacher can help to resolve conflicts of emotionally troubled children.

66.5 -.111

.082

247 P28- Conventional methods of teaching are the most efficient in teaching emotionally troubled children

76.2

Sr

No.

Statement about Emotional Neglect Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K28+ If children feel that nobody needs them at home, they are more likely to run away.

76.2 -.147*

.017

261 K11- Most children run away from their homes because they 48.7

117

don’t want to study K20+ Children usually become a bully because they are seeking

attention

72.5 -.126*

.044

255 K5- Children usually become a bully because they have a high self esteem.

55.1

A18+ Some parents are too busy earning for their families. Even if

they have a maid or a relative looking after the children, it is

primarily their duty to attend to their children’s emotional

needs

86.5 .073

.241

259

A4- Some parents are too busy earning for their families. If a maid

or a relative is looking after their children, there is nothing

wrong with it.

32.2

A11+ Even if a father is working, it is important that he spends

some time with his child.

95.8 .348**

.000

257 A26- It is acceptable if a working father cannot spend time with his

child. 20.2

P18+ A nine year old is allowed to watch TV in his bedroom. He tells the teacher that he watched a horror film at 11.00 the previous night. The teacher should talks to his parents about it.

55.4 .257**

.000

263

P4- A nine year old is allowed to watch TV in his bedroom. He tells the teacher that he watched a horror film at 11.00 the previous night. The teacher may ignore it as the student has completed his home work

44.1

P11+ It is alright for a child to play videogames/watch television for a few hours a day.

86.0 -.246**

.000

259 P26- There is no harm if a child finishes his homework and then spends the rest of his day playing video games and watching television.

51.3

Sr

No.

Statement about Physical Neglect Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K14+ Beggar women are seen holding a sleeping infant on major traffic intersections. These babies are sleeping as they may be drugged.

66.5 .216**

.000

259

K4- Beggar women are seen holding a sleeping infant on major traffic intersections. These babies are comfortable in their mother’s laps.

43.1

K12+ Children who are not breastfeed are at least 4 times more likely to fall ill even during their early school years.

75.7 -.073

.243

255 K21- Breastfeeding is protective only during the first 2 years of life.

31.9

118

A20+ Children are usually malnourished due to circumstances at home

79.4 -.166**

.009

250 A 6- Children are usually malnourished due to their own bad eating habits

84.8

A12+ Bottle feeding should be stopped at two years of age. 79.8 .185**

.003

259 A30- It is acceptable to bottle feed children even during early

school years.

30.7

P20+ A child is usually absent from school. When she is present, she is usually late and dirty. There is possibility she is physically neglected.

72.5 -.043

.493

261

P6- A child is usually absent from school. When she is present, she is usually late and dirty. There is a possibility she dislikes coming to school.

81.9

P12+ A girl is caught stealing other children’s food and stationary. Her family circumstances must be explored as she may be physically neglected.

48.7 .185**

.003

259

P30- A girl is caught stealing other children’s food and stationary. She is likely to be a bad influence and should be immediately expelled from school.

91.0

Sr

No.

Statement about Exposure to Violence Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K30+ Domestic violence mainly poses a risk to children because they might get injured if they are caught up in fights between adults.

30.7 .026

.669

263

K13- Domestic violence does not pose a risk to children. Children rarely get hurt during fights between adults

76.8

K22+ Repeated exposure to violence is associated with increased aggressive behaviour

87.8 .138*

.030

246 K3- After repeated exposure to violence, the child’s defences get strong and he does not suffer from any psychological effect.

25.3

A5+ Domestic violence mainly poses a risk to children because they might get injured if they are caught up in fights between adults.

80.7 .205**

.001

252

A17- Domestic violence does not pose a risk to children. Children rarely get hurt during fights between adults.

23.0

A10+ Images and videos of violence shown in children’s programs can cause lasting impressions.

88.6 .175**

.005

259 A25- Children hardly notice images of violence shown on television during news broadcasts.

24.6

P5+ Teachers can play an important role to promote peace. They 55.1 -.189**

119

can include components of religious and ethnic tolerance, humanity and awareness in their classes.

.002

259

P17- Teachers should focus only on teaching their course content. Other school activities including after assemblies and school clubs can focus on humanitarian and awareness issues

51.0

P25+ If a child has witnessed a violent scenario, it is better to discuss it with him.

83.3 .043

.498

251 P10- If a child has witnessed a violent scenario, it is better not to talk to him about it.

73.9

Sr

No.

General Statement about maltreatment Mean

Agree

(%)

Spearman

Correlation

(with

reversed)

K23+ Once a child has been abused, he/she is more likely to be re-victimised.

75.7 .060

.346

253 K15- Once a child has been abused, he/she knows how to prevent him/herself from being abused.

55.0

K2+ Child abuse happens in all kinds of families. 44.8 .147*

.018

256 K16- Child abuse usually does not happen in well to do, literate

families

75.7

A16+ Young boys and girls who come from under privileged backgrounds do not have any food, clothing or education in their own homes. Employing them is still considered as child abuse and should not be allowed in any circumstance.

50.2 .084

.180

254

A7- Young boys and girls who come from under privileged backgrounds do not have any food, clothing or education in their own homes. By making them work in our homes, we are doing them a favour.

60.2

A9+ Children living/working on the streets should be allowed to study in regular schools.

86.4 .221**

.000

260 A24- Children living /working on the streets can be a bad influence on other children and should not be admitted in regular school.

32.7

P16+ Abusers try to find a job in orphanages and places where they may have easy access to children

75.4 .179**

.004

255 P9- The staff of orphanages and children’s institutions is always trustworthy.

27.9

P24+ Child labourers can be taught for less hours using specialized curriculum.

43.7 .148*

.018

256 P7- If the child labourers cannot attend school during normal hours, they cannot be taught.

57.3

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Teachers Understanding of Child Protection Issues- Pakistan

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