The bioarchaeology of the St. Mary's free ground burials

toF

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The Bioarchaeology of the St. Mary's Free Ground Burials:

Reconstruction of colonial South Australian lifeways

4t, t

St. Mary's-on-the-Sturt: pen and ink (circa 1849 to 1870; artist unknown).

The Bioarchaeology of the St. Mary's Free Ground Burials:

Reconstruction of colonial South Australian lifeways

Timotþ James Anson

A thesis submitted in2004 to the Department of Anatomical Sciences, The University

of Adelaide, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in

Biological Anthropolo gy.

"30 January 1865 Our darling Ethel was attacked with convulsions about I 1 a.m.

The doctor immediately cut off her hair - put her in a warm bath - blistered her behind

ears - and having no leeches on board - bled her in her right arrn - gave her ingestion -watched her all day but she never recovered her consciousness. Her teeth gradually

became more f,rxed and set and she died at 4.30 on January 2l't (Saturday). Thus died

our darling girl, so fair, so bright, so good, so full of hope and comfort - so kind and

gentle...She was buried the same afternoon at 3 o'clock'.."

The diary of the Reverend Charles Marryat;Held by the State Archives of South Australia.

Acknowledgements

This project would not have been possible without the assistance, advice and

enthusiasm of a large body of people. Foremost among these is my Principal

Supervisor, Prof. Maciej Henneberg, without whose knowledge, patience and

encouragement this study may not have been completed. I would like to thank The

Venerable Rev. Fr. John Stephenson, the Parishioners of St. Mary's Church and the

Anglican Church of Australia for recognising the potential for this project and its

contribution to the community. Co-supervision and encouragement provided by Dr

Donald Pate and Dr William H. Adams was invaluable. Thanks to the Flinders

University Department of Archaeology for funding and logistical contributions during

fieldwork phases of the project; with particular thanks to the many students who worked

hard in very trying conditions to excavate the site. Thanks to Dr Renata Henneberg for

her expert advice and guidance, particularly with regard to dental analyses. Further

advice regarding skeletal analysis was sought from and provided by Prof. Israel

Hershkovitz, Prof. Mike Finnegan, Prof. David Hemmy and Dr Kenneth Brown.

Thanks to Dr Bill Loftus of Benson Radiology for providing radiographic services. A

copy of the Voegtly study was provided to me by Prof. Doug Ubelaker, for which I am

grateful. Dr Brian Dickey, Dr Robert Nicol, Dr Eric Richards and Jim Hancock

provided advice and assistance on matters of historical detail. I thank staff of The

University of Adelaide Department of Anatomical Sciences, particularly Dr Bruce Firth,

Dr Bill Breed, Tavik Morgenstern, John Cecchin, Gail Hermanis, Chris Leigh, Wesley

Fisk and Stelios Michas. Colleagues who provided friendship, discussion, advice and

encouragement throughout the study including Dr Soren Blau, Dr Nilanga

Gunawardane, Dr Frank Rühli, Anna Coussens, Dr Carl Stephan and Dr Rachel Norris.

I am very grateful for the financial assistance made available by an Australian Post

Graduate scholarship provided by the Australian Government through the

Commonwealth Department of Employment, Science and Training.

Finally I would like to thank my family to whom this thesis is dedicated. My mother,

Kay Irene Anson (nee Mclean); my father, Peter George Anson; my partner, Danielle

Nerelly Griff,rn, my sister Kathryn Mary Kraus; and my brother in law, Mark Kraus.

Their help, encouragement, support and patience not only during the course of this

study but throughout my life has seen me reach a potential I previously would not have

contemplated.

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemetety

CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES ......6

LIST OF TABLES ........8

ABSTRACT......... ........10

THE HISTORICAL SETTII\GINrnooucuoN ...........

Sr. MRRy's-oN-rgB-SruRT..............

PRItr'tRRy souRCES...

HUURN osrEot-ocY AND BIoARCHAEoLocY ..........

Preservation................Human osteologyAttribution of s ex.........4gin9.....,..Health and diseaseGeographic origin.,...Demography. . .... .

Degenerative diseases & occupational markers

26

26

31

38

....44

.... 45

.... 48

.... 50

....52

....56

.... 58

.... 59

....61

.... 65Nonmetric traits .........

THe ANcr-rcAN CHURCH IN SourH AusrRRI-1a.....

AncgReolocy oF THE HISToRICAL cEMETERY .....

AusrnaueN HISToRICAL cEMETERY sruDIES .......

67

10

1

73

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemetery

Covpan¡.rlvE coLLECTIoNS.....Cadia........SpitaffieldsVoegtly

Ecclsstol-ocY ..........

HIsroRv FRoM BELow

MATERIALS AND METHODS .........

INrnorucrtoN

ARcuReolocICAL EXCAVATIoN STRATEGY

Cuuncs RECoRDS

Sorl RNaLvsIS........

Srelprnl ANALYSES.

Sex determinationDNA determination of sex.......,

D et ermination of age- at- death...

Stature......Trauma.....Infectious disease....,.Degenerative diseases & occupational markers '

Evidence of childbirthGeographic origin.....Nonmetric traits .........

DsNrnr- ANALYSES

Dental inventorYDental caries..,.....Dental wear.......,..Enamel hypoplasiaPeriodontal disease and periapical abscesses..

Dental abscess

Dental calculus

DnvocnRpuv..Life tables....

INrRooucrroN ...........

PRgseRvRuoN ...........

Ssx nrrRteurtoN

DNA DETERMINATIoN oF sEX...........

DlsrzusurloN oF AGE-AT-DEITH .................

DevocR¡.pHY.............

Monr¡.ltrY ...............

PRruolocIES ............

86

86

88

92

96

....91

....99

.. 102

.. 103

.. 106

.. 108

.. 109

.. II0

.. 112

.. I 15

.. 118

t2t1221231251271291311))l JJ

.. 133

.. 133

2

The bioarchaeology o/ St. Mary's Cemetery

Trauma..,..Infectious disease......Degenerative disease and occupational markersEvidence of chi\dbirth................

SrnruR¡...

Suenoul-t cRowrH

IsoNvl¿v ANALYSIS

NoNverRtc TRAITS

G¡ocnRpsIC oRIGIN...

DeNrnr- HEALTH AND HYGIENE

Caries.......P eriodontal diseas e....

HypoplasiaPipe smoker's notch...

INrRooucrroN ..............

Cess sruoY SM/883 ....

Cnsp STUDY SM/859....

CnsB sruoY SM/B10....

Cnsp STUDY SM/870....

CRss sruov SM/B68....

Adults.......,

PRruoloctpsTrauma.....Infectious disease......Occupational and degenerative changes .

SrnrunB...

SueA.ouI-r cRowrH

DBn¡ocRRpuvFree ground observed versus free ground recordedFree ground versus the marked cemetery...

NurRrrroN AND STABLE ISoroPE ANALYSIS

..............2t6

..............217

..............223

..............232

..............235

..............240

............... 256

...............257

...............257262270

274

279

.............281

............. 284

............. 286

.............289

a-)

The bioarchaeolog¡t of St, Mary's Cemetety

StieRoul-r HEALTH AND NUTRITIoN

Cribra orbitalia....Dental indicators

D¡Nral HEALTH AND HYGIENE...

Dental caries........SM/884 and the dentures........

NoNtr¡Brntc TRAITS

Metopism..Spina bffida occulta

HTsrozuCRL RECORDS

TUB NON-SKELETAL EVIDENCE ....

BURIRI- CHRoNOLOGY..

TRsarvBNT oF THE PooR DEAD

APPEl\DICESAppsNrrx 1 ...............

Correspondence : ...........

Apppt totx 2t. ............Burial records in alphabetical order of surname:......

AppsNorx 2s .............Burial records in chronological order ofburial date:

ApppNotx 3 ...............D eat h c ert ifi c at e inþr mat io n

AppBNux 4 ..............Population data: ..

ApppNotx 5 ..............Long bone length measurements for St. Mary's adults

Appeuorx 6 ...............Stature calcul ations.' ..............

ApppNorx 7 ...............Key to expression of nonmetric (epigenetic) traits (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994)

AppBNox 8

388

390390

39r391

399399400

Cranial measurements for geographical origin analysis:

AppBNprx 9 ...............Raw data of analyses for dental pathologies

AppeNorx 10 .............Article in The AdvertiserArticle in The Southern Australia

4


Article in The South Australian Gazette and Colonial Register:

AppnNox 11 ...........Individual burial summaries :

AppBN¡rx 12.Field details of burial depths, orientations

AppBNoIx 13 .........Coruespondence.

AppnNux 14 .........Stotistical þrmulae for stature comparisons

Appsttorx 15

Abstract from Townsend (2 00 2 : iv)Abstractfrom Townsend (2003) ...,

5


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Location of South Australia and its capital city, Adelaide.........

Figure 2. }y'rap showing location of the study area on the Adelaide Plain.

Figure 3. Territory of the Kauma and other local Aboriginal groups........

Figure 4. Number of assisted emigrants to South Australia.

Figure 5. Detail of a pen and ink depiction of the church.......

Figure 6. St. Mary's church seen from the eastern side...........

Figure 7. Burying the Dead; drawing by Thomas Stothard, c. 1792. ........

Figure 8. The same photograph shown twice:.

Figure 9. Photo of fîre damage to St. Mary's Church in 1953.

Figure 10. Example of pre-auricular sulcus stage '3'.

Figure 11. Preauricular sulcus stage '3' on the left ilium of SM/866b. ....

Figure 12. The rate of natural population increase for South Australia.....

Figure 13. Study areaplan showing.

Figure 14. The distribution of sex.

Figure 15 (a to d). Distribution of selected indices in groups of sex.

Figure 16. The number of individuals for each age group.

Figure 17. Comparison of age ranges based on historical records. ...

Figure 18. Comparison of numbers of deaths in burial records.........

Figure 19. Number of adult (>15 years) and juvenile (<15 years). ...

Figure 20. Healed fracture of rib, SM/868.

Figure 21. Rib fragments from SM/863 showing bone remodelling.

............. t4

.............15

.............23

.............28

.............35

.............36

....,...,.,..37

.............90

.............96

...........114

........... I 15

........... 134

........... 140

........... 145

........... t47

........... 151

,..... t52

,..... 161

,..... 163

...... t69

,..... 175

...... r77

.....t79

......179

...... 180

...... 181

...... 182

...... 187

...... 187

Figure 22.

Figure 23.

Figure 24.

Figure 25.

Figure 26.

Figure 27.

Figure 28.

Figure 29.

St. Mary's burial TS showing degenerative changes....

Diseased proximal left ulna of SM/B14

Diseased distal/posterior left humerus of SM/B14......

Proximal femur of SM/B84

Preauricular surface (left side) of SM/866b................

St. Mary's burial 57 exhibiting spondylolysis.

Diaphyseal growth of the humerus.

Diaphyseal growth of the ulna..........

6

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Ceruelety

Diaphyseal growth of the femur.

Diaphyseal growth of the tibia. .........

Subadult St. Mary's humerus lengths versus Denver. .......

Subadult St. Mary's ulna lengths versus Denver.

Subadult St. Mary's femur lengths versus Denver..............

Subadult St. Mary's tibia lengths versus Denver.

Posterior view of the sacra of (a.) SM/861.

Occlusal (a) and reverse (b) views of maxillary dentures. .

Contemporary illustration of upper dentures

Mandibular and loose maxillary dentition of SM/823

Mandible of SM/857 showing changes due to periodontal disease......

Pipe smokers notch in the dentition of St. Mary's burial 72..................

Skull of SM/883 viewed from six angles.......

Mandible of SM/883 showing fracture of right ramus.

Fractures to atlas and axis of SM/883

Fracture of cranial base as described by Wood-Jones (1908) . . .. .

In situ remains of SM/859

SM/859 fracture to right femur......

Fracture to left tibia.

Left femur of SM/B10 showing periosteal reaction.

Pitting of occipital bone inferior to lambda in SM/853c. ...

Superior view of SM/870's mandibular dentition.

Superior view of SM/B7O's mandibular dentition.

Right buccal view of maxillary dentition of SM/870

Diseased vertebrae of SM/870

SM/870 fused vertebral components. ..............

Radiograph showing lines of arrested growth.

Diseased left pelvis.

Figure 30.

Figure 31.

Figure 32.

Figure 33.

Figure 34.

Figure 35.

Figure 36.

Figure 37.

Figure 38.

Figure 39.

Figure 40.

Figure 41.

Figure 42.

Figure 43.

Figure 44.

Figure 45.

Figure 46.

Figure 47.

Figure 48.

Figure 49.

Figure 50.

Figure 51.

Figure 52.

Figure 53.

Figure 54.

Figure 55.

Figure 56.

Figure 57.

Figure 58.

Figure 59.

Figure 60.

Figure 61.

Figure 62.

Figure 63.

Figure 64.

188

188

190

190

191

191

194

204

204

207

209

2t4

2r8

2t9

219

220

224

225

22s

Proximal left femur of SM/868

Left talocalcaneal joint of SM/B68.

Number of adult (>15 years) and juvenile (<15 years). ......

Newspaper advertisement from The (Adelaide) Advertiser.

Detail taken from field drawing.

Stone marker associated with SM/B 4................

Test trench excavated at the northem end of cemetery.......

..233

..234

..235

..236

..236

..237

........238

........239

........240

........24t

................242

................282

................ 300

................320

................321

................323

7

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemetety

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1. Typical burial register information

Table 2. Burial register locational details for free ground burials

Table 3. Mean skeletal preservation values.

Table 4. Results of DNA sex assessment of St Mary's adults and subadults..........

Table 5. Results of age and sex determinations for St. Mary's adults.

Table 6. Distribution of age and sex in the St. Mary's cemetery. ...

Table 7. Proportion of individuals aged less than 5 years...............

Table 8. Adult age-at-death distribution for St. Mary's

Table 9. Life table based on St. Mary's Church burial records.

Table 10. Life table based on free ground burial records.

Table 11. Life table based on burial records for St. Mary's males (0.025).

Table 12. Life table based on the excavated St. Mary's.

Table 13. St. Mary's free ground burial records:.........

Table 14. St. Mary's free ground burial records

Table 15. St. Mary's burial records:.

Table 16. St. Mary's burial records:....

Table 17. St. Mary's burial records:....

Table 18. Description of trauma exhibited among St. Mary's adults

Rate of observable infectious disease lestons.

Cause of death as recorded on death certificates

Summary of cause of death of St. Mary's adult and subadults. ..............

Death certificate details of free grounders.

Summary of distribution of possible skeletal markers of stress....

Location and degree of osseous change due to parturition

Table 25. St. Mary's stature estimations

Table 26. Stature estimation (in mm).....

Table 27. Comparative samples used in subadult stature analysis.....

Table 28. Frequencies of cranial nonmetric traits.

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

Table

19.

20.

21.

)1

23.

24.

.93

.93

t43

t49

1s1

t54

155

156

r57

159

160

161

t65

16s

t66

r66

r67

168

170

t72

t73

t74

178

183

184

18s

186

t93

8


Frequency of the non-closure of the sacral canal. ................. 195

Frequencies of cranial nonmetric traits. .............. 196

Population group for 16 St. Mary's adults........ ...199

Results of Penrose's analysis. ............201

Number of teeth for each St. Mary's adult. .........203

The incidence of carious lesions. ......206

Incidence and location of alveolar abscesses in St. Mary's adults.......... 208

lncidence of hypoplasia in St. Mary's adults........ .................21I

Possible identities for SM/B70. .............. ............239

Distribution of trauma among adults. .................258

Free ground deaths caused by trauma. ................260

The rate of infectious lesions. ...........265

Comparison of numbers of recorded subadult deaths. ..........269

Potential identities for the skeletal remains of SM/866b. ......................271

St. Mary's stature estimations ............275

Results of unpaired /-test comparison of stature estimates. ..276

Abridged life table calculations for St. Mary's. ....................283

Comparison of St. Mary's survivorship and life expectancy..................287

Summary of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope. ..................291

Geographic origin of surnames. ............... ........... 31 I

Extract from the combined 'free ground' and 'unknown burials............327

Table 29.

Table 30.

Table 31.

Table 32.

Table 33.

Table 34.

Table 35.

Table 36.

Table 37.

Table 38.

Table 39.

Table 40.

Table 41.

Table 42.

Table 43.

Table 44.

Table 45.

Table 46.

Table 47.

Table 48.

Table 49.

9

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemetery

ABSTRACT

Seventy skeletons were archaeologically recovered from the unmarked section of a

suburban Adelaide church cemetery. The generally well-preserved sample consisted

mostly of subadults comprising more than two-thirds of the collection. Twenty-nine

(41 A%) individuals were infants aged less than one year at death. A total of 50 (71.4%)

subadult skeletons (aged less than 15 years at death) \Mere recovered. Although skeletal

lesions among the subadult group rwere rare, it is believed that infection was the

principal cause of death among this group. One eight to nine-year-old girl, presented

with pathognomonic lesions indicative of congenital syphilis.

The twenty adult skeletons ranged in age from approximately 18 to 59 years at death.

Observed among the group were a variety of infectious, traumatic and occupational

lesions. Infectious lesions existed in7\Yo of adults some of which allowed diagnosis of

conditions including acquired syphilis, tuberculosis/pulmonary infection and

unspecified systemic infection. Perimortem traumatic pathologies allowed, in two

cases, positive identification of the individual against historical records. Skeletal

markers of stress were observed in the majority of adults aged over 30 years at death.

High rates of upper limb robusticity, spinal and joint lesions corroborated historical

records indicating a hardworking and physically active community. Dental analyses

10

The bioarchaeolog,t of St. Mary's Cemetery

revealed very poor dental hygiene and very little alleviating dental intervention beyond

tooth extraction

Characterised by factors such as high infant representation; high rates of infectious and

traumatic lesions; and, corroborating historical records, the skeletal collection showed a

society, struggling to cope in its new environment. However, application of bone stable

isotope analysis and documentary evidence suggested that nutrition was not necessarily

the principal cause. Comparison with various other skeletal samples indicated that the

St. Mary's people were a population in transition.

Life table analyses using church burial records showed that following an establishment

period, the colony was able to overcome many of its problems, leading to improvements

in infant mortality and life expectancies. The principal causes of infant mortality and

deaths among adults were alleviated following improvement in living conditions.

Furthermore, a growing awareness of personal hygiene; inoculation against disease;

and, improved access to medical facilities saw significant improvement by the turn of

the 20th century.

The material was analysed with the intention of deriving information regarding past

individual and population lifeways. Church records indicated that the unmarked burial

area dated from 1847, andwas still inuse into the 20th century. Analysis of the skeletal

material provided an opportunity to gain insight into the lifeways of a little known and

discrete group of people. The study area had long been associated with burial of the

poor and destitute. The 'paupers section', as the area had come to be known, was also

used for disposal of the many still and newborn babies.

11

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemetery

Biographical details of the positively identified individuals and others buried in the

study area, suggest that some individuals may have chosen an unmarked burial on

ideological grounds. This hnding, in association with other analyses, shows that despite

struggling through an establishment period, the St. Mary's people \Mere, hardworking,

adequately nourished and generally (in the health sense) robust; not the 'paupers' that

popular myth would have us believe.

12


INTRODUCTION

"Not a;flower, not aflower sweet

On my black cffin let there be strown;

Not afriend, not afriend greet

My poor corpse, where my bones shall be thrown"

(W. Shakespeare: Tweffih Night: Act 2 Scene 4)

BRcrcnouNr

Nicol(1986:'o'*")))t

,he earry days of the corony, most funerars were simpre and

served largely the practical purpose of disposing of the body. Wen

the need for burial arose, conditions were frequently quite primitive.

There was little time for ostentatious display. The needs of the living

claimed priority. Nonetheless, the dfficulties of the voyage and the

harshness of the environment to which they had come soon

familiarised the early settlers with death. Some survived for a short

time in their new home, where social standing or fficial position

was no protector. "

This thesis provides the results of osteological analyses of skeletal remains,

archaeologically exhumed from a discrete section of the St. Mary's Anglican Church

cemetery located in Adelaide, South Australia (Figures I e, Ð; and a comprehensive

survey of related historical records and documents.

13


Figure l. Location of South Australia and its capital city, Adelaide.

During 1999, St. Mary's Parish Priest, the Venerable Father John Stephenson, contacted

the Department of Archaeology at the Flinders University of South Australia to seek

avenues for the exhumation and reburial of unmarked human graves in a section of the

church grounds dating from 1846 to 1927. Following consultation with historical

archaeologist, Dr William H. Adams it was agreed that an archaeological investigation

could ensue (Appendix: 1). Preliminary fieldwork and excavations were conducted

between September 1999 andDecember 2000.

For the sake of syntax it should be explained that throughout this thesis St. Mary's (with

an apostrophe) refers to the Church of St. Mary's. The suburb named after the church is

officially referred to as St. Marys (without an apostrophe). The official name of the

Church, however, is The Anglican Church of St. Mary.

f\

{r

\t)

c(1

.4r^J\r

ç?.

South

^ustralia

A ustralia

t4


Figure 2. Map showing location of the study area on the Adelaide Plain.

AIv o¡'sruDY

A number of definitions for historical archaeology have been published. Deetz (1977:5)

proposes that historical archaeology is "the archaeology of the spread of European

cultures throughout the world since the fifteenth century, and its impact on the

indigenous people." It would seem that this definition reflects a somewhat ethnocentric

bias towards European countries and its colonies at the expense of non-European

cultures and their recent history. Deetz' definition reflects an American view of the

historical archaeology which is commonly seen as its birthplace. Perhaps a more apt

def,rnition is that provided by Noël Hume (1969:12), which defines historical

15

city centre

o

Adelaide >

1'

ANAC

tMarion

krLoßFtfFs

St. Mary's

SCALE

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cetnetery

archaeology as "the study of material remains from both the remote and recent past in

relationship to documentary history and the stratigraphy of the ground in which they are

found."

The sub discipline of historical archaeology is by its very nature eclectic, drawing

information and techniques from a variety of scientific and non-scientific fields. This

statement takes on extra meaning with the application of bioarchaeological principles.

Bioarchaeology as a discipline underscores the human biological component of the

archaeological record (Larsen 1997). Bioarchaeology is the excavation and study of

human skeletal remains and associated artefacts and faunal remains in order to

reconstruct past biological and cultural conditions and processes in their environmental

context.

This project will use the tools of historical archaeology and bioarchaeology to

reconstruct past lifeways. That is, through these disciplines one can reconstruct details

of a past society and gain insight into living conditions in the past. A key aspect of this

approach is that reconstruction usually, although not exclusively, centres on a particular

time, place and society (Deagan 1982). ln terms of the history of archaeology, the

reconstruction of past lifeways and its focus on specific societies typically resulted in

the documentation of historically disenfranchised groups and consequently provided

altemative profiles of history from those recorded in contemporary writings (Deagan

1982). 'When discussing the study of skeletal remains recovered from the historical

context Crist (1991:1) states "though most names remain unknown, the circumstances

of their lives may be reconstructed through applications of modern scientific technology

and the techniques ofhistorical research and archaeology."

16


The current study will use archaeologically retrieved information in association with

historical documentation, to describe or interpret the lifeways of a discrete group of

people. While the author concentrated on the broader bioanthropological aspects of this

study, other researchers undertook work on sub-components of the analysis. For

example, Matic (2003) undertook the analysis of recovered artefactual material for a

Masters dissertation; Coussens (2002) used St. Mary's skeletal material to test the

relationship between long bone robusticity and sexual dimorphism in subadults as an

undergraduate project; Townsend (2002) was provided with bone and tooth samples

from St. Mary's material in order to test various ancient DNA applications for a Masters

study. Where relevant, the information derived from these studies has been addressed

in the current study with appropriate acknowledgements.

Early European settlers in the colony of South Australia were very much shackled by

the class system perpetuated in 19th century England. This created two distinct groups

of colonists: those able to invest capital in the colony by purchasing and developing

land, and those who brought their physical strength and manual skills...labourers,

serving women and tradesmen (Woodruff 1984:1). The available evidence would

suggest that the latter group comprise those studied here.

The study area itself provides some insight into the type of people they were, and how

society viewed or valued them. Those interred in the study area were buried at the

expense of the Government, in unmarked graves, hidden behind the church where they

could be forgotten. Indeed, even today, the study area is referred to as the "pauper's

graveyard" (Davies 1991). The term 'pauper' will not be employed in this thesis.

t7

The bionrchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemetery

Fowler and Fowler (1956:874) define a pauper as..."a person without means of

livelihood, beggar; recipient of poor-law relief...". In fact, Richardson (2001) when

discussing pauper burials in 17th and 18th century England describes large open trenches

(or parish graves) up to 20 ft. (6.1 m) deep. The trench is stacked with coffins over a

period of time and when filled is covered over with soil.

It is possible that use of the term 'pauper' in the current context may derive form the

American application. Hoffman (1919:14) provides excellent details regarding the

processes and costs involved with the disposal of the poor dead across the United States,

but also points out that "a pauper burial is not clearly defined in law, nor is even the

status of a pauper with reference to death and interment clearly def,tned." The author

merely indicates that a pauper burial is one that occurs at the expense of the public.

One of the broader f,rndings of this investigation would tend to suggest that on the

whole, these people and burials did not fit this description. As historical documents

indicate that the majority of adult persons buried in the unmarked section of the St

Mary's Cemetery were farmers and labourers it is suggested that the term "pauper" is

inappropriate for most of those buried within the study area.

Demographic analyses will allow inferences about mortality rates, trends in cause of

death and social conditions. It was anticipated that the sample would show features of a

population that demonstrate a working class level of society. Occupational markers of

stress such as altered muscle attachment sites, abnormal robusticity, arthritic lesions,

and repetitive action lesions were found in the majority of adult remains. Sub-adult

18

The bioarchaeology of St. Maty's Cemetery

remains demonstrated social conditions reflecting a poor understanding of, or an

inability or unwillingness to provide adequate living conditions.

"Infections of the bowels and the lungs were the great killers of the

young, and outbreaks of infectious fever were prone to carry off the

very young... "

(Woodruff 1984:10)

It should be noted that a profile reflecting a high rate of infant mortality should not

necessarily be interpreted as an indicator ofsocial status. It is quite clear that before the

development of knowledge, which led to the reduction, and prevention of common 19th

century diseases, subadults from all social classes were equally susceptible.

In addition, indicators of stress and disease (eg. cribra orbitalia, Harris lines, and dental

hypoplasia) will show an inability to maintain adequate levels of nutrition and hygiene.

High infant mortality reflects a combination of poor living conditions and a lack of

knowledge of immunological and therapeutic procedures. Use of isotopic

determinations of diet will assist in the interpretation of social conditions and the

treatment of the young. Analyses of bone collagen stable carbon and nitrogen isotopes

provide broad indications of dietary components allowing inferences regarding access

to various food resources.

It is anticipated that through the acquisition of information from a wide variety of

sources, an understanding of the lifestyles of a somewhat discrete group of people can

be achieved. It is necessary to point out though that despite every attempt at

thoroughness throughout the course of this study, the vast and eclectic nature of such

t9


studies will result in the omission or underrepresentation of some subject areas. That is

not to suggest that certain topics have not been addressed, but that due to the specific

nature of the study, those topics that allow lifeways reconstruction have been the main

focus.

Tug oRlclNS oF Sr. MARY's

The Anglican Church of St. Mary is located at 1167 South Road in St. Marys, a suburb

of Adelaide, South Australia. The Church has been at its present location since 1846.

Prior to this a temporary iron-bark timber structure was erected two hundred metres to

the north of the present site, on vacant ground currently associated with the local fire

brigade. The original site was abandoned due to problems with periodic flooding of

low-lying ground (Edwards I954;Davies 1991).

Church records indicate that the burial of parishioners began almost immediately

following construction of the Church. Details are provided in the Journal of Benjamin

Herschel Babbage (1863) indicating the use of grounds on the southern and south-

eastem sides of the church for the burial of "paupers". The first burial at St. Mary's

took place on the 19th of November 1847 before the cemetery had been consecrated.

Bishop Short could not consecrate the ground until the 11th of May 1849.

Although no headstones or other permanent markers survive, presumably wooden

markers were provided at the time of burial. Oral evidence provided by Mr. Gordon

Ragless (born 1909) interviewed on the 30th of March 2000, a parishioner at St. Mary's

for all of his life, indicates that there was no evidence of burial markers of any kind in

20

The bioarchaeologt of St. Maty's Cemetery

the study area approximately 80 years ago. Indeed, Mr. Ragless expressed surprise

when informed of the possibility of burials in this part of the churchyard.

Church records, although comprehensive in certain areas of information, include

substantial gaps in crucial areas. For example, good details are provided regarding who

was buried, their age at death and when they died, but no record of locations of

individuals within the 'free ground' is currently known to exist. At present evidence

exists suggesting that approximately 77 individuals were buried in the study area. Of

these, approximately two thirds are juveniles, ranging from newborn babies to sub-

adults.

ln essence, the intention of this study is to gain a better knowledge of life in early South

Australia using a range of data from an important, rare and unbiased source. The

sample of human remains from St. Mary's has the potential to provide information

regarding lifeways of mid to late 19tl'century settlers in the colony of South Australia.

Through a multifaceted approach, analyses undertaken here will create a profile of a

little-known group, often ignored in contemporary writings, who tended to comprise the

majority of the population in a burgeoning society.

21

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Maty's Cemetery

N¡TURRI- HISTORY OF THE REGION

The Aboriginal inhabitants

Prior to European settlement the area around the Sturt River (Figure 1) was known to

the Aboriginal inhabitants as "Warriparri" or "'W'arreparinga". In the language of the

Kaurna (pronouncedgowna) people, or the Adelaide Tribe as they were known to the

Europeans, this translates to mean a 'windy place by a creek'and probably refers to the

periodic gully winds which course down through the foothills onto the plain (Dolling

1981). The area occupied by the study site was originally described as grassy

woodland, but closer to the Sturt River the terrain became thickly treed with river

redgums (Eucalyptus camaldulensis) and abounded with other native plant and animal

life. This provided an idyllic existence for the Kaurna people who moved from camp to

camp, taking advantage of the seasonal offerings at each location.

Of all the attempts at defining the boundaries for the Kaurna territories, the most widely

accepted is that by Tindale (1974). The territories exhibit a close correlation with

cultural boundaries, geomorphologic and vegetational features. The westem boundary

was delineated by the shores of Gulf St. Vincent; extending from Port Wakefield in the

north to Cape Jervis in the south (Figure 3). The boundary then followed the eastern

side of a small group of hills called The Hummocks, northwards to as far as Snowtown

and Crystal Brook. The ridges and thick stringybark forests of the Mount Lofty Ranges

delineated the eastern and southeastern boundary. The eastern boundary to the north

was defined by the low-lying hills of the mid-north region, which intersect the mallee-

covered plains (Ellis 1988).

22

KAURNA

NGARIN

a

KANGAROOISLAND

RUN

Gulf Sl Mn@nt

okm 50

The bioarchaeologl of St. Mary's Cemetery

Figure 3. Territory of the Kaurna and other local Aboriginal groups.

Soil

The predominant soil type encountered in the St. Mary's (and the wider Adelaide Plain)

area is 'red-brown earth', which is fine grained and rich in feldspars. Morphological

classification of the soil describes the "4" horizon as hard setting whilst the "8"

horizon is described as calcareous, pedal clay. The moisture regime ranges from

permeable to less permeable with a moderate shrink-swell capacity. Soil pH for the

area is uniformly alkaline and deficiencies in nitrogen, phosphorous and zinc have been

reported (Northcote 1 988).

Soil type has a bearing on two fundamental aspects of the archaeological investigation,

site formation processes and excavation strategy.

23


Critical factors of the soil at St. Mary's are its predominantly clayey nature and its

shrink-swell capacity. With clay soil come issues of water movement and retention.

This is particularly relevant with regard to seasonal movements (vertically) of the

natural watertable. If graves are being periodically inundated by water at the coffin

level, it is necessary to consider issues such as tumbling and movement of human

remains and artefacts, preservation of human remains and artefacts, and impact of

dissolved minerals on skeletal integrity. In addition, as the soil is constantly being

wetted and dried the steady expansion and contraction forces being exerted on cultural

materials are likely to cause considerable movement.

A soils' chemical nature has a significant bearing on the preservation of buried human

remains and associated artefacts. As Schiffer (1996) indicates, acidic soils dissolve

bone and other organic material. Soil pH therefore plays a crucial role in site formation

and artefact preservation. Perhaps of equal significance is soil salt content. V/hile high

salt content may act to retard the destructive action of biological agents of decay,

dissolved salts also cause severe corrosion of metals including iron, silver and copper.

Vegetation

Specht (1972) describes the prevailing indigenous plant association in the vicinity of St.

Mary's as woodland to open-forest with a herbaceous understorey. The dominating tree

species being Eucalyptus camaldulensls and .É. leucoxylon with inclusion of E.

viminalis, E. odorata and Allocasuarina verticilata. It is clear from early colonial

descriptions that the plains to the south of the city were seen as prime farming lands.

Soils and the open nafure of vegetation meant that only a reasonable amount of time and

energy expendifure was necessary in order to prepare the natural environment for crops.

24

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemetety

Similarly, the plains were well wooded without being overgrown, providing raw

materials for building and fires, plus abundant pasture grasses meant that cattle, sheep

and horses were well catered for.

This then begins to explain the establishment of the village of St. Marys, at a very early

stage of the colony of South Australia. On December 31, 1836, a permanent camp was

established on the location that was to become the city of Adelaide. The location

between the Mt. Lofty Ranges and Gulf St. Vincent was chosen due to the water supply

provided by the Torrens River and various other waterways, which flowed from the

high ground. In addition to this, the wind effect caused by the position of the Mount

Lofty Ranges ensured reliable rainfall, necessary for the replenishment of local

catchment basins (Dolling 1981).

25

The bioarchaeology of St. Maty's Cemetety

THE HISTORICAL SETTING

"South Australia's society was intended to be superior to that

of other British possessions, and that element of superiority

was expected to originate from the better quality of the

citizens who would be attracted to the province."

(Nance 1977:5)

INrnoouctloN

This Chapter will address information related to the St. Marys area and its people as

well as the social and political environments in which they developed. In addition to

formal histories of the area and its people, the review of historical material will also

outline the available archival information. Despite the lack of personal detail associated

with those buried in the free ground of St. Mary's, the list of names, ages, and burial

dates, provides a starting point for archival research. It is anticipated that this

information will assist with interpretation of the archaeological information recovered

from the St. Mary's excavation.

In the first few decades of the 19th century groups of English theorists were given the

task of conceptualising a system for the harmonious creation of a European colony,

which had good prospects for long-terrn success. The establishment of the colony of

South Australia was seen as an experimental opportunity to create a society unaffected

by the societal problems experienced in Britain and to a certain degree, the eastern State

colonies of Australia. Principally, the means to do this were perceived to be the

promotion and encouragement of civil and religious liberty. Sound emigration policies

26

The bioarchaeology oJ St, Mary's Cemetery

were implemented with the intention of attracting portions of the English population

who had the funds to invest and the will to work (Linn 1993).

Among others credited with the founding of South Australia, Edward Gibbon Wakefield

(born in London in 1796) proposed a system of assisted migration as an answer to the

problem of the continuously rising poor rate. A signif,rcant influence over the

establishment of the Colony of South Australia was the question of the poor and the

implementation of the 'pauper policy' in England (Dickey 1986). This would see (in

theory), a balanced society consisting of a labouring class and the wealthy capitalists,

each reliant on the other for further prosperity (Dickey 1986). Great efforts were made

to avoid the creation of a dumping ground for England's poor and destitute.

It is claimed that V/akefield (who never set foot in South Australia) was able to remove

the negative perceptions of emigration, held by the middling classes of England.

"Where they had seen (and shunned) only a squalid traffic of convicts, paupers,

fugitives, poor relations and rum racketeers, he taught them to see instead solid

opportunity and a civilising mission" (Pike 1957:74). However, the crux of what came

to be known as the Wakefield System saw the sale of 'waste' land in the new colony at

a fixed price, with the proceeds used exclusively to assist the emigration of labourers

(Pike 1957).

The South Australian Act of 1834 implemented the ideals of Wakefield's plan and from

1836 emigration of colonists to South Australia had begun (Figure 4). By 1840 the

population had reached 14,630 and in 1857 the total number of people living in South

Australia reached 109,917 (Pike 1967; Richards 1989).

27

14000

I 2000

10000

8000

6000

4000

2000

a

Þo

q)

ê)oaO

q)

zH

- tÉ


Figure 4. Number of assisted emigrants to South Australia, 1836 and 1857 (Richards 1989)

In an attempt to lure labourers and artisans to the colony, numerous publications painted

a rosy picture of life in the colony for new arrivals. An example of this can be seen in a

book by Henry Capper (1838), Senior Clerk to the Colonization Commissioner,

providing 'Hints to Emigrants' to South Australia. The description of lifestyles in the

colony for the English working class would appear to have been irresistible as can be

seen from the following quotation:

"NumeroLls labourers, who are suffering from cold and hunger, should

be informed that instead of being looked upon as a burden on their

respective parishes, they may secure a free passage to another land

peopled by their own countrymen, where their value would be

appreciated; where they may be certain of high wages; in a salubrious

climate, that will require so little fuel and clothing as to leave their

28


earnings as almost clear gain, and which will enable them to secure their

own independence, and the prosperity of their children's children. "

(Capper 1838:72)

In the other colonies of New South Wales, Van Diemen's Land, Queensland and

Western Australia the govemment was compelled to make provision of aid for the

destitute. This situation was seen to arise directly from the convict beginnings on which

these colonies were developed. In South Australia however, the British government

was explicitly denied access to the colony for the purpose of transportation of convicts.

This, it was thought, would see the avoidance of state intervention for the purpose of

poor relief as seen in the other colonies (Dickey 1986).

ln reality, however, soon after the proclamation of the colony in 1836, the Emigration

Agent, responsible for the welfare of assisted migrants, was reporting the expenditure of

large sums of money in order to provide rations and work for destitute people recently

arrived at the colony (Dickey 1986). By the late 1840's the situation had deteriorated to

such a point that a Destitute Board was appointed to deal with applications for

assistance and to monitor the conduct of the Destitute Asylum, established in 1852. In

addition to this, a system of relief for the poor, covering the whole colony, was

implemented (Dickey 1 986).

It is clear therefore that despite best intentions, a social underclass dependent on the

state for survival, developed from the very beginnings of the colony. Such provisions

also extended to those who could not afford to bury their dead. Clearly, those who were

unable to buy themselves food or provide themselves with shelter were even less likely

29


to be able to pay for a funeral for a deceased family member. As a result, the authorities

had to make arrangements for the provision of a government burial service for the

destitute (Nicol 1 985).

ln 1839, Charles Balfour Elphinston won one of the earliest tenders let by the

goveÍìment being for "undertaking the interment of deceased pauper emigrants" (Nicol

1985:5). The contractor's rates were as follows:

o Adults: f3l03l-

o Children aged 7 to 15 years f2lI2l-

. Children under 7 years old f'llIDl-

Many complaints were made regarding the conduct of the contractors, providing

anecdotal evidence, which led to a parliamentary enquiry into practices at the city

cemetery (West Terrace Cemetery) in 1854. One such story presented to the enquiry

claimed that pauper corpses were tumbled into a ditch until it was full and then covered

over (Nicol 1985). Termed 'pit burial of the poor' such practices were common

throughout late 18th century London and inner-city areas of provincial cities across

Britain (Richardson 200 1).

The following example taken from Nicol (1985) illustrates that problems were still

prominent in 1874. It also describes the process applicants went through in order to

apply for a state funded burial. The complaint made by the Reverend Russell concerned

the burial of Samuel George Howard, a 9-Yz month old child who died on Friday 28

August 1874. The boy's mother had obtained a burial order, presumably after having

demonstrated an inability to pay for the burial of her child. Legislative Council records

I

30


in 1854 report that the "destitute deceased" were buried by the orders of various

government bodies including the hospital, coroner's office, gaol and destitute asylum.

Apparently, there was no effort by V/itcombe's (the contractor) son to measure the

body, and when the coffin arrived it was too small. When Mrs Howard protested

'Witcombe's son was reported to have replied..."How big do you want it? Do you want

it big enough for him to jump around in?" 'Witcombe's son was then said to have

jammed the body roughly into the coffin. The young Witcombe was then said to have

amused himself further by whipping the horse making Mrs Howard and her small

daughter, who were following on foot, run much of the way to the cemetery. "At the

cemetery the coffin was bundled into a grave before the mother was aware it was her

child's body, since there were two coffins in the hearse, and Witcombe again spoke to

her roughly" (Nicol 1985:5). Mrs Howard's complaint was supported by Reverend

Russell who commented that"...I have myself had occasion to see Mr Witcombe and

his family show a great want for consideration for the feelings of the poor..."(Nicol

1985:5).

Sr. MRRy' s-oN-THE-SruRT

At its consecration St. Mary's church was located in a quiet and remote rural setting,

established to service the village of Marion. The church would have been the largest

feature on the landscape and quite likely a centre of focus for most of the village

residents. Indeed, one visitor to the church in its early days described it as "a lonely

building in the centre of a large but thinly populated district" (Jose 1937). With the

advance of time, the surrounding paddocks and eventually the village itself were

engulfed by the suburban sprawl of the city of Adelaide.

3l


From its first years of existence, the church grounds were used to inter the remains of

the faithful. In death as in life, however, all people were not treated equally resulting in

a distinct physical separation between the haves and the have-nots.

Main South Road, originally known as the Onkaparinga Road, passed through the

village of Marion in 1838. Marion is located 3 km southwest of St. Mary's. Prior to

this a rough track was formed caused by the necessity of transportation and movement

of produce and stock (Dolling 1981). ln the beginning, this route was flattened out of

the countryside by bullock drivers and acted as the only direct public road to the

southern rural areas of Onkaparinga, Yankalilla and Encounter Bay. Establishment of

the road and an official Government survey of the area opened the way for settlement

and pastoral expansion.

By December 1839 sections had been laid out up to seven miles (11.27 krn) to the south

of Adelaide. A degree of urgency was put upon the surveyors for two reasons: 1)

immigrants who had already arrived needed to be settled; and 2) with the price of flour

imported from the eastern colonies reaching f80 to f 100 a ton, there was a need to

make the new colony self supporting as soon as possible (Dolling 1981).

Some of the first people to be granted land in the St. Marys area were John V/ickham

Daw (October 1838), Alfred 'Weaver and Henry Watts (June 1839) and Frederick

Mitchell for Colonel George \ü/yndham (December 1839). It was John V/ickham Daw

who donated the land, two one acre bequests, to the church by means of conveyances to

the Bishop of Australia and successors (Dolling 1981). The church was constructed in

32


1848 and consecrated in 1849. [t was named after Daw's parish church in England, the

twelfth century church foundation of St. Mary Abbots, Kensington London.

Prior to construction of the church in its current location, an earlier makeshift building

was erected 200 metres to the north on land now occupied by the local fire station (1125

South Rd. St. Marys). In 1841 the Reverend C. B. Howard described the new church

AS

" ...a neat country church of stringybark built to accommodate 100

people and served by a regular clergyman once a fortnight. "

(Dolling 1981:129)

However, after five years it had become a...

" ...tumbledown sort of erection, a veritable disgrace to Protestants

of any denomination at Marionville...dignified by the name of St.

Mary's church. Wether it will hold together long enough to be

noticed in the Almanac for 1847 is questionable. "

(Dolling I98l:129)

The South Australian Register reported the opening of the f,rrst church at St. Mary's on

the 4th of July 1841.

"On the 4'h inst. This neat country church was opened by the Rev.

C. B. Howard, who preached an effective sermon from Nehemiah

iv. 6, ('So we built; for the people had a mind to work'), and

afterwards administered the rite of the Sacrament."

(Jose 1937:14)

-'t -')


The church seated 100 people and was also used for a Day school and Sunday school.

An indication of the population level for the surrounding countryside is derived from

the fact that the Sunday school commenced with 27 and reached 60 children a year later

(Jose 1937).

Due to its low laying nature the church's original location was prone to occasional

flooding. In view of the need for a more permanent structure, the parishioners formed a

committee whose work led to the construction of the present church of St. Mary's. The

Committee included Alfred Weaver, William Henry Trimmer, Henry Watts and

William Hancox and managed to raise f70. In addition, the colonial South Australian

government contributed f50 in relation to an Act promoting the Building of Christian

Churches and Chapels. Under the same Act, the parish was granted another f 150 for

construction of a rectory plus 20 acres of glebe at Darlington (Dolling 1981). On

average, items costing f 1 in 1850 would now cost about $4U160, but for specific items

the charges could be very different (Butlin 1987).

On the 27¡h of October 1846, the foundation stone for the church of St. Mary's-on-the-

Sturt (Figure 5) was laid by Rev. G. Newenham (Colonial Chaplain) and Rev. W.J.

Woodcock (Nonis 1852). It was not until the l2lh of September 1847 that the church

was officially opened, and although being consistently used the parishioners had to wait

more than 18 months for the consecration of the church and grounds on the llth of

March 1849 (Jose 1937). The original church structure made from stringybark and pise,

became vacant following construction of the new church (Figure 5). The building was

34


then used as the schoolroom for the local district, but was eventually demolished in

t928

Figure 5. Detail of a pen and ink depiction of the church at St. Mary's-on-the-Sturt in the 19th

century (date and artist unknown; original work held by the church).

The early depiction of the church in Figure 5 shows the structure prior to completion.

Edwards (1954), reported that alterations in 1849 saw the tower heightened to 18

metres, which was further extended to 36 metres in 1870. If these details are coffect,

the image seen in Figure 5 could be said to date between 1849 and 1870. Further

inspection of Figure 5 reveals a structure on the southem side (right of frame) of the

church, which is most likely the original parsonage constructed between 1848 and 1849.

No such structure currently exists, the area now acting as a car park.

With reference to Figure 6, the church has been photographed showing the completed

tower. This image is quite rare as it is the earliest known depiction of the church and

grounds from the eastern side.

35

\{ *

rIl


4t ,'-

Figure 6. St. Mary's church seen from the eastern side (facing south-west) taken in 1953

(photographer unknown).

As a consequence therefore, it is also the earliest image of the current excavation/study

area, which can bee seen in the foreground towards the left side. In architectural terms,

Figure 6 shows the 'chancel' partially obscured by an olive tree on the left (or southern)

side, while the right (or northern) part of the 'transept' can be seen in the middle

ground.

The final point of interest to be taken from this image is the location and nature of the

fence seen in the foreground. This feature was found to have implications with regard

to the location of burials and the use of space by church managers. For example, church

boundaries and the use and importance of consecrated ground need to be considered

with regard to 19th century beliefs, rules and eligibility for burial. Some practices for

example saw those who had suicided or were unbaptised, buried outside of consecrated

ground, on the other side of the fence (Gittings 1984; Litten 1991).

36


Figure 7 shows an early depiction of an English funeral. This drawing, completed by

the Thomas Stothard around 1792, illustrates a funeral near the turn of the 18th century.

V/hat is interesting about this image is the similarity of the scene depicted with that of

free ground burials at St. Mary's. From the location of the stained-glass-window it is

possible to infer that the grave was located on the eastern side of the church, adjacent to

the chancel. Free ground burials at St. Mary's were located in the same position as that

shown in the Stothard drawing.

Figure 7. Burying the Dead; drawing by Thomas Stothard, c.1792 (Litten 1991:170).

3t

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemelery

PRTuaRy SOURCES

Church records directly related to burials at St. Mary's consist of those kept for

individuals buried in the leased (marked) sections and those buried in the "common

ground". Details maintained for those buried in the leased sections include a burial

register (Anglican Church of St. Mary 1847) recording name, age, date of burial, burial

plot number, residential address, burial notes (including presiding priest and service

type), and. funeral directing company.

As the register is maintained chronologically (i.e. earliest records at the front, latest

records at the back), records for those buried in the common ground are interspersed

amongst the records for leased burials. As well as being designated as "common

ground", records of burials in the study area also refer to "free ground" or "un-leased

ground". The burial note for Frederick William Boeker of Sturt who died in 1891,

indicates that he was given a "pauper's grave". Seventy-six individuals were listed as

having been buried in the free ground, common ground, un-leased ground or paupers'

grave (Appendice s 2a and 2b). For the sake of continuity of terminology, the study area

will henceforth be collectively referred to as free ground.

Other pieces of information are provided amongst records for free grounders. For

example, attempts have been made to record the locations of some individuals like that

for John Henry Battle, a 13-year-old boy of Tapley's Hill who died in 1912. The burial

register notes that location of his burial is "S of olive tree in free ground" ("S"

presumably meaning south). The earliest locational information provided in the list of

free grounders is that for Frederick Norton, aged one year who died in 1851. A mostly

unreadable pencilled note indicates that he was buried in the "eastem atea".

38


Most locational information provided by this primary source occurs after 1907 when a

number of burials in the free ground are described as being on the "east side of church",

or, "east of chancel". A chancel is defined as the eastern part of a church reserved for

clergy and choir (Fowler and Fowler 1956). Traditionally, the eastern, or rear, side of a

Christian church is set aside for the burial of those at the lower part of the hierarchical

scale (Gittings 1984).

More specific locational information is provided such as "near cypress tree and east

fence", or, "near the shed", but with changes to the landscape during the preceding 90

years, little of this information is of benefit to archaeological investigation.

It is possible to hypothesise that for a period following the burial of an individual a

burial marker was provided. Markers would most likely have taken the form of a

wooden cross, which, during the course of time would have succumbed to deterioration

and periodic fires. Fire was used by ground keepers as a method of removing weeds

and overgrowth (Nicol 1994:214). As a result of the current study, archaeological

evidence of wooden grave markers was found at St. Mary's. Following the removal of

topsoil at the northem part of the study area (Figure 13) a number of burials were

located in association with the remains of wooden posts at the northern end of the free

ground.

Further information regarding the reconstruction of past lifeways can be extracted from

detailed inspection of the primary sources such as the Church burial register. For

39


example, demographic details including infant mortality and survival rates can be

determined from gross age and sex information and the use of life tables.

40


LITERATURE REVIE\ry

INrRorucrroN

This review of literature and sources consulted and cited during the course of the study

is necessarily eclectic and diverse. As has been mentioned previously the disciplines of

history, historical archaeology, bioarchaeology and human osteology draw on a variety

of fields of study. No attempt will be made in this chapter to present an exhaustive

summary of the available literature within all of the fields of study. However, texts and

sources central to the particular topic of investigation are outlined. Furthermore, this

Chapter will provide details of historical perspective, thus providing the reader a context

with which to interpret information that has been derived archaeologically.

It is therefore necessary to divide this review of literature into several parts. The first

part will attempt to summarise the extensive body of work completed under the title of

human osteology. Key components of the study of human bones are demography,

health and disease, physical behaviour and lifestyle, skeletal morphology, population

origins, and diet/nutrition. Larsen (1997), points out that in the decade from 1983 to

1992, in the order of approximately 20%o of all manuscript submissions to the American

Journal of Physical Anthropologt were in the sub-disciplines of osteology and

palaeopathology.

A main focus of this part of the literature review will be those texts and manuscripts

consulted during the laboratory phase of this study. These include publications created

for the systematic recording and description of skeletal material, anatomical texts and

4t


case speciflrc published papers. Texts aimed at providing systematic descriptive

frameworks are the foundation for extracting information regarding past lifeways.

This review will also focus on research dedicated to the archaeology of historic

cemeteries. Although a relatively new field of inquiry in Australiù, marry such studies

have emerged from the northern hemisphere. In the past twenty years historic skeletal

collections have been widely documented. The Spitalf,relds collection (Molleson and

Cox 1993) for example, consisted of nearly 1000 skeletons dating from the 18th and 19th

centuries. Of these 387 had coffin plate information giving age, sex and date of death.

Research already completed and future research potential for such collections is vast.

Examples cited are predominantly of European and North American origin. Northem

hemisphere antecedence of this field of research is due to the pressures created by large

populations and intensification of urban and sub-urban areas in old and ancient cities

(Ubelaker 1995). City managers in the northern hemisphere have had to address issues

of changing land use and modernisation or conservation of ancient churches. Modern

constructions and redevelopments are uncovering long forgotten burial grounds. There

has been a proliferation of crypt and cemetery studies in these places. As southern

hemisphere cities grow older, places that were once quiet suburban or rural cemeteries

are now being swallowed by urban sprawl.

It is appropriate to review sources related to the developmental history of the study site

both at the state and local levels. To this end, the first of these parts will focus on the

social and religious histories of South Australia with emphasis on the history of the

Anglican Church. Fundamental to the structure and character of the social profile that

42

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Maty's Cemelery

existed in the early colony of South Australia was the system of colonisation

concepfualised and implemented by the ruling class. The previous Chapter addressed

sources related to official immigration and colonising policies. Significant amongst

those was Edward Gibbon Wakefield who played a major role in determining many

aspects of the colony (Pike 1967). It needs to be stressed however, that the ties that

bound social, political and religious issues in the 19th century were appreciable more

influential than the present day.

The history of the Anglican Church in South Australia will be addressed to review its

decision to establish the church of St. Mary's, and its policies related to treatment of its

poor parishioners in death. It is also necessary to view the role of the church in an

isolated pastoral community. The ideologies and principals promoted by the Anglican

denomination, in addition to the personalities it attracted, had a significant bearing on

the colonies development.

Other subject headings addressed here are 'ecclesiology' and'history from below'.

Ecclesiology is the study of churches, particularly the origins and traditions related to

their construction, layout and decoration. This has a direct link to the layout of the

church of St. Mary's and it's cemetery, and can provide insight into the various ways

tradition and symbolism can reflect the thoughts and ideologies of peoples in historic

trmes.

'History from below' refers to the growing awareness among social historians during

the 1950's and 60's that very little had been written about lower socio-economic groups

in history. It was these groups who often tended to comprise a majority of the

43


population and yet very little information regarding day-to-day activities or thoughts is

known. The term describes the historical analysis of the poor, illiterate and working

class people who were only mentioned as an aside in discussion of more important or

influential people. The authors cited here outline the inequality in historical writings

and suggest potential sources of information with which to start an historical review.

HUvEN OSTEOLOGY AND BIOARCHAEOLOGY

"Human skeletal and dental tissues are remarkably sensitive to the environment"

(Larsen 1997:5). As a result the study of skeletal material can provide a rich source of

information regarding... "...individual historical events" (Garn 1976:454). Each era

and place has a different pattern of disease, especially chronic disease, which leave

signs on bones. These patterns are often reliant on a number of environmental and

cultural factors. For example, greater frequencies of certain conditions observed in the

archaeological record may be directly linked to the level of medical understanding of

health practitioners of the time.

This point can be illustrated in a number of ways. For example, a paraplegic in

prehistoric times may not have survived after contraction of such a condition. The

individual's ability to work and contribute to the social core was paramount in a

hunter/gatherer or subsistence economy. Failure to meet one's obligations to the group

would see the afflicted individual neglected by the group resulting in quick deterioration

followed by death. In more modern times with advances in society and medical

science, aparaplegic could be expected to survive and live a full and normal life. ln the

hypothetical case of a biological anthropologist comparing the skeletal remains of a

44

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemelery

prehistoric paraplegic with a modem paraplegic, the observable differences would be

significant.

Furthermore, up until relatively recent times, medical practitioners had no cures for

major chronic infections. When Lord Howard Florey took the discoveries of Alexander

Fleming and created and produced penicillin in the 1940's (Williams 1984) a cure was

found for chronic bacterial infections. This dramatically changed the treatment of many

illnesses, which previously would fester in the body, often causing changes to bones and

even causing death. As a consequence, there has been a reduction in the frequency of

observable chronic diseases directly correlated to improvements in medical knowledge.

It is therefore demonstrably clear that through skeletal analysis, of individuals and

groups it is possible to infer a range of information that can be used to compare human

lifeways of varying time periods.

Preservation

Henderson (1987) rightly points out that preservation of skeletal material is not

dependent on any one particular factor. Rather, "burials exist in an environment in

which complex interaction occurs between a wide range of variables" (Henderson

1987:43). Central to this point is the nature of bone itself. Factors such as the

chemistry, shape, size, density and age influence bone's interaction with its taphonomic

environment.

It is important to note that both the organic and inorganic components of bone are

affected differently by taphonomic process. The Russian palaeontologist Efremov

45


(1940) was one of the first people to introduce the term 'taphonomy' into the literature.

It is derived from the Greek words 'taphos' meaning burial or tomb, and 'nomos'

meaning law or systems of law (Garland and Janaway 1989). In literal terms, the word

'taphonomy' means 'science of the grave'. It is clear, however, from the writings of

Brain (1985) that the first person to focus on formation processes affecting bone was

Raymond Dart during his studies of early hominid sites in southern Africa.

ln terms of the present study taphonomic forces related to preservation included:

Soil pHo

Length of time since burial

Physical nature of soil

Presence and movement of groundwater

Compressive force of soil overburden

Coff,rn construction and durability

Age-at-death of interred individual

Size, shape and density of bone

a Plant root activity

Amongst researchers, the general consensus is that an acid soil does not preserve

skeletal remains well (Brothwell 1981; Gordon and Buikstra 1981; Henderson 1987;

Waldron 1987; V/right 1999).

Related to the topic of preservation is the phenomenon of differential preservation of

skeletal remains. Biases in samples of skeletal remains recovered from prehistoric and

historic cemeteries are reported to be caused by an underrepresentation of juvenile

46

a

o

o

a

o

o

The bioarchaeology ol St. Maty's Cemetery

skeletons (Jackes 1992; Guy et al. 1997; Katzenberg and Saunders 2000). The

magnitudes of such biases'were the focus of a study by Walker et al. (1988). Using data

collected from the Mission La Purisima study, the authors compared mortality profiles

determined through analysis of burial records and skeletal remains. Despite showing

close correlations between sex ratios, the exercise demonstrated that biases in

preservation could be very influential in poorly preserved skeletal collections.

A number of explanations have been proposed to interpret perceived demographic

biases including cultural beliefs and their influence on mortuary behaviour (Guy et al.

1997; Ubelaker and Jones 2003:28); influences of environmental and biological

processes resulting in differential preservation of juvenile bones (Walker et al. 1988);

flawed or biased archaeological excavation strategies resulting in incomplete recovery

(Johnston and Zimmer 1 989).

Shallower burial depths for subadult graves and the effects of ploughing were proposed

by Acsádi and Nemeskéri (1970) as a cause for demographic biases. However, it would

seem that the principal factor affecting the differential preservation ofjuvenile remains

is their deterioration due to high protein and low mineral contents. Contributing factors

of soil chemistry and the length of time buried will determine the rate of deterioration,

but it is inevitable that the remains of adults will survive better than juveniles.

From the perspective of the molecular level investigations of bone such as stable isotope

and DNA analyses, the final comment on preservation is related to its physical structure.

Bone consists of approximately 20-25o/o organic protein held within a matrix of

inorganic mineral (Triffrt 1980). Stable isotopes recovered from this protein are the key

47

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemelety

component for palaeodietary and palaeoenvironmental sfudies. Postmortem chemical

changes or diagenesis of this material (i.e. the protein) negatively influences outcomes

of stable isotope analyses. Bone density, or the proportions of compact bone versus

cancellous bone, varies widely throughout the skeleton. It has been suggested that

samples for molecular studies (eg. DNA or stable isotopes) be taken from a bone with

dense compact bone. This is usually found in femora where compact bone is so dense

that it is the last area where diagenetic changes occur.

Carbon and nitrogen stable isotopes are generally used for dietary analyses due to their

occuffence in the principal food groups consumed by animals. For the sake of

explanation, nitrogen isotope values are measured as a ratio of 'tN to laN relative to the

isotopic composition of atmospheric N2. This ratio is known as a 'delta value' and is

represented by the symbol 'ô' and expressed in parts per thousand (%o) (Anson 1997).

In simplified terms, stable nitrogen isotopes in bone collagen can provide information

regarding marine versus terrestrial dietary components.

Human osteology

Larsen (1997) cites a number of useful texts created as manuals for osteological

methods including Bass (1995), Brothwell (1981), Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), and

Schwartz (1995).

For analytical purposes, White (2000) provides a complete comparative photographic

resource of the human skeleton. Such texts are invaluable for identification of

individual bones or bone fragments. Although not the focus of this text, chapters on

palaeopathology, demography and field techniques are provided making this an

48

The bioarchaeology of St, Mary's Cemetety

essential reference for skeletal analyses. 'White (2000) also provides a comprehensive

bibliography of work cited.

Laboratory and descriptive work undertaken during the course of this study were based

on standards outlined by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). This manual was created to

provide researchers with a standardised systematic way of recording human remains,

particularly if they are likely to be repatriated or otherwise made unavailable for future

research. The text provides an exhaustive and thorough data collection protocol, which

standardizes the minimum amount of information that should be recorded from a human

skeleton. "Procedures include inventory, sexing and aging, dental collection and study,

measurement, non-metric traits, postmortem changes, palaeopathology, cultural

modifications and conservation of samples" (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994: ä). A

number of the recording forms provided as appendices in this text, were used to record

aspects of the St. Mary's skeletal collection.

The ability to assign age and sex to individual skeletons within a sample is fundamental

to any subsequent demographic analyses. Life table estimations allow inferences about

past populations based on morphologically derived data.

Although aging and sexing analyses followed the protocols outlined by Buikstra and

Ubelaker (1994), it was often necessary to consult source references cited by the

authors. In addition, advances in methods post-dating 1994 were also consulted. The

following paragraphs will attempt to bring together these works.

49


Attribution of sex

With the onset of adolescence differential hormone secretions increase sexual

dimorphism (Krogman and Iscan 1986:190; Scheuer and Bowman 1995:4). As a

consequence, morphological estimation of sex becomes more reliable after this phase.

It is for this reason that sex determination of adults will be treated separately from that

of juveniles. Criteria for the determination of sex among adults are well established.

Many attributes of both the cranial and post-cranial skeleton can be used to assess sex,

but as with aging techniques, a combination of all attributes allows for greater accuracy.

Sex is an essential demographic consideration when inferring previous social behaviour

within historical and archaeological contexts (Jackes 1992; Ovchinnikov et al. 1998;

Cunha et al. 2000). The determination of sex ratios in past populations can be used as a

tool when attempting to understand characteristics of demographic issues such as life

expectancy and disease patterns (Filon et al. 1995; Zierdt et al. 1996; Grauer and Stuart-

Macadam 1998; Stuart-Macadam 1998). These issues can in turn be used to understand

current situations with a sex-related bias, including susceptibility to certain diseases

(V/eaver 1980).

The most recent reviews of literature dedicated to skeletal sexing methods are provided

by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), Bass (1995), Schwartz (1995), Mays (1998), Scheuer

and Black (2000), and, Cox and Mays (2000). Criteria outlined in these texts were

predominantly used throughout the course of this study. Traditionally, anthropological

and forensic sex identifications have focused on characteristics of the pelvis and

cranium (Boucher 1957; St. Hoyme and Ìçcan 1989; Ali and Maclaughlin 1991).

Researchers using morphological methods for the determination of sex of adults provide

50


estimates for the accuracy of these methods. Estimates are traditionally provided with a

range of confidence levels: 95% based on an intact pelvis, 85-90% with crania and 80-

90% based on post-cranial material (Krogman and içcan 1986); an accuracy of at least

75o/o is required for a method to be considered useful (De Vito and Saunders 1990).

Weaver (1998:193) states that the main obstacle to confidently sexing foetal and

neonatal remains is the paucity of studies of large samples of documented remains. The

author suggests that sexual differentiation begins as early as the tenth foetal week.

Schutkowski (1993) through a study of skeletons of children of known age and sex was

able to determine that it is possible to infer sex of sub-adults between birth and hve

years of age in 70 to 90o/o of cases using morphognostic features of the pelvis and

mandible. Holcomb and Konigsberg (1995) found statistically significant sex

differences in the morphology of the sciatic notch, but stated that the method was not

satisfactory for forensic applications. Despite this research, attributing sex to infant and

sub-adult skeletal material remains notoriously unreliable.

ln addition to the criteria outlined by Johnston and Zimmer (1989) and Scheuer and

Bowman (1995) for aging and sexing juvenile remains, various other methods were

addressed during the analytical phase of this study. For example, Loth and Henneberg

(2001), reported sexual dimorphism in mandibular morphology in the first few years of

life. Where preservation allowed, this technique was applied to sub-adult material from

the St. Mary's collection. Some variation in the reliability of this method has been

reported (Scheuer 2002), but without the aid of more reliable methods it was thought

that the present study could add to the pool of knowledge.

51

The bioarchaeolog,t ol'St. Mary's Cemetery

ln recognition of the ongoing uncertainty associated with the sexing ofjuvenile remains

attempts were made using the St. Mary's material, to add to address the issue. One

avenue of investigation centred on the robusticity of long bone of infants and young

children (Coussens et al. 2002). Using robusticity indices compared with sex

determinations using mandibular morphology, this method showed a clear correlation,

particularly among males. The humerus midshaft circumference index provided the

greatest difference between sexes.

In similar terms, skeletal material from the St. Mary's collection was provided for a

parallel study, which focused on sex determination using molecular techniques

(Townsend 2002). DNA analyses centred on testing three extraction protocols

previously determined to be successful with adult remains. Problems with juvenile

remains arise however because of poorer preservation and an inability to recover

meaningful samples.

Aging

The ability to determine age from the skeleton, or parts of the skeleton, is fundamental

to the work of a bioarchaeologist. Many of the techniques employed to determine age

from skeletal material have been derived from forensic science research. ln criminal

cases, forensic scientists need to provide accurate and reliable evidence in order to

identify victims. Consequently, forensic research has many parallels to bioarchaeology

and biological anthropology.

Age estimations can be obtained from various parts of the human skeleton. It is

possible to gain a relatively accurate estimate of a given skeleton's age at death if the

52

The bioarchaeologt of St, Mary's Cemetery

whole skeleton is available. This however is commonly not the case. Therefore a

number of techniques for age estimation using individual bones, groups of bones or

even fragments of bones have been established. The two main parts of the human

skeleton that can provide reliable age estimations are the pelvis and skull.

Reichs (1998) provides a comprehensive overview of the application of pubic age

determination. The method is based on the changing morphology of the pubic

symphysis. First systemised by Todd (1920), the method was later refined and

simplified (Suchey et al. 1984; Katz and Suchey 1986; Brooks and Suchey 1990).

Commonly called the 'suchey-Brooks' method, the technique was developed through

observation of 1225 pubic bones of known age and sex. Six phases of development and

change of the pubic symphysis were identified. Each phase is distinctively different

allowing significantly accurate age determination. Application of the method is

somewhat limited however as margins of error can be as high as 14.6 years for females

and 12.2 years for males (Suchey et al. 1988).

Systematic age-related change of the auricular surface of the pelvis has been described

by Lovejoy et al. (1985) and Meindel and Lovejoy (1989). In comparison to use of the

pubic symphysis, the auricular surface method is more complex and problematic to

score. The advantage of the method however, is that the auricular surface tends to

survive better in archaeological collections. Naturally, where both pubic symphysis and

auricular surface remain intact, age estimations are enhanced through comparative

analysis. Descriptive phases are described and illustrated by Buikstra and Ubelaker

(ree+).

53


The changing morphology of the sternal rib was addressed by içcan and Loth (1986a;

1986b). It was proposed by the authors that metamorphosis of the sternal rib end occurs

at a rate that can be placed into phases. Descriptions of phases can then be related to

age ranges. This now well-accepted aging method relies on good preservation and

accurate observation and interpretation of morphological features.

It is also possible to use features of the cranium to determine age. Dental development,

particularly in juveniles, is an effective supplement to methods reliant on the post-

cranial skeleton. Indeed, analysis of dental development of juveniles is a highly

effective and relatively accurate method for age determination up to 15 years (Buikstra

and Ubelaker 1994:51). After this time, change is less dramatic, with most of the focus

on eruption and occlusion of the third molar.

In adults it is possible to use observation of dental wear to supplement age

determinations using other parts of the skeleton. As dental enamel is not renewed

throughout the life of an individual, it is constantly being worn away through everyday

activities such as eating. Methods for describing and scoring dental wear are provided

by Scott (1979) and Smith (1984). Following eruption of permanent dentition, dental

wear is an effective supplementary method for age determination in the historical

context.

Another supplementary method for age determination focuses on cranial suture closure

(Meindel and Lovejoy 1985). This method is particularly problematic however, as

considerable variability in closure rates has been demonstrated (Masset 1989). Despite

s4


this the method is useful when no other criteria are available, or when used in

conjunction with other attributes.

ln the study of the remains of 65 children buried the Randwick Destitute Children's

Asylum (Austral/Godden Mackay 1997), the authors took the opportunity to compare

methods for age determination of the subadult skeleton. Skeletal methods including the

length of diaphysis of femora (Maresh 1955), and epiphyseal union (Krogman and içcan

1986) were tested against dental eruption and development methods proposed by

Schour and Massler Q9a\ and Demirjian et al. (1973). Twenty-five of the children

studied were of known age and sex thus allowing close assessment of morphological

methods.

The findings of this exercise were that dental age more closely approximates

chronological age than skeletal age, in support of the commonly held belief. Ages

determined using length of femora were found to be consistently under-estimated, a

phenomenon, which the author ascribed to, retarded growth due to environmental

factors such as inferior diet and poor health. It was therefore concluded that while

dental determinations are preferable for aging, skeletal determinations serve well as

markers for alterations and defects in growth.

Descriptive and diagrammatic representations of human dental development are

provided by various authors (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:51; Bass 1995:303; Scheuer

and Black 2000:161). Various dental development charts exist but these are generally

derived from the works of Schour and Massler (1941), Van der Linden and Duterloo

(1976) and Ubelaker (1978). By comparing observed dental development with the

55

The bioarchaeolog,t oJ'St. Mary's Cemetery

diagrammatic representation, a relatively accurate age determination is possible for

juveniles through to early adulthood.

Health and disease

The determination of specific diseases in humans, the results of which may have

manifested as bony lesions, is often problematic in the context of archaeological

specimens. Two reasons given for this are 1) the lack of well-described, clinically

identified skeletal samples; 2) the problem of identifying skeletal abnormalities or

configurations of abnormalities that define a given disease (Boddington 1987b;

Ubelaker 1989; Roberts and Manchester 1995; Miller et al. 1996:224). Comparative

diagnostic texts for bioarchaeologists are becoming more available. One problem

however, is that such texts have a tendency to describe the more extreme cases, giving

the impression that such extreme skeletal reactions should be expected in any individual

suffering from a disease (Tayles 1996).

A characteristic of many historical skeletal collections is the apparent lack of diagnostic

pathologies allowing assessment of the possible cause of death. lnfectious disease in a

chronic state (i.e. a recurring condition) and suffered over an extended period of time,

can often result in bone changes (Roberts et al. 1998; Roberts 2000). Such changes are

seen in conditions like leprosy, tuberculosis, syphilis and other venereal diseases. A

number of published sources have been compiled to assist in the identification and

classification of the various bone indicators of health and disease. Among these are

Steinbock (1976), Ortner and Putschar (1985), Roberts and Manchester (1995) and

Mann and Murphy (1990).

56

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemelery

However, when an infectious disease is acute the onset and expression of the illness and

its symptoms occur so rapidly that the individual dies before bone changes have had a

chance to develop. Such illnesses often occur when an individual's immune system is

already struggling to cope with contributing factors like malnutrition or poor hygiene.

Furthermore, soft tissues of the gastrointestinal tract and respiratory system are often the

main regions to be affected by acute infectious (Lovell 2000:217). As a result issues of

preservation in the postmorlem environment diminish the palaeopathologists ability to

identify a cause of death.

Lovell (2000) provides a clear and comprehensive overview of identification and

description of infectious diseases and includes a historical summary of the discipline of

palaeopathology. Additionally, the author provides explanation on the various non-

visual techniques used for the diagnosis of past diseases. Techniques including

radiography, projection radiography, xeroradiography, computed tomography, magnetic

resonance imaging, microscopic analysis, isotopic analysis and ancient DNA analysis

are all addressed.

Abnormalities observed during skeletal inspection commonly provide indirect or non-

pathognomonic evidence that the individual has sustained an infectious or pathological

condition. For example, cribra orbitalia, commonly associated with anaemia in

subadults, can be caused by a number of conditions including, malnutrition, dietary

deficiency and infectious pathogens (Mensforth et al. 1978; Stuart-Macadam and Kent

1992). Despite cribra orbitalia having been commonly associated with dietary iron

deficiency, Ortner et al. (1999) reported pitting of the orbital roof in 37 of 38 subadult

cases of scurvy in a Peruvian sample. Although the etiology of pitting of the roof of the

57


orbitals is still not fully understood, it is generally considered that the condition acts as

an indicator ofdietary stress.

Piontek and Kozlowski (2002) provide a synopsis of research conducted on cribra

orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis as an introduction to their study of the skulls of 92

medieval Polish individuals between 0 and 15 years old-at-death. This paper also

provides clear instructions regarding the observation and recording of the condition.

Most importan1.Jy however, the authors consider the findings of recent research when

making conclusions based on their own data. Research by Stuarl-Macadam (1992a),

Klepinger (1992), Grauer (1993) and Kent and Dunn (1996) moves away from the idea

that cribra orbitalia is an indicator of dietary inadequacy and more an indicator of

population health. These works suggest that the hypoferremia (deficiency of iron in the

blood), which leads to cribra orbitalia, may in fact be a defensive adaptation to combat

pathogens such as bacteria, viruses or fungi.

Geographic origin

During the course of this study, consideration was given to the potential for remains to

exhibit traits associated with geographic origin. Although trends in immigration (Pike

1957; Price 1987) and available primary historical documents (eg. St. Mary's Church

burial register) for the period, suggest that the sample is predominantly European,

morphological assessments included tests for geographic origin. The motivation for this

approach was to identify the presence of any non-Europeans, particularly Aboriginal

Australians, amongst the sample. It should be noted however, that morphological

variation within groups in association with the relatively small sample size would tend

to preclude any meaningful observations.

58


Pounder (1984) and Webb (1995) were consulted for morphological aspects of

Aboriginal Australian skeletal material. Texts for a broader approach to determination

of geographic origin included Giles and Elliot (1962), Gill (1984), Gill and Rhine

(1990), Bass (1995) and Gill (1998). Method application involved use of the Giles and

Elliot (1962) worksheet and indices determined by Gill (1984).

The presence or absence of non-European skeletal material has ramifications, which are

fundamental to the focus of this study. If it can be demonstrated that non-Europeans

were included within the consecrated ground of the Anglican Church, significant social

issues/questions are raised. Were the colonial under-classes equated with Aboriginal

Australians and buried together? Did Church policy allow for the burial of Aboriginal

Australian or other non-European peoples within their sanctified grounds?

Demography

An effective method of determining trends and characteristics of past populations, based

on morphologically derived information, is the use of life tables. Life tables allow the

archaeologist'...to tum dry bones into something approaching live social history'

(V/heeler 1954:216). Mortality, the measurement of death in a population (Relethford

1997:332), can be influenced by cultural and biological factors. Age at death and the

cause of death may relate to biological factors such as susceptibility to certain diseases.

Similarly, cuhural factors can also affect the cause and timing of death. For example,

social attributes of class may affect an individual's ability to access proper nutrition and

adequate health care.

59

The bioarchaeology o/ St. Maty's Cemetety

A good summary of the use of life tables for the study and interpretation of

archaeological skeletal collections is provided by Boddington (1987b). Importantly, the

author comments on underlying assumptions of a stationary population when using

population models. That is, the results of life table calculations are based on a

population that is assumed to have zero growth. This of course can produce bias if the

population in question experienced either a positive or negative rate of growth/decline.

For example, if the contributing population for a given cemetery was actually growing

through time, deaths at young age will be over-represented assuming zero growth.

The rate of natural increase ('r') of the South Australian population during the period

relevant to this study was estimated (Appendix 4). Census records from 1851 to 1900

provide details regarding the number of births ('B') and deaths ('D') in the colony as

well as the total population ('P') figure (with the exclusion of the Indigenous

population) for the previous year. Equipped with this information it is possible to

determine the 'crude death rate' ('d') where d : D/P; and the crude birth rate ('b')

where b : B/P. The rate of natural increase for the given year is then calculated using

the formula r: b - d.

Life table data were calculated using the format proposed by Henneberg and Steyn

(1994). Using the skeletal collection recovered from the K2 and Mapungubwe

populations in South Africa, the authors addressed the 'nonstationarity' of populations.

V/ithout allowing for the natural rate of increase in the population it was found that age

at death distribution of the collection meant that juvenile mortality was overestimated

and adult mortality was underestimated. By calculating a number of life tables for the

same age distribution but with varying rates of 'r', it was possible to determine a more

60


realistic profile of the site's past demography. The life table that demonstrated

demographic reality was determined using two criteria. Firstly, with the consideration

"...that biometric functions of a particular life table must fall within the range deemed

possible among prehistoric populations" (Henneberg and Steyn 1994:111). Secondly,

that the estimated crude birth rate "...should be close to the minimum for the range of

iterations and that other indicators of fertility... should be as close to realistic values as

possible" (Henneberg and Steyn 1994:ll2).


The term 'working-class' takes on extra signif,rcance in reference to the current study.

There is no doubt that life for the working classes in the developing colony was

demanding and relatively unforgiving. Repetitive daily chores and the larger tasks of

clearing land, planting crops, digging wells, building houses, quarrying stone, building

fences and roads leave their mark on the adult human skeleton. In the context of this

study however, it is the presence or absence of these markers that will provide insight

into the degree of hardship endured and perhaps something of the type of activities

undertaken. Clearly assessment of skeletal markers of mechanical forces acting on

bones will contribute significantly to reconstruction of past lifeways in the context of

this study.

Markers of occupational stress are defined as skeletal responses to habitual activity,

which can "include skeletal changes, supernumerary facets, fractures and

musculoskeletal stress markers" (Kennedy 1989; Wilczak 1998:311; Capasso et al.

1999). Musculoskeletal stress markers (MSM), a category of MOS, afe "a distinct

6l

The bioarchaeologt oJ'St. Maty's Cemelery

skeletal mark that occurs where a muscle, tendon or ligament inserts on the periosteum

and into the underlying bony cortex" (Hawkey and Merbs 1995:324).

Knüsel (2000) provides one of the more up-to-date overviews of the subject of bone

adaptability and its relationship to physical activity. In addition to providing details

regarding some of the more likely occupational markers to be encountered by

researchers, the author also provides and extensive review of the literature. Key areas

to be considered in this field of investigation concern the post-cranial skeleton. For

example, bilateral as¡nnmetry of bones can provide insight into handedness (Steele

2000), occupation, pathology (Churchill and Formic ola 1997) and sex (Mays 2002).

Similarly, due to the stresses and strains placed on the vertebral column, this too, often

provides insight into the activities of affected individuals. For example, spondylolysis

(or spondylolisthesis), the separation of the pars interarticularis from the vertebral

body, is said to commonly occur in physically active people, particularly athletes

(Hardcastle et al. 1992). The same pathologies are also caused by more generalized

labouring activities such as shovelling, lifting water and threshing grain according to

Nag et al. (1980), activities likely to have been undertaken by many European colonists.

Merbs (1996) claims that the stress fracture seen in spondylolysis is related to erect

posture and bipedal locomotion and that certain activities may promote the development

of the condition in prone individuals. Mann and Murphy (1990) provide a

comprehensive bibliography on this and related subjects including an association

between spondylosis and spina bifida.

62


The frequency of spondylolysis varies between populations; however, a general

population rate of around 5.8% has been suggested by Merbs (1996). It has also been

found through clinical surveys and studies of archaeological and anatomical collections

that spondylolysis occurs more frequently in males than females (Roche and Rowe

1951; Stewartlg53; Gunness-Hey 1982; Fredrickson et al. 1984).

Typically, however, activity-related changes occur in association with entheses (altered

muscle and ligament attachments) due to increased development of muscle

(hypertrophy) through continuous task performance (Knüsel 2000). Entheses occur in

two forms, 1) bone deposition resulting in crests or spicules, or 2) sulci resultant from

excavation of cortical bone. Also known as musculoskeletal markers of stress, the

appearance and frequency of entheses have been related to age (Resnick and Niwayama

1983; Cunha and Umbelino 1995).

For the sake of terminology the term'stress' should be defined differently when talking

about changes to the skeleton as a result of physical activity and behaviour patterns.

Stress caused by deprivation is defined as "physiological disruption resulting from

impoverished environmental circumstances" (Larsen 1997:6). 'Where bony changes

occur as a result of behaviour the active force is known as mechanical or functional

stress. It is sometimes possible to relate pattems of marks of mechanical stress to an

individual's prevailing lifestyle or occupation. Consequently skeletal marks of this type

are commonly known as occupational markers of stress.

Finnegan (1978) identifies a diverse array of occupational markers and discusses

contributing factors of age, sex and side preference (i.e. handedness). Kennedy

63


(1989:138-153) provides a comprehensive table detailing observed pathologies and

interpretation of the associated occupational activity

The study of the interrelationship between morphological structure and behavioural

function has scientific importance and assists in efforts to reconstruct lifeways from the

human skeleton. As Kennedy (1989) states "...irregularities of osseous and dental

tissues may develop under conditions of prolonged and continued stress imposed by

some habitual, or occupational, activity." However, it is necessary to be aware that the

term 'stress' is pejorative and that some actions or activities (eg exercise), which impact

on bone may be positive or stimulating.

Wolff (1986) described the response of bone to mechanical stress suggesting that bone

displaces itself in the direction of the functional pressure and increases or decreases its

mass to reflect the amount of functional pressure. Bony regrowth in the way of lipping

and exostoses are the skeleton's reaction to displacement and are an attempt to spread

mechanical load. The macroscopically observable deformities that occur as a result of

prolonged stress form the occupational marker of stress (Radin et al. 1972; Radin 1982).

The markers of occupation or stress commonly manifest in synovial joints. Changes to

bone as a result of mechanical forces are not restricted to joint surfaces. Regular

physical work and mechanical movement of the skeleton involves the muscular

component of the body. Where certain muscles are used in preference to others or

musculoskeletal activity is excessive it is possible to observe changes to muscle

attachment sites. The resulting formations; elevated or enlarged tubercles, crests and

64


tuberosities or sulci are caused by muscles pulling on these structures to which the

muscle is attached (Kennedy 1989).

Osteoarthritis, a form of arthritis, is the most frequently observed joint disease in both

modern and past populations (Rogers 2000). The condition is a chronic inflammation

that causes the articular cartilage in the affected joint to progressively deteriorate

(Spence 1986). In the archaeological context, skeletal changes arising from

osteoarthritis are consistent and include proliferative, exophytic growth of new bone at

joint margins (osteophytes), and/or loss through erosion of bone at joint surfaces

(Larsen 1997). Where cartilaginous material protecting joints has degenerated or failed,

joint surfaces become pitted. In the extreme, bone-on-bone contact occurs causing a

polish to form on the articular surface termed 'ebumation' (Hough and Sokoloff 1989).

Two keypoints to be notedregarding osteoarthritis are that it affects synovial joints and

that its frequency increases with age (Rogers 2000: 165).

Nonmetric traits

Nonmetric traits (Berry and Berry 1967), also known as epigenetic traits (Buikstra and

Ubelaker 1994), discrete traits (Rightmire 1970) and discreta (Rösing 1982) are defined

as non-pathological variants of the skeleton which are characterised by familial

inheritance. Rösing (1982) argues that the term 'discreta' should be used for reasons of

definition and historical origins, however in order to maintain consistency with other

studies these traits will be referred to in the current study as nonmetric.

Nonmetric traits are also def,rned by Tyrrell (2000:290) as minor variants of phenotypic

expression. Four principal types of nonmetric trait were identif,red by Hauser and De

65

The bioarchaeology o/ St. Maty's Cemetery

Stefano (1989) in order to categorise the more than 200 cranial traits currently identified

(Larsen 1997)

Ossicles: small bones observed within cranial sutures

Hyperostotic: variant skeletal proliferations such as bridges of bone

Hyperostotic: ossification failure such as the metopic suture

Foramen variation: variation in the number and location of foramina such as the

infraorbital foramina.

The fundamental purpose of making nonmetric analyses is to assess familial

relationships within a population based on genetically passed on characteristics.

Furthermore, it is also possible to identify characteristics of a population based on the

prevalence of discrete nonmetric traits. For example Pardoe (1984) studied nonmetric

variations within prehistoric Aboriginal Australians. These characteristics occur both

cranially and post cranially, with the majority of features manifesting in the skull.

Hypostotic traits are those characterised by a failure to ossify, whereas hyperostotic

traits are characterised by abnormal bone formation (Ossenbergl9T0).

Applications of nonmetric analyses in contemporary studies of past human populations

include Selby et al. (1955), Saunders and Popovich (Saunders and Popovich) and

Sjøvold (1984). It has been suggested that assessment of nonmetric traits can provide

more meaningful information than craniometric observations with regard to aspects of

geographic origin and ethnicity (Beny and Berry 1967; Ossenberg 1970; Pardoe 1984).

This is due largely to factors including '...a comparative lack of trait intercorrelation, a

constancy of expression in variable environmental conditions, the ease of observation

over measurement and the potential for inclusion of incomplete specimens' (Lazer

a

a

a

o

66

The bioarchaeology of St, Mary's Cemetery

2001:76). The added advantage of nonmetric versus craniometric observations for

geographic origin determinations is that at least some traits can be assessed from

neonatal and infant skeletons (Hauser and De Stefano 1989).

Tue ANclrcAN CHURCH IN SourH AusrRal-lR

The State of South Australia was proclaimed in 1836. By 1844 there were four

Anglican churches in South Australia; Holy Trinity and St. John's in the city; St. Paul's

at Port Adelaide; and, St. Mary's -on-the-Sturt, Marion (Hilliard 1986). With the

majority of colonists arriving from the British Isles, it comes as no surprise that the

Anglican Church would play a dominant role in the spiritual development of the new

colony. However, those responsible for establishing and guiding the colony saw an

opportunity to eliminate the more undesirable characteristics of life in the Motherland

(Pike 1967).

The fîrst white settlers in the colony came with many of their English traditions:

However, one of the traditions not imported was the well-established union between

Church and State. In matters of religion, members of the Church of England. . . " were in

unfamiliar territory having to fend for themselves without government support" (Oborn

2002:1). The rift between the two bodies during the early 1830's occurred as a result of

ecclesiastical arguments in Britain and was to have a significant influence on the

founding of South Australia.

Protestant groups known as 'Dissenters', formed from the main body of the Church of

England and included Methodists, Baptists, Presbyterians and Congregationalists. The

principal goal of the Dissenter was religious equality and liberty and the

67

The bioarchaeology of'St. Mary's Cemeter

disestablishment of the entrenched bond between Church and State (Pike 1967; Hilliard

1986; Hilliard and Hunt 1986; Oborn 2002). The situation was untenable for the

Dissenters, who up until 1829 were unable take a political office and had to pay tithes to

Church of England clergy, whilst being barred from conducting marriages in their own

chapels or from burying their dead in parish churchyards. Many of those involved in

the foundation of South Australia were either Dissenters or Church of England

sympathisers.

The churches dependence on financial support provided by the British Government was

extended to all of its new colonies including grants of land and money for the building

of churches and support of clergy. However, the new South Australians actively

worked towards a church that did not discriminate between religious denominations and

was not in a position of privilege over other religious bodies. The non-secular

movement sought a Christian society where a "...Christian religion was the only secure

basis for a stable and civilized social order" (Hilliard 1986:3). It was believed however,

that this could not occur without the elimination of 'state interference', but could occur

with the inception of the 'voluntary principle'. As a result, "each group would have to

be self-supporting and use voluntary contributions from their own flocks to build

churches and pay the stipends of ministers" (Oborn 2002:l).

During the early 1840's the Anglican Church in South Australia was struggling to

remain f,rnancially viable. This was despite the 1844 census, which reported that 54.8%o

of the population considered themselves to be members of the Church of England (Pike

1957). The principal reasons were the withdrawal of State funds and an economic

downturn in the colony.

68


Relief for the Church came in 1846 when Governor Fredrick Robe introduced

legislation providing aid to some religious groups (Hilliard and Hunt 1986). The

system was weighted on the number of adherents to the particular denomination.

Despite being relatively small sums of money (in comparison to other Australian

colonies), the ideals of the 'voluntary principle' were seen by many in the church to be

eroded. The issue culminated in 1851 when a bill known as the 'Church Ordinance

Bill' was defeated in the Legislative Council, thus abolishing all state funding for

churches (Hilliard 1986).

In the following decades, the Anglican Church in South Australia struggled to attract

members to its parishes resulting in a steady decline in the number of adherents. By

1871 the number of South Australians recorded in the census as Anglicans had fallen to

21.4% of the population (Vamplew 1987). V/ith the growth and expansion of the

colony came more dissenting religious groups who attracted members away from the

established Anglican churches. In addition, established dissenting churches filled a

spiritual need for those who were unhappy with the current state of the Anglican

Church, or, who lived in districts where the church had yet to be established (Hilliard

and Hunt 1986).

From the early 1880's to the turn of the century the Anglican Church in South Australia

experienced a revival shown by a steady growth in the number of Anglican adherents

and a ceasing in the decline of their proportion of the population as a whole (Hilliard

1986). New and returning members were attracted by the Church's direct links with

England and the Crown, and a degree of sympathy provided to the Church by second

69

The bioarchaeologl,t of St. Mary's Cemetery

and third generation colonists in the form of "...historic associations and family

memories" (Register l9l2:3). Furthermore, the emerging South Australian 'gentry'

families began to form a close association because of the Church's ". . .connections with

St. Peter's College, its emphasis on order, patriotism and tradition, and its social

freedom; for it did not frown upon horse-racing, dancing, smoking or drinking"

(Hilliard 1986:49).

The social history provided above gives an idea of the religious climate in which the

church and cemetery at St. Mary's were formed. It is clear that this period was a time

of significant flux for the Church, which perhaps reflects/reiterates a broad feeling of

disgruntlement and desire for change amongst the early colonists.

AncsR¡olocy oF THE HISToRICAL cEMETERY

With the advance of time urban development processes have revealed many forgotten or

abandoned cemeteries. Most commonly this phenomenon has been restricted to the

northern hemisphere where, in general terms, human occupation in cities has a longer

history. In particular, maîy of the older urban centres of Europe and North America

have provided some spectacular examples. It is not surprising therefore that much of

the research in bio-anthropology has stemmed from these continents.

The archaeological investigation of historical cemeteries is a relatively recent

phenomenon. Ubelaker (1995) suggests that the "surge of interest" is a result of urban

growth and renewal projects. Such processes have necessitated the wholesale

excavation, removal and analysis of thousands of skeletal remains worldwide. The

opportunities for researchers created by these investigations have seen great expansion

70

The bioarchaeologlt oJ'St. Mary's Cemetery

in the field of biological anthropology. ln response to the ever-increasing body of

knowledge, Bell (1994) published a bibliography on the historical archaeology of

cemetenes.

Another useful resource for studies of this nature includes contemporary manuals for

the planning and management of 19th century cemeteries and churchyards. One such

manual is that written by Loudon in 1843 (republished in 1981) which among other

things suggests the creation of "...temporary cemeteries for the very poor that, once

f,rlled, would revert to agriculture...", artd "...burial in the grounds of workhouses,

...that eventually the ground could be cultivated" (Loudon 1981:18). Another of

Loudon's "practical notions" was that "...for burying paupers out in the country near

railway lines, afterwards reverting the land to agricultural use" (Loudon 1981:19). It is

clear that the author was a practical and utilitarian man, and it comes perhaps as no

surprise that he suggested that "cremation would soon account for the disposal of the

great mass of the dead" well before others (Loudon 1981:19).

Loudon also provides more specific suggestions for the cemetery manager, including

the marking of common graves:

"...in which several bodies are deposited, of poor persons, or paupers, for

whom no monument is ever put up, except a mound covered with turf, but which

ought always to be marked with a stone number for reference, and to prevent all

risk of their being opened again at any future period"

(Loudon 1981:28).

7T


Walker (2000) provides a brief history of the collection and study of human remains. It

has only been in relatively recent times that scientists realized the value of having

skeletal collections where individuals are of a known age, sex and geographic or ethnic

background. For example, when the crypts of St. Bride's church were disturbed by the

bombing of London during World 'War II, reconstruction work resulted in the recovery

of 299 documented skeletal remains (Huda and Bowman 1995; Scheuer and Bowman

1995).

Other studies consulted during the course of the current study include several North

American projects. One example of this is the Lafferty Lane cemetery, Kent County,

Delaware. Although archaeological investigations did not set out to retrieve skeletal

material, this projectwas able to identify 120 graves dating from aroundlT60 to 1840.

The previously unmarked and apparently forgotten cemetery had always been privately

owned and included individuals from several related families (Bachman and Catts

1990). Prior to the inception of centrally located, state operated cemeteries, it was

common for families and communities to establish their own burial yards.

Another example of this can be seen in the archaeological investigation of a small

family cemetery in Sussex County, Delaware (LeeDecker et al. 1995). Once again, this

study investigates the archaeology of a mid-to-late 18th century family cemetery. The

use of family burial plots, it is claimed, arose from the dispersal of American colonial

population among isolated farms and plantations; "...this practice was well established

in America by the late 18th century" (LeeDecker et al. 1995:i).

72

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemetery

The value of these studies and their relevance to the current project are mostly for

comparative reasons. For example, although time frames for creation of the various

cemeteries do not match that of St. Mary's, it is relevant to compare derived

information such as burial and mortuary practice (eg. burial orientation, multiple

burials, taphonomy). Moreover, these studies provide details of archaeological methods

applied and fields of information retrieved. Such details are needed in order to identify

areas ofinadequacy ofstrategy and research design.

ln I99I Elia and Wesolowsky (1991) published the findings of archaeological

investigations into the Uxbridge Almshouse burial ground in Uxbridge, Massachusetts.

The burial ground, in use from 1831 to 1812, held the remains of 24 adults and 8

'children' (n:32) in 31 graves. Interestingly, the authors of this study state two

underlying assumptions; firstly, that the survey, use and interpretation of historical

documents are as much a part of archaeological research as excavation; and secondly,

that the poor would be virtually absent from the documentary record, the suggestion

being that paupers would leave little documentation to mark their passing as socially

marginal groups were often unable to pay taxes or leave an estate (Elia and

Wesolowsky 1991).

AusrnRlrRN HTSToRICAL cEMETERY sruDtES

In his PhD dissertation, Nicol (Nicol 1986), comprehensively discusses the history and

development of treatment of the dead in South Australia since European settlement.

Contemporary details recorded in the study derive mostly from sources such as

descriptions in personal diaries and newspaper articles. Social customs and traditions

related to death and burial are also addressed, particularly with regard to socio-

73


economic variations. From the historian's viewpoint, it is fortunate that burial of the

poor and destitute in South Australia during the early lgth century \¡/as plagued by

controversy. Persistent complaints about the inadequate provisions of the Government

for this purpose led to the necessary changes, all of which was officially recorded in

Govemment records (Nicol 1986).

The field of literature on the topic of archaeological analysis of Australian historical

cemeteries is gradually building with several projects completed in the past four years.

The earliest published archaeological study of Australian human burials in the historical

context is that of Old Sydney Burial Ground. Following its closure in 1820, the burial

ground, in use from 1792 had gone through various phases of disturbance as a

consequence of inner city redevelopments. Archaeological consultants during

redevelopment of Sydney Town Hall recorded seven burials held within brick vaults

(Godden/Mackay 1991; Lowe and Mackay 1992). Prior to this discovery, a number of

vaults were recorded by (Birmingham and Liston 1976). None of these studies,

however, provided any detailed skeletal analysis, choosing instead to provide more

information regarding vault construction and non-skeletal artefacts.

The first substantial skeletal analysis of material recovered form a historical cemetery

was that of the Randwick Destitute Children's Burial Ground in New South 'Wales

(Austral/Godden Mackay 1997). This study saw the recovery of 65 individuals between

the ages of 2.5 and 15.2 years. The unmarked burial ground was in use from 1863 to

1891 and was used to inter deceased inmates housed within the state run asylum. The

value of this sample in terms of the current study lies in its comparability to the St.

Mary's subadult sample.

14


Although destitute asylum burials'were unmarked, researchers were able to crosscheck

morphologically derived information (i.e. age and sex) with burial records, thus

providing positive identifications for a majority of the group. Furthermore, the fact that

the study was supported by substantial historical documentation meant that this rare

sample retained added importance.

The Cadia cemetery project (Lazer 2001) saw the exhumation of an entire town

cemetery in country New South Wales. The cemetery serviced the mining town of

Cadia and was in use from the mid-l9th century to the early 20th century. To date, the

Cadia study is the largest study of historical skeletal material undertaken in Australia

and hence has been included as a comparative study for the St. Mary's study.

Consequently, greater details regarding the Cadia project are provided below in a more

appropriate section.

Archaeological salvage excavation during redevelopment of Lang Park (now Suncorp)

Stadium in inner city Brisbane, Queensland resulted in the recovery of 391 burials from

the Old Brisbane Cemetery (Rains and Prangnell2002). Although preservation of the

material tended to be somewhat poor, this study resulted in the largest archaeological

investigation of an Australian cemetery in the historical context. Details of

morphological and pathological analyses of the Lang Park material were yet to be

published at the completion of the St. Mary's study.

75


Col¿plRluvp coLLECTToNS

For the sake of reference, and in order to place both the discrete and broader findings of

the St. Mary's project into a comparative context other studies were more closely

consulted. Criteria for comparative collections included the need for historical context.

That is, in the literal sense of historical archaeology, comparative skeletal studies should

be supported with contemporary historical documents. Secondly, variation in social

context was sought to allow for the identification of variant features between the alleged

low socio economic standing of the St Mary's group and other groups.

ln order to meet these criteria the following comparative studies were consulted:

Cadia Cemetery, New South Wales (Lazer 2001)a

Christ Church, Spitalfields, London (Molleson and Cox 1993)

Voegtly Cemetery, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania (Ubelaker and Jones 2003)

Freedman's Cemetery, Dallas, Texas (Peter et al. 2000)

Cadia

Cadia, a small mining settlement and its cemetery is "...representative of rural

cemeteries in the Mid West (of New South Wales) associated with mining activities and

farming settlement", aîd was active from 1864 to 1927 (Higginbotham et aL. 2002).

The Cadia Cemetery study saw the recovery of l2l skeletons ranging in condition from

very poor to almost complete. The largest age group represented by the collection was

infant children aged less than one year (33o/o). Sixty-four (52.9%) individuals were

aged 5 years or less at death. The adult component of the collection comprised 37

(30.6%) individuals. Due to the predominance of miners and labourers represented in

the group the author suggests representation of a lower socio-economic profile.

76

O

a

a

The bioarchaeology of St, Maty's Cemetery

To date, the Cadia study is the only really viable comparative collection from the

Australian context. To qualify this statement it is possible to use the example of the

Randwick Children's Destitute Asylum Cemetery in Sydney. Although this \¡/as a

thorough study involving excellent archaeological and post-excavation procedure, the

skeletal material was purely subadult and therefore not appropriate for comparison with

adult material.

It is anticipated that the hndings of the Cadia study will parallel those of the St. Mary's

study. Both cemeteries are somewhat contemporaneous in their period of use; both

cemeteries catered for poorer working class settlers, often migrants from Europe; and,

both cemeteries developed in similar contexts, that is, 19th century Australia.

Spitaffields

The Spitalfields (Molleson and Cox 1993) and Voegtly (Ubelaker and Jones 2003)

studies have been selected in an attempt to provide some contrast to the findings of the

St. Mary's project. For example, although the period of use of the Christ Church crypt

at Spitalfields (1700-1850) is somewhat longer and earlier, the profile of those interred

in the crypt would appear to be quite different from those in the St. Mary's Cemetery.

The Spitalfields crypt catered for middle-class and affluent Protestants in the thriving

city of London. The fact that many of these people were interred in a crypt within the

walls of the church, immediately suggests some variations should exist between the two

groups. This project saw the recovery of 968 individuals including 312 adult (17 years

or older) females,31l adult males, and2lljuveniles. However, adding to the value of

71


this collection was the fact that 383 of the coffins held in the church vault had coffin

plates providing details of name, age and date of death

Voegtly

Similarly, it is anticipated that the inclusion of the Voegtly study will help to highlight

fundamental differences between the profiles of the two groups represented. The period

for interment (1833-1861) of the 687 individuals recovered is more or less

contemporaneous with the current study. However, a broad profile of those buried at

the cemetery reveals a somewhat different socio-economic group to the St. Mary's

sample (Ubelaker and Jones 2003).

Burials in Freedman's Cemetery (1869-1907) in the city of Dallas, Texas, "represent a

population of African-Americans who experienced the transition from slavery to

freedom" (Davidson 2000:233). Like the St. Mary's project, the Freedman's Cemetery

study endeavoured to investigate a discrete group for who very little was known. It was

anticipated that bioarchaeological analysis of the 1157 skeletons would allow inference

about community development, socio-economic and health status for a society of post-

emancipation African-Americans. Broad findings of the Freedman's study reveal a

high rate of infant and early childhood mortality and high rates of physical and

biological stress among adults (Tiné 2000).

Ecclesrolocv

Important to the archaeological site formation processes at St. Mary's, and worthy of

comment in this document are the beliefs and traditions held by those responsible for

the establishment and maintenance of Christian churches. Of particular interest, in

18


terms of the archaeology, are the belief paradigms associated with the physical

orientation of the burials and the church (Fleming et al. 1998). Puckle (1926) writes:

"It would seem that orientation is not primely þic) of Christian origin, but

a relic of the rites of early sun-worshippers. We shall see the same

practice in the orientation of Christian churches that governed the

erection also of their pagan temples, the altar in each case erranged in

relation to the rising sun. lTe may connect the matter even more closely

than this, for many of our churches are built, not only in the eastward

direction but towards that point in the east from which the sun would rise

on thefeast day of the Saint to which the particular church is dedicated."

(Puckle 1926:149).

Ecclesiology is the science of churches, particularly church building and decoration

(Fowler and Fowler 1956). Many of the features and traditions incumbent in more

orthodox Christian churches today, have origins in the ecclesiological writings of early

Christians. For example, the modern practice of orienting a church in an east-west

fashion (as is the case with St. Mary's) has been traced to the ecclesiastical writings of

Tertullian (Catholic University of America 1967). Tertullian lived and worked during

the second and third centuries after his conversion to Christianity in the year I97. In his

writings he says that churches are always in "high and open places, facing the light".

During the Middle Ages St. Thomas Aquinas adds "Our Lord lived His earthly life in

the East and that from the East He shall come to judge mankind". Thus from the

earliest period the custom of locating the apse and altar in the eastern extremity of the

church became the rule (Catholic University of America 1967).

79


Hoare and Sweet (2000) provide empirical data to confinn the "liturgically-correct"

alignment of early English churches and derived a mean of 88' based on assessment of

183 seventh to early twelfth century churches. It is clear from their research that a true

east-west orientation was desirable, but not essential, and that astronomical means for

determination of true east often lead to small variations in alignment.

Similarly, the practice of burying a corpse in an east-west alignment with the head at the

western end has ancient origins. (Puckle 1926) states:

"The observant will have noticed two peculiar things in connection with

the disposition of graves in the churchyards. Thefirst of which is that they

are arranged in such a manner that the bodies may lie with their heads to

the West and their feet to the East, or "oriented" as we should say.

Occasionally, limitations of space may override this general principle, but

only as an exception to a very old custom. "

(Puckle 1926:148).

and,

"To the Christians the burial of bodies with their faces to the East is the

outcome of the belief not only of the resurrection of the body, but also that

from the East shall come thefinal summons to Judgement."

(Puckle 1926:149).

It has been well documented that strict hierarchical rules were applied to those wanting

to be buried in consecrated ground (Gittings 1984; Litten l99l; Horrox 1999; Rugg

80

The bioarchaeology ofSt. Mary's Cemetery

1999). One's status in life had a signihcant bearing on the location of one's place of

burial.

Church cemeteries are historically bound by a number of rules and practices (Loudon

1981; Burman 1988). These practice were predominantly status based and deemed who

was to be buried where. In what can be loosely equated to a real estate market, some

areas within a church cemetery arelwere more desirable for grave plot location than

others. For example, the northern side of a church was often reserved for criminals and

suicides. Loudon (1981:76) comments that:

"Many persons have an objection to being buried on the north side of a

church, probably from the comparative dampness and gloominess on that

side as compared with the south side."

As a consequence, many older northern hemisphere cemeteries are very crowded on the

south side while the northern side remained relatively uncrowded:

"The radical cause of thß evil is the placing of the church of the church in

the direction of east and west, in consequence of which a considerable

portion of the churchyard is in the shade during the whole of the winter, and

the greater portion ofevery day throughout theyear, whereas, had the church

been placed in the direction of S.W. and N.8., or N.I(. and 5.8., the sun..."

(Loudon 1981:76)

ln the St. Mary's instance, the poor are buried on the eastern side of (behind) the church

where parishioners do not see them and any memory of them is soon forgotten. In

Medieval times however, such a location near the altar had more prestigious

81


connotations. For example, excavations at St Andrew's, Fishergate, United Kingdom,

revealed 13 burials outside the eastem side of the church believed to be Gilbertine

canons (Council for British Archaeology 1980; Ayers 1994;Daniell1997).

The Voegtly cemetery (1833-1861), Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, was also located behind

the church, however in this case the church was aligned in a north/south orientation.

The cemetery was therefore located to the northern side of the church. Furthermore, the

cemetery was not distinct from any other part of the church grounds. That is, unlike St.

Mary's where the eastern side of the church was reserved as free ground, the entire

Voegtly cemetery was located behind the church at the northem end (Ubelaker and

Jones 2003).

Hrsronv FRoM BELow

It is the intention of this study to add to the body of knowledge of a group of people

often ignored in historic writings. ln any class-based society, the poor classes are rarely

considered when contemporary historians and social analysts record their observations.

They are under-represented in every form of the word. Indeed, archaeologists in the

past have been guilty of a tendency to excavate places that tell us about the lives of the

powerful and famous (Connah 1994). The unfortunate aspect of this tendency is

compounded when one considers that this tells more about people for whom there is

already extensive documentation and "...fails to exploit the potential of archaeology to

tell us about those people for whom the written records are limited or absent" (Connah

1994:30).

82


In an anthology on the historian's approach to the study of the working classes,

Richards (1975), outlines the growing awareness which realised that social historians

were misrepresenting history by not including the contributions of 95o/o of the

population. Social historians such as Rudé (1956;1959:1967), Lemisch (1968), Frazier

(1971), Grattan (1973), Smith (1973) and Thompson (1964), focused their attentions on

the history of the "mob" and influences the silent and often illiterate majority had on

society.

Termed, "history from below", it is defined by (Rudé 1967:349) as

"...þcussing...attention on the nameless andfaceless people in history, and

the common man has, under this influence, begun to appear as a historical

figure in his own right."

Lemisch (1965:4-6) makes the point that many historians...

"...continue to draw conclusions about entire societies on the basis of

examinations of the minority at the top."

and,

"The history of the powerless, îhe inarticulate, the poor, has not yet been written

because they have been treated no more fairly by historians than they have by

their contemporaries. "

In his critique of The Australian Dictionary of Biography (1972), Grattan (1973:780),

points out that..."what is missing here....is any specific reference to the environing

crowds, or mob", the common people who provided the context for the celebrated to

move up in society. "Conversely" he adds, "the Dictionary is very good indeed on

those characters that were highly placed in the society, whether as a consequence of

83

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemetety

ability coupled with diligence in their business or as a consequence of position by birth

and the capability of gaining place by influence".

The final quotation on this subject provided here is taken from Thompson (1964 12-13),

who lamented that "the enormous condescension of historians" which consigned to

oblivion the obsolete handloom weaver, the poor stockinger, the utopian artisan- and all

the other casualties of history in the 19th century (Richards lg75).

That the peasants and proletariat did not commit their thoughts to paper very much is

understandable when one considers that until around 1850, these people were widely

illiterate. Indeed, it has not been possible to determine the level of education that the

early colonists had (Nance 1977). Hence an alternative definition of history from below

is the history of the inarticulate. Thus forms the ironic position of history from below

being an unwritten history as history, by definition, fundamentally relies on the written

word.

As a result the historian comes to rely on indirect evidence or as Smith (1973) describes

it, "...generalised reports from outside witnesses, sanitary inspectors, policemen,

clergymen, lady visitors...none of them sharing the values or experiences of their

subjects".

According to Connah (1994), colonial society in its early days was characterised by

social separation and interdependence. With vast social distinctions between convict

society and free society, plus a complex social hierarchy within each class it would

seem logical that this should be represented in the archaeological record. Therefore, a

84

The bioarchaeolog,t of St. Mary's Cemetery

major component of the introduction and historical background of this study included a

survey of existing historical documentation related to colonial life in South Australia.

In order to achieve this, sources of primary and secondary nature were reviewed.

Primary documents are defined by Storey (1999) as sources that originate

contemporarily with the time period being studied. Examples of primary sources

include personal memoirs, government documents and other off,rcial registers (eg.

parish records), transcripts of legal proceedings, oral histories and traditions,

archaeological and biological evidence, and visual sources like paintings and

photographs.

Secondary sources are defined by Storey (1999) as works, which reflect on earlier times

and typically take the form of books or articles by writers who are interpreting the

events and primary sources being studied. Sources of this type vary widely and include

items such as books by professional scholars and journalistic accounts. Although very

useful, secondary sources must be assessed prudently, and their relevance rated on their

use of primary sources.

85


MATERIALS AND METHODS

" Good frend for lesus s ake forbeare

To digge the dust encloased heare.

Bleste be ye man [thatJ spqres these stones,

And curste be he [thatJ moves my bones."

(Shakespeare's epitaph at Stratford, dating from 1616)

INrRooucttoN

St Mary's church is entered in the State Heritage Register for South Australia pursuant

to the Heritage Act 1993. As such, it was necessary to apply for an excavation permit in

order to conduct both test and complete excavations. Such permits were granted

allowing for the project to proceed. It was also necessary to apply for approval from the

Flinders University Ethics Committee due to the sensitive nature of the study material.

Ethics approval was granted thus allowing the project to proceed.

Prior to this study test excavation was conducted during September of 1999. The main

objectives of this phase of the project were as follows:

o Determination of site logistical (e.g. equipment and time needed) and

methodological (e.g. strategy for recovery of skeletal and cultural remains)

requirements

o Determination of burial shaft soil features

o Determination of burial depths

86


This work was undertaken by the Department of Archaeology at the Flinders University

under the direction of Dr V/illiam H. Adams.

The study area lies on the eastem side of St Mary's Anglican Church. The church is

located at street address, 1167, South Road, in the suburb of St Marys. This location is

approximately eight kilometres from the General Post Office in the city of Adelaide at a

compass bearing of 195 degrees (south-south-east).

Two seasons of archaeological excavation and survey were held during the year 2000.

The first season commenced on 2l February, and finished on 20 March 2000. The

second season took place from 3 November, through to 10 December 2000. Fieldwork

seasons were held during these periods for two reasons. Firstly, as the project was

being conducted under the auspices of the Flinders University Department of

Archaeology, St Mary's was included as an archaeological field-school for enrolled

students. This meant, however, that f,reldwork had to be held outside of regular

university semester working periods. Excavation work was conducted over a 4-week

period and students were expected to attend each day of the five-day working week. As

a result, if heldwork had been held during regular semester times, students would not

have been able to attend other scheduled academic commitments.

Secondly, the general nature of soil encountered at the study site meant that it was

necessary to avoid excavation during wetter winter months. Soils at St Mary's are

predominantly clayey in nature and for purely logistical reason it was considered

prudent to avoid excavation under wet conditions. However, it should be noted that

87

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemelery

clay soil becomes very hard when devoid of moisture content, a point not lost to

excavators during the two field seasons.

Confronted with a choice between soft, but very unmanageable soil conditions during

wetter months, or, hard but slightly more manageable conditions during the warmer

months, the availability of a student workforce was the over-riding factor when

considering fi eldwork timing.

With reference to the site plan (Figure 13) it can be seen that the February field season

investigated an area directly adjacent to the chancel, on the eastern side of the church.

The decision to excavate in this location follows direct references to this area in burial

records held by the church (Appendices 2a and 2b). Church records also alluded to

burial depths of up to "7 ît", thus providing some guide to excavators.

ARcHa¡olocrcAl EXCAVATIoN STRATEGY

Recovery of cultural material was achieved through a three-phase excavation approach.

Removal of overburden to reveal burial pits/shafts/grave statnso

o Mechanical excavation to burial level

Detailed manual excavation of skeletal and cultural remains

The first phase of excavation saw the uniform removal of soil overburden. A

combination of mechanical and manual methods was employed. Firstly, a backhoe

using a 'trimming' bucket (also known as a 'mud' bucket) attachment was used to

remove topsoil layers. The advantage of a trimming bucket is that it can take a smooth

and regular scrape allowing clear observation of soil colour changes representative of

88


cultural activity. Excavators then used flat edged spades and brushes to clean the area,

thus revealing cultural features (Figure 8).

Soil type, particularly with regard to soil colour, has a significant bearing on the

implementation of 'surface scrape' method (Ubelaker 1978; Blakely and Beck 1982;

Blakely 1984; Brooks and Brooks 1984; Bachman and Catts 1990; Elia and

Wesolowsky I99l; Little et al. 1992; Peter et al. 2000; Haslam eI" al. 2003; Ubelaker

and Jones 2003). This method for identifying the location of unmarked grave plots

relies on the principle that culturally disturbed soil will exhibit different colour

properties to the surrounding undisturbed/natural soil. For example, if horizons of

lighter and darker soils are mixed during the grave digging process, the resulting

backfilled soil will be of a significantly different colour from the surrounding

undisturbed matrix. As a result, if a nominal and uniform layer of overburden is

removed, either by manual or mechanical scraping, it is possible to observe and map the

location of grave shafts/plots throughout the study area. This proved to be an effective

method as seen in Figure 8.

'With reference to Figure 8, soil colour representative of cultural alteration can be seen

as the darker material towards the mid and backgrounds. Another issue illustrated in

Figure 8 was the affect tree coverage had on photographic recording. In many cases,

due to the spacing of trees in the study area it was difficult to take photographs

unaffected by contrasting light conditions.

89

a

The bioqrchaeologgt of St. Mory's Cemeter¡t

b.Figure 8. The same photograph shown twice: with image a. showing exposed cultural features ofgraves and fence line; and image b. showing the same features highlighted with delineation and

explanatory text (photo taken by the author).

Fence line

90


The advantage of this approach is that in an unmarked cemetery it is a relatively non-

invasive technique that allows accurate location of sub-surface features. Once features

have been identified, the archaeologist is then better equipped to plan a strategy for

excavation of burials, should this be required. Soil scraping proved to be very effective

during the St Mary's project, not only identifying grave features but also by clearly

revealing a fence-line feature (Figure 8). The significance of the fence-line became

apparent when further scraping and observation showed that historic burials were

frequent on the western side of the fence and non-existent on the eastem side.

Once cultural features (or grave stains) had been discerned, their location was mapped

on a site plan and burial numbers assigned. Each burial was assigned a unique burial

number prefixed by the site code 'SM', designating St. Mary's. Burial numbers were

prefixed with the capital letter 'B' designating the feature as a burial. Site code and

burial number were then separated by a forward slash (eg. SM/86).

Burials were excavated mechanically to approximately 10 cm above the coffin lid, after

which, manual excavation techniques were employed. In the event of stacked burials,

the first or shallowest burial was assigned the original burial number while underlying

burials were given the same burial number but with an alpha suffix. For example, in

the one triple stacked burial encountered at St. Mary's the shallowest burial was

designated SM/853, the middle burial SM/853b, and the deepest burial SM/853c.

Not all discernable grave stains were excavated, however, in a number of cases,

features were assigned a burial number. Grave stains not excavated included those that

intruded into marked graves (eg. SM/850) or structural features (eg. SM/825). Some

9l


grave stains when excavated were found not to correspond with a burial. In these cases

burial numbers were discarded in order to maintain continuity and avoid confusion.

CuuRcH RECoRDS

Although it was not possible to identify a majority of the individual burials recorded in

the church burial register, the combination of morphological data and historical

documentation has allowed speculation regarding individuals named in the register.

The usual information sources such as:

o Headstones/grave markers

o Coffinplate/depositum

o Cemetery curator's plan

. Administrativerecords

...were not available.

Burial records for the St Mary's Church cemetery commenced on 19 November 1847

James Penn of 'Samia Cottage' was interred on this date at the age of 82 years

However, the location for this burial has not been provided in the primary source.

A survey of historical documents held by the church was undertaken by Chittleborough

(1999). This survey compiled information held within documents including the

'Register of Burials' (Appendices 2a and 2b). It was possible to separate all registered

burials into one of three categories based on their record of burial (Table 1).

o Marked grave

o Free ground (unmarked) grave

o Unknown grave location (indeterminate).

92


Table 1. Typical burial register information for each of the different grave types

Grave tvpe Name Age Date of burial Burial note

MarkedFree groundIndeterminate

Joseph WoodElizabeth VineyEmma Preston

2l July 1849

12 December 1864

24 September 1860

Grave No. 16l and 162

7 ft Free groundUnbaptised. No service

77 yearc7 months4 years

Marked graves currently sutround St Mary's church on three sides to the north, south

and \Mest. Relatively comprehensive records exist for these interments including an

accurate locational plan. The balance of recorded burials, (n: 197) have either a direct

reference to being interred in the 'free ground' (n : 75) or no indication at all of their

burial location (indeterminate, î : l2l).

Often it was apparent that an attempt had been made to record a location for some of

those buried in the free ground (Table 2).

"lable2. Burial register locational details for free ground burials.

Name Ase Date of burial Burial note

V/illiam ManningSheila MillerWilliam DenmanThomas MetcalfRobert PickettElizabeth ManningGeorge PerryJohn Henry BattleM. RichardsonHilda Read

Mary Russell

8Tyears5 months42 years73 yearsl2 years

76 years?

13 years

I yr, llmths7 months76 years

12 October 18649 October 1865

23 December 1865

9 July 1866

14 May 1898

28 September 1899

26 December 1903

12 December 1907

l6 November 1910

27 March 19144 April 1915

'East ofchancel in free ground''East of JH Battle's grave, Free Ground''East of Chancel''Free ground behind church''Free ground, near the shed''Free ground, immediately S of Richardson's'Near Cypress tree and E fence''S ofolive tree in free ground''Unleased ground E ofChancel''Unleased ground. E ofChancel''S after ascension. Free Ground'

It is clear however that very little of this information is useful from an archaeological

perspective. Descriptions such as'east of chancel'provide too broad aîarea to be of

any real use. Use of locational features such as a shed, fence or particular species of

tree as a bearing for later burials is equally uninformative. Over time, features such as

the shed and fence have been removed, and, both cypress and olive trees occur in

multiple numbers. For example, determining just which olive tree John Henry Battle

93


was buried south of in 1907 is not an exercise that could be undertaken with any degree

of certainty

Church records that do exist provide a list of names and dates, which permit further

research of archival sources. By 1847, the South Australian Government was well-

established and standard record keeping procedures such as register ofbirths and deaths

were in place. A survey of death certificates based on the names included on the 'free

ground' and 'indeterminate' lists provided more details about individuals buried within

the study area (Appendix 3).

Information held in death certificates includes, full name, death date, burial date, age,

residence, next of kin, occupation, and most importantly, the cause of death. Although

in most cases it is not possible to relate death certificate details to a given set of skeletal

remains, information provided by the entire group of records can provide insight into

expected trends. For example, it will be possible to make determinations with regard to

rate of infant mortality; rate of disease versus trauma causes of death; and, rates of male

versus female burials.

As mentioned previously, a total of 197 individuals were recorded as having been

buried in the free ground or in an unknown location (unprovenanced). These burials

were considered as comprising those probably interred within the study area. However,

through the study of Church archival material (i.e. a plan of marked burials) the location

of one subadult and three adult interments thought to be buried in the study area were

actually discovered to be in the marked portion of the cemetery. This finding had a

bearing on subsequent analyses including life table calculations and statistical

94


comparisons between recorded and observed elements. As this discovery occurred

close to completion of the study and the four individuals comprised approximately 2%o

of the total group, no alterations have been made to analyses using these data.

It would seem that burial records are incomplete and that poor record keeping for those

buried in the cemetery were restricted to those buried on the eastern side of the church.

Good locational plans exist and are still in use for those interred in marked graves on

the northern, westem and southern sides of the Church. However, a survey of the burial

register revealed a total of I22 burials thaL a record exists for but no burial place is

known (Appendices 2a and 2b). Several of the records in this category were damaged

as a result of the vestry fire in 1953 (Figure 9). Others however either do not have any

information recorded or suggest a location amongst the marked sections.

Of the 122 unprovenanced burials 44 are records for infants less than I year old.

Another 29 individuals were between I and 5 years of age at death. The balance of

individuals (n: a8) in unprovenanced graves was between 8 and 67 years old at death.

95


Figure 9. Photo of fïre damage to St. Mary's Church in 1953 (photographer unknown).

Sou- RN¿.Lvsrs

Basic soil analyses using samples collected during the course of fieldwork help to

determine details of preservation and site formation processes. Soil characteristics

addressed were:

.pH

o Salt content

o Sediment type

96


Soil recovered from coffin level for burials 4 and 35 provided salinity levels of 39 and

20 micro-siemens (%o) respectively. When compared to the standard salt content of

seawater (approximately 30 - 40 %o; (School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences 2004), it

can be seen that there is a considerable salt content in the St. Mary's soils. What effect

high salinity has on preservation of skeletal material has not previously been addressed.

It is likely, however, that high salinity was the main cause of deterioration through

oxidation, of ferrous-based coffîn furniture. All coffin furniture (handles, depositum

and nails) recovered \Mas severely oxidised negating the potential for any typological

analysis (Matic 2003).

The high salt content of the soils could also explain why land the church and cemetery

now occupy may have originally been donated. High salinity resulting in low land

productivity could have prompted John Wickham Daw to donate the land to the Church

in the 1840's.

SrnlgrRr- ANALYSES

In general terms, preservation of the St. Mary's skeletal material was good with

individual burials ranging in condition from very poor to nearly complete. A point,

which is worthy of note, is that excellent preservation was not restricted to the larger

and more resilient adult bones, but also a factor amongst many of the child and infant

burials.

Following excavation all skeletal material was individually labelled and packed in

cardboard boxes. Physical analyses were undertaken in the Department of Anatomical

Sciences at the University of Adelaide. The typical processing procedure for each St

97


Mary's skeleton was based on a combination of those suggested by Brothwell (1981),

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Bass (1995). These publications provide descriptions

allowing identification of the anthropometric points required for osteometric

measurements

Procedures essentially adhered to the following format

a Skeletal material of an individual cleaned

Skeletal material of an individual laid out in anatomical position

Full osteometric analysis undertaken

Full pathological analysis undertaken

All skeletal material was cleaned of excess soil using protocols set out by Brothwell

(1981). That is, bones were cleaned in unheated tap water using small brushes or

probes in order to loosen soil. A period of soaking was found to assist in softening

deposits and allowed soil removal with a minimum of damage to bone. Bones were

then dried on trays in ambient laboratory conditions.

Once dry, every component of the individual skeleton was laid out in its anatomically

correct position. This allowed an initial assessment of completeness of individual

skeleton, morphological and pathological assessment.

Morphological assessment of skeletal material followed protocols recommended by

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) and Bass (1995). Comprehensive lists of dental, cranial,

post-cranial and nonmetric features are described by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). The

a

98

The bioarchaeology o/ St. Mary's Cemetety

authors also provide a series of standardised forms, which were used in the present

study to record all osteometric findings.

Bass (1995) was consulted for details regarding craniometry including formulae for

estimation of the various indices suggested for inter population comparisons. This

information was recorded where available for both adult and subadult material.

Identification of pathological conditions for each skeleton was achieved through close

examination of all skeletal components. Standard texts (Ortner and Putschar 1985;

Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Bass 1995; Larsen 1997) were consulted in order to

identify, confirm or diagnose the cause of lesions or changes to bone. Upon the

identification of an anomalous skeletal representation/lesion, pathologies were

described and photographed.

Sex determination

Sexing of adult skeletal material was undertaken with the application of well established

criteria (Ubelaker 1978; Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994; Bass 1995; Scheuer and Bowman

1995; Schwartz 1995), many of which were discussed in the previous Chapter. The

attribution of sex to skeletal remains allows broad demographic inferences, not least of

which is the ratio of males to females within the cemetery.

Determination of sex is fundamental to any morphological analysis of individual

skeletons or skeletal collections. Various methods have been determined to attribute

sex to adult skeletal material and the more problematic subadult skeleton. ln broad

terms it is often possible to determine the sex of an individual by studying the skeletal

99

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemeler

remains. The sexual dimorphism between adult human males and females can be seen

in areas of the skeleton including the cranium and pubic region. Such differences are

associated with the females' capacity for childbirth. However, it is possible to use other

components of the skeleton to attribute sex with varying degrees of reliability.

Krogman (1962) reported 100% accuracy determining sex using the entire skeleton;

95% using the pelvis alone; 92o/o using the skull alone; 98% using the pelvis and skull;

80% using long bones alone; and98o/o using long bones and pelvis.

The application of morphological observations when sexing skeletal remains has been

demonstrated to have a high degree of success and reliability. One of the more

demonstrative examples of this point comes from the Spitalfields project. Here

researches set out to test skeletal sexing methods by firstly making a sex determination

morphologically. These data were then compared with corresponding coffin plate

information. V/ith a total of 311 adult males and 312 adult females, just 2 (0.32%)

individuals were sexed incorrectly (Molleson and Cox 1993).

As mentioned in the previous Chapter, determination of sex of immature skeletons

remains problematic. For the purpose of this study, where preservation permitted,

mandibular morphology as proposed by Loth and Henneberg (2001) was the principal

method used for determining sex of immature individuals. Loth and Henneberg (2001)

report 810/o accuracy for the method, however more recent research (Scheuer 2002)

suggests accuracy for the method of around 640/o.

A previously untried method of determining sex in immature skeletal remains was

included in of the current study (Coussens et al. 2002). The method centred on the

100


comparison of long bone robusticity and mandibular morphology (Loth and Henneberg

2001). The crux of this method tests the suggestion by Weaver (1980) that

characteristics used for sex differentiation in adults could present, although in modified

version, in subadults. Since the sexual dimorphism of long bone robusticity is well

recognised in adults (Safont et al. 2000) it may be of value to test its presence in

children.

Twenty-four St. Mary's subadults were included in the study. Qualification of

individuals was based on the preservation of long bones and mandible. As the study

examined skeletal dimensions, it was important that age of the remains was determined

by eruption and formation of teeth (Ubelaker 1989), which are traits independent of

skeletal size. Age determination through examination of ossification centres (Francis

1939), or diaphyseal lengths of bones would result in circular reasoning, as long bones

would be providing both age and experimental data.

Sex of individuals based on mandibular morphology was determined using descriptions

provided by Loth and Henneberg (2001). Long bone robusticity was calculated

following St. Hoyme and içcan (1989). That is, the robusticity value is equal to

1OOxmid-shaft circumference/maximum length ratio (C:ML), or, lO0xmetaphyseal

width/maximum length ratio (MW/ML). Furthermore, Safont et al. (2000) showed that

humeral minimum circumference (HMC) was the most sexually dimorphic of long

bones in adults. The relationship between the sex as determined by mandibular

morphology and sex determined by long bone robusticity was tested statistically and

found to have a significant relationship.

101

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemeter

DNA determination of sex

A total of 40 bone and teeth samples from St. Mary's juveniles and adults were included

in an independent study designed to test three different molecular sex identification

protocols (Townsend 2002). The principal aim of this study was to test the viability of

molecular (DNA) methods for sexing subadult skeletal remains. Protocols implemented

in the study were:

o Short amelogenin gene with primers Amel A and Amel B

. Long amelogenin gene with primers M4,M7 and M6

o Y-chromosome-repeat with primers JR 25lJR 26

The DNA integrity of each sample was first assessed by testing for the presence of

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA); the theory being that as mtDNA has a high copy number

(-103-104 mitochondria per cell), the lack of mtDNA would be a clear indication of the

lack of nuclear DNA (Townsend 2002:53), which is the primary requirement for

molecular sexing methods. The current author notes however, that the presence of

mtDNA does not necessarily prove that nuclear DNA has indeed been preserved.

To test DNA results using the three protocols, comparisons were made between the St.

Mary's sample; samples from the Randwick Destitute Asylum (Austral/Godden Mackay

1997); and, a modern sample of known sex (Townsend 2002). This study therefore

aimed to investigate the sexing properties of molecular methods in addition to testing

the recoverability of DNA from ancient and/or archaeological bone and teeth.

Furthermore, as sex assessment of the St. Mary's juveniles was to be attempted using

the mandibular morphology method (Loth and Henneberg 2001), the inclusion of a

102


molecular study of sex was seen as a good opportunity to assess the applicability of both

methods

Another aspect of this study addressed the variation of DNA preservation from adult

and subadult sources. Samples taken from the St. Mary's group included teeth from 16

adults (>20 years at death), and bone and teeth from25 subadults (<13 years at death).

The Randwick Destitute Asylum group consisted exclusively of subadults aged less

than or equal to 15 years at death. The modern component consisted of 20 deciduous

teeth from 14 individuals, supplied to the study from various sources (Townsend

2002:34).

D et erminat i o n of age- at - de ath

The determination of age-at-death based on skeletal remains, like sex determination, is a

process, which requires visual analysis of multiple components of the skeleton. As a

consequence, the level of preservation has a bearing on the accuracy or level of

confidence in the final determination. For the purpose of the current study, a variety of

methods for determining age-at-death were applied.

In contrast to sex determination, the determination of age for immature individuals is

less problematic than for adults. Growth and development of the immature skeleton has

been well documented. The timing of various phases of dental maturation and

epiphyseal ossification allow accurate age determinations. For example, the stages of

dental formation and eruption allow straightforward age estimation by referencing the

observed dentition with diagrammatic representations. Such representations were

103


derived from the analysis of dental development in living children of known age

(Schour and Massler 1944; Ubelaker 1989; Hillson 1996; Scheuer and Black 2000).

Similarly, the various phases of skeletal development have been well established

permitting age estimation through comparisons of observed skeletal components with

diagrammatic or descriptive representations (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:43; Scheuer

and Black 2000). For example, in the f,rrst year or so after birth, the unfused

components, which go together to make a vertebra, can be used to differentiate between

a newborn or older child. At the other end of the developmental scale, late-fusion of the

spheno-occipital synchondrosis can be used to discriminate between an older but still

immature individual or young adult versus a fully developed adult.

Scheuer et al. (1980) provide an alternative method for the determination of age at death

using immature skeletal remains. The authors developed linear and logarithmic

regression formulae based on the lengths of long bones. By including long bone length

(in millimetres) in the formulae shown below, an age in weeks for the individual was

determined.

o Humerus: Age (weeks) : (0.4585 x humerus length in mm) + 8.6563 +2.33

o Radius: Age (weeks) : (0.5850 x radius length in mm) + 7.7100 +2.29

o Ulna: Age (weeks) : (0.5072 x ulna length in mm) + 7.8208 +2.20

o Femur: Age (weeks): (0.3303 x femur length in mm) + 13.5583 + 2.08

. Tibia: Age (weeks) : (0.4207 x tlbia length in mm) + 11.4724 +2.12

Scheuer et al. (1980) derived their formulae from the study of diaphyseal lengths of

limb bones taken from radiographs from 24 foetal weeks to six weeks postnatal.

r04


Therefore the derived estimation is the age of the individual from conception. This

method is particularly useful for aging neonatal individuals where poor preservation

prevents assessment based on dentition. It is necessary, however, to be aware of

possible differences in age outcomes based on inter-sample variations. For example, if

the sample used to derive the regression formulae were better nourished or

predominating genetic factors (eg. taller stature) were evident it is possible to see

consistent difference of over or under-estimation of age.

Once the human skeleton has reached maturity, various morphological criteria can be

used to determine age-at-death. These criteria tend to concentrate on the morphogenesis

of ongoing bone development in joints such as the pubic symphysis, sacroiliac joints

(auricular surface) and sternal rib ends. An additional method used here for the aging of

adult skeletal remains was cranial suture closure (Masset 1989; Buikstra and Ubelaker

1994). Cranial suture analysis though problematic and subject to considerable variation

in suture closure rates, can be a useful supplementary agingmethod and is of use when

other skeletal components are unavailable (Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970; Meindel and

Lovejoy 1985).

Supplementary adult aging was also attempted with the application of the Gustafson

(1950) method to dentition. This method and its subsequent revisions (Johanson l97l;

Bums and Maples 1976: Maples 1978; Maples and Rice 1979; Cook 1984; Kilian and

Vlcek 1989) address six age-related features including: abrasion, secondary dentin,

cementum, root resorption, root transparency, and gingival regression. ln the context of

the current study, application of Gustafson's method involved assessment of root

105


resorption and transparency. This approach was essentially used to differentiate

between younger and older adults.

Stature

The maximum height an individual reaches during life upon fuIl maturation of the

skeleton is determined by two main factors. Firstly, stature is dependent on genetic

factors providing a given individual from a given population with a maximum potential

height. Secondly, variables of health and nutrition during childhood have been shown

to retard skeletal growth and as a consequence, to prevent attainment of maximum

potential height (Floud et al. 1990; Komlos 1994; Steckle 1995; Larsen 1997). It is

clear therefore that stature estimations can act as a tool for inferring the health and well

being of past individuals and populations.

Stature estimations for the purpose of this study will focus on the comparison of

mathematically derived figures determined from long bone lengths. Regression

formulae determined by, Breitinger (1938) and Trotter and Gleser (1952) were followed

and compared in order to identify variations in stature reconstruction methods.

Manouvrier (1893) and Pearson (1899) based their calculations on the measurements

taken from the corpses of 100 French people in the dissecting room of Lyons compiled

by Rollet (1S88). Rollet published measurements of the humeri, radä, ulnae, femora,

tibiae and fibulae of 50 males and 50 females and compared the measurements taken in

the 'fresh state' and ten months later in the 'dry state' during which time the average

loss of length was 2mm (Krogman 1962).

106


Manouvrier (1893) created a table allowing stature to be estimated from long bone

lengths. The author derived his estimations from measurements of the six long bones

but excluded all individuals over 60 years of age thus reducing the sample of 100

compiled by Rollet (1388) to 24 males and 25 females. However, rather than

determining regression formulae for each long bone Manouvrier determined the average

stature of individuals who presented the same length for a given long bone (Krogman

1962:154). A further recommendation involving the addition and subtraction of 2 mm

during calculation of stature was not included in the current study due to elements of

error as suggested by Dwight (1894).

Though these sources for reconstruction of stature may seem somewhat dated, it was

thought (by the current author) that due to the geographic origin and contemporaneous

nature of those people buried in the St Mary's unmarked cemetery the work of

Manouvrier (1893), Pearson (1899) and Breitinger (1938) would be more applicable.

For example, would stature reconstruction of the St Mary's sample based on

measurements taken from mid-20th century Americans (Trotter and Gleser 1952) be

more applicable than estimations derived from 19th century southern Europeans

(Manouvrier 1893; Pearson 1899X

It is clear however that more up-to-date methods for reconstructing stature need to be

determined using the wider variety and larger collections of historical skeletal samples

that are now available (e.g. the Spitalfields collection). Two historical English skeletal

collections are used by (Waldron 1998) to illustrate potential pitfalls when making

population stature estimations. The author found closer correlation for estimates based

107


on lengths of femora as opposed to any other bone, using regression equation developed

by (Trotter 1970).

Trauma

Identification of traumatic events expressed in skeletal remains can allow direct links

between the historical and archaeological records. Acute infectious diseases rarely

leave any sign of their presence. Trauma however, can present pathologies that directly

relate to recorded real life events.

The incidence of injury, morbidity and mortality can facilitate inferences regarding

environmental, cultural and social influences on behaviour (Larsen 1997). Skeletal

trauma is a yardstick for quality of life for a population as it indicates

occupational/accidental types of injuries as well as those resulting from inflicted

violence (Peter et al. 2000). Therefore, based on the underlying theme of poverty

apparently associated with those buried in an unmarked cemetery, it is perhaps logical

to anticipate a high incidence of signs of trauma in the St. Mary's sample.

'Where possible (i.e. where preservation allowed) all excavated skeletal material was

inspected for bone changes caused by trauma. Skeletal trauma in the pathological sense

is any accidental or deliberate force or action that causes physical change to the

skeleton. Lovell (1997:140) defines trauma as "...injuryto living tissue thatis caused

by a force or mechanism which is extrinsic to the body"; and a fracture as "an

incomplete or complete break in the continuity of the bone (Lovell 1997:l4l). This

reference also provides perhaps one of the most comprehensive overviews of trauma

analysis in palaeopathology. Much of the literature on this subject has developed

108


through studies of pre-historic or ancient populations (for example Lovejoy and Heiple

198 1)

It is necessary to determine from trauma pathologies whether or nor the injuries were

sustained during life and healed, or, whether the individual died as a result of the

injuries. It is important in the archaeological context (vital in the forensic context) that

distinction between antemortem and perimortem cause of trauma be established, or

whether the observed changes occurred as a result of postmortem or taphonomic

processes (Schwartz 1995; Sauer 1998). Relatively recent fractures can be identified by

the contrasting colour of the fractured surface, and in some cases by the nature of the

break; that is, whether it exhibited the characteristics of dry bone or green bone fracture,

for example warping and peeling (Spence et al. 1999).

Infectious disease

Buikstra and Ubelak er (1994) point out that an important part of recording pathological

conditions is the detection of genuine bone abnormalities in contrast to the normal range

of variation in healthy individuals. [n terms of infectious disease, the bony signs may

provide direct or indirect evidence of a particular condition. Pathognomonic indicators

are those that allow the researcher to infer a particular cause or vector of a disease. The

glossary of terms used in Steinbock's (1976) study def,tnes pathognomonic as

"characteristic or indicative of a disease; denoting especially one or more typical

symptoms" (Heathcote et al. 1978).

For the sake of this study, lesions caused by infectious conditions were recorded as per

criteria and terminology proposed by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). That is, where

109


abnormal bone formations were observed (either proliferative or degenerative) the

pathology was described in terms of its form and location. In the case of individual

periosteal reactions associated with localised trauma, the precise location of the

pathologies was described and photographed. Similarly, the distribution of lesions

indicative of systemic infection was also recorded.

Photographic recording of pathologies was carried out in two ways. Firstly, using a

conventional single lens reflex (SLR) camera and appropriate film for laboratory

conditions. Secondly, a digital image of most lesions and other features of interest were

taken using a flatbed scanner. This proved to be a very effective method having the

advantages of being quick and efficient; removal of the time lag between photography

and film processing; production of images of high resolution and clarity; instant

digitisation of images for processing in image software; the option of storing large

quantities of images on compact disc media.


Despite attempts to standardise methods for recording variations from normal bone

development caused by occupational stress (Sager 1969; Stirland 1998), little progress

has been made. Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) do provide criteria and descriptions for

recording most of the abnormalities associated with occupational markers of stress,

however these have been included under the general heading of 'palaeopathology'.

Similarly, Mann and Murphy (1990) provide guidelines for the differentiation between

pathological conditions and normal variation in the human skeleton.

110


A confounding factor to the reporting of occupational markers of stress is the incidence

of arthritic lesions. It is well established that degenerative arthritis has a close affinity

with age (Rogers 2000). That is, the incidence of arthritic lesions tends to increase as

an individual matures. Therefore in order to differentiate between arthritic lesions and

those caused by repetitive actions related to occupation, it is necessary to consider the

age of the individual and the presence or absence of supporting skeletal indicators.

The method followed here for describing and recording apparent abnormal bony

conditions relied on scoring systems proposed by Sager (1969), Buikstra and Ubelaker

(1994) and Stirland (1998). That is the degree of bony change due to arthritis, entheses

and syndesmoses was scored using a range of 0-4, where 0 : no pathologies; 1 : slight

development; 2 : visually obvious development of bone; 3 : further development of 2

with some crests and ridges and 4: an extensive bony build up. Changes to vertebral

components were scored in much the same manner, where 0 : no pathologies; 2 :

elevated rings extending or radiating from the margin of the centrum; 3 : curved

spicules or osteophytes and 4: fusion of two or more vertebral components.

Bilateral asymmetry in robusticity of the appendicular skeleton was also considered

during osteometric observations. Measurements taken during the normal regimen of

laboratory analyses incorporated all of the standard long bone features (Buikstra and

Ubelaker 1994). Left versus right comparisons were then used to confirm the presence

(or absence) of bilateral asymmetry.

Despite the demonstrated link between osteoarthritis and mechanical stress (Jurmain

1977; R:adin 1982; Hough and Sokoloff 1989; Moskowitz 1989; McKeag 1992) one

ll1


must be prudent when attributing cause of observed pathologies to specif,rc work

practices. This is particularly so for degenerative changes to vertebral bodies as these

changes (among others) can be the result of normal agingprocesses. 'Cultural patterned

behaviour'as Jurmain (1977:356) terms it, acts to exacerbate the natural processes of

aging and can only be used as an indicator of occupation in the broadest of terms.

Evidence of childbirth

It has been widely reported that the mechanical action of childbirth can cause changes

to bones of the female pelvis (Stewart 1957; Stewart 1970; Gilbert and McKem 1973;

Houghton 1974; IJlkich 1975: Putschar 1976; Holt 1978; Suchey 1979). Changes to

bone generally occur in the form of pitting, depressions or cavities associated with the

dorsal surface of the pubic bone near the symphyseal joint. Parlurition has also been

identified as the agent causing a 'groove' or 'sulcus' in the vicinity of the auricular

surface (pre-auricular sulcus) (Kelley 1979). As these conditions were rarely seen in

males it was theorised that parturition was the principal cause. Hormonally induced

changes in females during pregnancy, combined with stress and trauma at parturition

result in the observed cortical remodelling seen in pitting and sulci (Putschar 1976: 589-

e4).

During the course of the present study areas of the female pelvis known to be affected

by pregnancy and childbirth were observed and recorded in terms of the presence or

absence of bony changes. Evidence of scars of parturition was looked for in the pre-

auricular and dorsal pubic regions, however, Ullrich (1975) demonstrates that the

sacrum at its junction with the ilium is also a useful indicator. Observations \Mere

assessed using the descriptive criteria of Ullrich (1975) with numeric codes and

l12


summarised descriptions recorded as follows; pitting of the dorsal pubis is observed to

a

o

a

a

o

0 : no lesion present (males and nullipara).

| : a number of small, nalrow (up to 3 mm) and shallow pits adjacent to the

posterior symphyseal margins.

2 : enlargement of the pits described in stage '1' with a series of distinct pits of

a similar size (up to 5 mm wide) adjacent to the posterior symphyseal margins.

3 : pits of varying depths and widths (6-8 mm) have coalesced and ridges

separating pits still clearly observable.

4. : several randomly sized, wide (10 mm or more) pits along the entire

symphyseal margin. Coalescence of pits commonly sees the formation of a

large groove with remnants of earlier pits still observable.

9 : unobservable with the available material.a

Scaring in the region of the pre-auricular which again results from the coalescence of a

series of pits to form a groove, was recorded in the following way:

. 0 : no lesion present (males and nullipara).

o 1 : a series of around 2 to 4 adjoining, shallow pits of oval or elliptical shape

and varying in width from 2to 4 mm and up to 6 mm in the central part of the

auricular margin.

o 2 : pits describe in stage '2' are larger and wider (5-8 mm) with original

depressions clearly visible within pits; anterior margins of pits infringing on

margin of auricular surface.

o 3 : formation of a uniform groove approximately 3-4 cm long andl-llmm wide

with the medial margin often overlapping with the auricular surface margin.

113


Depressions of original pits still visible within the deep grove (Figure l0 and

11)

Figure 10. Example of pre-auricular sulcus stage '3' using the method outlined above.

4 : Very deep and wide (greater than 12 mm) groove along the length of the

lateral auricular surface margin; the groves lateral margin is arch shaped while

the medial margin is slightly undulated; pits still observable on the floor of the

groove.

9 : unobservable with the available material.

a

O

114


Figure 11. Preauricular sulcus stage'3' on the left ilium of SM/866b.

A feature known as the groove of ligamentous attachment forms in a similar position to

the pre-auricular sulcus and can be observed in both sexes (Mann and Murphy 1990).

The difference between the sulcus associated with childbirth and that of ligamentous

attachment is the discrete or coalesced series of pits or craters within the groove seen in

the former and a short, shallow groove seen in the later (Houghton 1975; Mann and

Murphy 1990).

Geographic origin

Bass (1995) identifies the skull as the only component of the skeleton that can provide

an accurate estimation of geographic origin. Other studies using the postcranial

skeleton to address the issue include Stewart (1962) who identified variations in anterior

femoral curvature.

Although every name in the St Mary's burial register (Appendices 2a and 2b) are of a

distinctly European origin skeletal observation incorporated analyses for geographic

115


origin (where possible). The principal motivation for addressing the issue of geographic

origin in the cuffent study centres on the potential for discovery of the remains of

Aboriginal Australians within the sample. Distinct features associated with the skeletal

remains of Aboriginal Australians have been identified by Burkitt (1924), Pounder

(1984) and Pardoe (1984). Pounder approached the subject with a forensic focus in an

attempt to address the need for differentiation between Aboriginal burials and victims of

accidents or nefarious activities.

Although Pounder (1934) does not indicate the number of individuals used or their

archaeological provenance to make his determinations, he has been able to identify

distinct features of Aboriginal crania, which separate them morphologically from the

majority of European crania. The main differentiating features of the aboriginal

cranium identified by Pounder (1984) include:

o A pronounced supraorbital torus divided into three components, the glabella, the

superciliary ridges, and the zygomatic trigones

o Pronounced occipital muscle markings including the presence of a transverse

occipital torus

o Rounding of the zygomatic bone in the vicinity of the lower lateral edge of the

orbit

o A tendency for skull shape to be dolichocephalic (narrow headed) and

phaenozy gous (long faced)

o A broad nasal aperture surrnounted by low nasal bones

o A blunted anterior nasal sill

tt6

The bioarchaeology oJ'St, Mary's Cemetety

Pounder (1984) also identified a characteristic pattem of wear of teeth of pre-European

contact Aboriginal people. Attributed to the predominantly unrefined nature of food

consumed, this characteristic is typified by advanced occlusal and interproximal tooth

wear often evident from an early age. An important variable used to differentiate

between pre and post contact Aboriginal remains is the presence and absence of dental

caries. The higher incidence of carious lesions in the dentition of post contact

Aboriginal people is a factor of the adoption of European food habits (Pounder 1984).

Use of the post cranial skeleton to identify Aboriginality centres on stature and the

tendency for Aboriginals to have relatively shorter trunks and longer legs than virtually

any other ethnic group (Pounder 1984:47). It has also been determined that to a certain

extent Aboriginals are narrower-hipped than Europeans which is reflected through

measurement of individual pelvic bones (Davivongs 1964).

During the course of the current study methods used to determine geographical origin

followed those suggested by Bass (1995). Two methods were employed both of which

relied on cranial measurements. The first discriminant function method used was

determined by Giles and Elliot (1962) in an effort to differentiate between the crania of

'Caucasoid', 'Negroid' and 'Mongoloid (including American Indians)' (Bass 1995).

Although it is not suggested that skeletal remains of Negroid appearance were

recovered during the present study, the value of the method lies in its ability to conf,trm

(or reject) the European origin of a given skeleton.

Vamplew (1987:11) indicates that immigration to South Australia from 1846 to 1856

consisted predominantly (aroundl0%) of people whose country of birth was part of the

I17


British Isles. The next largest contributing country was Geffnany (around 10%) with

natural increase within the colony comprising most of the balance. People born in

China and 'other' countries for the same time period contributed approximately 0.5% of

total immigration into South Australia.

Although these statistics do not exclude the possibility that individuals of a non-

European country of birth may have been intered within the study area, it is suggested

that the likelihood of identifying skeletal remains exhibiting characteristics of a non-

European origin is remote.

Nonmetric traits

Hauser and De Stefano (1989) provided a scoring system allowing intra and inter-

population comparisons of traits. However, for the purpose of this study, many of the

nonmetric traits of primary importance suggested by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) were

assessed. Twenty-four cranial nonmetric traits were recorded for each adult skeleton

where preservation allowed. All juveniles were excluded due to complicating issues of

development and preservation (Berry and Berry 196l). Scores were recorded on

standardised forms supplied by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: Attachment 22). The

following is a description of each trait and the method of recording in the current study.

In general terms the criteria suggested by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) were followed

closely, and dependent on preservation left and right distinction was always made. If a

feature was unobservable due to issues of preservation a standard code number ('9')

was recorded. The following numbered items provide detail regarding the method of

recording each nonmetric trait included in the study.

118


1. Metopic suture: the metopic suture was recorded as present if the cranial suture

ran completely from nasion to bregma. Partial metopic suture originating from

nasion was scored as absent unless it manifested across more than 50% of the

frontal to bregma.

2. Supraorbital notches and foramina: were recorded as present if openings were

visible on both the orbital and external surfaces. Notches were recorded in

terms of their degree of occlusion (i.e. present <ll2 occluded by spicule, present

>ll2 occluded by spicule). Foramina were recorded as present only if they

existed on the supraorbital margin. Any other location of foramina or notches

on orbital margins was recorded as supratrochlear (Buikstra and Ubelaker

1994:87).

3. Infraorbital suture: was recorded present if the suture extended from the orbital

margin to the infraorbital foramen on the maxilla.

4. Multiple infraorbital foramina: were recorded if present and in addition to left or

right distinction, multiple foramina were described as either distinct foramina or

if an internal division existed.

5. Zygomatic facial foramina: were assessed as present or absent and if present

their number and size were recorded, including the association of larger with

smaller foramina or uniformity of foramina size.

6. Parietal foramen: was recorded as present or absent with left and right

distinction. A distinction was also made regarding the foramen's location either

on the parietalbones proper or if it was associated with the sagittal suture.

1. Sutural bones: also known as ossicles, manifest in the cranial vault. An ossicle

is defined as any bone, which is completely surrounded by a suture. Pains were

taken to distinguish between true ossicles and complex suture. If present an

ossicle was recorded in terms of the following locations:

a. Epipteric bone'. located at the junction of the parietal, frontal, temporal

and sphenoid bones

b. Coronal ossicles: located within the coronal suture

c. Bregmatic bone'.Iocated at the junction of paired parietals and frontal

d. Sagittal ossicles'.located within the sagittal suture

e. Apical bone: located at lambd

t19


f. Lambdoid ossicles'.located within the lambdoid suture

g. Asîerionic bone: located at the junction of parietal, occipital and

temporal bones

h. Occipito-mastoid suture'. located in the suture between temporal and

occipital bones

i. Parietal notch: located within the parietal notch between squamous

portion of temporal and parietal

8. Inca bone: recorded as present, partial or absent and distinction made if bone

separated internally by additional sutures.

9. Condylar canals: recorded as patent (open) or not patent, the condylar canal is

located within the condylar fossa posterior to the occipital condyles.

10. Divided hypoglossal canal: if present is recorded in terms of completeness based

on the influence of spines located within the canal or on the intemal aspect

adjacent to the foramen magnum. Both the location of spines and completeness

of bridge they form were recorded.

11. Direction of flexure of the superior sagital sulcus: if observable, the direction of

the flexure is recorded as right or left viewed from the posterior looking towards

the anterior.

12. Spina bifida occulta: recorded as 'partial' if fusion of sacral arches failed at least

at S1; and,'complete'if none of the posterior sacral arches have fused from Sl

downwards to 55 (Henneberg and Henneberg 1999).

It is anticipated that quantification of the various nonmetric traits throughout the St.

Mary's skeletal collection will identify familial relationships within the sample. For

example, a high incidence of metopic suture could indicate a genetic variant linking the

members of one family. It is suggested however, that due to the small sample size (n :

20 adults) meaningful comparisons and conclusions will be unachievable. These issues

are further complicated by differential preservation of cranial elements. Derived

percentages of observed frequencies may be skewed due to unobservable elements.

t20


The application of nonmetric observations in the current study may also provide

information regarding the sample as a representative genetic group. Comparative

analysis of condensed nonmetric data will allow assessment of population features

related to the St Mary's sample in contrast to various other populations. For example,

Henneberg and Henneberg (1999) compare the incidence of spina bifida occulta (SBO)

in adults from ancient Pompeii (794D) with similar observations made using 15 other

population groups. By comparing the incidence of (SBO) across populations and

through time a better understanding of the condition and its causes may be achieved.

For this reason, observations of SBO have been included along with cranial nonmetric

trait observations.

D¡NTRI- ANALYSES

It has previously been stated in this document that teeth ùre an important component of

the human skeleton in terms of bioarchaeological analyses. As the stages and timing of

dental development through childhood and into adulthood are well known, it is possible

to effectively age a given archaeological specimen. V/ith analysis of wear patterns and

phases it is also possible to supplement other aging techniques in the older adult

skeleton.

Analysis of the teeth and associated alveolar bone of the maxilla and mandible can also

provide excellent detail regarding oral hygiene and health at both the individual and

population levels. [n addition, dental analyses act as an excellent indicator of dietary

stress and nutrition during childhood. According to Hillson (1996:1) '...teeth are

possibly the most valuable source of evidence in studying archaeological, fossil and

forensic remains.' The biology and anatomy of teeth is quite distinct from the rest of

r2l


the skeleton. One of the most significant consequences of this difference is that teeth

often survive much better in the archaeological context. Furthermore, the physical

nature of enamel at the molecular level means that there is less interaction between the

intemal biology and surrounding soil matrix. The closed environment of an undamaged

single tooth can preserve chemical and biological components for considerable periods

of time. It is for this reason that chemical and DNA analyses of teeth tend to provide

greater levels of success.

For the purpose of this study, various indicators of oral hygiene and nutritional stress

were assessed. Collectively, these data will provide a profile of standards of oral

hygiene for the 19th century and comparative analysis with other studies including Cadia

Cemetery (Lazer 2001), Voegtly Cemetery (Ubelaker and Jones 2003) and Spitalfields

(Molleson and Cox 1993) will contextualise the results of the dental analysis.

Fields of information to be addressed included an inventory of dentition present,

antemortem loss, dental caries, dental wear, enamel hypoplasia, periodontal disease and

calculus. Where applicable, comments regarding cultural modifications will be made in

addition to the above fields of information. Issues addressed within this field include

the presence of a pipe-smokers notch, dental restoration and use of dentures.

Dental inventory

As a prelude to any pathological analyses of dentition a record was made of the

dentition present and its state of development. The recording system applied and

standardised forms used followed those created by Buikstra and Ubelaker (Buikstra and

r22


Ubelaker lgg4). A numeric code was applied denoting eight categories of description

as per Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994:49).

1. Present, but not in occlusion

2. Present, development completed, in occlusion

3. Missing, with alveolus resorbing or fully fesorbed: antemortem loss

4. Missing, with no alveolar resorption: postmortem loss

5. Missing, congenital absence

6. Present, damage renders measurement impossible, but other observations are

recorded

7. Present, but unobservable (e.g. deciduous or permanent tooth in crypt)

In addition to the inventory, aî age estimate based on dental development was also

made during this phase of dental analysis. Comparative charts detailing the stages of

dental development published by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), Bass (1995) and

Scheuer and Black (2000) were the principal means of inferring age-at-death of skeletal

material with preserved dentition. Various dental development charts exist but these are

generally derived from the works of Schour and Massler (1941), Van der Linden and

Duterloo (1976) and Ubelaker (1978).

Dental caries

Dental caries occurs as a result of acid production by bacteria resident in dental plaque.

Dental plaque is an accumulation of micro-organisms on the tooth surface and is

responsible for the more common diseases affecting teeth (Hillson 1996). Tooth

reaction to acid production results in destruction of enamel, dentine and cement,

culminating in the formation of cavities in the crown or root surface. Failure by an

individual to regularly prevent or remove plaque build-up can lead to development of

carious lesions. Their presence in archaeological samples can therefore provide direct

evidence regarding behaviour during the period in question.

t23

The bioarchaeology o.f St. Mary's Cemetery

However, the presence or absence of caries does not necessarily reflect a consciousness

of the need or the ability to be able to clean ones teeth. For example, it has been clearly

established that the incidence of caries in populations has gradually increased over the

last 100,000 years (Henneberg 1991). A rapid upsurge in the incidence of caries

worldwide occurred during the Neolithic (8000-2000 BC) as agricultural practices

became more common. Therefore, it can be seen that the principal reason for increasing

rates of caries is linked to diet. The low carbohydrate diets of pre or non-agricultural

societies are demonstrated in their signif,rcantly lower rates of carious lesions.

Inferences about diet can also be made from the presence or absence of caries. A high

incidence of carious lesions equates to a diet richer in cariogenic content (Henneberg

and Henneberg 2001). Acid products of the fermentation of carbohydrates act as the

principal agent responsible for caries. As a consequence, the study of caries has been

widely used by researchers to infer diet of past populations and particularly transitions

from hunter-gatherer to agricultural and ultimately urban lifeways (Saunders et al. 1997;

Hillson 2001).

During the course of the current study, dental caries was recorded using methods

described by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994), which were largelybased on the methods

designed by Moore and Corbett (1971). Results were recorded on standardised forms

supplied by Buikstra and Ubelaker (L994:Attachment 16). Separate recording sheets

were used for deciduous and permanent dentition due to the morphological differences.

t24


The method applied for this study firstly involved the identification of carious lesions

on all of the 32 permanent and 20 deciduous teeth where present. Observations were

made macroscopically using a direct light source. ln addition to visual observation, a

dental probe was used to confirm the presence of carious lesions. This approach

follows the method described by Metress and Conway (1975) and the World Health

Organization (1977) and outlined by Henneberg (1998). The point of a sharp dental

probe is used with moderate pressure to explore potential carious lesions. The probe

tends to catch on carious lesions, thus confirming their presence.

If lesions were found to be present their location was indicated using the visual

recording chart produced by Buikstra and Ubelaker (I994:Attachment 14a). Options

for locations were given a numeric code as per Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994:55):

0. Absence of lesions

1. Occlusal surface: any pafi of the occlusal surface

2. Interproximal surfaces: lesions forming between teeth on the mesial or distal

sides

3. Smooth surfaces: lesions forming on the buccal/labial or lingual aspects of

teeth

4. Cervical caries: occurring or originating at the cemento-enamel junction

(CEJ), but excluding the interproximal area

5. Roots caries: occurring on the root below the CEJ

6. Large caries: carious lesion so advanced that it has destroyed much of the

tooth

Dental wear

Wear analysis of the occlusal surface of teeth has implications when reconstructing

prehistoric diet, estimating age-at-death, and inferring incidence patterns for dental

t25


diseases such as caries or abscesses (Miles 1963; Miles 1978; Smith 1984; Lovejoy

1985; Powell 1985; Brothwell 1989; Walker et al. 1989).

For the purpose of the present study dental wear was recorded using the protocols

provided by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: Attachment 16). The method treats scoring

of molars separately from premolars and anterior dentition. The standard for scoring

wear of molars was developed by Scott (1979) and involves division of the occlusal

surfaceintoquadrantswiththewearof eachquadrantratedonascaleof 0to 10. The

final score for each tooth is the sum of scores for each quadrant allowing scores to range

from 4 to 40. Scores for each phase of wear are supplemented with a comparative

image and with a written description (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994:53):

0. Absence of tooth due to non-occlusion, non-eruption, antemortem or

postmortem loss.

1. Small wear facets present.

2. Large wear facets present, but cusps and other surface features still

present.

3. Rounding of cusp(s) in any quadrant as opposed to the definition of

features seen in '2'. Obliteration of the cusp is well advanced but not yet

worn flat.

4. Occlusal area of quadrant is wom flat without exposure of dentine.

5. Quadrant flattened with dentine exposure evident over more than a

quarter ofthe area.

6. Further exposure of dentine (as in'5'), but enamel still present.

7. Enamel observed on two sides of the quadrant.

8. Thick enamel observed on one side of the quadrant.

9. Thin enamel observed on one side of the quadrant.

10. Complete obliteration of enamel and exposure of dentine; wear process

has extended below the CEJ into the root.

t26


Premolar and anterior tooth wear was also scored using a numeric code system where

dentition is compared with standard images, describing progressive phases of dental

wear. The eight stages of wear are similar to those described for molar wear, however,

each stage is given its own numeric code rather than a cumulative score. Anterior

dentition is treated separately to premolars due to differing morphology. Stages one to

three describe a minimum of wear through to the early phase of dentine exposure.

Stages four to seven describe progressive dentine exposure and obliteration of enamel.

The final stage (eight) describes complete or severe loss of the crown with complete

enamel obliteration. The chart referred to during the course of the current study was

that provided by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994:52). This chart was derived from the

original descriptive works published by (Murphy 1959)

Enamel hypoplasia

"Dental enamel hypoplasias are deficiencies in enamel thickness resulting from

physiological perturbations (stress) during the secretory phase of amelogenesis"

(Goodman and Rose 1990:59). Hillson (1996:165) defines hypoplasia as 'a deficiency

of enamel thickness, disrupting the contour of the crown surface, initiated during

enamel matrix secretion.' Due to the timing of developmental phases anterior teeth are

more susceptible to hypoplasia than posterior teeth (Goodman and Armelagos 1985). It

is also for the reason that dental maturation occurs according to such a well-known

schedule that it is possible to determine age-specific fields of information based on

location of hypoplastic defects (Rose et al. 1985; Goodman and Rose 1990).

Hypoplasias may also be genetic in origin, or the result of local trauma. They tend,

however, to be the result of the redistribution of available nutrients away from growth

t27


processes and toward the maintenance of more vital biological functions during periods

of illness andlor insufficient nutrition (Tiné 2000:483).

For the purpose of this study all dentition, where available, for each skeleton was

assessed for signs of enamel hypoplasia and other enamel defects including opacities

and discolorations. Protocols for assessment and recording of enamel defects were

taken from Buikstra and Ubelaker {1994 #2556}. Hypoplastic events were recorded by

their type and location. Seven types have been identified and denoted by a numeric

code:

0. No enamel defect observed

1. Linear horizontal grooves

2. Linear vertical grooves

3. Linear horizontal pits

4. Non-linear affays of pits

5. Single pits

6. Discrete boundary opacity

7. Difïuse boundary opacity

Locations for hypoplastic events were recorded on the form provided by Buikstra and

Ubelaker (I994:Attachment 18a). Location was recorded as the distance (in

millimetres) from the midpoint of the labial/buccal cemento-enamel junction to the most

occlusal portion of the hypoplasia. Multiple events on single teeth were recorded

according to the space provided. Where a combination of deciduous and permanent

dentition existed, appropriate modifications were made to forms in order to

accommodate such variations.

r28


Periodontal disease and periapical abscesses

Hildebolt and Molnar (1991) provide a general working definition of periodontal

disease in the clinical context. The authors state that periodontal disease is: "...the

intermittent degeneration of the supporting tissues of the teeth, these tissues being the

gingiva, cementum, periodontal ligaments, and alveolar bone". Tooth loss as a result of

inadequate surface attachment for ligaments due to a reduction in bony supports is the

final sequela of the condition. Modification and loss of the alveolar bone is seen as the

most important aspect of periodontal disease and therefore forms the basis of its

measurement and description (Hildebolt and Molnar 1991). The relationship between

the cemento-enamel junction and alveolar crest is seen as being pivotal to any method

of assessment.

Despite the proposal of numerous indices for measuring periodontal disease levels, all,

according to Hildebolt and Molnar (1991) have inadequacies. Shortcomings arise with

such methods, as the observer is required to use subjective criteria to assess the various

indicators of periodontal disease. As with any subjective analysis reliant on

assessments by human observers, measurement uncertainty and the potential for inter-

observer variation is prevalent.

Furthermore, additional physiological variables independent of periodontal disease have

been proposed by Clarke and Hirsch (1991). One of the most important factors

associated with change in the cemento-enamel junction and alveolar crest relationship is

compensation for dental attrition. As age increases, so does the amount of tooth wear.

In order to maintain occlusion a process known as continuous eruption occurs which

compensates for an anticipated degree of facial growth and tooth wear (Ainamo and

r29


Ainamo 1984). The resultant physiological response is greater root exposure as a factor

of advancing age and dental attrition.

For the purpose of this study, the incidence of periodontal disease was assessed for

every individual whose morphologically derived age was greater than 10 years at death.

This is not to suggest that periodontal disease does not occur in younger sub-adults,

however Hildebolt and Molnar (1991) report that 'juvenile' and 'prepubertal' forms of

the disease are rare. 'Where possible, every subadult individual in the St Mary's sample

was inspected for periodontal disease however none were found to exhibit the indicative

bony changes.

Analysis was therefore restricted to the 20 adult skeletons and 3 individuals aged 10

years (SMlB52b),10-11 years (SM/851) and 12-13 years (SM/B13). Each individual

was inspected macroscopically for bony changes to the alveolus. Where periodontal

disease was obseled bony changes were described and recession of the alveolar bone

was assessed in terms of the degrees proposed by Brothwell (1981).

More detail regarding recording of the 4 descriptive phases is provided by Turner et al.

(1991) and were used in conjunction with the guidelines provided by Brothwell (1981):

1. No bone loss evident.

2. Slight: a loss of about 3-5 mm, determined from the amount of root

exposure, commonly accompanied by pitting at the alveolar crest.

3. Medium: approximately 4-5 mm of alveolar resorption. Alveolar crest is

irregular with the occuffence of deep pockets.

r30


4. Considerable: more than 50o/o of the root is exposed with advanced erosion

of the alveolar crest.

Dental abscess

Prior to the development of antibiotic medication, infections of teeth and alveolus often

went untreated. In extreme cases where tooth deterioration through caries or wear has

progressed to surrounding bone, changes can occur to the bone in relation to periosteal

reaction to infection.

Aetiology of the periapical condition sees an influx of oral bacteria into the pulp

chamber through dental caries, wear or localized trauma of teeth. Toxins produced by

the bacteria pass through the tooth's interior creating an inflammatory response from

pulp material. Once initiated, this response starts to produce exudate, which creates

pressure inside the confined space of the pulp cavity. The resultant pressure on blood

vessels in the vicinity leads to localized death of pulp. Termed pulpitis, if left untreated

the suppurative response contributes to the complete demise of the pulp (Hillson 1996).

Following death of the pulp, the products of pulpitis are free to travel down the root

canal where they can spread from the apical foramen into periodontal tissue. Bone in

the vicinity reacts by resorbing in order to make room for the products of the healing

process (periapical granuloma). Acute abscesses are the dramatic result of the

accumulation of pus from a periapical granuloma. As pus builds up, pressure is relieved

through bone of the jaw via openings called fistulae, emerging usually on the buccal

side of the alveolus (Hillson 1996).

131


Presence of periapical abscesses \À/as recorded following the protocols suggested by

Buikstra and Ubelaker (L994:Attachment 16). The numeric code recorded on a standard

form simply scores a buccal or labial channel as '1' and a lingual perforation as '2' .

Ubelaker and Jones (2003), note that alveolar abscess formation is usually followed by

tooth loss and alveolar remodelling. As a consequence it is possible to suggest that

much of the observed antemortem tooth loss was originally involved with the formation

of abscesses, but subsequent remodelling and resorption has removed evidence of the

pathologies. As a result, periodontal disease statistics derived from the St Mary's

sample may not necessarily be reflective of actual events.

Periodontal disease has a different aetiology to periapical abscesses and as the name

suggests tends to affect different parts of the jaws. Woodforde (1968) describes the

result of a combination of the modern western diet and a poor knowledge of dental

hygiene and maintenance. If plaque and calculus is left to build up around the gingival

sulcus physical and chemical responses can occur which, in advance form, eventually

leads to bone loss.

ln the physical response build up of calculus can result in the gum being lifted from the

tooth. This creates an opening in an otherwise closed environment allowing access by

microorganisms. Bacteria associated with plaque can activate an immune response

from the body, which can cause inflammation. In the early stages the inflammation is

called gingivitis when only soft tissues are affected; in the advanced stages where

alveolar bone is affected, inflammation is referred to as periodontitis. The resultant

bony changes are observed by the formation of a gap between the alveolar crest and the

cemento-enamel junction of the tooth. However, as Hildebolt and Molnar (199I:228)

t32

The bioarchaeology oJ St, Mary's Cemetery

state, "...despite numerous investigations of potential causes, little is known concerning

the aetiology of adult periodontal disease."

Dental calculus

Calculus build-up was addressed in the current study and recorded according to criteria

recommended by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994). These criteria are based on those

proposed originally by Brothwell (1981) and further endorsed by Hillson (1996:259).

Calculus is a deposit of mineralised plaque, which forms on and is attached to teeth. Its

presence is reflective of poor oral hygiene and a failure to regularly clean teeth and

remove plaque. The presence of plaque and calculus is also broadly indicative of diet.

Pre-industrialised populations reliant on unprocessed food with lower carbohydrate

contents show lower frequencies of tooth decay and periodontal disease in comparison

to more modern groups eating a modern processed, carbohydrate rich diet (Woodforde

1e68).

Calculus was recorded where present as "1" where a small amount occurred; "2" whete

a moderate amount occurred; "3" where a large amount occurred; and "9" when

unobservable.

DgvtocRepHv

Life tables

A variety of demographic comparisons are possible using the observed St. Mary's

skeletal data and the recorded burial information. In terms of the recorded burial

information the most obvious distinction is that of the provenanced (i.e. burial plot

133


recorded) versus the unprovenanced (i.e. free ground burials). Sub-group comparisons

are also possible when age and sex data are separated for the provenanced and

unprovenanced groups. Within the free ground group, a temporal distinction was made

between those buried from 1847 to 1874, and those buried from 1875 to 1900. This was

done in order to allow for comparison based on a decreasing rate of natural increase in

the 19th century population.

In order to present a more realistic representation of mortality and life expectancy, life

tables were corrected for rate of natural increase of the population or 'r' (Henneberg and

Steyn 1994). The rate of natural increase for South Australia was detetmined from

census information collected during the period 1851 to 1900 (Caldwell 1987; McDonald

et al. 1987). The median figure (0.0252) for the 5O-year period was adopted as the rate

of natural increase as the rate was relatively constant (Appendix 4). It did appear,

however, that there was a downward trend leading into the 20th century (Figure 12).

q)oq)

I

cË

d

é)

cq

ú

0.045

0.04

0.035

0.03

0.025

0.02

0.015

0.01

0.005

0

la

a a

oaj 1.¡. aaa 'o\o

l

aaa

O

1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910

Year

Figure 12. The rate ofnatural population increase for South Australia from 1851 to 1900.

134

The bíoarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemetety

As a consequence, the life table for the free ground group from 1847 to 1874 was

calculated with a correction for a rate of natural increase of 0.027 , and from 1875 to the

turn of the century of 0.022. That is, during the early years of the colony, the

population increased at a rate of around 2.7o/o annually, but after 1875 population

increase slowed to a rate of around 2.2o/o anrrually. It is anticipated that through such

comparisons, it may be possible to explain the high proportion (l l% < 15 years old) of

subadult skeletal material recovered and, allow inference about the temporal layout of

the free ground cemetery.

A temporal distinction was also applied when provenanced burial data were analysed.

Inclusion of provenanced burials in this analysis was restricted to those interred in the

lgth century. This was done as most (85%) of the free ground interments also occurred

during the 19th century. It was possible therefore to make mortality and life expectancy

comparisons between the following groups:

o Free ground temporal periods

o Provenanced burial temporal periods

o Free ground burials versus provenanced burial

o Recorded and observed (skeletal) age profiles

The following list details the life tables calculated and presented in the Results section.

All free ground burials (r: 0.025)

Free ground female burials (r: 0.025)

a Free ground male burials (r: 0.025)

Observed skeletal (r : 0.025)

o

o Free ground burials 1847-1874 (r:0.027)

13s

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemeler

Free ground burials 1875-1920 (r:0.022)a

a

o

a

All provenanced burials 1848-1900 (r: 0.025)

Provenanced burials 1841 -I87 4 (r : 0.027)

Provenanced burials I 875-1900 (r : 0.022)

As is customary for life table analyses, fields of data retrieved are abbreviated. The

following list provides explanation regarding abbreviations used during calculation of

the tables presented in the next Chapter. The functions described here are as per

Henneberg and Steyn (1994) and aÍe standard life table biometric functions.

Interpretation for each field of information is as follows:

Dx: total number of individuals per age interval'x'.

Dx (corr) : total number of individuals per age interval 'x' corrected for the rate of

natural increase (r).

dx: percentage of individuals dying in each age interval.

lx : number of survivors of a theoretical cohort of 100 individuals bom entering each

age interval.

qx: probability of death in age interval.

Lx : total number of years lived during each age interval.

Tx: total number of years lived after of all individuals entering each age interval.

ex: life expectancy of individuals on average entering each age interval.

cx: frequency of living individuals by age group in the population.

Henneberg and Steyn (1994) created an 'excel' spreadsheet that corrects the number of

deceased by an assumed rate of natural increase. From the corrected numbers the

t36


program calculates standard biometric functions of a life table using Halley's method

(Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970).

The inclusion of life table analyses using burials in known locations (provenanced) was

seen as a means of comparing mortality and life expectancies based on treatment after

death. That is, is it possible to discern a significant difference between mortality and

life expectancy of individuals buried in the free ground as opposed to the marked

cemetery? It may be reasonable to hypothesise that as the free ground group were

poorer their life table outcomes would show greater childhood mortality and reduced

life expectancies. Marked burials by contrast are representative of a more afÍluent

group of people who experienced better rates of childhood mortality and survivorship.

Poorer people could be expected to have higher mortality and lower life expectancies in

comparison to the more affluent because they are less likely to be able to afford

adequate sustenance; they were less likely to be able to afford clean living conditions;

less likely to be able to afford medical advice and medicines; and, were more likely to

work in jobs that shortened their lives.

r37

The bioarchaeologlt oJ St. Maty's Cemetety

RESULTS

"Raîtle his bones

Over the stones.

He's only a pauper

Whom nobody owns."

Verse used by South Australian Parliamentarian G.S. Kingston in1854 during the parliamentary enquiry into the West Terrace

Cemetery, Adelaide: from Nicol 1985. Originally the chorus

from a poem by Noel (1841) called "The Pauper's Drive"(V/ilson and Levy 1938:56).

INrRooucrroN

Human skeletal material recovered from the St. Mary's Church unmarked cemetery has

provided great insight into the lives of early European immigrants in the colony of

Adelaide and South Australia. The collection proved to be rich in pathological

indicators and gave first hand information about a section of society that was often

ignored in contemporary descriptions. Additionally, the value of this collection to the

wider academic community can not be understated; particularly considering the paucity,

to date, of similar such collections and studies in Australia.

It is apparent that more burials exist in the unmarked (free ground) section than is

evident in official church documentation. Whether this is a result of poor record

keeping or the natural attrition of historical documents over time remains to be seen. It

is also not clear how much information was lost during a fire in the church vestry in

1953 (Figure 9).

138


With reference to the site plan (Figure 13) it can be seen that seven burials were

revealed through the exposure of grave stains at the northern most part of the study area.

It is understood although not verified, that unmarked burials extend right up to the south

fence of the churchyard (Davies 1991). It would also seem logical that the two main

rows that constitute principal burial yard organisation would continue under the area

now occupied by a brick-paved path (Figure 8).

Church records make direct reference to the burial of individuals in 'free ground',

'unleased ground', 'common ground, and in one case a 'pauper'S grave' (Appendices 2a

and2b). The total number of burials recorded in this manner total16. Excavation of

burials for the current study (n : 70) plus the seven grave stains and various other

suspected locations for burials would confirm that church records regarding those

buried in the unmarked section are incomplete.

Burial notes for many of the infants and juveniles simply state 'Unbaptised. No service'.

It is therefore reasonable to suggest that many of the unprovenanced burials, and

particularly those of neonates, are likely to have been interred within the study area.

Furthermore, it is equally likely that many of the other unprovenanced burials have also

been interred within the study area.

t39

/l lìsz; I

p'' þi lsrr

ULJ ]

ltt,/l'\ ;!ll?rl 'l "l

ì1! i ir l,,l l

I i 7o]óe\6t/6i

d

oç

(Þ

(,çh

F9

(ÞÞ

a

oe

ô

rÞx(?

tÞ

Ê¡

a

(Þ

(Þ

ô

Þa

Church

Chancel

N*(\

o

oaoo

0aY.o.\Ø:\ÈH

atß'(\(\a

Excavation areaseason 2

Grave oL-John Pcll2. I ll59 allcd i9 )-errs

¡-I

I

rll, ,l

Grave of'lhomas Henry Russell

buried September 8, I 854

aged 53 yeas

Pinn St.

Excavation areaseason I

N

I

11

1.,,6ó

I I29

t5

t

st

Urcxcavatcd

q2

øt itz l;

fI

soil srain sho*ing læationol-previous fence

curent fence line

Scale (metres)

0t7345ó

À

I

I z¡i

L]

il

II

3t

I

r ìi{!fror., itl

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,r. \40

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l,ll1' 'l


Infant mortality was considerable amongst the sample with almost 43% of individuals

aged less than 12 months old at death. Signif,rcantly, sub-adults older ihan 12 months

and younger than 15 years made up the next most represented group comprising 30o/o of

the sample. The balance of the sample was comprised of 20 adults aged 20 years or

older (28.6%). This broad trend would tend to suggest that an individual's ability to

survive the f,rrst few years of life would likely see the achievement of a normal lifespan.

This is fairly typical of a mid to late 19th century European cemetery.

Males had a greater representation among the adult component of the group making up

70o/o of the sample. Based on sample size however, the proportion of males to females

was found not to be signif,rcantly different. This finding is consistent with

contemporaneous Australian cemetery studies (Lazer 2001) and probably reflects the

reality of lifestyle in a colonial rural community.

Due to the high representation of infants and children, the cause of death could only be

determined for a few of the 70 individuals. Juveniles were particularly susceptible to

acute infectious conditions. Once an illness like dysentery, pneumonia or tuberculosis

had been contracted, death often followed quickly. As a result, the tell tale signs of

infectious disease on the skeleton in a lrofüary phase did not have time to manifest. This

is supported by findings of death certificate information that identifies a majority of

deaths caused by illnesses affecting soft tissues (Appendix 3), predominantly

gastroenteric conditions and infectious diseases. The relatively quick onset and rapid

death caused by such illnesses often did not allow the development of changes to the

skeleton. In this regard the recovered skeletal material is consistent with recorded death

certificate information (Table 1 0).

141

The bioarchaeologt oJ St. Mary's Cemetery

Two adults died as a result of major trauma; one of these, (case study for SM/883,

Chapter 7), suffered major trauma to the cranium and cervical vertebrae. In this case it

was possible to identify the individual allowing further biographical and chronological

determinations. The prevalence of other fractures was comparatively low with the

majority of lesions appearing on foot and rib bones.

In broad terms, dental/oral health was poor amongst the St. Mary's sample. The

frequency of dental caries within the adult group was high. Several individuals

exhibited pre-mortem loss of most or all of their teeth. One individual (SM/884) was

recovered with dentures still in place. Little if any other clinical modification or

treatment of teeth was observed within the St. Mary's sample. It would appear that the

predominant way of treating dental conditions was by extracting the offending tooth.

Pnes¡RvatroN

It is evident that in general, preservation of skeletal material at St. Mary's was good

(Table 3). Although among the subadult component a number of cases presented

almost complete deterioration of the skeleton, many others revealed remarkable

preservation. The overall trend, however, showed that as age-at-death increased so did

the level of preservation. Despite some variation in the level of preservation among the

adult component, on the whole, the sample was well preserved. Skeletal components

found least likely to survive included, epiphyseal extremities of long bones, ribs, pelvis

and phalanges.

t42


Each skeleton was subjectively rated on preservation based on its state of completeness.

During laboratory analysis a rating within the range very poor, poor, fair, good, and

very good was assigned. Preservation of skeletal material across the study area ranged

from very poor through to very good. Both adult and juvenile skeletons presented

examples of excellent preservation where almost every skeletal component was

recovered. However, poorest preservation was restricted to the remains of the very

young. In these cases, identifiable skeletal material was recovered but usually

incomplete with perhaps only I0 to 20o/o of the entire skeleton surviving.

Table 3. Mean skeletal preservation values of four age groups of St. Mary's skeletons (preservationvalues: l=very poor; 2=poor; 3=fair; 4:good; S:very good).

Age range(years)

Number ofindividuals

Meanpreservation

value

0 to 0.9I to 2.9

3 to 12.5

13 to 60

2813

9

20

2.63.54.44.r

Results presented in Table 3 suggest that the age at death of the individual did tend to be

a factor when it came to preservation of skeletal material. Of the 28 individuals aged

less than one year at death the mean preservation value was 2.6. That is, 40% of the St.

Mary's sample was on average of poor to fair preservation. As age increased however,

preservation of skeletal material improved. Best preservation was seen in the 3 to 12.5

year old group in which preservation varied from good to very good (preservation value

of 4.4). Preservation of adult skeletal material was on average slightly better than good

(preservation value of 4. 1).

Predominant factors affecting preservation of skeletal material centred on soil and

groundwater conditions. However, the level of protection provided by the coffin also

143

The bioarchaeology of St. Maty's Cemelery

influenced skeletal preservation. The closed environment exhibited in coffins that had

not collapsed allowed for better preservation. Conversely, when coffin lids had

collapsed allowing water and sediments into the coffin space, preservation was not as

good. According to Matic (2003) coffins for neonates at the St. Mary's site were often

little more than rough bark boxes, providing very little protection for remains from

extemal elements.

The subject of wooden coffins and their ability to preserve human remalns was

addressed by Puckle (1926). The author describes the ability of coffins constructed

from certain timber types to preserve human remains. In very general terms, he also

discusses the properties of certain soil types and notes, "in light sandy soils

decomposition is a very much slower process". Timber analysis of timber used to

construct St. Mary's coffins would be enlightening; however such an analysis was

beyond the scope of this study. Matic (2003) cites a lack of resources for the omission

of a coffîn timber analysis during assessment of the non-skeletal St. Mary's artefacts.

Nicol (1936) reports that during the early period of settlement coffins were made from

cedar, with oak and kauri becoming more popular by the tum of the century.

Standard soil tests conducted at St. Mary's indicated that conditions were relatively

uniform across the site. Soil pH was generally basic with alkalinity ranging between

8.5 and 9.5. Neutral or slightly alkaline conditions have been described by Wright

(1999) as good for preservation of skeletal material. Gordon & Buikstra (1981),

observed a significant correlation between soil pH and bone preservation. Their key

finding was that as soil pH decreased, destruction of osseous material increased among

r44


adult material. A similar finding was made with sub-adult skeletal material however

preservation was also influenced by bone density and bone maturity factors.

Ssx ¡,ttRreurroN

It was possible to attribute sex to all of the 20 St. Mary's adults. However, due to

factors of preservation and underdevelopment a proportion of the juvenile sample could

not be sexed (Figure 14). An attempt at sexing St. Mary's subadults was made using

DNA, however results were inconclusive (Townsend 2002). In addition, an attempt was

made using the St. Mary's skeletal material to identify a relationship between subadult

bone robusticity and sex (Coussens et al.2002:3).

E Adults

E Subadults

40

35

(r 30

ã25:E20o15 l

z 10

5l0

Male Female

Sex

Indeterminate

Figure 14. The distribution of sex (determined through mandibular morphology) in the St. Mary'sskeletal collection.

Mandibular morphology (Loth and Henneberg 2001) was the principal means of

identifying sex in subadults. It is necessary to note that Loth and Henneberg (2001 : 183)

found that "...males were much more consistently diagnosed than femaleS...", which

r45

The bioarchaeolog,t of St. Mary's Cemetety

could partially account for the significant difference between the observed number

subadult males versus females (sign test males/females: 12 :6.42) as seen in Figure 14.

However, the results would suggest that there is greater representation of males within

the sample.

The robusticity index of 24 children from the St. Mary's sample aged between 0-4 years

at death was determined from measurements of femora and humeri. 'Ratios of midshaft

circumference to diaphyseal length of humeri and femora and the ratio of minimum

circumference to diaphyseal length of the humerus showed correlation with sex

determined by mandibular morphology' (Coussens et aL.2002:3).

Figure 15 (a to d) illustrates the sexual distribution of robusticity as calculated using

four different indices. Despite the apparent distinction between sexes a degree of

overlap can be seen in all four representations. The clearest sexual difference is seen

with 'femur C:ML (circumference : maximum length), (Figure 15c), indicating that a

robusticity index less than 24 is female greater than 28 is male. V/hile the humeral

indices would appear to be less capable of distinguishing females, values above 26 and

28 using the HMC:ML (humeral minimal circumference : maximum length) and C:ML

(Figure 15, a and b) indices respectively, could indicate that the individual is male

(Coussens et al. 2002:13).

r46

The bioarchaeologlt of St. Mary's Cemetety

Humerus C:ML

Ø(o

=p!cociz

7

6

5

4

3

2

1

0

20-22 22-24 24-26 26-28 28-30 30-32

Average Robusticity lndex

!femaleEmale

U'(EfpEc

ociz

6

5

4

3

2

Femur C:ML

lfemale

Emale

lD problem female

20-22 22-24 24-26 26-28 28-30 30-32


1

0

ø(EfpE.c

:z

Humerus HMC:ML

lfemaleEl male

20-22 22-24 24-26 26-28 28-30 30-32


IJ'

lp!c

ooz

4.5

4

3.5

3

2.5

2

't.5

1

0.5

0

Femur MW:ML

20-22 22-24 24-26 26-28 28-30 30-32

Average Robusticity I ndex

lfemaleEmaleEproblem female

I

7

6

5

4

ó

2

1

0

ba

c dFigure 15 (a to d). Distribution of selected indices in groups of sex as determined from mandibular morphology (Coussens et a|.2002:.12)

t47


Statistical assessment of the humeral indices clearly indicated a sexual difference with P

values of 0.0002 and 0.0006 for midshaft and minimum circumference respectively.

Analyses using femoral indices were complicated due to a single female (aged 1.5-2.0

years) whose large index value created an overlapping standard deviation. Despite this

the mean femoral metaphyseal index (MW:ML) clearly suggests a difference between

male and female means. The P value of 0.07 was slightly greater than 5Yo thus reducing

the signif,rcance of the result (Coussens et al. 2002:ll). While not as statistically

significant as the humeral circumference P values, femoral circumferences were

significantly different between the sexes. The problematic female in the sample, once

again, resulted in the t-test P value of 0.0096 for the femoral circumference index.

DNA DETERMINATION OF SEX

As mentioned in earlier Chapters, St. Mary's skeletal material was made available for

other areas of study, by researchers other than the current author. One of these studies

was an investigation of the viability of various ancient DNA extraction methods

(Townsend 2002). Mitochondrial DNA was successfully extracted from 38 (95%) of

the 40 St. Mary's samples tested suggesting good levels of preservation. Of the three

nuclear DNA amplification methods used the longer amelogenin protocol was the least

successful providing just 2 (10%) sex results out of a total of 19 individuals tested. Sex

determinations were completed 60.1% of the time using the short amelogenin protocol,

and 53.60/o of the time using the Y-chromosome repeat protocol (Townsend 2002).

The results of sexing using DNA methods are presented in Table 4. Among adults,

concordance between the morphologically derived sex and the molecular determination

was 87 .5o/o. Of the 16 adult samples included in the study, two provided molecular sex

148


determinations that did not agree with morphological sex. The subadult sample

contrasted with a much lower level of concordance, with disagreement occurring in 7

(58%) of the 12 individuals tested (Townsend 2002).

Tabte 4. Results of DNA sex assessment of St Mary's adults and subadults with comparison tomorphological sex assessments (after Townsend 2002).

Age Morphological Molecular sex

Burial No. (years) sex identification identificationConcordance

(ves/no)

Adult

SM/B83

SM/B61

SM/B85

SM/B57

SM/B79

SM/866b

SM/B53c

SM/B78

SM/868

SM/B59

SM/85

SM/B9

SM/B14

SM/86

SM/B72

SM/873

35-40

40-45

45-50

45-50

t6-21

35-40

28-32

40-45

50-55

45-50

25

35

40-45

40-45

40-45

45-50

M

M

M

M

M

F

F

M

M

M

F

M

M

M

M

M

M

F

M

M

F

F

F

M

M

M

F

M

M

M

M

M

Y

N

Y

YN

Y

Y

Y

YY

Y

Y

YY

Y

Y

Subadult

Interestingly,12 of the 40 St. Mary's bone and tooth samples provided for this study did

not retum a viable DNA result. Overall, concordance between the morphologically

inferred sex and sex determined using ancient DNA for both age groups was 68%.

t49

SM/B19

SM/831

SM/835SM/B28

SM/B1ISM/B4

SM/B62

SM/B58

SM/B5ISM/B52b

SM/827bSM/B4b

8

J

6

t2-13

t.5-2.03-4

1.5

1.5

10-1 1

10

1.5

0-l

NYNYNYNNYYNN

MF

F

MMMMMF

MF

M

F

F

MMF

MF

F

F

MM?

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemelery

Poorer concordance was recorded among the Randwick Destitute Asylum group, where

only 10 (40%) samples provided positive sex results and six (60%) of those were in

agreement with morphological determinations (Austral/Godden Mackay 1997).

The protocols used to analyse the modern group generally achieved a high (90%) level

of agreement but failed to meet full concordance. Two of the 20 samples experienced

problems with amplification (e.g. allele dropout). As both of the discordant samples

were multiples (i.e. two or more teeth from the one individual), this result provides

some insight into intra individual preservation of DNA.

The dominant findings to emerge from this study generally confirm what various other

researchers have previously determined. That is that preservation of viable DNA

sequences diminishes over time, and that DNA is often better preserved in adult remains

than in subadult remains.

DTsrRIeurION OF AGE-AT-DEATH

It was possible to estimate arr age for 20 adults and 50 subadults. Table 5 presents age

determinations for each adult burial. An estimated age range is provided for most

individuals; however, it was possible to determine an exact age for individuals SM/B59

and SM/883 from wriffen records.

Figure 16 illustrates the distribution of morphologically derived ages for the 70 St.

Mary's skeletons.

150

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemeter

Tabte 5. Results of age and sex determinations for St. Mary's adults

Burial No. Sex Morphological age (years) Burial No. Sex Morphological age (years)

79

5

53c

9

23

66b

84

6

61

l0

F

F

F

M

M

F

F

M

F

F

l8-21

25-30

28-32

30-3 5

45-50

20-30

42-46

40-45

40-45

45-50

l4

5',1

78

85

63

11

73

68

59

83

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

M

45-50

45-s0

40-45

45-50

55-65

45-50

30-3 5

45-50

53

59

What is immediately obvious on inspection of Figure 16 is the proportionately high

number of individuals who died very young. Also of note is the peak in the 40-<50

years age group followed by considerably smaller number of individuals aged over 50

years at death. This illustration potentially highlights the biases often experienced when

attempting to age older adult skeletal material. For example, Boddington (1987b:188)

suggests, "Differences in life expectation are in the order of five to ten years".

35

30

.)(ûLJ

.9 on>Lv

*15

Zrc

5

0

0-<lyear

l-<3years

3-<10 10-<20 20-<30 30-<40 40-<50

years years years years years

Age group

50+

years

Figure 16. The number of individuals for each age group from the excavated St. Mary's sample(age at death derived morphologically).

1s1


The pattem seen in Figure 16 is reflected when age range information is extracted from

burial register details. For the purpose of comparison, Figure 17 presents the number of

individuals (as a percentage of the total number recorded) for age groups based on

details recorded in the St. Mary's burial register for free ground interments, and in the

case of the Cadia sample, based on court records (Lazer 2001). Both sources show

signifîcantly higher levels of mortality in the first three years of life, followed by good

survivorship into adulthood.

60

E St. Mary's burialrecords

[I Cadia court records

ãs0

cq

€40

ê\

ãJU!

=.= 20

q

è tnz

0

t2-<20 20-<35Age range (years)

0-<3 3-<12 35-<50 50+ unknown

Figure 17. Comparison of age ranges based on historical records from St. Mary's and Cadia.

DBvocnapHv

Despite those who question the effectiveness of recovering meaningful information

from palaeodemographic data (Howell 1973; Bocquet-Appel and Masset 1982; Wood et

al. 1992), others (Piontek and Henneberg 1981; Van Gerven and Armelagos 1983;

Buikstra and Konigsberg 1985; Moore et aI. 1989; Henneberg and Steyn 1994;

r52


Ubelaker and Jones 2003) have shown that demographic analyses of past populations

can return important information. This is particularly so when determining health and

social wellbeing within a population, but life tables can also be an important means of

comparison b etw een populations.

The fundamental criteria for making demographic inferences using skeletal sample are

age and sex. It is therefore vital that recognised and proven methods for the

determination of these criteria be used correctly in order to achieve accurate results. It

is typical to exclude osteologically derived sexes of subadults from relevant analyses as

'...the manifestation of skeletal features that distinguish males from females do not

occur until puberty' (Tiné 2000:468). As mentioned previously however, attempts have

been made during the course of this study to address this issue (Coussens eI aL.2002).

Various authors (Weaver 1980; Rösing 1983; De Vito and Saunders 1990; Schutkowski

1993; Holcomb and Konigsberg 1995; Scheuer and Bowman 1995; Loth and Henneberg

200I; Coussens et al. 2002; Townsend 2002) have attempted to determine reliable

methods for determining sex of subadults. Where possible (preservation issues

permitting) these methods were applied to the St. Mary's subadults. However, in terms

of demographic analysis it seemed prudent to include the majority of juvenile remains

within the collective category of "Sex lJnknown" (Table 6).

In certain cases however, sex of a juvenile was assigned due to circumstances of

particular importance. For example, in the case of SM/870, the remains of an 8-9 year

old girl were found to be female based on aspects of pelvic, cranial and mandibular

morphology.

153


Tabte 6. Distribution of age and sex in the St. Mary's cemetery excavated skeletal material.

Age (years) Sex unknown Female Male Total (%)

0.0-0.9

1.0-4.9

5.0-9.9

10.0-14.9

1 5.0- 19.9

20.0-29.9

30.0-39.9

40.0-49.9

50+

2e (4t.4)14 (20.0)

4 (s.7)

3 (4.3)

0 (0.0)

2 (2.e)

4 (s.1)

1l (rs.7)3 (4.3)

29

t43

2

;9

3

I1

2

2

2

Total (%) 46 (6s.1) 8 (1r.4) 16 (22.8) 70 (100)

This case was deemed to have added significance due to the presence of clear

pathognomonic pathologies associated with congenital syphilis and tuberculosis.

Although pre-pubescent, SM/870 was of an age that distinguished her from the

amorphous collective of infants and neonates, and manifested characteristics of sex.

Furthermore, in order to attempt a positive identification of this individual, sex

determination was needed to narrow the prospective field of names within the burial

register.

Characterised by a high incidence of infant mortality with rapid decline after the first

year of life and continuing to decrease to five years with few subsequent deaths in

childhood, the age at death profile presented in Table 7 is fairly typical for a pre-

industrial era population.

Moreover, the proportion of juveniles to adults demonstrates a significant over

representation of juvenile remains, which may be indicative of a high rate of childhood

mortality or natural increase. Altematively, it could reflect burial patterns within the

cemetery and the creation of sections based on age.

r54


Table 7. Proportion of individuals aged less than 5 years at death and comparison of samples.

Site Timeframe

Totalnumber of

ageableindividuals

Numberaged

< 5 yearsold

o//11 Source

St. Mary'sCadiaVoegtlyMapungubweFreedman'sAfrican BurialGroundCatoctin FurnaceFABC lOth St.

Cedar GroveChoke Canyon

1847 -1927t864-19271833-1861970-1200I 869- 1 90517 12-1780

70120s44109

t157267

4666

32250

43975

65.754.5

59.245.9

37.926.0

Present study(Lazer 2001)(Ubelaker and Jones 2003)(Henneberg and Steyn 1994)(Peter et al. 2000)(Blakey et al. 1998)

(Kelly and Angel 1983)(Crist et at.1997)(Rose and Santeford 1985)

1 790- I 820

1810-18221890-1927I 860- I 930

31

898034

l12934l1

35.532.642.532.4 (Fox 1984)

FABC : First African Baptist Church

Table 8 compares St. Mary's adult skeletal age at death profiles with those of eight

other skeletal samples. The majority of adult St. Mary's individuals (55%) were

estimated to be between 40 and 49.9 years old at death. This contrasts with the older

age group (50+ years) where one would expect to observe ù Ereater representation.

1s5


Table 8. Adult age-at-death distribution for St. Mary's and comparison samples (adapted

from Peter 2000).

30- 40-49.9yrs

n(%\

o//iSite

t5-19.9y rs

(%)39.920-

29.9yrs

Vt yrs o/t

n

50+

Yrs v" Sourcen

(%)(%)

St. Mary's (N:20)

Cadia (N - 37)Mapungubwe

(N:28)Freedman's Q'{

- 5se)African Burial

Ground Qrl:l 50)

CatoctinFurnace(N: 16)

FABC IOIh St.(N:56)

Cedar Grove(N: 36)

Present study

0 0.02 5.4

4 14.3

46 8.2

10.0

8.1

47.3

20.9

20.048.6

16.1

42.6

55.013.5

9.5

2t.8

15.024.3

t2.8

6.4

13.25

tt7

418

4.5

238

l15

2.65

122

3.6

36

3

9

2

3

l9 12.7 26 17.3

6 37.5

ls 26.8

5 13.9

) JJ.J

Lazer 2001Henneberg &Steyn 1994Peter et al.2000

Blakey et al.I 998

Kelly andAngel 1983

Crist et al.

1977Rose and

Santeford1974Fox 1984

29 19.3 43 28.7 33 22.0

2 t2.5 4 25.0 3 18.8 I 6.3

2 3.6 I 0 17 .9 12 2t .4 17 30.4

Choke Canyon(N -ls)

2 5.6 5 13.9

2 t3.3

14 3 8.9

5 33.3

l0 27.8

0 0.0-t 20

N : total number of ageable adults

MoRrRurv

Mortality analysis of the St. Mary's cemetery and skeletal sample centred on the use of

life tables. Life tables were used to determine various components of St. Mary's

demography based on age information from the excavated skeletal sample; and, age and

sex information from Church burial records. It was considered that only age

information from the skeletal sample be used as the small sample size of sexable

individuals from within the sample would not allow for meaningful observations of sex

differences in mortality. However, reliable sex and age information, in addition to a

larger sample size retrieved from the burial register allowed for a more meaningful

mortality assessment specific to St. Mary's and surrounding areas.

ts6


The total number of individuals included in the mortality assessment presented in Table

9 is derived from the St. Mary's church burial register. The f,rnal f,rgure of 192

individuals is less than the total number of individuals that could potentially be interred

within the study area (n:approximately 231). It is difficult to provide a more precise

figure than this, as recording omissions in the primary source (i.e. the burial register) do

not allow a reliable estimation.

For example, numerous individuals whose burials had been recorded in the register

were excluded from sex based mortality determinations because their Christian name

(and therefore sex), or their age, or both, were not recorded in the primary historical

document.

Table 9. Life table based on St. Mary?s Church burial records (free ground) and rate of naturalincrease 0.025.

Age interval (years) Dx Dx(corr) dx lx qx Lx Tx ex cx

0

5

l015

20

25

30

114 121.32

5 6.03

9 12.28

3 4.64

3 5.25

2 3.97

5 11.23

5 t2.7 |

6 t7.28

6 t9.57

3 I 1.08

4 16.73

5 23.69

3 16.10

8 48.61

5 34.41

s 38.97

r 8.83

29.40

t.46

2.98

t.t21.27

0.96

2.'/2

3.08

4.19

4.74

2.69

4.05

5.74

3.90

1 1.78

8.34

9.44

2.t4

100.00

70.60

69.14

66.r6

65.04

63.77

62.81

60.09

5',7.01

52.82

48.08

45.39

4t.343s.60

3t.70

19.92

1 1.58

2.14

0.29

0.02

0.04

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.04

0.05

0.07

0.09

0.06

0.09

0.14

0.11

0.37

0.42

0.82

1.00

42.66

54.3 8

50.48

47.63

43.4t

39.23

34.79

3t.26

27.81

24.82

22.02

t8.17

14.7 1

l 1.68

7.81

5.94

3.42

2.50

10.00

8.t9

7.93

7.69

7.55

7.42

7.20

6.86

6.44

s.91

5.48

5.08

4.51

3.94

3.02

1 .8s

0.80

0.13

426.50

349.36

338.27

328.01

322.02

316.44

307.24

292.73

274.s6

252.24

233.67

216.82

192.34

t68.24

r29.04

78.7 5

34.30

5.35

426s.88

3 839.3 8

3490.02

315t.75

2823.74

2501.72

2t8s.28

1878.04

158s.31

13to.74

1058.50

824.83

608.01

4t5.67

247.43

I 18.39

39.65

5.35

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

Sum 192.00 412.67

(Table generated using program created by Henneberg and Steyn 1994)

1s7


In some cases these gaps in information have occurred as a result of fire damage

mentioned previously. However, in many cases, the recorder has simply not included

the information. Individuals in this category tended to be still or newbom babies and it

is likely that a Christian name had yet to be given. This haphazard approach to record

keeping is possibly reflective of individual and societal attitudes towards still or

newborn deaths.

It can be seen from Table 10 that a person born in South Australia during the mid-l9th

century could expect to live to their 40's (43.08). In addition, they had almost a 680/o

chance of living to an age when sexual reproduction was possible. A study of Polish

church burial records (Piontek and Henneberg 1981) from 1855 to 1874 derived a life

expectancy of 42.26 years, a figure that is remarkably similar to that seen in the current

study. However, a comparison of the individual's likelihood of reaching sexual

maturity reveals that people in the Polish group were slightly more likely to survive

childhood (72.60%) than the St. Mary's group (68.28%).

Comparative use of the Polish study is particularly relevant to the current study for two

reasons. Firstly, the time frame for burial of the Polish group is similar to that of St.

Mary's. Secondly, authors of the Polish sample corrected for the rate of natural

increase (r:0.02) as was done in the current study.

The percentage of individuals dying in each age interval (dx) indicates high childhood

mortality among the St. Mary's group. It could be expected that approximately 30o/o of

individuals born in South Australia during settlement would not survive to the age of 5

158


years. Having survived early childhood however, the individual's chances of living to a

reasonable adult age were good.

Tabte 10. Life table based on free ground burial records for St. Mary's females (r = 0.025).

Ase interual (years) Dx Dxlcorrl dx lx qx Lx Tx ex CX

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

47

3

I

2

J

IJ

2

4

0

0

I

2

1

5

4

I

50.02

3.62

1.36

3.09

5.25

r.98

6.74

5.09

tl.520.00

0.00

4. l89.47

s.37

30.3 8

27.52

7.',79

28.85

2.09

0.'79

|.783.03

1.14

3.88

2.93

6.64

0.00

0.00

2.41

5.46

3.09

17.s2

15.87

4.49

100.00

7 l.l569.07

68.28

66.50

63.47

62.32

58.44

55.51

48.86

48.86

48.86

46.45

40.99

37.89

20.37

4.49

0.29

0.03

0.01

0.03

0.05

0.02

0.06

0.05

0.12

0.00

0.00

0.05

0.12

0.08

0.46

0.78

l.00

427.88

350.55

343.37

336.94

324.9r

314.48

301 .91

284.87

260.92

244.3t

244.31

238.28

2t8.59197.r9

t45.65

62.r6t1.24

4307.58

3879.70

3s29.15

3185.78

2848.84

2523.92

2209.44

t907.53

1622.67

1361.7 4

1tt7.43873. l I634.83

4t6.24219.05

73.40

It.24

43.08

s4.53

51.10

46.66

42.84

39.77

35.45

32.64

29.23

27.87

22.87

t7.87

13.67

10.t6

5.78

3.60

2.50

9.93

8.14

7.97

7.82

7.54

7.30

7.0t

6.61

6.06

5.67

5.67

5.53

5.07

4.58

3.38

1.44

0.26

Sum 80.00 t71.94

(Table generated using program created by Henneberg &, Steyn 1994)

Tables 10 and 11 are life table mortality analyses of females and males based on St.

Mary's church burial records. The principal finding of these analyses is that mortality

and life expectancy did not vary substantially between the sexes. In fact, the difference

between life expectancy at birth for St. Mary's females and males (43.08 and 44.80

respectively) falts within the random error limits for this sample size as published by

Henneberg and Strzalko (1975).

159


Table 11. Life table based on burial records for St. Mary's males (0.025).

Ase interual (years) Dx Dxlconl dx lx Ox Lx Tx CX cx

0

5

10

l520

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

53

2

6

0

0

0

2

2

J

6

3

2

3

2

2

I

4

1

56.40

2.41

8. l90.00

0.00

0.00

4.49

5.09

8.64

19.57

11.08

8.3',7

14.21

10.73

12.15

6.88

31.17

8.83

27.09

l.l63.93

0.00

0.00

0.00

2.t62.44

4.15

9.40

s.32

4.02

6.83

5.15

5.84

3.30

t4.97

4.24

100.00

72.9t71.75

67.82

67.82

67.82

67.82

65.66

63.22

59.07

49.67

44.35

40.33

33.51

28.35

22.52

t9.2r4.24

0.27

0.02

0.05

0.00

0.00

0.00

0.03

0.04

0.07

0.16

0.11

0.09

0.17

0.15

0.21

0. l50.78

1.00

432.28

361.66

348.93

339. l 0

339. I 0

339. I 0

333.71

322.21

305.73

271.86

235.05

2n.70184.59

154.6s

t27.t7t04.32

58.62

10.60

4480.36

4048.08

3686.42

3337.49

2998.39

2659.30

2320.20

1986.50

1664.29

l3 58.56

1086.71

851.6s

639.95

455.35

300.71

t73.54

69.22

10.60

44.80

55.52

51.38

49.21

44.21

39.21

34.2r

30.25

26.33

23.00

21 .88

19.20

r 5.87

13.s9

10.61

7 .71

3.60

2.50

9.65

8.07

7.79

7.57

7.57'7.57

7.45

7.19

6.82

6.07

5.25

4.73

4.12

3.45

2.84

2.33

l.3l0.24

Sum 92.00 208.21

(Table generated using program created by Henneberg &. Steyn 1994)

Due to the homogeneity of mortality and survivorship among males and females,

subsequent life table analyses and references will concentrate on the free ground records

as a whole. The observed skeletal data (Table 12) were also treated as a whole (i.e. with

the exclusion of sex differences) because the small sample size was seen as having no

significant bearing on calculated results.

160


Table 12. Life table based on the excavated St. Mary's skeletal sample (0.025).

Age interval(vears) Dx Dxfcorr] dx lx qx Lx Tx ex cx

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

43 45.7 6

4.82

4.09

0.00

1.75

3.9',7

4.49

7.63

8.64

22.83

3.69

4.18

0.00

40.91

4.31

3.66

0.00

|.573.s4

4.01

6.82

7.72

20.41

3.30

3.',|4

0.00

100.00

59.09

54.78

sl.t25r.t249.55

46.01

42.00

35.1 8

27.45

7.04

3.74

0.00

0.4r0.07

0.07

0.00

0.03

0.07

0.09

0. 16

0.22

0.74

0.47

1.00

0.00

397.73

284.68

264.75

2s5.60

251.69

238.91

220.01

192.93

t56.57

86.23

26.95

9,3s

0.00

2385.39

1987.67

t702.99

1438.24

1182.64

930.95

692.04

472.03

279.t0122.54

36.30

9.35

0.00

23.85

33.64

3l.0928.t323.13

18.79

15.04

11.24

7.93

4.46

5. l62.50

2.50

16.67

I 1.93

I l.l010.72

10.55

r0.02

9.22

8.09

6.56

3.62

1.13

0.39

0.00

4

J

0

1

2

2

3

J,7

I

I

0

Sum 70.00 I I 1.86

(Table generated using program created by Henneb erg &' Steyn 1994)

A comparison of the estimated number of deaths for each age interval of 5 years can be

seen in Figure 18.

cË

6t

o

ou0cË

!

o

z

45

40

35

30

25

20

l5

l0

5

0

E Burial records

E Skeletal data

,di o ú -lil ild #.05101520 25 30 35

Äge (years)40 45 s0 55 60

Figure 18. Comparison of numbers of deaths in burial records and skeletal data by age group.

In general terms, the number of deaths per age interval is consistent between the four

groups demonstrating the number provided by the skeletal sample is not skewed. That

is, in demographic terms, the excavated skeletal sample is relatively representative of

161


the overall data set. For example, close correlation exists in the first age interval

representing neonates to less than five year olds. This would tend to suggest that the

excavated skeletal sample is representative of childhood mortality during the 19th

century.

Noticeable discrepancies do occur, however, in the 45 and 60-year age groups. The

number of deaths per age interval of the skeletal data in the 45-year group is

signif,rcantly higher than the three other data groups. Conversely, the figure provided by

skeletal data in the 60-year group represents a signif,rcant under representation (Figure

18). It is suggested that the reason for such discrepancies is the well-known problem of

assessing age for older adults in skeletal/archaeological contexts (Masset 1989). The

tendency is for morphological ages to be under estimated, a point not lost in the case of

John Pell (case study SM/883, Chapter 7). Furthermore, it is possible that such

differences are a function of the relatively small sample size of the excavated

component.

When the number of subadult burials per year was compared with the number of adult

burials, a clear distinction emerged between mortality rates during the first few decades

of the colony and a later period of settlement (Figure 19).

t62


I

B

7

o Adult

- o Juveniles <1 5 years

9cfoctt(¡,

E

.=IG

-c¡

o(¡)¡¡EJz

b

5

4

3

2

tI raQ

aIaeae a1 I.aó ó aCQ/Q ó¡l

aaó ó óa Q

0 þó1 860

tì

1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 19301840 1850

Year

tr'igure 19. Number of adult (>15 years) and juvenile (<15 years) free ground burials between 1847

and 1920 (frequencies represented by moving averages).

The number of juvenile burials between 1847 and 1875 was considerably higher than

adult burials during the same period. In fact adult burials remain constant throughout

the entire period analysed. After around 1875 the number of juvenile burials appears to

stabilise to around 1 to 2 deaths/burials per year for the period up to 1920.

When life tables for the two periods 1847-1874 and 1874-1920 were calculated two

distinctive mortality profiles become further evident (Tables 13 and l4). The

proportion of sample surviving to sexual maturity from 1847 to 1875 was calculated to

be 46.48%. In contrast, the figure from 1875 to 1920 was almost doubled at 83.48o/o of

the population. Furthermore, life expectancy ('"*') also increased dramatically over

time. From 1847 to 1875, an individual born in South Australia had a life expectancy of

26.28 years. From 1875 to 1920 one could expect to live into their late 50's (55.56).

r63


The life table presented in Table 15 shows results using burial records for the 272

marked burials between the years 1848 and 1900. Life expectancy of the newborn

individual based on these data was 57.1 years. Furthermore, the individual had an

86.05% chance of surviving to sexual maturity. However, due to variation in life table

results based on the discrete time frames identified above, Tables 16 and 17 provide life

table data for the marked burials between the years 1848 and 1874 (Table 16) and 1875

to 1900 (Table 17). As was observed for free ground burials, a comparison of newborn

life expectancies and survivorships between Tables 16 and 17 shows an increase over

time.

t64

The bioarchaeologt oJ'St. Mary's Cemetery

Table 13. St. Mary's free ground burial records: life table for burials from 1847 to 1875 (rate ofnatural increase = 0.027).

Ase interval (years) Dx Dx lcorrl dx lx qx Lx Tx CX

0

5

10

t520

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

15

80

85

98

4

6

2

2

2

2

4

3

J

2

2

2

2

I

0

I

0

104.75

4.88

8.37

3. 19

3.64

4.t6

4.75

10.86

9.31

10.63

8. 10

9.2s

10,57

12.08

6.90

0.00

9.01

0.00

47.51

2.22

3.80

1.4s

1.65

L89

2.16

4.93

4.22

4.82

3.6',7

4.20

4.80

5.48

3. 13

0.00

4.09

0.00

100.00

52.49

50.27

46.48

45.03

43.3 8

41.49

39.33

34.41

30.1 8

25.36

2r.69

17.49

t2.69

7.2t

4.09

4.09

0.00

0.48

0.04

0.08

0.03

0.04

0.04

0.05

0.13

0.12

0. l6

0.14

0. l9

0.27

0.43

0.43

0.00

1.00

0.00

381.22

256.90

241.87

228.76

221.02

2t2.17

202.06

184.35

161 .48

I 3 8.86

1t'7.62

97.94

7 5.46

49.77

28.25

20.43

10.21

0.00

2628.36

2247.14

1990.24

1748.37

l5 19.61

t298.59

1086.42

884.37

700.02

5 3 8.54

399.68

282.06

r84.12

108.66

5 8.89

30.64

10.21

0.00

26.28

42.81

39.59

37.62

33.',l5

29.94

26.19

22.48

20.3s

t7.84

15.7 6

13.01

10.53

8.56

8. 16

7.50

2,50

17.50

Sum 131 204.43

(Table generated using Henneberg and Steyn program 1994)

Table 14. St. Mary's free ground burial records: life table for burials from 1875 to 1920 (rate ofnatural increase : 0.022).

Age interval (years) Dx Dxfcorrl dx lx qx Lx Tx ex

0

5

l0l520

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

10

75

80

85

90

21

I

2

2

1

0

3

I

4

J

0

2

2

0

7

6

2

I

0

22.17

l.l82.63

2.93

1.63

0.00

6.09

2.26

10.09

8.43

0.00

6.99

7.79

0.00

33.91

32.40

12.04

6.71

0.00

14.10

0.75

t.67

1.86

1.04

0.00

3.87

1.44

6.41

5.36

0.00

4.44

4.96

0.00

2t.56

20.61

7.66

4.27

0.00

100.00

85.90

85.1 5

83.48

81.62

80.58

80.5 8

76.71

7 5.27

68.86

63.50

63.50

59.05

s4.10

54.1 0

32.53

1 1.93

4.2'7

0.00

0.14

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.00

0.05

0.02

0.09

0.08

0.00

0.07

0.08

0.00

0.40

0.63

0.64

1.00

0.00

464.75

427.62

421.58

4t2.75

405.50

402.91

393.24

3'79.97

360.34

330.89

317.48

306.37

282.87

270.48

2t6.57

1 1 1.15

40.49

10.67

0.00

55ss.64

5090.89

4663.27

4241.69

3828.94

3423.43

3020.53

2627.29

2247.32

1886.99

ls56.l0t238.61

932.24

649.37

378.89

162.32

51.r7

t0.67

0.00

5 5.s6

s9.27

s4.77

50.81

46.91

42.48

3'7.48

34.2s

29.86

27.40

24.s1

19.51

15.79

12.00

7.00

4.99

4.29

2.50

12.50

Sum s6 179.961

(Table generated using Henneberg and Steyn program 1994)

16s

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemeter

Tabte 15. St. Mary's burial records: life table for all provenanced burials from 1848 to 1900 (rateof natural increase = 0.025).

Age interval (years) Dx Dx fcorl dx lx qx Lx Tx ex

0

5

l0l520

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

9tll7

8

l37

2

8

13

1l

10

t2l3t2

16

23

8

-t

2

2

0

96.79

t3.24

9.53

12.32

22.66

13.80

4.46

20.t9

37.t3

35.54

36.s6

49.64

60.84

63.54

95.85

1 5 5.89

61.35

26.03

19.63

22.21

0.00

n.291.54

1.11

1.44

2.64

I .61

0.52

2.36

4.33

4.15

4.26

5.79

7.10

7.41

I l.l818.19

7.t63.04

2.29

2.59

0.00

100.00

88.7 r

87.16

86.05

84.61

81.97

80.36

79.84'7'7.48

73.15

69.01

64;74

58.95

51.85

44.44

33.26

15.07

7.92

4.88

2,59

0.00

0.1 l

0.02

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.06

0.06

0.06

0.09

0.12

0.14

0.25

0.55

0.47

0.38

0.47

L00

0.00

47 1.77

439.68

433.04

426.67

416.46

405.83

400.50

393.31

376.60

35 5.40

334.37

309.23

2't7.01

240.'74

t94.26

120.84

5'7.48

32.00

18.68

6.48

0.00

5710.37

5238.60

4798.91

4365.87

3939.21

3522.74

3116.91

2716.41

2323.09

1946.s0

ls9l.10t256.73

947.49

670.48

429.74

23s.48

n4.6457.16

25.16

6.48

0.00

57.10

59.05

5 5.06

s0.74

46.55

42.98

38.',l9

34.02

29.98

26.61

23.06

19.4t

16.07

t2.93

9.67

7.08

7.60

7,22

5. 15

2.50

2.50

Sum 272 857.23(Table generated using Henneberg and Steyn program 1994)

Table 16. St. Mary's burial records: life table for all provenanced burials from 1848 to 1874 (rateof natural increase :0.027).

Age Dx Dx fcorrl dx lx qx Lx Tx CX

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

64

7

6

4

7

4

2

4

11

5

7

6

6

4

7

5

68.41

8.55

8.37

6.3 8

12.75

8.32

4.7s

10.86

34.t3

t7.72

28.35

2'7.76

3r.72

24.16

48.30

39,42

18.00

2.25

2.20

1.68

3.36

2.t91.25

2.86

8.98

4.66'7.46

7.31

8.35

6.36

12.71

10.37

100.00

82.00

79.7 5

77.s4

7 s.86

72.51'70.32

69.07

66.2r

57.23

52.56

45. 10

37.79

29.44

23.09

10.37

0.18

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.04

0.03

0.02

0.04

0.14

0.08

0.t40. 16

0.22

0.22

0.55

1.00

454.99

404.3s

393.22

383.52

370.93

3s7.07

348.47

338. l9308.59

274.47

244.15

207.23

168.09

131.33

83.6s

25.94

4494.19

4039.20

3634.85

324r.62

2858.1 I

2487.17

2130.10

r78r.64

1443.4s

1134.86

860.39

616.24

409.01

240.92

I 09.59

2s.94

44.94

49.26

45.s 8

4l .80

37.67

34.30

30.29

25.80

21.80

19.83

16.37

t3.66

10.82

8.18

4.75

2.50

Sum 149.00 379.95(Table generated using Henneberg and Steyn program 1994)

t66

The bioarchcteology of St. Mary's Centetery

Table 17. St. Mary's burial records: life table for all provenanced burials from 1875 to 1900 (rateof natural increase = 0.022).

Age Dx Dx fcorr] dx lx qx Lx Tx EX

0

5

l015

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

55

60

65

70

75

80

85

90

95

100

27

4

I

4

6

J

0

4

2

6

J

6

7

8

9

l88

-)

2

2

0

28.51

4.71

1.31

5.85

9.79

5.46

0.00

9.05

5.04

t6.87

9.40

20.97

27.28

34.76

43.59

97.21

48.17

20.14

14.97

t6.69

0.00

6.79

|.t20.31

1.39

z. -t -'\

1.30

0.00

2.r6

t.20

4.02

2.24

s.00

6.50

8.28

10.39

23.t6

I 1.48

4.80

3.57

3.98

0.00

100.00

93.2t

92.09

9t.77

90.38

88.05

86.75

86.75

84.59

83.39

79.37

77.13

72.14

65.64

57.36

46.97

23.82

12.34

7.54

3.98

0.00

0.07

0,01

0.00

0.02

0.03

0.01

0.00

0.02

0.01

0.05

0.03

0.06

0.09

0. l3

0. l80.49

0.48

0.39

0.47

1.00

0.00

483.02

463.24

459.65

4s 5.3 8

446.07

436.98

433.73

428.35

4r9.96

406.91

391.26

373.17

344.44

307.50

260.83

176.98

90.39

49.71

28.80

9.94

0.00

6466.30

5983.28

5520.04

5060.39

4605.00

4158.94

3721.95

3288.22

2859.87

2439.92

2033.0 I

1641.75

l 268.5 8

924.14

6t6.65

3ss.8l

l 78.84

8 8.45

38.74

9.94

0.00

64.66

64.19

59.94

55.t4

50.95

47.24

42.91

37.91

33.8 1

29.26

25.61

2t.28

17.59

14.08

10.75

7.57

7.51

7.17

5.t42.s0

2.s0

Sum 123.00 419.78(Table generated using Henneberg and Steyn program 1994)

PnrnoLoctes

Trauma

One field of information included within death certificates (Appendix 3) is

"occupation". Occupation is particularly relevant to the study of trauma among groups

as it can help to explain frequencies and pattems of trauma lesions. For example,Lazer

(2001) suggests that the incidence of trauma reported for the Cadia sample was directly

related to the predominantly mining occupations of the local population.

Just over 6lY" of the St. Mary's sample that had occupation details recorded on their

death certificate were either 'farmers' or 'labourers'. Other well-represented groups

t67


included 'gardeners' (5.4%),'bricklayers', 'brickmakers', and 'builders' (4.3Yo), and

'gentlemen' (4.3%). It should be noted that the occupation of the father or husband was

recorded on the death certificates of children and women. However, the condensed

information still provides a good indication of the predominant occupations held by the

target group.

Skeletal analysis identified nine individuals presenting traumatic pathologies (Table

18). This may not be truly representative of the actual figure due to preservation issues

associated with coffin collapse. Through basic observation it could be seen that skeletal

preservation was best when coffins had not collapsed in onto the remains. 'Where coff,tn

collapse had occurred the thoracic area of the skeleton seemed to suffer the most

damage, specifically rib and vertebral components. The predominantly cancellous

nature of these bones also contributes to their wlnerability in the post interment

environment.

Table 18. Description of trauma exhibited among St. Maryrs adults

Burial No. Description of trauma5 (25-30y female)9 (30-35y male)14 (40-50y male)23 (34y male)53c (28-32y female)57 (45-55y male)59 (48-55y male)

68 (50-55y male)78 (45-55y male)83 (59y male)

Healed fracture of left ribHealed fracture of left seventh ribLocalized healed trauma of both feetHealed fracture indicating trauma to left eye orbitHealed fracture ofstyloid process

Healed fracture of right fifth metatarsal; healed trauma to nasal area

Multiple perimortem fractures of leg bones & healed fracture of metatarsal onleft footHealed fracture of ribHealed fractures of two ribsMultiple perimorlem cranial and cervical spine fractures; healed trauma to nasal

area,

Bones of the hands and feet were also often found to be incomplete or damaged,

particularly in the collapsed coffin scenario. Two reasons are suggested for this; hrstly,

the small size of phalanges, metatarsal, and metacarpal bones means that they

168


deteriorate more rapidly. It is for this reason also that at times such bones may not have

been recovered during excavation. Secondly, tarsal and carpal bones, like ribs and

vertebrae consist mainly of cancellous bone, which tends not to survive as well as

cortical bone in the archaeological context.

These factors diminish the observer's ability to identify pathologies on bones of the

ribs, vertebrae hands and feet. No traumatic lesions presented among any of the St.

Mary's sub-adults and juveniles. Of the seven adult females at St. Mary's two had a

traumatic lesion, burial 5 a healed fracture of a rib (Figure 20), and burial 53c

presenting a healed fracture of the styloid process of the right temporal. Among the 13

adult male skeletons seven presented traumatic lesions, two of which were sustained

antemortem. ln one of the two cases of antemortem trauma, it was possible to match

observed pathologies with historic records resulting in a positive identification (see case

study for SM/883).

Figure 20. Healed fracture of rib, SM/868 (scale in centimetres; photo by theauthor).

In the two observed cases of perimortem fracture (SI\4/859 and SM/883), descriptive

techniques proposed by Lovell (1997) were closely followed in order to differentiate

between antemortem or perimortem contexts. Features of fracture margins (for example

oblique fracture angles and uniform colouration of exposed internal bone to surrounding

t69


unaffected bone) tended to confirm perimortem causes in both cases. However, it was

not until historical documents had been consulted that the actual cause of the injuries

could be confirmed as perimortem.

Infectious disease

Table 19 presents the condensed f,rndings of observations for osseous lesions associated

with infection in the skeletal remains of St. Mary's adults and subadults. The table also

provides two comparative groups with a view to providing some context. By far the

most common lesion observed was non-specific periostitis. Bones of the forearm and

lower leg were the most frequently affected. Systemic conditions were also observed,

however, the underdevelopment of skeletal changes often prevented confident diagnosis

ofa cause.

Table 19. Rate of observable infectious disease lesions among St. Mary's adults, subadult andcomparative sarnples.

Adults Subadults

NTotal

i//o o//0o//oNN

St. Mary'sVoegtlyF reedman's

20

192

531

70.0

8.3

60.6

17.8

0.6

74.1

45

495

t62

65

687

693

35.4

2.2

63.8

Tiné (2000) defines systemic infection as present if three or more skeletal elements of a

given individual demonstrate osseous lesions. In the context of the current study

systemic is used to describe a suite of infectious lesions apparently linked and

pathognomonic of a disease or diseases. Such conditions potentially observed in the St.

Mary's sample were fuberculosis and syphilis.

There is little doubt that many of the people buried within the study area died as a result

of illness caused by an infectious disease. Condensed death certificate information

t70


(Table 20) reveals that a large proportion (42.4%) of people died as a result of an

infectious condition. Recorded details for a number of individuals (n: 42) suggested

conditions that may have been infectious.

Often however, the documentation lacked enough detail to be included within this

category with any certainty. However, it is likely that many of the individuals within

the 'possibly infectious' category died either directly or indirectly as a result of an

infectious disease. As a consequence, it may be possible to infer that up to 73Yo of the

St. Mary's free ground people died of infectious or possibly infectious causes.

The incidence of each disease has been quantified within each category. For example,

dysentery was the most frequent (22.6Yo) cause of death among the infectious diseases.

Other frequent infectious diseases to afflict the St. Mary's people included phthisis

(13.2%), mesenteric disease (7.5%) and diarrhoea (7.5Y"). The most commonly

recorded 'possibly infectious' diseases included 'atrophy', 'convulsions' and 'teething'.

Accidents and natural decay/old age were the most frequent non-infectious cause of

death among the group.

It is possible to suggest that many of the recorded causes of death within the 'possibly

infectious' category were actually the f,tnal or most obvious signs of a fatal infectious

condition. Descriptions such as 'disease of the lungs' or 'effirsion of the chest' may

have been a bacterial infection resulting in a consumptive disease such as tuberculosis

or phthisis. Similarly, the term 'atrophy' describes a wasting or consumptive disease

with a diminution in the size of the body (Brownlow 1945).

t7l


Table 20. Cause of death as recorded on death certifìcates for those interred in the St. Mary's freeground.

Cause of death

Infectious N

Cause of death

Not infectious N

Dysentery 12

Phthisis 7

Diarrhoea 4

Mesenteric disease 4

V/hooping cough 3

Bronchitis 2

Croup 2

Gastritis 2

'Harmoptysis'(hemoptysis?) 2

Pleurisy 2

Pneumonia 2

Acute enteritis I

Acute pyelitis/puerperal sepsis 1

Diphtheria I

Hepatic abscess, phthisis 1

Inflammation of the chest 1

Inflammation of the womb I

Low fever I

Measles I

Purulent pericarditis 1

Slow fever I

Ihrush I

Trismus (tetanus) 1

Tuberculosis, meningitis 1

Typhus 1

Total 56

Accidental death

Natural decay/old age

Cancer

Hydrocephalus

Premature birth

Affliction of the brain

Calculus, renal pyonephrosis

Cirrhosis

Cyanosis

Debility

Decline

Enlargement of liver

General decay

Heart disease

Insanity- affusion ofthe blain

Obstruction of the bowel

Paralysis/exhaustion

Syncope

Spinal complaint

Weakness

5

5

4

J

2

1

1

I

I

1

I

1

1

I

1

I

I

I

I

1

Total 34

Possibly infectious

Atrophy

Convulsions

Teething

Dropsy/anasarca

Albuminuria, uraemia

disease ofthe brain

disease ofthe lungs

effusion ofthe chest

marasmus/malnutlition, diarrhoea

spasms

Summary

Cause of death11

10

10

5

I

I

I

I

I

1

NVrInfectious

Possibly infectious

Not infectious

56 42.4

42 31.8

34 25.7

Total 132 100

No recorded cause ofdeath 43

Total 42

Total number ofrecords 175

t72

The bioarchaeology St. Mary's Cemetery

Many of the other conditions described within this category are vague and open to

interpretation. For example, it has been suggested that 'teethiîg', à commonly reported

cause of death among infants in pre-modern times, was more likely to be a missed

infection (Cousins 2001). 'Marasmus' also described as malnutrition may have been

caused by poor hygiene, resulting in bacterial infection, leading to a fatal case of

diarrhoea. Albuminuria, kidney disease characterised by a build up of pus around the

kidneys is also the likely result of an infectious condition.

The cause of death for 11 individuals is recorded as 'atrophy'. Atrophy is described as

a wasting disease caused by imperfect nourishment (Fowler & Fowler 1956). The

ambiguity of such a term affects its classification as an infectious disease or illness

caused by nutrition.

Cause of death described as 'convulsions' is classed in the present study as an infectious

disease because the symptom is typically associated with febrile reaction to infectious

disease (V/oodruff 1 984).

Of the 115 individuals under five years old from both groups,68 (59%o) died from an

infectious disease (Table 21).

Table 21. Summary of cause of death of St. Mary's adult and subadults from death certificatedetails.

Groun Infectious disease (7o) Non-infectious disease l%o) No record l7o)AdultsSub-adult (< 5 years)

Total

16 (36.1)68 (5e.1)

18 (36.7)25 (2t.1)43 (26.2)

1s (30.6)22 (re.r)37 (22.6)84 (s1

t73

The bioarchaeologt St. Mary's Cemetery

This f,rgure is likely to be much higher as 22 individuals (I9%) did not have recorded a

cause of death. Of the remaining 13olo several died at birth or were born premature.

Other causes of death were recorded as 'atrophy', 'teething', 'dropsy' and 'affliction of

the brain'.

The adult component of the two groups was not spared from the rigours of infectious

diseases. Death certificates recorded that 16 individuals interred in the free ground died

from an infectious disease. The majority of these (75%, Table 22) were infectious

pleural conditions, particularly phthisis, but including bronchitis, pleurisy (inflammation

of the pleura), and pneumonia (an inflammation of the lungs) (Brownlow 1945).

Phthisis is defined as "a wasting away or consumption...any disease that is

characterised by emaciation and loss of strength, especially pulmonary tuberculosis"

(Brownlow 1945:1096).

Table 22. Death certifÌcate details of free grounders who died from an infectious pleural orpulmonary condition.

Name Age(vears)

Year ofdeath

Occupation Cause of death

Diedrich BischoffFrederick BockerSamuel BroughtonJames CastleFanny CastleJohn FerrisCharles HalesSarah HollandSophia LockElizabeth ManningThomas MetcalfRosetta MoodyJessie Thompson

FarmerBootmakerLabourerLabourernJa

MasonContractorFarmerLabourerCaretakerCabinetmakerServantSpinster

PleurisyPhthisis pulmonalisPhthisisPneumoniaPhthisis pulmonalisPhthisisPneumonia, pleurisyInflammation of the chestPhthisisBronchitisPhthisisEffusion of the chestPhthisis

4840415815

7l4925

3976492l32

t8641891

I 8781903

t892t8721900I 8541 87019161909

I 853

1 899

Despite the recorded prevalence of these diseases, little evidence was observed among

the skeletal material. Roberts (2000) reports that only a small proportion of those who

174

The bioarchaeology St. Mary's Cemelety

contract tuberculosis will develop skeletal changes, which typically manifest in the

spine, hip and knee joints (Steinbock 1976). Further work, however, has implicated

periostitic lesions of the visceral rib surface with pulmonary infection (Kelley and

Micozzi 1984; Roberts et al. 1994;Eyler eT al. 1996; Jankauskas 1998).

Two individuals (SM/B23 and SM/B63), had bone lesions on the visceral side of

several ribs (Figure 2I). Both individuals were male between the ages of 40 and 50

years at death.

Figure 21. Rib fragments from SM/863 showing bone remodelling possibly related to an infectiouspleural condition.

The observed pathologies presented as moderate bumpiness on the visceral side of

various rib fragments. SM/823 was affected on both left and right sides with

remodelling of the bone conf,rned to the intemal angle of rib shafts at the head end.

Apart from some osteophytic lipping of the thoracic vertebrae and phalanges of the feet,

no other pathologies were obseled in this case. SM/863 was more fragmented, but

bone remodelling was clearly evident from visual and tactile examination. Other

skeletal changes included porous lesions caused by cartilage loss in both knee joints;

t75


and moderate to severe osteophytic lipping of lower thoracic and lumbar vertebrae.

Thoracic vertebrae nine and ten had been joined by a shared osteophyte.

SM/870 was the only other individual to present with pathologies possibly related to a

tuberculous condition. Full details of this case are provided in the next Chapter,

however, the pathologies of this case highlight the prevalence of tuberculosis in

subadults. Death certificates indicate that several children died from mesenteric

disease, which is defined as tuberculosis of the lymph glands of the abdomen (Smith

1988). Children who drank milk from tuberculosis-infected cows often contracted the

condition. Aside from the case of SM/870, no direct (pathognomonic) signs of

infectious diseases were observed in the skeletal remains of St. Mary's subadults.

The case of SM/870 also brings to light the prevalence of syphilis during the 19th

century. 'Mulbery' teeth deformation in this case suggested a possible case of

congenital syphilis. This pathology in association with ectocranial pitting was seen as

pathognomonic of congenital syphilis. However, one other case demonstrated a level of

systemic infection that appeared pathognomonic of acquired syphilis. This case

(SM/B10) has been fully described in the proceeding Chapter.

Degenerative dis ease and occupational markers

Adult individuals within the St. Mary's sample exhibited araîge of skeletal markers of

occupation. The most commonly observed pathologies were osteophytoses and changes

to the spinal column. In several instances changes were quite extreme with cases of

vertebral ankylosing and spondylolysis recorded. Recorded among the St. Mary's adult

sample were a significant number of age and activity related stress markers.

176

The bioarchaeology St. Maty's CemeterT

With reference to Table 23 it can be seen that the spinal column was most commonly

affected by degenerative disease, particularly the thoracic and lumbar regions (Figure

22). However, it is possible to suggest two types of activity based on other stated

criteria. Firstly, the high incidence of upper limb robusticity in association with hyper-

developed muscle attachments could be used as evidence to infer repetitive physical

labour. Tasks such as lifting, carrying, chopping, digging and hauling involve repetitive

movements using upper body joints and muscles.

Figure 22. St. Mary's burial 78 showing degenerative changes to thoracic vertebrae anterior andleft sides (T8 - T12).

'-lsÊÉ.'

177


Table 23. Summary of distribution of possible skeletal markers of stress among St. Mary's adults. One tick indicates a unilateral condition while two ticks indicate

bilateral condition.

LaDOUnn

Labouring

:Parapleg

:Labourin

Labouri¡

//E./EE//

Acromial/clayicular

Glenoidfossa/hum

erus

Bonychange to

elbow

Robusticity MuscIeof upper attachments

limbs (arms)

radius& ulna

I

humeral

Spinalcolumn

L./s

C T

,/S

/s

/s

t.l./

Age(years)

25-30

45-50

28-32

40-45

20-30

20

40-45

40-45

30-35

45

35-40

45

45-50

45-50

50

45-50

45-50

45

35

45

BurialNo./ sex

10?53c ?

6l?66b ?

79?84?6ôe6

t46233s7ðse663ó68ð72 ¿,

73678ó83ó8só

Sacrumfalse Femora F eet Hands

knee

Suggested

Totals 4 ll 11 7 7 6 6 J 2 2 2 6 56 2

S : Schmorl's nodes

C: cervicalE: ebumatedT : thoracic

Ç : femaleL: lumbar

: male

178


Related to this are signs of repetitive activity seen in the main diarthrodial joints of the

knee and elbow. This is graphically illustrated in the example provided by SM/814

(Figure 23 and24).

Figure 23. Diseased proximal left ulna of SM/814. Figure 24. Diseased distal/posterior lefthumerus of SM/814.

Secondly, groups of marks in the pelvic/sacral region and including proximal femora

are indicative of a sitting or squatting position. A prominent lipping of the articular

surface of the femoral head is possibly a stress marker known as 'Poirier's facet'

(Figure 25), indicative of a sitting posture with knees flexed and buttocks on a low seat

(Poirier and Charpy 1911; içcan and Kennedy 1989). The mark manifests as a lipping

or extension of the anterior articular surface of the femoral head, onto the neck.

5cm

/"t:::

t¡

s\1,tì l-1

I'rtrrinr¡l ìclL rlnit

r79


tr'igure 25. Proximal femur of SM/884 showing position of possible 'Poirier's facet'.

One St. Mary's adult male (SM/BS3) exhibited a bilateral plaque build-up on the

femoral neck in a superoanterior position. 'When femora were articulated with the

pelvis, it was possible to see a coffesponding mark on the superior margin of the

acetabulum. Early observations lead to a diagnosis of 'Allen's fossa' (Odgers 1931;

Angel 1964; içcan and Kennedy 1989) caused by hyperflexion of the hip and knees with

hyperdorsiflexion of ankle and sub-talar joints. The occupational activity ascribed to

this condition is rapid descent of steep slopes. However, due to the lack of supporting

skeletal evidence plus the position exhibited by articulation a diagnosis of horse riding

is suggested as a possible cause of the pathologies.

Similarly, the skeleton of one adult female (SM/866b) presented a suite of skeletal

stress markers, which potentially allow inference regarding activities undertaken. Stress

indicators included extension (anteriorly) of the ramp of thoracic vertebrae (T4 to T9);

slight plaque formation bilaterally on the anterior part of the femoral head at the

junction of the femoral head and neck; bilateral extension of the articular surface of the

180

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Centelery

zygapophyseal joints of the fifth lumbar vertebra. Back muscles such as latissimus

dorsi acted to pull the pelvis up causing the observed pathological signs. The inferior

demifaces of the auricular surfaces were extended bilaterally creating a ramping effect

(Figure 26). This pathology demonstrates a rotating force on the sacroiliac joint caused

by flexion or movement of the lumbar spine. This could be caused by a constant

bending forward at the waist whilst keeping the legs straight. The other observed

pelvic, sacral and spinal changes indicate a sitting position with a forward projection or

slump.

I

I/

,4'a

t

*

Figure 26. Preauricular surface (left side) of SM/866b showing rampart extension of the inferiordemiface.

Another pattern of markers emerges when one looks at the prevalence of fractures to

bones of the feet. Fractures to tarsal bones and phalanges were observed in several St.

Mary's adults. It is suggested that the frequency of fractures to these bone elements is

reflective of a highly physical lifestyle and demonstrative of typical 19th century modes

181

t

Iìrtrr¡rirr I e\tcrÌ\¡r)tì

ol inlc'rior ¡urìeulltt surlìtee

F


of transportation, namely horses and carts. Fractures of the hands and feet were the

second most frequent form of trauma observed in the Freedman's Cemetery study (Tiné

2000). ln this case it was suggested that this was because these elements are more at

risk from crushing injuries from dropped or displaced objects, or being caught between

them.

A clear case of spondylolysis was exhibited in the fifth lumbar (L5) vertebra of SM/857

(Figure 27).

Figure 27. St. Mary's burial 57 exhibiting spondylolysis of the 5th lumbar vertebra.

This condition was accompanied by moderate osteophytic lipping of lumbar vertebrae 3

and 4 and the 12th thoracic. Due to the lack of any bridging osteophytes on L5

indicating a forward movement (olisthesis) of the vertebral body, it is not possible to

classify this as a case of spondylolisthesis (Congdon 1931; Thieme 1950; V/iltse 1962;

Mann and Murphy 1990).

182


Evidence of childbirth

Of the seven St. Mary's female skeletons of child bearing age 5 exhibited osseous

changes attributable to parturition (Table 24). No pitting or osseous scarring was

observed in the dorsal pubic or pre-auricular regions of any of the St. Mary's males.

This finding is perhaps, to be expected considering the reduced incidence of such

osseous changes among males (Cox and Scott 1992; Cox 2000).

"lable 24. Location and degree of osseous change due to parturition.

Pre-auricular Dorsal surface of thenubis score l0 - 9)Burial No. Ase Sex sulcus score l0-91

5

10

53c

61

66b

79

84

2s-30

50-60

28-32

40-45

35

18-21

40-45

2

9

9

I

9

0

2

2

9

2

1

J

0

4

?o+

?

????

The majority (71.4%) of those skeletons determined to be adult female, presented signs

of childbirth events in their pelvic region. Poor preservation of this part of SM/B 10 did

not permit assessment, and it may be possible to suggest that SM/879, although

sexually mature, was still not old enough to have had children.

SrRruRB

Mean stature for St. Mary's adult males based on average height calculated from

regression formulae produced by Pearson (1899) is 1661 mm. The average f,tgure

derived for the seven St. Mary's adult females is 1552 mm (Table 25). Raw data long

bone lengths for adults and calculations for stature analyses are presented in Appendices

5 and 6.

183

The bioarchaeologlt of St. Mary's Cemetery

Table 25. St. Mary's stature estimations comparing the methods of four authors (millimetres)

Trotter & Gleser (1952'l Manouvrier 11893) Pearson (1899) Breitinser (1938)

MaleFemale

1700.5

I 591 .5

1660.6

1566.8

1660.7

1551 .8

1685.8

nJa

It can be seen from Table 25 that stature estimations using the formulae of four different

authors produce arange of mean heights from 1660.6 mm to 1700.5 mm for males, and

1551.8 to 1591.5 mm for females. The reason for this variation is that the authors

created their regression formulae using measurements from separate and distinct

population groups. For example, Trotter and Gleser (1952; Trotter and Gleser 1958)

studied a large group of modem American males. Breitinger (1938) derived his data

from the dimensions of 2400living Germans, "...comparing the lengths of their limb

segments with those of corresponding dried long bones from similar populations"

(Hrdlicka 1952:215).

Therefore, factors of differing nutritional regimes and genetic groupings mean that

resultant stature estimation formulae derived from discrete population groups and times

will reflect variations based on dominant trends within those populations at that

particular time.

Table 26 presents derived statures for each St. Mary's adult based on long bone lengths

using the Trotter and Gleser (1952), and Pearson (1899) regression functions. Long

bone lengths in millimetres of humeri, radii, ulnae, femora and tibiae for all St. Mary's

adults are presented in Appendix 5 where available.

184

The bioarchaeolog,t of St. Mary's Cemelery

Table 26. Stature estimation (in mm) for the St. Mary's adult skeletal material.

Burial #Age

(years) Sex

StatureTrotter & Gleser

19s2 & 1958

StaturePearson (l 899)

5

6

9

t0l423

53c

57

59

61

63

66b

68

72

73

78

79

83

84

85

25-3040-45

35-40

50-60

45-55

45-5028-3245-50

53

40-45

55-65

35

50

45-5035

45

18-21

59

40-45

45

1648

I 688

r623r 587

1740

1748

1 635

t7 52

1810

r5971644

I 586

1',730

t722t604t7031 630

1106

r624l7 t2

1 535

1631

1s 80

1547

1672

1699

1 583

r69317 53

1554

1669

I 539

167 5

1681

I 580

163 8

t5371665

I 566

165 1

F

MMF

MMF

MMF

MF

MMMMF

MF

M

Suelour-r cRowrH

Meaningful analysis and interpretation of subadult development and nutrition is

fundamentally reliant on accurate age determination. It is for this reason that subadult

individuals who could be aged through dental development were included. As a

consequence 36 of the 50 (72%) subadults in the St. Mary's sample qualified for

inclusion in this field of investigation.

The method used here for the comparison of various samples of juvenile skeletal data

has been adapted from that presented by Steyn and Henneberg (1996). A similar

approach was adopted by Ubelaker (1991) in a comparative study of the growth rates of

185


two North American Indian samples. This method simply compares long bone growth

for dental ages ranging from new-boms through to l8 year olds. The following series

of figures (Figures 28 to 31) graphicallypresent mean diaphyseal lengths of long bones

from five published skeletal studies (Table 27), versus individual data from the St.

Mary's sample.

Table27. Comparative samples used in subadult stature analysis.

Sample Time frame Location SourceIndian KnollAltenerdingEskimo and AleutLibbenMapungubweDenver

5000 years BPAD 700-900Pre-19th centuryAD 800-1100AD 970-1200Mid-20th century

KentuckyGermanyKodiak IslandOttawaSouth AfricaColorado

Johnston (1962)Sundick (1978)y'Edynak (1976)Lovejoy et al. (1990)Steyn & Henneberg (199 6)Maresh (1955)

No distinction was made between the sexes in all except the Denver (Figures 32 to 35)

and Eskimo/Aleut studies. Where such a distinction was made, a mean figure was

calculated for comparison with individual St. Mary's data. It is also important to note

that Maresh (1955) derived data from the measurement of long bones from radiographs

of living children.

186

EE

ø

(¡,

E

Eo

Eltr0,


T,.I

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

Age (years)

Figure 28. Diaphyseal growth of the humerus.

245

95

45

8.0 10.0 12.0

Age (years)

295.0

245.0

195.0

145.0

95.0

45.0

t St. Mary's

._ lndian Knoll

,Altenerding

__*-_* Eskimo & Aleut

-x Libben

o Mapungubwe

I St Mary's

o lndian Knoll

.Altenerding

----*'Eskino & Aleut

x Libben

o Mapungubwe

12.O 14.0 16.0 18.0

T195

E

oE¿Ë 145.c,cttÊo

Ío

0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0 14.0 16.0 18.0 20.0

tr'igure 29. Diaphyseal growth of the ulna.

187


445 0

395.0

345.0

295.0

245.0

195.0

145.0

950

45.0

T

I

EEL

E0)

o-cct)coJ

I St. Mary's

o__ lndian Knoll

,Altenerding

Eskino & Aleut

x Libben

o Mapungubwe

-0.0 2.0 4.0 6.0

TI

12.O 14.0 16 0 18.0 20.0

Figure 30. Diaphyseal growth of the femur.

395.0

345.0

295.0

245.0

195.0

145.0

o95.0

45.0

8.0 10.0

Age (years)

10.0

Age (years)

I St Mary's

o lndian Knoll

Altenerding

- '* *' ' - Eskino & Aleut

r Libben

o Mapungubwe

15.0

EE

oõo

cttrq,

50 20.0

Figure 31. Diaphyseal growth of the tibia.

'When compared to other skeletal samples, diaphyseal long bone lengths of individua St.

Mary's data tend to mingle with values for the comparative groups for at least the first

two years of life. However, at about the age of two to three years, the St. Mary's

188


individuals appear to overcome the difficulties experienced during infancy. This can be

seen particularly in humerus length (Figure 28) and femur length (Figure 30), where the

St. Mary's data generally sit above the comparattve groups.

The next series of graphs (Figures 32 to 35) show the individual St. Mary's data in

comparison to mid-2Oth century diaphyseal long bone lengths collected from American

infants and children (Maresh 1955). These data were collected from around 1600 boys

and girls in Denver, Colorado using measurements taken from x-rays. Each graph

shows the 9O-percentile line for boys (uppermost line); lO-percentile line for girls

(lowermost line), and, the 5O-percentile line for boys and girls-

What is evident from these figures is that for the most part St. Mary's data did not

reflect a growth rate experienced by more modem infants. Virtually all St. Mary's

individuals aged less than six years at death had shorter long bone lengths than the 10-

percentile line for Denver girls. Several older St. Mary's children (6 years and above)

however, presented long bone length profiles reflective of modern data. Of the several

exceptions to this observation, one in particular is notable. The marker point for

SM/870 can be seen consistently below the 1O-percentile for Denver girls line at 8.5

years. This finding supports the pathological observations for this individual who

appeared to suffer from a long-term systemic illness, possibly congenital syphilis.

189


250

200

150

a

- Denver male 90%

Denver male 50%

- + Denver female 50%

Denver female 10 %

a St. Mary's

Denver male 90%

Denver male 50%

4r Denver female 50%

Denver female 10 %

O St. Mary's

l0 12 14 16 '18

a300

aEE

oJLoE

o

Etco

aa

I 10

Age (years)

ó

,'/ 'l'C.

ó

100

50

4 6 12 14 16 18

tr'igure 32. Subadult St. Mary's humerus lengths versus Denver male 90"/o line (uppermost), female

10%o line (lowermost), and, male and female 507o lines.

250

a200

150

20

a

aEE

GcEoEEtÊ,oJ

a

a

100

50

20 4 6 8

Age (years)

Figure 33. Subadutt St. Mary's ulna lengths versus Denver male 90Vo line (uppermost), female

l0%o line (lowermost), and, male and female 507o lines.

190


450

400

350

300

250

200

150

100

50

EE

=E0)

o

atc(,

a

- - Denver male 90%

Denver male 50%

+ Denver female 50%

Denver female l0 %

a St. Mary's

10 12 14

a -,'

a

16 l8

a

Denver female 10 %

Denver male 90%

Denver male 50%

+ Denver female 50%

a St. Mary's

a

I

a

aa

aó

2U 4 o

Age (years)

Figure 34. Subadult St. Mary's femur lengths versus Denver male 90%o line (uppermost), female10%o line (lowermost), and, male and female 507o lines.

350

325

300

275

250

225

200

175

150

125

100

75

50

a

EE

G5o

ct,troJ

a

,aa.a'

a

0 2 4 6 8 10

Age (years)

12 14 16

Figure 35. Subadult St. Mary's tibia lengths yersus Denver male 90%o line (uppermost), female107o line (lowermost), and, male and female 507o lines.

a

-18

191


IsoNyvly ANALYSIS

Based on surname (family name) distribution as evidenced by burial records (Appendix

2a) there is substantial representation of related individuals within the study area. These

associations include possible marital relationships like that of John and Margaret

Braithwaite; possible childbirth deaths including Sophia and Edward Lock; and,

multiple offspring mortality including the Viney family who lost 5 children aged

between 2 and 12 years from 1855 to 1874.

There is also the potential to use burial record data to conduct isonymy analysis.

Developed by Crow and Mange (1965), this method has been used as a tool for

estimating inbreeding in human populations (Lasker 1977; Lasker 1980; Jorde and

Morgan 1987). Surnames recorded in civil and church registries can provide centuries

of historical familial links generating genetic data unattainable through other genetic

means. ln the current study however, it is suggested that isonymy may be restricted to

testing for random inbreeding due to the fact that the maiden names of women were not

recorded in the burial records.

Random inbreeding for the St. Mary's free ground group was determined following the

method described by Lasker (1930). The coeff,rcient of inbreeding or the degree of

biological relatedness, for this group was determined to be 0.0034. This figure

demonstrates a low rate of inbreeding within the population as evidenced by

comparison with other isonymy studies of contemporaneous populations. For example,

an isonymy analysis of a rural Polish sample from 1850 produced an inbreeding

coefficient of 0.0028 (Strzalko et al. 1980); and the population of Old Deerfield,

Massachusetts (1810 to 1S19) had an inbreeding coefficient of 0.030 (Swedlund l97I).

192


NoNverzuc TRAITS

The results of observations of nonmetric traits are presented in Table 28. The ranges of

traits observed in the current study are derived from those suggested by Buikstra and

Ubelaker (1994). The key to expression of observed traits is presented in Appendix 7.

Table 28. Frequencies of cranial nonmetric traits observed in the St. Mary's sample. See Appendix7 for key to expression oftraits.

Nonmetric trait No. observed No. with trait No. unobservable Percentage

Apical bone

Asterionic bone

Bregmatic bone

Condylar canal

Coronal ossiclesDivided hypoglossalcanal

Epipteric bone

Foramen ovaleincompleteForamen spinosumincomplete

Infraorbital suture

Lambdoid ossicles

Mental foramen

Metopic sutureMultiple infraorbitalforaminaOccipital-mastoidsuture ossicles

Parietal foramen

Supraorbital foramen

Supraorbital notchZygomatico-facialforamina

r3

11

13

1l

72.2

57.9

68.4

57.9

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

20

5

4

6

9

4

11

J

4

0

5

I

20.0

25.0

0.0

45.0

6.2

11.1

5.3

2 5

5

4

3

J

0

5

2

1

1

I

4

13.3

13.3

26.7

37.5

35.3

94.1

1 5.0

4

6

6

16

J

2

14 87.5

Of the 20 fully developed adult St. Mary's skeletons 5 (25%) exhibited either partial or

complete non-fusion of the posterior sacral arches. This is a condition variously

reported in the literature and is generally referred to as spina bifida occulta. The partial

condition (Figure 36a) is observed where at least the posterior arch of the first sacral

segment fails to fuse (Henneberg and Henneberg 1999). Where none of the sacral

t93

The bioarchaeology oJ'St, Mary's Cemetery

arches have fused the condition is termed 'completely open sacral canal spina bif,rda

occulta'

Three St. Mary's individuals (15%) exhibited completely open sacral canal spina bif,rda

occulta, one of which is pictured in Figure 36b.

a.

f igure 36. Posterior view of the sacra of (a.) SM/861 showing partial fusion of the sacral canal and

(b.) SM/879 showing completely open sacral canal spina bifida occulta.

It is reasonable to suggest that based on the number of observed cases of spina bif,rda

occulta within the St. Mary's sample the incidence of the condition was high in

comparison to various other population groups and time periods (Table 29).

Table 30 presents the results of cranial nonmetric trait observations of the 20 St. Mary's

adults. Frequencies are presented as the percentage of observed cases exhibiting the

trait, within observable number of cases. It is clearly evident that the small sample size

combined with issues of un-observability (i.e. preservation of cranial components) has

affected the overall frequency of many of the observations. The reduction in the

b

194

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Maty's Cemelery

number of observable cases means that any observation for a given trait may be

over/understated or skewed.

Table 29. Frequency of the non-closure of the sacral canal at the Sl level in various populations(adapted from Henneberg & Henneberg 1999: 182).

Population (N)* Frequencv (%o) Source

Taforalt cave (Morocco) (around 12000years BP)

Ancient Egyptians

American Indians

Ancient Pemvians

Aleuts

Pompeii (79 AD)Romano-British (4 c AD)

Anglo-Saxons 16th-7th c AD)

Anglo-Saxons (lOth c AD)

Huguenots in England 117tr'-191h c AD)St. Brides Church (London) (18'h-19'l')

St. Mary's (mid 19th c)

Modem British (1987)

Modem Israelis (1994)

Modem Flench (1981)

Modem Londoners (1988)

( 15)

(s 8)

(4e)

(132)(87)

(124)(104)

(27)(11)(144)(l l2)(20)

(2704)

( l 200)

(2ee)(140)

27

22

4

2

3

ll13

l030

1l15

25

22

t78

l5

Ferembach (1963)

Post (1966)

Post (1966)

Post (1966)

Post (1966)

Henneberg & Henneberg (1999)

Papp & Porler (1994)

Papp & Poder (1994)

Papp & Porter (1994)

Papp & Porter (1994)

Saluja (1988)

Current studyFidas e/ al. (1987)

Avrahami et al. (1994)

Vannier et al. (1981)

Saluia ( I 988)*Size of sample

Comparative cranial data have been provided by Berry and Berry (1967) who

completed a comprehensive analysis of 585 crania from 8 population groups. V/hen St.

Mary's cranial nonmetric observed frequencies are compared to these (Table 30) it

becomes clear that traits such as incomplete foramen ovale and multiple infraorbital

foramina are over represented. The unobservable proportion for both of these traits was

five individuals, or a quarter of the total sample. It is suggested that observed frequency

of the traits occipital-mastoid suture ossicles, and zygomatico facial foramina are also

similarly affected.

19s


Some traits, however, tend to indicate a more reliable population characteristic with

little to no influence due to un-observability. For example, 15 percent (3120) of St.

Mary's adults exhibited a metopic suture.

Table 30. Frequencies of cranial nonmetric traits for various populations (after Berry and Berry1967) and St. Mary's adults.

Palestine North SouthNonmetric trait Egypt Niseria Palestine (modern) lndia Burma America America St. Marv's

Apical bone

Asterionic bone

Bregmatic bone

Coronal ossicles

Epipteric boneForamen ovaleincompleteForamen spinosumincomplete

Lambdoid ossicles

Metopic sutureMultiple infraorbitalforamina

Occipital-mastoidsuture ossicles

Parietal foramen

Supraorbital foramenZygomatico-facialforamina

14.8

12.9

0.8

2.6

14.4

12.5

14.3

0.0

0.0

6.2

11.1

6.5

0.0

3.t9.5

22.2

8.3

0.0

0.0

6.4

20.7

8.5

0.0

1.9

16.9

13.7

9.8

0.0

1.0

t4.7

28.0

19.0

0.0

32.0

12.0

16.6

t4.2

0.0

1.9

1.5

20.0

25.0

0.0

6.2

5.3

1.4 3.6 1.9 0.0 3.8 8.2 6.0 0.9

6.4 6.1 7.5 6.0 13.2

13.3

26.7

35.3

15

13.3

87.5

16.0

32.)

7.2

38.3

44.2

lt.2

7.1

25.9

0.0

14.8

29.8

7.4

8.0

JJ.J

5.5

13.2

32.t

5.7

10.2

29.5

0.0

11.0

54.0

2.0

18.9

45.2

1.9

4.7 6.4 2.9

36.9

59.2

tt.7

23.2

35.2

17.6

JJ.J

22.2

20.6

46.3

50.0

t2.3

46.0

s0.0

t3.7

42.0

62.0

s3.0

39.6

53.0

30.2

72.2

57.9

68.4

19.3 18.7 30.0 38.2 27.9 17.8 32.3 25.0

The next highest rate of metopism seen in Table 30 is from the prehistoric Palestinian

sample (7 .4%). Of course, results such as this must be treated and interpreted carefully

due to the relatively small size of the St. Mary's sample. Henneberg and Henneberg

(1998) reported an incidence of 20.9% for metopism among the people of Metaponto

between the 6th and 3'd centuries BC; and rates similar to the observed St. Mary's

incidence among comparative samples. It is therefore suggested that the observed rate

of metopism is not unusually high in any way.

t96


The frequency of other traits appears analogous to those of comparative populations

with minimum impact from an unobservable component. For example, the presence of

parietal foramina and lambdoid ossicles among St. Mary's adults does not vary

considerably from the observed frequencies for other populations. However, the most

distinct observations to emerge from nonmetric analyses of the St. Mary's sample are

the presence of spina bifida and metopism within the group.

GpocRapnrc oRIGIN

The Giles and Elliot discriminant function method (1962) is a mathematically generated

way of differentiating between American ''Whites', 'Negroes' and 'Indians'. Gill's test

(1984) also provides mathematically derived results based on interorbital features

(particularly breadth and projection of the midfacial skeleton) and was designed to

differentiate Whites from both American Blacks and lndians. Gill and Gilbert (1990)

report a successful placement of approximately 89Yo for the skeletons of 'Whites and

87o/o for the skeletons of Blacks. For reasons of comparison terminology related to

population groups used by other authors has been retained in the present study.

The value of discriminant methods in terms of the current study lies in their ability to

allow a distinction to be made between skeletal material representing two broad

population groups. That is, despite the evidence suggesting that interments within the

cemetery were entirely people of European (particularly Anglo/Saxon) origin, it was

necessary to test for the possibility that individuals of a non-European geographical

origin were interred within the study area.

197


No substantial evidence (biological or non-biological) was found in the excavated

skeletal material to suggest that any of the individuals were of Aboriginal Australian

ancestry.

It was possible to conduct the complete series of determinations provided by Giles &

Elliot (1962),andlor Gill (1984 & 1990) on 14 of the 20 St. Mary's adults (Table 31).

Both methods require inclusion of a range of craniometric variables (Appendix 8).

Where poor preservation of the adult skull prevented the measurement of such

variables, crania were not included in the analysis. Two burials (SM/859 and SM/883)

were not included in this particular analysis however; due to the positive identification

of the remains it was possible using historical documentation, to confirm a country of

birth for both individuals. The eight craniometric dimensions required to apply the

Giles and Elliot (1962) method are:

o Basion-prosthion. Glabella-opisthocranion. Eurion-euriono Basion-bregmao Basion-nasiono Bi-zygomatico Prosthion-nasiono Alare-alare

b-prg-opeu-euba-bba-nzy-zypr-nal-al

198

The bioarchaeology ofSt. Mary's Cemelery

Table 31. Population group for 16 St. Mary's adults as determined by discriminant functionanalysis.

Burial No. Ase (vears) Sex Population Method69

53c5759

6l6366b6817

737879838485

40-4530-3s28-3245-5053

40-4555-6535

5045-5035

4518-21594545

MMF

MMF

MFMMMMFMFM

WhiteV/hiteWhiteWhiteWhiteWhiteWhiteÀtregroidV/hiteWhiteV/hiteV/hiteWhiteV/hiteWhiteWhiteWhite

Giles & Elliot (1962)

Giles & Elliot (1962)Giles & Elliot (1962)Giles & Elliot (1962) and Gill (1984 & 1990)

Historical documentsGiles & Elliot (1962) and Gill (1984 & 1990)


Giles & EIIiot (1962)Giles & Elliot (1962)Giles & Elliot (1962) and Gill (1984 & 1990)


Giles & Elliot (1962)Giles & Elliot (1962)Historical documentsGiles & Elliot (1962)

Giles & Elliot (1962

It was not possible to include every adult within this field of analysis due to varying

preservation. Poor preservation of crania in 6 cases resulted in an inability to take

certain measurements needed to fulfil tests for geographic origin. This was certainly the

case with burials 59 and 83; however, positive identification of these individuals

permitted retrieval of biographical information, which in both cases included country of

birth. John Pell (SM/859) and Thomas Henry Russell (SM/883) were both born in the

United Kingdom and immigrated to Australia (Pitt 1979). Unfortunately, it was not

possible to determine geographical origin using either the Giles and Elliot or Gill

methods due to factors of cranial preservation. Comparison between the morphological

assessment and the historical record would have been an useful test of the reliability of

the methods.

With reference to Table 31 it can be seen that virtually all individuals where it was

possible to assess geographic origin retumed a result of 'Vy'hite'. Burial 63 was found

to be borderline V/hiteÆ.,legroid based on assessment using the Giles & Elliot (1962)

method. This result could reflect several factors. Firstly, it is possible that burial 63 is

199


indeed of mixed geographical origin. It is also possible that errors made during

collection of craniometric information, or during calculations of geographic origin

resulted in an effoneous determination. [t is suggested that the influence of errors

should be minimal as great efforts were taken to avoid mistakes during data collection

and processing. It should also be noted that reported accuracies for the Giles and Elliot

(1962) method range from 83o/o to 89Yo (Brues 1990); while Gill and Gilbert, (1990)

reports an 89o/o and 8lo/o for V/hite and Black skeletons respectively using the midfacial

skeleton method, thus it is natural to misjudge some individuals.

In order to test the findings of geographic origin assessments for the St. Mary's sample,

the group as a whole were compared statistically with various other cranial series.

Using the Penrose method (Henneberg et al. 1989) St. Mary's trends (means) derived

from the eight cranial measurements outlined above were compared with mean cranial

measurements representing six different population groups (Brown 2003).

The Penrose method allows comparison of an individual or group with several sets of

averages characteristic of various populations. Conclusions are then based on the

degree of similarity (expressed mathematically) between the population groups being

compared. The principal function used in the Penrose analysis is 'distance' which is

expressed as 'shape' or 'c's'; and,'size' distance or 'c2p'. The closer the derived value

is to zero, the greater the similarity between the compared elements (Table 32).

200

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Maty's Cemetety

Tabte 32. Results of Penrose's analysis of the St. Mary's males and females versus cranial series

from six other population groups.

Skull series Sex C2u C2o

Poundbury 0.16

0.61

0.81

0.34

0.'71

1.69

2.92

2.46

3.55

4.12

1.t7

Spitalfields

Southern Chinese

Murray ValleyAboriginals

SwanportAborigìnals

Northem Chinese

MF

MF

MF

MF

MF

MF

0.16

0.38

0.66

0.33

0.51

0.85

2.63

2.32

).233.56

1.15

Penrose determinations presented in Table 32 show that Poundbury males have the

greatest affinity with St. Mary's males (n:9); while Spitalf,relds females exhibit greatest

similarity with the St. Mary's females (n:5). In broader terms it is clear that the St.

Mary's sample is most similar to the Anglo/Saxon and other European series

(Poundbury and Spitalfields), with moderate aff,rnity found to the Chinese series. The

Poundbury series consisted of 49 adult male and female Romano-Britons (Brown 2003).

Spitalfields was comprised of around 50 male and female adult skeletons from 18th and

19th century Europeans interred in Christs Church, Spitalfields London. The St. Mary's

sample is distinctly different from both the Australian Aboriginal series.

It should be emphasized that comparisons made in such broad terms may only act as an

approximation and that any interpretations should consider factors such as intra

population variability. For example, it is known that individual variability within a

given population group is often greater than the variability between means for other

population groups (Henneberg et al. 1989). As a consequence the not uncommon event

may occur that an individual from one population group is found to be morphologically

201


similar to some other human group. As Henneberg et al. (1989:192) suggest this

approach "...is mainly of descriptive value and, though suggestive, does not provide

sound basis for concluding upon actual origin."

DBNTRI HEALTH AND HYGIENE

The importance of dental analysis has been addressed in this document in terms of its

application for determination of age-at-death. In this section teeth and the alveolar

region will be assessed with the intention of inferring past diet, health and disease. In

addition, the physical nature of teeth and their enamel makeup mean that they often

survive better than bone in the buried environment (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994). It is

not surprising therefore that much has been written about the various applications and

inferences that can be made from the study of teeth in the archaeological context.

With consideration to the main theme of this study, three aspects of dental analysis were

assessed providing another means of inferring past health in colonial South Australia.

The incidence and location of carious lesions; the incidence and location of enamel

hypoplasia; and, the incidence and location of periodontal disease were the principal

criteria used to assess the state of dental health and oral hygiene amongst the St. Mary's

sample. A fourth aspect, antemortem loss of teeth, was also recorded. This criterion,

however, is often linked to other conditions of dental health and disease, not least of

which is the influence of diet and its propensity to cause carious lesions.

Table 33 summarizes the observed number of teeth for each St. Mary's adult. The

numbers presented represent the numbers of either actual teeth or evidence of

postmortem tooth loss. That is, where no tooth was present and no remodelling of the

202


socket or adjacent alveolar bone had occuffed the tooth was considered to be present at

death. Tooth loss demonstrated by this table is therefore due to either the influence of

disease or deliberate extraction.

Table 33. Number of teeth for each St. Mary's adult in ascending order of teeth counted.

BurialNo.

Morphological No. of maxillaryAge teeth

No. of mandibularteeth

Total numberof teeth

0I4448

6

l07

t412

1l13

1l14

13

15

t6l516

8410

8563785

6lt4

53c59

66b736

2368839

577972

4245-50

45

55-6545

25-3045

45-5028-32

53

3535

40-45s0-55

5059

30-3545-50

2045-50

001

J

J

042

96

9

l010

t21l13

14

t4l616

0I5

1

7

8

10

12

r62021

2l23232526293031

32

One individual, (SM/872) presented with the full compliment of dentition. Conversely,

at least one other individual, (SM/BS4) was found to be edentulous. Burial 84

presented the only case of dental work obserued in the St. Mary's sample in the form of

dentures (Figure 37 a andb).

203


Figure 37. Occlusal (a) and reverse (b) views of maxillary dentures recovered from St. Mary'sburial 84.

The denture set which also included the mandibular component consists of a vulcanite

base with teeth made from porcelain. Chapman (1937) in his history of dentistry in

South Australia, reports that it was during the 1870's that vulcanite began to be used for

artificial denture bases. The denture design seen in Figure 37b is similar to that

illustrated in a contemporary late 19th century advertisement (Figure 38).

Figure 38. Contemporary illustration of upper dentures manufactured in the late 19th century(taken from Woodforde 1968: 74).

The 'D' shaped indentation on the upper surface of the denture was designed to create a

vacuum when pressed to the palate creating a reliable and firm-fitting denture. This

204


design was first experimented with in the early 1800's and was meant to do away with

springs, the traditional mechanism for keeping dentures in place (Woodforde 1968). By

the 1850's dentists in Sydney were advertising self-adhering "artificial teeth" using the

forces of "atmospheric pressure" (Halliday 1977).

Caries

The result of analyses for carious lesions in St. Mary's adults is presented in Table 34.

The number and location of caries for each tooth for each individual as well as ante and

postmortem tooth loss was also recorded (Appendix 9). Of the 20 adults assessed, one

(SM/B84) was completely edentulous, having been interred with prosthetic dentures (as

discussed above). Almost every other St. Mary's adult presented with caries despite

some having their dentition reduced to only a few teeth.

It is clear that the carious lesions were common among St. Mary's adults. Just one

individual (SM/872) was found to have a full set of teeth, 12 of which were affected by

caries. Two individuals (SM/810 & SM/814) presented with just one tooth each.

Antemortem tooth loss in both cases had been followed by extensive resorption of

alveolar bone demonstrating that the tooth loss had occurred well before death. V/ith

the exclusion of edentulous and one-toothed individuals, every other St. Mary's adult

exhibited some degree of dental caries.

205


Tabte 34. The incidence of carious lesions in St. Mary's adult dentition: presented in descending

order ofthe number ofteeth present.

Burial # Aee (vears) Sex No. of teeth Dresent No. affected bv caries %12

l02

11

J

5

5

t412

t2J

6

2

222

6

1

07

0

3L

3l2726272424t421

2l19

l08

237

6

J

I1

0

MF

MMMMMFFMMFFMMMMFMF

727957

69

68835Jc66b73596l5

2378638510t484

45-5020

45-5040-4530-35

50

5928-32

35

35

53

4525-3050-55

45

55-6545

45-504s-50

42

37.s32.2

7.442.311.1

20.820.8

100.0

57.1

57.r15.860.028.69s.628.6

100.0JJ.J

0.0100.0

0.0

Total 331 135 40.8

Mean 42.9 16.5 6.7 42.4

On average, each of the St. Mary's adults had just fewer than 17 teeth, or half of the full

compliment. Dentition ranged from SM/884 who was edentulous to SM/872 who had

a fuIl compliment of occluded permanent teeth. The burials in Table 34 are listed in

descending order of the number of teeth present. Comparison can then be made

between the number of teeth present and those affected by caries. Several cases (burials

14, 53c and 63) had caries on all of their remaining teeth; however, these individuals

had less than half of the maximum number of teeth present.

Burial 23 presented with twenty-two of its twenty-three remaining teeth affected by

caries (Figure 39). This example represents one of the more extreme cases of poor

dental health. This case also demonstrates the importance of defining the location of

carious lesions.

206

514


Figure 39. Mandibular and loose maxillary dentition of SMiB23 showing extent of carious lesions.

With reference to Figure 39 it can be seen that carious lesions (particularly among loose

teeth) originated from root surface sites. Root surface caries are commonly associated

with root exposure through periodontitis (Hillson 1996:274). As a result the build-up

of plaque and associated bacteria has led to the observed pathologies. More advanced

cases of periodontal disease were observed among the St. Mary's sample, typified by

bony changes to the alveolus and recorded as abscesses.

Periodontal disease

The incidence of periodontal disease in the St. Mary's sample was recorded in terms of

the presence of bone changes following criteria outlined by Buikstra and Ubelaker

(1994). Bone loss resultant from advanced inflammation of the alveolar region occurs

in four main parts of the jaws; alveolar bone lining tooth sockets, outer cortical plates

on buccal and lingual sides and, the underlying medullary bone (Hillson 1996). The

standards proposed by Buikstra and Ubelaker, however, do not necessarily provide for

identification of pathologies, which differentiate between periapical abscesses caused

by caries, and periodontal disease. For the purpose of this study bone changes

207


occuffing as a result of periapical conditions were recorded as fistulated abscesses

located either buccal/labially or lingually (Table 35). Following Henneberg (1998) only

macroscopically observable bone changes were scored thus excluding the inclusion of

un-fistulated abscesses observable radiographically.'Where such pathologies were

observed in the St. Mary's sample they were commonly associated with severe caries

affecting the adjacent tooth.

Tabte 35. Incidence and location of alveolar abscesses in St. Maryrs adults.

Left

Burial # buccal/labial

MaxillaRight

lingual buccal/labial lingual

MandibleRight

linzual buccal/labial

Left

buccal/labial lineual Total

5

6

9

10

l423

53c

57

59

6l63

66b

68

72

73

78

79

8384

85

C PIM2,M1

2

5

4

I

6

3

I

J

J

I

0

2

0

0

I

0

I

0

0

2

T2

M1

P1

M1,P2,Pl

P2,PI

PI

M2- M3,M2

Maxilla not preserved

M3

P2,P1

Edentulous with advanced alveolar resotption

-t2c

C

M3,I2,I1M3,M2,M1

t2,|

M3,MI,P2

MI

Edenftllous with advanced alveolar resorption

t2

Periodontal disease was not observed among any of the subadults (i.e. those aged less

than 13 years atdeath: n:50) of the St. Mary's sample. Withinthe sub componentof

infants (i.e. those aged less than 3 years at death: n:42) the lack of dental development

excludes them from inclusion in this component of analysis.

208


'When assessing periodontal disease within St. Mary's adults the observations of

Hildebolt and Molnar (1991), and Clark and Hirsch (1991) were considered. That is,

the degree of root exposure of occluded, adult teeth, and the amount of bone

remodelling of the alveolar crest was recorded. However, as discussed previously,

influences of continuous tooth eruption, continuous lower face growth and natural

dental attrition must be considered when assessing periodontal disease.

In several cases, periodontal disease was observed to be active in unison with canes m

various stages of development. In the case, for example, of SM/857 (Figure 40) it was

clear that the 40-50 year old male suffered from periodontal disease.

tr'igure 40. Mandible of SM/857 showing changes due to periodontal disease.

Bone changes to the alveolus of the maxilla and mandible were evident in the form of

ridging and pitting, particularly in relation to posterior dentition. Root exposure ranged

between 4 and 5 mm on the mandible, and 5 to 9 mm on the maxilla. In terms of the

maxilla, antemortem loss of 4 teeth (I1, C, P2 and M3) on the left side occurred as a

\/

SN;lilì57

209


result of carious lesions. Pockets caused by fîstulated abscess were evident where teeth

had been lost a short period of time before death. Furthermore, abscessing at the time

of death was exhibited in relation to Ml and M2 both of which were clearly affected by

root caries. Where caries were not observed, abscessing and tooth loss did not occur.

In the case of SM/857 a diagnosis of active periodontal disease at the time of death is

reliable based on the observation of pathologies and in the knowledge of the relatively

young age of the individual. Observed root exposure did not occur as a result of

advanced age or in response to dental attrition. The variables of continuous tooth

eruption, facial growth and dental attrition were less influential on root exposure in

contrast to the actions ofperiodontal disease.

Of the 20 St. Mary's adults it was possible to make some degree of assessment for

periodontal disease in 16 cases. SM/884 was edentulous, which in itself is probably an

indication of advanced dental disease during the life of the individual. SM/810 had just

one tooth remaining with very little of the maxilla and mandible surviving. Poor

preservation also prevented assessment in the case of burials 14 and 19. Four

individuals appeared to be relatively unaffected by periodontal disease. The remaining

t2 individuals presented with some degree of bone remodelling or pitting related to

periodontal disease.

Hypoplasia

Goodman and Armelagos (1985) observed that anterior dentitions are more prone to

hypoplastic change than posterior dentitions. The reason for this is principally

developmental timing and the susceptibility to disruption of anterior teeth. The

210


presence of hypoplasia is the direct outcome of the failure of enamel to form. Such

changes to dentition act as a perrnanent record of significant disrupting events during a

child's growth and development. Predominant factors resulting in hypoplastic events

include nutritional stress, infection, poisoning or trauma affecting the tooth or pulp of a

deciduous tooth.

Raw data results of analysis for dental hypoplasia are presented in Appendix 9. Table

36 presents condensed findings of the analysis. Virtually every St. Mary's adult

exhibited enamel defects with SM/79 being a noticeable exception. This individual

presented with near complete dentition and showed no signs of disruption to enamel.

Tabte 36. Incidence of hypoplasia in St. Mary's adults.

Burial # Age (vears) No. of teeth present No. exhibitins hvpoplasia "/.5

69

l0l4t153c5/5961

6366b68727378

79838485

25-3040-4530-3545-5045-5050-5528-3245-50

53

4555-65

3550

4s-5035

4520594245

8

26

1

7

23

t42719

10

6

7 5.038.522.2

0.042.826.1s0.044.468.420.050.057.162.571.985.7

0.00.0

50.00.0

66.7

6

10

6

03

6

7

12

t32J

t2l523

18

00

12

02

27

21

24322l7

3l240

J

total 331 150

means 42.9 16.55 9.4 41.5

Various other individuals found to be free of hypoplastic lesions were either edentulous

(eg. SM/B84) or had very few teeth remaining at death (eg. SM/810 and 5i\4/878). Of

the 16 remaining adults each had an average of approximately 19 teeth. Despite the

21t

The bioarchaeologt o/'St. Mary's Cemetery

high degree of tooth loss an avera1e of just fewer than 52o/o of the remaining dentition

exhibited hypoplastic lesions.

A total of 16 (80%) individuals displayed hypoplastic lesions with 150 (453%) of the

331 permanent teeth observed having one or more lesion. Three (15%) individuals had

a single event lesion while 11 (55%) displayed two. None of the adults exhibited more

than two hypoplastic events. Anterior dentition was most commonly affected, with

canines the most frequently represented followed by the incisors.

These data contrast with examinations for hypoplasia and other enamel defects among

the St. Mary's sub-adult dentition (Appendix 9). Of the 312 units of observable

deciduous dentition, ten (2.7%) displayed one or more carious lesion and 40 (10.1%)

displayed one or more hypoplastic lesion. Several older individuals ranging in age from

8.5 to 13 years old at death (SM/B's 28, 5I, 52b and 70) had a combination of

deciduous and permanent dentition. These individuals displayed greater frequencies of

caries (18.3%) and hypoplasia (63.3%o), where the total number of observable tooth

units (deciduous and permanent) came to 109.

Pipe smoker's notch

Physical evidence of pipe smoking was one of the most obvious lifestyle related skeletal

changes observed in St. Mary's adult dentition. This feature was not observed in any of

the subadult sample. Teeth commonly affected by this activity are the lateral incisors

and canines, but can also be associated with the central incisors and premolars (see for

example Ubelaker & Jones 2003: ll7). Within the context of historical archaeology,

pipe smokers tended to take advantage of the natural interproximal notch formed when

2t2

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemeter

these teeth reach occlusion. The slightly abrasive nature of the material (kaolin) used in

the manufacture of clay pipes, along with prolonged use, results in an obvious pattern of

wear commonly seen in historical skeletal material.

Lazer (2001) noted that the location of pipe related wear could indicate handedness.

Based on the premise that smoker's hold their pipe with the free hand, the notch should

develop on the corresponding side. Therefore, a left-handed smoker will develop a

notch on the right side; a right-handed smoker would develop a notch on the left side;

and, an ambidextrous smoker would have multiple notches on both sides of the dental

arcade.

Wear patterns observed in 7 $a%) St. Mary's adult males and one (I4%r) St. Mary's

adult female are indicative of a pipe smoker's notch (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994: 48,

Lazer 2001: 75). ln certain cases the pipe smokers' notch was a single, clearly defined

area of wear commonly affecting lateral incisors and canines as for example in the case

of SM/B72 (Figure 41).

Other individuals within the sample to exhibit a pipe smoker's notch included burials 6,

9,23,57,59, and 78. One St. Mary's adult female, (SM/853c) displayed pipe-smoking

wear. While it is possible to suggest that the smoking of tobacco by women of this time

was unusual, the social constructs of proper smoking behaviour were more applicable to

the upper and middle classes. "On the whole they, (women) did not smoke, the

exceptions being convict women and 'rough' women" (Walker 1984). Free women that

did take up the habit tended to be employed in jobs traditionally undertaken by men.

2r3

The bioarchaeologlt of St. Mary's CemeÍery

This point is illustrated in the tale 'squeaker's Mate', in which the woman, a timber

getter and fencer, smokes a pipe (Baynton 1912).

Figure 41. Pipe smokers notch in the dentition of St' Mary's butial72.

In a contemporary 19th century Australian description of the smoking habits of the

character Billy Skywonkie, Baynton (1972: 96) notes "...that the discoloured teeth his

bus grin showed so plainly, were worn in the centre, and met at both sides with the pipe

between the front." It is clear that the consumption of tobacco ranked highly among the

priorities of the colonists. Hall writing for the Sydney Monitor in 1828 relates that:

"The settlers here cannot help buying tobacco; the Convicts in the interior

cannot nor will not work without it. A pipe in our Australian wilderness is

to the peasant-convict, the country alehouse; to the town-reared Convict

the Sunday tea-garden or the theatre. Many a time have our own convicts

SM/B72

214


at Lake Bathurst offered us to forego half their ration of food, for half the

value thereof in tobacco." (Hall 1828).

This quote concludes the result of analyses based on the St. Mary's sample. The

following Chapters (Case studies and Discussion) will take this information and in the

light of associated historical information interpret it in an effort to reconstruct or deduce

the lifeways of working class people of St. Mary's during the middle of the 19th century.

2t5


ST. MARY'S CASE STUDIES

INtnotucrtoN

This Chapter presents detailed information regarding individual cases emerging from

analyses of the St. Mary's skeletal material. The hve studies presented here examine

pathological conditions identified and where applicable, provide the results of historical

research based on positive identifications. Case studies for burials 59 and 83 outline

descriptive, diagnostic and research processes that led to the probable identification of

two St. Mary's individuals. Identification of distinct morphological features and

traumatic pathologies in addition to subsequent corroboration from primary historic

records provided compelling evidence. Inclusive amongst this information is

biographical detail recovered from various historical sources.

It is necessary to point out that included here are five of the more prominent cases

where evidence of conditions suffered during life have made signif,rcant impact and left

clear signs on the skeleton. Other case studies included here focus on individual

instances of particular note observed in the sample. These cases (SM/B10, SM/870 and

SM/B6S) presented with non-traumatic lesions, which, subject to interpretation may be

seen as pathognomonic. For as Ortner (1990:xii) says,

"...fu\\y describe what you see including what is occurring and where it

appears in the skeleton. An attempt at diagnosis can then be made with

the assurance that others will at least have the option of reaching a

different diagnostic conclusion based on the descriptive information you

have provided."

2t6


C,q.se sruoY SM/883

The skeletal remains of SM/B83 were morphologically determined to be those of a 45 -

50 year old male individual. The remains were found to be in very good condition

allowing a full physical examination. Recorded pathologies included some

degenerative changes including an arthritic left knee and back. SM/B83 also exhibited

completely open sacral canal spina bif,rda occulta.

Examination of the skull and cervical vertebrae revealed a suite of pathologies, which

strongly indicated a major perimortem traumatic event. The skull was extensively

fractured with the main lesion extending from the right temporo-mandibular region

anteriorly through the parietal and occipital, and superiorly following the fronto-parietal

suture (Figure 42). The right mandibular ramus had also been extensively fractured

(Figure 43).

2t7


Figure 42. Skult of SM/B83 viewed from six angles.

218

The bioarchaeology ol St. Mary's Cemetery

Figure 43. Mandible of SM/883 showing fracture of right ramus.

It was clear also that the atlas and axis had both been broken perimortem (Figure 44)

Figure 44. Fractures to atlas and axis of SM/883.

Based on the evidence, initial diagnosis for cause of the pathologies was that the

individual had been hanged (Anson et aL.2002). Wood-Jones (1908) described a typical

fracture lesion caused by judicial hanging (Figure 45). By placing the hangman's knot

under the ear (sub-aural) a lesion is created which extends across the cranial base.

SM/BB3 axis fractures

*''#f-'

5cm

1

Aù

i

ç

219


Furthermore, various authors have reported typical fractures to the cervical splne as a

result of judicial hanging (Wood-Jones 1908; Wood-Jones 1913; Vermooten 1920;

Schneider et al. 1965; Cooke et al. 1988; James and Nasmyth-Jones 1992; Reay et al.

1994; Spence et al. 1999).

Figure 45. Fracture of cranial base as described by Wood-Jones (1908).

Although the observed pathologies were not typical of those presented in published

sources, it was initially concluded that the individual had been hanged. This was

despite reasons to counter such a conclusion. For example, if SM/883 had been hanged

judicially, 19th century law would typically have seen the remains buried within the

grounds of the Adelaide Gaol (Towler and Porter 1990).

The typical'hangman's fracture'as it came to be known is'...characterised by a

bilateral avulsion-fracture through the neural arch of the axis without injury to the

odontoid process and with or without fracture-dislocation of the 2"d cewical vertebral

body upon the 3'd' (Schneider et al. 1965: 141). With reference to Figure 13 it can be

seen that the fracture to the axis of SM/BS3 is consistent with the hangman's fracture.

220


Despite the evidence in support of the hanging diagnosis, a sulvey of death certificates

(Appendix 3), led to the case of John Pell. It is known that Pell, a farmer in the Aldinga

areato the south of St. Mary's, was buried in March 1859 at the age of 59 years. The

cause of death as recorded in his death certificate was 'Accidental'. A survey of

Coroner's reports did not produce any further information. However, Coroner's

inquests were commonly reported in daily newspapers. The Advertiser of March 3,

1859 reported on the Coronial inquest into the death of John Pell stating:

"The jury having been sworn in proceeded to view the body, which presented a

frightful spectacle; the entire of the right side of the head and face being

completely smashed in, and the vertebrae of the neck broken."

(Article reproduced in Appendix 10)

The report goes on to describe the circumstances of the accident, which involved a

somewhat inebriated John Pell. He fell off the side of a bullock dray on which he was a

passenger. His brothers-in-law who were driving the dray claimed that the accident

occurred at night (approximately 8 pm) and that it was very dark. Despite the brothers-

in-law's appeals for the deceased to stay awake it was suggested that Pell fell asleep and

fell onto the road. It is then claimed that a rear dray wheel passed over Pell's head

killing him instantly. The description of injuries provided by the newspaper report

closely matches that obtained through morphological assessments. Thus, it is likely that

SM/883 is indeed John Pell.

There are several ramifications stemming from this fînding. Firstly, a positive

identification provides a precise date for that part of the cemetery where Pell was

221

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemeler

interred (see site plan: Figure 13). Secondly, although the morphologically derived age

(mid 40's to 50's) was within acceptable error limits (Krogman 1962), verification of

the actual age of 59 years serves to illustrate the fallibility of aspects of osteological

analyses and estimations, especially the underestimation of age of older adults.

Further information is provided on Pell through examination of a legal bond directing

his wife Margaret Pell of Aldinga, to make "...a full true and perfect inventory of all

and every goods chattels and effects..." (Supreme Court of South Australia 1859). His

death was registered under John Bell, 59 of Aldinga Plains and recorded in both the

Parish Record and the Death Register as such. He died on the lst of March 1859 on

South Road. His death was recorded in the two main South Australian newspapers, the

Advertiser and Register (Thomas 1 839), and the Observer (Stephens 1843- 1904) as part

of a Coroner's report. In that report, dated the 3'd of March 1859, his name was given

as Pell.

His brothers-in-law were sumamed Broughton. Samuel Broughton married Martha Pell

in 1848. They had three recorded children and in each birth certificate Martha's name

was spelt Pell, Pells, Pills. She died on the 1lth of January 1861, aged 37 years. Samuel

Broughton died on the 7th of April 1878 and was buried in the free ground at St Mary's

on the llth of April 1878. He was 47 years old of Darlington, a labourer and died of

Phrhisis.

Martha Pells (sic) arrived at Port Adelaide on the Mariner in 1847. The ship's arrival

was published in the Observer onthe 25th of Septemberl847. She was accompanied by

John Pells and his wife (Pitt 1973). In the South Australian almanac and general

222


directory of 1855 (Garran 1855), for the District of Willunga, John Pell is listed as a

leaseholder for the property location; Section 427 of the hundred of Willunga.

This case study serves to demonstrate the everyday perils endured by colonising

Europeans in the early years of settlement. It is also an exercise in the survey of

historical documents and their use in interpreting and explaining the archaeological

record. If not for the distinct antemortem injuries suffered the skeleton of John Pell

would have remained unidentified like the other 68 skeletons in the collection.

CRsB sruoY SM/859

The skeletal remains designated SM/859 represented an adult male estimated to be in

his late 40's to 50's. Variable preservation allowed osteometric assessment of

approximately 50o/o of the skeletal components. Apart from poor dentition and

periodontal disease the individual was relatively free of pathologies. However, with

reference to Figure 46 it is clear that the individual sustained multiple fractures to the

legs.

The observed pathologies were assessed to have been sustained antemortem and

therefore probably the cause, or at least related to the cause of death. There was no

indication that the healing process had commenced and internal bone exposed by

fractures was uniform in colour with surrounding, unaffected bone (Lovell 1997).

Additionally, SM/859 was the only skeleton amongst the St. Mary's sample exhibiting

the pattern of fractures. This would tend to exclude postmortem influences of

expanding and contracting clay soils or coffin collapse. It would seem however that

coffin collapse had caused crushing of bones of the torso and cranium.

223


a

b.

Figure 46. In sirø remains of SM/859 a.) Photograph showing fractures to legs (photograph by the

author). b.) Outline drawing showing details of photograph (drawing by Danielle Griffin).

Furthermore, based on criteria suggested by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994: 103) it is

proposed that all leg fractures occuffed perimortem as fracture morphology suggests

224

C7

,J

Ò!\-__

N

^I

II


that the trauma affected living bone. Bone collagen content decreases as a function of

time following death of the individual. As a result the fracturing dynamics of bone

change. Consequently, when living bone is broken, the fracture margins tend to form

oblique angles, which contrast with low-collagen-content bone fractures, which

'...typically have squared edges at right angle to the bone surface'(Buikstra and

Ubelaker 1994:103).

The femoral and tibial fractures seen in Figures 4l and 48 are indicative of a

perimortem event based on the Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994) criteria. It is clear from

the images below that fracture angles are not right angles to the bone surface as

suggested for postmortem breaks.

tr'igure 47. SM/859 fracture to right femur.

Figure 48. tr'racture to left tibia.

Patterns of femoral fracture were reported for some adult burials at Raunds Furnells, an

Anglo-Saxon church burial yard in Northamptonshire, England (Boddington 1996).

sN4i B-st) clll

225


The first church structure at Raunds Furnells was dated to around the tenth century and

had a lifespan of about 200 years. In all, archaeologists recovered 363 burials with

preservation of skeletal material reportedly being ' . . . generally good' (Boddington 1996:

32). A proportion of the recovered collection, however, suffered from post-

depositional-crushing, a phenomenon the author attributed to '...expansion and

contraction of the clay subsoil and grave fiIl with changes in moisture and temperature'

(Boddington 1996:32).

In situ figures of skeletal material presented by Boddington (1996'. 29,34,37, 44 and

64) consistently show femoral fractures similar to those seen in Figure 7 of the current

study. However, in this case it would seem that the pathologies were caused

postmortem for two reasons. Firstly, a number of individuals at Raunds Furnells

presented with femoral fractures; St. Mary's had just one case. Secondly, with

reference to the images provided by Boddington (1996) it can be seen that femoral

fractures are clean and therefore consistent with a postmortem break as suggested by

Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994).

Fracture of femora and other body parts and structure in adults is known to cause quick

death if left untreated, due to blood loss (Knight 1996). A short time span between the

trauma event and death would account for the observation of no bone healing at the site

of fracture. Additionally, a major traumatic event such as the one possibly experienced

by SM/B59 is likely to have affected soft tissue regions including vital organs of the

torso and brain. Serious bodily injury is known to lead to virtually instantaneous death

from destruction of vital organs (Ifuight 1996). Poor preservation of the cranium

prevented assessment for pathologies. Similarly, soft tissues do not survive in the

226


postmortem burial environment, but if the suggested major traumatic event did occur

and vital organs were affected it is reasonable to suggest that death occurred quickly.

It is not possible to conclusively state that the femoral trauma exhibited by SM/859 was

perimortem but the weight of evidence would tend to suggest that fractures did occur at

a time close to the death of the individual.

Column 6, page 2 of the South Australian Register of Thursday September 7,1854

reports on the Coroner's inquest held into the death of Henry Thomas Russell:

"Coroner's Inquest.-Mr, Stevenson held an inquest on Wednesday at Marion on

the Sturt, on the body of Thomas Henry Russell, a farmer at that village. It

appearedfrom the evidence the deceased had on Tuesday afternoon been busied

in sawing off a ponderous limb of a gum-tree near his residence, and yesterday

morning had thrown a rope across it, which he entrusted to Mrs. Russell and her

son to hotd titl he further separated the branch. Wile preparing to do this the

limb suddenly snapped, and fell upon the unfortunate man, fracturing both his

limbs in the most frishtful manner, and breaking in the ribs on the left side

altogether. In fact death was, in the opinion of Dr. Barton, who promptly

attended, almosl instantaneous. The jury returned a verdict of "Accidental

death." Mr. Russell, we are informed, was a very old colonist, and has left a

widow and several children to lament his loss."

In addition to matchin g age and sex criteria the description of injuries sustained by

Russell corresponds with those recorded during morphological assessment of SM/859

227


(Appendix 1 1: burial summaries). With reference to Burial Record information

(Appendice s 2a and 2b) Russell's name (recorded as 'Bussell') has not had his place of

burial recorded thus promoting the likelihood that he was buried within the study area.

It is therefore concluded that SM/859 is likely to be the skeletal remains of Thomas

Henry Russell, Farmer of Marion Village.

As in the case of SM/B83, positive identification of SM/859 begins to allow the

formation of a chronology for the burial-yard. With reference to the site plan (Figure

12) it canbe seen that burial dates for John Pell and Henry Thomas Russell, (1859 and

1854 respectively) whose graves are separated by approximately 2 to 3 metres, suggest

the vicinity as an early part of the unmarked burial yard.

Discovery of corroborating historical documentation also confirms diagnosis of

perimortem fractures and, age and sex assessments. Poor preservation prevented

pathological assessment of the left rib cage the involvement of which was mentioned in

the newspaper report. It is likely that trauma to this part of the body damaged vital

organs, and at least contributed to an almost instant death. It is somewhat unfortunate

that elements of the spinal column of SM/859 did not survive as assessment of

occupational markers of stress with the knowledge of Russell's occupation as a farmer

may have been enlightening.

From the 'Register of emigrant labourers 1836-1840' (also known as the 'Pike' index

(Pike 1987)) it is known that on the 22"d of June 1838 Russell was a bricklayer and

stonemason, and that his address in England was 11 Union Row, Deptford Lane. Also

228


recorded in this document are his age (32 years), and that his wife (Mary) was 29 years

old

An important source of information is provided in the compiled book 'S.4. Pioneers

arriving 1836-1845' (Hensley c.1885). This book shows the chronological list of ships

arriving with the key to sources on the arrival of passengers. Thomas and Mary Russell

are recorded on the ship's manifest of the'Platina', which arrived from London on the

9th of February 1839. The Platina weighing 303 tons, sailed from London on the 25th of

September 1838 and was skippered by Captain Wellbank (Opie l9I7). It is also known

that the barque Platina a was built in Sunderland, County Durham Owned by R. Brooks

and registered to the Port of London 1829 (Lloyds of London 1913; Sexton 1990).

The Southern Australian (MacDougall 1839:2) of the 13th of February 1839 in the

'Adelaide shipping report', records that the Platina arrived with general cargo, some

named passengers and about 70 'Commissioner's Emigrants'. Commissioner's

emigrants were those recruited and sponsored by the South Australian Colonization

Commission between 1835 and 1840 (Haines 1997). The SA Colonization

Commissioners promoted and organized recruitment and chartered vessels which

carried their subsidised (or assisted) emigrants in cabin, intermediate, and steerage

classes. The Russell's were not mentioned among the named passengers so it is

assumed that they were part of the 70 Commissioners emigrants.

Further in the shipping report was an aside to the effect:

229


"llle hear great complaints made by the emigrants per Platina of their

treatment during the voyage. Nine deaths have occurred: among which

were three children of Mr and Mrs Reid - the whole of their family."

(MacDoug all 1839 :2) (Appendix I 0)'

Following the reference to the unhappy voyage from England, an article appeared in the

South Australian Register (Thomas 1839) of the 23'd of February 1839 (Appendix l0).

In the open letter from the ship's surgeon the publisher seeks to respond to negative

comments regarding his service on the ship. Following the surgeon's letter is a letter of

support written and signed by 34 of the ship's passengers. Two of the signatories are

Thomas and Mary Russell. The two significant pieces of information to be deduced

from this are that Russell and his wife survived the voyage and that they were both

literate.

Other information on Russell is provided by census returns (South Australian

Govemment 1841) where it is recorded that in 1841, Thomas Russell lived in Gilbert St.

Adelaide with his wife. At this point in time there is no record of the couple having had

children.

The final piece of information regarding Russel derived from the public record comes

from the South Australian Govemment Gazette 1839-1840, where in 1840, Thomas

Henry Russell is included in a list of 'all men liable to serve on juries' (South Australia

1839-). The document records Russell's occupation as'bricklayer' and that the nature

of his qualification to serve on juries is 'real estate'.

230


'An Act for regulating the constitution of juries; (15 November 1837) states, in section

two: "Every man ... between the ages of twenty-one yeqrs and sixty years residing

within the Province and who shall have within the province in his own n(nme or in trttst

for him reøl estøte of the value oÍ -fi.fty pounds clear of all incumbrances or a clear

personal estste of the vølue of at least one hundred pounds sterling shall be qualffied

and liable to serve on juries þr the trial of any such issues joined in the said court as

aforesaid."

(Bennett and Castles 1979:164)

This raises the question therefore; how did it transpire that a man of some means was

buried in the free ground at St. Mary's-on-the-Sturt? John Pell and Thomas Russell

appear not to have been destitute at the time of their deaths. Both individuals had

relatives who were actively living and working in the colony. The evidence shows that

Pell's family owned or at least had access to a horse and dray, which, during that period

would have permitted a relatively stable and profitable income.

Until his death, T. H. Russell was actively working as a farmer in addition to having

other skills (e.g. stonemason and bricklayer), which were in great demand at the time.

He left a wife and several children who were unable or unwilling to pay for a marked

grave. Far from being paupers, it would seem that the above case studies for the two

individuals reflect a practical approach to death and disposal of the corpse by the

surviving family.

23r


C¿,sB sruDY SM/B10

The skeletal remains designated SM/B10 were assessed as those of an adult female aged

in her 50's. Preservation of the material was poor to fair allowing some cranial and post

cranial measurements. Sex was determined through morphological analysis of the skull

and mandible. Age was assessed through cranial sutures and extent of degenerative

lesions. No other macro-diagnostic features were available. The mandible was

edentulous, ante-mortem tooth loss demonstrated by extensive resorption of alveolar

bone. The maxilla, maxillary teeth and much of the cranial base either did not survive

or were not recovered. The woman was of a slight build and estimated to be between

1548 mm (Pearson 1S99) and 1587 mm (Trotter and Gleser 1952) tall based on lengths

of the left humerus and right radius. Despite her average size, muscle attachment sites

and long bone robusticity suggested a hard-working, labour intensive lifestyle.

A number of pathologies presented included widespread bone remodelling, severe

degenerative disease of the cervical spine, and, a classic case of hyperostosis frontalis

interna. Bone remodelling representing advanced periosteal reaction was observed on

virtually every long bone of the upper and lower limbs. Areas most affected by the

reaction included the distal anterior portion of the right radius and ulna; anteroproximal

end of the left ulna; posterior side of the left and right femora along the linea aspera;

proximal ends and mid two thirds of the left and right tibiae with corresponding reaction

on respective fibulae (Figure 49).

232

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Centeter

Figure 49. Left femur of SM/Bl0 showing periosteal reaction.

The most severe reaction was obselved on the right radius and ulna and on the lower leg

bones. The periosteal reaction in these areas had advanced to a stage where bone

regrowth was raised and 'noduled' over a considerable area of the surface. Care was

necessary when handling these bones as bony regrowth was fragile and tended to flake.

Where the distal right radius was involved, the reaction had spread to adjacent bones of

the wrist and hand.

The deductive sequence based on distribution of pathologies would suggest that the

individual suffered from an advanced stage of treponemal infection and was syphilitic.

It is suggested that the venereal form of disease was in the tertiary phase as it is at this

stage that the disease manifests in bone. For example, ectocranial pitting and

hypertrophy of the anterior margin of tibiae (also known as 'sabre-shin') were not

present. Larsen (2000) reports that destructive nasal and hard palate changes may

occur. This could account for the edentulous state of the mandible.

Differential diagnoses for the observed pathologies could include conditions such as

advanced tuberculosis; however, Larsen (2000) notes that skeletal tuberculosis involves

a very different form of pathology from treponematosis. Where treponematosis is

characterised by 'proliferative bony apposition', tuberculosis is a destructive disease

233


'commonly expressed as erosive vertebral lesions of the lower back and resorptive and

slight proliferative changes to the pleural surface of ribs' (Larsen 2000: 100).

The only other condition manifesting itself as a widespread periosteal reaction is

leprosy. Møeller-Christensen (1961;197S) provided the first comprehensive study and

description of skeletal signs of leprosy. This disease, like syphilis, often presents as

periostitis on tibiae and fibulae. lnflammations (anteriorly) of the hard palate of the

maxilla and nasal area aÍe also a common feature of leprosy, but in the case of SM/B 10

this is diffrcult to test as these parts of the skeleton have not survived.

Further evidence of systemic infection caused by treponemal disease was observed in

other St. Mary's skeletons including SM/86 and SM/853c, which exhibited moderate

palatal pitting and indications of severe joint inflammation. SM/853c also exhibited

pitting of the occipital (Figure 50).

Figure 50. Pitting of occipital bone inferior to lambda in SM/853c.

The suggested initial phase of bone involvement in tertiary syphilis could also be seen

in the leg bones of both SM/B6 and SM/B53c where periosteal reaction has caused

234


uniform lineated bony regrowth. The same pathologies were not evident on upper

limbs

CRss sruoY SM/870

The well-preserved remains were that of an 8 to 9 year old female. Age was determined

through dental development while sex was derived from mandibular morphology (Loth

and Henneberg 2001) and pelvic morphology (Schutkowski 1993). The skeletal

material exhibited a number of distinguishing pathological signatures. The most

striking of these was severe deformity of dentition, particularly the first permanent

maxillary molars and anterior teeth, and, mandibular f,rrst and second deciduous molars

plus permanent first molars. The emerging second petmanent molar showed no sign of

deformity. Deformity of anterior dentition was consistent with that described

previously as 'Hutchinson's incisors' (Ortner and Putschar 1985; Jacobi et al. 1992;

Larsen 2000). All teeth were extremely affected by both pitted and linear hypoplasiae

(Figures 51 to 53).

Figure 51. Superior view of SM/870's mandibular dentition.

235


F igure 52. Superior view of SM/870's mandibular dentition.

Figure 53. Right buccal view of maxillary dentition of SM/870.

Major disruption during early developmental phase of deciduous molar growth has

resulted in a serrated appearance. Molar and canine development appeared as

constricted giving the cusps a pointed finish. The occlusal surfaces of upper and lower

deciduous molars were cupped, and void of any of the usual grooves and cusp features

of a normal molar occlusal surface. It is unclear if this effect is related to the other

deformities or whether it is a result of caries. The distinguishing shape of the molars is

similar to those described originally by Hutchinson (1858) and Moon (1877), and more

236

i1.

1l


recently addressed by Pflüger (1924), Sarnat and Shaw (1942), Bradlaw (1953), Jacobi

et al. (1992), Tumer (1993), Rothschild and Rothschild (1997) and Hillson et al. (1998).

Additional pathologies suggestive of congenital syphilis included ectocranial pitting,

present on the anterior parts of the left and right parietal bones as well as the adjoining

margins of the occipital. The described skeletal changes are pathognomonic and led to

a diagnosis of congenital syphilis.

This diagnosis is complicated however, by the presence of other, seemingly unrelated

(or indirectly related) pathologies. For example, several thoracic vefiebrae appear to be

malformed with the centrum flattened, and in areas, pitted and eroded (Figure 54). In

one case two thoracic vertebrae have fused together at the neural arch (Figure 55).

Bone fusion was also seen at the left sacroiliac joint. Radiography of femora clearly

showed lines of arrested growth (Figure 56). The combination of the described

pathologies led to a diagnosis of tuberculosis.

Figure 54. Diseased vertebrae of SM/870

231


Figure 55. SMiB7O fused vertebral components.

Images resembling the affected vertebrae are provided by Hershkovitz et al. (1998:56)

prompting a differential diagnosis of fungal infection. However, as the author points

out, tuberculosis is principally a disease of the joints (El-Najjar 1981; Resnick and

Niwayama 1988), with nonarticular involvement usually being diaphyseal in

distribution (with the exception of the tibia). In contrast fungal infections like

blastomycosis are more inclined to have a metaphyseal and calvarial distribution

(Resnick and Niwayama 1988).

The suggested series of events is that the individual probably suffered from a

combination of diseases. It is likely that she was born with congenital syphilis and later,

contracted tuberculosis. Prolonged periods of illness caused the indicative signs of

hypoplasiae and lines of arrested growth (Figure 56).

238


Figure 56. Radiograph showing lines of arrested growth in proximal femora of SM t870.

Differential diagnosis could include conditions of dietary stress or malnutrition such as

scur-vy. However, the widespread pitting, including the greater wing of the sphenoid

and cribra orbitalia reported by Ortner et al. (1999) was not evident. For this reason

also other conditions caused by dietary deficiency can be discounted. These include

iron deficiency anaemia and rickets.

With reference to Appendices2a,2b and 3 (burial records and death certificates), it is

possible to suggest two names that meet the age and sex criteria assessed for SM/870

(Table 37).

Table 37. Possible identities for SM/870

NameSarah BlythmanRebecca Prince

Date of death Cause of death9 years8 years

13 July, 1857gtlt May, 1850

DropsySlow fever

239

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Mary's Cemete:

CRse sruoY SM/868

SM/868 was the moderately well preserved skeleton of a man aged 40-45 years at

death. The most obvious pathologies observed centred on a proliferative change to the

bone around the pelvifemoral joints. Both hip joints were affected with the left joint

displaying a more advanced condition. Bone growth demonstrating severe and

prolonged periosteal inflammation affected acetabular margins and femoral heads and

necks. With reference to the left joint, the intemal acetabular surface and articulating

surface of the femoral head were severely pitted and somewhat eburnated (Figures 57

and 58).

Figure 57. Diseased left pelvis with proliferative bone growth affecting the acetabulum and itsmargins (scale in centimetres; photo by the author).

240

The bioarchaeolog,t of St. Mary's Centetery

SM/868

b

Figure 58. Proximal left femur of SM/B68: a. showing bony growth and periosteal reaction aroundfemur head and neck; b. detail of pitting on articulating surface of femur head (scales incentimetres; photo by the author).

Age-related osteoarthritis is suggested as the principal cause of the prolific bony growth

obsen¡ed. Destruction of hyaline cartilage lining the joint has led to severe

inflammation and deterioration. In cases of dislocation, restricted blood flow prevents

or hinders nourishment of the articular cartllage, which then begins to degenerate.

Arthritic changes may then occur as a result of bone-on-bone friction, followed by

atrophic changes after the joint is immobilized by the dislocation (Steinbock 1976:39).

Articulation of the left hip joint in this case clearly showed a severe restriction of

movement resulting in immobilization in a flexed (or sitting) position.

The condition seen in the left hip is possibly linked to similar osteoarthritic changes

seen in the left ankle (Figure 59). This pathology is not present in the right ankle

prompting the suggestion that a localised traumatic event affecting the left ankle lead to

compensative adjustments to other main weight loading point including the hips.

a

ffii@

241

The bioarchaeology oJ St. Maty's Cemetery^

Figure 59. Left talocalcaneal joint of SM/868 (scale in centimetres; photo by the author)

When articulated with the pelvis, the left femur appeared to be very restricted in its held

of movement maintaining a mostly flexed position. This factor in conjunction with

observed upper limb robusticity led to the suggestion that the individual was artif,rcially

altering his locomotion in order to cope with the observed pathologies. A possible

scenario to explain this is that the individual was wheelchair bound. This would

account for the limited movement of the left leg, which was found to be restricted to a

sitting position, as well as explaining the upper limb robusticity, which developed from

being the principal means of locomotion.

An altemative scenario is that as a hard-working farmer or labourer SM/868 developed

general skeletal robusticity. However, upon development of age-related arthritic

conditions was less able to walk and use his lower limbs. Reduced use of the lower

limbs resulted in a wasting or resorptive phase, which reduced robusticity of the bones.

Upper limb robusticity was maintained in the same way outlined above (i.e. use of a

wheelchair or crutches).

SM/868 ffi

242


DISCUSSION

"And some there be that have no memoriql; who are perished as though

they had never been; and are become as though they had never been

born; and their children after them. But these were merciíul men, whose

righteousness hath not been forgotten. "

Ecclesiasticus, Chapter xliv, verse 9

PRgssRvRtloN

Guy et al. (1997) comment on the observed trend of under-representation of subadult

remains in the cemetery environment. The authors propose that the remains of infants

and newborns do not survive well in the buried environment because of low

mineralization of their bones and the quality of their bone minerals. Underdeveloped

skeletal material is unable to resist the crushing forces of overlying sediments. The

bones are also easily susceptible to attack by the acid products of decomposing organic

matter or acid soils.

The present study confîrmed that skeletal preservation improved as the age of the

individual increased. St. Mary's, however, tended to contradict the trend of many other

skeletal studies by presenting good levels of preservation among subadult skeletons.

Although individuals varied in terms of the skeletal components preserved, subadult

bones that tended to survive best included cranial fragments, particularly the petrous

and sphenoid bones; teeth; and, unfused vertebral components. The 28 infants aged less

243


than a year at death had an average preservation value of 2.615 whereas the 20 adults

averaged 4.115.

In the St. Mary's case almost 66% of the excavated sample were juveniles aged less

than five years at death. This figure is considerably higher than many of the

comparative examples cited in the literature (Table 7). It is also well above the

comparative information provided by Guy et al. (1997). One site that did present a

greater proportion of subadult burials was K2 and Mapungubwe in South Africa

(Henneberg and Steyn 1994). Here the authors report 81 child and juvenile skeletons

(aged less than 15 years at death) out ofa total of 109 skeletons recovered. ln this case,

demographic analyses supported the proposition that such a high subadult component

was caused by a high rate of natural increase, but the excellent preservation of juvenile

bones was a result of the practice of burying the dead in ash heaps from domestic fires

(Henneberg and Steyn 1994).

Acsádi and Nemeskéri (1970) suggest that shallow burial depths may have an influence

on the apparent underrepresentation of subadult skeletal material seen in cemetery

excavations. The authors suggest that shallower burial depths expose subadult

skeletons to cultural forces such as the ploughing of fields. The mean burial depth of 45

of the St. Mary's subadults (aged less than 15 years at death) was 1.38 metres. In

contrast, the mean burial depth for the 20 St. Mary's adults was 1.79 metres, a

difference of 0.41 m (Appendix l2). While it is clear that subadult burials were interred

at shallower depths than adults, the high representation of subadult skeletons within the

St. Mary's sample would suggest that cultural forces have not had an influence in the

post-depositional environment. This would appear to be so since use of the burial area

244


has not changed from its original use as a cemetery, for other purposes such as

agriculture or constnrction.

Loudon (1981:37) describes the recommended practice for burial depths of adults and

subadults suggested by an unidentified 'German author'. It was recommended that

adults were to be buried at no less than six feet (1.83 metres) deep while children under

a year at two feet (0.61 metres). Loudon however, suggests that the six-foot depth be

made absolute due to the durability of bones of children over three years of age.

It is proposed that the generally good preservation found at St. Mary's was due to a

combination of favourable soil pH, moderate 'shrink-swell' capacity of the soil

(Northcote 1988), coffin interments and the relatively short period of time between

interment and exhumation. It is also possible that the excavated sections of the

cemetery were reserved or targeted for the burial of the young and very young. This

phenomenon was recorded at the Voegtly site (Ubelaker and Jones 2003), and may help

to explain the high incidence of subadult representation found at St. Mary's.

Poor preservation of human skeletal material (adults and subadults) was observed

during the excavation of a nineteenth century Anglo-American cemetery in Manassas,

Virginia (Little et al. 1992). The authors do not provide a reason for poor preservation

however Owsley suggests that the primary reason was the heavy clay content of the soil

(pers. comm. 2002: Appendix 13). Disturbed soil of the grave shaft allows easier entry

of rainwater than the surrounding undisturbed soil. 'Water then collects on the floor of

the grave shaft. Inadequate drainage resulting in wet and dry conditions accelerates

bone deterioration.

245


This would seem to go against what was observed at St. Mary's where it would appear

that similar soil conditions prevail. Like northern Virginia, St. Mary's soil is

predominantly clay based. Despite the temporal similarity between the two sites,

preservation of skeletal material at St. Mary's was much better than at Manassas where

bone was so fragmentary that no gross pathological analysis could be done. The

Australian and particularly the Adelaide climate may account for the observation. At

621 mm annually (Australian Bureau of Meteorology 2003), rainfall for Adelaide may

be too low to really influence the sub-surface environment at the depth of a coffin.

Annual average rainfall for the Manassas area is around 904 mm in addition to 414 mm

of snow (Southeast regional climate center 2004). This considerable difference in

precipitation could account for variation in observations between St. Mary's and

Manassas. It would appear that further investigation is needed into site formation

processes active in historical cemeteries.

As a consequence of the comparatively good preservation of skeletal material across the

study site, post excavation analyses contingent on diagnostic features of bone elements

were considered to be reliable. That is, estimations of age in adults and subadults in

most cases were made with confidence. Sex determinations for the 20 adults and some

of the more developed subadults were made confidently. Visual analyses for

pathological conditions/indicators were similarly reliable, particularly among the adults.

It is therefore suggested that results of analyses presented in this thesis are reliable and

can be used as a true reflection or interpretative tool of conditions and events at both the

population and individual levels for 19th century South Australia.

246

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemelety

Spx

Morphological assessment of the 20 St. Mary's adult skeletons revealed almost twice as

many males (n:13) as females (n:7). Lazer (2001) commented on the higher

proportion of males versus females (23 versus 14 respectively) in the Cadia sample. It

is suggestedby Lazer that the greater number of males is a function of the dominance of

male oriented work within a mining community. It is possible to infer a similar cause

for the St. Mary's sample. Death certificates provide evidence thata majority of the St.

Mary's people were employed in physically demanding jobs such as farming and

labouring. The incidence of trauma among the St. Mary's sample and reported levels of

accident and injury also support this finding during the 19th century.

In contradiction to the observed sexual unevenness of skeletons, St. Mary's free ground

burial details record a total of 60 adult burials, 27 of which were male, 30 female and

three indeterminate. The small difference between the recorded numbers of adult male

and female burials does not reflect what was observed through excavation (i.e. 13 male,

7 female). Despite the number of males being almost twice that of females, the

difference is not significant (X':t.S) due to the small sample size. It is therefore

suggested that the observed finding is likely to be an accident of excavation whereby

more male burials just happened to be excavated within the limitations of the field

component of the study. Another possibility however, is the phenomenon of the female

skeleton taking on characteristics of the male skeleton with increasing age (Krogman

and içcan 1986:196).

247

The bioarchaeology o/'St. Mary's Cemetery

When the proportions of male versus female skeletons from other historical samples are

addressed, it would appear that an imbalance between the sexes is not typical. For

example, the Voegtly sample of 774 individuals of known sex consisted of 365 females

(47.2%) and 409 males (52.8%) (Ubelaker and Jones 2003). Freedman's Cemetery held

atotal of 1,157 burials. Of these 591 were of unknown sex, but the majority of these

were subadults. Of the sexable adult component, 278 (49.1%) were female and 288

(50.9%) were male. In both of these cases, most if not the entire cemetery was

excavated with recovery of the corresponding burials. This however was not the case at

St. Mary's where perhaps less than half of the potential area containing burials was

excavated.

Sexing of subadults

In an effort to address the continuing difhculties associated with the sexing of immature

remains, the robusticity of long bones of individuals aged from 2 months to 4 years was

tested as a method for discriminant function analysis (Coussens et al. 2002). The

distribution of robusticity within the sample was compared statistically with the sex

profile of the sample as determined through mandibular morphology (Loth and

Henneberg 2001; Scheuer 2002). Results demonstrated that robusticity indices for the

humerus and femur tended to differ between the sexes. That is, subadult individuals

with masculine mandibles (as defined by Loth and Henneberg 2001) tended to have

higher robusticity values than females sexed the same way.

It would appear that robusticity indices have some potential as a method for sexing

subadult remains. When indices were compared, those of the femur were most

248


differentiating when the distribution of values was analysed. Indices of the humerus

circumference however, provided the best P values.

A prominent limitation of the application within the context of the current study arose

from the small sample size. A larger sample size would reduce perturbations caused by

natural variations within human populations and produce more meaningful statistical

outcomes. One individual, (SM/824), caused such a variation in the St. Mary's sample.

Mandibular morphology for this individual indicated a female, but robusticity indices

placed her well in the male range. As the mandibular morphology method has only

been estimated to be around 8l%o accurate (Loth and Henneberg 2001) it is possible that

SM1B24 is indeed a male. This case further emphasizes the usefulness of having

additional methods to support or contradict sex estimations based on morphology

(Coussens etal.2002).

A further weakness of this method is that the results are based on another method

(mandibular morphology), which has yet to be fully endorsed by independent research.

However, the fact that robusticity indices appear to corroborate sex groupings of the

mandible method indicates that the same factors are influencing these two traits.

Furthermore, result showing that robusticity indices are grouped into two statistically

distinct groups by mandibular morphology consequently supports mandibular

morphology as a viable technique for sex determination.

One clear result to come from sex analysis of the subadult component was that

significantly more males were recovered from the free ground than females. It is

possible that this finding was an accident of excavation, or, it may suggest that cultural

249


influences were at work. Without the aid of other supportive evidence, it may be

suggested that males were treated differently from females based on their perceived

social value. Males held a greater work output potential, particularly with regard to the

predominantly rural lifestyles. Furthermore, males could see continuation of the family

name, at least for another generation.

The question then arises, how were the corpses of female subadults disposed of? Nicol

(1986:87) reports that the compulsory registration of still births was not enacted in

South Australia until 1937 and there were no provisions to enforce their burial in

cemeteries. It was not uncommon for dead newborn infants to simply be buried in the

garden with little or no ceremony. Griffin and Tobin (1982) report other methods of

disposal with infant corpses being found in rivers and creek, the parklands and

sandhills.

The suggestion, therefore, is that males still borns or neonates were more likely to be

buried in the free ground based on the perceived value placed on them by their parents

and society. The undervalued females, conversely, were disposed of as quickly and

conveniently as possible, with little regard for ceremony or memory.

DNA sex assessment

'When describing the characteristics of ancient DNA Parsons and Weedn (1997:123)

report, "DNA recovered from ancient sources is invariably, at least partially degraded

and accessible to PCR (polymerase chain reaction) in limited amounts." Paabo's (1989)

characterisation suggested that ancient DNA invariably featured DNA that was highly

modified and damaged. Despite being able to successfully amplify substantially long

250

The bioarchaeology o/ St. Mary's Cemetety

sequences of DNA from ancient sources, others (eg. Cooper et al. 1992) have found that

the maximum fragment length is considerably less than can normally be obtained from

intact, modem DNA.

Results of Townsend's (2002) study to test the sexing properties of ancient DNA

extracted from tooth pulp cavities emphasise the unreliability of determinations made

using ancient DNA. Of the 40 St. Mary's bone and tooth samples provided for the

study, 28 produced viable DNA. Sex determinations based on the 28 viable dental

samples were only successful in 68% of cases. Concordance between the

morphological and DNA sex tended to be more successful among adults (87.5%) than

subadults (50%).

The principal reason suggested to explain this observation is the morphological

differences associated with the adult and subadult dentition, particularly root

development. This supports the findings of Murakami et al. (2000) who found greater

DNA degradation correlated with tooth immaturity. Based on the authors' findings,

DNA preservation is principally dependent on the type of tooth, presence of pathologies

(e.g. caries), stage of dental development and the quantity of pulp tissue in the various

tooth types (incisor, canine or molar) (Murakami et al. 2000). The enclosed pulp cavity

provided by the fully developed adult tooth root provides a better preservation

environment for DNA material.

The results of morphological and molecular sex comparisons for the St. Mary's sample

are presented in Table 4. Of the 16 adult samples molecularly tested for sex, 14 (87%)

concurred with the morphologically determined sex. Of the 12 subadult samples sexed

25r


using DNA, half provided a result, which did not concur with the sex as determined by

mandibular morphology. It is suggested that a degree of reliance can be put upon

mandibular morphology findings in the current study based on concordance between

sex determinations using the method and sex determined through robusticity (Coussens

et at.2002).

In summary, DNA analyses for the determination of sex using samples of St. Mary's

bone and teeth from adults and subadults generally provided inconclusive results. This

was despite relatively good levels of preservation based on determinations for the

presence of mitochondrial DNA. Adult samples produced amplification material more

reliably than subadults and showed greater concordance with morphological sex

determinations. Tooth samples were more likely to provide amplification material than

bone samples, and the short and 'Y' amelogenin gene protocols were more successful

than the long amelogenin gene protocol. With an accuracy of 50o/o for subadults and

87.5% for adults using ancient DNA it is suggested that based on these results, this line

of investigation is not viable, at least in the St. Mary's case. Failure of the molecular

methods to adequately sex subadult archaeological skeletal remains has been

acknowledged by Townsend (Appendix 15).

Ac¡

Discussion on the f,rndings of age analyses will be separated into adults and subadults.

It is also necessary to indicate that much is discussed regarding St. Mary's ages and the

implications of observed and recorded age profiles in the 'Demography' section below.

However, it is necessary here to comment on overall age profiles for and between adults

and subadults and interpret this information in the context of 19'h century lifeways.

252


Subadults

The most striking finding of the St Mary's age prof,ile \Mas the high incidence of child

mortality. Seventy one percent (n:50) of the excavated sample was aged less than 13

years at death. The majority of these (n:41) were aged less than two years at death with

30 individuals (43%) aged one year or less at death. High infant mortality is not an

unusual or unexpected finding for cemeteries of this era. Such infant and child

mortality rates in pre-modern skeletal studies are common throughout the world even in

affluent contexts (e.g. Tiné 2000:468; Ubelaker and Jones 2003). The main reason for

this is that the majority of infant and childhood deaths occurred as a result of infectious

diseases for which the people of the time had little understanding of and no effective

treatment for. Real cures for illnesses could not be purchased at any price.

This is illustrated in the Voegtly sample where 35.9% of the of the 799 individuals of

known age (based on church records) were less than one year of age at death (Ubelaker

and Jones 2003). A similar figure (435%) is found when St. Mary's burial records for

free ground burials are addressed. For the sake of this comparison, the Voegtly group

represents a more affluent and established society in contrast to the St. Mary's free

ground people who were more working class in an establishing colony, but of a similar

time period.

After approximately 1875, free ground burial records show a significant decrease in

number of infant/child deaths per year (Figure 19). Several reasons are postulated for

this clear and dramatic change. Firstly, it is likely that the growing knowledge of

microbiolo gy and an understanding of hygiene were beginning to filter down to all

253

The bioarchaeologt oJ St. Maty's Cemetety

people in society leading to a more proactive push for cleaner living conditions.

Secondly, living conditions improved as the colony became more established and

facilities developed. Factors such as establishment of the Central Board of Health;

access to clean water; the paving of streets; the management of human, domestic and

industrial waste and the construction or more appropriate/permanent living quarters

would have directly contributed to the reduction on infant/child deaths.

In 1873 State Parliament legislatedthe creation of the Central Board of Health (CBH),

which coordinated a network of local boards throughout the colony. This move

followed pressure from sections of the press, health care workers and some politicians

and sought to resolve issues of drainage, Sewage, water supply, housing, public

protection from disease by vaccination and protection for the poor and vulnerable (Linn

1993). One of the principal functions of the CBH was to demonstrate to the public what

were considered acceptable levels of hygiene in the handling and retailing of food and

drink. With the introduction of the Public Health Act in 1873 it was also an opportunity

for the CBH to work towards the problem of housing. Inadequate housing at the time

was seen as a significant cause of many of the health issue affecting the colony (Linn

ree3).

Infant and child mortality was also reflected in rates of natural increase for the South

Australian population of the 19th century. It was demonstrated that during the first

decades of the colony the rate of natural increase (i.e. with the exclusion of emigration

and immigration) of the population was around 3o/o annually. This figure was shown to

decrease over time to a rate of less than 2o/o at the turn of the 20th century. For the sake

254


of context, the current national rate of natural population growth in Australiais l.2o/o;

and for South Australia around 0.6% (Australian Bureau of Statistics 2003)

Henneberg and Steyn (1994) linked the high incidence of child burials to the rate of

natural increase at the K2lMapungubwe site, South Africa. One suggestion here

therefore is that to maintain family size, couples would continue to produce offspring

following the death of earlier children. Some couples may have only lost one child

while others lost several, but attempts continued until viable ofßpring survived the

danger years of early childhood. The harsh reality of the time (1847 to 1875) however

meant that a newborn individual had a 460/o chance of surviving to sexual maturity with

a life expectancy of just over 26 years, thus often forcing parents to produce more than

ten children in their lifetime. A principal reasoning behind this suggestion is that "...in

rural agricultural societies, children were often highly desired as an important addition

to the workforce (Higgins 1989:182).

Supporting evidence is also provided by observation of bone scars of parturition within

the adult female component of the collection. Five of the seven sexually mature female

skeletons showed clear signs of childbirth in the pubic andlor pre-auricular regions. Of

the two others, one may have been too young to have had children and the other could

not be determined due to poor preservation of the pelvic region. Although this form of

evidence is somewhat indirect it does demonstrate a high rate of parity within the

representative sample and clearly supports the cemetery's age prof,rle and demographic

findings.

255

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Centelery

Adults

Of the 20 adults assessed, the majority (55%) were aged between 40 and 50 years at

death. This finding is once again, not unexpected based on supporting evidence

provided by free ground burial records and life table analyses. However, this age group

marks the transition (in skeletal development terms) from mid-adulthood to senility. It

is therefore important to be aware of the prevalence of age underestimation associated

with inadequacies of morphological agingtechniques (Masset 1989).

The tendency is to underage the remains of more mature adult skeletons resulting in

bias in the overall age profile. This would certainly seem to be the case in the current

study based on the fact that morphological assessment found 11 individuals had died

between the ages of 40 and 50 years, but just two individuals aged over 50.

Furthermore, those two individuals were the positively identified cases (SM/859 and

SM/883), aged 53 and 59 years respectively.

Free ground burial register records show 29 adults aged older than 50 years at death. If

it is considered that the area excavated archaeologically dates to around the 1850's (see

'Burial Chronology' below), it is possible to suggest by exclusion of all 20th century

burials (n:9) that a pool of 18 individuals aged over 50 years were interred within the

study area. Among these five people were in their 60's, eight in their 70's and one

individual was 82 years old at death. It is therefore reasonable to suspect that a degree

of under aginghas occurred due to the inadequacies of morphological aging methods. It

is suggested, however, that due to the small sample size, any bias would not have

significant impact on the overall findings of the study.

2s6

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemetety

PRIHor-ocrBs

Trauma

The incidence of trauma depicted in both the written and archaeological records

represented at St. Mary's tends to indicate a predominantly physical and often

dangerous lifestyle. Evidence of antemortem and perimortem trauma within the adult

sample is consistent with active, physical lifestyles, particularly farming and labouring.

It is also indicative of the level of technology, particularly associated with transport (eg.

horses and drays). Between 1836 and 1840 many cases of trauma were admitted to the

Adelaide Hospital. Injuries were sustained predominantly by males who were

commonly occupied in labouring jobs of one sort or another, which carried with them

some degree of hazard from accidents (Erskine 1977).

Table 38 compares the incidence of observed antemortem trauma between adult males

and females from St. Mary's and data from various other cemetery studies. The

inclusion of comparative data is intended to contextualise the St. Mary's data in terms

of analogous and contrasting samples. As a consequence, the inclusion of descriptive

groups has been retained from the source reference (Peter et al. 2000) as the

circumstances of certain groups have a bearing on their comparability with St. Mary's

For example, it may be reasonable to suggest that racial groups could equate to socio-

economic brackets. In addition, various groups identified here by their geographic

origin may be associated with a particular lifestyle thus furthering their use as a tool for

comparison. For example the Catoctin Furnace group are described as 'industrial

slaves' who suffered extreme occupational-related physical stress (Kelly and Angel

257


1933). By contrast, the Spitalfields sample is representative of a more affluent

population with better nutrition levels, greater access to medical services and less

inclined to work in a physical trade.

Tabte 38. Distribution of trauma among adults interred at St. Mary's Cemetery and comparisonsites.

Site Period N' N, N'female

N' N' Total and Sourcemale error

St. Mary's (WA) 1846- 6 t6.7% t4 50.0% 20 40.0o/o + 10.9 Curent study

Cadia (WA)

Freedman's (F)

Catoctin Fttmace(s)FABC loth st G).

Cedar Grove (F)

Choke Canyon(WAm)Texas StateCemetery (WAm)Spitalfields (WE)

19251864-t927I 869-1 9051790-1 8201810-1822

1 890-r927I 860-I 9301844-195 I1729-1852

t4 7.r% 23 30.4% 31

177 19.8% 195 42.r% 388

8 2s.0% 8 37.5% 16

38 t3.2% 18 33.3% s6

21 28.6% 15 73.3% 36

_26

6 33.3% s0 42.0% s6

312 4.6% 31 I 9.4% 623 8.2V. + 1.5 Molleson andr993

Lazer 2001

Peter et al. 2000

Kelty and Angel 1983

Crist et al. 1997

Rose and Santeford1 985Fox 1984

Dockall eTal.1996

Cox

2t.6%+ 6.8

32.2%+2.4

31.3%+ lt.6

19.60/0 + 5.3

47 .2yo + 8.3

t5.4% +7.1

4t.1% + 6.6

N : Number of observable individuals Table adapted from Peter et al. (2000)

N2: %n of observable individuals affectedN3: Total adultsW : White; S : Slave Black African; F: Freed Black African; WA: White Australian; WAm: White

American; WE: White British and European

With reference to the confidence limits expressed for the percentage of trauma within

each sample, it is evident that there is no signif,rcant difference at the 95% confidence

limit between the St. Mary's sample and all but one other group. The incidence of

trauma within the Spitalfields sample is signihcantly less than that among St. Mary's

adults.

It would seem that the incidence of trauma among the St. Mary's sample (40%) is

somewhat high in comparison to most other groups. This perhaps comes as no surprise

when one considers the social context in which the majority of the St. Mary's people

258


lived. However, when one considers that approximately 70o/o (n:50) of the St. Mary's

sample was aged less than 15 years at death, the incidence of trauma among the adults

(n:20) has added significance. No signs of trauma were seen among any of the

subadult material. This f,rnding is consistent with recorded causes of death for the

majority of St. Mary's subadults.

The incidence of minor, healed trauma amongst St. Mary's adults was high in

comparison to the Cadia group where fractures were not prevalent (Lazer 2001). In the

Cadia study, 33o/o of the recovered skeletal remains represented adults. This compares

closely with 28'/" adult representation among the St. Mary's sample. Of the 37 adults

studied from the Cadia cemetery, eight individuals (24%) were reported to have had

traumatic pathologies. In comparison, of the 20 St. Mary's adults nine (40Yo) exhibited

traumatic pathologies. The relationship between the two samples was found not to be

significantly different using Fisher's exact test, which produced a Chi squared value of

3.39.

Historical sources indicate that at least five St. Mary's free ground individuals died as a

result of a major perimortem trauma (Table 39). The remains of two of these

individuals were positively identified during the current study. The relatively high

incidence of antemortem and perimortem trauma observed among the St. Mary's adult

sample reflects the highly physical and often unpredictable nature of life in a developing

colony. V/orking with animals, particularly horses clearly had a significant impact.

The most commonly observed healed fractures within the St Mary's sample were those

to ribs and feet.

259

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Maty's Cemetery

Tabte 39. St. Mary's free ground individuals who died as a result of a traumatic accident.

Name Year ofdeath

Age(years)

Occupation Cause of death

T. H. Russell*

John Pell*

William Haynes

Carl Schinermann

John Davis

I 854

I 859

I 866

t867

I 869

53

59

10

67

l6

Farmer

Farmer

Errand boy

Farmer

Carter

Accident: massive trauma to legs and ribscaused by falling limb of a treeAccident: fell from dray (inebriated)- head

crushed by dray wheelAccident: fell from a horse (which he

stole) fracturing his skullAccident: kicked by his own horsecausing internal injurresAccident: slipped, fell & fractured hisskull on the ironwork of his own dray

* Skeleton identified in studied sample (see case studies, Chapter 7 for details)

Ribs were seen to be the most common bone fractured within the Spitalfields collection

(Molleson and Cox 1993). This then raises the question of just how much antemortem

trauma goes unrecorded due to the poor preservation of rib, vertebral, hand and foot

bones? As a result, it is likely that hgures for antemortem healed trauma in the St.

Mary's are skewed showing an undeffepresentation of the actual figure.

LazeÍ, (2001) reports that of the eight adult Cadia individuals with healed and

perimortem fractures, just one was female. This finding coffesponds with St. Mary's

where of the 10 adults with healed and perimortem fractures, two were female. This

finding is probably a result of the higher proportion of males recorded as being present

in the cemetery as well as occupational differences between the sexes. Moreover,

because males are (in general terms) bigger risk takers than females they are more

inclined to receive injuries resulting in healed or perimortem traumatic lesions (Grimm

1 e80).

Another pattern of markers emerges when one looks at the prevalence of fractures to

bones of the feet. Fractures to tarsal bones and phalanges were observed in several St.

260


Mary's adults. It is suggested that the frequency of fractures to these bone elements is

reflective of a highly physical lifestyle and demonstrative of typical 19th century modes

of transportation, namely horses and carts. Fractures of the hands and feet were the

second most frequent form of trauma observed in the Freedman's Cemetery study (Tiné

2000). In this case it was suggested that this was because these elements are more at

risk from crushing injuries from dropped or displaced objects, or being caught between

them.

Perhaps to close this discussion it is appropriate to quote the words of the Colonial

Surgeon (Colonial Surgeon 1852), who in 1852 noted:

"Wounds and Injuries in South Australia are most frequently

'Gunshot Wounds'- accidents from riding horses not properly broken

in and injuries received in felling trees - Accidents from Bullock

Drays are most frequently occasioned by the dangerous practice of

riding on the pole of the dray."

(Linn 1993:91)

26t


Infectious disease

It is clear from contemporary records (Table 16 and Appendix 4) that infectious disease

wreaked havoc amongst early European settlers of South Australia. Mid-nineteenth

century joumals and Central Board of Health reports make it clear that fevers of all

kinds and especially disorders of the bowels and lungs-the great killers of the young-

were attributed entirely to the evil effects of the environment (Woodruff 1984).

The incidence of infectious diseases demonstrated in historical records is corroborated

by what was observed in the recovered skeletal material at St. Mary's. In the majority

of cases no clear cause of death could be proposed based on the study of skeletal

remains. This was particularly so for the subadult portion of the sample (n:50), who

probably quite often succumbed to infectious disease more rapidly than adults

(V/oodruff 1984). As a consequence, bony responses to infection and inflammation

often seen in adults did not have time to develop in subadults. Adults commonly have a

better-developed immune system and are therefore more equipped to cope with disease.

The ability to survive a disease while it goes through its full course allows the bony

manifestations (eg. periostitis and osteomyelitis) seen in diseases such as syphilis,

tuberculosis and leprosy to fully develop.

One such case seen within the St. Mary's sample was that of SM/B10, an adult female

estimated morphologically to be around 50 to 60 years of age at death (see case study

Chapter 7). The degree and distribution of periosteal lesioning lead to a diagnosis of

systemic treponemal infection. Syphilis, however, has not been recorded for any

individual within the available records. This comes perhaps as no surprise considering

the conservative behaviour of 19th century English society.

262


It may be possible, however, to infer a name for this individual from the cause of death

descriptions provided. For example, the St. Mary's Church burial register records the

burial of Maria Haynes on the 9th of October 1865. The death certificate for this woman

records that she was 41 years old, was married and that her husband 'John' was a

blacksmith. The certificate also records her cause of death as 'low fever'. Low fever is

described as an asthenic condition typified by raised bodily temperature and absence of

strength (Brownlow 1945). It may be possible in this case to suggest that this symptom

could be construed to represent one of the long-term signs of syphilis.

Perhaps further complicating the matter is the fact that 'lues' (Latin for plague:

(Simpson l97l)) is an archaic term for syphilis. Furthermore, a definition of lues

provided by the concise Oxford dictionary includes 'lues vener'ea' or syphilis (Fowler

and Fowler 1956:7I2). Examples of misspelling and the use of phonetic spelling were

commonly observed in death certificates suggesting that perhaps low fever is an

incorrectly recorded cause of death.

In a similar example to that of SM/B10, the case study of SM/870 (Chapter 7) presents

the observed pathologies for an 8 to 9 year old girl. This individual presented signs of

ectocranial hyperostotic pitting, and severe deformity of some deciduous and permanent

teeth resulting in a diagnosis of syphilis. Furthermore, ankylosing of thoracic vertebrae

and the left sacroiliac joint indicated the presence of tuberculosis in the same individual.

The occurrence of several diseases in the same patient is not surprising in the 19th

century.

263


Of the 171 St. Mary's (free ground) individuals for whom a death certificate was found,

only two met the age and sex criteria of SM/870. One, Sarah Blythman, buried in 1857

died of 'dropsy'. The other, Rebecca Prince, died in 1850 of 'slow fever'. Dropsy is a

condition that results in the build up of lymph in bodily cavities. Brownlow (1945)

reports that in its various forms, dropsy is often related to heart or kidney disease. It is

suggested that dropsy would not account for the suite of pathologies observed in the

case of SM/870. Like low fever however, slow fever (also known as 'continued' fever)

describes a condition of raised body temperature continuing over a long period of time.

This would seem to be characteristic of an infectious illness and indicative of a long-

term systemic infection.

The possibility that the remains of both Blythman and Prince were recovered becomes a

consideration with the inclusion of SM/B19. The well-preserved remains of this

individual were tentatively suggested to be those of a girl based on pelvic and

mandibular morphology. Age determination was facilitated by well-preserved dentition

and estimated to be around eight years at death. Year of burial for the individuals (1857

and 1850 respectively) would support the suggestion that both sets of remains have been

recovered. Positively identified skeletons (SM/859 and SM/883) date the excavated

area to around the early to late 1850's. Furthermore, corroboration of the observed age

profile and discrete life table analyses indicate that an earlier part of the free ground

cemetery had been excavated.

Unlike in the cases of extreme perimortem trauma described previously, it is well

understood that by inferring that pathognomonic signs of infectious disease in historical

skeletal material to positively identify individuals within a group of unidentified

264

The bioarchaeology of St, Mary's Cemetety

skeletons is difficult and laden with doubt. However, with the inclusion of historical

records it would appear that in certain cases individuals could be narrowed down to just

a few names.

It is rightly pointed out by Peter et al. (2000) that the prevalence of infectious disease

acts as a good indicator of community well-being. The reasons for this are firstly that

infection is closely linked to nutrition, where "lowered nutrition levels compromise the

immune system and leave an individual more susceptible to infection" (Peter et al.

2000). Secondly, infection provides indirect evidence regarding hygiene and access to

medical care. Moreover, levels of infection within a society allow the formation of

inferences regarding the social and economic impact of illness on society.

Tiné (2000) observed that 60.60/o of the adult and 7 4 .l% of the subadult components of

the observable Voegtly Cemetery skeletal material presented with at least one osseous

lesion associated with infection. 'When these data are compared with what was

observed in the St. Mary's sample it would appear that the rate of infection in the

Freedman's sample was considerably higher (Table 40).

Tabte 40. The rate of infectious lesions among observable St. Mary's adults and comparativesamples.

Adults SubadultsN

TotalNN % o/

,/o %

St. Mary'sVoegtlyFreedman's

20t92531

10.08.3

60.6

45

495t62

17.8

0.674.1

65687

693

3s.42.2

63.8

Tiné (2000) reports that Freedman's Cemetery exhibited considerably more skeletal

infection than any other free black sample. The only exception was Cedar Grove

265


Cemetery (n:79), but in this case, however, there is considerable difference in sample

sizes. The author does not provide criteria used for their classification of lesions of

infectious disease making inter-sample comparisons problematic. Comment is made,

however, that those who undertook this aspect of the Freedman's analysis were ".. .very

inclusive when scoring for infection" (Tiné 2000:492). In relation to findings based on

the St. Mary's material, it is clear that with age came a greater incidence of infectious

lesions caused either by localised trauma or disease. Although this finding is in

agreement with observations of the Voegtly Cemetery skeletal material, it should be

noted that this outcome is the result of a cumulative effect.

Percentages presented in Table 40 can be used to infer significant social differences

experienced between the three distinct groups. The St. Mary's group representing, low-

income, hard-working colonists; Voegtly representing an established, affluent society;

and Freedman's a post-emancipation society of segregated African Americans. The

three groups are temporally similar all having been formed during the mid-19th century.

It is suggested that the contrasting societies represented by these groups can explain the

considerable disparity seen in rates of infection presented in Table 40. For example,

70o/o of St. Mary's and60o/o of Freedman's adults had infectious lesions while Voegtly

adults only had 8.3%. This clearly reflects differences experienced by more affluent

society (Voegtly) and poorer or less established societies (Freedman's and St. Mary's).

Access to information, medical care and the establishment of infrastructure (eg. clean

water, drainage, sewage, rubbish removal, paved streets etc.) meant that the

predominantly white, established society of Philadelphia were less inclined to suffer

from infectious diseases.

266


A similar scenario is demonstrated by subadult data where St. Mary's and Freedman's

had rates of infectious lesions of 18% and 74o/o respectively, while Voegtly had just

0.6%. The large disparity between the St. Mary's and Freedman's results is probably

explained by the inclusiveness of the original Freedman's researchers mentioned above.

However, the very low rate of infection observed in the Voegtly group perpetuates what

was observed among the adults.

Seven of the 20 St. Mary's adults (35%) exhibited pathologies on three or more skeletal

elements resulting in a classification of systemic infection. In at least one case,

systemic infection was thought to have occurred as a result of treponematosis

(SM/B10). Of the remaining adults, five presented with signs often related to systemic

infection pathologies. In these cases however, pathologies manifested as periosteal

reactions associated with localised trauma or arthritic changes.

Tiné (2000) suggests that the finding of greater rates of infection among the Freedman's

Cemetery group is a function of urban living. Inadequate disposal of human waste and

unpaved roads in densely populated cities were considered to be the principal cause of

pathogen proliferation. The author does, however, qualify the Freedman's Cemetery

findings by claiming that the original researchers were very 'inclusive' when scoring for

infection. "Even the mildest expressions (pitting and striations) were scored whereas

the researchers investigating the other cemeteries may have required more severe

expressions to qualify" Tiné (2000:492).

267

The bioarchaeology oJ'St, Mary's Cemelety

The total percentage of infectious lesions within the St. Mary's sample (35.4%) is

considerably more than was seen in the Voegtly sample (2.2%). If one discounts the

noticeably different sample sizes, it is clear that infectious disease did not have as big an

influence within the Voegtly group. Ubelaker and Jones (2003) report that only 151

(22%) of the Voegtly individuals had their cause of death recorded. Of these, 42

(27 .8%) died of an infectious disease; 7 5 (49.7%) died from non-infectious causes; and,

2S (I8.5%) had an ambiguous record. These data support the overall finding of low

infection rates represented in the skeletal sample.

Unlike the Freedman's group, the Voegtly sample represented a more affluent

population with greater access to medical facilities, and was better equipped to build

physical infrastructure including a sewerage system and sealed road networks.

Although it would appear that the Freedman's rate of infection is somewhat overstated,

it is clear that disease was a major cause of death among the population. St. Mary's

death records indicate that 41.8 to 73.lYo of the free ground group died from infectious

causes. The suggested reasons for such a high rate include:

o Poor understanding of microbiology, antisepsis and hygiene

o Difficulty of life in an establishing colony

. Medicines scarce and expensive

o Professional medical help scarce, expensive and comparatively uninformed

o Little to no public infrastructure such as clean water, sewerage and sealed roads

The synthesis of this aspect of skeletal analysis shows that infectious disease was a

major killer of the poor and marginalised in 19th century colonial South Australia.

These data indicate that the poor social conditions recorded in Govemment records like

268

The bioarchaeology oJ Sl. Mary's Cemetery

Central Board of Health reports were clearly having an effect in the community and

were a major cause of mortality throughout the 19th century. Although this trend

declined towards the end'of the 19th century, infectious diseases continued to cause high

numbers of deaths up to the mid-2Oth century.

Table 41 presents the number of subadult burials up to 15 years old at death for both the

free ground and the marked cemetery during the corresponding time frame.

Table 41. Comparison of numbers of recorded subadult deaths between the St. Maryrs free groundand marked cemeteries.

Agerange

(years)

St Mary's freeground

1847 -1927 (n:l9ll

St Mary's markedburials

1848 - t927 h=442)v"t¡//o p

0- 1

0-50- 15

37.262.869.1

14.925.t30.8

47.3648.5445.43

P<0.001P<0.001P<0.001

76r20132

66111

136

It is clear that a significant difference in recorded infant and child death rates exists

between the two groups for all three age ranges. Statistical analysis confirmed this

observation.

Two explanations may be suggested to account for these differences. Firstly, these data

could reflect the social and economical differences between the two groups. lnfant and

child mortality is lower among the more affluent group as represented by an ability to

afford a marked burial. As explained previously, wealthier people could afford better

living conditions (including housing and clean water) and had greater access to

information, nutrition and medicut .u.". In contrast the number of infant and child

deaths as a proportion of the total free ground recorded burials confirms the less affluent

group interred there.

269


The second, and more likely explanation is that the high number of infant and child

burials in the free ground may reflect a propensity for the burial of these age groups in

this area. This is not to suggest that the free ground was a kinderviertel, solely reserved

for the interment of infants and children, but more a case of disposal of the corpse with

a minimum of concern andlor expense. Where little emotional attachment had been

placed in an individual, the desire to mark the passing of the individual would be less.

Furthermore, with the degree of importance put upon the symbolism of baptism it is

highly likely that the free ground was seen as the area for burying unbaptised infants

and children. This is supported by burial register information where burial notes for

infants often stated "unbaptised; no service read".

Occupational and degenerative changes

A wide variety and high frequency of degenerative and occupation related changes were

observed among St. Mary's adults. Thirteen (65%) of the 20 adults had some form of

bony change associated with components of the spine. This was not the case however,

with four of the seven adult females in the sample. The remaining three females were

considerably less affected (in relation to the spine) than a majority of males. It is

suggested therefore that this finding could be used to infer a sex difference in work and

activity regimens.

Long bone robusticity, well-developed muscle attachment sites and degenerative

changes of principal joints of the shoulder, pelvis and knees were common among

males and females in the sample. Many of these changes in individuals were not

necessarily relatable to a particular occupation or activity, but some cases did allow

270


further speculation. For instance a number of individuals demonstrated bony changes to

proximal femora, pelves, sacrum and lumbar spine. These changes were interpreted as

signs of a constant bending, sitting or squatting motions.

It is possible to speculate on identiflrcation of the skeleton designated SM/866b based

on the suite of apparent occupational markers of stress. The markers (described in the

Results Chapter) suggested a physically active individual who undertook repetitive and

strenuous labour. The principal motions inferred from skeletal indicators included

sitting or squatting with a forward slump; bending at the hips with legs kept straight;

and, continuous bearing of weight in the upper limbs. It is noteworthy that SM/866b

was identified as a young adult (20-30 year old) female.

'With reference to death certificates (Appendix 3), three potential candidates meet the

age and sex profile for this individual (Table 42).

Trble 42. Potential identities for the skeletal remains of SM/866b.

Name Aee Year of burial Occupation Cause of death

MargaretAndersonSarah HollandRosetta Moody

30 185 8 Baker "Insanity: affrision of the brain"

252I

I 8541 853

FarmerServant

"Inflammation of the chest""Effusion of the chest"

It is suggested that as occupational and degenerative markers of stress tend to have

more expression with greater age, it may be possible to exclude Rosetta Moody. Other

skeletal indicators manifest on SM/866b, such as evidence of childbirth, and details of

dental development further endorse this suggestion.

27t


It may however, be possible to narrow the field based on a comparison of skeletal

markers and recorded information. SM/866b had developed supracondylar crests on

the distal ends of both humeri accompanied by notches on both humeral heads. The

inferior tubercle of the glenoid process (infraglenoid tubercle) was enlarged bilaterally.

It is suggested that these marks develop from constant and repetitive bending of the

elbow and use of upper limbs and trunk to carry heavy loads. Furthermore, distal

phalanges of both hands displayed overdeveloped (osteophytic) lipping, which in a

young individual is clear evidence of a stress phenomenon.

Of the two remaining candidates for the identity of SM/866b, it would appear that

occupational markers could not differentiate between the two. For example, pathologies

of the fingers and upper limbs could be associated with the activities of a baker such as

the kneading of dough. However, such markers could also develop through everyday

activities conducted by farmers like milking cows, planting and harvesting crops, and

carting water. Death certificates record the occupation for women as that of their father

or husband. Margaret Anderson's husband was a baker and it is reasonable to infer that

she also worked as a baker. The Andersons had four children between 1851 and 1856,

Mary Elizabelh in 1851; John Wright in 1853; Margaret in 1855; and, Jane Alexander in

1856 (Cobiac 2001).

Sarah Holland (nee Perkins), however, was married to Robert Holland at Holy Trinity

Church on 14th January 1847 (Cobiac 2001). She gave birth to two children, Elizabeth

on the 20th of August 1850; and, Emily born on the 16th of June 1852 (Thomas 1997).

Very little else is known of this individual with no mention in sources such as shipping

arrivals, assisted immigrant, and pioneer lists.

272


Based on the recorded evidence it would seem that it is not possible to infer that

SM/866b is the remains of either Margaret Anderson or Sarah Holland. As a recorded

age-at-death difference of five years exists between the two women, it would appear

that a more definitive age determination based on the skeletal remains might resolve the

lSSUe.

A clear case of spondylolysis was observed in the remains of SM/857. The well-

preserved skeleton was that of a man between 40 and 50 years old at death. The neural

arch of the fifth lumbar vertebra had separated bilaterally from the vertebral body at the

pars interarticularis. Healing of the separated margins indicated that this was a pre-

existing condition (as opposed to postmortem) but it is not known if the condition was

congenital or acquired. Various authors have identif,red a link between spondylolysis

and spina bif,rda (Mann and Murphy 1990:53), which may have been present in this

case. However, poor preservation of a crucial area of the sacrum prevented a more

confident diagnosis of spina bifîda. In the case of SM/857, the lack of any other

skeletal markers of stress would tend to suggest that this was a congenital example of

spondylolysis.

Voegtly Cemetery in Philadelphia represents a more affluent society of a similar time

frame to that of St. Mary's. Of the 544 skeletons recovered I74 (32%) were aged 15

years or older. This group however, had considerably fewer occupational markers than

the St. Mary's group. For example, 13 (7.5%) Voegtly individuals (10 males, 3 females)

presented extreme arthritic change in the vertebrae. [n contrast,45yo of St. Mary's

adults had extreme arthritic changes in the vertebrae.

273


This example using the spine serves to illustrate a trend of contrast between the two

skeletal collections. Skeletal changes caused by habitual or occupational activities were

considerably less prevalent among the Voegtly adults. Further context for this finding

is provided by a comparison with the Cadia collection (Lazer 2001). The researcher

only provides general descriptions of the adult component concluding that high

frequencies of well-developed muscle attachment sites on long bones of both sexes

indicate a physically active group, typical of a rural community actively involved in

mining.

Death certificate records for St. Mary's adult males show that a majority (44.4o/o) wete

occupied as labourers or farmers. Males only have been included here as it was

customary (in this case) to record the father or husband's occupation for women and

children (Cobiac 2000). The remaining men were occupied as gardeners, boot makers,

a cabinetmaker and a stone mason. One man had his occupation recorded as

'gentleman'. This information confirms the skeletal data, which predominantly show

strenuous, physical and repetitive activities undertaken by a majority of adults.

Sr.rruRB

Based on the method for deriving stature from long bone lengths produced by Trotter

and Gleser (1952) St. Mary's adult males and females were on average, slightly taller

than their Spitalfields counterparts. The mean height of Spitalf,relds males and females

was 1691 mm and 1566 mm respectively (Molleson and Cox 1993). [n comparison, St.

Mary's male and female heights were 1700 mm and 1592 mm respectively. Spitalfields

274


males were generally around 125 mm taller than females, which compares closely to the

height difference between St. Mary's males and females (108 mm).

It has been discussed previously in this thesis that the regression equations determined

by Manouvrier (1893), Pearson (1899) and Breitinger (1938) may have a closer affinity

to stature determinations for the St. Mary's group than those of (Trotter and Gleser

1952). This was due mainly to the closer temporal and geographic ties shared by the

various groups. However, because of their relatively universal use and acceptance,

stature determinations using the Trotter and Gleser (1952) equations have been used to

make the following statistical comparisons. Table 43 presents the mean stature values

for the 7 aù¿,lt females and 13 adult males using regression equations developed by four

different authors.

Table 43. St. Mary's stature estimations comparing the methods of four authors (millimetres).

Trotter Manouvrier (1893) Pearson (1899) Breitinser (1938)

MaleFemale

1700.5

1591 .5

1660.6

1s66.8

1660.1

1551.8

168s.8

nla

The results of stature determinations for the St. Mary's sample were compared

statistically with stature information derived from the Spitalfields collection (Molleson

and Cox l9g3). Analyses were performed using an unpaired t-test with probability

levels modified using 'Bonferroni's' correction (Sokal and Rohlf 1987). This t-test

allows for the meaningful comparison of two samples where there is a considerable

difference in sample size. Bonferroni's correction for the 5% significance level with 10

comparisons of means yields h.os:2.6 (Table 44).

275


Table 44. Results of unpaired l-test comparison of stature estimates for St. Mary's males and

females, versus Spitalfields males and females (underlined values represent significant difference).

Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia

Male

Female

0.33

2.42

1.35

2.62

0.88

1.63

0.80

t.24

1.42

3.72

Statistical comparison of stature estimations derived from the long bones of males

revealed no significant difference. Humeri displayed the closest similarity with a t0

value of 0.33. Despite being well within the 5o/o significance level, male tibiae revealed

the least amount of similarity atf:1.42.

In contrast to mean long bone stature comparisons using St. Mary's males, all of which

were not significantly different (Table 44), St. Mary's females showed significant

difference in the two bones. When compared to mean stature values for the Spitalfields

group, significant differences were found for values provided by radii and tibiae. The

same result was produced when standard deviations were tested for unequal variance

(Formula 2, Appendix 14). Standard deviations for long bones of Spitalfields females

were all found to be signifîcantly different from those for St. Mary's. The likely cause

of this difference was the considerably smaller sample size for the St. Mary's

component. Revised degrees of freedom calculated using formula 3 (Appendix 14)

supported the initial finding (i.e. that stature determinations between the two groups

using radii and tibiae were significantly different).

It would appear therefore, that the sample of female skeletons excavated from the St.

Mary's cemetery was taller than their English counterparts. Perhaps the best

explanation for such a finding is that with a small sample (n:7) the likelihood is that the

group were by coincidence of taller stature.

276


St. Mary's stature for both sexes was compared with adult Cadia males (n: 22) and

adult Cadia females (n:10) (Lazer 2001). The mean average height for the Cadia

sample was derived from left femora using the Trotter and Gleser (1952) regression

equations. The average height of Cadia adult males 'was 1695.9 mm (S/dev 43.9 mm);

whereas the average height of females was 1582.0 (S/dev 73.1 mm). Unpaired t-test for

both comparisons revealed no significant difference between the two samples. ln fact,

both male and female stature profiles from the two samples showed close similarity. In

addition, the average height difference between Cadia males and females (115 mm) was

similar to that of St. Mary's (119 mm).

When St. Mary's data were compared with modem Australian stature (Australian

Bureau of Statistics 1995) a different story emerged. The mean stature estimate for the

13 St. Mary's adult males (1700.5 mm, S/dev : 52.1mm) differed significantly (t0 :

5.7) from the mean value for 502 modem Australian males between 18 and 24 years

(1784.0 mm, S/dev:66.0 mm). The 18-24 years age group is used as it provides the

fully developed stature before arTy age related stature reducing factors take effect. As

humans age, stature diminishes due to the compression of vertebrae and intervertebral

discs. Stature estimated from long bone lengths provides an unaffected estimate, as

they do not shorten with age. As a result, any meaningful comparison must be made

assuming a fully developed stature, unaffected by age changes.

Standard deviations of stature of the two female groups were found to be significantly

different. 'When the degrees of freedom adjustment was made to correct for this, the /-

value of 1.99 indicated that the estimated stature for the 7 St. Mary's adult females

277


(1591.5 mm, S/dev :27.6 mm) was not significantly different from that of modem

Australian adult females (1639.0 mm * 64.0 mm). Although it can be seen that on

average, the St. Mary's females were around 20 mm shorter than modern Australian

females (1591.5 mm, S/dev :27.6 mm versus 1612.25 mm, S/dev :64.0 mm), this

measurement is not considered to be a significant increase over the time span.

It has been suggested that the amount of difference between mean stature estimates for

males and females within a population can be used to infer the effects of environmental

stressors (Higgins 1989:194). This suggestion is based on the proposal that males are

more susceptible than females, to stress from causes such as poor nutrition and disease.

The consequence is diminished stature resultant from the inability to achieve the genetic

potential for height. Therefore, according to the theory, greater observed sexual

dimorphism in stature is reflective of a healthy and well nourished population during the

years of skeletal development (Higgins 1989).

Having compared St. Mary's stature with three distinct groups, it is possible to gain

some insight into the lifeways of early European colonists in South Australia. Through

comparison with two contemporaneous groups (Spitalf,relds and Cadia) and modetn

Australians the pattem emerging from the results of adult and subadult stature analyses

reflects a combination of lifeways. Among the older adults, particularly males, it is

evident that stature was reflective of pre-emigrant life in England. However, it is

possible to suggest that evidence of a better climate and a high protein diet is emergent

from the adult female and subadult stature results.

278


Sugeoul-r cRowrH

Similarities and differences in the growth and development between samples ofjuvenile

skeletons can be used to make inference regarding general community health and

adaptation to the environment (Johnston 1968; Johnston and Zimmer 1989). Such

investigations commonly examine the adequacy of growth and can help to contextualise

skeletal data from various population samples.

It has been argued that such analyses may not be truly representative of a population's

ability to cope as the focus is on "...those individuals who died in childhood and not

necessarily the normal, healthy children in the community" (Steyn and Henneberg

1996:389). By their very presence, it is not unreasonable to infer that these individuals

died from a disease or other cause of death, which may have retarded the growth of the

individual. However, Lovejoy et al. (1990) suggest that the fast acting effects of acute

disease are more likely to cause death in children than long-lasting chronic illnesses,

which can retard growth.

With reference to Figures 28 to 31 in Chapter 6 it is clear that inter-population

comparison of subadult long bone lengths can prove to be insightful. The significant

findings from these graphs are 1) that the St. Mary's individuals struggled to cope with

their environment during infancy, and 2) that having survived infancy, the St. Mary's

individuals tended to overcome the dangers of illness and poor nutrition, and, when

compared to the Denver data (Figures 32 to 34) the older children tended to reflect

growth rates of mid 20th century American children (Maresh 1955).

279


From around the age of two to three years diaphyseal lengths of the humeri, femora and

to lesser degree tibiae for St. Mary's subadults tend to be longer than those of the five

prehistoric comparative groups. Diaphyseal length of ulnae of individuals two years

and older tended to mix with the comparative groups, however, preservation meant that

ulnae were the least available bone for this analysis. lndividuals less than two years old

at death provided diaphyseal lengths for all bones that clustered within the lengths for

comparative samples.

These findings confirm information retrieved from other sources such as archival,

historical, mortality and demographic analyses. The inference to come from inter

population comparisons is that in the early stages of life of an infant in the rough colony

of South Australia, survivorship was comparable to that of prehistoric

conditions/societies. However, upon survival of the difficult years children developed

well and exceeded growth rates of their prehistoric counterparts.

One explanation for the observed difference is that of nutrition and the relative benefits

and def,rciencies of population diets and nutritional regimes. For example, the

nutritional benefits of a pastoral lifestyle, high in animal protein, versus an agricultural

lifestyle based on cereals and vegetables. However, to use the example of the Libben

population (circa 700-900 AD) whose long bone lengths were consistently shorter than

St. Mary's individuals of the same age, diet and nutritional intake may not necessarily

be the principal factor in determining subadult growth and development. The Libben

diet has been described by Lovejoy et al. (1990:539), as having been "quantitatively

adequate and high in animal protein". The more likely cause of growth retardation in

280


this case, the authors suggest, was living conditions and the resultant levels of systemic

infection.

Perhaps to endorse this f,rnding it is relevant here to refer to the case of SM/870. The

eight to nine year old female demonstrated clear skeletal indications of a severe

systemic infection suffered over an extended period of time, which probably lead or

contributed to her death. Diaphyseal long bone lengths of humeri, femora and tibiae for

SM/870 were shorter than for all other St. Mary's subadults over two year old at death.

In this case there is a clear relationship between the observed pathologies and their

effect on the individual's ability to physically develop.

A common theme in contemporary descriptions and historical reviews of 19th century

colonial Australian diet is reference to the considerable amounts of animal protein

consumed (Watson and Hack 1962; Barker et al. 1966; Mossman and Butler 1974;

Symons 1982; Santich 1995). The typical inclusion of meat in the three main meals of

the day was made possible by the flourishing sheep and cattle industries. It would seem

that as soon as a child was able eat meat, it became a staple part of the diet resulting in

greater rates of growth and development.

Dglr¿ocnapgv

Detailed inspection of burial record data for the free ground component showed that

mortality rates changed significantly through the perio d 1847 to 1925. At the beginning

of the period life tables indicated high infant and childhood mortality and low life

expectancies. This was coupled with a relatively flat and even distribution of adult

deaths. However, after around 1875, it would appear that conditions in the colony

281


changed, whereby infant and child mortality and life expectancy improved, paralleling

the adult trend, which remained the same.

'When life tables were calculated from free ground burial records from 1847 to 1874 and

1875 to 1920, two distinct periods based on mortality become evident. For the first

three decades of the colony, the number of child burials per year was considerably more

than for adults (Figure 60). On average, approximately 4 to 5 juvenile burials per year

were recorded betweenlS4T and 1875, with peaks of eight burials in 1850 and 1851,

seven in 1854, ten in 1856 and seven in 1860. At around 1875 however, infant and

child mortality improved considerably after which an average of 1 to 2 child burials per

year are recorded.

o Adult

o Juveniles <15 years

tttroLEta,0,

.=LoLf¡oo¡¡Efz

I

8

7

6

5

4

3

2

a

a r a¡i,

ó.1n a ail,

?

aaÓ aaQ

óa

a e

..4 a a

0

1840 '1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930

Year

Figure 60. Number of adult (>15 years) and juvenile (<15 years) free ground burials between 1847

and 1920 (frequencies represented by moving averages).

There are two reasons for this. Firstly, it is at around this time that the discovery of

antisepsis and the benefits of better sanitation are beginning to be implemented by the

282

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemetety

majority of people (Woodruff 1984). Secondly, by 1875, the colony was becoming

more established and municipal improvements such as the paving of roads and

reticulation of water helped to reduce the potential for disease (Linn 1993).

Table 45 presents abridged life table results generated from age and sex information

retrieved form St. Mary's burial records and observed skeletal data. For each category

of data source, the proportion of individuals surviving to sexual maturity and life

expectancy are provided. The estimated rate of natural increase for each category is

also provided. It was felt necessary to vary the rate of natural increase for different time

periods based on contemporary census information and change over time of birth and

death rates in the colony.

Table 45. Abridged life table calculations for St. Mary's based on burial record and skeletal data.

Data source Rate ofnaturalincrease

Proportion (Vo) ofpopulation surviving

to sexual maturity(1.)

Life expectancy at birth(e,)

All free ground burialFree ground burial (females)Free ground burial (males)Observed skeletalFree ground 1847 to I874Free ground 1875 to 1920All provenanced burialsProvenanced burials 1848 tor814Provenanced burials 1875 to1900

0.0250.0250.02s0.0250.0270.0220.0250.027

0.022

66.268.367.851.146.583.586.077.5

42.643.r44.8

23.826.355.657.r44.9

64.791.8

The two most prominent findings to come from the abridged life table data presented in

Table 44 are firstly, the similarity between life expectancy and survivorship of the

'observed skeletal' and the 'free ground LS47 to 1874' groups; and secondly, the life

283


expectancy and survivorship distinctions between the 'all free ground burials' and the

'all provenanced burials' groups.

It was thought that a difference between the observed and recorded free ground age

profiles could help to explain the low life expectancy at birth demonstrated by the

skeletal sample (Table 44). A,2 x 2 contingency table Chi squared test compared the

number of individuals above and below the age of 15 years for both samples. The Chi

squared value (X2 : 0.53 at 1 degree of freedom) demonstrated that there is no

significant difference between the two age profiles. That is, the age-at-death profile of

the excavated skeletal sample can be considered a representative sub-set of the entire

free ground group.

This therefore goes against the suggestion that the excavated area may have been used

preferentially for the burial of subadults. Such a phenomenon, known as 'kinderviertel'

is German in origin and commonly involves children being buried in a separate part of

the burial yard with their graves arranged according to age and lengths (Loudon

1981:37). The evidence provided by free ground cemetery and marked cemetery burial

age profile comparison, however, supports the suggestion of preferential burial of

unbaptised individuals in the free ground. Therefore, rather than being a section

dedicated to burial of infants and children, the free ground served the combined purpose

of interment for unleased burials and burial of unbaptised, still and newborn babies.

Free ground observed versus free ground recorded

Statistical comparison between the skeletal sample age profile and the free ground

burial record profile for the period 1847-I815 revealed an insignif,rcant difference (12 :

284


1.39, p<0.01). It is therefore likely that the part of the cemetery excavated is the

coffesponding burial record grouping. In contrast, a Chi squared comparison of adult

and subadult ratios between the observed and free ground recorded from 1875 to 1927

produced a significant difference d :11 . 1 1 , p<0.0 1). That is, life table profîles created

from discrete time periods of burial register information can reflect the observed

skeletal profile allowing inference about the timing of burial area use. This method may

have an effective application when few, if any, other traditional methods (eg. non-

biological historical artefacts) for dating the site are available.

One problem, however, may confound the suggestion that age and sex profile can be

used to gain temporal context. Burial register details from 1847 to 1875 show that of

the 28 adults interred, 14 were female, 11 were male and 3 did not have their sex

recorded. The observed skeletal sample however, produced 13 adult males and seven

adult females. This finding does not reflect the recorded data. Although the observed

incidence of the number of adult males versus females may just be an accident of

excavation, à 2 by 2 contingency table Chi squared test shows that there is no

significant difference C : L97) between the observed proportion of adult males and

females versus the recorded.

There is also the suggestion that the high number of observed subadult skeletons may

provide further inference on the developmental chronology of the cemetery. The

positive identification of two burials within the study area indicated that the main

excavation area dated to around the 1850's. With reference to Figure 1 it is clear that a

high rate of child mortality was experienced in the first 25 years of the colony. Between

1847 and approximately 1870, the greatest proportion of recorded burials were children

285

The bioarchaeology o/ St. Maty's Cemetery

aged less than 15 years at death. It is therefore reasonable to suggest that if an earlier

part of the cemetery were excavated, one would expect to observe a greater

representation of subadult burials.

Free ground versus the marked cemetery

Confidence intervals at the 95o/o level show that newborn life expectancies do not

overlap confirming therefore that life expectancies between the free ground and

provenanced groups are significantly different. It would be appealing to suggest that

this observation reflects social or class distinctions whereby those who could afford a

marked burial in death, could also afford a better or healthier standard of living during

life. [n contrast, poorer people could not afford a healthy life, which is reflected by

their inability to be able to pay for a marked burial.

The reality, however, is more likely to be explained by preferential or targeted use of

the study area for the interment of unbaptised individuals. Of the 388 individuals

included in the category of a known burial location from 1846 to 1910 (none recorded

after 1910), just5 (1.3%) werereportedtohavebeenunbaptised. Incontrast, 18 of the

193 (9.3%) individuals buried in the free ground were infants recorded as unbaptised.

This is not a substantial difference, but the comparison does tend to suggest that

newborn or infant individuals who did not survive long enough to be baptised were

more likely to be buried in the free ground. It is also likely that the hve individuals

included in the marked cemetery list are buried in the free ground although there is no

evidence to support this.

286

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemelety

Life table analyses conducted by Piontek and Henneberg (1981) provide a suitable

comparative tool for the current study (Table 46). The authors use age and sex profiles,

with adjustments for natural population increase, for rural Polish communities derived

from 1) c. 550 burials recovered from a late-medieval cemetery (1350-1650); 2) church

registers of births deaths and maniages from 1828 to 1874; 3) parish register data on

deaths for the years 1952 to 1972.

Table 46. Comparison of St. Mary's survivorship and life expectancy with rural Polish andmodern South Australian data.

Sample testedProportion (%"\ of

population surviving tosexual maturity (l-)

Life expectancy at birth(e*)

Data source

St. Mary's skeletalSt. Mary's free groundrecorded1841 ro 1874St. Mary's free groundrecorded entireRural Polish1828 to 1854Rural Polish1855 to 1874

Rural Polish1952 Io 1972Modem South Australia1999 to 2001

51.1

46.5

66.2

39.5

72.6

90.0

99.3

23.8

26.3

42.6

20.1

42.5

63.4

80. I

Current study

Current study

Current study

Piontek andHenneberg (1981)Piontek and

Henneberg (1981)Piontek andHenneberg (1981)

Tucker (2003)

A comparison of survivorship and life expectancies at birth between the entire St.

Mary's free ground (42.6 years) and rural Polish from 1855 to 1874 (42.5) reveals very

similar results suggesting that similar social conditions prevailed for these contexts.

However, a comparison between St. Mary's free ground 1847 to 1874 and rural Polish

1855 to IST4indtcates large discrepancies for survivorship and life expectancy. This is

despite the similar time frames used to calculate the results. Based on the premise that

these data reflect prevailing social conditions it follows that for the period in question,

the conditions experienced by lower class South Australian colonists were worse than

for rural Polish peasants.

287


If the earlier rural Polish period (1S2S to 1854) is addressed it can be seen that both

survivorship (1.:39.5) and life expectancy (e*:20.1) are considerably lower than the

corresponding fields for St. Mary's 1847 to 1874 (1,.:46.5; e*:26.3). This suggests

that a population's mortality rate is a function of time since establishment of the

community. That is, as the length of establishment time increases, mortality decreases.

The rural Polish people of 1828 to 1854 struggled to cope with their existence.

However, by 1855, when South Australia was still a new colony, the rural Polish

community was well established as reflected by greater survivorship and improved life

expectancies. The principal reason for improvement in the rural Polish context arose

from abolishment of the feudal system. Once the peasantry had been granted freehold

ownership of their land during the mid-1850's the economic benefits led to a steady

increase in living conditions (Piontek and Henneberg 1981).

The results of life table analyses describe a situation, fairly typical of 19th century

western society. That is, a high rate of infant mortality and relatively low (in

comparison to modern Westem) life expectancies among adults. A comparison of life

table results based on data from St. Mary's burial records and the Parish register of a

Polish rural community (Piontek and Henneberg 1981) reveal very similar life

expectancies and survivorships for the same period (i.e. mid 19th century)'

Various authors in the field of biological anthropology (Harmon and Rose 1989; Walker

and Lambert 1989; Larsen and Milner 1994) have demonstrated a link between

increased biological stress and major cultural change. Using mortality as a gauge of

biological stress it is clear that the major ordeal of relocation of individuals and families

288


from England and other European countries to the unestablished colonies of Australia

was a major cause of high moftality. A combination of factors such as the lack of clean

water, poor access to food, insufhcient housing, lack of medical support and little or no

social infrastructure meant that the most vulnerable individuals struggled to survive.

Other examples of the influence of major cultural change and its effects during the late

19th and early 20th centuries can be found both locally and abroad. This was certainly

the case in the Cadia study where the community represented by the skeletal remains

\¡/ere experiencing similar conditions to those of St. Mary's. Further abroad, the age-at-

death prof,rle, which emerged from the Freedman's study, also indicated a shift in

cultural paradigm. In this case, it was not the relocation of an entire society, but the

transition from slavery to freedom and independent survival (Tiné 2000).

NUTRITTON AND STABLE ISOTOPE ANALYSIS

According to Santich (1995) eating habits are the last to be dropped or modified when

people immigrate to a new country. English emigrants to Australia were no exception

to this and nineteenth century Australians continued to follow the English style of

cooking, meal structure and prejudice against other forms of food use and preparation.

Of particular importance to English tastes was an appetite for meat, a dietary component

that became even more important to their colonial descendants (Santich 1995).

One way of effectively inferring past diet from skeletal remains is the application of

analyses for stable isotopes. The analysis of stable isotope composition of nitrogen and

carbon in the collagen of bone has been demonstrated to reflect broad dietary content

(Schwarcz and Schoeninger l99l; Schoeninger and Moore 1992; Pate 1994). Stable

289


isotopes are taken up and incorporated into the tissues of all living things. In animals

this occurs through interactions such as eating, drinking and breathing. As bone is

continuously formed and reformed through the life of an individual, a record of the

stable isotope intake is maintained. Through stable isotope analysis of the organic

(collagen) component of bone it is possible to infer the intake of broad categories of

food. Such categories include the relative proportions of meat, seafood and vegetables.

Due to the relatively slow tumover rate of cortical bone it is possible to determine an

approximate lifetime dietary average for a given individual.

Baseline stable isotope values were used to compare and place the St. Mary's data in a

dietary context (Taylor 2001). For example, sea lions (Arctocephalus cinereus), which

exist on a I00Yo seafood diet, provide a mean õtsN value of 17 .5o/oo and a mean õt3C

value of -12.9%o, whereas koalas, (Phascolarctus cinereus), which exist purely on a

terrestrial diet of vegetation provide a mean õlsN value of 5.5%o and a mean õl3C value

of -22.5%o (Pate and Schoeninger 1993). By placing mean St. Mary's stable isotope

values on a scale delimited by the above comparative values, it is possible to begin to

infer the relative proporlions of dietary components.

Stable isotope analyses were undertaken on bone samples taken from 54 St. Mary's

skeletons (Taylor 2001). Subjects included the 20 adults and 34 subadults (Tab\e 47).

Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope values for St Mary's indicate that on average adults

buried in this section of the cemetery had similar diets. The average adult diet would

have consisted of approximately 32T" seafood, 60% terrestrial meat (e.g. cattle, sheep)

and 8%o terrestrial vegetation (e.g. wheat, barley). On average, males ingested greater

quantities of seafood than females but the difference was small, i.e. only 3 to 5Yo.

290


Elevated nitrogen isotope values in infants relative to adult females suggest that breast

milk was a principal component of the infant diets.

Table 47. Summary of carbon and nitrogen stable isotope results for 54 St. Mary's skeletons.

Mean (%o)

õlsN ôr3c

Range (%o)

õrsN õr3c

Standarddeviation

ô1sN õl3cAll subjects (n=54)

Adult female (n=7)

Adult male (n:13)Subadult < 3 years (n=30)

Subadult 6-13 years (n=4)

Adults (n=20)

t2.9

11.7

t2.2

t3.4

12.5

12.0

- 18.3

-18.9

-18.5

- 18.1

-18.2

-18.6

9.8 to 16.0

9.8 to 13.3

10.3 to 13.7

l0.l to 16.0

ll.5 To 14.2

9.8 to 13.7

0.9

0.7

1.0

1.0

0.4

0.9

-20.3 to -16.0

-20.0 to -17.8

-20.3 to -17.3

-20.2 to -16.0

-18.5 to -17.6

-20.3 to -17.3

1.7

1.1

1.1

1.6

t.21.1

The reconstructed diet for adults is consistent with 1) the expected diet in relation to the

coastal location of colonial Adelaide and2) archaeological food remains recovered from

early Adelaide historical sites (Jones et al. 1997; Anson and Matic 2002). Access to

seafood and domesticated animals and plants is expected and is recorded in

archaeological sites. However, unlike conventional archaeological remains (tools,

fauna, flora), stable isotope analyses provide quantitative information regarding past

dietary components in individuals and populations.

The profile of past diet inferred from stable isotope data tends to be conf,rrmed by

historical accounts of food consumption trends in colonial Australia (Symons 1982;

Santich 1995). In fact the amount of meat eaten by Australians in 1853 led one

observer to comment that "the quantity of animal food consumed in this country is

extraordinary; almost everyone eats meat three times a day" (Mossman and Butler

1974:104). In comparison, the availability of meat in England (Barker et al. 1966) led

another writer of the time to implore: "Let the labouring pauper come hither, and if he

29t


can do nothing but dig, he will be welcome to 23s. (Shillings) a week, and feast on fat

mutton and beef' (Watson and Hack 1962).

Similarly, the location of the Adelaide plain in close proximity to the relatively

untouched fishing grounds of Gulf St. Vincent meant that the European colonists had

access to another plentiful food supply. What's more, fish and other products of the sea

were a resource that the Europeans were familiar with and well knew how to exploit

(Wallace-Carter 1987). One reporter of the time recorded that:

"The inlets, bays and waters of South Australia abound in excellent fish.

It is not uncommon to take three to four hundredweight at one cast;

snappers, rock cod, bream, mullet, whiting, rock and bed oysters and

prawns, also mackerel, and silver fish and small white-fleshed fish like

salmon-trout. The River Torrens abounds in crawfish and another

delicatefish."

(Stephens 1839:61)

Seafood in the early decades of the colony was readily available at reasonable prices.

This meant that all members of the colony had access to a rich and beneficial source of

protein. Although commenting on the situation in Sydney Meredith (1844), was

impressed by the fish available at the market, particularly the plentiful and cheap rock-

oysters, crayfish and whiting. Oysters (also known as 'poor-mans food') had

traditionally been cheap in England and were within reach of the poorest (Symons

te82).

292


In South Australia, plentiful supplies of oysters were shipped to Glenelg after their

collection from natural beds along the surrounding coastlines. The fishery was

exploited to the extent that the first fisheries legislation \ryas the Oyster Fisheries Act of

1853, designed to encourage the formation of artificial beds in places where no natural

beds existed. Most of the native oyster beds were over exploited and by the early 20'h

century had been virtually wiped out (Wallace-Carter 1987).

Stable isotope data reveal a high (32%) reliance on seafood in the diet of the adult St.

Mary's skeletal sample. This finding is well supported by the historical documentation

(Symons 1982; V/allace-Carter 1987; Santich 1995). The results of isotopic analyses

indicate that despite a relatively low component of fruit and vegetables (as indicated by

õl3C values), the diet of St. Mary's adults was high in protein, particularly meat and fish

(as indicated by õtsN values). The reason for this combination of dietary components

arises from cultural and practical factors. Culturally, the 19th century English diet was

heavily reliant on meat and somewhat dismissive of vegetables.

The early European settlers struggled with the local soil and environment, making the

production of vegetables diff,rcult. Furthermore, the success of grazing from as early as

1822,led to the proliferation of livestock. The relative glut of cattle and sheep led to

the high dependence of the colonial population on animal products (Symons 1982:27).

Information regarding dietary differences between paupers and upper classes in colonial

Adelaide must await further isotopic research involving human remains representing the

more affluent classes.

293


SueRtulr HEALTH AND NUTRITIoN

Perhaps one of the more telling statistics to come from this study is that of the 70

individuals recovered, 43 (61.4%o) were subadults aged less than five years at death.

Despite the possible attribution of a portion of this component to the preferential use of

the free ground to bury unbaptised individuals, it is evident that the profile reflects the

high incidence of infant and child mortality in the early years of the colony. Historical

accounts and isotop e data suggest, however, that nutrition was not the cause. Poor

living conditions and a lack of social infrastructure resulting in a proliferation of

infectious diseases were the principal reason for the mortality rate.

The main sources of skeletal evidence addressed on the subject of infant and child

health and nutrition included stature, dental disease, stable isotopes and cribra orbitalia.

Lines of arrested growth were investigated in one case (SM/870); however, a lack of

resources prevented a wider x-ray study of St. Mary's individuals in this regard. Stature

analyses tended to suggest that the St. Mary's children received better nourishment than

prehistoric samples such as Indian Knoll (Johnston 1962), Altenerding (medieval

Germany) (Sundick 1978), Eskimo and Aleut (y'Edynak 1976), Libben (Amerindians)

(Lovejoy et al. 1990) and Mapungubwe South Africa, 10008P) (Steyn and Henneberg

1996). St. Mary's long bone length by age was lower than the more recent Denver

sample of the 1950's (Maresh 1955).

This finding confirms that an adequate diet was available to most if not all members of

the community as indicated by contemporary accounts. Stable isotope data indicate that

fruit and vegetables were consumed although in smaller quantities (8%). However, it is

more likely that a diet rich in animal protein was responsible for the observed growth

294

The bioarchaeologt oJ'St. Mary's Cemetety

pattern among subadults. This point once again reflects the more pastoral existence of

the St. Mary's people and confirms contemporary descriptions of diet and lifestyle as

discussed previously in this thesis. It is also possible to suggest that a genetic

propensity for greater stature was demonstrated in the St. Mary's through comparison

with the Mapungubwe sample. The Mapungubwe people also existed on a pastoral

lifestyle, with a diet high in meat and dairy foods. However, statures for he group

(Figures 28 to 31) were considerably shorter (Steyn and Henneberg 1996) than the St.

Mary's sample, indicating the influence of other regulatory forces.

Cribra orbitalia

More direct evidence of nutritional dehciency lies in the incidence of cribra orbitalia.

The greater body of evidence points to dietary iron deficiency (anaemia) as the principal

cause of cribra orbitalia (Stuart-Macadam 1992a) and excludes other factors such as

vitamin C deficiency (scurvy). Bilateral pitting of the orbital roof (cribra orbitalia) was

observed in seven St. Mary's individuals (SM/84, 19,27b,28,51,52b,75) between the

ages of one and 13 years at death. Two adults (SM/868 and SM/885) showed signs of

the healed form of the condition.

It is suggested that the subadult incidence of cribra orbitalia reflects a period of hardship

during early life. Possible causes for this may have been diet related, but more likely

the result of illness during infancy or stress associated with the weaning process.

Stuart-Macadam, (1992a) among others, suggests that the bodies' anaemic condition,

which in the past has been said to be caused by an iron deficient diet, is instead a

defensive mechanism adapted to combat blood borne pathogens. Cribra orbitalia are

therefore a broad indicator of a population's health and relative pathogen load.

29s


The incidence of cribra orbitalia among observable St. Mary's subadults was 16.3%. In

comparison to other skeletal samples this figure would appear to be quite low,

particularly when it is considered that high rates in other skeletal samples have been

attributed to high pathogen loads and poor living conditions. For example, Carlson

(1974) reported 32.0% among Nubians; Cybulski (1977) reported 26.5% among British

Columbian subadults; Hengen (I971) reported 68.1% among German subadults; and,

Piontek and Kozlowski (2002) reported 47.8% among Polish subadults.

The low incidence of cribra orbitalia in the St. Mary's sample is probably attributable to

the large number of subadult individuals aged less than one year at death. Twenty-nine

(58%) of the 50 St. Mary's subadults could be included in this category. If this group is

excluded from incidence calculations, the revised rate of cribra orbitalia is 33.30/".

Reasons for the exclusion of this group are fwofold. Firstly, due to the etiology of the

pathologies and their relationship with breast-feeding and weaning processes, cribra

orbitalia are generally not found in infants (Palkovich 1987).

Secondly, excavations of samples from discrete cemeteries have often seen poor

representation of infants due to factors of preservation, excavation methods and burial

depths. For example, just 7 (7 .6%) of the Gruczno subadult sample, were aged one year

or less at death (Piontek and Kozlowski 2002). Eleven (4.4%) of the 248 individuals

less than 12 years of age in a Peruvian sample were aged less than two years at death

(Ortner et al. 1999). Ubelaker and Jones (2003) observed only 7 (1.4%) cases of

subadult cribra orbitalia among approximately 495 Voegtly individuals.

296


It is therefore suggested that the incidence of cribra orbitalia in the St. Mary's sample is

comparable to other skeletal samples studied (Piontek and Kozlowski 2002) where high

rates of cribra orbitalia have been attributed to high pathogen loads and poor living

conditions. If the lack of relation between diet and the presence of anaemia is valid, as

demonstrated by Stuart-Macadam (1992), the incidence of cribra orbitalia among St.

Mary's subadults is reflective of the population's pathogen load. As one third of the

sample displayed direct evidence of a reaction to anaemia, other indicators of high

infant mortality (eg. demographic and historical) and poor living conditions are

corroborated.

Interestingly, the SM/870 case (possible congenital syphilis and tuberculosis) did not

display cribra orbitalia despite clear evidence of the presence of a long-term infectious

condition(s). That this individual clearly suffered from a debilitating pathogen load and

yet showed no sign of orbital roof pitting, casts further doubts on the interpretations of

these pathologies.

Dental indicators

The incidence of enamel hypoplasia is considered to be a reliable indicator of a given

population's health status (Hillson 1996). Considering the large representation of

subadult material among the St. Mary's sample, the incidence of enamel hypoplasia was

expected to be high. However, hypoplastic lesions were found to occur in just seven

(14%) subadults (SM/B19, 27b, 28, 5I, 52b,58, 70) ranging in age from 18 months to

13 years at death. Of the seven individuals, two were aged two years or less, whereas

the remainder were eight years or older. Five of these individuals were also observed to

have cribra orbitalia.

291


As a proportion of the subadult sample, seven affected individuals would seem to be a

low figure, particularly considering the associated evidence of high levels of hardship.

This evidence stems mainly from life table derived mortality rates and life expectancies,

but is also apparent from recorded sources, principally death certificates. Once again

however, a major cause for the underrepresentation of hypoplastic lesions is the large

proportion of juveniles aged less than one year at death. It was often found that

individuals were so young that their dentition had not developed from the bud stage. As

a result, dental indicators of stress were unobservable in many cases. Furthermore, the

high proportion of neonate individuals meant that issues of preservation precluded many

individuals from dental observations.

Where an individual had survived long enough to fully develop some dentition (two

years and older), it was common to observe hypoplastic lesions. Of the ten individuals

aged between two and 15 years at death, five (50%) had one or more hypoplastic

lesions. It is evident therefore that the majority of infants buried in the free ground died

at a very early age, either from complications of birth or as a result of infectious disease.

When an infectious disease is acute the onset and expression of the illness and its signs

occur so rapidly that the individual dies before bone changes have had a chance to

develop. Those that managed to survive the first few danger years often bore the scars

of their struggle to survive in the form of cribra orbitalia and enamel hypoplasia.

It would appear therefore that poor nutrition tended not to be the paramount cause of

observed mortality rates. In general terms, St. Mary's infants and children displayed

better rates of growth than comp arative samples, with the exclusion of a 20th century

298


North American sample. Stable isotope data indicated high component of animal

protein and contemporary writings suggest a plentiful and relatively diverse food

supply. The high rate of infant mortality was therefore attributable to poor sanitary

conditions. Availability of clean drinking water; access to adequate shelter;

infrastructure such as drainage/sewage, roads, paving and medical facilities, were issues

yet to be addressed during the formative years of the colony. As the colony became

established, lifestyles improved and, infant and child mortality rates decreased.

D¡NTRI HEALTH AND HYGIENE

Much of the work of the 19th century dentist involved tooth extraction as other remedies

often did little to relieve the patient's suffering (Hagger 1979). Furthermore, virhrally

anyone was permitted to practice dentistry including "...doctors, chemists, druggists,

barbers and even blacksmiths" (Hagger 1979:178), a situation, which continued to the

end of the 19th century. By the 1840's South Australia's population had reached 20,000.

It was then that the first dentist arrived from London.

It is clear from examination of advertisements in daily newspapers of the time that

dental practitioners were present in Adelaide during the early years of the colony

(Figure 61). However, one's ability to access and pay for dental treatment may well

have been restricted. This point is particularly relevant to the St. Mary's analysis and

the separation and treatment of the poor in colonial South Australia.

299


I

,ù

,to

'at-

5

RÅYE, CIVIL EÑCINE,EF^r\0. 1t Iiirg lYilliam-straur,

R

Figure 61. Newspaper advertisement from The (Adelaide) Adverliser,l2 July 1858.

Chapman (1937) wrote on the history of dentistry in South Australia from 1836 to 1936.

The South Australian Parliament passed the first 'Dentists' Act' in 1902 followed in

1903 by the first issue of the 'Dentists' Register'. Little remains of the records of

practitioners during the 19th century with most information coming from newspaper

advertisements.

In 1840 two businesses tendered their services in all operations of dental surgery. One

of these businesses, Bayldon and Co., Chemists of Hindley Street (the main commercial

street of colonial Adelaide), advertised the supply of artificial teeth. By 1849 a Mr.

Norman and a Mr. Pardoe provided services including "...the regulation of children's

teeth and the f,rtting of false noses and palates" (Chapman 1937:11). The latter services

are a testament to the period preceding the effective treatment of treponematosis.

300


During the 1850's there were at least twelve dentists practicing in the city. Some of

these would periodically travel into the surrounding countryside to find more business.

It was during this period that Chapman(1937:12) reports the introduction and use of

"incorrodible (sic) mineral teeth" and "new gum coloured gutta percha" for denture

bases. However, it was not until the 1860's that the advent of "self adhesion plates"

was first recorded in Adelaide newspapers (Chapman 1937:I4). Further improvements

in the manufacture of prosthodontics were made during the 1870's with the introduction

of vulcanite.

Hagger (1979) reports that colonial dentists usually practiced in the more densely

populated areas of coastal towns and cities. This meant that country folk often had to

make do with the less qualif,red and inexperienced lay dentists. The lay dentists

however, charged as much for their services as a qualified practitioner. For example,

"as early as 1810 a storekeeper atParramatta (then a town near Sydney) recorded that

he had charged five shillings to draw a tooth" (Hassall 1810; Hagger 1979:178).

Woodforde (1968) claims that dental intervention was expensive for rich and poor alike

and that extraction of troublesome teeth was often the more attractive solution. This is

supported by findings of the Spitalfields analysis where despite the large number of

subjects evidence of dental restorations was rare (Molleson and Cox 1993). The reason

given for this was that such procedures were extremely expensive. Details from Cadia

Cemetery (Lazer 2000:56) present a finding similar to that of the current study. In this

case, three individuals out of lll (37 adults) burials recovered presented evidence of

dental intervention.

301

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemeter

In many St. Mary's cases, signif,rcant loss of dentition can be directly related to the

incidence of pathological conditions. The combination of a modern Vy'estern diet and a

failure to regularly clean teeth culminated in the severe degree of dental pathologies

observed throughout the sample. This phenomenon, however, is not limited by one's

social standing or fiscal position in society. Poor dental health was common amongst

all classes during Victorian times, a point demonstrated in the Spitalfields study. More

than 87o/o of individuals in the Spitalfields collection had experienced the effect of

carious lesions in some form (Mollesoî et al. 1993).

There was no evidence of entodontic (eg. fîllings) or other restorative procedures

observed within the St. Mary's sample. This finding may be interpreted in two ways.

Firstly, the isolation of the new colony and relative lack of dental practitioners meant

that it was not possible to access the facilities required to maintain dental care.

Secondly, the cost of dental consultation may have been prohibitive and without the

implementation of organised Government health care many people did not see dentists.

It is suggested that the prevalence of advanced carious lesions and resultant periapical

disease was of greater influence to dentition than the incidence of periodontal disease.

The predominant pattern seen in the dentition of St. Mary's adults is that in general

terms dental hygiene was poor. However, in terms of a pre-modem Western society the

standards of personal dental care were on a par with those reconstructed from similar

groups from the same or similar periods. The inability or indifference of the individual

to remove foreign build-up from their teeth inevitably led to dental decay. Such decay

commonly took the form of caries and/or periodontal disease. The high incidence of

302

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemeter

caries among the St. Mary's adults probably resulted in the high incidence of

antemortem tooth loss.

Conversely, although the incidence of bony change due to periodontal disease was

prominent within the sample, tooth loss did not appear to be caused by such disease. In

this regard, then, it is suggested that despite acting as a good indicator of dental health

and hygiene, periodontal disease played a less significant role in the lifestyle and day-

to-day well being of the target group in comparison to the influence of dental caries.

The twenty St. Mary's adults had an average of 16.5 teeth each, indicating a high degree

of antemortem loss. Hypoplastic lesions were identified in the dentition of almost every

St. Mary's adult. Several edentulous or near edentulous individuals were present, as

was one individual (SM/879) who displayed almost complete dentition unaffected by

hypoplastic changes. Of the remainder (n:16) hypoplasia was observed on aî aveÍage

of 9.4 teeth per mouth. The principal finding therefore is that approximately 80% of St.

Mary's adults displayed evidence of one or more disruptive episodes suffered during

infancy or childhood.

Despite the relatively small sample sizes, the rate of hypoplasia among St. Mary's

adults (80%;n:20) and children between two and 13 years old at death (50%; n:10)

could suggest that living conditions for the older generation were poorer than for their

offspring. Almost half (45.3%) of the 331 permanent teeth observed displayed

hypoplastic lesions. [n contrast, the Voegtly Cemetery study found I8.2% of permanent

teeth had been affected by hypoplasiae (Ubelaker and Jones 2003).

303


It is clear that most, if not all of the St. Mary's adults immigrated to Australia from

England. Historical records and skeletal analyses for geographical origin show this. It

is suggested therefore that the combination of poor diet and unfavourable climate

endured by the adults prior to their emigration, could account for the observed

differences. Those individuals born in Australia had access to better nutrition and

experienced a more beneficial climate. This finding is supported by accounts of living

conditions for the poor and working class people of 19th century England (Thompson

re64).

The predominantly waÍner and drier Australian climate was used as a selling point by

those promoting emigration to the new colonies (eg. Capper 1838). Furthermore, the

benefits to health of the warrner and drier Australian climate were well known in the

19th century and often seen as a treatment for asthma, chronic bronchitis, and bronco-

pneumonia (Thompson I97 9).

The diet of the English working class during the 19th century has been well documented

(eg. Beckett 1984; Brears et al. 1994; Santich 1995). It (the working class diet)

contrasted considerably with the wealthy classes who consumed large amounts of

animal protein. The first half of the 19th century saw major changes associated with

industrialisation, the principal result of which was the relocation of country labourers

(and their families) to the slums of cities (Black 1994). Here the vast majority subsisted

largely on bread and potatoes or ponidge. The situation for the poor improved

somewhat after 1848 with the importation of mass-produced canned foods and

technological improvements in flour milling (Black 1994:268). However, there is little

wonder that promotions to entice workers to colonial Australia emphasized the

304

The bioarchqeology of St. Mary's Cemetety

availability of meat ('three times a day') and a 'salubrious' climate (Capper 1838;

'Watson and Hack 1962).

The Freedman's Cemetery sample had adult (72.0%) and subadult (58.0%) rates of

enamel hypoplasia, which more closely resembled observed St. Mary's frequencies

(Ubelaker and Jones 2003). This comparison confirms previous findings of this thesis

that the more established and affluent 19th century community of Voegtly enjoyed better

living conditions than the St. Mary's and Freedman's groups. The rate of hypoplasia

within the two latter groups directly reflects the relationship between increased

biological stress and major cultural change.

Dental caries

Of the 331 permanent teeth observed, 135 (40.8%) displayed one or more carious

lesion. This was despite the 20 individuals, on average, having just over half (16.5) of

the full complimen t of 32 teeth. On average, each mouth contained 6.7 carious lesions.

One individual (SM lB23) had caries on 22 of his remaining 23 teeth. Another

individual (SM/853c) had carious lesions on all of her 14 remaining teeth. The

interproximal areas were the most common (46.70/o) location for caries followed by

occlusal surfaces (24.4%). Large carious cavities were also common contributing

20.0% to the total number of carious lesions.

Caries was far less frequently observed among the subadult component. Very few

lesions were observed in infants under three years (n:40), in contrast to children aged

between three and 13 years at death (n:10). The latter group had an average of 2.9

carious lesions each. In fact of the 40 individuals aged less than three years, just ten

305


carious lesions were recorded, with seven lesions occuffing in the one individual

(sM/B58)

This finding illustrates the relationship between the cumulative development of dental

lesions and the individuals' age. The disproportionate number of infant individuals in

the sample tends to skew the representation of the various dental and skeletal

pathologies. Due to their immaturity, these individuals have not had time to develop

and survive with, or experience the forces or pathogens that lead to dental and skeletal

changes.

The therapeutic benefits of dental plaque and calculus removal have been understood

for centuries. For example, it is known that toothpaste was used in India and China as

early as 500 BC; and, that French dentists promoted the use of toothbrushes in the 17th

and early 18th centuries (Bellis 2004). Toothpaste was not mass-produced until 1873

(Cole 2OO2). Tooth brushing as it is practiced today derives from the 17th century

practice of using rags or a sponge dipped in sulphur oil or a salt solution to rub the teeth

clean. In order to reach the posterior teeth, the rag was attached to a stick. This led to

the creation of the first toothbrush by V/illiam Addis of Clerkenwald, England who

mass-produced his invention from around 1780 (The Library of Congress 2004).

Following the first American patent in 1850, toothbrushes were not mass-produced until

1 885

It is therefore likely that the people of St. Mary's suffered from a high incidence of

carious lesions for the following reasons

306

The bioarchaeology oJ'St. Mary's Cemelery

Poor understanding of the causes resulting in continued consumption of

cariogenic foods and failure to remove build-up of dental plaque and calculus.

Poor access to qualified dental practitioners

Prohibitive expense of seeking dental advice

Lack of products for the cleaning of teeth

SM/884 and the dentures

A degree of importance has been placed on the discovery of a full set of dentures with

the remains of SM/B84. The reasons for this are twofold; firstly as the denfures were

the only well preserved and diagnostic (in the archaeological sense) non-skeletal

artefacts recovered during excavations. Secondly, implications arise from the

association of what would have been new and probably very expensive technology, and

a supposedly destitute person buried in a free ground plot.

Advertisements appeared in the Sydney Moming Herald as early as 18 August 1859

selling artificial teeth on vulcanite bases:

"...MR. Eskell continues to supply the loss of teeth without

springs or wires upon his new system of self adhesion and

without extracting any tooth or stump, or giving the slightest pain

whatsoever, at the following charges: a single artificial tooth,

from l0 s(illings)"

(Halliday 1977:39).

Costs were advertised from 10 shillings for a single tooth to f5 5s for a complete set,

however, by December 1861 the price for a single tooth had dropped to five shillings.

a

a

o

a

307


The average weekly wage for this period was approximately 10 shillings (Vamplew

1987). This meant that to purchase a full set of dentures in the mid-nineteenth century

required around ten weeks of work. This is more or less equivalent of undertaking the

same exercise in the modern context. Further, govemment or state based health systems

were nonexistent during the colonial phase meaning that individuals had to cover all

cost alone.

That professional dental advice was sold at a prohibitive rate is supported by

comparison with the Cadia cemetery sample where two people were buried with

dentures and another one showed evidence of dental intervention. The author similarly

found that "such dental care was expensive and was limited to those who could afford

the price (Higginbotham et al. 2002). This contrasts with the hnding of Matic (2003)

who suggests that the cost of such dentures was relatively inexpensive.

As a consequence, it can be seen that the purchase of a full set of dentures (and any

dental work for that matter) was quite prohibitive. SM/884 was the only individual in

the entire sample to show evidence of dental work. It is quite likely therefore that

expense was a major factor prohibiting many individuals from seeking dental

consultation. Tiné (2000:513) points out that archaeological evidence of professional

dental caÍe"...may reflect one's social or economic status." The author attributes the

low incidence (3.8%) of dental restorations among the Freedman's sample to the

expense required to pay for such work.

In terms of SM/884, the question that arises is why was an individual who could afford

a fuIl set of dentures, interred in an unmarked grave? It is possible that the individual

308


fell on hard times during the later years of life. The amount of resorption of the alveolar

process indicates that the individual (42 to 50 year old female) was edentulous for up to

25 years, enough time for a person to go from financial security to poverty.

Alternatively, it may simply have been a case of family members disposing of the

remains at the least possible cost.

The Spitalf,relds study reports nine (1 .4Yo; n:623) individuals wearing dentures or

bridges at the time of burial (Molleson and Cox 1993). The authors suggest however,

that the use of such prosthodontics was more common in the late 18th and early 19th

centuries in London. It is proposed that denture sets were likely to have been removed

prior to burial of the dead. This is not likelyto be the case at St. Mary's as none of the

remaining 19 adults were edentulous or showed any other indication of having had

partial dentures.

The final point to be discussed in regard to SM/884 and the dentures relates to the

burial location within the study area. With reference to the excavation site plan 13 the

location of burial 84 is seen in relation to its association with the positively identified

burial 83. John Pell (SM/883) was buried in March of 1859. Burial 84 (a 45 year old

female) was placed next to burial 83 (John Pell) at a similar depth suggesting that the

dates for interment of both individuals are more or less contemporaneous.

Woodforde (1968:7\ reports that false teeth reliant on the 'suction' design were

relatively common in England from 1845 and that by the 1860's and 1870's false teeth

advertisements still proclaimed atmospheric pressure as a "marvellous new dental

invention". This therefore allows for the circumstance whereby the dentures recovered

309


from SM/884 were indeed purchased in England and brought to Australia with the

individual. It is also possible that more established colonies such as Sydney were

manufacturing and supplying denture services to the other colonies (Halliday l9l7).

The fact that the denture base was made from vulcanite does not discount the possibility

that they were purchased abroad before arriving in Australia with the wearer. Chapman

(1931) reports the use of r,ulcanised dentures from the 1870's. However, following the

invention of vulcanisation by Charles Goodyear in 1839, "the era of false teeth for the

masses began in the 1850's" (Woodforde 1968:87).

With reference to free ground burial records in chronological order (Appendix 2b), it

may be possible to suggest the identity of the denture-wearing individual. Following

the burial of John Pell in 1859, the next burial of a female in her early 40's was that of

Ellen Reeves in September of 1865. The following month Maria Haynes was also

buried in the free ground. Both women were recorded as being 41 years old when they

died. Morphological assessment of the well-preserved remains indicated a female in her

early forties. Burial in 1865 would certainly fit a timeline for the use and availability of

dentures such as these in South Australia.

NoNn¿BrRrc TRAITS

A variety of epigenetic traits were observed and recorded within the St. Mary's sample,

However, it is proposed that little in the way of meaningful conclusions can be drawn

with regard to population trends or familial relationships due to small sample size.

Having stated this, however, a high proportion of incidences of metopic sutures and

open sacral canal spina bifida occulta were observed within the sample.

310

The bioarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemelety

Metopism

Three (10.3%) of the 29 St. Mary's individuals mature enough (i.e. the sutura

interfrontalis usually closes after two years) to exhibit the unfused metopic suture. This

figure is generally above the incidence observed in eight other comparative samples

(Berry and Berry 1961). However, when compared to data recorded for England,

Scotland and Ireland (Kozincev 1975) it may be possible to draw a link between the

observed metopism and geographic origin. Kozincev (1975) has compiled rates from

two to 9.5Yo for various statistically robust English samples; 9.3o/o for an Irish sample;

and,9.5 to 16.30/o for three Scottish samples.

The source of data for one of the Scottish samples cited (Turner 1905) is as small

(n:2I) as the St. Mary's sample. The other two samples are statistically robust. The

suggestion here, however, is that the incidence of metopism in the St. Mary's sample

may reflect a high degree of Scottish ancestry in free ground burials.

Table 48 presents the geographic origin of the I29 recorded free ground burial

surnames. English surnames were predictably the most common followed by those that

have ambiguous English and Scottish origins (Bardsley 1875; Harrison 1912; Black

1946). Twenty-four surnames were of an unambiguous Scottish origin (Black 1946).

Tabte 48. Geographic origin of surnames recorded for free ground burials (N:129).

Nationality English Enelish/Scottish Scottish German Irish Welsh lndeterminateNumber ofindividuals (7o)

JJ

(2s.6) (64

(4e.6)4

(3.1)1

(0.8)1

(0.8)2

( 1.5)24

18.6)

311


It is therefore possible to suggest that around 20% of the free ground burials were

people of Scottish ancestry based on the evidence of their surnames. This would appear

to be too low a figure to account for the observed incidence of metopism. Furthermore,

the fact that Christian Scots were/are predominantly Presbyterian would mean that they

were less likely to be buried in the grounds of an Anglican church. It is possible that

having been granted a burial order, individual cases were not given a choice of

cemetery. Alternatively, internal migration within the United Kingdom meant that

geographic boundaries no longer applied to surnames.

It would seem therefore, that a link between geographic origirVancestry and the

observed incidence of metopism would be difhcult to demonstrate/confirm using the

current sample. Further excavation and recovery of a larger sample would perhaps

work towards creating a clearer understanding of the proposed relationship. Once

again, because of the small sample size, it is not unlikely that the observed incidence of

metopism is merely a function of circumstance, whereby the three affected individuals

just happened to be present in the confines of the excavation area.

Spina bifida occulta

In comparison to most other published samples, the incidence of spina bifida occulta

amongst St. Mary's adults was high. At25% the incidence at St. Mary's was similar to

the Taforalt Cave sample (27%; n:15) (Ferembach 1963); an ancient Egyptian sample

(22%; n:58) (Post 1966); and, a large, modern British sample (22%; n:2704) (Fidas et

al. 1987). A sample of 77 Anglo-Saxon skeletons (1Oth c AD) revealed spina bifida at a

rate of 30% (Fidas et al. 1987) indicating an early ancestry of the condition in Britain.

3t2


Bearing in mind the small sample size, it may be possible to infer that the incidence of

spina bifida in the St. Mary's sample is reflective of the group's British ancestry. The

incidence of spina bifida in most other samples was much lower than that seen among

samples representing supposed St. Mary's ancestry. [t is suggested that the observation

of spina bifida in the sample not only demonstrates the group's English origins, but also

reflects a degree of linearity whereby the incidence of the condition within the

population has been gradually decreasing since the tenth century.

From a high of 3OY" reported for Anglo-Saxons of the 1Oth century, to a low of 22o/o for

modern British (Fidas et al. 1987), and I5Yo lor a sample of 115 modern Londoners

(Saluja 1988), it is possible to infer that the rate observed at St. Mary's lies more or less

between the early and modern extremes. Once again however, such a conclusion must

be made with caution due to the small sample size and particularly the adult component.

Despite the sample size, however, these two epigenetic trait examples perhaps serve to

demonstrate that the collection still has some potential for inferences regarding studies

ofancestry and geographic origin.

HIsrozucRL RECORDS

Detailed analysis of the St. Mary's historical documents identified three categories of

individual buried within the study area:

Those buried in a marked plot of a known or recorded location

Those buried in an unmarked plot in the free/unleased ground

a

a Those whose burial was recorded but without providing the location

313


With the positive identihcation of SM/859 and SM/883, however, it was concluded

that those in the latter two categories belonged to the same group. This conclusion was

based on the fact the two positively identified individuals had their burial recorded but

not their burial location.

In addition to such recording inconsistencies, other factors such as the misspelling of

surnames; the omission of fields of information; and, the loss or damage of original

documents meant that in order to retrieve information, other strategies had to be

implemented. This usually involved searching records (eg. death certificate indices)

using various spellings of the recorded surname. For example, the sumame

Schönemann recorded in the burial register, was found to be spelt Schinerman in a

newspaper report recording his accidental death; the surname recorded as Anchor in the

burial register was found to spelt Ankor on the death certificate. However, despite these

inconsistencies, of the I92 individuals considered to be buried in the St. Mary's free

ground, it was possible to locate the death certificate o1176 (91.7%).

Other paradoxes existent in primary records occurred whereby people were buried in

the free ground despite having what appeared to be a stable family background with

locally living relatives. The two best examples illustrating this point are once again the

positively identified cases. The question is raised therefore, how was it that despite

evidence suggesting some degree of financial stability that some adults in the sample

were interred in the free ground?

Once a burial order had been issued contractors were responsible for the burial of many

of those interred in the St. Mary's free ground. Burial orders were issued (by courts,

3t4


hospitals, doctors etc.) if it could be demonstrated that the deceased individual had not

or could not made/make provisions for their own funeral. This was also the case if the

survivors of the individual could not afford to pay (Nicol 1985). However, it is clear

from inspection of the historical documents that various people known to be buried

within the study areamay have had the means to pay for their own burial.

For example, the two positively identified individuals (Thomas Henry Russell and John

Pell) were both men of advanced age who left behind family members. Indeed, Russell

had arrived in the colony in 1839 (died in 1854) and was either employed as a farmer or

owned land at Marion, which he actively worked until his death. Although such details

for Pell are not currently available, it is evident that both individuals did not die

destitute or without family.

Another example of this paradox is found in the case of Diedrich Bischoff. This

individual is mentioned by Dolling (1981) as being a landowner in the St. Mary's area

with a degree of respectability and establishment. So, how did it come to pass that this

48-year-old land-owning farmer, who died of pleurisy in the winter of 1864, should be

buried in a free ground grave?

South Australian gross domestic product data tend to suggest that the economic climate

during the 1860's was steadily improving (Sinclair 1981). It is clear from primary

production ouþut data that some years were better than others. However, in

comparison to the downturns in late 1885 and through the 1890's (Dickey 1986), the

State's economic growth was positive. As in any market economy, though, not all

producers are successful at consistently making a profit. It may therefore be reasonable

315


to hypothesise that some of the apparently successful adults buried in the free ground

fell on hard times leading up to (and possibly contributing to) their death.

The fact that these adults were buried in the free ground perhaps says more about their

relatives than about their status during life. Unless the deceased individual had made

specific provisions (either legally or financially) for their burial, details of the funeral

were left purely to the next of kin (should there be any). It is therefore highly

suggestible that surviving family members (for whatever reason) arranged for the

interment of their deceased relative in a free ground plot.

Another point to be considered is that during this period, it was not uncommon for

people of wealth and means to insist, on philosophical grounds, for their burial in

unleased ground without a memorial. For example, the cost of securing and leasing a

plot in the West Terrace Cemetery prompted one local newspaper correspondent to

comment...

" ...the exorbitance of the charge defeat its own purpose; for I understand that many

people who can well afford it, have rather buried their dead in the common ground

than pay the rates charged."

Register (1842)

Funeral reforms in colonial South Australia developed during the mid-l9th century

following revelations of poor conditions and abuses in many cemeteries (Nicol 1986:).

Growing agitation prompted the Government to intervene and develop uniform

cemetery legislation (Cemeteries Act 1862). The zeal for reform, which influenced

many of the English emigrants, went beyond religion and society. Many middle-class

3t6


and wealthy colonists rejected the formality and expense, which typified the Victorian

funeral, choosing instead a modest and inexpensive affair.

For example, the will of William Rains, Storekeeper of Dry Creek, in 1867 made his

wishes quite clear; "I desire to be buried with the utmost plainness and economy

consistent with decency" (South Australian Archives). George McHenry requested in

his will that he "...be buried in a simple marìner in a plain black coffin in a leasehold

grave and that no monument or any thing else be erected over me." (South Australian

Archives). Records such as these are somewhat rare as it was/is traditional for the will

be read following the funeral (Nicol 1986). It is suggested therefore that the practice

illustrated by these cases was far more prevalent throughout society.

It is therefore quite apparent that the historical records that do exist reflect the

independently derived information provided by the archaeology. Some individuals who

could afford a more elaborate funeral preferred a more inconspicuous departure. This

then raises the question of the effect of this finding on the general theme of the study.

That is, as the free ground was considered to be the burial place of the poorer classes,

does the inclusion of individuals from more affluent brackets have a skew affect on the

broader outcomes? For example, the incidence of traumatic, infectious and dental

lesion, which have been demonstrated to occur more commonly among the poor and

marginalised classes, may be understated because of the inclusion of wealthy

individuals. Furthermore, it may be possible to argue that the cemeteries demographic

profile may be influenced by the contrived inclusion of more adults. It is necessary,

however, to remember that the findings of archaeological analyses (osteological,

3t7


historical) describe conditions over the individual's lifetime, not just his/her

financial/socio-economic status at the time of their death.

It is suggested that such skewing influences have had a minimal effect on the various

results and findings of the study. A review of the available historical records (i.e. death

certificates) would tend to indicate that very few free ground individuals could be

included in this category. This conclusion is based on age and occupation details.

Furthermore, the inclusion of Pell and Russell, despite the suggestion that they may

have been reformists, allowed a more realistic interpretation of 19th century colonial

lifeways, particularly with regard to trauma and the dangers associated with everyday

life.

Parish records were also used to estimate the level of inbreeding within the population.

Isonymy analysis using the surnames of sexually mature individuals included within the

free ground group allowed the determination of an inbreeding coefficient. As maiden

name was not recorded in the available records, a non-random component of inbreeding

could not be calculated. However, from random coefficient calculations it would seem

that there were low rates of inbreeding within the group. This therefore means that

there were low rates of congenital disease resulting from inbreeding and as a result

congenital disease was unlikely to be a major cause of death.

318


THB NoN-SKELETAL EVIDENCE

It would seem that some primary records held by the church have been lost. Although

there is no supporting evidence (e.g. recorded or anecdotal) for this comment it would

seem unlikely that those responsible for management of the church and its grounds

would not keep even the most fundamental of records regarding the layout of unmarked

graves. Indirect evidence may be derived from the logic that person(s) digging graves

would likely have had some way of keeping track of available space. Very little

disturbance to burials was found during the current study suggesting that cemetery

managers were aware of the layout of the unmarked burials.

Additionally, some evidence would suggest that not all burials were unmarked, and that

most (if not all) interments may have been marked for some time following the date of

burial. Evidence of burial markers in the study area comes from two sources. Firstly,

during the f,rrst season of excavation, a rough stone marker was found associated with

the grave of SN4/84 (the well preserved remains of a 3-4 year old, possibly male

individual). The stone, roughly hewn from local qnartzite, was approximately 450 mm

tall by 250 mm across the base and tapering to 100 mm across the top, in a wedge

shape. Its location at the head end of the grave would tend to suggest that it was there

to mark the grave (Figure 62).

319

874

Er,r |}0

Êq 3oEq3r Gravc markcr

ì

ITree loot

1B

I

826

824B20

I

oB4

ìÉ'North (-oãttl:EIIe...€I

N 2ol

Water pipe

¡IIItI,I

III

tIII

--.--,L\- -\1\ì\1,--.'\,

I

\.ìI

i


Figure 62. Detait taken from field drawing showing locations for grave stains and stone mârker at

the head of SM/84.

The marker was not visible prior to site disturbance and only became apparent

following preliminary removal of the overlying layer of soil. It is likely that it had been

covered by soil due to natural processes of soil deposition. tn addition, pdor to

widespread construction of housing in surrounding suburbs flooding and inundation

events were not uncommon. Supporting evidence that the stone was indeed deliberately

placed as a marker stems from the fact that no other markers of this nature were found

in the study area. In fact, it was the largest (in fact, only) stone observed during the

course of the excavation.

If this stone (Figure 63) were indeed a grave marker the ideological ramifications of its

existence are significant to the overall theme of the study. For example, the fact that

320


relatives of the child felt a need to mark the grave provides some insight into the

thoughts of the target group

Figure 63. Stone marker associated with SM/84.

Secondly, the nature of the marker was such that it would not have cost anything for the

family to produce and yet, could act as a permanent (at least during the lifetime of the

nearest relatives) marker of the gravesite. This point therefore underlines the socio-

economic connotations connected to those buried within the study area.

Considering that the individual had attained arL age of 3 to 4 years at death, it is likely

that the parents had had ample opportunity to form significant bonds with the child. It

comes as no surprise therefore that having invested a considerable degree of emotional

importance in the child they would attempt to use the means at their disposal to mark

the final resting place. In this case that meant a roughly cut local stone placed over the

head-end ofthe grave.

32r


The second source of evidence that the locations of individual graves within the study

area were marked derives from test excavations at the northern part of the study area

(Figure 64). Mechanical test excavation (backhoe using a fTat edged bucket) was

undertaken to the north of the main excavation directly behind the church (first season:

see site plan Figure 1 in the Results section). This was done in an attempt to identiff

the limits of the area used for the purpose of interments without grave markers.

Topsoil removal resulted in the discovery of up to seven more burials and confirmation

that the unmarked portion of the cemetery extended a considerable distance to the north.

In addition, evidence was found that wooden stakes (approximately 50 mm square) had

been placed 500-600 mm from the western, or head end of several graves. None of the

burials were fully excavated and following the completion of recording the test trench

was backfilled.

322

N

I

'l

liilrit oÊexcavrlioI(depth ofexcavztion '' 20 crn)

origìnal lÌeld

sN.ri 892I

¡

I

sMi lls9

sN,till88

I

sMfi8?

¿

güve

t_ ___l

lence lirc aud posts

gtave stains

TI

I

tï

stâin ofFrevious

050

-

Scâls (cnr)St. Mary's: Northern test trench(excavated Nov -Dec. ?000)

p0ssible

fcDla[lsofrtooden


Figure 64. Test trench excavated at the northern end of the St. Mary's unmark€d burial yard

shówing locations of grave stains, possible burial markers and previous fence line.

With reference to Figure 64, it would appear that the distance of the wooden stakes

from the grave stain might confound the suggestion that they are gfave markers.

However if one considers that at the time of their placement the grave mound may have

extended beyond the limits of the burial shaft, the stakes could well have been placed at

or toward the limit of the grave mound. Furthermore, it appears as though the three

wooden stakes are associated with three northernmost grave stains (i.e. burials 90,91 &,

e2).

323

The bioqrchaeologt of St. Mary's Cemetery

The other significant finding to come from the test excavation centres on burial

orientation. With close inspection of burials 86, 90, 91 and 92 it is clear that the

hexagonal shape of the coffin is oriented such that the head is toward the western end.

If these interpretations were correct the interred individual would be facing east in

fulfilment of the traditional Christian requirement (Puckle 1926). In broader tems,

however, this burial orientation goes against what was generally observed throughout

the study area. Two points can be extracted from this finding. Firstly, in terms of

timing of the burials, it is possible to suggest that the interments (particularly burials 90,

gl e,92) were carried out at or close to the same time. This may therefore also reflect a

contemporaneous association with a particular priest, gravedigger or cemetery manager.

Secondly, if the graves have a close temporal association (eg. within days or months) it

may be possible to cross check the burial records with extrapolated age estimations'

The three interments designated burials 90,91 & 92 clearly represent the burial of an

adult (SIWB92) and two subadults. Based on grave length, it would appear that

sl\{/890 is representative of a somewhat older child than sI\{/891.

One avenue of investigation not undertaken during the analysis of artefacts from the St.

Mary's stud¡ (Matic 2003), but which may have been appropriate and relevant to the

study theme, was that proposed by Church and Smith (1966). Here the authors propose

a method of quantifying social differences within the archaeological context of a

historical cemetery. The authors suggest that one's social status in life may be

correlated with the weight of metal fittings (coffin furniture) attached to the coffin.

"Coffin furniture on a pauper's coffin might weigh 10 ounces (283 grams), whereas a

middle-class coffin when ornamented might receive 3%Ibs. (1.47 kilograms) of metal,

324


and the most lavishly decorated coffins sometimes carried as much as 9 lbs. (4.1

kilograms)" (Church and Smith 1966).

This approach would seem to have an added value in terms of the current study due to

the fact that although much of the coffin furniture was recovered from a majority of

burials, it had deteriorated to such a condition that typological analyses were unable to

be attempted. Through implementation of the concept proposed by Church and Smith

(1966) at least some diagnostic value may have been derived from coffin furniture.

BURI¡¡, CHRONOLOGY

The determination of a chronology for the series of human burials is problematic due to

lack of historical details (e.g. map/plan, burial register information) and associated

artefacts. Archaeological artefacts recovered from the St. Mary's site included buttons,

safety pins, coffin furniture, and individual personal items including the set of dentures

(SN[/884) and a fob watch (SMiBS3). According to Matic (2003) items such as the fob

watch and buttons were extremely common over a long period during the nineteenth

century and therefore held little diaguostic value.

In the study of excavated remains from the destitute children's asylum at the Prince of

Wales Hospital, Randwick, near Sydney, Australia, researchers were able to identify

each individual by correlating morphologically determined age with burial register

details (AustraVGodden Mackay 1997). This was possible at the Prince of Wales site as

the number of burials in the cemetery was known and all burials were recovered.

Application of this method to the St. Mary's group however was not possible as only a

sample of the estimated number of burials in the study area were excavated. In

325


addition, the total number of burials in the study area is unknown due to poorly kept or

lost records. Therefore a meaningful attempt to compare morphological ages with

burial record ages is unrealistic.

The discovery of seven unrecorded burials also hampered attempts to identiff specific

people in the Cadia cemetery study (Lazer 2001). Court records indicated that 104

individuals were known to be buried in Cadia cemetery. Excavations, however,

revealed 109 burials containing 111 individuals. Without the benefit of further

historical information, such a discrepancy between the recorded figure and the

archaeologically determined figure is enough to seriously obstruct any attempt to name

individual skeletons.

Currently, one of the most effective ways of accurately dating sections of the study area

relies on the ability to positively identify individuals within the sample. This could only

be achieved through identification of pathologies that could then be matched with

corroborating historical documentation (case studies of SM/B59 and SM/883 Chapter

7). Alternatively, if discrete morphological features within the sample can be matched

with corresponding historical documentation, further inferences regarding graveyard

chronology can be made.

This possibility arose in the case of SM/85 I , the remains of a 10 to 1 I year old female.

Burial records (Appendix 2a) indicate that only one individual meets the age and sex

criteria, one Maria Passfield. Passfield was buried on the 14ft of May in 1867. Her

death certifïcate states that she died of 'heart disease' at the age of eleven years. 'With

reference to Table 49 it canbe seen that Passfield is the only named female aged eleven

326


years at death. Two individuals have question marks regarding their names, which

contribute uncertainty to any positive identification. Thus as the age of death of the

skeleton correlates with the burial record it is likely that SIWB5I represents the remains

of Maria Passfield.

Table 49. Extract from the combined 'free ground' and (unknown burial location' portions of the

St. Mary's burial register showing burial details for individuals aged 8 to 13 years at death.

F'ree groundburial? Surname Christian name Year of burial Ase

Äge(months)

?

?,l

Prince

Blythman

?

Haynes

V/illiams

Passfield

Deed

Pickett

Battle

1850

1857

1 853

1866

1848

1867

t867t872t912

Rebecca

Sarah

?

ìVilliam

?

Maria

Edward

Robert

John Henrv

8

9

10

10

10

11

l2T2

13

0

0

0

0

6

0

0

0

0

Yes

?

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Life table analyses were found to provide indirect evidence regarding the period of use

of the free ground area studied here. Life expectancy and mortality of the excavated

skeletal sample was found to be statistically similar to life expectancy and mortality

based on burial record data for unprovenanced burials occurring between 1847 and

1875. Life table comparisons between the skeletal sample and otherperiods of burial

record data showed significant differences. Furthermore, preservation rates and absence

of any major site disturbance (eg construction, agriculture) would indicate a true

representation of the site's use history. It would therefore be reasonable to suggest that

the archaeologically excavated component of the study area was consistent with an

earlier part of the free ground cemetery. This finding indicates a further usefulness of

life table analyses. Consequently, with the knowledge of the locations of burials 51, 59

and 83 it is possible to begin to reconstruct a chronology for the development of the

unmarked section.

327


TRB¡.ru¡ur oF THE PooRDEAD

There is a clear distinction between the location within the Church grounds of those that

could afford to be buried at their own expense and those buried within the study atea at

St. Mary's. People of means could afford to be buried in a part of the church grounds

that meant that their names would be regularly seen by those entering and leaving the

Church (Matic 2003). However, if you could not afford to pay for your funeral you

were buried behind the church where no one ever went and your name would eventually

be forgotten.

Such treatment of the dead was seen as practical atthe time. This point is highlighted in

the writings of Loudon (1981) who commented on the use of quicklime for the rapid

removal of interred remains:

"It would no doubt be very desirable in the eyes of those who find themselves

above the poor, to get rid of 'the whole thing' at the expense of a little

quicklime; but, unfortunately for this desire, and þrtunately for the poor, and

sometimes for the cause ofjustice, there are the bones which... are not to be got

rid of so easily"

(Loudon 1981:48).

The author attempts to explain the divide between rich and poor by stating that:

"It is very natural þr the rich to hate the poor, and wish to dispose of them, and

of 'the whole thing', with as little trouble as possible"

(Loudon 1981:48).

328


In this way Loudon equates the situation to a Darwinian like mechanism whereby only

the fittest survive, or as the author puts it "...the same way that leads a herd of deer to

forsake a wounded individual (Loudon 1981:48). The author makes aclear distinction

between 'pauper's' and 'the poor', but, does not suggest that people of either group

should be treated differently when it came time for their burial recommending that there

be "...the provision of no particular part of the cemetery for paupers, but would bury

them indiscriminately in those parts of the ground destined for graves without

monuments" (Loudon I 98 I :48).

329


CONCLUSIONS

As stated in the opening Chapter, the principal aim of this study was to gain an

understanding of the lifeways of early European settlers in the newly formed British

colony of South Australia with the application of bio and historical archaeological

principles. Skeletal analysis was used to collect information regarding early to mid-l9th

century European settlers with particular attention to health and lifestyle.

V/ith the information retrieved, it was possible to make the following determinations:

o A high likelihood that all adults were of European origin, with no evidence to

suggest the interment of Úrdigenous Australians. This finding does not conflict

with any of the available primary historical records.

o Poor social conditions þarticularly with regard to hygiene) combined with pre-

industrial period medical knowledge evidenced by high infant mortality.

o Preferential use of the free gtound for the burial of stilVnewborn and unbaptised

individuals similar to kinderviertel practices.

o 'Working class people as evidenced by the incidence of trauma, skeletal markers

of stress, associated artefacts and historical documents.

. Good/adequate nutrition as evidenced by growth rates, stable isotope analysis

and

. High fertility demonstrated by parturition scars.

The available evidence strongly indicates a pre-industrial, hardworking conìmunity in

transition. These were idealistic people looking for a new and better life, making a

330


society from nothing, free of the social restraints incumbent for so long in England and

other European countries. They were enticed to the colony with promises of real

rewards for honest work. The St. Mary's free ground was by no means a burial ground

for'paupers'.

331


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354


App¡N¡x2e.Burial records in alphabetical order of surname:

Information for all St. Mary's individuals possibly interred within the study area (alphabetical order).

Freeornrrn¡l?,|

Yes

Yes,)

,|

,|

Yes,|

ChristianSurname name

Sha.drach

George

Jane

Auley (?)

James?

Margaret

FrancisWilliam John

Fred. Wm.

William

Sabina

't'l

Charles

JamesJamesWilliamMaryAnnJames

Suburb/Townof residence

Noarhrnga

Marion

Goodwood Road

South Road

Sturt

Goodwood Road

Marion

Glenelg

Monthof Day of

burial burial

29

l6

agelmonths)I day

2 days

0

l9 days

10

Yearof

burialI 869

I 873

1865

1877

1 852

I 858

1 858

I 850

1891

1857

I 858

I 860

I 854

1897

Agelvearsì

ll7

t27

4

I2

J

4

5

3

10

5

14 Yes

Allen

AllenAllenAlbert

Ancho¡

Anchor?A¡cher?

Anderson

Ayliffeï3oeker

Baker

Bames

Ba¡ton?

Barry

Bates

Bates

Bates

Bath

26

28

23

20

l3

9I9

12

9

23

l9

0

0

0

BuriaUcompilers noteFremature birthNote: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'Unbaptised. No sen¡ice'

There was an Ayliffe burial in 1906 in A F 1, but the lease was

taken out for that burial, so this was presumably not in that laterplot.

Note: 'Pauper's grave'

Location of grave not mentioned in BR. Not tikely to have been the

same grave as Mary Bames (1924) as she was buried in the Nesbitplot, which was not leased until 1901.

Note:'Unbaptised. No ssrvice.'

Record damaged. Note (unreadable): '(rmleased?) ground church'

Note: 'IJnleased ground on east side of Church'

6?7?

l1t2l3

?? 7

5

0

30

8

9

l0

0

6

0

1

I

4

8

8

3

?

?,|

79

I76

I 4

3

25

24

22

l125

I

15

l6t7

,|

Yes,)

I 860

1897

I 855

3s6


18

t920

t9t2I 856

1851

Battle

BellBell

Yes

?

?

BirdBischoffBlythman

Bosley

Boyley

Boyley

Bracher (?)

Bradford

Braithwaite

B¡aithwaite

Broughton

Brown

Burrell

Burton

capp

Jobrr Henry

Joseph

Rebecca

John Clement

Diedrich

Sarah

Samuel

RobertWilliamSarah Augusta

Charlotte L

Tapley's Hill

South Road

Sturt

St Mary's

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Brighton Road

3

3

7

5

29

5

9

t2

2

8

'l

9

13

62

0

0

48

9

t6

40

73

38

2

47

63

47

74

80

0

Note: 'S of olive tree in free ground'. Would fi¡e-damaged maps

help with this?

Gravesite not recorded. Possible that this may have been the Birdof LX007. See also BR745.

Note: 'Free ground'.

Note: 'Common ground'

Note: He may not have been bu¡ied here, as BR has a note 'Incommon ground'. However, he shares a headstone with his wifeMarionatAC 11.

Note: 'Free ground'

Could be buried with Emily in D E 75 (see 8R222) but no evidence

ofthis.Spelt Brathwaite in BR.

Note: 'Free ground'

Possibly in C K276 if related to the other Browns.

Possibly buried in C F 39-40 with Louisa and Richard, also ofSouth Road, but no evidence ofthis.

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'Unleased ground'


Note: 'Free ground'

Note: '7ft. Unleased ground'

Note: 'Unbaptised. No service'

Note: 'free ground'

Note: 'Unbaptised. No service. AC'

2t?22 Yes

23?24 Yes

25 Yes

26 Yes

27?

28?29?30?31 Yes

32?33?

34?

35 Yes

36 Yes

37 Yes

38 Yes

39 Yes

40?4t?42243?44 Yes

45?46?47?

I 854

t864I 857

r880

1914

t9t4l 863

1867

1867

1877

1878

1944

1917

I 853

1909

1892

1892

t874I 903

1851

I 850

1 860

I 853

1 865

1 863

1 858

1916

15

t2l5ll

t92l30

3

t63

11

l9t6

9

3

l2

A¡thurJohn

Margaret

Samuel

Elizabeth Jane

Mary Jane

Marion Road

Darlington

Raglan St

Marion Road

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

MarionRoadClifton

Clifton

6

I9

4

6

1

Castle

Castle

Castle

Castle

Caust

Chamberlain

Chester

Christie

Cole

Cole

Cole

Marianne

Ellen AliceFlowerEdwardCharles

Fanry

Henry

James

Eliz¿beth

Ann

MaryMargâret

Elìz¿beth

Francis John

Grace

Enuna Jane

J

15

I58

I0

0

1

0

0

0

5

ll

9

3

7

t28

I11

9

7

12

II

4

30

28

20

31

26

l5t227

11

I3t11

l7

2

8

2

l09

0

6

3

7

0

357


Co¡coran

Davis

Davis

Daw

Deed

Denman

Denman

Dewman

Dunstall

Dunstall

Errington

Fabian

Ferris

Fisher

Fitch

Fuller

Gibson

Green

Hales

Harden

Harden

Harris

Hasen

Ha¡mes

Haynes

Haynes

Haynes

Haywood

Elizabeth Ann

John

Edward

E11n

William

WilliamAlbert

John William

MargueritteDarey

Margaret

't'l

')'l

Charlotte

Sarah

John

Charles

Charles

Elizabeth Jane

Nellie AmyLena

Edwa¡d

James Edward

Maria

William

CharlesFrederick

Marian

South Road

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Reynella

Edwardstown

Marion

South Road

On the Stu¡t

South Road

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Biack Forest

Edwardstown

South Road

Edwardstown

Edward's Town

Edwardstown

South Road

1927 9

I 903

I 865

1869

185 r

t867

1910

t926

1912

4

13

8

4

5

9

0

2

16

74

59

I7I

2

4

11

0 Note:'A still-born chiid of Mrs Florence Corcoran'

Note:'Free ground' (pencilled)

Note: 'Free ground'

Notes: 'Child not named in certificate. Son of J W Daw Jr,

Butcher'. Unbaptised. No service'.

Note: 'Free Grormd'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'East of Chancel. T. 'Compare Johanna Denman, buried same

day in leased grave @R0667)

Note:'Eofchancel. Free ground(crossedout). W2 graves South

of Norris'

Note: 'N. of J H Battle's grave', byt Battle's grave site has not been

identified.

Note: 'In the grave of No 531 in the register' This was John WilliamDunstall, but his grave site is not known.


Note: 'The infant daughter of Daniel and Caroline Fisher'. Her age

was 6 (days? weeks? months? - rmreadable.)

Note: IJnleased land. No fees. Family too poor''

Note (ureadable): '.... (?) ground' Presumably unleased ground

(see BR 0433, note)

Note: 'Free ground'

Notes:'Unleased ground'. No service'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'Free ground'

48

49

50

,|

Yes

Yes

0

1

J

9

l6

27

2',Ì

24

3l14

23

13

7

23

ll28

1'7

t4t4

J

0

49

32

2

?

?

?

?

?

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

2

Yes

Yes

Yes

0

t2t7

05l ?

52 Yes

53 Yes

54 Yes

55 Yes

42

62

562

5

9

12

J

'7

3

5

4

9

7

t

10

5

t25

12

4

3

10

2

57

58

59

60

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

7l72

t3'74

?

Yes

?,)

t9t3l 889

I 860

1872

1 853

1856

I 870

1851

1851

1900

r898

I 898

t9t41904

1 855

1 866

1 865

1 866

I 854

2t31

9

29

22

9

10

I0

0

I0

4l10

0

0

8

9 days

11

1

3

7

4

6

75? t2 t9

3s8


762 Herbert

Hewins

Hewson

Holland

Hooper

Hosken

Hoskin

Humberstone

Jones

Kemsley

Lock

l¡ck

Mary

KennethCharlesAisthorpWalterThomas

Sarah

't'l

Mary

Mary

MatildaEmma

Florence MayMatilda

Alfred Henry

Edward

t85l l0

1916 6

679

77? 9

18

8

l828

l4

28

78

79

80

8l82

3

I?

2

Yes

2

?

I 859

I 854

0

25

0

75

4l

0

0

70

0

0

39

I0

1

52

63

2

0

Flagstaff

Goodwood

South Road, StMary's

St Mary's

Spring Bank

Darlington

1871

I 888

1 855

ll12

31

11

8

12

J

J

llI5

t25

I4

I2

7

3

0

Note: 'Unbaptised. Free ground.' Not clear if there was any

connection with the Bay Road Hoopers.

Note: 'IJnbaptised...No sewice read'. Pencilled note: No 3 Grave

East'.

Note:'Free ground'

Note:'Free ground'. Twin of Jacob Lock (?)

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'. Officiant's name not clear, but appears to be

Homer. Twin of Alfred Henry Lock?

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free gd'. Record damaged.

Note: 'In common ground'

Pencilled note: No 2 Grave East'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'IJnleased ground'

Note: 'In free ground, immediately S of Richardson's'. Probably

refers to 8R0502. Siteunknown.

Note: 'E of Chancel. In free ground (crossed ouÐ (Ð -

immedi¿fsly South of Richa¡dson's - (fwo burials in this grave)'

Note: 'Free ground'

15

l827

25

28

83484?85 Yes

86 Yes

87 Yes

88 Yes

89 Yes

90 Yes

9I Yes

I 850

1919

I 889

I 869

I 870

0

5

0

0

2

Yes,|

95 Yes Lyas

LockLock

Locke

Lockier

Lomas

Lone

Love? Lock?

![anning

Martin

Metcalf

Jacob

Sophia

Mary

Silvery Pearl

MargaretEstherMary

Hugh

A¡nLeonardVictor

WilliarnJames CharlesC

Cecil FletcherJubilee

Spring Bank

Darlington

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Bexley

South Road

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

1868

1 870

1 866

1915

l8 days

6

4

392

93

94

I 850

r874

1 858

r892

1926

I 854

1 888

0

23

24

8

24

2996 Yes Manning Elizabeth 76

87

t9t6 7

0

7

22

97 Yes 25

3

2

982 0

99

3s9


Metcalf Maria 9100 Yes

101 Yes

102 Yes

103 ?

104 Yes

Metcalf

MetcalfMiles

Miller

MillwoodMoody

Mortimer

Murray

North

North

Thomas

ThomasFletcher

Ann

SheilaMary

ThomasOliver

Rosetta

Elizabeth Jane

GeorgeHotspur'l't

GeorgeAlexander

Frederick (?)

Maria

John

Iohn

James

George Robert

Ellen

George Henry

Robert

Charles Henry

.... Sarah

EmmaMary

Rebecca

Hilda DoreenEna

Ellen

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Marion Road

Goodwood Road

South Road

Darlington

St Mary's

Edwardstown

Samia Cottage

Pa¡kside

Spring Bank

Spring Bank

Springbank

Soutl Road

South Road

Edwa¡dstown

Sturt

Edwards Town

1909

I 857

1913

t212

3

1 899

I 898

1 885

1853

l 849

J'

73

49

28

26

13

t22

Note: No fee'. Presumed to be, like the rest of her family, in freeground.

Note: 'Free ground behind the chu¡ch'. The headstone at A G 1 8 is

in memory of Emma, Thomas F and Tom.

Note: 'F¡ee ground'. The headstone at A G 18 is in memory ofEmma, Thomas F and Tom.

Note: 'E of J H Battle's grave. Free Grou¡d.'

There was a plot leased 28 years later by a Millwood (L974) forbu¡ial of a McDonald, but it is in the newer a¡ea so is unlikely to be

the sa:ne.

Pencilled note: 'Parish Grave No 1'. See also BR 014.

Record damaged - only'Hotspur'visible. Assume this was GeorgeHotspur (1847-) son of George Hotspur Mun-ay, as recorded inBISA.

Record damaged

Note: 'Free ground'

Pencilled note, mostly unreadable, indicates burial in the E area.

Note:'Free Ground'

Record damaged

Note: 'near Cypress Tree & E fence

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground. Near the shed.'

Note: 'Unbaptised


Pencilled note: 'No 5 Grave East'

Note: 'Unleased ground. E of Chancel.'

Note: 'Free ground'

105

106

107

,|7

J

5

2

2

1

0

5

0

0

0

2l02?

5

11

7

3108

109

110 Yes

llltt2113

114

115

ll6tt7118

ll9120

r2lt22

123

0

41

58

I3

9

9

J

7

?,|

I 848

I 858

l 866

1851

1867

1852

1 859

184'7

19t2

I 869

1864

t872I 854

I 858

1 860

1 8s0

82

0

0

t208?0

4

8

t63

4

Norton

Passfield

Paynter

PelltsellPenn

Perry

Pickett

Pickett

Pickett

Pollard

Preston

Preston

Prince

4

5

9

3

ll7

5

10

7

ll9

9

5

2

9

10

s9

27

T4

30

2

t923

9

24

3l30

7

24

l0

J

26

l5

0

I11

4

0

6

Yes

Yes

?

?

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

?

?

?

5

7

4

't')

124 Yes

125 Yes

126 ?

Read

Reeves

1907

1 865

1 869

7

360


127 ?

728 Yes

t29

Richardson

Richardson

Roberts

Rogers

Russell

Russell

Sarmders

Schönermann

Scott

Searles (?)

Simons

Skinner

Sladden

Smith

Stevens

Stewart

Stratford

Sugars

Swainston

Symonds

Tanner

Thompson

Thompson

TillerTilting (?)

MargaretI-ocþerrrMilliam

Robert

Sophia (?)

Alice Isabel

MaryThomasHenry

Roger Angley(Ð

Carl Christian

Job¡ WLucy (?) AnnGeorgeHoward

..... Henry

Patsy NicholsHughRaymond

Rutl Maud,,,)

Adelaide

South Road

Marion

South Road

South Road

Edwardstown

South Road

Springbank

Edwardstown

1860 6

t90'7

I 864

I 858

1892

I 882

1 854

1920

1867

1867

I 860

1871

1858

Richardson Alice 18 0 0

11

6

Note: 'Unbaptised'

Note: IJnleased grouad E of Chancel'. See note for Ll49-However the¡e is (or was) a headstone - see Genealogy Soc

transcripts.t2

2

7

6

5

9

8

4

12

5

10

3

5

l18

7

t2

27?

?

?

Yes

133 "r-*s

134 ?

135 ?

136 ?

l3't ?

There was later a Roberts grave - see LXl38 -early to have been in this part ofthe cemetery.

Related to whom?

Notes: ' S. after Ascension). 'Free ground'

but she was too

130

131

132

r881

1855

20

t32t

30

18

l8

6

4

6

22

76

53

l367

4

2

7

I32

1

0

19

8

24

1

4

30

Was he buried in D F 57? Too big a gap in time to make any

assumptions.

Sumame also spelt Schinnerm¿nn

Note:'7 ft. Free ground'

Not cle¿r whethe¡ he was related to the other Smiths.

Note: 'Comrnon ground'

Record darraged. Grave no. not clear. Couldbe 93?

Record written in margin of page. Not ciear. Was he a child ofGeorge Thomas and Mary Jane? lf so he was probably br¡ried in61. No mention in BISA.

Note:'Common ground. Unbaptised.'

Record damaged. Note 'Registered'. Presumably an infant.

Pencilled note: No 7 Grave E'

Note (unreadable): perhaps'no fee'

Note:'Unbaptised. No service.'

138

139

140

Yes

?,|

1913

I 863

I 853

6

t826

t87rI 879

I 873

t4t142

t43

,.)

Yes,|

15

20

27

144

t45?,|

William ??

Eliza Ann

Walter

Elíza

Georgi¡nna

James Hen¡yJessieFlorence

John WilliamCharles Hen¡y

't'l

Naime RailwayCamp

South Road

St Mary's Parish

I0

0

3

3

29

It4

2l3

6

6

I3

t00

0

0

146

147

5

0

Yes,|

0

34

32

0

0

?

2

?

148 7

149 ?

150

151

152

1851

1900

I 899

I 853

1855

9

ll7

36t

The bioqrchaeology of St. Mary's Cemetery

23

)27

4

6

18

24

153 Yes

154 Yes

155 Yes

156 Yes

15'l Yes

158 Yes

159 ?

24

23

23

Tite (?)

Tree

TwiningTwining

Viney

Viney

Viney

ArthurLinden

Frederick

Sarah Ann

Charles

Elizabeth

Mary Ann

CoromandelValley

Edwardstown

Edwa¡dstown

Edwards Town

Goodwood Road

Samia Cottage

South Road

1879

l 886

t867

1 869

I 871

1874

1855

1912

I 8s8

1848

1848

5

20

22

16

25

t2

8

J

I5

7

3

10

5

4

t2ll2

6

8

1

t27

0

3

6

0

9

4

I0

0

0

1

0

1

0

0

2

0

I

0

82

0

l00

8

0

0

0

0

3

4

10

4

7

2

Note: 'Unbaptised. Common ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free Ground'

Note:'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Notes: 'Free Gror¡nd'. 'Only portion of service read'

Another name, 'William Henry Craw{ord Colhoun' is crossed out infavour of Samuel Viney.

Note: 'Free Ground'

Pencilled note l'{o 6 Grave E'

Note: 'Free gtound'

Note: 'In Mr Miller's Grave'. There are 4 known Miller plots.

Which was it? Headstones do not indicate.

Record damaged

Record damaged

Note: l.{o 4 Grave East'

Note: 'The infant daughter of Richard and Mary Wright' þresumedto be Richard I 823-1 91 0 - BISA). Grave site not known.

Notes: 'The infant daugþter of Richa¡d and Mary Wright'

'Unbaptised. No se¡vice read'. (Presumed to be Richard 1823-

1910 - BISA). Grave site not known- No date ofburial ¡ecorded.

Must have been between 1l March - 3rd April.

Note: Unbaptised. No Service. AC'. Probably child of Richard

1823-1910 @ISA). Grave site not known.

Note: Unbaptised. No service'. Probably child of Richard 1823-

1910 (BISA). Grave site not known.

Name written in register as 'Weight'.

160

t6t162

163

164

165 Yes

166 ?

167 ?

168 2

169 2

t'70

t71

1',t2 ?

173 ?

2

Yes

?

2

6

Viney

Viney

Vinney

Vinney

Walker

Watts

Weising

Weston (?)

Williams

Wilmot

Wise

Wregg

Wright 't')

WriCht

WriCht

W.iCht

Wrieht (?)

Samuel

Sarah

??

Jobn

ElinbethWilliamGeorge

EberhardHein¡ich

Thomas

't'l

Amelia

ChapmanBassett

Ileen (sic)Annie

Edwardstown

South Road

Edwardstown

1 861

1867

1858

1 857

I 850

Edwardstown I 888

2

t2,|

5

9

6

11

ll04

?

1850 3

1915 t2 3l

l8s2 3 l5

1 853 0

I 858

I 854

1 849

0

't'l 0

3

1

9

0

0

0

23

174 ? Edwa¡d Darlington

MaryAnneA¡n Sturt River District

175 ?

176 ?

362

The bioarchqeology of St. Mary's Cemetery

177

178

,7

Yes

Yes

1 886

l 868

1874

l8s81865

1 865

l8ó7

1861

I 866

1ó

15

22

l5

179

187 ?

Young

Young

Young

......tyn?

't't

't't

')'l

??

l¡ck

Florence Ethel

Henry GeorgeHerbertCharles

HeinrichAwon?'t')

Elsa Jane

Eveline MaryFlo¡enceAnnie

James Henry

WilliamCharles

Edward's Town

Edwardstown

Major's Road

Marion

Edwards Town

Cheiiaston

Bexley

t7

10

20

25

11

180 ?

181 Yes

182 Yes

183 Yes

184 ?

185 ?

186 Yes

llt324

6

20

24

7

8

t2I

ll

2

4

2

9

8

t2

t2

7

8

I5

8

t27

??

??

??

??

??

??

??,1,|

7

6

5

0

1

39

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

10

I39

5

4

It's pure supposition, but... List records a lease [X176) by Youngfor C A 188. It gives no date, and there is nothing to see there

today, but this is the area where burials were being held at about

that time. Perhaps this was where she was buried.

Note: 'Free Ground'

Note:'Free ground'

Record damaged, but appears to have a note: 'Free gd'

Note: 'Free gd'

Note: 'Free ground'

Sumame presumed missing.

Note: 'Free grd'. It is possible that Charles may have been hissumame, but unlikeþ (see 0183)

Looks like a'Registered - unbaptised - no service read'record, butname is impossible to read.

Looks like a'Registered - unbaptised - no se¡vice read'record, but

name is impossible to read.

Record damaged

Record damaged

Record Narne un¡eadable.

188

189

190

191

192

193

?

?

?

?

?

?

Soutl Road

Sturt

Ma¡ionRoad

1864

1849

l 849

I 850

t85l1 853

1 854

I 856

0

4

7

0

0

6,|

7

363


Arp¡Nox2s

Burial records in chronological order ofburial date:

Information for all St. Mary's individuals possibly interred within the study area (chronological order).

ChristianFree? Surname name

Suburb/Townof residenceSamia Cottage

Samia Cottage

Goodwood Road

South Road

South Road

Sturt River Dist¡ict

South Road

Sturt

Bexley

South Road, StMaw's

Year Month Dayof of ofburial burial burial

1847

I 848

l 848

8

I 849

1849

Agelvears)

age

ll5

7

I2

3

? Penn

? Wilmot? Wiliiams

? Murray

I Mortimer

,7 ,1,|

???? Wright

? Ayliffe? Chamberlain,l ,l,l

2 Lomas

James

Amelia,l,l

GeorgeHotspu¡

Ann

FrancisWilliamJohnAnn

MargaretEstherMary

MatildaEmma

l912

25

82

0

l0

lmonths) BuriaUcomoilers noteRecord damaged

I I Record damaged

6 Recorddamaged

Record damaged - only 'Hotspur' visible- Assume this was George

3 Hotspur (1847-) son of George Hotspur Murray, as recorded in BISA.

0 Penciiied note: 'Parish Grave No 1'. See also BR 014.

Looks like a'Registered - unbaptized - no service read'record, but0 name is irnpossible to read.

Looks like a'Registered - unbaptized - no service read'record, but0 narne is impossible to read.

Name written in register as 'Weight'.

There was an Ayliffe burial in 1906 in A F l, but the lease was taken

out for that burial, so this was presumably not in that later plot.

Record darnaged

3 Pencillednote: l'{o 2 GraveEast'

0 Note: 'Unbaptized...No service read'. Pencilled note: No 3 Grave East'

,|

9

5

7

8

9

4

5

6

'l

8

I 848

Elizabeth Jane Goodwood Road 1849

1 849

J

1l23

2

0

0

23

I0

0

9

10

11

l2

13

I 850

I 850

1 850

9

12

13

23

15

I1

I

9

9

6

04

1 850

I 850 3

364


t415

t6

t7

26

27

28

29

30

31

4 Wise

5 Prince

6 Walker

Daw

Green

Norton')'l

Gibson

Caust

Herbert

Bell

? Wright

? Ancho¡

? Paynter

? Wright

? Moody

? Fisher

? Sladden,l ,1,|

? Cbristie

? Tiller? Holland

\IJ';

ChapmanBassett

Rebecca

Elizabeth

Frederick (?)

John

Elizabeth

Mary

Rebecca

James?

Rosetta

Patsy Nichols

Margaret

John WilliamSarah

Anne

South Road

St Mary's Parish

South Road

St Mary's

South Road

South Road

Goodwood Road

Marion Road

South Road

Marion Road

I 850

I 850

1850

20

10

7

J

5

7

11

7

10

0

8

1

0

0

0

I0

J

1

11 Note: l'{o 4 Grave East'

Pencilled note: No 5 Grave East'

9 Psncillednote l'{o 6 Grave E'

Record damaged. Note 'Registered'. Presumably an infant. Pencilled

0 note: No 7 Grave E'

Notes: 'Child not named in certificate. Son of J W Daw Jr, Butcher'.

0 'Unbaptized. No service'.

Pencilled note, mostly unreadable, indicates burial in the E a¡ea.

Note: 'The infant daugbter of Richard and Mary Wright' þresumed to

be Richard 1823-1910 - BISA). Grave site not lnown.

Notes: 'The infant daugbter of Richard and Mary Wright' Unbaptized.

No service read'. @resumed to be Richard 1823-1910 - BISA). Grave

site not known. No date of br¡¡ial reco¡ded. Must have been between I I0 March - 3rd April.

Possibly buried in C F 39-40 with Louisa and Richard, also of South

2 Road butno evidence ofthis.

Note: 'The infant daughter of Daniel and Caroline Fisher'. Her age was

0 6 (days? weeks? months? - unreadable.)

Record damaged

Note: 'unbaptized. No service.'

Note: 'Unbaptized. No service'. Probably child of Richard 1823-1910rBISA'r. G¡ave site not known.

7 Tanne¡ Georgianna 1851

1851

1851

1851

1851

1851

1851

t 85l1851

2l

3

t'l27

24

28

l59

29

l513

30

18

t9

20

2t22

23

24

25

2

3

?,|

Yes

?

?

?

?

?

67

0

0

0

4

4

5

7

8

10

t2

J

4

9

3

0

l0

6

0

0?

't'l

Jobl

1852

1852

I 852

I 853

1 853

0??

5

0

3 ll0

2l

? Burton Marianne MarionRoad 1853

1 854

0

0

32

10

I0

25

0

4

7

26

6

11

18

l8

23

32

JJ

34

35

36

5t

1 853

I 853

1853

I 853

I 853

I 854

5

5

8

9

llI

38

36s


39

40

41

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

5l52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

6l62

63

64

65

66

67

? Bird

? Martin

? Barty

Yes Russell

? Pollard

John Clement

James Charles

Charles

Thomas Henry

Charles Henry

CharlesFrederick

GoodwoodRoad

South Road

South Road

I 8s4

1854

1854

I 854

l 854

1 8s4

I 854

1855

1855

I 855

I 85s

I 855

I 855

1856

1856

I 8s6

I 857

I 857

1 857

I 857

1 858

I 858

1 858

1 858

J

0

6

6

0

7

2

4

4

0

8

0

0

6

0

0

0

I53

3

0

IIJ

II0

4tI

39

62

9

0

0

I2

0

39

3

2

J

8

9

n

12

t22

3

J

4

7

t24

7

9

7

t212

t21

I

2

3

15

22

1

8

30

t920

24

t422

29

l83t23

24

5

15

5

t2l9I

1l

10

t6

24

Grave site not recorded. Possible that this may have been the Bird ofLX007. See also 8R745.

I-ocation of buriai known

Record damaged. Name r¡¡readable.

Note: Unbaptized. No service. AC'

Record damaged

'Unbaptized. No Service. AC'. Probablychildof Richard 1823-

@ISA). Gravesite not known.

? Haywood,t 1'l

? Viney

? Syrnonds

? Bath

? Haynes

? Tilling (?)

? Hoskin

? Fitch

??? Bell? Blythman

? Vinney

? Miles

? Baker

? Vinney

Cole

MaryAnnElizzJames

Edward

Charles He¡ryMaryCha¡lotte,l

Joseph

Sarah

John

Aû1

William't'l

Grace

Hein¡ich't')

South Road

South Road

SouthRoad

On the Stu¡t

Marion Road

Clifton

South Road

? ...-..tyn?

? North

? Bames

? Anderson

? SugarsLove?

? Lock?

J

Note:0 1910? Wright Edward Darlington 1 858

1 858

I 858

1858

l 858

llt629

0

0

30

0

63

Location of grave not mentioned in BR. Not likely to have been the

s¿une grave as Mary Bames (1924) as she was buried in the Nesbit plot,

0 whichwasnotleaseduntil 1901.Sabina

Margaret

Eliza Ann

Ann

4

5

6

7

0

8

366


68

69

70

7l

72

73

74

75

76

78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

86

87

88

89

90

9t92

93

94

95

96

9',1

7

,|

9

12

3

J

3

5

6

7

8

9

il

6

8

3

12

t2

Yes

?

?

?

?

?

?

?

? Roberts

Anchor?? Arche¡?

? Preston

? Weston (?)

? Hewson

Pell

Bates

Searles (?)

Richardson

Fabian

Barton?

Preston

Chester

? Viney

2??? Skinner

? Bracher (?)

? Cole

Richardson

BischoffPickett

Sophia(?) SouthRoad

')'l

Sarah

ThomasWalterThomas

Jobn

James WilliamLucy (?) Ann

Alice')'l

't't

EmmaMary

Mary

South Road

1858 20

29

7

t6

1

2

25

30

18

23

25

24

27

6

There was later a Roberts grave - see IX138 - but she was too early to

6 have been in this part of the cemetery.


Note: 'Unbaptised

Location of burial lnown

0 Note: Unbaptized'

Note:'Unbaptized. No service.'

6 Note:'Unbaptized. No service'

0 Note:'Unbapfüed. No sewice'

Another narne, 'William Henry Cra*4ord Colhoun' is crossed out in0 favour of Samuel Viney.

0 Sumame presumed missing.

6

7


4 Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free gtound'. It is possible that Cha¡les may have been his7 sumame, but unlikely (see 0183)


5 Record damaged, but appears to have a note: 'Free gd'

Note:'Free ground' þencilled)3 Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'Free grormd'

0 Note:'Free ground'

6 Note: rFree qd'. Record damaged.

1 858

1 858

I 858

I0

9

2

0

0

0

1 859

1 859

I 860

1860

I 860

I 860

l 860

1860

1860

1861

I 861

1863

l 863

18ó3

I 864

1864

1864

1 864

1865

1 865

1 865

1865

1 865

1 865

I 865

r 866

0

59

1

2

0

II4

0

0

0

1

38

0

,l

Yes

Yes

SamuelFlorenceAnnie

Henry

Charlotte LFrancis JohnWilliamRobe¡t

Diedrich

George Henry

WilliamCharles

Elsa Jane

't't

Elizabeth Ann

Elizabeth

Ellen

Maria

Jane

Maru

Brighton Road

Stuft

Spring Bank

Bexley

Marion

Major's Road

CliftonSh¡rt

Edward's Town

Marion

Edwardstown

22

18

30

31

2

8

l0

)'7

t224

48

?2

?2

Yes

Yes

t22

0

0

0

0

2

0

41

4l0

I

4

5

7

9

t012

I

7

25

20

13

I26

9

23

28

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

')'l

Davis

Cole

Reeves

Haynes

Allen

Locke

367


98

99

100

101

r02103

104

105

106

Yes

Yes

Ha¡mes

Haynes

North,),|

Braithwaite

Schönemann

Deed

Passfield

Twining

Bradford

Viney't')

Scott

Young

WilliamJames Edward

GeorgeAlexander

Henry

John

Carl Christian

Edward

Maria

Frederick

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Darlington

Chilarton (?)

South Road

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

I 866

l 866

1 866

1 866

t867

1867

1867

1867

1867

t867

1867

1867

1867

r868

1868

l 869

1869

I 869

l 869

l 869

1869

I 870

I 870

I 870

l87l

1871

l87lt87l1872

1872

10

22

9

l5t6I9

t4)1

2

3

l00

0

0

47

67

t2ll

0

Note:'Free grouad'



4

Spelt B¡ath$iaite in BR.

Sumame also spelt Schinnerma¡n

Note: 'Free Ground'

Note:'Free Ground'

4 Note: 'Free Ground'

Could be buried with Enily in D E 75 (see 8R222) but no evidence ofthis.

3 Note: 'F¡ee Ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

6 Note: 'Free Ground'

Note: 'Free ground'. Officiant's na[ìe not clear, but appears to be

Homer. Twin of Alfred Henry Lock?

Note:'Free ground'. Twin of Jacob Lock (?)

Note: 'Free ground'

Note:'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Yes,l

,|

,)

Yes

Yes

Yes

J

3

11

4

l5

7

12

I4

4

5

5

6

8

9

t21

t21

4

5

9

10

11

5

5

9

107

108

109

ll0il1

tt2ll3tt4lt5116

tt7118

l19120

t2t

124

125

t26t2'l

,|

Yes

Yes,|

Yes

Arthur

Sarah

Eveline Mary

John WHenry George

Jacob

AlfredHenrySarah Ann

Ellen

John

't't

Shadrach

Sophia

Edward

Sarah

??

HughRaymond

Charles

't')

Robert

Marion Road

Edwardstown

Edwards Town

Edward's Town

Spring Bank

Spring Bank

Edwa¡ds Town

Spring Bank

Marian

Edwa¡ds Town

Darlington

Darlington

Flagstaff

South Road

Sprinebank

2

0

2

4

1

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes,)

,|

Yes

Yes,.)

Lock

Lock

Twining

Pickett

Davis

Revesby (?)

AllenLock

Lock

Fuller

8

25

4

9

8

15

26

l828

11

0

0

0

t658

18 days

0

l0

9 days

I d¿y

39

0

Note: 'Free ground'


122 ? Sfiatford William ?? ??

II

71

t2

3

ll

l56

l331

6

1l

Record written in margin of page. Not clear. Was he a child ofGeorge Thomas and Mary Jane? If so he was probably bruied in 61. No

l0 mention in BISA.

Note: 'Unbaptized. F¡ee ground.' Not clear if there was any connection

0 with the Bay Road Hoopers.

0 Not clea¡ whether he was related to the other Smiths.


Note: 'Free ground. Near the shed.'

123 Yes Hooper 0

,|

Yes,|

Yes

1lt2

3

7

Smith

Viney

Ferris

Pickett

368

The bioarchaeologlt of St. Ã,fctry's Cemetery

128

t29130

t3t

137

138

139

,|

Yes

Yes

Yes

Stewafi

AllenLone

Castle

1873

1873

r874

1874

Young

Viney

Albert

Braithwaite

Broughton

't'l

George

Hugh

HenryHerbertCharles

Elizabeth

Auley (?)

Margaret

Samuel

A¡thu¡

RuthMaud

Samuel

Walte¡

Mary

ThomasOliver

Linden

Florence Ethel

Cecil FletcherJubileelVilliamGeorge

Mary

Margaret

MatiltlaFred. Wm.

FannyLeona¡dVictorAlice Isabel ??

EdwardCharles

Edwardstown

Noarlunga

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

DarlingtonCoromandelValley

Springbank

StMary'sNaime RailwayCamp

Marion

Edwardstown

Edwa¡dstown

Edwardstown

Goodwood

Marion

St Mary's

Sturt

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

7

7

2

7

2t28

24

3l

t9

52

1

I0

63

47

I0

36

0

76

2 days

1

19 daysF

Record damaged. Grave no. not clear. Couldbe 93?

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Free ground'

132

133

134

135

136

Yes

Yes,)

,|

Yes

11

n7

9

4

17

t820

J

11

1874

1874

187',I

1877

1878

1 886

I 888

1 888

1 888

I 889

1 889

1891

1892

r8921892

r892


7 Notes: 'Free Ground'. 'Onlyportion ofservice read'

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Unbaptized. Common ground'

4 Note: 'Common ground'

Note: 'Common ground'

5 Note: 'Common ground. Unbaptized.'

Notes:'S. after Ascension).'Free ground'

There was a plot leased 28 years later by a Millwood (L974) for bwial7 of a McDonald, but it is in the newer area so is unlikeþ to be the same.


It's prue supposition, but... List records a lease (X176) by Young for C

A I 88. It gives no date, and there is nothing to see there today, but this

is the area where bu¡ials were being held at about that time. Perhaps

7 this was where she was buried.




Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'Paupe/s grave'

Note: {Jnleased ground'

0 Note: 'IJnleased ground'

Related to whom?


140

141

142

t43

Yes

Yes

1879

1879

I 880

1881

I 882

1 88s

I 886

Yes Tite (?)

Yes Stevens

Yes Bosley

3

8

9

I5

2f20

1l

21Swainston

Russell

? MillwoodYes Tree

7

10

3

2

0

0

144 ? Young

145 Yes Metcalf

0

0

T2

2

7

8

J

n9

3

0

75

59

70

l5

0

22

J

24

13

28

16

28

146

t47

148

149

150

151

Yes,)

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes

Yes,|

Yes

5

t2l427

23

20

152

153

154

Watts

Hosken

Errington

Kemsley

lJoeke¡

Castle

Lyas

Rogers

Castle

3

6

9

369


155

156Yes

Yes

Bates

Bates

Metc¿lf

Harden

James

MaryAnn

Thomas

Charles

MariaJessieFlorence

Jarnes Henry

Charles

Jarnes

Lena

Hilda Do¡een

Margaretl,ocþer

Ellen AliceFlower

ThomasFletcher

Eliza

EberhardHeinrich

John Henry

George Robert

Marion

Glenelg

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Adelaide

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Tapley's HiilParkside

l 897

1897

3

24

3

10

79

76

IJ

32

73

32

34

49

0

58

0

Record damaged. Note (unreadable):ground...........church'

Note: 'IJnleased ground on east side of Chwch'

......(rmleased?)

Note: 'Free ground behind the church'. The headstone at A G 18 is inmemory of Emma, Thomas F and Tom.

Note: 'Unleased land. No fees. Family too poor.'

Note (unreadable): '.... (?) ground' Presumably unleased ground (see

BR 0433, note)

Note: No fee'. Presumed to be, like the rest of her family, in free

ground.

Note (unreadable): perhaps'no fee'.

0 Note: 'A still-bom child of Mrs Florence Corcoran'

Note: '7ft. Unleased grormd'

7 Notes: 'Unleased ground'. No serrvice'

7 Note: 'Unleased ground. E of Chancel.'

Note:'Unleased ground E of Chancel'' See note for L149. However

ll thøre is (orwas) aheadstone - see Genealogy Soc transcripts.


Note: 'F¡ee ground'. The headstone at A G 18 is in memory of Emma,

Thomas F and Tom.

Note: 'Free ground'

Note: 'In Mr Millefs G¡ave'. There are 4 loown Miller plots. Whichv/as it? Headstones do not indicate.

Note: 'S of olive tree in free ground'. Would fire-damaged maps help

with this?

Note: 'near Cypress Tree & E fence

Note: l.{. of J H Battle's grave', byt Battle's grave site has not been

identified.

5 Note: 'E of J H Battle's grave. Free Ground.'

Note: '7 ft. Free gror¡nd'

r57158

161

r62t63t64165

r66t67

t70t7r

173t74

t75t76

Yes

Yes

l 898

l 898

1912

1912

t912t9t3

26

l4I5

159 Yes Harden Elizabeth Jane

160 Yes Metcalf

1898 t2

l 899 9

I 899

I 900

I 900

1903

1903

1904

t907

1907 12

1909 ll

1909

1910

1912

t211

49

t7

21

28

30

3

t44

26

9

2

?

?

?

Yes

Thompson

Thompson

Hales

Corcoran

Castle

Hasen

Read

9

I10

4

t2t2Yes

Yes 2 3

168 Yes Richardson

169 Yes Capp

12

30

l3t6

))

7

23

24

Yes

Yes

MetcalfDenman

I72 ? weising 2

5

7

9

3

l0

82

Yes Battle

Yes Perry

13

40

t77

,|

Yes

Yes

Dunstall

MillerJohn William

ShielaMaryGeorgeHowa¡d

Edwardstown

F¡lwer¡lctnm 1913

2

6

0

7

370


178t79180

181

182

183184

186187188

,|

Yes

Yes

MargueritteDarey

Sarah Augusta

Nellie Amy

RobertWilliamSilvery Pearl

Ileen (sic)Annie

Emma Jane

KemethCharlesAisthorp

Elizabeth

MaryJane

Florence May

Roger Angley

William

Willi Albert

1913

19t4t9t4

31

2t31

19l4I 915

3lt7

Yes Boyley

Yes Lockier

Yes lYlanning

? Bunell? Jones

Dunstall

Boyley

Harris

Edwardstown

Black Forest

Edwardstown

Edwa¡dstown

Edwardstown

South Road

Edwardstown

Edwardstown

Revnella

l2J

5

74

73

0

40

0

0

Note: 'In the grave of No 531 in the register'This was John'WilliamDunstall, but his grave site is not known.

Note:'Free ground'


Note: He may not have been buried here, as BR has a note 'In conìmon

ground'. However, he shares a headstone with his wife Marion at A C11.

4 Note:'In common ground'9

4

19

t4

189

190

191

r92

,|

Yes

Yes

Yes

l9l51916

1916

1920

r926

1926

1927

27

t2 8? Wregg

? Cook

185 ? Hewins 96

1916

t9t7t9t9

7

1

J

8

5

5

9

29

16

18

24

2

27

'76

80

0

t3

87

62

42

5

Note: 'In free ground, immediately S of Richardson's'' Probably refers

to BR 0502. Site r¡nloown.

Note: 'E of Chancel. In free ground (crossed ouÐ (Ð - inmediatelySouth ofRichardson's - (Two burials in this grave)'

Note: 'E ofchancel. Free ground (crossed out). W 2 graves South ofNorris'

Note: 'East of Chancel. T. 'Compare Johanna Denman, buried same day

in leased gave

Saunders

Manning

Dewman

Denman

371


ArpBNotx 3

D e ath c ertifi c at e inform a t io n :

For all St. Mary's individuals possibly interred within the study area (alphabetical order by sumame). Note: Information from church records, which

has been found to be incorrect or where additions have been made, is represented in lighter shade.

Name Date of deathDate ofburial Ase Next of kin Occuoation Cause of death

I

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

ll

T2

l3

Allen, George

Allen, Jane

Allen, Shad¡ach

Albert, Aulay

Anchor, Agnes Jane

Ankor, Emma

Anderson, MargaretAyliffe, FrancisWilliam

Baker, William

Barnes, Sabina

Ba¡ton

Barfy, Charles

Bates- James William

26 Jnly,1873

22Dec,1865

25 Nov, 1869

19 July, 1877

i 1 April, 1852

?7 .luly, 1858

13 May, 1858

8 Jan, 1850

l2Dec, 1857

9 April, 1857

nla

29 Ju,ly,1854

28 July

23 Dec

26 Nov

20 July

13 April

29 J:oly

16 May

9 Jut

19 Dec

ll April25 Augu.st,l 860

1 August

25 March

Miller

Miller

Miller

Teacher

nla

nJa

Baker

nla

Wheelwright

Farmer

nla

Labourer

Farmer

2d.

tzh

ld

r9d

l0m

1m

3ov

18m

l2m

10m

72m

ly

1Y

F: Stephen Pilcher

F: Stephen Pilcher

F:Stephen Pilcher

F:Haman Gustav

nla

nla

H: Job¡

F: Henry

F: Robert

F=Alfred

No records found

Thomas

F:James

Premature jaundice

Infantile dropsy

Premature birth

Convulsions

Born 25lû5/I851, mother Jane EÐE

nla

Insaniry - Affusion of the brain

Teething

Dysentery

Teething

nla

Measles

Atrophy23 March- 1860

372


14

l5

I6

t7

18

t9

20

2t

22

23

24

25

26

27

28

to

30

3l

32

t3

Bates, MaryA¡n

Bates, James

Bates, William Charles

Bath, James

Battle, John Henry

Bell, Joseph

Bell, Rebecca

Bird, John Clement

Bischoff, Died¡ich

Blythman, Sarah

Boeker, Frederiok W.

Boyley, Samuel

Boyley, Sarah Augu.sta

Boyley, RobertWilliam.Bracher, CharlotteLouise

Bradford, Arthu¡

Braithwaite, John

Braithwaite, Margaret

Broughton Sanruel

Burrell. Marv Jane

22 Oct,1897

2March,1897

6 Dec, 1864

2l March, 1855

5May,l9l2

I Sept, 1856

26 Dec, 1851

1l Feb,1854

12 August, 1864

13 July, 1857

2l Sept,1891

9 Sep, 1880

20 Ma¡ch, 1914

17 Sep, 1914

29Dec,1863

2 Jwrc,1867

13 January, 1867

I Sept, 1877

7 April, 1878

15 Jan. 1917

Widow of James

nla

F: James

F: Robert

F: William Eamest

nla

M:E. Bell

F: Thomas

nla

F:John

nJa

n/a

H: Samuel (dec.)

nla

H: James

F: David

Widow

nlawid.Holmes

nla

Gardener

Farmer

nla

Labou¡er

Labourer

nJa

Bricklayer

Farmer

Farmer

Bootmaker

nla

I-aundress

\Mood machinist

Farmer

Contractor

Labourer

nla

Labourer

Accountant

24 Oct

3 March

7 Dec

22March

7 May

5 Sept

29Dec

15 Feb

12 August

15 July

23 Sept

ll Sept

21 March

19 Sep

30 Dec

3 June

3 Sept

I lApril

16 Jan

76v

79v

8m

l6m

l3m

62v

3m

3m

48v

9y

4ov

36v

73v

4ov

38v

1y

47v

63v

47v

8ov

Senile decay

Senile decay, heart dis.

Convulsions

Convulsions

Convulsions(24h) Syncope

Typhus Fever

Spinal complaint

Diarrhoea

Pleurisy

Dropsy

Phthisis putnonalis. Newspaper notice

nJa

Ynorbis cordis ¿nasaroa: cardiac failure: 37 y in oolony, rnarried

twice

Calculus Renal þonepbrosis Adelaide Hosp. Shares headstone

with wife Maria

Disease of the Brain

Croup

Disease of the heart

Cancer ofthe breast

Phthisis

Carcinoma of Sigmoid, Sec. growth in liverWilliam

373


34

35

36

tl

38

39

40

4l

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

5l

52

53

Burton, Maria¡ne

Capp, Ellen Alice

Castle, Harry

Castle, James

Castle, Edwa¡d. Chas.

Castle, Fanny

Caust, Elizabeth

Chamberlain, Ann?

Chester, Mary

Christie, Margaret

Cole Francis John

Cole, Grace

Cole, Elizabeth

Davis, Charlotte

Davis, Elizabeth Am

Davis, John

Daw

Deed, Edward

Denman, Eliza

2 May, 1853

29 Nov, 1909

3l July, 1874

25 Dec, 1903

26 Sep,1892

l9May,1892

14August, l85l

nJa

26 Nov, 1860

6 Sept, 1853

31 Dec,1863

28 Feb, 1858

30 Jun, 1865

19 April, 1865

11May,1865

6August,1869

nla

April 8, 1867

14Nov 1910

nla

4May

30 Nov

2 Augu.st

26Dec

28 Sep

24May

l5 August

12 Jan, 1850

27 Nov

1l Sept

3l DecParish recordsays lll1

1 July

20 April

13 May

8 Sep

3 Feb, l85l

9 April

16 Nov

F:Richard Francis

F:Edward Henry

F: James

F:James

F: James

F:Jas. Caust

No records anywhere

F:William

F: Alexander

F:James

F:James

F: James

F= James

Rd. ..F: James

F: James

F: J.W. Daw Jr.

F: Samuel

F:William

nJa

nJa

Labourer

Labourer

Labourer

Labourer

Labourer

Blacksmith

nJa

Dairyman

nla

Farmer

Farmer

Farmer

Famrer

Farmer

Carter

Butcher

nJa

Labou¡er

nla

2m

20m

14m

58v

3y

15v

ly 10m

9m

t4d.

ly2m

3m

3m

3m

5m

2y

r6v

0

11v

r7v

nla

Atrophia

Purulent pericarditis (C.H) born in l¡ndon. In SA. 1 week

Whooping cough

Pneumonia (R.A.H.)

Tuberculosis. Meningitis(3w)

Phthisis Pulmoralis

Teething

nla

Convulsions

nJa

Atrophy

Convulsions

Gastritis

Dysentery

AnasarcaAcoideut, Cor<¡ner: slipped froue rlray he was working and

fractured his skull

No records. Child not named on certificate.

Purpura

Acute pyelitis,( lw),Puerperal Sepsis

nlaT}rncfcll John William 24 Smf t9t2

374


54

55

56

57

58

59

ó0

61

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

7l

72

73

Dunstall, MargeuriteDarcy

Errington, Margaret

Fabian, Emma

Ferris, John

Fisher

Fitch, Charlotte

Fuller, Sarah

Gibson, John

Green, Mary

Hales, Charles

Harden, Elizabeth Jane

Harden, Charles

tr{aren, Lena

Haynes, Edward

Haynes, James Ed.

Haynes, Maria

Haynes, WilliamHaywood, Charles

Frederick

Herbert, MaryHewins, KennethCharles Aisthom

nla

12 March, 1EE9

20 July, 1860

1l March, 1872

nla

20 April, 1856

9 Sept, 1870

26 July, 1851

15 March, 1851

nla

18 Dec, 1898

12 May, 1898

nla

27 April, 1855

21 March, 1866

7 Oct, 1865

9Feb,1866

13 Dec, 1854

6 Oct, 1851

nla

3l Dec, 1913

14 March

23 Ju,ly

l3 March

7 May, 1853

23 Ãpril

11 Sept

28 July

17 March

14 Oct 1900

2lDec

14May

9 Dec, 1904

29 Ãpm

22March

9 Oct

10 Feb

19 Dec

9 Oct

9 June

nla

H:Thomas

F: Thomas

nlaF:Daniel,M:Caroline

F: Joseph

F:Charles Henry

F: not recorded

F:Henry

nla

F:Charles (late)

nla

F:Thomas, M:Mary

F:John

F: John

H: John

F:John

F=Henry

H: John

nla

nla

nla

Schoolmaster

Mason

nla

Labourer

Plumber

nJa

none glven

Contractor

H.M. Navy

Labourer

Labourer

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Effandboy

Mason

Builder

nla

74v

59v

2y

7lv

0

lv,8m

9 days

3y

11m

49v

l3m

32v

7m

16m

6m

4lv

lov

llw

67v

nla

¡la

Cirrhosis of liver debiiity

Hydrocephalus

Phthisis

Infant daughter Age was 6. ..days? weeks? m?

Atrophy

Trismus

Hydrocephalus

Dysentery

Pneurnonia, pleurisy, infl uenza

Whooping cough

Hepatic abs phthisis (4.H.)

n/a Surname also spelt Hasen

Dysentery

Atrophy

Low Fever

Accídent; Coroner: fell from a horse

Dysentery

General Decay

nla

375

The bioarchaeology of St. Møry's Cemetery

74

'75

76

78

'79

80

81

82

83

84

8s

86

87

88

89

90

9l

92

91

Hewson, WalterThomas

Holland, Sarah

Hooper, William

Hosken, Mary

Hoskin, MaryHumberstone, MatildaEmmaJones, FlorenceDorothy

Kemsley, Matilda

Lock, Alf Henry

Lock, Edward

Loclç Jacob

Lock, Mary

Locþ Sophia

Lock, James Henry

Lockier, Lilveny?

Lomas, Margaret Esther

Lone, Hugh

Love? Lock? A¡n

Lyas, Leonard Vic

Mannins- Elizabeth

nla

l6 Jan, 1854

11 Nov, l87l

10 August, 1888

29 Dec, 1855

14 March, 1850

16 March, 1919

27 Nov, 1889

24 Jary1869

27 Nlay,1870

6 Dec, 1868

27 Jan,1866

l7 May, 1870

13 Dec, 1866

12 Apr, l9l5

21 Jan 1850

22Feb,1874

nla

25March, 1892

I March,1859

18 Jan

ll Nov

12 August

31Dec

15 March

18 Ma¡ch

27 Nov

25 Jar'

28lllay

8 Dec

28 Jan

18 May

15 Dec

14 April

23 Jan

24Feb

8 July, 1858

24lv4arch

29 Julv

No records found

H: Robert

F: Thomas

Widow of James

H: John

F:WilliamM:Agnes Margaret& late Carlisle

H:Jobn

F: Jacob

F: Jacob

F: Jacob

F: Jacob

H: Jacob

F: JacobF:Oliver; M:HelenElizabethF:John; M:MarJ¡Ann

nla

No records found

F:Ebenezer, M:Rose

H:William

nla

Farmer

nla

nJa

Labou¡er

Gentleman

nla

nJa

Labourer

Labourer

Labourer

Labower

Labourer

nla

Labourer

Farmer

Gardener

nla

Cabinetmaker

Caretaker

2m

25v

34h

78v

4lv

2m

5m

7ov

9w

6w

l8d

6w

39v

4m

4m

15m

52v

63v

3w

76v

nJa

Inflammation of the chest

Convulsions

Senile Decay

Dropsy

Debility

Diarrhoea (48h), Vomiting

Heart disease

Atrophy

Atrophy

Mesenteric disease

Atrophy. Died at Cheliaston

Phthisis

Mesenteric Disease

Marasmus(malnutrition); diarrhoea

Teething

Cirrhosis. P.R spells name 'T-ow'

nJa

Prem. Birth (7m); Convulsions

Bronchitis. Bom London, in SA 37 y27 .Iulv- 1 916

376


94

95

96

97

98

99

100

101

r02

103

104

105

106

r07

108

109

il0

111

lt2

ll3

Martin, James CharlesSears

Metcalf, Cecil Fletch

Metcalt Maria

Metcalf, Thom. Fletch

Metcalf, Thomas

Miles,Am

Miller, Sheila MaryMillwood, ThomasOliver

Moody, RosettaMortimer, ElizabethJane

Murray, GeorgeHotspur

North, Thomas Henry

North, Geo Alexander

Norton, Frederick

Passfield, Maria

Paynter, John

Pell, Jobn

Penn, James

Perry, George Robert

Pickett, Ellen

20 March, 1854

27 Feb, I 888

27 Sep, 1899

12Dec,1909

25 Jan, 1898

nla

I March, 1913

I July, 1855

4 March, 1853

6 May, 1849

3 Sep! 1848

15 March, 1858

7 July, 1866

25 April, 1851

13May,7867

nla

1 March, 1859

17 Nov, 1847

22 July, l9l2

8 May, 1869

22N'4arch

28 Feb

28 Sep

13 Dec

26 Jan

12Dec,7857

2 March

3 July

ll March

TMay

3 Sept

16 March

9 July

27 Ãpril

14May

30 Sept, 1852

2 March

19 Nov

23 }ttly

9 May

F:James

F: Thomas Fletcher

Widow of Thomas

nla

nJa

No records formd

F: Tasman Gordon

F: Edward

F: not recorded

F:William

F: George

F: Joseph

F:Joseph

F: John

F:Abraham

nla

nla

nla

Died at Parkside

F:George

Farmer

Cabinetmaker

nla

Cabinetmaker

Bootmaker

nJa

Mason

Servant

Gardener

Storekeeper

Labourer

Labourer

nla

Farmer

nla

Farmer

Gentleman

Chairmaker

Farmer

17w

7m

73v

49v

73v

0

5m

7m

2lv

2y

18m

3y

4m

1y

1lv

4y

59v

82v

4ov

8m

Thrush

Convulsions & Cerebral Effirsion

Albuminuria Uraemia

Phthisis

Enlargement of Liver

nJa

Marasnrus

Dentition

Efflrsion on the Chest

Decline

Teething

Croup

Obstruction .of the bowels

n/a

Heart disease. Also spelt Parsfield & Pasfield in ¡eco¡ds

nJa

Accidental death (see results section)

Natural Decay

General paralysis (2y)/exhaustion (3nrths)

Gastritis

377


tl4

il5

116

lt7

118

119

120

t2t

122

123

124

t25

126

127

t28

129

130

131

132

133

Pickett, Geo. Henry

Pickett, Robert

Pollard, Henry Charles

Preston, Edith Sarah

Preston, EmmaMary

Prince, Rebecca

Read, Hilda Dor Ena

Reeves, Ellen

Revesby?

Richardson, AliceRichardson, WilliamRobert

Richardson, Marg Lo

Roberts, Sophia

Rogers, Alice Isobel

Russell, Thomas Henry

Russell, MarySaunders, RedgeYAngleySohinermann, CarlChristian

Scott, John W.

Searles. Lucv A¡n

22 Oct,1864

30 July, 1872

29 Nov, 1854

6 Sept, 1858

23 Sept,1860

8 May, 1850

1 Feb, 1907

25 Sep, 1865

nla

16 June, 1860

nJa

11Dec, 1907

18 July, 1858

nJa

5 Sept, 1854

l9 May, 1882

22 Argast,1920

29 March, 1867

nla

22 Oct

3l July

30 Nov

7 Sept

24 Sept

l0 May

3 Feb

26 Sep

l5 Oct

18 June

27 Feb,1864

12Dec

20 July

13 June, 1892

8 Sept

2lM.ay

24 August

l April

4Dec,1867

30 May

F:George

F: George

F: Richard

F:4.K.

F:Preston

F: John

F: F.A. Read

H:Luke

No records found

F:Robert

F: John

F:William

F: Matthew

No records formd

No records found

Widow

F:Alfred Richard

nJa

nla

F: not recorded

Dairyman

Farmer

Labourer

nJa

Publican

Gardener

Quarry Overseer

Machinist fitter

nla

Painter

nJa

Clerk

Farmer

nla

Farrner

nJa

Brickmaker

Farmer

nlz

Labou¡er

4m

1y

3y 6m

2w

6y

8y

7m

4lv

58v

36h

12m

23m

6y 6m

22v

53v

76v

l2v

67v

4y

2v

Mesenteric disease

M?arzcisn?p?us

Spasms

n/a

Disease of the Lungs

Slow Fever

Whooping Cough; Bronchial pneumonia; convulsions

Cancer of Womb

nJa

Convulsions

nla

Scald. Syncope

Cynanche

Death notice published in The Advertiser 1310611892

Accidental death: legs broken & left ribs crushedby faliingbranch he was cuttfurg

Old age; could be the widow of T.H. Russel

Accidental revolver shot....died at Adelaide Hospital

Accidenøl death: kicked by ølwrse(The Advertiser Al/04/1867)

nJz

28 Mav. 1860 Diphtheria

378


t34

135

136

t37

138

r39

140

141

t42

143

t44

145

146

t4'l

148

t49

150

151

152

153

Simons, Geo How

Skinner, \Vatrter Henry

Sladden, Betsy Nichols

Smith, Hugh Raymond

Stevens, Ruth Maude

Stewart, Eliza FrancisStratford, WilliamPercy

Sugars, Eliza Ann

Swainston, Walter

Symonds, Eliza

Tanner, GeorgiannaThompson, James

HenryThompson, Jessie

Florence

Tiller, John William

Tilling, Charles Henry

Tite, Arthu¡

Tree, Linden

Twining, Frederick

Twining, Sarah Ann

nla

16 March, 1863

25 June, 1853

14 Nov, 1871

nJa

19 Jul¡ 1873

1 June, l87l

26 June, 1856

30Dec, 1880

13 March, 1855

20 Jan, l85l

2 Jan, 1900

28 Sept, 1899

nla

15 July, 1855

2lMarch, 1879

nla

25May,1867

2,4pri1, 1869

6 Oct, 1913

18 March

26 June

15 Nov20 Augustr879

2l l,¿ly

3 June

29 June

1 Jan, 1881

14 March

27 Jan

3 Jan

30 Sept

18 Nov, 1853

18 July

23 March

2 Oct, 1886

27 May

4 April, 1869

1 Jan

7y

l8m

32v

ly

4m

19v

2lm

5w

5m

3y

5m2w

34v

32v

0

7m

1y

3m

4m

l0m

2v-6m

nJa

Labourer

Publican

Gentleman

nla

n/a

Labourer

Brickmaker

Labourer

Labower

nla

nJa

nla

nla

Labourer

Spinster

nla

Labourer

Labourer

Blacksmith

F:Albert

F: Isaac

H:Basil

F:Robert Barr-Smith

nla

M:Matilda

F: Thomas

F:William

F:Adamson

F:William

F: George

nla

Spinster

nJa

F:Jol¡r, M:Rachel

M:Mary

n/a

F:Frederick

F:Frederick

nla

Teething

Alony?

Dysentery (Lived at Briers, North Adelaide)

nla

Haemoptysis

Dysentery

Pneumonia

Infantile diarrhoea

Dysentery: (mother's name was Mary)

Teething

n/a

Phthisis

nla

Teething

Inflammation of brain from teething

nla

Atophy

Diarrhoea

DvsenteryVinew Elizabeth 30 T)ec 1857

379


154

155

156

t57

158

159

160

161

162

163

164

165

t66

167

168

r69

170

t7t

172

t73

Viney, Herbert James

Viney, MaryAnne

Viney, Samuel

Viney, Charles

Viney, John

Vine¡ Elizabeth

Viney, Eveline Mary

Viney, Sarah

Walker, Elizabeth

Watts, William Geo.

Western, Thomas

Williams??

Wilmot, Amelia

'Wise, Chapman Bassett

Wragg, Eileen A¡nie

Wright ??

Wright ?? (M)

WriCht, Hen¡y Edward

Wright MaryAnn

l0 Nov, 1890

22Feb, 1855

5 June, 186l

5Dec, 1871

3 Dec, 1857

l7Nov, 1874

1OSep, 1867

2August, 1867

6 July, 1850

nla

10 Dec, 1858

nJa

nJa

18 March, 1850

29 Dec,1915

nJa

4 April, 1853

23 March, 1858

nJa

nJa

24Feb

8 June

6 Dec

5 Dec

18 Nov

ll Sep

3 August

7 July

5 July, 1888

l6 Dec

25 July, 1848

12 May, 1848

20 March

31, Dec15 March,1852

0/0/r 853?

24March

23 Jan,7854

3w

14m

3m

l2m

8m

7m

2y

3m

lv,9m

4m

9m

lOy,6m

11m

1lm,1ld

8m

0

6h

t2d

0

23v

Blaclamith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

Blacksmith

nla

nla

nJa

nla

n/a

Gardener

Coachbuilder

Labourer

Labourer

Labourer

Labourer

Teacher

F: James

F:George

F: George

F:George

F: George

F:George

F:George

F:George

F: Robert

nla

F: not recorded

nla

nla

F: George

F: Vincent

F:Richard, M:Mary

F:Richard, M:Mary

F: Richard

F:Richard??

H:Thomas

Weakness came before its time. Never rallied.

Water on the brain

Atrophy

Dysentery

Dysentery

Bronchitis

Anasarca

Atrophy

Aflliction of the Brain

nla

Dysentery

nlz

nJa

Teething

Acute enteritis (10 day);Diarrhoea

Parish notes say; infant DAUGHTER

nJa

Convulsions

nla

Infla¡nmation in the WombWrisht- Marv Ann z) Smt I 849 23 Seot

380

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Cernetery

174

175

176

Young Florence Ethel

Young, Henry George

Youns. Herb. Chas

9 Dec, 1886

14 Jan, 1868

t6 Nov- 874

F= Horace Henry

F:George Edward

F:Charles

Gentleman

Labourer

Labourer

Dentition Meningitis

Mesenteric disease

Diarrhoea

16 Dec

15 Jan

17 Nov

8m

22m

l7mM : Mother; F : Father; m: month(s); w: week(s); y: year(s); d: alay(s); h: hou(s)

381


ArpeNux 4

Population data:

Used to determine the rate of natural increase ('r') for South Australia during the second

half of the 19th century. Births, deaths and population data taken from Caldwell (1987).

Year

No. ofbirths

(B)

No. ofdeaths

(D)

Crudedeath

Population rate (d)(P) D/P

Rate of naturalincrease (r: b-d)

Crudebirth

rate (b)B/P

1851

1 855

I 857

1860

I 861

1863

1864

I 865

1866

I 867

1868

1869

1871

18741879

I 880

1881

1884

I 885

1886

I 887

1888

1889

1895

l 896

1900

275939444488

5568

555 l6075

s96662086672

67827247

6976

70827696

99021026210708

t184712046IIT7710831

10510

10318

105 17

10012

9t43

973r663tt4723361962191 8

2221

256521742753

2sr622tr237834343s8039t2401247893987

423439943759350 I39t240383774

6370085821

86000

122735

t26830129830

r33987t404t0t47341163082

172860t76298r9s626204883

255148255148267205303426308648

305561

308836

3 10886

3t5402350171

3526533657s5

0.0153

0.0194

0.0133

0.019

0.0155

0.0148

0.0166

0.0183

0.0147

0.0169

0.0145

0.0125

0.0128

0.0168

0.0140.0153

0.015

0.01s80.01290.0138

0.01290.0121

0.0111

0.01l20.0114

0.0103

0.0433

0.0459

0,0522

0.04s40.0438

0.0468

0.04450.0442

0.0453

0.0416

0.0419

0.0396

0.0381

0.0376

0.03 88

0.04020.04

0.0390.039

0.0366

0.0351

0.0338

0.0327

0.03

0.02840.0249

0.028

0.02650.0388

0.02640.0283

0.0320.02790.02590.0306

0.0247

0.0274

0.02710.02530.0208

0.02480.02490.0251

0.02320.026r0.02280.0222

0.02t70.02160.0188

0.0169

0.0147

MeanMedian

0.025096154

0.02s2

382


ApppNorx 5

Long bone length meosurementsfor St. Mary's adults

Burial# Sex

Humerus length

left right

Radius length

left rieht

Ulna length

left right

Femur length

left rieht

Tibia length

left rieht

2t9248249

299MMMMMMMMMMMMM

59

6

9

14

23

57

63

68

72

73

78

83

85

252

252

225.5

236

251241

264.5

275

247

248265

266

273.5

308

329.s

331.5

336299

313.5

332

237

221

249246

236

274268

267?

2382',72

263

273

25225t267

44s

471

49',l

4s2.5

408.5

451.5

453

44s4t3.5

500

4s3.5

460

409.5

36434t.5

405

376

380

377

JJJ

361

370

366

403

376.5

376.s

376

34s367.s

369.5

353

334297

315

327

374369

251

255225.5

232

248242

450

Burial# Sex

Humerus length

left rieht

Radius length

left rieht

Ulna length

left rieht

Femur length

left rieht

Tibia length

left rieht

5

10

s3c67

66B79

84

293305

3r7305

297.5

295.s

302.5

319.5

304.5

299298.5

310

206

227

2t8217

2r2.5224

2\6226

2t9.5220

216.5

22s

2t9

196

23s236228239

237.5

240233.5

241

440426.5

4t7402428

3433393s23s3

343.s

342

350

351

FFF

FFF

F

428 423 342 338

434426

415

408

425

383


Appplotx 6

Stature calculations:using various equations and bones indices for St. Mary's adults (measurements

in centimetres).

St. Mary's stature (mm) males, Manouvrier (1893)

Burial # Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Range Mean S/dev SEM

6

9

t423

57

59

63

68

72

73

78

83

85

1600.0

1555.0

1755.0

1645.0

1570.0

1680.0

1680.0

1660.0

1600.0

1660.0

1605.0

1641.3

1582.0

1697.5

1698.2

1697.0

1765.0

167 5.7

1682.5

1688.2

1594.2

1646.8

1676.4

1673.0

28.4

20.8

24.7

33.6

7.1

5.1

8.7

9.0

30.5

17.4

8.8

18.4

1580.0

1715.0

1686.0

1697.0

14.2

9.4

r7.6

15.31700.0 1670.0

1600.0-1660.0

1555.0-1605.0

1680.0-1715.0

1670.0-1755.0

1670.0

1670.0

1680.0

1552.0

1630.0

1670.0

1690.0

1700.0

1605.0

1640.0

1686.0

1660.0

1685.0

1695.0

1634.0

1634.0

1686.0

1686.0

1770.0

1677.0

1686.0

1580.0

1670.0

1670.0

1760.0

1680.0

1685.0

1680.0

1600.0

1660.0

1670.0

5.1

3.0

4.3

4.1

13.9

7.9

4.0

13.1

1760.0-1770.0

1670.0-1680.0

1670.0-1690.0

1680.0-1700.0

1552.0-1634.0

1630.0-1670.0

1670.0-1686.0

1660.0-1686.0

Range

Mean

S/dev

SEM

1552.0- 1570.0- 1580.0- 1580.0- 1600.0-1755.0 1686.0 1715.0 1770.0 1685.0

1642.4 1655.6 1669.8 1668.1 1667.0

65.3 41.5 40.9 55.1 44.4

21.8 l3.l 12.9 18.4 14.0

---) 1660.6 1670.6

J

St. Mary's stature (mm) females' Manouvrier (1893)


5

10

s3c

61

668

79

84

1545.0

1570.0

16t2.0

1570.0

1560.0

1556.0

1582.0

1500.0

1560.0

1600.0

r570.0

1568.0

1556.0

158s.0

1570.0

1575.0

1556.0

1585.0

1534.0

1565.0

1602.0

1570.0

1566.0

1558.0

1585.0

34.0

7.1

8.7

0.0

6.3

14.3

5.8

15.4

5.1

5.1

0.0

2.9

6.5

2.6

1497 .0 1570.0 ß60.01497.0-1570.0- 1560.0-1570.0

- 1595.0-1612.01595.0

1570.0

1560.0

1540.0

1580.0

1570.0

1568.0

1580.0

1s95.0

1 560.0-1575.0

1540.0-1580.0

1580.0-1595.0

Range

Mean

S/dev

SE

1545.0-1612.0

1570.7

21.7

8.3

1500.0-1600.0

1562.7

3 1.5

t2.t

1497.0-1585.0

1556.6

34.9

15.9

1540.0- 1560.0-1595.0 1595.0

1569.2 1574.6

18.6 13.4

7;t 6.1

---+ 1566.8 1568.6

J

384


St. Mary's stature (mm) male, Trotter & Gleser (1952)


6

9

t423

57

59

63

68

72

It

78

83

85

16s0.0

1620.0

1790.0

1720.0

1725.0

1740.0

1620.0

1670.0

1720.0

1670.0

1600.0

1705.0

1645.0

1676.0

1620.0

1740.0

1742.0

1740.0

1800.0

1717.0

1736.0

1736.0

1629.0

1678.0

1716.0

1710.0

1615.0

1750.0

1730.0

1740.0

1740.0

1750.0

1660.0

1670.0

1725.0

1720.0

1680.0

1620.0

1730.0

1730.0

22.9

16.2

t4.t27.1

11.5

7.4

l0.l12.31735.0 1725.0

1650.0-1680.0

1600.0-1645.0

1730.0-1750.0

1725.0-1790.0

t740.0

1750.0

1640.0

1670.0

1730.0

1700.0

1800.0

1700.0

r 800.0

1730.0

1740.0

173s.0

1640.0

1700.0

1715.0

1 5.3

7.5

18.5

28.4

13.0

15.6

t4.t

1705.0

1585.0

1680.0

1690.0

9.0

3.7

8.4

12.9

5.9

7.1

10.1

1700.0-1730.0

1725.0-1740.0

l 705.0-1750.0

1 585.0-1660.0

1670.0-1700.0

1690.0-1730.0

1700.0-1720.0

Range

Mean

S/dev

SE

1620.0-1790.0

1695.0

58.2

19.4

1620.0-1750

1699.0

44.8

14.2

1615.0-1750.0

1710.0

45.8

14.5

1600.0-1800.0

1685.0

65.0

21.7

1640.0-1800.0

1713.5

46.4

14.7

JJ---+1700.5 1710.8 17.5

---+52.1

St. Mary's female, Trotter and Gleser (1952)


5

10

53C

61

668

79

84

1565.0

1605.0

1645.0

1600.0

1580.0

1575.0

1610.0

1525.0

1575.0

1620.0

1585.0

1585.0

1570.0

1615.0

1585.0

1590.0

1565.0

1605.0

1620.0

1590.0

1570.0

1545.0

1595.0

1644.8

1610.0

1601.3

1633.2

1636.1

1559.0

1590.0

1628.0

1594.0

1585.0

1577.0

1612.0

3 8.0

21.2

14.4

10.8

11.2

31.7

14.8

17.3

15.1

8.5

4.9

5.1

14.4

6.7

1515.0 1590.0 1601.3 1515.0-1600.0

1575.0-1605.0

1620.0-1645.0

1585.0-1610.0

1570.0-1600.0

1545.0-1630.0

1595.0-1635.0

Range

Mean

S/dev

SE

1565.0-1645.0

1597.1

26.9

10.3

1525.0-1620.0

I 582.1

31.6

12.1

1515.0-1605.0

1572.0

34.9

15.8

1545.0-1620.0

1585.0

25.3

10.5

1601.3-1636.r

t62t.t

19.2'7.5

JJ---+1591.5 1592.1 20.7

---+27.6

385


St. Mary's stature (mm) males, Pearson (1899)

Burial# SexFemurHumerus TibiaRadius f +t

abcdefshij Range MeanS/devSEM

6M9M

14M

23M57M

59M

63M

68M

72IÙ/{

73M

78M

83M85M

1602.0 t654.0

1572.01598.0

1728.01666.0

- t746.0

1660.0 1680.0

1666.0 1685.0

1676.01681.0

1569.01606.0

1615.01654.0

1661.0 1666.0

1650.0

1590.0

1698.0

1750.0

1665.0

1678.0

1582.0

1662.0

1663.0

1601.0-

1634.0 1651.0 1651.0 1614.0 1601.0 1624.0 1631.0 1654.0 1631.2

1566.0-

1579.0 1588.0 1588.0 1566.0 1569.0 1575.0 1578.0 1598.0 1580.3

1672.0 - 1672.0

1666.0-

1671.0 1687.0 1689.0 1708.0 1724.0 1719.01708.0 1728.0 1699.8

1693.0 - 1693.0

1746.0-

- 1759.01759.0 1759.0 1',153.5

1660.0-

-1673.01673.0 1663.0 - 1680.0 1669.0

1665.0-

1682.0 1677.01665.0 1685.0 1675.0

167 5.0-

1688.0 1682.0 1682.0 1686.0 1675.0 1679.01679.0 1688.0 1680.6

1567.0-

1587.0 1587.0 1586.0 1574.0 1567.0 1569.0 1574.0 1606.0 1580.1

1613.0-

1625.0 1659.01659.01617.0 1613.0 1638.0 1643.0 1662.0 1638.5

1660.0-

1 67 7 .0 | 665.0 1665.0 I 67 2.0 1 660.0 I 663.0 I 663.0 1 6'1 7 .0 I 665.5

1651.0 - 1651.0

Mean 1660'7

20.5 6.5

10.3 3.2

21.4 6.8

6.6

7.6

9.1

4.1

12.0

19.7

5.2

J.J

3.2

4.1

1.3

3.8

6.2

1.6

St. Mary's stature (mm) females, Pearson (1899)

Burial# SexFemurHumerus TibiaRadius f + t

abcde f s h i iRangeMeanS/devSEM

5

10

53c

61

66b

79

84

F 1s50.0

F

F 1578.0

F 1557.0

F 1537.0

F ls16.0

F 1555.0

1522.01547.0

1555.0

1590.01582.7

1546.0 1s54.0

1527.01547.0

1533.01573.0

1568.01576.0

1501.0-

1501.0 I 553.0 1553.0 l5 I 1.0 1520.0 1544.0 I 552.0 1550.0 I 535.3

1534.0-

1534.0 1547.01554.0 1554.01547.51569.0-

1569.0 1583.0 1583.0 1578.0 1590.0 1586.0 1590.0 1590.0 1583.0

1544.0-

1544.01557.01557.0 1552.0 1554.0 1558.0 1559.0 1559.0 1553.8

1527.0-

I 543.0 I 543.0 1543.0 1541.0 1536.0 1538.0 1 541.0 1543.0 1539.6

1522.0-

1 528.0 I 543.0 I 543.0 I 533.0 1533.0 1 522.0 1548.0 1573.0 1537 .2

1562.0-

1563.0 1566.0 1566.0 1569.0 1569.0 1562.0 1570.0 1576.0 1566.4

Mean 1551.8

19.8

9.7

6.7

5.1

5.5

15.9

5.6

6.3

4.8

2.1

1.6

t.7

5.0

1.8

386

The bioarchaeologt of St. IIary's Cemetery

St. Mary's stature (mm) male, Breittnger (1952)

Humerus Radius Ulna Femur Tibia Ranse Mean S/dev SEM

6

9

1645.0

1622.0

1770.0

170s.0

r710.0

1720.0

1620.0

1665.0

1705.0

t672.0

1622.0

1710.0

1705.0

1675.0

1622.0

1765.0

1685.0

1700.0

1615.0

1685.0

1685.0

1680.0

1634.0

r64s.0-1675.0

1622.0-1634.0

1760.0-1765.0

168s.0-1705.0

1710.0-1716.0

1700.0-1725.0

1615.0-1640.0

1665.0-1685.0

1685.0-1710.0

33.4 16.7

1668.0

1625.0

1710.0

1722.0

ts.7

6.0

7.8

3.0

t423

57

59

63

68

72

73

78

83

85

1717.0 1695.0 1695.0-1770.0

1716.0

1725.0

1640.0

1665.0

1710.0

1690.0

1760.0

1705.0

1710.0

1705.0

1630.0

r685,0

1695.0

1763.0

1698.0

1712.0

1713.0

1626.0

t67s.0

1699.0

1690.0

3.5

11.5

3.5

I 1.9

I1.1

I 1.5

I l.l

2.5

6.8

2.5

5.9

5.5

5.7

5.5

Range

Mean

S/dev

SE

1620.0-1720.0

1684.7

50.1

16.7

t622.0-1725.0

1685.5

34.6

10.9

1615,0-1717.0

1683.2

45.5

15.2

1630.0-1760.0

1689.9

37.5

I1.9

-) 1685.8

-+ 4t.9

387

Key to expression of nonmetric (epigenetic) traits (Buil<stra and Ubelaker 1994)

1. Metopic suture: 7. Sutural bones:


ArpBNux 7

0:absent1:partial2:complete9:unobservable

2. Supraorbital structuresa. Suoraorbital notch:O:absent

llesent, <1/2 occluded by spicules

21resent, >Il2 occluded by spicules

3lrresent, degree of occlusion unknown

4:multiple notches

9:turobservable

b. Supraorbital foramen:O:absent

1:present2:complete9:unobservable

3. Infraorbital suture:O:absent

1:partial2:complete9:unobservable

4. Multinle infraorbital foramina:O:absent

l:intemal division only2:two distinct foramina

3=nore than two distinct foramina

9:unobservable

5. Zvsomztic facial foramina:

0:absent1:1 large

2:I large plus smaller f.

3:2 large4:2large plus smaller f.

5:small6:multiple small

9:unobservable

6. Parietal foramen:O:absent

llresent

0:absent1:present9:unobservablea. epipteric bone:

b. coronal suture:

c. bregmatic bone:

d. sagittal ossicles:

e. apical bone:

f. lambdoid bone:

g. asterionic bone:

h. ossicle in occipitomastoid suture:

i. parietal notch bone:

8. Inca bone:

O:absent

l:complete, single bone

2:bipartfte3:trþartite4:partial9:unobservable

9. Condvlar canal:

0:not patent

1:patent9:unobservable

10. Divided canal:

O:absent

1 lartial, internal surface

21afüal, within canal

3:complete, intemal surface

4:complete, within canal

9:unobservable

11. tr'lexure of superior sagittalsulcus:

1:right2:left3:bifi.rcate9:unobservable

12. Foramen ovale incomplete:0:absentllartial formation

2:no definition of foramen

9:unobservable

388


13. Foramen incomolete:

O:absentlaartial formation2no definition of foramen

9:rmobservable

14. Soina bifidaO:absentllartial (non-fusion of at least 51)

2:complete (open sacral canal)

9:unobservable

15. Mental foramen:O:absent1:12:23:>29:unobservable0:absentl:small foramen onþ2lrue perforation

9:unobservable

389


Arp¡Npx 8

Cranial measttrements þr geographical origin analysis:

St. Mary's adult males and females.

St. Maryrs males

BurialAse/sex breadth

Maximmmialleneth length

Muimm Muir¡mcrmial cranial

Basion- Cmial Bæion- Bi-bregma base prosthion zygoßîtícLaicht lc¡dh le¡ofh diâñeJer

Upperfacialhe'islrt

79

68.3

Burial Upperfacizlheieht

Nas¿lbreadth

23.4

22.7

24.1

20.9

22.8

22.8

1.18

5

Muimumcranial

Ase/sex b¡eadth

St. Maryrs femalesBasion- Crmial Basion- Bi-

p¡osthion rygomticlensth diameter#

6

9

t423

57

59

63

68

72

73

78

83

8s

45M35M45M50M45M50M60M50M

50M35M45M59M45Mmean

stan.dev.

96.8

94.7

95

100

92.8

80.1

92

93.1

6.33

Nasalbreadth

26.5

23.9

23.223.5

25.7

23.3

22

23.2

21.2

23.8

1.61

10

5

l053c

6l66b

79

84

25F

50F

30F

43F

3sF18F

4sFmean

stan.dev.

t76180

r72t77l6lt7tt'73

r73

6.09

7

92.5

83.2

9t.487.3

81.2

87.1

4.945

125

119

118

Ir7t20

62.s

61.4

64.t64

66.3

63.7

146t47r4tt44t45

t92t93186

186

182

t39r40138

t39t4t139

135

139

125

128

t22t29130

t27

138

r32tt4r02

t36131

base

96

91

96

93

92

94

2.3

5

bregrnaheieht#

25138

t26101

98

134t33 67

65

73.7t2514r

t93190

113

140.5

t02103

r24t33

150

t4tT4T

r40155

143

6.904I2

t94185

180

t78194

187.8

136

134

137

t34t26t33118

r28130

5.41

11

69.3

7r.967

69.1

69.4

70

1.89

7

3.27

5

3.59

41.8s

5

s.707t2

r4l133.6

8.45410

100

99

96

r02

5.12

9 7

4.0210

390

The bioarchqeology of St. Mary's Cemetery

ArpsNox 9

Raw data of analyses for dental pathologies:Type and location of maxillary caries in St. Mary's adults

"x":tooth lost antemortem, "-"{ooth lost postrrortem, "0":no lesion present, "l":caries on surface, "2":caries on interproximal surface, "4":cervical caries, "6":large canes

0000

0000

0000

0

00I

0400

0200

1,3

00X

0xxX

13

11

10

8.5

M3}.l2Ml P2P1 CT2 I1

Leftage

(years)xxxx000r,zD0020xxxxxxxx6 2,2 2,2 2

x2D6zNd0x0xx0000x0x2,3xxx6xx220021000x022XXXX2DO2M2D00-0XXXXxxxx

x00

X

4

1

xX

xx600

0x0

0xx

x00

X

x6

2MIX

X

xIx

1,5

X

x0X

x

x0X

xxxX

IxX

xX

xIX

x00X

x

25-3040-4530-3545-5045-5050-5528-3245-50

5345

5s-6535

5045-50

354520594245

X

1B0X

x2D,2M

xxX

xxxX

01

x00xx

285152b70

#Burial

5

6910l42353c57596r63

66b6872

737879838485

Rishtage

M3M12Ml P2PICT2 I1(vears)xxx0lL000xxxxxx3L

T,2M 6 X

2,2 6 4,1

000000x6xXXXx260000000002xxO2M2DO2M2Dxxxxxx

X

06

X

x6

20X

2620262

25-3040-4530-3s45-5045-5050-5528-3245-50

5345

55-6535

50

X

00xx4x0

X

xX

X

x1,5

1,1,2X

0xxx

x06xX

6x2X

X

xxX

0x0

2}|d,2D0xx

X

:xX

xx0xxx600

X

X

01

X

x

xX

xX

xx5

xxx

1,3

0

5

xx0xxx

45-50

2,2MD

354520594245

0xx

0000

0

000

0000

0001

0200

I200

0

00x

0xxx

13

11

10

8.5

Burial#5

69

10t423

53c57596l63

66b68727378798384852851.

52b70

391^

"D":distal, "L"=linggal, "B":buccal, "M":mesial


Type and location of mandibular caries in St. Mary's adults

"x"{ooth lost antemorten¡ postmortem, "0"=ro lesion present, "1":caries on occlusal surface, "2":caries on interproximal surface, "4":ceryical canes, "6":large caries

(vears) M3 M2 Ml P2 Pl C 12 Il

LeftAge

x2M0x0xxx2D4L4L4L000000xxOxxxx-6-66x2D2D02Mxxx1,22,2-x0000001,20000xx3Bx00xxx44xxx04000x200001,100000x002,22,220000xxxl10xxx1,1000-xxxxxxxx20xx

x0

0

xx6

x0

xxxx1

1,1,1

xx0

0

xx

xxxx

xx0

0

xx6

0

1

xx0

0

xx

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2

0

I0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

IB

0

J

3B

x

xxxx

25-30

404530-35

45-50

45-50

50-55

28-32

45-50

53

45

55-65

35

50

45-50

35

s

20

59

42

45

13

11

l08.5

Burial#

3

6

9

10

l423

53c

57

59

6t63

66b68

72

73

78

79

83

84

85

28

51

s2b70

00000002,2 0

0

0

0

0

2

0

0

0

0

2

0

I

0

0

0

0

I2,2,1

3Bx

xxX

x

000x2D 4L 4L 4L0000xxxx6-66

2M 2D 2M 2Dx22,2x00000000x660x2,4xx0000000000000222XXXX00000000xxxxxxxx

x0

0

xxx

)L0

2

X

X

xX

1,1,1

xx

2,1,1

X

X

0

3D4L,l

0

xxX

6

0

0

X

6

0

2

0

Ix0

X

X

x

X

0

0

xxxx0

X

xx2

0

1

X

x0

0

X

X

X

x0

xx6

x0

2

X

X

x0

I0

x0

1

xx

13

ll10

8.5

M3}'l2Ml P2Pl C12 I1

RishtAge

(vears)

25-3040-45

30-35

45-5045-5050-55

28-3245-50

53

45

55-65

35

50

45-5035

45

20

59

42

45

28

51

52b70

5

6

9

10

l423

53c

57

59

6l63

66b68

72

73

78

79

83

84

85

#Burial

392

"D":distal, "L":linggal, "B":buccal, "M":mesial


Type and location of maxillary hypoplastic lesions in St Mary's adults.

"x":tooth lost antemortem or rurerupted " 1 ":linear horizontal glooves" 3 ":linear horizontal pits"-":tooth lost postmortem

"0":no lesion present

"4":non-linear array of pits

"5":single pits"6":discrete boundary opacity" 7 ":diffr¡se borurdary opacity"9":unobseryable

M3Iú2M1 P2P1 C12 11

Left

xI1

xI0

IX

I9

xI1

I1

x0

Ixx

x0

1

x1

0

9

II2

X

47

I1

x0

X

xx

x1

IX

x0

J

X

J

xX

47

4

4X

0

1

x

X

0

0

xX

0

xI0

9

x0

7

Ixx0

0

xX

x0

0

x0

xX

xX

xI0

7

0

5

x0

0

X

X

x0

0

xx0

0

0

xxx0

X

0

xx0

xxx

X

0

xxx0

xJ

X

xX

X

x0

xX

0

0

xx

X

0

0

X

xX

X

xX

xxX

x0

4X

0

0

xx

1,3

r,41

1,3

1

1,7

1

1

1

II4

0

1,7

0

1,6

5

1

0

1,6

0

7

0

1,3

5

0

0

x

xX

X

x

Age(years)

2s-3040-4530-3s45-5045-5050-55

28-324s-50

53

45

55-65

35

50

45-50

35

45

20

59

42

45

13

11

10

8.5

BurialNo.

5

6

9

10

l47a

53c

57

59

61

63

66b68

72

73

78

79

83

84

85

28

51

52b70

M3};{2MIP2PlC12 I1Rieht

x1

xxX

xI1

IxX

0

1

1

Ix0

Ixx

x0

0

x1

0

9

1

5

9

x45

1

x0

1

xx

x1

Ix1

0

1

44

X

X

X

7

4

I0

0

1

xx

x0

0

X

x0

I1

0

5

9

I0

0

0

0

0

0

xX

x0

0

xx0

X

1

xX

X

IX

0

x0

0

0

X

x

x0

0

xX

0

x0

X

X

xxx0

4x0

X

X

x

X

0

xx0

x0

X

xx0

0

0

xX

0

0

X

x

xX

xX

xxX

X

xX

0

5

0

xx0

X

xx

1,3

1,7

Ix

1

r,7I

1,4

II9

0

7

0

61

5

I0

I7

0

I

0

0

0

X

0

X

xx

Age(vears)

25-3040-4530-35

45-5045-50

50-s528-3245-50

53

45

55-65

35

50

45-5035

45

20

59

42

45

13

11

10

8.5

BurialNo.

5

6

9

10

l423

53c

57

59

6t63

66b

68

72

73

78

79

83

84

85

28

51

52b70

393


Type and location of mandibular hypoplastic lesions in St. Mary's adults

RishtM3 M2 M1 P2 Pl C 12 I1

X

x0xx0x0

0X

xX

07

1

x00xX

x0

0xxxx0xX

X

x07xX

00X

X

X

00xX

x00

0X

xX

X

7xX

0X

xx

'0

00xxX

X

04990

5

7

0X

00X

x

1

1

0xJ

0904X

x0

0I4X

00xX

I1

1

X

r,31

X

II91

I5

44x0Ix1

1

00X

II01

1

9X

1

1

1

Ix01

xx

X

I0x1

Ixxx9X

I0IIX

01

xx

x000x000x000

deciduous3,7

deciduous permanentx43,4x

1,5

00

I 1,5

0I

1

0I

1,7

1

X

deciduous4,7 1,3 1,3

agelvears)25-3040-4530-3545-5045-5050-5528-3245-50

5345

55-6s3550

4s-5035452059424513

11

10

8.5

BurialNo.

56

910l4235Jc5759

6163

66b687273

7879

838485285152b

70

LeftMl P2P1 C T2 11M3 M2

1

00x1

1

xI49xI0I1

X

0Ix

X

0

0xxX

X

00xxX

0

7xX

0

0X

x

II0xx000

0X

90

5

7

60

00x0

X

I0x0Ix0Ixx1

X

IIx0X

X

x

X

x0xX

X

x00X

xxx7X

0

X

xxx

X

1

1

0II6

II91

II41

00IX

4

xxxxxxxX

0X

x0

07

xX

X

0xx

X

0xx0xx09x0J

70

000

X

X

deciduous3,6

permanent3,4

I01

deciduous I 1,3 1,3

000

deciduoust.4

1

1,7

0

1

0J

07

0

1,5

I1

0xx

1

1

0

X

Age(vears)

25-3040-4530-354s-5045-5050-5528-3245-50

5345

55-6535

5045-50

35452059424513

ll10

8.5

BurialNo.

5

6910l42353c57596l6366b687273

787983

84852851szb

70

"x":tooth lost antemortem or unerupted"-":tooth lost postmortem"O":no lesion present

" 1 ":linear horizontal grooves

"3 ":linear horizontal pits"4":non-linear array of pits"5":single pits

" 6":discrete boundary opacity"7":difhrse boundary opacify"9":unobseryable

394


Presence and location of maxillary carious (C) and hypoplastic (H) lesions in St. Mary's subadults.

Left

cm2 m1 12 i1

CHCHCHCHCII

000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000

0000000000000001515100000000000000000000xxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXX0000000000000000000000000000000000000000

0000000000xxxxxxxxxxxxxx05xxO000000000xxxxxxxxxxxx0000021111

lvears)Äge

<1

4<1

1.5

1.5-2<1

<1

<1

2.5

r.5-28.0

t.5-2<1

<l<1

1.5

<1

3.0

1.5

<1

6.0<1

1.5

1.5

<1

2

4

4bI11

13

16

t7t7b18

t924

25

25b27

27h30

31

32

34

35

3840

4t{t

Total affected

Burial#

Right

m2 ml c t2 i1

CHCIICHCHCII

;;;;;;;;;;000000000000000000000000000000000000

000000000000010101

00000000000000000000xxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxx0505000000000000000000000000000000000000

0000000000xxxxxxxxxxxxxx05xx000000O0xxxxXXXXXXXXXX0101020101

Age(vears)

2

4

4b8

11

13

t6t7t7b18

19

24

25

25b27

27b30

31

32

34

35

38

40

4t{t

<l4

<1

1.5

t.5-2<1

<l<1

2.5

t.5-28.0

r.5-2<1

<1

<1

1.5

<l3.0

1.5

<l6.0<1

1.5

1.5

<1

Total affected

Burial#

"x"=ooth lost antemortem or rurerupted

"-":tooth lost postmortem"0":no lesion present

"5":single pits opacity" 1 ":linear horizontal grooves

"6":discrete boundary"4"=ron-linear array of pits

"7":diffrrse boundary opacity

395


Presence and location of maxillary carious (C) and hy'poplastic (H) lesions in St. Mary's subadults

Left

il12cmlm2

CHCHCHCHCIIxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxxXXXXXXXXXX

X

x0

x0

xx0

xX

4xx00

X

xxX

X

I

X

X

0

X

0

X

X

0

X

x0

xxxxx0

X

x0

x0

X

x0

xxxxxxxxx4X

0

X

X

xX

X

I

X

X

0

X

0

X

x0

x0

x0

xxxxX

0

xx0

x0

xx0

X

4x0

X

xxX

x1

xx0

X

0

xX

0

X

5

x0

xxX

X

x1

X

x5

X

0

xX

0

X

4x0

X

xX

xx2

xx0

X

0

xx0

X

5

X

0

X

xxxX

1

X

X

5

x0

xx0

xX

x0

X

xxX

xI

xx0

x0

xx0

x0

x0

X

X

xxx0

Age(years)

<1

<1

<l<1

<1

r.5-2<1

1.5

<1

<1

<1

<1

<1

8.5<1

5.5

<1

<1

<l<1

1.5

Total affected

53

53bs455

56

58

60

62

64

ó5

66

67

69

70

7l75

76

77

80

81

82

Burial#Right

ili2cm1m2

CHCIICHCIICHxxxxx0

x0

xX

0

xX

4XX00xxxxXXxxXX0l

xxxxx0

x0

X

x0

X

x0

xxX

xx0

X

0

xX

0

xx4x0

xxxX

X

I

xX

X

xx0

X

0

X

x0

X

x0

x0

xxxxX

0

X

xxX

x0

X

0

xx0

X

x4x0

xxxX

x1

X

X

xxx0

X

0

xx0

xX

5

x0

xX

xX

X

I

X

X

X

xx5

x0

xX

0

xX

4X

0

X

xX

xx2

xxxxX

0

x0

X

x0

xx5

X

0

xX

xxX

1

X

xxxx5

X

0

X

x0

X

xxx0

X

X

xX

xI

X

xxX

x0

X

0

xX

0

xx0

X

0

xxxxx0

Age(years)

<1

<1

<l<1

<1

1.5-2<1

1.5

<1

<1

<1

<1

<1

8.5<1

5.5

<l<1

<l<1

1.5

Total affected

53

53b54

53

5Õ

58

60

62

64

õ5

66

67

69

70

7l75

76

77

80

81

82

Burial#

"x":tooth lost antemortem or unerupted"-":tooth lost postmortem

"O":no lesion present

"5":single pits opacþ" 1 ":linea¡ horizontal grooves

"6":discrete boundary"4":non-linear array of pits" 7 ":diffrrse boundary opacity

396

The bioarchqeologt of St. Mary's Cemetery

Presence and location of mandibular carious (C) and hypoplastic (H) lesions in St. Mary's subadults

Left mandible

i1i2cm2 m1

CHCIICHCHCH

0

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

xx0

0

0

0

0

xx0

X

101

0

0

0

0

0

;0

0

0

xx0

0

0

0

0

xx0

x

0

0

0

0

;I0

0

X

x0

0

0

0

0

x0

0

x

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

xx0

0

0

0

0

x0

0

X

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

I0

0

xX

0

0

0

0

0

x0

0

X

I

0

0

0

0

0

;5

0

0

X

x0

0

0

0

0

x0

0

x1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

X

x0

0

0

0

x0

0

x0

;0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

xx0

0

0

0

x0

0

X

0

;0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

xx0

0

0

0

X

0

0

x0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

xX

0

0

0

0

X

0

0

X

0

age(years)

<1

4<1

1.5

r.5-2<1

<1

<1

2.5

1.5-28.0

I.s-2<1

<1

<1

1.5

<1

3.0

1.5

<1

6.0<l1.5

1.5

<1

2

4

4b8

11

13

16

t7t7b18

t924

25

25b27

27b30

31

32

34

35

3840

4L

52

Total affected

Burial#

Riqht mandible

ml c 12 i1m2

CHCIICHCIICH

000000000000000000000000000000

000000000000510101

0000000000

0000000000000000

0000000000XXXXXXXXXXxxxxxxxxxx0000000000

00000000000000000000

00000

0000000000

xx0

x1

xx0

x0

xx0

xI

0-XX0

0

X

x0

x0I

x0

0

x1

x0

X

X

0

x0

xx0

xxxx0

xX

X

X

0

Age(vears)

,,

4

4b8

11

13

16

t7t7b18

t924

25

25b2727b30

31

32

34

35

38

40

4t52

<1

4<1

1.5

1.5-2<1

<1

<l2.5

r.5-28.0

r.5-2<1

<1

<1

1.5

<l3.0

1.5

<l6.0<1

1.5

1.5

<1

Total affected

Burial#

"x"{ooth lost antemortem or unerupted" -"{ooth lost postmortem

"O":no lesion present

"5":single pits opacity" 1 ":linear horizontal grooves

"6":discrete boundary"4":non-linear array of pits" 7 ":diffrrse boundary opacity

397


Presence and location of mandibular carious (C) and hypoplastic (H) lesions in St. Mary's subadults.

Left

illzcmlm2

CHCHCHCHCIIxxX

xx0

x0

X

X

0

xX

4x0

xxxxxI

X

xxX

X

0

X

0

xx0

X

x0

x0

xxX

X

x0

xxxX

x0

X

0

xX

0

X

X

4X

0

xX

xxx

xxX

X

X

0

X

0

xx0

X

X

0

X

0

xxX

xx

010

xxxX

x0

x0

X

X

0

X

x4X

0

xxxxX

xxxxx0

x0

xX

0

xx0

x0

xxx

xxxxxx

xX

xxx5

x0

X

X

0

xx4x0

xxx

x2

X

X

xxX

0

x0

xx0

xX

5

X

0

xX

x

x1

xxxxX

5

x0

X

X

0

xX

0

x0

X

xx

xI

X

xX

xx0

x0

xX

0

xx0

x0

X

X

x

X

0

Age(years)

<1

<1

<l<1

<1

1.5-2<1

1.5

<l<1

<1

<1

<1

8.5

<1

5.5

<l<1

<1

<1

1.5

Total affected

53

53b54

55

56

58

60

62

64

65

66

67

69

70

7l75

76

77

80

81

82

Burial#Right

i1i2cmlm2

CHCHCHCHCHX

xxxx0

X

00XXXX00XXXX04XX00XXxxXXxxxx

0101

xxX

xx0

x

X

xxxX

0

x0

xxxxxxxxx0

xX

4x0

xxX

xx

xX

xxx0

X

0

x0

X

X

0

x0

X

xxX

x

xxxxX

0

X

0

X

0

xX

4x0

xX

X

xX

1

xxxxX

0

x0

x0

X

X

0

x0

xxxxX

0

xxxX

x05

x0

X

0

xX

4x0

X

xxX

X

2

xxxxx

X

0

X

0

X

x0

X

0

xX

xxx0

X

X

xxX

5

X

0

X

0

X

x0

x0

xxX

X

X

1

X

xxX

X

0

X

0

x0

xx5

x0

xxX

xx1

Age(years)

<1

<1

<l<1

<1

1.5-2<1

1.5

<l<1

<1

<1

<1

8.5

<1

5.5<1

<l<1

<1

1.5

Total affected

53

53b54

55

50

58

60

62

64

65

66

67

69

70

7t75

76

77

80

81

82

Burial#

"x":tooth lost antemortem or unerupted"-"{ooth lost postmortem

"0":no lesion present

"5":single pits opacþ" 1 ":linear horizontal grooves

"6":disclete boundary"4":non-linear array of pits

"7":diffuse boundary opacity

398

NOTE: This appendix is included on pages 399-401 of the print copy of the thesis held in the University of Adelaide Library.


Apppxorx 11

Individual burial summaries

402

The bioa¡chaeology of St. Mary's Cemetery

Burial No. 2

Preservation: Poor

Orientation: ftead)east/west

Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

= 9 months-Length of ulna & humerus

(Scheuer & Bowman 2000)

Sex:

criteria used:Unknown

Pathologies: none

Dentition: none recovered

Comments: The poorþ preserved remains of an infant. DNAsample taken from unfused vertebral arch

fragment

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403


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

4

Very good

(head) easVwest

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

3-4 years

-Dental development

Sex:

criteria used:Male-Mandibular morphology

Pathologies: -Cribra orbitalia

I)entition:

Comments:

-Deciduous dentition is complete-No indication of linear hypoplasia

-Some hypoplastic pitting ofleft mandibular Ml & rightmandibular Ml

-Some wear (level 3-4) of upper

& lower incisors & canines

-During excavation of SM/84,a rough stone marker was

observed to be marking the

eastem (head) end ofthe grave

404


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Comments:

4b

Very poor

nla

-Supine

9-12 months

-Dental development

-A number of teeth recovered in association with bu¡ial but most are

loose. Loose teeth include 4 molars, 2 incisors & 1 canine. Small section

of mandibular body also recovered conataining 2 unerupted molars.

-DNA analysis conducted on molar from this burial (Townsend 2002).

Molecularly derived sex for Sm/B4b is male.

Sex:


Pathologies: -None discemable from small amount of fragments that

remaln

Dentition:

405


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

Comments:

5

Excellent

(head) easlwest

-Supine: left hand over stomach

25-30 years

-Pubic symphysis-Dental development-Auricular surface

Female

-Sciatic notch typically female

-Cranial morphologytypically female-Mandibular morphology-Pre-auricular sulcus shows

signs of child-birth

-Degenerative afhritic changes to rightglenoid fossa & condyle-Pitting on posterior surface ofpubicsymphysis: consecutive parturition. . .

evidence of child-birth-Evidence of Schmorl's nodes

-A1l maxillary dentition removed ante-mortem except third right

molar-Six maxillary teeth present- remainder

lost ante-mortem-Significant tartar build up on remaining

dentition-Minimal tooth wear

This individual was a young woman who died apparently healtþ. She had

given birth to at least one child. No signs on ribs of pleurisy or tuberculosis.

Could be one of 4 women in the question mark list who meet the age and sex

criteria.

Bur¡ilI 5

i;Ill I

it"I

N-

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t

406


aBurial No. O

Preservation: Good

Orientation: (head)easVwest

Position: -Supine

Sex: Malecriteria used: -Sciatic notch masculine

-Cranial morphology robust with large

mastoids & supra orbital ridges

-Mandibular morphology

Pathologies: -Degenerative arthritic changes to both

acromio-clavicualr j oints

-Arthritic changes to knee joints: rightknee arthritic between patella & tibia-Mandibular tooth wear suggests

individual was a pipe smoker

= 45 years

-Tooth wear-Cranial sutures

-Auricular surface

-Osteophytes (grade 3) on lumbar vertebrae

-Moderate arthritic lipping of both elbow joints

-Left tibio-fibular joint tused

-Most teeth present: tooth loss ante-

mortem-Prevalence of periodontal disease with abscesses

on 3 molars plus numerous caries

-Tooth wear suggests pipe smoker

-Advanced tooth wear

- Signifi cant calculus build-up

-Distribution and prevalence

of arthritic lesions suggests

labour intensive lifestyle.

-Possibility of dental

modification with whatappears to be a drilled hole

through occlusal surface ofthe right mandibular 1st

incisor (see figure).

'1 2

\-^t"7

=l

!

Age:criteria used:

Dentition:

Comments:

407


Burial No. 8

Preservation: Good


Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments

-Supine: some tumbling ofbones

= 18 months

-Dental development-Skeletal development- Long bone lengths

(Scheuer & Black 2000)

Male

-Mandibular morphology(Loth and Henneberg 2001)-Sciatic notch (Holcomb &

Konigsberg 1995)

-Much of the maxillary & mandibular dentition present

-No caries or abcessing observed

-No hlpoplasia observed but some diffuse boundary opacities

present on upper & lower anterior teeth

-Al1 teeth affected by brown/orange stain; suggestion that this may be

indicative of fluorosis, but no supporting evidence...therefore more likely to

be stain from dissolved soil minerals

-Individual died apparently healthy, probably ofacute infectious

disease

-Cranial bones preserved enogh to allowreconstruction & craniometry

408


Burial No. 9

Preservation: Excellent


Position

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies

Dentition

Comments

-Supine: head slumped to rightside;some tumbling of bones

= 38-40 years

-Pubic symphysis

-Skeletal development-Cranial sutures

Male-Mandibular morphology (Loth &

Henneberg 2001)-Sciatic notch-Sacrum is flexed-Cranial morphology

-Sacral evidence ofspina bifida occulta-Healed fracture of 7th left rib-Some osteophytic lipping (grade l) oflumbar vertebrae

-Linear hypoplasia of upper and lower anterior teeth

-Loss ofupper right incisor & upper 2nd &3rdmolars appears

to be antemodem-Clear evidence of wear caused by pipe smoking-Plaque evident on upper & lower teeth

-Individual died apparently healthy, probably of acute infectious disease.

Diffrcult to identiff individual from burial register as age range & possibly

sex is uncertain.

*

Ill ,,rlt.¡;'il3ll .."I

Buri:rl Ð

N

409


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Comments:

10

Fair

(head) easlwest

-Supine: head slumped to right

= 45-50 years

-Cranial sutures

Female '

-Mandibular morphology-Cranial morphology-Supraorbital margins-Long bone morphology

-Robusfiress of long bones & degree of muscle attachment development suggests

physical, hardworking lifestyle.

Pathologies: -Advanced periosteal reaction over

tibiae & fibulae. Also over proximal ll3of radii & ulnae & bones of right wrist.Probably systemic treponemal infection:

therefore syphilis-Periosteal reaction over femora

-Clear case of hyperostosis frontalisintema

-Periosteal reaction over bones offeet

I)entition: -Maxilla has not survived & no teeth recovered ûrring excavation

-Mandible present but with complete antemortem loss ofdentition & extensive resorption of alveolar process (margin).

-Degree ofresorption indicates advanced age

-Loss of dentition could be related to treponemal disease

tlrriàt :O

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410


Burial No. I I

Preservation: Good

Orientation: (head)east/west

Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

= 20 months

-Dental development

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition

Comments: None

Female

-Sciatic notch (Schutkowski(1ee3)-Mandibular morphology

-Hypoplastic event present on several teeth

-Several caries on anterior teeth

-Brown stain on much of the dentition: fluorosis or

mineralisation?

N ++-

0

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Dßrvtr lìy Âihley ìUstic I

4tl

The bìoarchaeology of St. Mary's Cemetery

Burial No. 13

Preservation: Fair

Orientation: (head)east/west

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments:

-Supine: cranial end in better

condition

=9-12 months

-Dental development-Skeletal development-Long bone length (humerus) (Scheuer

& Black 2000)

= Male-Mandibular morphology (Loth &

Hennebrg 2001)

-Much of the maxillary & mandibular dentition present

-No caries or abcessing observed

-Individual died apparently healtþ, probably of acute infectious

disease

-Cranial bones preserved enough to allowreconstruction & some craniometrY

-Differential preservational factors resulted in better

preservation of cranial end; below waist is verypoorly preserved

4t2


Burial No. 14

Preservation: Fair


Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Dentition:

= 50-60 years

-Auricular surface

-Loss of trabecular bone

-Sternal rib ends

Male-Sciatic notch typically male

-Cranial morphology-Mandibular morphology-General robusticity

Pathologies: -Sacralcanalspinabifidaocculta

-Both clavicles diseased at acromial end

-Arth¡itic lesions (stages 1-4) all

vertebrae

-Anþlosing spondylitis-Cervical zygapophyseal joints diseased

-Both elbow joints arthritic & humeraVradial joint

surfaces are eburnated

-Left femoral head ebumated & pitted withcorresponding effect on acetabulum

-Extensive arthritic changes to tarsal bones

-Bones of left ankle pitted and osteophytic, right

ankle normal.-Schmorl's nodes present on lower vertebrae

-Dental wear consistent with advanced age

-Very little dentition left: antemortem loss due to

very poor dental hygiene-Presence ofdental caries is significant

-Right lateral incisor: crolvn destroyed by caries:

advanced periapical abscess aroundroot with signs

ofperiosteal reaction

Comments: Individual presents traits which are distinctþ European. Arthritic conditrons

appeü due to localized trauma rather than generalised degenerative process:

distribution of lesions suggests manuavhardworkìng lifestyle. Widespread

loss of articular cartilage resulting in bony growths and clear eburnation.

Indicators suggest right handed.

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4t3


Burial No. 16

Preservation: Poor

Orientation: (head)wesleast

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition: None

Comments:

-Difficult to say due to state

ofpreservation

= 2-3 months

-Skeletal development

-Humerus length (Scheuer &Black 2000)

-Indeterminate

-Evidence of burial disturbance; with reference to the frgure itcan be seen that one rib fragment is clearly from an older

individual than represented by other bones; bone elements,

particularþ zygomatic of SM/B33 appears to match withelements of SM/816

a

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4t4


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

I)entition:

Comments

T7

Good

(head) wesleast

-Supine

= 2-3 months

-Skeletal development-Long bone lengths (Scheuer

& Black 2000)-Dental development

= Male-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Henneberg 2001)

-Some tooth germs present whichallowed age estimation

Odd that only left side of mandible was present;

some suggestion that burial may have been disturbed

due to association with burials 16,33 &' 34.

4ts


Burial No.

Preservation

Orientation:

Position:

.A.ge:

criteria used:

t7b

Poor

(head) wesVeast

-Supine

= 2-3 years

-Skeletal development-Dental development

IndeterminateSex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments

-Only tooth recovered \vas one fully erupted deciduous incisor

which helped estimate age at death of the individual

It could be that these remains are related to the

mismatched bone fragments found in burials 16,33,34 & l7;burial 17b only represented by bones from

upper half of body...could add to the theory that

burial has been disturbed.

Burial l7b

&,"".

Cr'lr

,t3 t]JCÐ*

CÜ

416


Burial No. 18

Preservation: Poor

Orientation: nJa

Position -Supine

Age:criteria used:

= l8 months-2years-Skeletal development

-Remians consist mainly of cranial fragments, ribs, unfused vertebral

components and loose teeth

Sex:


Pathologies: -None discernable from small amount of fragments that

remain

Dentition: -Mandibular dentition almost complete and

mostly unoccluded

-No indication of hpoplastic events or caries

Comments:

4t7


Burial No. 19

Preservation: Good

Orientation: nJa

Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

8 years

-Dental development-Skeletal development

IndeterminateUsual morphological features have male and

female (borderline) characteristics

-Left parietal shows possible signs being affected: some pits

resembling arachnoid granulations approx. 20 mm lateral to

the midsagittal plane. The most anterior of these has an

irregularly pitted appearance possibly indicating localized

meningitis.

Sex:

criteria used:

Comments:

Pathologies: -Clear signs of cribra orbitalia, but no porotic

hyperostosis

Dentition: -Linear enamel hypoplastic event evident on

anterior teeth. Estimated timing of event 4-5

yeafs

-Some carious lesions present

418


Burial No. 23

Preservation: Good

Orientation: (head) wesVeast

Position -Supine: some tumbling ofbones

N<e

\.

Burial 2J

1¡û!th ¡{'hü.¡al: ?¡¡ Lm

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

Comments:

= 43-58 years

-Pubic symphysis

-Auricualr surface

-Dental wear-Sternal rib ends

Male-Pelvic morphology-Cranial morphology-Long bone robusticity-Cranial sutures

-Some bone remodelling suggests

trauma to left eye

-Some osteophytic lipping of thoracic

vertebrae

-Clear signs of pleural infection: bumpy bony

growth on some left & right ribs, pleural side

-Maxillary dentition well represented, premortem loss of 3 teeth

-Mandibular dentiton: 6 teeth missing, mostly premortem

-Carious lesious prominent over much of the dentition, very

poor dental hygiene-Prominent abscessing of left mandibular molars

-Calculus present: maxillary/mandibular dentition

-No obvìous signs of cause

of death: therfore likely to

acute infection. Signs ofpleural infection could relate

to several names from death

certificate list.

4t9


Burial No. 24

Preservation: Good

Orientation: (head)wesleast

Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

Comments:

l8 months-2years


-Green metal oxide stain on right parietal likely to be

evidence ofshroudpin (see figure)

-This grave associated with rough stone marker at head end

Sex:

criteria used:

Female

-Mandibular morphology (Loth

& Henneberg 2001)

Pathologies: -Skeletal development appears to be more

advanced than dental age. This could indicate an

endocrine condition

Dentition:-Dentition is complete and in good condition

-Some staining of teeth by ground minerals

420


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

25

Poor

(head) wesleast

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

Neonate-Skeletal development

Sex:

criteria used:Indeterminate

Pathologies: None

Dentition: None

Comrnents: Remains are very poorly preserved but burial was

discrete so no suggestion ofdisturbance;

deterioration more likely to be a factor of length oftime interred

42t


Burial No. 25b

Preservation: Fair

Orientation: (head)wesVeast

Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

I)entition:

Neonate to 6 months


Sex:

criteria used:-Male-Mandibular morphology (Loth

& Henneberg 2001)

Pathologies: -No obvious bony changes

-Eleven loose tooth germs Present-Two additional germs still in mandible

Interestingly upper portion of skeleton well represented but

virtually non-existent below the torsoComments:

422


Burial No. 27



Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

I)entition:

Comments:

-Long bone lengths

& Black 2000)

=Male-Mandibular morphology (Loth &

Henneberg 2001)

-Tooth buds present; too young for dental development

-No caries or abscessing observed

-Individual died apparently healthy, probably of acute infectious

disease

-Very well preserved remains: even some ear

ossicles were recovered

423


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

27b

Fair

(head) wesVeast

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

-18 months to2years-Skeletal development-Dental development

Sex:

criteria used:-Male-Mandibular morphology

& Henneberg 2001)

Pathologies: Cribra orbitalia

Dentition:

Comments:

-Most teeth present

-Some evidence of hypoplastic

lesions

-Age estimation reliable based on condition of mandible and

dentition

t''tiE

sM.1Ul7b

lrq ;!\ v.

+'âr

424


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

28

Good

(head) wesVeast

-Supine

Age:criteria used

-12-13 years


Sex:

criteria used:-Male-Mandibular morphology

& Henneberg 2001)

-Cranial featwes-Pelvis

Pathologies: Cribra orbitalia

I)entition:

Comments

-Most teeth present

-Numerous evidence of hypoplastic lesions on a

majority of teeth

-Several small caries present

-Staining of teeth could be flurosis however more likely to

be result of stainig by grounwater

-physeal plates on elbows start to fuse at 12 years: not fullyfused in this case

-This boy appeared to be relatively healtþ up until close to

time of death, supported by the degree of cribra orbitalia

{Êú

I slr\

b &

SM It)28

6

t:

tri!r¡'tt

425


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies

Dentition

Comments:

30

Verypoor

(head) wesleast

-Supine

Neonate


nla

-Burial was that of a neonate baby. Burial lay superiorþ to

second burial (SM/832). Very few diagnostic fragments

survived

nla

nJa

426


Burial No. 31

Preservation: Good


Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

I)entition:

Comments:

= 3-4 years


Male-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Hennebrg 2001)

None

Remains are very poorþ preserved but burial was discrete so no

suggestion of disturbance; deterioration more likely to be a

factor of length of time interred

427


a^Burial No. JZ

Preservation: Fair


Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

= 18 months


= Female


Pathologies: -None

Dentition:

Comments:

-All teeth present and well preserved but loose. No signs ofhypoplastic lesions or caries

-Skeletal components recovered include skull fragments, unfused

vertebral components, long bones, pelvic bones, & hand and foot bones.

Sex estimation supported by robusticity index (as per Coussens et al.

2002)-Associated soil sample pH: 8.5-9

.tî'-r'cÈ

.:,

428


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

33

Poor

(head) wesleast

-Supine

= 6-9 months


nJa

Pathologies: -None

Dentition:

Comments:

nla

-Burial poorly preserved consisting of unfused vertebral components,

proximal half of left ulna and various cranial components includingmajor portion of right frontal and zygomalic-Appears as though there has been some disturbance of the burial.

Zygomatic from SIM/816 looks like it belongs to SM/833 based on age

difference and colouration similarities

a

llûriúl l4iJ

aû

lqI$,

\

ßurirl,ì3t,

r*'à

c,6\ 4.

S tul:'ll -1-l

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ï

429


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

34

Poor

(head) easlwest

-Supine

t 6-9 months-Skeletal development: long

bone lengths (Scheuer &Black 2000)

= Male

-Robusticity of long bones

(Coussens etal.2002)

-Differential preservation of skeletal components limited morphological &pathological analyses. Long bones were processed to determine age and sex.

Robusticity of long bones (as per Coussens eT aL.2002) indicated that the

individual was male

nla

nJa

Comments:

430


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

35

Fair

(head) easlwest

-Supine

Age:criteria used

Sex:

criteria used:

6 years


Male-Mandibular morphology

Pathologies: -None

Dentition:

Comments:

-Occlusal surface wear clear on all deciduous teeth

-Anterior mandibular dentition lost antemortem and

permanent incisors emerging

-Permanent molars developed and on the verge of eruption

at time of death

-No indication of hypoplastic lesions

-Good condition of remains meant that the age estimation

was quite reliable-Cribra orbitalia not present

-Epigenetic traits recorded

SM/835

a

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:yâ,

,Æs\

rI

**$;ïf

tI{r

Ç

lc trll.

*%vl..r1i ,l T_

431


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies

Dentition

Comments:

38

Fair

(head) wesleast

-Supine

Neonate


r¡Ja

-None

nJa

-Classic neonate, so therefore unable to determine sex

morphologically

-Remains presewed in relatively good condition with most

of the rib cage preserved plus unfused vertebral components.

-Also preserved is a major portion of the frontal bone

including orbits

432


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

40

Good

(head) easlwest

-Supine

= 18 months-Dental development-Skeletal development

=Male

-Long bone robusticity (as

per Coussens et al. 2002)-Mandibular morphology

-No obvious sips of illness or trauma

-Deciduous dentition well represented

-Hypoplastic lesions on maxillary canines

-Age estimation facilitated using long bone indices (Scheuer &Black 2000) resulted in a mean age estimation of 45.4 weeks

Comments:

433


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

Comments:

4l

Good

(head) easlwest

-Supine

= 18 months-Dental development-Skeletal development

= Male-Long bone robusticity (as

per Coussens 2002)-Mandibular morphology

-No obvious signs of illness

or trauma

-Deciduous dentition well represented

-No caries or abscesses observed

- Also present are rib fragments, unfused vertebral components

and skull fragments

-A1l incisors exhibit localised linear discolouration, possibly

indicating over fluridation of water consumed

SM/B4I

!{k

d

&I

l,t

1.l\

f-ìþ#

þ#

,È

434


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition

Comments:

51

Good

(head) easlwest

-Supine

= 10-11 years


Female

-Sciatic notch

-Cranial morphology: supraorbital

margins & general gracility-Mandibula¡ morphology

-Early signs of cribra orbitalia-Some slight hyperostotic pitting of

posterior parts of parietals (bilateral)

-Reactive pitting on right auditory

meatus could represent ear infectionevents.

-Dental development presents a combination ofdeciduous & permanent teeth

-Mandibular anterior teeth are crowded

-Deciduous and permanent dentition affected by

caries some quite advanced

-Significant wear for young age

-Sigrrificant number of hypoplastic events: mostly

maxillary but also mandibular

-Is possible that these are the remains of MariaPassfield who died in 1867: hers is the only name

that meets the age & sex criteria in both the 'freeground' & 'question marked' lists

llurial i I

Ë

"'li

Iir

*l

Þrarvn hy r\shlvy M*rrc

â

þ

(,)

(/Ìd{)

*.t

iil.¡,

;",r1

435


Burial No. 52

Preservation: Good


Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments:


= 0-3 months

-Long bone lengths based on

Scheuer & Black (2000): =35 weeks-Dental development

Indeterminate

Four tooth germs present: their development helped

to make age estimation

The remains of a new born baby: no obvious signs ofpathologies. Therefore it is likely that individual died of acute

infection. Remains quite well preserved considering age ofindividual & length of time buried.

436


BurialNo. 52b


Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

(head) easVwest: head slumped to rightside, upper limbs at sides

-Supine

= 10 years


Male-Sciatic notch-Cranial morphology-Mandibular morphology

Pathologies: -Some pitting in both eye

orbits: cribra orbitalia

I)entition: -General state ofdentalhygienewas good: no dental

canes

-Possibility of2 slight hypoplastic events evident on

anterior maxillary & mandibular teeth

Comments: -Excellent preservation of remains allowed accurate

morphological determinations-Based on age & sex this could be the remains of an unidentified individualfrom the 'question ma¡ked' list buried in 1848 or Edwa¡d Deed aged 11

years from the 'free ground' list who died in 1867

43',7


Burial No. 53

Preservation: Fair

Orientation: (head) easVwest

Position: -Supine

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments:

= 3-6 months-Skeletal development-Dental development-Long bone lengths

& Black 2000)

Male-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Henneberg 2001

-Mandible & maxilla well preserved: tooth germ

development allowed age estimation

Many of the Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994) measurements

possible; two safety pins associated with skeletal remains

* <t_ Ilrrriat 5.ì¡¡

¡)äun bl" Ch#F l!ødw

:-{

i,l'.úÂ

b-l=ll*

-u ,Å

438


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

I)entition:

Comments:

53b

Very good

(head) wesVeast


= 3-6 months

-Dental development

= Male-Mandibular morpholo gy

-No sign of hypoplastic lesions or caries

-Teeth stained brown colour

-Remains well preserved including phalanges

-Coffin appears too long for individual

439


Burial No. 53C


Orientation: (head) east/west

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

Comments:

-Supine: head slumped to left side, arms

at sides

=28-32yearc-Stemal rib ends

-Auricular surface

-Dental development and wear

Female

-Sciatic notch-Cranial morphology-Mandibular morphology-Pre-auricular sulcus: distinct signs ofchildbirth

-Linear bony regrowth lesions on

femora and pitting on occipital, plus

stellate lesions on parietals suggest

systemic treponemal infection-Healed fracture to styloid process on

right side

-Muscle attachments on humeri are prominent

-Very poor dentition-Anterior maxillary teeth affected by advanced caries

-Posterior maxillary teeth lost antemortem

-Two maxillary incisors reduced to root by caries

-Mandibular dentition similar to maxillary-Some evidence of pipe smoking wear

-Excellent preservation of remains allowed accurate

morphological determinations

-Based on age & sex this could be the remains of Margaret Anderson who

died aged 30 years on the 13th May, 1858. Death Certifrcate states cause ofdeath as 'Insanity- affusion of the brain'...which would correlate with the

observed pathologies of systemic treponemal infection or syphilis 440


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments:

54

Poor

(head) west/east

-Supine

= 6 months

-Femur length (1 12.2 mm)Scheuer & Black (2000)

-Dental development(Coussens etal.2002)

= Male-Robusticity index

-No dental pathologies

-Teeth stained brown-Development used for age estimation

Skeleton in very degraded state. No upper limb bones & lower limb bones

missing from half way down tibiae. Both breaks on tibiae at same level &appear to be post mortem but pre-excavation therefore possibly a disturbed

burial. Cranium & thoraciç area extremely eroded & crumbly

441


Burial No. 55

Preservation: Good

Orientation: (head) easlwest

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition nJa

Comments:

-Supine

Neonate to I month

-Skeletal development: long bone lengths

(Scheuer & Black 2000)

nJa

none

-Skeletal remains below pelvis completely absent in addition to right upper

limb. Remaining components are well preserved. Reasons for absence were

due to recovery...mechanical excavation resulted in observed abscences'

Unusually shallow depth of bwial (under 1 metre) meant that observers were

not expecting to encounter burial resulting in loss of lower half of body and

right upper limb.-A number ofear ossicles recovered

442


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used

Pathologies non9

Dentition nla

Comments:

56

Very good

(head) easlwest

-Supine

= 6-9 months

-Skeletal development: long bone

lengths (Scheuer & Black 2000)-Dental development

=Male-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Henneberg 2001)

-Very good preservation allowed reliable estimation of age, however

individual is very yourg for application of mandibular morphology sexing.

-What appears to be increased erythropoetic activity evident in scapulae,

could have affected altered growth pattems of long bones.

t¡trit l.¡I

I

SM¡'85ó

ø-9

ili1. lf

ldÂ

1

*i ãt1I

w,

1}nl

=?1irJ-,

443


Burial No. 57

Preservation: Fair

Orientation: (head)easlwest

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition

Comments:


at sides

= 45-50 years

-Pubic symphysis (left)-Sternal rib ends

-Cranial sutures

-Dentition (Gustafson 1950)

Male-Sciatic notch-Long bone circumference-Cranial morphology-Mandibular morphology

-Some mild linear bone regrowth on

femora & tibiae-Lumbar spine affected by osteophytic

lipping-5th lumbar vertebra exhibits clear case

of spondylosis-Nasal aperture is significantly

assymetrical with a severely deviated

septum

-All mandibular teeth present; 5

maxillary teeth missing antemortem

-Remaining dentition cramped and out

of normal position

-Alveolus around molars appears to be infected but without abscessing

-Clear evidence of pipe smoker's wear on anterior

teeth ofright & left sides

-Al1 teeth affected by calculus to some degree

-Most anterior teeth show clear sigrrs of linear hypoplastic lesions

-Geographic origin determinations indicate idividual was European

-Clear case of spondylosis and lumbar osteophytes suggest a

physical lifestyle. Lack of other skeletal markers of stress does

not support this-Hair sample recovered with skeltal remains was inspected

microscopically for parasites. . .none observed

-Hair was a light sandy colour and cut quite short

444


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

58

Very good

(head) wesVeast

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

= 1.5 - 2years-Dental development-Skeletal development

= Male-Mandibular morphology

Pathologies: None

Dentition:

Comments:

-Dentition well represented

-Teeth stained brown-Development used for age estimation-No carious lesions or abscesses

-Occlusal hypoplasia prominent on lst (slìght) & 2nd (more advanced)

molars. Unerupted lst permanent molar shows most clearþ the effect ofstress

-Cranial capacity of reconstructed skull measured: 1210 ml-Almost entire skeleton preserved except for some phalanges

44s


Burial No. 59

Preservation: Fair


Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition

Comments:


at sides

= 48-52 years-Pubic symphysis (left)-Auricular surface

-Secondary modelling on pubic symphysis

-Dentition (Gustafson 1950)

Male-Sciatic notch-Pubic morphology-Cranial morphology


-Pathologies dominated by series ofcomminuted perimortem fractures to

femora, left tibia and fibulae-Appears to have a healed fracture to

metatarsal of left foot-Some evidence of periosteal reactionparticularly on forearms

-Anterior teeth only inmandible, posterior lost

antemortem

-Significant wear ofmaxillary teeth but no caries

-Calculus buildup present (sample taken)

-Most mandibular teeth present (both M2 & left Il antemortem)

-Periodontal abscesses on right anterior mandible

-Hypoplastic events recorded

-Clear evidence of pipe smoking wear

-Trauma of leg fractwes was probably the cause of death

-Metopic suture present

-Confirmation of morphological assessments. Newspaper report ofCoroner's inquest (0710911854) name Henry Thomas Russell (on question-

marked list) aged 53 years as having died of 'accidental death'. While he

was trying to cut the limb of a tree, it snapped and fell on to him

'...fracturing both his limbs in the most frightful manner...'

-ê

t-

llr¡rirl Jtr

*

446


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

60

Very poor

nla

nJa

-radius:4l.3 mm long

-llnæ48.1 mm long

Age:criteria used:

= 9 months


-femur:62 mm long

nla

tibia:53.8 mm long

-Site notes: burial contained within a small rectangular coffin on top ofSM/859 which was quite deteriorated. No indication that the burial had

been disturbed

-Odd combination of bones preserved: lower left upper limb & left leg

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: nJa

I)entition: nJa

Comments:

\'t,[3h(r

$,¡.. IT.:&A

.r

*å

447


Burial No. 6l



Position

Age:criteria used:

-Supine: head slumped to right side,

arms at sides

= 40-45 years

-Pubic symphysis (left)-Auricular surface

-Secondary modelling on pubic

symphysis

Female

-Sciatic notch-Pubic morphology:

evidence ofchildbirth-Cranial morphology-Mandibular morphology

-Spina bifida occulta-Some healed subperiosteal

inflammation of tibiae

-Clear signs on auricular margins &pubic symphysis of childbirth

-Total of 6 mandibular teeth present, all anterior

-Advanced wear on all mandibular teeth

-Calculus build-up present (sample taken)

-Caries present on 3 mandibular teeth

-Total of 4 maxillary teeth present all anterior and

all well wom-Caries recorded on 3 maxillary teeth

This woman probably suffered back pain throughout life due to spina bifida,

but despite this she managed to have at least one baby. Very littleosteophytic change to the skeleton despite reaching an advanced age. Back

pain may have prevented her doing any physical work which exacerbates

arthritic degeneration ofspine. Dental hygiene very poor.

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition

Comments:

* <l-

r

llurial 6t

ç

Ð

448


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

62

Fair

(head) easlwest

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

= 18 months

-Dental development

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies none

Dentition:

Comments:

= Female

-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Henneberg 2001)

-Dentition well represented; caries

prevalent on anterior maxillary teeth

-Fair preservation of remains ; lower half is better preserved than upper halfand cranium. Only l/3 of mandible remains but portion is chin which is

rounded suggesting sex is female (Loth & Henneberg 2001).

â

2,

449


Burial No. 63

Preservation: Good


Position:

Age:criteria used:


at sides

= 50-60 years

-Pubic symphysis (left)-Auricular surface

Male-Sciatic notch-Cranial morphology-Sacroilliac shape


-Pleural side of rib fragments shows

signs of bumpy bony regrowth-Porous lesions on a¡ticular surface of

both knees/distal femora-Arthritic changes to much of the spine

-Schmorl's nodes on lower thoracic

vertebrae-Completely open sacral canal spina

bifida

-Very few teeth present; 2 maxillary & 4 mandibular: remainder lost

antemortem-Despite lack of dentition, caries quite prominent

-Several teeth rotten to alveolar level

-hypoplastic events evident on remaining teeth

-High degree of wear on extant teeth

-Resorption ofalveolar process is advanced

-Right side of skeleton is darker in colour than left, particularly long bones.

Could indicate uneven level of coffin & different submersion levels ofremains in seasonal ground-water

-Degree of osteophytic change to spine suggests labour intensive lifestyle

-Rib lesions could represent tuberculosis

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

Comments:

Buri¡rl ó]

s

''l

t:t1 ø

TO

¡¡ €*

{

It

ç_r:t

,llì

,tIl'!

II

;ft,I

It, 1.-:

l)v-(l

450


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

64

Very poor

(head) easlwest

-Supine

= 9-72 months


nla

-Presence of tooth germs allowed forrelatively reliable age estimation

-Remains are poorly preserved negating the taking of any

osteological data. Bone fragments present included legs, ribs,

cranial, vertebral components, os coxae.

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: nla

Dentition:

Comments:

451


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: nJa

Dentition:

Comments:

65

Poor

(head) east/west

-Supine

=9-12 months


nJa

-P¡esence of tooth buds allowed forrelatively reliable age estimation

-Bones oflegs, vertebral bases, vertebral arches, os coxae, some

components of cranium & phalanges. This may suggest that the burial was

not disturbed but what remains is the result of natural deterioration

452


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

66

Excellent

(head) easlwest

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Comments

=9-12 months


=Male-Mandibula¡ morphology(Loth & Henneberg 2001)

Pathologies: #NAME?

I)entition: -Deciduous dentition complete

-Age estimation using long bone indices (Scheuer & Black2000) resulted in a mean age estimation of 49.3 weeks

453


Burial No. 66b



Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition:

-Supine: head slumped to

right side, arms at sides

= 30 years

-Dental development-Auricular surface

-Pubic symphysis

Female

-Supraorbital ridges

-Cranial morphology-Mandibular morphology

-Evidence of childbirth

-Some osteophytic lippingthoracic vertebrae

-Extension of ramp on centnrm ofseveral thoracic vertebrae

-Bilateral osteophytic growth on sciatic

notch adjacent to pre-auricular sulcus

-Sacroilliac joint extended distally-Extension to zygapophyseal joints on

articular surface both sides L5-Plaque mark on neck of femora-False joint on anterior sacnrm

-Supra condylar crest & nothch on both

humeral heads

-Osteophytic lipping of distal hand phalanges

-Plaque buildup on tibiae & femora :hyperostosis osteoarthopatþ

-Most dentition present

-Maxillary agenesis of 3 molars

-Periapical disease of left maxillary premolars

-Most teeth presenting hypoplastic events, caries, wear & calculus

-Combination of pathological signs gives a good indication of occupation.

Pelvic, sacral & spinal changes suggest a sitting position with forwardprojection or slump. Also osteophytic lipping on elbows and phalanges

suggests an activity like milking a cow. Pre-auricular sulcus suggests 2

childbirth events.

Comments:

4s4


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

67

Good

(head) easVwest

-Supine

Age:criteria used:

Comments:

= 6-9 months


Sex:

criteria used:=Male

-Long bone robusticity (as

per Coussens et a1.2002)

Pathologies-No obvious signs of illness or trauma

Dentition: -Deciduousdentitionwellrepresented

-Age estimation using long bone indices (Scheuer & Black

2000) resulted in a mean age estimation of 45.4 weeks

455


Burial No. 68

Preservation: Good


Position:

Age:criteria used:

Supine:arms at sides, some

tumbling of bones

= 55 years

-Dental wear

-C¡anial sutures

Male-Sciatic notch-Long bone circumferences

-Mandibular ramus fl exure

-Cibra orbitalia: some localised butpronounced pitting-Periostitic lesions (advanced) over righttibia & fibula

-Both hip joints presenting massive

periostitic reaction, osteophytic lipptttg

þarticularly left side). Proliferativearthritis: Bechterev disease? (anþlosingspondylarthritis)-Right talo-calcaneal joint extremely

arthritic with extensive lipping-Upper limbs extremely

robust compared to lower-Maxilla appears prognathic


-Most teeth presenting hypoplasia-2 maxillary & 3 mandibular caries

-Tooth wear advanced with possible

pipe smoker's notch-Left mandibular lst molar may be impacted

-Key furding relates to hip disease: inflammation of periosteum in lower right leg may

have resulted from an untreated wound on the leg. This could be related to the hip

condition which appeared to have left 1eg locked in a sitting position. It is suggested that

the individual may have been paraplegic & wheelchair bound. Upper limb robusticity

could be a result of wheelchair use.

-Cranial morphology, particularly prognathism & nasal sill look distinctlynon-European 456

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies

Dentition:

Comments:

Ilnriul (tfl

¿j

ì!

¡ü

þ

Itl

|"trË

lä


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used

Pathologies: -None

I)entition:

Comments:

69

Very good

(head) easlwest

-Supine:arms at sides

= 6-9 months-Dental development-Skeletal development



-Tooth germs in early stage of formation but wellpreserved

-Long bone (Scheuer & Black 2000) lengths provide an average

age estimation of 42.8 weeks at death

-Robusticity determinations seem to disagree with mandibular

determination of sex

-Green metal oxide stain present on the diaphysis towards the

proximal end of the left femur

457


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criterÍa used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition:

Comments:

70

Excellent

(head) easlwest

-Supine

8 - 9 years

-Dental development

Female


-Hyperostotic pitting on anterior margins ofleft and right parietals

-Harris lines trabecular bone right distal

humerus

-Deformity of thoracic vertebrae includingsome fusion.-Fusion (anþlosing) of left sacroiliac joint

-Most maxillary teeth quite deformed particularly left & right premolars and anterior

dentition (mulberry teeth)

-Mandibular first and second deciduous molars plus emerging permanent molars

plus all anterior dentition are quite deformed (mulberry teeth)

-In addition to deformities are regular hypoplastic events including pitting on right

mandibular second molar

This individual suffered from a combination of diseases. Was probably bom withcongenital syphilis (mulberry dentition & porotic hyperostosis) and due to reduced

ability to fight infection contracted tuberculosis (fusion of vertebrae, anþlosing ofsacroiliac joint). Poor diet or constant illness caused dental hypoplasia and Harris

lines.

Buriaì 7û

¡ìå

458


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: -None

Dentition:

Cornments:

7l

Very good

(head) easVwest


= 9-10 months




-Tooth buds in early stage of formation but wellpreserved

-Long bone (Scheuer & Black 2000) lengths provide aî average


-Ribs, unfused vertebral components and smaller

hand & foot bones are well represented

/tl),

li t ¡rf r ll

sMrBT r

¡ r tl

,{

öç.}

*

I

r¿

\tt

aw7

Il

1

7E

t

\

¡.a?å

L,J

ltLt

ít

459


Burial No. 72

Preservation: Good


Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition

-Supine: arms at sides, head

slumped to right

= 45-50 years

-Auricular surface

-Stemal rib ends

-Cranial sutures

Male-Sciatic notch-Long bone circumferences

-Mandibular ramus flexure-Cranial features

-Clear sigas of repeated physical activityin hands, wrists & arms: distal radii have

pronounced cavity & proximal ulnae

have pronounced crest ofmuscleattachments

-Patellae are pointed

distally. . . non-European?

-Thhd trochanter welldeveloped on femora

-Other non-Europeancharacteristics: skull is low &wide, & palate is very broad

-All teeth present and in fairþ good condition.-Teeth are all stained a brown colour: could be

fluoridosis, but suspect ground water staining-Mandibular & maxillary anterior teeth affected bysmall caries and calculus

-Distinct pipe smoker's notch associated with left2nd incisors & canines

-Occupational markers suggest a physical and hardworking lifestyle-General health indicators suggest well nourished throughout life

ã"lÐIt;

cq

-l&

Burial 72

4

Comments:

460


Burial No. 73



Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

-Supine: arms at sides, high degree oftumbling of bones

= 30-35 years

-Auricular surface

-Pubic symphysis-Dental development & wear

Male-Sciatic notch-Mandibular ramus fl exure

-Cranial features

-Cl joint with cranial base is diseased

with facets being depressed & extended

-Further signs of disease ofzygapophyseal j oints C5 -T2

-Centrum of T3-T5 is extended givingpeaked rather than round shape

-Inferior side ofcentrum ofT8 has a Schmorl's node on

posterior margin: T9 also

affected-Schmorl's node developing between Tll &Tl2-Zy gapophy seal j oints of L I -L3 are diseased; cupping of plates & facets

-Zygapophyseal joints L4-L5 are diseased

-Meeting of L5 & sacrum is diseased with significant

osteophytic lipping þhase 2)

-False facets on anterior sacrum where contact with os coxae

-Right femoral head is affected with osteophytic lþing-Prominent muscle attachment sites on upper limbs.

-Some osteophytic lipping of elbow joints

-Left big toe affected by arthritic osteophytes

-Most dentition present \Mith a moderate degree of wear reported

-Significant influence of caries both mandibular & maxillary-Maxillary teeth have significant calculus deposits

-Right 1st premolar affected by caries & abcsessing

Pattem of bony changes to axial skeleton suggests a physical lifestyle withindividual repetitively bearing heavy loads. Finding is supported bynoticeable bowing laterally of tibiae.

N¡ <*

llurial 7l

Oun

Comments

461


Burial No. 7 5



Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition:

Comments:

-Supine: head slumped

forward with chin resting on

chest

= 5-6 years


Male-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Hennebrg 2001)

-Cribra orbiølia-Possible hydrocephalus: partial metopic

suture & enlarged cranium particularlyfrontal part-Small spr¡r on chin: could be sign of a

localized trauma

-Dentition well represented

-Development at transitional stage between

deciduous & permanent

-No pathologies recorded

-No 5-6 year old males exist in bwial records; one 6

year old girl buried in 1858. One 7 year old boyburied in 1913. Several 4 year olds but only one ofthese is male-Probability is that child died ofsvere infectious disease

Burial 75

N+

5

iilrld¿

=i "ã

462


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

76

Very good

(head) easlwest


:6 months


Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: -None

Dentition:

Comments:



-Tooth buds in early stage of formation but wellpreserved

-Generally very well preserved including many hand & foot

components

-16 tooth buds present including all maxillaryexcept 1 canine, &, all mandibular except I molar

463


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

77

Very good

(head) easVwest


= 9-10 months


= Female


Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies: -None

I)entition:

Comments:

-Only six tooth germs present

-Tooth germs in early stage of formation but wellpreserved

-Generally very well preserved including many hand & foot

components

-Long bone (Scheuer & Black 2000) lengths provide aî avelage

age estimation of 37 .2 weeks at death

464


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

78

Good

(head) easVwest


= 40-45 years

-Pubic symphysis

-Auricualr surface

-Dental wear-Stemal rib ends

Male-Pelvic morphology-Cranial morphology-Long bone robusticity

-Osteophytosis of lumbar &thoracic vertebrae

-L5 compressed on left side

with healed stress fracture

-Left wrist is periostitic-Cranial pitting along brow ridge-Left hand is severely affected with periostitic lesioning

-Spine is scoliotic-Possible periostitic inflammation superior to maxilla either side of nasal

aperfure

-3 maxillary & 4 mandibular teeth remain; rest lost antemortem

-All remaining teeth are well worn & affected by calculus

-Maxillary & mandibular alveolus resorbed and pitted-Mandibular left canine& first premolar wear indicate pipe smoking

-Cranium seems light; possibly a result of lack of occlusal pressure due to

lack of dentition-Degree & distribution of periostitic lesioning initially suspected to be

caused by leprosy, but probably more likely to be the result of localised

trauma-Some asymmetry of humeri suggests a left hander

-Discriminant function anaþsis using infraorbital features

method suggests individual was'white'

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition:

Comments:

465


Burial No. 79



Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

-Supine: remarkable amount

of bone tumbling

= 16-18 years

-Pubic symphysis

-Dental development-Auricular surface

-Spheno-occipital slmcondroses


Female

-Sciatic notch-General pubic morphology-Mandibular & cranial morphology

Pathologies: -Completely open sacral canal spina

bifida occulta

Dentition

Comments:

-Some indicators that geographic originis other than European: eg. nasal bridge

is raised and rounded; zygomatics;

cupping/shovelling of incisors; nasion is

not clefted or depressed but quite raised

-All but 1 tooth present

-Mandibular 3rd molars not

fully occluded

-Teeth are very large & well formed

adding to the suggestion that geographic

origin is other than European

Based on burial register details age and sex criteria 879 could

be the remains of one of 3 people; Eliza Francis Stewart, buried

2l-07-1873 aged 19 years CoD Harmoptysis; Rosetta Moody,

buried 04-03-1853 aged,2l years CoD Effi'rsion of chest; Eliza

Denman, buried 16-11-1910 aged 17 years CoD Acute pyelitis-puerperal sepsis

¡Ë,

466


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

Comments:

80

Good

(head) easlwest


= 3-6 months


= Female


-None

-None of the dentition has survived

-Long bone (Scheuer & Black 2000) lengths provide an average


-Ribs, unfused vertebral components and smaller

hand & foot bones are well represented

467


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

81

Good

(head) easlwest


= 6-9 months



Pathologies: -None

I)entition: -Development of tooth germs used to determine age

Comments: -None

468


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition:

Comments:

82

Very good

(head) easlwest


= l8 months


=Male-Mandibular morphology(Loth & Henneberg 2001)

-Proximal ends of humeri and perhaps femora &tibiae may exhibit excessive remodelling associated

with a rehumatic condition

-Complete and healthy-No evidence of caries or hypoplasia-Significant overbite-Extensively stained from soil minerals

-Preservation has allowed many cranial measruments

-Metopic suture was yet to fuse

-No evidence of cribra orbitalia-Cranial capacity estimated :920 ml

469


Burial No. 83

Preservation: Very good


Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies

I)entition:

Comments:

-Supine: head slumped to

left, right forearm over

lumba¡ spine area

=45-50 years

-Pubic symphysis

-Dental weat-Cranial sutures

Male-Sciatic notch-Mandibular morphology-Cranial morphology-Long bone measurements

-Perimortem fractures to both femora,

left tibia and both fibulae-Left knee joint is arthritic-Osteophytic bony growth on left pubis

consistent with advanced age

-Completely open sacral canal spina bifida occulta

-Possible Allen's fossa þlaque buildup) on left femoral head

-Healed trauma to nasal area

-Sth & 9th thoracic vertebrae have significant shared osteophyte


-Dental wear consistent with advanced age

-2 mandibular caries, 5 maxillary-Most teeth have a calculus deposit

-Black stain on lingual side of canines, premolars & molars

-All teeth stained brown from ground water

Trauma pathologies matched those decscribed in the Coroner's

inquest for John Pell who died 2 March, 1859 aged 59 years.

He fell from a bullock dray at night & had his head run over by

the wheel. Contemporary newspaper reports how wheel passed

over right side of his head & crushed his skull & fractured his

vertebrae.

470


Burial No.

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

I)entition:

Comments:

84

Very good

(head) easVwest


= 40-45-Sternal rib ends

-Pubic symphysis

-Auricular swface

Female

-Preauricular sulcus shows

signs of childbirth-Pelvic morphology-Cranial features

-Possibly some signs of mild periostitic reaction on

lower limbs-L5 has fused to sacrum

-Edentulous with advanced alveolar resorption

-Mandibular & maxillary dentures recovered; dated

to mid-late l9th century

-Sex features clearly female-Changes due to childbirth to preauricular sulcus are

well defined-Nodule of soil recovered endocranially (pH:5.5)

-Symmetrical comparison of upper limbs suggests right handed

-Bilateral Poi¡ier's facet suggest constant sitting or squatting

position-Prominence of radial features demonstrates repetetive

continuous work using forearms

-Ulna muscle attachments are prominent bilaterally

471


Burial No

Preservation:

Orientation:

Position:

Age:criteria used:

Sex:

criteria used:

Pathologies:

Dentition:

85

Very good

(head) west/east


= 45-55-Sternal rib ends

Male-mandibular ramus fl exure

-left femur mid-shaftcircumferance:97.0 mm-cranial robusticity-supero-inferior femur neck

diameter

-Cribra orbitalia, grade I (Buikstra and l-Ibelaker 1994)

-Osteophyticlarthnticlesionsaffectingmuchofthespine.Ll &Tl2fusedatrightanterior surface. T10 and T11 with significant osteophytes

-Femora exhibit striated bone regrowth. . . . Lack of remodelling for age of individual

suggests possible sytemic infection-Atlantooccipital joint facets appear extended and lipped

-Superior zygapophyseal facets of Cl are expanded and cupped moderately

-Dens of Cl has a moderate osteophytic spike

-Small button osteoma on right parietal and mid-anterior body of L2

-Acromioclavicular joints diseased bilaterally-Upper limbs exhibit noticeable robusticity-Prominence of deltoid tuberoscity bilaterally-Elbow joint affected by moderate osteophytic hppinC bilaterally, particularly on

proximal facets of ulnae

-Muscle attachments on the diaphysis of ulnae are quite prominent, particularly at

interosseous crests. . . same for radii

-A total of 3 teeth recovered, all anterior mandibular...remainder lost antemortem

with alveolus fully resorbed

-Abcess associated with left canine and right lateral incisor

-Al1 3 teeth exhibit enamel hypoplasia

-Skeletal markers of stress indicate a physically active individual who

undertook regular manual labour.

-Poor state of dentition reflects continuing result of inadequate dental hygiene

practices

-Cause of death was unable to be determined

È

Ê

sM/Bfì_5

T*

sl

ä

I

J

o* ."t'

'r à: '1é"t

:. $I;

Comments:

472


ArpBNorx 12

Field details of burial depths, orientations:

Morphological age and coffin dimensions.

tr'irst season of excavation

Count

Burial

No.

Depth to

base (cm)

Head

end

Age

(years)

Depth to top of

coffrn (cm)

Length x Width of

coffrn (cm)

I

2

J

4

5

6

7

8

9

l0

llt2

13

t4

l5

16

t7

18

l9

20

2l11

23

24

25

26

)1

28

29

30

3l

32

JJ

ll8168

202

2

4

4b

5

6

8

9

10

l1

t2

t2b

t3

t4

l6

t7

tT6

18

t9

23

24

25

25b

27

zTb

28

30

3l

32

34

35

38

40

4l

137

160

159

138

215

80

98

717

140

l'76

165

180

167

t6t185

175

146

182

2rf

245

92

11s

133

134

188

144

lt0123

129

139.5

142

137

ll5t28

129

131

0.1

3.5

0.5

)1 \

42.5

1.5

32.5

45

1.5

0.5

0.5

0.9

45

0.2-0.3

0.2

t<

1.75

8

34

t.75

0.15

0.25

0.15

1.5

12.5

0.3

3

1.5

0.8

6

0.15

1.5

1.5

60/21

105/32

E

wwE

E

wV/

wwV/

wwE

wE

t77 147

178152

75/21

63113

I 83/53

170160

ts4l33

187/43

9s129

42/14

72126

98124.5

68/23

102/80

t27/25

tt7

155

137

120

t27

132

97

94

wV/

E

E

E

wwV/

wwE

E

E

E

E

E

E

t14

115

860x250

473


Second season of excavation

Burial

Count No.

Depth to top of

coffin (cm)

Depth to

base (cm)

Head

end

Age

(years)

Length x Width of

coffin (cm)

34

35

36

37

38

39

40

4l

42

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

50

5l

52

53

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

6l

62

63

64

65

66

67

68

69

70

7l

5l

52

s2b

53

s3b

53c

54

55

56

57

58

59

60

6l

62

63

64

65

66

66b

6'7

68

69

70

7l

72

73

75

76

77

'78

79

80

81

82

83

84

85

159

158

165

92

106

155

144

2t

193

128

108

r63

82

145

93

118

106

124

116

132

107

149

109

160

t34

174

137

t2s

r87

139

186

56

140

142

146

174

170

l8l106

120

185

1s8

33

226.5

131

127

132

9l

|',t3

103

t28

122

1s3

150

126

tg120

18s

159

184

147

136

214

205

't7

170

lsl175

10.5

0.7

l0

0.9

0.45

30

0.6

0.1

0.75

45

1.5

53

0.2

43

1.5

47.5

0.7s

0.9

0.9

35

I

50

I

0.85

0.9

47.5

48

5.5

0.6

o.75

45

20

1<

0.75

1.5

59

42

45-55

144128

56124

ts4136

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

wE

E

E

198141

9412s

E

E

E

B

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

B

E

wE

E

E

E

E

E

E

E

w

474


AppBNotx 13

Correspondence

Email correspondence from Little, B. and Owsley, D. to Anson, T. regarding site-

specifîc details regarding preservation of skeletal remains.

From: Barbara [email protected]: Tue, I Oct2002 07:29:19 -0400X-MIMETrack: Serialize by Router on NPOO6DENVERIN4TAA{PS(Re1ease 5.0. I 0

lMarch 22,2002) atI0l0ll2002 05.29:28 AM

Sorry that you didn't get this the first time - I'11 ask for a receipt so that I know you

got this.

Hello Mr. Anson,I'm glad you found me! I have at least five messages this morning from various parts

of the Park Service -- it's nice to know people are willing to be helpful. Anyway,thanks and I hope that the article is useful. All the notes are curated at the Manassas

City Museum, so I don't have them directly accessible. However, since we don't

report the pH in the article, I imagine that we neglected to take it - howembarrassing. I do remember, however, a conversation with Doug Owsley about the

preservation. He has dug a lot of historic graves and he was not at all surprised at the

bad preservation in these soils, but I think that it had less to do with the soil aciditythan with the constant soaking-drying cycle in the poor drainage.

Hope this helps.BarbaraBarbara LittleNP S Archeolo gy & Ethno graphy pro gram : (www. cr.nps. gov I aad>

phone: 202-354-2130fax: 202-37 | -5 102 or 202-31 l-6485email: barbaraJittle@nps. gov

mailing address: NPS Dept of the Interior; 1849 C Street, NW (2275);

V/ashington, DC 20240-0001street address: National Park Service; l20l Eye Street, NW (2275);

Washington, DC 20005

The National Park Service cares for special places

saved by the American people so that all may experience our heritage.

EXPERIENCE YOUR AMERICADear Dr Little,

475


I have just read your paper published in American Antiquity in 1992....Mortu4rydisplay and status .... You state in the paper that in general terms preservation of the

skeletal remains was very poor....did you determine why this was so? Was itanything to do with soil pH?? I ask as I am looking at comparative samples for myresearch of 70 burials recovered from a pauper burial-yard here in Adelaide.

Preservation for this sample (1846-1920) was quite good...the soil pH was usuallyaround 9 to 9.5.

Thanks in advance for your time.

Tim Anson

From - Thu Oct 3 1008:47 2002Return-Path: <Owsley.Douglas@NMNH. SI.EDU>Received: from SIWP I I -MTA by mnhgwia.si.eduwith Novell_GroupV/ise;

'Wed, 02 Oct 2002 09:40:47 -0400Message-Id: <sd9abfl f.083 @mnhgwia.si.edu>X-Mailer: Novell GroupWise Úrternet Agent 6.0.2Date: Wed,02 Oct2002 09:40:42 -0400From: "Douglas Owsley" <Owsley.Douglas@NMNH. SI.EDU>To : <timoth y . anson@adelaide. edu. au>Subject: Re: Douglas Owsley

In response to your questions on preservation here are some thoughts...

Preservation in northern Virginia is usually poor (area of the Liberia plantation site).

In my opinion the primary reason for poor preservation is the heavy clay content ofthe soil. Rain water enters the grave shaft more easily than in the suroundingundisturbed soil, and collects on the grave shaft floor which is usually a hard-pan,and rather impermeable to moisture. Inadequate drainage resulting in wet and dryconditions accelerates bone deterioration.

Best regards

Doug Owsley

Douglas W. Owsley, PhDDivision Head for Physical AnthropologySmithsonian LrstitutionP.O. Box 37012NHB, Room 345, MRC 112

Washington, D.C. 20013-7 012owsley. douglas@nmnh. si.eduphone: 202-786-2553fax:202-357-2208

476


Appnrox 14

Statistical formul ae þr s tature comparis ons :

Formula l: Unpaired t-Test

14- þz

E'

'Where:

t0: calculated '/' value or level of significancep: the mean stature estimation for a population,S: the standard deviation for a populationn: the number of individuals in the sample1: population with greater S value2: population with smaller S value

fnl

Formula 2: Approximate test for significance of unequal variances:

FO2s,

'Where:

1: test value,S: standard deviation estimated for a population1: population with greater S value2: population with smaller S value

Formula 3: Determination of degrees of freedom for 't0' value when variances are

unequal:

477

The bioarchaeologt of St. Mary's Ce:metery

2aaSr" Soo

dfn2nl

q-l n2-

Where:df the degrees of freedom,S: the standard deviation estimate for a population1: population with greater S value2: population with smaller S value

478


AppsNDrx 15

Abstract from Townsend (2 00 2 : iv)

The lack of definitive sexual dimorphism in juvenile skeletal remains complicates the

identification of biological sex. The inability to determine the sex of sub-adult

remains with traditional morphological methods masks the identification and

understanding of past human behaviours and social practices related to sex. Issues

beneficial to contemporary understanding of sex-related mortality and the history ofsex-specific health problems are also not identified. The molecular-based sex

identification protocols successfully applied to adult remains have been problematicfor the study of juvenile material particularly the rates of DNA recovery and the

authenticity and the accuracy of the results. This thesis tested three differentmolecular sex identification protocols on material from three different case studies toaddress these issues. Twenty modern known-sex deciduous teeth were analysed toensnre the efficacy of the different methods. Following this, 74 archaeological

samples from the Prince of Wales Hospital site, Sydney and St Mary's Cemetery,

Adelaide were tested, including sub-adult and adult dental material and a smallnumber of bones. Factors complicating DNA analyses were identified, primarily the

biological age and stage of dental eruption and formation, and the heterogeneity ofDNA preservation within an individual. The samples from the Prince of 'Wales

Hospital are part of a replication study comparing the sex assignments of three

different researchers (two male and one female). This comparison emphasised the

need to incorporate at least two researchers and the use of multiple protocols into any

molecular sex identification study. A comparison of the concordance between the

molecular sex identifications from this thesis and morphological and molecular sex

assignments from previous research on these archaeological case studies was made:

all of the adult sex assignments were in agreement; less than half of the sub-adult

identifications were concordant. Overall, the need to standardise molecular based sex

identification research was emphasised. A model research design and criteria forlaboratory analysis are proposed, incorporatinga system of reporting information and

a series of techniques to identify sex bias in the results.

479


Abstract from Townsend (2003)

Sex is an important consideration in the interpretation of human history and can be

used to reconstruct and explain aspects of past human societies. The lack ofsecondary sexual characteristics in sub-adult material makes traditional

morphological sexing methods difficult, encouraging the use of molecular-based sex

identiflrcation as an alternative. However, the application of molecular-based sex

identihcation research has its own issues, concerning the proportion of samples

producing positive results and the recovery of authentic and accurate results. Recent

studies indicate that sub-adult material generally has a lower rate of amplificationsuccess than adult remains and that the sex results can be biased.

These issues currently undermine the value of sex identification in ancient DNAresearch and the relevance of any recovered information. In order to address these

issues and improve results, this research applied three different molecular sex

identifîcation protocols to three case studies, a modem sample and two

archaeological populations. The modern sample consisted of 20 known-sex

deciduous teeth. The two archaeological case studies were both from Australia: 25

(uvenile only) dental samples from the Prince of Wales Hospital site, Sydney and43(adult and juvenile) dental samples from St Mary's Cemetery, Adelaide.

The results have highlighted the necessity to include multiple protocols with variable

target sequences; the rapidity of DNA degradation; the heterogeneity of DNApreservation within an individual; the differences in adult and sub-adult amplificationsuccess; the correlation between the stage of dental development in sub-adults; inter-observer variation in sex identifications; and the variability of sex identificationsachieved with different methods.

480

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The bioarchaeology of the St. Mary's free ground burials

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