THE INTERACTIVE NATURE OF LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE, READING COMPREHENSION AND READING STRATEGIES IN IRANIAN...

Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods (MJLTM) [2014]

Vol.4, Issue 3, September 2014 Page 1

Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods (MJLTM) [2014]


Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods (MJLTM)

ISSN: 2251 - 6204

www.mjltm.com

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Editor – in – Chief Hamed Ghaemi, PhD in TEFL, Islamic Azad University, Iran

Editorial Board

Abednia Arman, PhD in TEFL, Allameh Tabataba’i University, Tehran, Iran Azizi Masoud, PhD in Applied Linguisitcs, University of Tehran, Iran Basiroo Reza, PhD in TEFL, University of Tehran, International Campus, Iran Elahi Shirvan Majid, PhD in TEFL, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran Fernández Miguel, PhD, Chicago State University, USA Ghaemi Hamide, PhD in Speech and Language Pathology, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Iran Grim Frédérique M. A., Associate Professor of French, Colorado State University, USA Izadi Dariush, PhD candidate in Applied Linguistics, Macquarie University, Sydney, Australia

Kargozari Hamid Reza, PhD Candidate in TEFL, Payame Noor University of Tehran, Iran Kaviani Amir, Assistant Professor at Zayed University, UAE Kirkpatrick Robert, Assistant Professor of Applied Linguistics, Shinawatra International University, Thailand Morady Moghaddam Mostafa, PhD Candidate in TEFL, University of Tabriz, Iran Ndhlovu Finex, PhD, Linguistics Programme, University of New England, Australia Raddaoui Ali Hechemi, PhD, Associate Professor of Applied Linguistics, University of Wyoming in Laramie, USA Rezaei Saeed, PhD in TEFL, Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran Rolstad Kellie, PhD, Associate Professor of Education, University of Maryland, USA Shahbazirad Mohammad, PhD in English language and Literature, Yerevan State University, Armenia Weir George R. S., PhD in Philosophy of Psychology, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Zegarac Vladimir, PhD, University of Bedfordshire, UK



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TABLE OF CONTENTS COMPARATIVE TEXTBOOK EVALUATION: A STUDY OF IRANIAN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK AT THIRD-GRADE (INTERMEDIATE, GUIDANCE SCHOOL) ACROSS INTERNATIONAL CRITERIA GholamReza Abbasnezhad1, Ramin Rahimy2, Masumeh Arjmandi……………………..………………………………10 THE EFFECT OF EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION OF METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES ON READING COMPREHENSION AMONG IRANIAN HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS Giti Mousapour Negari and Samineh Askani……………………………………………….…………………………….19 THE EFFECT OF PROBLEM SOLVING TASKS ON IMMEDIATE AND DELAYED RETENTION OF NEW WORDS BY EFL LEARNERS Atefe Mortaji and Hamid Reza Fatemi pour………………………………..……………………………………………..30 ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT: HAS IT COME OF AGE? Saeed Ayiewbey……………………………………………………………………………………………………………39 EFL LEARNERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS CRITICAL THINKING INSTRUCTION Shabnam Azarmi Movafagh and Abdorreza Tahriri………………………………………..…………………………….45 ENGLISH LEARNING STRATEGIES OF VARIOUS NATIONS: A STUDY IN MILITARY CONTEXT Ekrem SOLAK……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..54 THE EFFECT OF DOCUMENTARY SUBTITLES ON LISTENING COMPREHENSION OF IRANINAN EFL LEARNERS AT INTERMEDIATE LEVEL Behzad Barekat and Parisa Farrokhian…………………………………………………………………………………….65 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLLABORATION AND TEACHER SELF-REGULATION DEVELOPMENT A STUDY OF IRANIAN PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS Amir Kaviani and Hamed Ghaemi…………………………………………………………………………………….…..75 CUMMING’S (2007) TEACHING APPROACH TO POETRY BASED ON THE SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVE VIEW OF LEARNING: THE EFFECT ON IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS’ POEM COMPREHENSION Sedigheh Golmohammadi and Omid Pourkalhor…………………………………………………………….……………83 GETTING ELL STUDENTS OUT OF THEIR SHELLS: ENHANCING STUDENT ENGAGEMENT THROUGH WRITING Ronnie E. Goodwin………………………………………………………………………………………………………..90 IMPLEMENTING ENGLISH STUDY IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: INVESTING IN EARLY INTERACTIVE READING AND CHILDREN LITERATURE Zahra Hakimi, Seyed Jamal Abdorahimzadeh and Ali Asghar Kargar……………………………………………………112 A SURVEY OF IRANIAN EFL TEACHERS’ AND LEARNERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD AUTHENTIC LISTENING MATERIALS AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL



Sepideh Homaei……………………………………………………………………………………………………………128 THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TYPES OF DICTIONARY USED AND IRANIAN INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’ PRONUNCIATION ACCURACY Fatemeh Javan Delzendeh, Fereidoon Vahdany and Masoomeh Arjmandi……………………………………………….149 THE EFFECT OF PHONOLOGICAL LOOP ON IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS' VOCABULARY RECALL AND RETENTION Zabih Ollah Javanbakht and Fatemeh Miri…………………………………………………………………………….….160 THE EVALUATION OF LANGUAGE METHODOLOGY AND ITS EFFICIENCY ON SPEAKING SKILL AT IRAN LANGUAGE INSTITUTE (ILI) Safie Kazempour Balagafshe, Fereidoon Vahdany and Masoomeh Arjmandi…………………………………..………..167

EMP STUDENTS’ USE OF READING STRATEGIES AND THE IMPACT OF STRATEGY INSTRUCTION ON MEDICAL TEXT COMPREHENSION Maryam Khoshbouie, Seyed Jamal Abdorrahimzadeh and Mohammad Amin Sorahi……………………………………176 LEARNING STRATEGIES INSTRUCTION AND IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN SUB-SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AT JUNIER HIGH SCHOOL Mona Mahnani, Seyed Jamal Abdorrahimzadeh and Mohammad Rostampour…………………………………………..195

THE EFFECT OF PARTNERS' GENDER DURING PEER INTERACTION ACTIVITIES ON LISTENING IN EFL CLASSES Hamed Mahsefat and Roghayeh Amooyi……………………………………………………………..……………………204 THE STATUS OF TEACHING AND TESTING L2 PRAGMATICS AMONG IRANIAN EFL TEACHERS Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo, Rahele Mavaddat and Elyas Barabadi………………………………………………………..208 THE IMPACT OF ETYMOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION ON IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS’ COMPREHENSION OF IDIOMS IN SHORT READING TEXTS Maryam Danaye Tous, Abdorreza Tahriri and Toktam Miri………………………………………………………………220 THE EFFECT OF MULTI-MEDIA AND MULTI-MODE GLOSSES ON INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY RETENTION OF IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS Zhaleh Moazzeni, Mohammad Sadegh Bagheri, Firooz Sadighi and Mostafa Zamanian………………………..……….231 USING ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES AND EFL LEARNERS’ WRITING SKILL Mojdeh Shirvani and Massoud Tajadini…………………………………………………………………………….……..246

THE INTERACTIVE NATURE OF LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE, READING COMPREHENSION AND READING STRATEGIES IN IRANIAN EFL CLASSES Mohammad Reza Talebinezhad, Ahmad Molavi and Hosein Hoseini…………………………………………………….251 REVISITING ETHICS IN IRARNIAN LANGUAGE TESTING SYSTEM: AN IGNI FATUUS! Nima Shakouri and Ogholgol Nazari…………………………………………………………………………..…………..260 IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS' PERCEPTION OF THE CONSEQUENTIAL VALIDITY OF THEIR RATINGS OF COLLEGE TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS Hakimeh Pourjamal and Seyyedeh Susan Marandi……………………………………………………………..………..267



THE EFFECTS OF COGNITIVE AND META-COGNITIVE STRATEGIES TRAINING ON ENHANCING VOCABULARY STORAGE OF IRANIAN STUDENTS Mehran Rahimipour……………………………………………………………………………………………………….271 GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY THROUGH CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON DIALOGUE JOURNAL Narges Rezaeizad, Abbas Moradan and Golnaz Peyvandi………………………………………………….…………….285 TOWARD LEARNER-CENTERED READING: LINKING EFL LEARNERS’ AUTONOMY, VOCABULARY LEARNING STRATEGIES, AND READING COMPREHENSION Mania Nosratinia, Rosa Salehi Gourabsari and Elnaz Sarabchian………………………………………..……………..295 THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WEBSTER'S "DADDY LONG LEGS" TRANSLATION FOR PUBLICATION AND ANIMATION: INSIGHT FROM VAN DIJK 'S IDEOLOGY FRAMEWORK OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS Leila Sharifi and Amin Karimnia……………………………………………………………………………………..….305 A SURVEY ON THE LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY OF GILAKI IN CITIES OF RASHT AND SOWME'EH SARA Ahmadreza Shoa Hasani and Maryam Adelifar…………………………………………………………….………….313



COMPARATIVE TEXTBOOK EVALUATION: A STUDY OF IRANIAN ENGLISH TEXTBOOK AT THIRD-GRADE (INTERMEDIATE,

GUIDANCE SCHOOL) ACROSS INTERNATIONAL CRITERIA

GholamReza Abbasnezhad2, Ramin Rahimy2, Masumeh Arjmandi3

Department of English Teaching Language, Guilan Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Guilan, Iran

[email protected] , 2 [email protected],3 [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study aimed to evaluate and analyze the English textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school across international criteria, opinions of English teachers and the researcher. The research consists of two parts: the first part, analyzing textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school and second part, taking the questionnaire to 60 English teachers are working in the east of Guilan. The researcher evaluated and analyzed the textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school and got different ideas about this book from English teachers in Langroud, Roudsar, Kelachay and Chaboksar, then after a completely research the researcher analyzed using Chi Square (x2) via SPSS software. The data analysis revealed that the hypotheses of the study are proved. The results indicated that this textbook did not conform to international criteria and the ideas of teachers about this textbook were negative. KEYWORDS: Textbook, Third-grade intermediate, English Teachers, East of Guilan, International Criteria

Introduction The relation between textbooks and language teaching is not something which has only recently been commented on. It has a long history because the quality of teaching and learning has always been of interest to all people in general. Keeping this source up-to-date requires educational materials receive evaluation and revision time and again.

Sheldon (1988), cited in Abdollahi(2001)has offered several reasons for textbook evaluation. He suggests that the selection of a language textbook often signals an important administrative and educational decision. A thorough evaluation, therefore, would enable the managerial and teaching staff of an institution to discriminate between all of the available textbooks on the market.

Moreover, it could aid in identifying the particular strengths and weaknesses in textbooks already in use Interchange third edition has also been evaluated according to Littlejohn’s framework in another study by Sahragard, Rahimi, and Zaremoayyedi (2009), cited in Alemi and Sadehvandi (2012). The study was set to find out the values of the newest version of Interchange in particular, the correspondence between the newly developed and widely used Interchange textbooks, third edition, and their stipulated objectives, and the strengths and weaknesses of the series. The findings of their study indicated that the Interchange series (third edition) owns several pedagogical values nonetheless, it suffers from certain drawbacks. The tasks of the series can be considered productive with regard to promotion of communicative competence and are promoting in

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that they give learners the opportunity to personalize the newly learnt pieces of language through production. On the other hand, the series lack of auditory and visual activities could render disadvantage since it does not exploit sensory channels in the course of learning.

.Hutchinson and Torres (1994, pp. 232) identify three ways in which textbooks can help in times of educational change: first as a vehicle for teacher and learner training; second, they provide support and relief from the burden of looking for materials; and third they give a complete image of what the change will look like. Evaluation of textbooks is also considered to function as a kind of educational judgment. Hutchinson and Waters (1987, pp. 96) believe evaluation is a matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose.

The innovative aspect of the current study lies in the fact that it can be considered a mild contribution in the latest theories and models of teaching textbook to the speaker of other languages. This includes the technique of discussion in the classroom which is supposed to lead to a evaluation and analysis way of teaching textbook Another aspect of the results of such a study is that it seems to be more practical and compatible to an Iranian situation of foreign language learning particularly for those who encounter problems regarding their attitude. Theoretical framework

There is a vast body of literature on textbook evaluation in different contexts; different authors and researchers have employed different textbook evaluation schemes or checklists to evaluate different textbooks or materials. Litz (2000), for example, tried to evaluate a textbook called English Firsthand 2 (EF2). He came to the conclusion that EF2 is a relatively new addition to the vast array of ELT materials that are currently available on the market. While perhaps not as well known as other prominent series of textbooks, EF2 has many notable and worthwhile characteristics. For example, the entire textbook package is well conceived and it contains a wide variety of useful supplementary materials. The book is also very attractive and organized in a clear, logical, and coherent manner. In addition, EF2 reflects a multi-skills syllabus, and it manages to integrate the four language skills without neglecting other important aspects of ELT such as vocabulary development. Despite its strengths, EF2 had some shortcomings. Many of the activities, for instance, were repetitive, failed to encourage truly meaningful practice, promote realistic discourse, lead to the internalization of language. There is a vast body of literature on textbook selection and evaluation in an EFL setting. These studies mainly revolve around the exploitation of textbook evaluation checklists.

Kayapinar (2009), cited in Alemi and Sadehvandi (2012) for example, in evaluation study of two textbook packages, namely, opportunities and New English File incorporating 134 teacher’s survey results, points out that there is not an overall positive view of the aforementioned course book packages among teachers and the course books must be adapted in a way to meet learners’ needs and interest at nationwide scope. He suggests that the materials used in the teaching process should be evaluated on a regular basis to be kept renewed.

Statement of the problem Tomlinson (1998) a textbook provides the core materials for a language-learning course. It aims to provide

as much as possible in one book and is designed so that it could serve as the only book which the learners necessarily use during a course. Such a book usually includes work on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, functions and the skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking.

Richards1998, cited in Aytug (2002) Teachers, students, and textbooks are among the main elements of foreign or second language classrooms. For many years, the two elements, teachers and students and their roles were investigated thoroughly, but less attention was given to the issues regarding textbooks. However, in most cases, textbooks represent the hidden curriculum of the language studies in a certain program or country. For this reason, they play an important role for obtaining information about the likely teaching and learning practices of a particular school, program or institution.

Textbooks play an important part in the instruction process. The most popular textbooks in schools are series for all school levels to ensure a logical flow and normal progression of lesson difficulty. They consist of detailed materials on current topics and are designed to facilitate language development and knowledge



acquisition. Most teachers can choose their textbooks so that they match the objectives of their course and meet the learning needs of their students.

Litz (2000) English language instruction has many important components but the essential constituents to ESL/EFL classrooms and programs are the textbooks and instruction materials that are often used by language instructors.The preparation of any textbook require a systematic evaluation. In order to reflect the aims of the curriculum, a number of factors should be taken into consideration. Among these factors, teachers’ thoughts and experiences are valuable while preparing a textbook for a certain group or community. While designing and organizing foreign language textbooks, the situation is similar. Moreover, language teachers’ observations and thoughts about the students’ learning process are important because language learning is process-oriented and requires a considerable amount of time (Aytug, 2007).

Garinger (2001) states that textbooks play Pivotal role in language classrooms in all types of educational Institutions, public schools, colleges, and language schools all over the world.

Hypothesis of the study H1: English textbook at third-grade intermediate does not conform to international criteria. H2: The idea of English teachers is negative about this textbook.

Review of the literature Curriculum, “the courses offered by an educational institution; a set of courses constituting an area of specialization” (Merriam-Webster, 2003). Alongside with aforementioned definition extracted from Webster's Collegiate Dictionary, curriculum development includes a variety of activities around the creation of planned curriculum, pedagogy, instruction. Researchers in defining curriculum development believe, it as comprehensive, ongoing, cyclical process “to determine the needs of a group of learners; to develop aims or objectives for a program to address those needs; to determine an appropriate syllabus, course structure, teaching methods, and materials; and to carry out an evaluation of the language program that results from these processes” (Richards, 2001, cited in Rahimy, 2010). Textbook is defined as a comprehensive learning resource that is in print or electronic form, or that consists of any combination of print, electronic, and non-print materials collectively designed to support a substantial portion of the Ontario curriculum expectations for a specific gra de and subject in elementary school or for a course in secondary school, or a substantial portion of the expectations for a learning area in the Ontario Kindergarten program. Such a resource is intended for use by an entire class or group of students.

Hutchinson (1987) defines evaluation as a “matter of judging the fitness of something for a particular purpose” (p.41).While considering the evaluation process in language teaching, mostly, the initial analyses are conducted to understand whether the textbook fits into the official curriculum or the intended language program. Moreover, the textbook should meet the needs of the students by addressing their interests and abilities and it should also be consistent with the teaching style of a teacher (Grant, 1987) .

Mc Donough and Shaw (1993) suggest an external analysis of the textbook and this analysis initiates the examination of the information given about the textbook on the cover of students’ or teachers’ book and what is indicated in the introduction and table of contents.

Further, they provide specifications for external evaluation and the leading aim is to determine the real function of a specific textbook since it is essential to find out whether they are used as main course materials or as supplementary sources. A teachers’ book is necessary and it should be available moreover, the textbook should include vocabulary lists. Other purposes of an external evaluation are to investigate a clear layout, culturally appropriate materials, adequate representations of different countries and societies. The materials should also be checked thoroughly since they may reflect a negative attitude towards women and minority groups in the materials. Additionally, it is also important to investigate what kind of tests (diagnosis, progress, or achievement) is included in teaching materials and these tests need to be appropriate and useful in a particular language setting. The selection of a course book is one of the most important decisions a teacher will make in shaping the content and nature of teaching and learning. It involves matching the material against the context in which it is going to be used, following the aims of the teaching program, as well as fitting the personal methodology of the teacher. Cunningsworth (1984) asserts, “course materials for English should be seen as the



teacher’s servant and not his master” (p. 15). Using textbooks only is not enough to meet students’ needs. Instructors need to strike a balance between creative instruction and being a slave to their texts (Garinger, 2002). The problem, however, is when external pressures lead teachers into using particular ways to teach prescribed textbooks. Indeed, teachers must not be slaves to their texts, but it is usually the case that they have little choic e because of social demands largely due to the pedagogical culture of the specific ELT classrooms.

In Iran, educational policies are decided primarily by the central government. All of the decisions made by the central government are passed down through provincial organizations for implementation at lower levels which have less authority in decision-making. All major educational policies concerning the school systems, the curriculum standards, the compilation of textbooks, the examination system and so on, are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education (ME). According to Jahangard (2007), students’ aural and oral skills are not emphasized in Iranian prescribed EFL textbooks. They are not tested in the university entrance examination, as well as in the final exams during the three years of senior high school and one year of pre-university education.

Methodology Participants In this study, the participants were 60 male and female TEFL instructors who had enough experience in teaching ELT, they taught in Guidance schools; their age 30 to50, most of them had B.A degree, they were reside in the east of Guilan (Roudsar, Langroud, Kelachay and Chaboksar). The research consists of two parts: the first part, analyzing Iranian English textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school which prepared by ministry of education and second part, taking 60 English teachers ideas are working in the east of Guilan. Textbooks at third-grade intermediate and 60 Guidance school English teachers were selected as the sample.

Materials In order to carry out this research, it was necessary to have a questionnaire for 60 English teachers, so there was a need to evaluate Iranian English textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school. The questionnaire was included in content, pictures, Grammar, vocabulary and drills which was consisted of 30 questions; the administration of the questionnaire was at the beginning of Mehr month which lasted a month to be done.

Procedure This research is done by English teachers intermediate Guidance school in the east of Guilan

(Langroud,Roudsar,Kelachay and Chaboksar).Current study carried on teachers consisted of female (34)and male( 26)who had high experience in teaching.

The goal of the study was evaluated Iranian English third-grade intermediate textbook, after a short time a questionnaire was given, choosing 30 questions for 60 English teachers lasted around 15 minutes on teacher’s side, the questions were designed according to the content, pictures, grammar, vocabulary and all aspects of the textbook. The teachers were selected randomly. Researcher, by taking a questionnaire to some teachers tried to gather their ideas about Iranian English third-grade intermediate text book. By providing these data, researcher analyzed each item carefully and with more sensitivity to get valuable results, then the researcher compared the textbook across international criteria was written by Garinger. They included:

A. Program and Course 1- The textbook supports the goals and curriculum of the program. 2- The appropriateness of the text for the intended learners is identified. 3- A sufficient number of the course objectives are addressed by the textbook. 4- The textbook was suitable for learners of this age group and background. 5-The textbook reflects learners’ preferences in terms of layout, design, and organization. 6- The textbook should be sensitive to the cultural background and interests of the students. 7-The objectives of the textbook matched with the objectives of the course. B. Skills 8-The skills presented in the textbook was appropriate to the course.



9- The textbook provides learners with adequate guidance as they are acquiring these skills. 10- The skills that presented in the textbook include a wide range of cognitive skills that will be challenging to learners. C. Exercises and Activities 11-The exercises and activities in the textbook promote learners’ language development. 12- There is a balance between controlled and free exercises. 13- The exercises and activities reinforce what students have already learned and represent a progression from simple to more complex. 14- The exercises and activities varied in format so that they will continually motivate and challenge learners. 15-The exercises and activities in the textbook contribute to learners’ language acquisition. 16-The exercises balanced in their format, containing both controlled and free practice. 17-The exercises are varied and challenging. D. Practical Concerns 18-The textbook is available. 19-The textbook can be obtained in a timely Manner. 20-The textbook is cost-effective.

Data Analysis The research consists of two parts: the first part, analyzed Iranian English textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school which repapered by ministry of education and second part, took questionnaire to 60 English teachers were working in the east of Guilan which interpreted by Chi Square (x2) via SPSS software provided by descriptive statistics. The goal of current study was to investigate the analysis of English textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school. This study is formed both qualitative and quantitative research. In brief it should be mentioned that after analyzing the textbook and elaborating the questionnaire, these data are carried out.

Data analysis and findings The Descriptive Analysis of the Data Descriptive statistics is the discipline of quantitatively describing the main features of a collection of data. It aims to summarize a sample, rather than use the data to learn about the population that the sample of data is thought to represent. Actually it deals with analyzing, describing and interpreting the textbook. Descriptive analysis of the obtained data of the questionnaire which has been calculated by SPSS is presented below. The researcher analyzed all aspects of this textbook. Using CD, software and video for better learning in spelling and practicing the words. Textbook emphasis on writing and grammar and do not pay attention to the speaking. Textbook should be had workbook. Conversations are intangible. Sentences are irrelevant to everyday life. The volume of the book is good. The explanations of the grammar are good. The font of the textbook is appropriate. Readings should be consisted of beautiful pictures and better questions. Pictures are childish mode. Pictures and text conversation lessons seem unrealistic. There is no entertainment in the book. There are no CD and tape in this book. Some exercises and conversations are not applied. It is better to insert proverb according to our culture in the book.



Table4.1. Question 1

Observed N Expected N Residual

Agree 15 15.0 .0 Disagree 43 15.0 28.0 Strongly agree 1 15.0 -14.0 Strongly disagree 1 15.0 -14.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 73.33 percent agree that the content of the textbook has a lot of problems.

Table 4.2. Question 2


Agree 14 20.0 -6.0 Disagree 45 20.0 25.0 Strongly disagree 1 20.0 -19.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 76.66 percent agree that the content of each lesson is not interesting.



Agree 27 15.0 12.0 Disagree 27 15.0 12.0 Strongly agree 4 15.0 -11.0 Strongly disagree 2 15.0 -13.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 48.88 percent disagree that appropriate training with regard To the content of each lesson is included.



Agree 15 20.0 -5.0 Disagree 44 20.0 24.0 Strongly disagree 1 20.0 -19.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 75 percent agree that this textbook has not an appropriate flexibility.



Agree 9 15.0 -6.0 Disagree 38 15.0 23.0 Strongly agree 11 15.0 -4.0



Strongly disagree 2 15.0 -13.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 66.66 percent agree that this textbook should have a workbook.



Agree 19 15.0 4.0 Disagree 36 15.0 21.0 Strongly agree 1 15.0 -14.0 Strongly disagree 4 15.0 -11.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 66.66 percent agree that this textbook has not a lot of colorful pictures.



Agree 9 15.0 -6.0 Disagree 45 15.0 30.0 Strongly agree 1 15.0 -14.0 Strongly disagree 5 15.0 -10.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 83.33 percent agree that the pictures of this Textbook is not fascinating.



Agree 41 15.0 26.0 Disagree 14 15.0 -1.0 Strongly agree 2 15.0 -13.0 Strongly disagree 3 15.0 -12.0 Total 60

This table reveals that 28.33 percent disagree that the pictures are not interrelated with the text of the lesson.



Agree 4 20.0 -16.0 Disagree 46 20.0 26.0

Strongly disagree agree

10 20.0 -10.0

Total 60

This table reveals that 93.33 percent agree that this textbook should have an educational CD.



After a long research the researcher observed that this textbook is taught in Iran, had some problems in

goals and did not conform to Garinger’s criteria .some items in programs, courses, skills, exercises and activities did not match with this textbook.

4.2. Result of Hypothesis Testing In this section the result of hypothesis testing is presented and explained. Flashing back to the first chapter of the study, the question and the hypotheses of study are reviewed as below: RQ: Does English textbook at third-grade intermediate conform to international criteria?

RQ: Is the idea of English teachers negative about this book? H1: English textbook at third-grade intermediate does not conform to international criteria H2: The idea of English teachers is negative about this textbook. These two hypotheses of the study which connoted the English textbook at third-grade intermediate does not conform to international criteria and the idea of English teachers is negative about this textbook is proved ability are proved. Some evidences came to justify the proof of these hypotheses. First, the researcher mentioned some points about this textbook, it showed that it had full of problems. Second evidence to justify the proof of the hypothesis was the questionnaires calculated by SPSS showed that the ideas of teachers are negative about this textbook. Third, this textbook is completely different with the international criteria wrote by Garinger.

General discussion Many studies have been investigated around the topic in realm of evaluation and programs designed to make better. When the teachers at a school select new material to use in their teaching, they have to carefully examine that material to make sure that it is suitable for their particular school setting. In this examination they have to take a number of different aspects into consideration, for example the age and proficiency level of the students, what language factors that the students need to learn, the course syllabus and so on. The traditional textbook, as we see it, usually consists of a number of lessons with different text, theme, grammar, vocabulary for every lesson. In this study the researcher analyzed Iranian English textbook at third-grade intermediate Guidance school according to his personal ideas, then the researcher took a questionnaire to 60 English teachers in east of Guilan and they answered them and at the end of research the researcher compared this textbook with international criteria was written by Garinger, the researcher believed that this textbook was far from of international criteria and some criteria did not observe in this textbook and teacher’s ideas about this textbook did not seem positive.

Bear in mind that the proposed hypotheses of the study are proved. To be more focused on the issue, the proposed hypotheses are reviewed once more: H1

: English textbook at third-grade intermediate does not conform to international criteria. H2: The idea of English teachers is negative about this textbook.

Considering the analysis provided in chapter four, it is true that it does not conform to international criteria and this textbook due to some points such as goal, curriculum, need; motivation and so on did not satisfy the students and teachers needs. As it was indicated in this study, there were many criteria to support the claim of current study. The findings of the study demonstrated that manipulating some aspects of curriculum/syllabus and adding some more teaching material and offering the learners the strategies needed to cope with the issues they are needed to confront, could result in selecting and teaching the favorite textbook by teachers and make progress to the students. For example, (Nunan 1991: 209) Effective evaluation relies on asking appropriate questions and interpreting the answers to them. (Cunningsworth, 1995). According to Cunnings worth (1995), it is necessary to consider a number of practical considerations for textbook evaluation such as the durability and attractiveness of the physical appearance of the textbook and the easiness in obtaining the textbook package in a short period of time.



Suggestions for further research Based on the results and the limitations of the current research, recommendations can be made for future research to get a clear insight for textbook in which what manipulations and in what way and degree should be considered in order to evaluate Iranian English textbook. The students evaluated the features of the English textbook, For further research, another study would be carried out with students as they would reflect their opinions concerning the efficacy of the English textbook and the other concerned people taking active roles in the preparation period of the textbook. In this study, individual interviews were carried out with teachers and they reflected their suggestions for an ideal ELT textbook. Future research can also focus on finding out both teachers’ and students recommendations by conducting focus group interviews in order to find out the common and different suggestions of teachers and students. REFRENCES Abdollahi, M., Huata. &Subakir Mohd Yasin.M. (2001).Authenticity of Iranian English textbooks for school.

English language and literature studies, 27. Alemi, M., &Sadehvandi, N. (2012).Textbook evaluation: EFL Teacher’s Perspectives on pacesetter series.

English language teaching, 12. Aytug, S. (2007).An EFL textbook evaluation study in Anatolian high schools: New Bridge to success for 9th

grade new beginner’s .The department of teaching English as a foreign language Bilkent university Ankara, 189.

Cunningsworth, A. (1984) Evaluating and selecting EFL Teaching Materials, London: Heinemann Educational Books.

Blackwell MC Donough,J.and Shaw.c.(1993).Materials and Methods in ELT. Garinger, D. (2002).Textbook selection for the ESLclassroom (online)

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THE EFFECT OF EXPLICIT INSTRUCTION OF METACOGNITIVE STRATEGIES ON READING COMPREHENSION AMONG IRANIAN

HIGH SCHOOL STUDENTS

Giti Mousapour Negari

Department of English Language and literature, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran. E-mail: mousapour@ hamoon.usb.ac.ir

Samineh Askani Master of Arts in Teaching English as a Foreign Language, University of Sistan & Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran.

E-mail: askani samin@ yahoo.om ABSTRACT The present study seeks to determine the effect of explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies on Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level. It also aims to investigate whether high school students have any improvement in their application of the metacognitive strategies in their reading comprehension. It also attempts to investigate the relationship between reading comprehension and metacognitive strategies; furthermore it will study whether Iranian EFL female high school students are high, medium, or low metacognitive strategy users. To this end, 70 female students who studied in high school were selected. The required data was collected by using (1) a proficiency test, (2) a self-report questionnaire, and (3) a reading comprehension test. Data analysis proved no significant relationship between metacognitive strategies and Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level. While, it emphasized the role of explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies on Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level. The present study also revealed a significant difference among the level of metacognitive strategy use among high school students and indicated its participants to be low, mid, and high metacognitive strategy users. The results of this study can be beneficial for language teachers, syllabus designers and language learners. KEYWORDS: Metacognitive strategies, Reading Comprehension, Explicit Instruction, High, mid, or low Metacognitive users. 1. Introduction Teaching reading strategies to learners is not a normal practice in Iranian language classrooms i.e., Iranian language instructors hardly ever provide language learners with explicit instruction about utilizing comprehension strategies while reading. Therefore, classroom practice does not always prepare learners to use skills and strategies to forecast, deduce, examine, agree, criticize, and evaluate by interacting with the given text. Language teachers usually restrict themselves to holding question-and-answer sessions to elicit answers, which obviously do not develop any meaningful and critical engagement between the given reading comprehension and the learners, the learners and the teacher or the reading and the teacher. Pedagogical implications of the obtained results of this study would initially shed light on the importance of the explicit instruction of metacognitive reading strategies in ESL and EFL classes and then would highlight the vitality of reading as a process rather than a solid product and significance of learners determining their own reading objectives, ways of achieving them, and evaluating their own process by the use of metacognitive strategies. 1.2 Explicit Teaching of Metacognitive Reading Strategies Reading comprehension can be defined as the process of understanding and constructing meaning from a piece of text on which the writer encodes thought as language and the reader decodes language to thought. Richards and Schmidt (2002) believe that recognizing a written text in order to understand its contents is called reading comprehension (Richards and Schmidt, 2002). In order to read thoroughly it is vital to apply reading strategies



since they enhance reading proficiency and perception (Cheng, 1985). Brantmeier (2002) states that reading strategies are applied to comprehend a text can be defined as the cognitive processes applied to process second language input. Oxford (1990) viewed learning strategies as “specific actions taken by the learner to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (p.8). In Oxford’s taxonomy, metacognitive strategies are grouped under indirect strategies and embrace centering learning, arranging and planning learning, and evaluating leaning. In Richards and Schmidt’s (2002) view, metacognitive strategies are considered also as a category of learning strategies which “involve thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process, monitoring learning while it is taking place, and evaluating learning after it has occurred” (p.329). Phakiti (2006) believes that metacognitive strategy enhances and improves reading comprehension. Phakiti (2003) mentions that metacognitive strategies are the mental behaviors employed to control cognitive strategy use and have an effective performance. The process of explicit instruction is one in which the teacher instead of simply presenting the strategies and waiting for learners to learn and use them, must actively teach the strategy to be learned. This type of instruction is a definite and direct approach to teaching and includes both instructional design and delivery procedures. Archer and Hughes (2011) believe in explicit instruction as one of the best tools available to educators to maximize students’ academic growth. They define it as “a structured, systematic, and effective methodology for teaching academic skills” (p.1) which is characterized by some supports or scaffolds and by which learners are provided with “clear statements about the purpose and rationale for learning the new skill, clear explanations and demonstrations of the instructional target, and supported practice with feedback” (p.1) on the learning process till self-regulating mastery is obtained (Archer and Hughes, 2011). In Mayer and Witt rock's opinion (1996), it is vital for learners to learn when to use various cognitive processes, to be aware of their processes, to monitor their cognitive processes, and to regulate their cognitive processes and that necessitates an instructional implication of the metacognitive regulations (as cited in Philip & Hua, 2006). Metacognitive strategy instruction (MSI), the teacher should teach how to use strategies as well as when and why strategies are used in a certain learning context and this entails teaching learners’ metacognitive knowledge and skills i.e., learners should be taught the capacity to think about one’s own thinking, and thereby to monitor and manage it (Greeno et. al. 1996, as cited in Philip & Hua, 2006). Consequently, metacognitive Strategy Instruction provides direct and informed strategy instruction for reading. In fact, reading cannot be flexible and adaptive without knowledge of when and why to apply a given strategy; therefore, strategic readers are characterized by the selection of appropriate strategies that fit the particular text, purpose, and occasion (Paris et. al. 1991). 1.3 Review of Literature Studies investigating reading comprehension increasingly emphasize on the role of metacognitive awareness of one’s cognitive and motivational processes while reading (Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). As a result, awareness and monitoring processes of one’s comprehension processes are critically important aspects of skilled reading and are often referred to as metacognition, which can be thought of as “the knowledge of the readers’ cognition about reading and the self-control mechanisms they exercise when monitoring and regulating text comprehension” (Mokhtari and Richard, 2002 p. 249). Researchers investigating reading comprehension monitoring among skilled and unskilled readers have long recognized the importance of metacognitive awareness in reading comprehension because it distinguishes between skilled and unskilled readers. Vann and Abraham (1990) states that language learning strategies can be applied by both the skilled and unskilled learners, but lack of enough metacognitive strategies can make them unsuccessful (cited in Lessard-Clouston, 1997). As previously mentioned and as might be anticipated from the definition of metacognition, the metacognitive processes involved in reading comprehension include metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive monitoring and control. Reading strategies can be classified in three clusters of metacognition: planning (pre-reading), monitoring (during reading), and evaluating (post-reading) strategies and each group has a variety of strategies that require readers’ metacognitive processing (Israel, 2007; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995). Self-regulated readers are actively involved in cognitive and metacognitive activities before, during and after reading and engage in



“constructively responsive reading” which involves reading with a purpose and actively constructing meanings from text (Paris, Wasik & Turner, 1991; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995, as cited in Kraayenoord, 2010). reading comprehension instruction should involve focusing on comprehension of specific text rather than instruction of the metacognitive strategies students need for comprehending (Eilers & Pinkley, 2006) i.e., instead of making students involved in class, providing them with a variety of literacy materials, and modeling appropriate strategies to help with text comprehension, teachers mainly relied on textbooks and teachers’ manuals. As a result, teachers were authorities of interpretation and students would be passive recipients of knowledge. This lack of comprehension instruction persuaded researchers to carry out investigations about comprehension instruction as an essential part of primary grade reading programs. Consequently, there appeared a large number of studies which sought to make language learners familiar and comfortable at using a variety of different reading comprehension strategies, some of which would be briefly discussed in what follows. Takallu (2011) aimed at examining the effect of metacognitive (planning & self-monitoring) strategy instruction on EFL learners’ reading comprehension performance (on authentic and inauthentic texts) and their metacognitive awareness. Data analysis revealed that two experimental groups which received instruction on ‘planning’ and ‘self-monitoring’ outperformed the control group on the reading comprehension test. In addition, the achieved results proved that experimental groups’ awareness to metacognitive strategies significantly increased after instruction. Sheorey and Mokhtari (2001) examined the existing differences in awareness of metacognitive strategies among ESL and native English speakers. The findings revealed that both ESL and native English readers in the more advanced groups were applying metacognitive strategies more often than those who were in the less advanced groups. Moreover, among ESL and native English readers, ESL learners applied metacognitive strategies more often. Overall, the study supported the effectiveness of using metacognitive strategies for both types of learners. The study also showed a correlation between high-proficiency students and the high frequency use of the strategies. Jafari and Ketabi (2012) in their study examined the relationship between metacognitive strategy instruction and reading comprehension improvement. They sought to investigate the effects of metacognitive strategies on enhancing reading comprehension in Iranian intermediate learners of English. The result indicated a significant difference between the two groups and the participants in experimental group outperformed those in control group. The achieved conclusions also revealed that it would be beneficial if participants were introduced metacognitive strategies to help them improve their reading comprehension. If students tried to exploit the learning styles and the strategies aforementioned discussed, they could help themselves enhance their reading comprehension ability more easily. The findings of this study supported this assumption and imply more attention in this crucial skill. The findings also implied that not only at the level being studied but at the other levels it seems to be beneficial to encourage the participants to apply metacognitive strategies. As the above mentioned studies show, intervention for metacognitive strategies is advantageous for EFL/ESL learners and in general, learning what strategies are, how to use them, when and where to use particular strategies, and the importance of evaluating their use is, therefore, key to the development of reading comprehension for students whose first language is not English. Therefore, the present study tries to answer the following questions: 1. Is there any significant relationship between metacognitive strategies and Iranian EFL female student’s reading comprehension at high school level? 2. Does explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies have any significant effect on Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level? 3. Are Iranian EFL female high school students’ high, medium or low metacognitive strategy users? To do the current research, the following hypotheses were then formulated: Ho1: There is no significant relationship between metacognitive strategies and Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level. Ho2: Explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies doesn’t have any significant effect on Iranian EFL female student’s reading comprehension at high school level.



2. Method 2.1 Participants Participants of this study consisted of 70 female students who studied in high school. They were studying science at the 4th grade of high school. The age ranged from 18 to 19 years old. The participants were randomly divided into two groups of 35. The first group (Group A), were regarded as the control group and the second (Group B) were considered as the experimental group. Both groups had finished the English course of the 3 rd grade of high school successfully and were going to finish that of the 4th grade’s. The 4th grade’s English course was taught by the researcher of the present study; therefore, the participants were her students. 2.2. Instruments Three instruments were used in the present study: (1) a proficiency test, (2) a self-report questionnaire, and (3) a reading comprehension test. In order to check homogeneity of participants regarding their language proficiency, Beginner Proficiency Test, developed by William Bertrand was administered initially and the participants were given 90 minutes to answer the questions. The proficiency test contained 100 multiple-choice items which assessed the participants’ grammar, vocabulary, reading comprehension, and pronunciation (See Appendix A). The reliability of the proficiency test was found to be 0.76 (Taghavi, 2013). It was considered an acceptable reliability, since according to Cohen (1977) and Nunnally (1978), reliabilities around 0.70 are acceptable level for early stages of basic research. To ensure the content validity of the test, the comments of some experts strongly confirmed the appropriateness of the test with regard to the general objective of measuring beginners’ English proficiency (Taghavi, 2013). The questionnaire is a fifty-item 5-point Likert-scale Metacognitive Strategy Questionnaire (MSQ) intended to elicit data about the participants’ metacognitive strategy use. The MSQ was originally constructed by Ahmadizadeh (2001) in the study of the use of metacognitive strategies by Iranian EFL learners between conventional and distance learning systems. It was an adaptation of Oxford’s (1990) Learning Strategy Inventory for Language Learners (SILL). The MSQ was modified by Ghodrati (2008) and six items from O’Malley and Chamot’s (1990) classification of learning strategies were added to it (See Appendix B). The other instrument of this study was a 30-item-reading comprehension test (See Appendix C), which was devised by the researcher and by the help of books such as “Advanced Reading comprehension”, “proving Reading Skills I”, “Active Skills for Reading: INTRO”. The comprehension test included 25 reading tests and five vocabulary ones and was supposed to be answered in 35 minutes. To assess its reliability, the comprehension test was primarily been piloted through students other than the study’s participants. It was taken by 35 mathematics majored students of the same school in a pencil-and-paper format, while the participants were not provided with any explanation about questions and how to answer them and they did not have any familiarity with the questions. KR-21 was applied to obtain the reliability of the prepared comprehension test. The reading comprehension test was used as both pre-test and post-test of the study. 2.3 Procedures To make sure that all the students are at the same level of language proficiency, a Beginner Proficiency Test was administered in the first session of the instructional period. Before the instruction begins, to assure that both groups are homogeneous, they were given the reading comprehension test as a pretest. In the same session, to find out language learning strategies used by the participants and to understand if participants are high, low or medium users of language learning strategies, both experimental and control group were required to answer Metacognitive Strategy Questionnaire (MSQ) in 60 minutes. The session after the pretest, the teacher started to teach both groups. The determined before, while, and after metacognitive reading strategies (Chamot &O' Malley , 1994) were taught to the experimental group while the control group received no explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies. Each group received twelve 90-minute sessions of instruction. In the last session of the instruction, both the experimental and control groups took part in the same reading comprehension test (post-test)to assess the impact of explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies on the performance of the participants.



3. Results The first research question of the study tries to see if there is any significant relationship between metacognitive strategies and Iranian EFL female student’s reading comprehension at high school level or not. To provide an answer to this question, a Pearson correlation is run to probe any significant relationship between metacognitive strategies and Iranian EFL female student's reading comprehension ability.

Table 3.1 Pearson Correlation between Metacognitive Strategies and Reading Comprehension Ability

Reading Comprehension

Metacognitive Strategies Pearson Correlation -.162

Sig. (2-tailed) .181 N 70

As displayed in Table 3.1, the results (r (70) = -.16, P=.18> .05) indicate that there is not any significant relationship between the two variables. As a result, the first null-hypothesis will be confirmed. An independent samples t-test was run to compare the experimental and control group means on the gain score. Table 3.2 shows the results.

Table 3.2: Independent t-test of Gain Score by Groups Levene's Test for

Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality of Means F Sig. t df Sig. (2-

tailed) Mean

Difference Std. Error Difference

95% Confidence Interval of the

Difference Lower Upper

Gain Score

Equal variances assumed

.127 .723 4.960 68 .000 12.143 2.448 7.257 17.028

Equal variances not assumed

4.960 67.596 .000 12.143 2.448 7.257 17.029

As shown in Table 3.2, the results of the independent t-test (t (68) = 4.96, P=.000 < .05) proved that the experimental group significantly gained higher scores on reading comprehension test. So, it can be concluded that the explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies had a positive effect on the learners’ performance. In order to calculate the magnitude of the treatment effect, Effect size (ES) was estimated. It was indicated to be R

effect size = .51, which according to Cohen’s (1988) classification, is a large effect size. In other words, the experimental group outperformed the control group. The results can be schematically represented in Figure 3.1.



Figure 3.1: Means of Gain Score by Groups

Based on the results of the statistical procedure of independent samples t-test, it can be concluded that the second null-hypothesis is rejected. A one-way ANOVA was run to compare the low, medium and high metacognitive strategy users’ means on the metacognitive questionnaire. Descriptive statistics for the three groups are presented in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3 Descriptive Statistics for Metacognitive Strategy users

N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Minimum Maximum

Low 21 146.62 14.878 3.247 117 164 Medium 22 176.45 6.559 1.398 165 188

High 27 200.52 12.367 2.380 190 233

Total 70 176.79 25.145 3.005 117 233 As displayed in Table 3.3, the mean scores for the three groups were 146.62, 176.45 and 200.52. The standard deviation for the three groups was 14.878, 6.559, and 12.367 respectively. A one-way AOVA was run to compare the three groups’ means on the metacognitive strategy in order to prove that Iranian EFL female high school students are high, medium or low metacognitive strategy users. The results are shown in Table 3.4 below.

Table 3.4: One-Way ANOVA for Metacognitive Strategy Use by Groups Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between Groups 34320.638 2 17160.319 123.533 .000 Within Groups 9307.148 67 138.913

Total 43627.786 69

As Table 3.4 displays, the results of one-way ANOVA (F (2, 67) = 123.53, P= .000< .05,) indicated significant differences between the means of the three groups on the metacognitive strategy use. Since ANOVA tests do not indicate how different the means are from one another, the effect size of the difference was calculated. It was found to beω2 = .77 which, according to Cohen (1988), represented a large effect size.

-10

-5

0

5

Experimental Control

Series1 4.29 -7.86



Although the result from ANOVA displays significant differences among the means, p<0.05, we still do not know where this difference exists. As a result, a post hoc Scheffe test was carried out to make multiple comparisons. The result from the Scheffe test is displayed in Table 3.5.

Table 3.5 Post-Hoc Scheffe’s Test for Metacognitive Strategy by Groups (I) Meta.Cog.User

(J) Meta.Cog.User

Mean Difference (I-J)

Std. Error Sig. 95% Confidence Interval

Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Medium Low 29.835* 3.596 .000 20.83 38.84 High

Low 53.899* 3.429 .000 45.31 62.48

Medium 24.064* 3.385 .000 15.59 32.54 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.

The results of the post-hoc Scheffe’s tests (Table 3.5) indicate that; A: There was a significant difference between medium (M = 176.45) and low (M = 146.62) metacognitive users’ means (MD = 29.83, P= .000< .05). B: There was a significant difference between high (M = 200.52) and low (M = 146.62) metacognitive users’ means (MD = 53.89, P = .000< .05). C: There was a significant difference between high (M = 200.52) and medium (M = 176.45) metacognitive users’ means (MD = 24.06, P= .000< .05). As there are differences between the means of the three groups, it can be concluded that the participants belong to three different groups of low, medium and high metacognitive users. The results are schematically shown in Figure 3.2.

Figure 3.2 Mean Scores of three Metacognitive Strategy users

Based on the results obtained from the one-way ANOVA and Scheffe’s test presented above, the third null-hypothesis as Iranian EFL female high school students are not high, medium or low metacognitive strategy users is safely rejected. 4. Discussion and Conclusion To answer the first question, a Pearson product-moment Correlation was used. The results indicated that there was not any significant relationship between the two variables. Therefore, the null-hypothesis related to the first

100

125

150

175

200

225

250

Low Moderate High

Series1 146.62 176.45 200.52



question i.e., there was no significant relationship between metacognitive strategies and Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level, was supported. The derived results of this study are in accord with that of Alsamadani’s (2009), who studied the relationship between using reading strategies and reading comprehension among Saudi college L2 learners and could not find any significant relationship between their reading comprehension and strategy use. Anderson (1991) also studied differences in strategy use among adult second language learners while engaged in two reading tasks and revealed no single strategy which significantly caused the success on these two reading measures. However, such findings do not accord with the body of research history. As Kafipour and Hosseini Naveh (2011) argue, metacognitive strategies reflect learners’ ability to find opportunities to learn and then record and review those experiences. As they describe, metacognitive strategies include “monitoring, decision-making, and assessment of one’s advance” and “help learners to specify suitable vocabulary learning strategies for learning new words” (p. 630). Many studies put an increasing emphasis put on the role of applying metacognitive strategies while reading and believe that the ability to examine one’s comprehension process is the indispensable aspect of skilled reading (Guthrie & Wigfield, 1999; Pressley & Afflerbach, 1995, as cited in Shokouhi & Jamali, 2013 and Carrell, 1995; Wenden, 2001; Chamot, 2005 as cited in Zhang & Seepho, 2013). In agreement with such studies, Karami & Hashemi (2012) discovered a significant relationship between reading comprehension and metacognitive reading strategy use of language learners in their study. They asserted that “the more L2 learners employ metacognitive reading strategies, the more their reading comprehension level will be” (p.58). Hamdan et al. (2010) also suggested that using meta-cognitive strategies in reading comprehension plays the same role on the process of language learning. They found that using metacognitive strategies results in high levels of reading comprehension. It is worth mentioning that, despite the expanding research on different aspects of second and foreign language readings, “a limited number of studies have centered on reporting the types of metacognitive reading strategies EFL and ESL readers use while they are reading in English” (Karbalaei, 2010 p.168). To provide answer to the second research question, an independent t-test was run to compare the experimental and control group means on the gain scores. Based on the obtained results, the experimental group significantly showed a higher gain score on reading comprehension. In consequence, the null-hypothesis related to the second question i.e., explicit instruction of metacognitive strategies have a significant effect on Iranian EFL female students’ reading comprehension at high school level, was rejected. Integra ting explicit instruction of language learning strategies into the language curriculum has been primarily validated by Nunan (1996) who stated that “language classrooms should have a dual focus, not only teaching language content but also on developing learning processes as well” (p. 41). Numerous studies, according to Klapwijk (2013), have shown the benefits of comprehension strategy instruction and confirmed that instruction of reading strategies improves reading comprehension (Palincsar& Brown, 1984; Dole, Duffy, Roehler& Pearson, 1991; Guthrie, 2002; Stahl, 2004; Scharlach, 2008; Spörer, Brunstein & Kieschke, 2009), as well as other areas related to reading, such as self control and regulating while reading (Haller, Child & Walberg, 1988; Paris, Wixson & Palincsar, 1986), metacognitive strategies in L2 test performance of low-ability groups (Purpura, 1998), and improved decoding abilities (Van den Bos, Brand-Gruwel & Aarnoutse, 1998). As a matter of fact, comprehension considerably increases when it is explicitly taught (Paris & Hamilton, 2009) i.e., teaching language learners to use reading comprehension strategies increases their comprehension of text (Pressley, 2001). Therefore, instruction of some of the learning strategies can help language learners learn more effectively (Rubin, 1975, 1981; Stern, 1975, as cited in Rahimi & Katal, 2012). Along with the outcomes of the second research question of the present study, Snow (2002) asserts the necessity of improving comprehension via instructing reading strategies, since meaning does not exist in text and the reader should construct meaning from the text. Carrell et al. (1989) also discovered that the combination of cognitive and metacognitive strategy training was effective in improving learners’ reading. Auerbach and Paxton (1997)’s research found that students’ metacognition awareness could be increased after training. Anastasiou & Griva (2009) emphasized the positive effect of strategy instruction on poor readers, which could be “taught how to use strategies with explicit modeling, thinking aloud instructional strategies and a high level of scaffolding, as well as when to use them in certain learning contexts” (p.295). Also, the results of the carried study by Takallou (2011) are in line with the present study. Takallou (2011) inspected the influence of teaching



metacognitive strategies (i.e., planning & self-monitoring) and their possible effects on reading comprehension among Iranian L2 learners and indicated that the L2 learners who were instructed metacognitive strategies responded the reading comprehension test more successfully. Philip and Hua (2006) believed in explicit teaching of metacognitive reading strategies to help both high proficient and low proficient college readers with developing their comprehension skills when reading academic texts. Therefore, teaching students to utilize strategies during reading has been the focus of many studies and it has been found to affect both reading performance and strategy use of poor readers in a positive way (Anderson, 1992; Collins, 1991; Palincsar& Brown, 1987, as cited in Anastasiou & Griva, 2009). Furthermore, since “the understanding of the reading process is not limited to identifying effective and appropriate strategies, but also includes being aware of the correct reason and appropriate use of the strategies, Philip and Hua (2006) suggested that teachers guide their students to know not only the “what” of metacognitive reading, but also the “why” and the “when” of it” (Estacio, 2013). Al-Buainain (2010) recommends that more training should be given in using all strategies by embedding them into regular classroom activities. To answer the third research question and to check if Iranian EFL female high school students’ are high, medium, or low metacognitive strategy users, a One-Way ANOVA and a Post-hoc Scheffe test were applied (See Tables 4. 10 and 4.11).Based on the obtained results, there were significant differences between mean scores of low, medium and high metacognitive strategy users. Thus, the null-hypothesis related to the third research i.e., Iranian EFL female high school students are not high, medium or low metacognitive strategy users, was rejected. This result goes along with that of Al-Buainain’ s (2010), who discussed the type and frequency of language learning strategies used by Qatar University English majors and also showed that the students used learning strategies with high to medium frequency. It is worth mentioning that this study stands among the few investigations exploring learner’s level of metacognitive strategy use. Most investigations have generally focused on metacognitive strategy use and its relationship with other different factors, such as students’ gender, values and motives, their perceptions of task demands, and instruction they receive (Pintrich, 1990, as cited in Zhang & Seepho, 2013). For instance, Tajedin (2001) investigated the use of learning strategies, gender, language proficiency and learning situation. He used Oxford’s (1990) eighty-item questionnaire and found that Iranian students use metacognitive strategies more frequently and affective strategies less frequently than other learning strategies. Also, he found that men and women were not different in their use of learning strategies. The relationship between metacognitive strategy use and learners’ language proficiency has also been studied in different studies (e.g. Anderson, 2002; Dhieb-Henia, 2003; Dreyer &Nel, 2003; Eskey, 2005; Steinagel, 2005, as cited in Zhang & Seepho, 2013). They found that metacognitive language learning strategies are recognized as the most highly preferred and most frequently strategies used by the students with high proficiency level. A large body of research supported that more proficient learners are believed to employ a wider range of strategies more efficiently than less proficient learners (e.g. Green & Oxford, 1995; Kaylani, 1996; Lan & Oxford, 2003; Oxford, 1996; Oxford & Ehrman, 1995; Lee &Oxford, 2008; Philips, 1991, as cited in Paul, 2012). However, in the conducted study of Al-Buainain (2010), the statistical tests showed no significant difference for proficiency on overall strategy use. REFERENCE Ahmadizadeh, Z. (2001). On the use of metacognitive strategies by Iranian EFL learners in conventional and distance

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THE EFFECT OF PROBLEM SOLVING TASKS ON IMMEDIATE AND DELAYED RETENTION OF NEW WORDS BY EFL LEARNERS

Atefe Mortaji (corresponding author) ELT Department, College of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad

University, Roudehen, Iran [email protected]

Hamid Reza Fatemi pour

ELT Department, College of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, Roudehen Branch, Islamic Azad University, Roudehen, Iran

[email protected] ABSTRACT This Project Focuses On The Effect Of Problem Solving Tasks On Immediate And Delayed Retention Of New Words On Different Levels Of Learners From Starter To Advance. The Levels Of Learners Were Locally Defined, Based On The Level Of Their Book Studying. About 266 Female Learners Between The Ages Of 17-25 In Three Steps Took Part In This Study. The Study Measures The Current Vocabulary Knowledge Of Learners Through One Pretest That Was Repeated For Posttests Two Times As Immediate And Delayed Tests. The Pre and Posttests Were Corrected Based On Paribakht and Wesch (1998) Subjective Vocabulary Scale. After The Pretest Was Held, And The Researcher Was Sure That Learners, Did Not Know The Meanings Of New Words, So Then The Treatment Process Was Applied, The Vocabulary Learning Was In The Form Of Problem Solving. It Means That The Meanings Of New Words Were Guessed Through Different Examples. The Examples Were Chosen From Four Main Dictionaries (Advance Oxford Dictionary And Cambridge Advanced Learner`s Dictionary 3rd Edition And Goggle Online Dictionary And Longman Advance Dictionary). The Vocabularies Were Chosen From Three Different Books," New Cutting Edge" And "New Interchange" And 504 Words. The Results Showed That The Best Effect Of Problem Solving Tasks On Vocabulary Retention Was For Starter And Pre Intermediate Learners And The Worst Was For Advance Learners. KEY WORDS: Problem Solving tasks, Immediate Retention, Delayed Retention, New Words 1. Introduction Learning a new vocabulary in a foreign or second language, is one of the major and important issues in language learning, and retention of that for a longer time is another and may be more important than the first one. It has happened to most of us that we memorize a word, but can hardly remember that. How can we store the new vocabulary for longer time to remember it later? This is a question that everyone likes to know the answer for that. How many vocabularies do we need to know to learn a language? Is there any adequate number of words to talk frequently with them? Will a foreign learner of a language need to learn all the vocabulary of the new language? Even for native speakers of one language, there are some words that are unknown. It is important for both production and comprehension of a foreign language. According to Thornburg (2002), as cited in Hashemzadeh (2012), in order to connect new knowledge (new words in context) to previous knowledge, it should be supported with exercises. According to Amiryousefie and Kassaian (2010), exercises lead the learners to a specific vocabulary item and help them understand the meanings of these words through different tasks. Webb (2007) as cited in Hashemzadeh (2012) said that “in order to remember a word, it needs to be remembered ten times in activities or texts” (p. 10). So, vocabulary items should be repeated in different exercises and activities.



2. Background of the Study 2.1. Vocabulary Learning During the two decades, the process of vocabulary learning has been important for many researchers, (Nation, 2001; Singleton 1999) ;(Bogaards and Laufer 2004; Schimitt and McCarthy 1997; Wesch and paribakht 1999) and many other researchers. According to Ellis (2012), learning vocabulary is an "open system". [It means that it is so big in the size of "lexicon" and "depth of knowledge"]. It is not clear to say how much vocabulary is known by a learner, it is just guessed by some test like" Laufer and Nation`s (1997) productive vocabulary level Test". According to Folse (2006), as cited in Hashemzadeh (2012), activities and exercises are both necessary factors to take learners' attention to a vocabulary. 2.2. Vocabulary Exercises According to Paribakht and Wesche (1994), the vocabulary learning exercises are of 5 types: 1. Selective Attention: This type of exercise shows learners that there is a list of words to be learnt by learners. 2. Recognition: In this type of exercise the form, its family form and its meaning will be clear for learners, identifying synonyms or meanings through different choices. 3. Manipulation: how to use different suffixes and prefixes to form a word. 4. Interpretation: To make a connection among meanings of a word in text and other words 5. Production exercises: According to previous knowledge of learners they need to fill in blanks. 2.3. What Are Characteristic of a Good Vocabulary Exercise? According to Nation (2001), characteristics are as followings: 1. The high frequency words that were seen before should be included. Prevent low frequency words as there is no much use of them. 2. Focus on useful aspects of learning burden. It has a useful learning goal. 3. Motivate back ground knowledge of learners. 4. Find the word in exercise and evaluate that. 5. Avoid words that were misinterpreted by learners. 2.4. Problem Solving According to Martinez (1998), in history we had problem solving by Socrates, but it was ignored until 1960s, There are some forms of problem solving for teaching math and science. According to Martinez (1998), In the process of vocabulary learning through problem solving, the meaning is considered as an answer and it is not prepared easily for them; it is done as the cognitive process and it needs the learners to have some thinking and associate words with their previous knowledge: It can be done by synonyms, antonyms or having a definition. According to Ormond (2006), problem solving activity, the existing knowledge is important as the new knowledge is associated with the previous knowledge. For teaching in foreign language in the form of problem solving activities, a teacher can involve learners with process of problem solving, so as a teacher we should define a problem in order to make the learners think, like everyday problems, discussion of texts dealing with problems. Language problem solving is first done under teacher guidance with explanations of each step and then can be done by learners themselves. The followings questions are supposed to be answered by carrying out this research. Q1: Do problem-solving activities have any effect on the Iranian EFL learners' words retention? Q2: Is there a difference among students in words retention in different levels or not? Q3: which groups may have the best and the worst performance in new words retention?'' 3. Methodology 3.1. Participants The subjects were 254 female learners from starter to advance levels, studying of New Cutting Edge book and New Interchange book. This research was done in Azadi language school in the east of Tehran and Shokooh institute in the center of Tehran. Most of the students were local students. This research cannot be generalized to the other population or even male gender. The age of the learners was between 17 to 27years old. The learner's



first language was Persian and their nationality was Iranian. The learners `level was locally defined and based on their book's level, the learners were not homogenized, as the process of vocabulary learning over a period of time and its retention was the main aim, as the learners were asked to learn the words and be tested three times. In this research, there was no control group as we did not need that; instead we had six experimental groups from starter to advanced level. The process of vocabulary learning and retention of that was compared among these groups. 3.2. Instrument The instruments were one pretest and two posttests, the pretest was to evaluate the learners' current level of vocabulary, to be sure that the learners did not know the vocabularies to be taught, then the instruction as a treatment was applied in the form of problem solving tasks. It means that the new words were taught in the form of some examples and the learners were going to find out the meanings of the new words in those examples, and then the guessing meaning was checked by the teacher in order to prevent bad guessing of new words and to be sure that the correct meaning was applied by learners. After the instruction finished, during two weeks, immediately a test was given, to check the learners' understanding and whether the learners remembered the words or not, this test was needed to check the performance of the learners on the first post test and whether the learners probable lack of knowledge is because of lack of understanding or memory. The pretest here is scored subjectively the same way as the two posttests. Target words were selected from Cutting Edge book by Sarah Cunningham and Peter Moor and fifth edition of the book entitled504words by Barron and New Inter Interchange book by Jack C. Richards, Jonathan Hull and Susan Proctor .The new words were collected beforehand. And some more words were chosen that being tested to prevent the effect of treatment on the post test. 3.3. Procedure In this research, there were six experimental groups; there was no control group as we wanted to compare the differences between these groups. There were 41students in starter level, 59 in Elementary level, 31 in pre intermediate level, 54 in intermediate level and 49 in advanced level. In these groups the vocabulary learning was done through problem solving tasks and tested three times to know whether the retention of them differs through a period of time. First learners were grouped based on the level of their books from starter to advance level, their levels were locally defined. Then they were tested through one pretest and they were asked to answer words based on the Paribakht and Wesh (1998), they were asked to write number from 1 to 5 and if they chose number3, 4 or 5, they were asked to write an example for that too. At first, these grades were explained for them in Persian, their mother tongue, to be sure that they understand the format of the test truly. The vocabularies chosen for pretest were based on new words of their books, and were available at the end of their books with the title of Mini Dictionary, Then for vocabulary problem solving, there were sentences as the examples from four dictionaries, (Advance Oxford Dictionary and Cambridge Advanced learner`s Dictionary 3 rd edition and Goggle online Dictionary and Longman Advance Dictionary ), and gave them to students and asked them to find out the meaning based on these examples, The point that needs to be considered here is that the researcher had to take care about choosing of examples, as all examples carry the same meaning, and the examples were the same level of their book, and also examples should not contain the new word, to stop understanding. Then they tried to guess the meaning and of course the teacher had a very important role in the case that checked the learners guessing. After two weeks of instruction, the learners had the first post test and the papers were corrected based on subjective scoring of the Paribakht and Wesch (1997, p181), According to them, there are five stages or types of knowledge of words. 1. The word is not familiar at all

2. The word is familiar but the meaning is not known

3. The meaning is known in first language or second language



4. The word is used with semantic appropriateness in a sentence

5. The word is used with semantic appropriateness plus grammatical accuracy in a sentence.

The range of marks was from 0 -100. The least mark can be 0 if the learners do not answer any of them, and if the learners answer that they do not know the meaning of any of them they get 20, and if they were able to produce authentic grammatical sentences, they would get 100. The desirable mark for pretest was between 0-40, as between 0-20 means words were not familiar for learners and 20-40; it meant it was familiar for learners. And for the first posttest the desirable marks were 40-80, the most desirable mark was 80 not 100. The mark 80-100 was not expected in this research for second language learners. Then after the papers were corrected, the list of marks were prepared for analyzing data, to find out which group had the best and worst performance on the retention of words. 4. Result 4.1. The First Research Question In order to answer the first research question, ''do problem-solving activities have any effect on Iranian EFL learners' words retention?'' a paired sample t-test was run to compare whole scores of the pretest and two posttests. As table 4.1,4.2 and 4.3 show, since the probability associated with their F-observed values were lower than the significant level of .05 therefore the first null hypothesis, there is no effect of problem-solving activities on the Iranian EFL learners' words retention, was rejected.

Table 4.1. Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences

T Df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

95% Confidence Interval of the Difference

Lower Upper

Pair 1 Posttest1 – Pretest

34.015 17.057 1.046 31.956 36.074 32.525 265 .000


Paired Differences

t Df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1 Posttest2 - Pretest

28.955 15.382 .943 27.098 30.812 30.701 265 .000


Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper




Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1 Posttest1 - Posttest2

5.060 11.836 .726 3.631 6.489 6.973 265 .000

In order to answer the second research question, '' is there a difference among students in words retention in different levels or not?'' other paired sample t-tests were run to compare each group's scores of the pretest and second posttest (posttest2). As all tables show, since the probability associated with their F-observed values (0.00) were lower than the significant level of .05 therefore the second null hypothesis, there is no signific ant difference among students in words retention in different levels, was rejected.

Table 4.7. Paired Samples Statistics

Mean N Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 (starter)

Posttest2 69.35 40 12.514 1.979

Pretest 32.88 40 9.946 1.573


Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1

Posttest2 - pretest

36.475 15.826 2.502 31.414 41.536 14.577 39 .000



Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 (elementary)

Posttest2 67.41 59 13.414 1.746

pretest 37.03 59 8.572 1.116


Paired Differences t Df Sig. (2-



Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


tailed)

Lower Upper

Pair 1 Posttest2 – pretest 30.373 15.721 2.047 26.276 34.470 14.840 58 .000



Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 (pre intermediate)

Posttest2 69.00 32 15.027 2.656

pretest 39.09 32 9.491 1.678


Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1

Posttest2 – pretest

29.906 15.478 2.736 24.326 35.487 10.930 31 .000



Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 (intermediate)

Posttest2 68.78 54 14.750 2.007

pretest 39.33 54 10.163 1.383


Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1 Posttest2 – pretest 29.444 14.836 2.019 25.395 33.494 14.584 53 .000





Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 (Upper)

Posttest2 58.06 32 13.944 2.465

pretest 35.41 32 10.204 1.804


Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1 Posttest2 – pretest

22.656 13.473 2.382 17.799 27.514 9.513 31 .000



Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 (advanced)

Posttest2 57.29 49 13.421 1.917

pretest 33.22 49 9.026 1.289


Paired Differences


Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1

Posttest2 – pretest

24.061 13.703 1.958 20.125 27.997 12.292 48 .000

In order to answer the third research question, '' Which groups may have the best and the worst performance in new words retention?'' By comparing the means of the six groups in the posttest2, it can be concluded that the best performances belonged to starter and pre-intermediate groups. And the worst performance belonged to advanced level. Therefore, the third null hypothesis was also rejected. 4.2. Analysis of the Vocabulary Posttest 2 After six instructional sessions, posttest 2 including a 20 from a standard proficiency test was administered to measure the effects of the treatment at the end of the study. The mean scores, standard deviation, and the skewness of the posttest2 are reported for the six groups in Table 4.3.



Table 4.3. Descriptive Statistics of the vocabulary Posttest 2

N Mean Std. Deviation Skewness

Posttest 2 Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error

Starter 40 69.35 12.514 -.183 .374

Elementary 59 67.41 13.414 -.595 .311

Pre intermediate 32 69.00 15.027 -.717 .414

Intermediate 54 68.78 14.750 -.164 .325

Upper intermediate

32 58.06 13.944 .112 .414

Advanced 49 57.29 13.421 -.133 .340

The results of the skewness analysis (Table 4.3) again revealed that the assumption of normality was observed in the distribution of the second vocabulary posttest scores of the six groups (-.48, -1.91, -1.73, -.50, .27, -.39, all falling within the range of -1.96 and +1.96). Figure 4.5 shows the normality of the second vocabulary posttest scores. 5. Conclusion and Discussion In this research, it was intended to have a view on the effect of problem solving tasks on the immediate and delayed retention of new words. The retention of that over a period of time was important. The results and investigation of null hypotheses previously mentioned were shown below. The research was done with six experimental groups to test the immediate and delayed retention of new words. It was found that we were successful to help the learners for immediate retention of new words, but for delayed retention, there were some factors as memory and pass of time. There was the least retention in advance group and the best retention for starter and pre-intermediate according to results obtained from the comparison of the means of the six groups in the posttest 2, it was concluded that the best performances belonged to starter and pre-intermediate groups. And the worst performance belonged to advanced level. There was a research by Rob Waring , Notre Dame Seishen& Misako Takaki(2003),To compare the immediate and delayed retention of new vocabulary from reading a graded reader, On the immediate posttest, words seen more than 8 times were remembered most of time, but words met only four or five times were remembered only half of the time. And finally it shows that, only one word after three month can be remembered by learners, and meanings of words that repeated only fewer than eight times cannot be remembered later. So graded reading is not helpful for leaning new vocabularies but helps to enrich the previously learnt words and activate them. The results of this study are in line with this thesis result. There was another study for retention of inferred and glossed words by (Koren 1999 ).This research made clear that retention of the inferred words, was much better than glossed words (meaning is given) and that incidental vocabulary learning is not very effective The retention of glossed words was four times better than that of the inferred words (33% compared to 8%). There was another research for the effect of Post Reading Activities on the Retention of Vocabulary. By IIknur Istifci Andolu(2008). The learners were asked to read British and American Newspaper by Barry Baddock. The participants in experimental group read three passages, and did three types of vocabulary exercises to attract their attention, which were chosen among the tasks Paribakht and Weche(2000), used in their study, Finally the result showed that participant in experimental group could remember most words of the reading, while control group did not. There was a research in Batumi State Pedagogical, for teaching of grammar and vocabulary in problem solving tasks .As it was mentioned in chapter two, the result of experimental group were much better than control group. There was a research for retention of new words for children and adults.



T-test also showed that the amount of improvement was surely greater for children than for adults. So; Based on the first research, repetition is one factor that can help for remembering of a word. As mentioned in chapter two, if repetition is less than four or five times in context, the delayed retention does not occur, and if it is more than eight, it happens. One of the reasons for present study that could not get the same retention of immediate for delayed posttest can be the amount of repetition. The second research showed that the glossed words are remembered four times better than inferred words. . As it was mentioned, if the amount of dictionary use grows, the amount of retention improves, too. The reason can be because of intervening in the process of finding the meaning, and in line with this, the problem solving does this process of intervening, too. REFERENCES

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ALTERNATIVE ASSESSMENT: HAS IT COME OF AGE?

Saeed Ayiewbey MA from Mazandaran University

No.2 Shahid Ghaffari St., Imam Hussein Blvd., Chaypara, Western Azerbaijan Province, Iran. [email protected]

ABSTRACT Alternative assessment is type of assessment practice that seeks to assess learners’ language abilities, in ways other than how traditional standardized tests did. The present article reviews the issues related to alternative assessment and adopts a partly critical position regarding some of the related arguments. The advantages as well as quality concerns are discussed and a number of challenges that need to be dealt with are considered. Finally suggestions are made to ameliorate practice. KEY WORDS: Alternative Assessment, Traditional Tests 1. Introduction It is the common practice among students (language students or other majors) to raise their objections to their

scores when they fail to get a criterion score or when they feel they have not gotten the score they deserve. Even somehow similar attitudes can be found among those who have gotten the required scores and so do not have any problem of moving on to the next level, grade, class etc. Where is the problem? Does the sheer act of taking a test and getting a score produce bitter feelings in students? Most likely no. Do they feel their abilities are underestimated? Or simply, they just want to have their scores changed for higher ones? Although the answer as to why of this customary practice is not clear, what is clear is that testing has kept open the channels that produce such judgments of inefficiency of testing from the part of test takers. If this is the case, what is the problem with tests and/or testing that results in attitudes like these? One major answer is that tests – or at least tests that are used in such situations – do not allow the students to display their full range of abilities, especially if they are language students. Individuals who sit in one corner of the test-taking hall, and provide answers for a number of questions are well excused for voicing their discontent with such tests, if the phenomenon to be tested is an ability rather than knowledge.

One way to overcome the problem referred to above, is to use methods of testing other than what has been practiced so far. In other words, practitioners are advised to try alternative forms or methods of testing; those that reach out to probe more into language learners’ abilities. Alternative assessment is one solution. It is a form of assessment that claims to break away with the traditional tests, and provide a better picture of what learners can do with language. These claims are appealing. Provided that alternative assessment stands up to the claims it makes, it can be of much help to remedy the limitations of traditional tests. But, does it? It is to this that I now turn to in the following section.

2. Alternative Assessment: What is it? From the very start the difficulties associated with alternative assessment manifest themselves. The term

“alternative assessment” is suffering from a number of shortcomings. I see two problems with this label; one is the fact that this label is not used unanimously by scholars. Hamayan (1995), for example, names some of the terms that have been used by different writers, all of whom referred to alternative assessment. These terms are “alternative assessment”, “informal assessment”, “authentic assessment”, “performance assessment”, “descriptive assessment” and “direct assessment” (pp. 213). The second problem with the label is that it does not refer to a coherent group of activities that can be put together under one term as a representative (Balliro, 1993). Alternative assessment includes a variety of activities, very different in nature, aimed at generating data about individual learners. Although all of the



activities share the common goal of producing information about an individual’s language competence, considering them as homogeneous with shared features is misleading. More discussion about what these activities are is provided below. Balliro (1993) also expresses the vagueness she perceives is present in the term. Further, she proposes the use of the term congruent assessment instead, which captures the “…process by which the assessment fits the goals of the adult education program, pp. 560”.

Whatever label is used, alternative assessment does appear to have the consensus of scholars about what the notion refers to. The Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines alternative assessment as: “various types of assessment procedures that are seen as alternatives or complements to traditional standardized testing, pp. 23”. As such, alternative assessment can be taken to refer to a group of procedures that aim to evaluate a learner’s overall performance. Hamayan (1995) gives a role to “the context of instruction” and relates alternative assessment to the daily activities of the school or classroom (pp. 213). A variety of procedures have been suggested in the literature. Huerta-Macías, (2002), for example, includes in her list such practices as checklists of student behaviors or products, journals, reading logs, videos of role-plays, audiotapes of discussions, self-evaluation questionnaires, work samples, and teacher observations or anecdotal records. The list and its inclusion of very disparate activities implies that whatever source that yields data about a learner’s competence is pertinent. These data are used to evaluate the learner’s language ability.

3. Advantages Proponents of alternative assessment postulate a number of advantages for it. The most noticeable and

promising of those advantages is that alternative assessment provides a more thorough picture of a learner’s abilities, achievements and weaknesses, than did multiple-choice tests (Aschbacher, 1991; Hamayan, 1995; Huerta-Macías, 2002). Unlike traditional paper-and-pencil tests that give limited information about individuals’ theoretical knowledge of grammar and usage only, alternative assessment allegedly taps into what the learner is able to do as a result of instruction. The use of multiple sources of information is appealing, as it takes into account both knowledge and ability, and there does not appear to be any objections to the very idea, since it has been established that communicative competence is composed of many delicate knowledge components with intricate interactions within, and a simple sheet of questions is unable to reflect such a complicated web of knowledge.

One other merit of alternative assessment which is related to the one just mentioned, is its awareness of the context in which a learner is to demonstrate his/her competence (Aschbacher, 1991; Huerta-Macías, 2002). Traditional standardize tests, assess learners’ discrete knowledge of components of language, a statement which has become trite over the years. Such testing does not give a realistic picture of a learner’s true abilities to perform real-world tasks. Alternative assessment, on the other hand, contextualizes learners’ performance, and requires them to demonstrate their abilities by doing meaningful and purposeful tasks, embedded in a social context.

Another improvement of alternative assessment is its inclusion of learners in the process of assessment (Hancock, 1994). Alternative assessment gives a role to learners and requires their contribution to the estimations and decisions made of and about them, thereby introducing democraticity to the enterprise of language teaching.

Alternative assessment allows for the adoption of a holistic or integrative view of language. In contrast to traditional standardized tests, that examine the learner from a single dimension, alternative assessment adopts a multi-dimensional perspective in that it employs other sources of data, in addition to test answers, each of which brings its own piece to the overall puzzle of a learner’s language knowledge. For Hamayan, a holistic view of language also means to look at language in its entirety, rather than as a sum of separate aspects like phonology, grammar and vocabulary (pp. 214).

4. Quality Concerns As with any other language assessment measure, the most important quality concern with alternative

assessment is its validity and reliability. Much has been written about the validity of traditional



language tests, and a great deal of improvement has been made regarding our understanding of this concept. However, most claims about the quality of alternative assessment are intuitive in nature, and little, if any, attempts has been made to verify such claims. Huerta-Macías (2002), for example, is very optimistic in terms of the quality of alternative assessment, and assumes an automatic validity for it due to its nature, and, therefore, it is easy to criticize her for her stance towards validity of alternative assessment. Although she admits the cruciality of validity in alternative assessment, she believes that “The procedures [of alternative assessment] in and of themselves are,…, valid, pp. 340”. It is true that in alternative assessment the measuring instrument is closely linked to the phenomenon under observation, as Huerta-Macías reasons, but this alone does not guarantee validity. What remains to be ensured is the subjectivity of the evaluator’s judgments. She further argues that all human judgments, including those made in standardized tests’ validity, is subjective, and so she appears to circumvent the problem of subjectivity. The problem is not that standardized tests are also subjectively validated; it is how we can ensure the validity of alternative assessment in the face of the assessor’s subjective attitudes. Accountability requires that those who are in the position of decision makers for others’ lives, assume responsibility and make the best of their efforts to gather validity evidence in order to demonstrate the validity of their assessment. Practitioners of alternative assessment are not at all an exception in this case. They also are required to ascertain their addressees in terms of the quality requirements that are needed of their assessment endeavors.

There are a number of measures to be taken to ensure the validity of alternative assessment. Huerta-Macías suggests these: 1. designing multiple tasks that produce similar outcomes, 2. using trained judges, 3. setting up clear criteria, 4. monitoring raters for consistency, and 5. triangulation (pp. 341-2). As it is apparent, these strategies are not new, as claimed by Huerta-Macías, and what is new is the idea that carrying them out is enough, a view held by Brown & Hudson (1998). They argue that it is to be irresponsible to take the validity of assessment for granted, once these procedures are practiced. Since assessment affects the lives of individuals, they further hold, it is the duty of the assessor to make every effort to demonstrate and enhance the validity of assessment (pp. 656).

5. Challenges The mainstream test types used in language classes is mainly focused on the end product of instruction or on

an individual’s proficiency as it is related to what s/he has achieved. This product -orientedness of standardized tests is what is contrasted with alternative assessment’s process-orientedness (Alderson & Banerjee, 2001; Hancock, 1994; Hamayan, 1995). Alternative assessment through bringing to the forefront those aspects of the teaching/learning process that mainly go unnoticed by multiple-choice tests, because of their concern with the end-of-the-term product of instruction, gives information about the processes that learners use or undergo to learn language. A think-aloud protocol, for example, provides valuable information about what strategy a learner uses to comprehend a text, or it guides us in recognizing what a particular learner’s attitudes are towards the target community; information that a multiple choice test of linguistic knowledge hardly, if ever, can provide. However, some may raise their objection to this argument by pointing to formative assessment and say that it is aimed at detecting learners’ needs and evaluating instruction during the term. I would argue that although formative assessment’s goal is to provide information for teachers about how the course is progressing, it employs largely product-oriented means to evaluate the process. The kind of data that formative assessment provides is of the type summative assessment produces. What is different between these two types of tests, formative and summative assessments, is not very much the kind of data that they produce; rather it is the interpretations that are made of the data that distinguishes the two. However, alternative assessment, be it used formatively or summatively, produces information that is different in nature. However, it is erroneous to think that alternative assessment should replace objective tests. There is a danger to this assumption. We should not think radically and fall from the other side of the line. Objective tests do produce invaluable data, but that the data is not enough. We can boost the advantages by integrating the two: to consider multiple choice kind of tests as an alternative and accommodate it within the framework of alternative assessment. In other words, it is possible to utilize this kind of tests



along with other measures, i.e. teacher observations, diaries, written samples, etc., and let each of them play their own roles to contribute to our evaluations of learners.

Another characteristic of alternative assessment is the claim that it is mainly used for low-stakes situations, and when evaluation is needed for a high stakes situation, traditional tests are used (Alderson & Banerjee, 2001). Alderson & Banerjee (2001), for example make the point that alternative assessment is used for classroom-based assessment, focusing on the progress of the instructional program, (pp. 229). One reason seems to be for teachers, administers and authorities to be unwilling to take risks. They are reluctant to stop doing what they have practiced so far, and opt for what they do not know exactly. If this is the case, we are not allowed to blame them for such an attitude, since, if we be optimistic and look at the story by seeing the good, they want to take responsibility for their learners and want to do what has been established and accepted, not something that would jeopardize the benefits of their learners for the sake of trying a new thing, only. It is, then, the responsibility of those working in the theoretical camp, i.e. researchers and theory makers of the field, to unravel the benefits of alternative assessment for the practitioners through holding seminars, publishing specialized material for teachers and similar measures, certainly with the help of other authorities and agencies.

The failure to utilize alternative assessment by teachers brings up the question of the gap between theory and practice. This problem is not unique to alternative assessment and is the case for most topics in the field of applied linguistics. However, the problem is not unidimensional. It is not only the teachers that do not use alternative assessment; it is both under-practiced and under-researched. To the best of my knowledge no study has been done to explore alternative assessment to add to the current state of knowledge. Although studies have been done to investigate the different activities launched inside the framework of alternative assessment, such as diary studies, such attempts do not reveal much about alternative assessment as a whole. Little is known about alternative assessment, and there are many facts still waiting to be explored. To be humorous, the only thing about which we are sure regarding alternative assessment is that it exists! Certainly, it is not enough. More is needed, before we can make strong claims as to the benefits it provides for teachers and learners. Attempts need to be made and researches needs to be done to investigate the different elements of alternative assessment.

A less recognized concern is a meta one. As pointed above, different labels are used to refer to alternative assessment. This is not a satisfactory situation. If our understanding of alternative assessment is to be enhanced, we need a label that is unanimously used by scholars, so that discourse is facilitated. Some of the labels in some contexts point to a different phenomenon, altogether. For example, performance assessment is used as a label to refer to alternative assessment by some writers, while it is used to refer to an entirely distinct concept by some others. If there is no consensus about what term to use to refer to alternative assessment as a concept in language testing, then how are we to reach an agreement on other more grave matters like how to validate assessment. Also, different terms mean that there will be ambiguity in discussions related to this concept. Therefore, the first step of all is for me to discard all the other alternative terms and use one more familiar; my suggestion is alternative assessment.

6. Further Research Currently we know nothing about teachers’ perceptions about alternative assessment. Teachers’ ideas may

shape their practice and hence influence the lives of their learners. Therefore, if we are to exploit the benefits alternative assessment provides, we have to know more about what teachers think about alternative assessment, how it can contribute to learners’ success, how it is carried out, how it is different from traditional paper-and-pencil tests, how are its effects differentiated from the effects of standardized tests, what types of evidence are required to validate it and so on. However, before probing into teachers’ attitudes, we first need to introduce it to teachers, as stated above. Until then the task is even more cumbersome.

Another responsibility for researchers is to reveal what procedures are best suited for specific situations. The procedures that are employed in alternative assessment such as teacher observation, examination of sample writing, etc., each sheds light on a different aspect of a learner’s competence. On the other hand, each assessment situation has its own agenda and goals, and it is logical to think that not every



combination of the procedures is appropriate for every situation. In other words, determining what procedures to employ for a particular situation seems to be necessary, depending on the goal of assessment and the type of audience we have. Before such studies, it remains for teachers’ intuition to determine what course of action to follow. If the appropriate combination is not employed, the whole assessment may lack validity and produce results that are far from representative of learners’ true abilities; it may result in the same pitfalls that are being discussed is the case with traditional type of tests. The decisions made on the basis of the information produced by such assessment may have unfavorable repercussions for the society.

Another challenge for research is the fact that the exact methodology to employ is not clear and standardized (Balliro, 1993). The question is a very general one: what should teachers do? Where should they start from? What stages should they follow and in what sequence? What should they do with their findings or how should they interpret the results? What resources are available for them to consult? What types of decisions can be made on the basis of assessment? A related question pertains to the data that assessment procedures produce. Each of the procedures yields data that are inherently different from others. A checklist that is used to rate the frequency of learners’ behavior, for example, gives data that cannot be compared to information obtained from examining learners’ writings. Both are different from learner diaries with regard to the data produced; none is comparable to what is obtained from think-aloud protocols. Although for Hamayan interpreting the information obtained is easy (pp. 215), the disparity of the data and the consequent interpretations required will most likely be unmanageable for teachers who are not prepared for the task. Researchers should step in and provide guidance by outlining teachers’ roles and the precise path to go.

7. Conclusion In writing a concluding paragraph for the paper, a term which was reverberat ing in my mind was a

frightening one: change! Changes always entail leaving your safe grounds in search of unexplored territories. Not everyone has the courage to do it. But in the case of our shared discipline we have to embark on such a demanding task, at least regarding the fact that we are dealing with knowledge and its consequences, the consequences in this case being the effects that our practices leave on the lives of our learners. Change does not always require discarding previous objects, believes, practices and behaviors altogether. Rather it means, if we mean to improve, to modify those aspects of the target phenomenon whose inefficiency is apparent. Alternative assessment resonates with this notion of change absolutely. It does not aim to replace traditional test, but that to complement them. Lynch (2001) makes a similar statement and says that in using alternative assessment we have to “…judge its validity with criteria that are appropriate to its underlying paradigmatic assumptions, (pp. 361)”. It aims to make amends for what multiple-choice tests cannot account for. But can we count on a method that is still in its infancy? As Hamayan (1995) points out, “… alternative assessment approaches have yet to come of age (pp. 219)”. The ultimate concern is this: has alternative assessment come of age?

REFERENCES Alderson J. C., & Banerjee, J. (2001). Language Testing and Assessment. Language Teaching, 34, 213-236. Aschbacher, P. R. (1991). Alternative Assessment: State Activity, Interest, and Concerns. UCLA Center for

Research on Evaluation, Standards, and Student Testing. Balliro, L. (1993). What Kind of Alternative? Examining Alternative Assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 27 (3), 558-

560. Brown, H. D., & Hudson, T. (1998). The Alternatives in Language Assessment. TESOL Quarterly, 32 (4), 653-

675. Hamayan, E. V. (1995). Approaches to Alternative Assessment. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 15, 212-226. Hancock, C. R. (1994). Alternative Assessment and Second Language Study: What and Why? Eric Digest. Retrieved

June 25, 2013 from http://www.cal.org/resources/digest/hancoc01.html



Huerta-Macías, A. (2002). Alternative Assessment: Responses to Commonly Asked Questions. In J. C. Richards & W. A. Renandya (Eds), Methodology in Language Teaching, (pp. 338-343). Cambridge University Press.

Lynch, B. K. (2001). Rethinking Assessment from a Critical Perspective. Language Testing, 18 (4) 351–372. Richards, J. C., & Schmidt, R. (2010). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics . Pearson

Education Limited.



EFL LEARNERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS CRITICAL THINKING INSTRUCTION

Shabnam Azarmi Movafagh (Corresponding author) MA student of TEFL, Payame Noor University, Rasht, Iran

E-mail: Azarmi.shabnam @ gmail.com

Abdorreza Tahriri Assistant professor of TEFL, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran

ABSTRACT This study sought to investigate EFL learners` attitudes towards critical thinking (CT) instruction. To this end, based on the result of an Oxford Placement Test, thirty intermediate EFL learners were selected from among 90 participants to take part in this study at a language institute. A repeated measure design was utilized by the researchers based on which the same group of participants took part in the control and experimental phases of the study. At the end of the experiment, the participating EFL learners answered an open-ended researcher-made questionnaire the items of which were based on existing literature in order to explore the participants ̀views and attitudes towards the type of instruction offered to promote their CT skills. It was found that more than two-third of the participants were interested in using CT skills at class. The findings have some implications for course designers, material developers, and teachers to introduce and foster CT skills in classrooms for students. KEY WORDS: Critical thinking, Instruction, Attitude, EFL 1. Introduction

One of the most effective instruments anyone can have is the ability to think. In fact, critical thinking (CT) skills are strategies people use to consider new opinions (Fahim, Barjesteh & Vaseghi, 2011). It refers to a kind of skill that can influence various aspects of a person’s academic career, and personal life. It helps us to understand written text more deeply, write more influentially, and become more successful test-takers. CT also helps us make better decisions and develop our own ideas. Through the use of critical activities, students can also learn how to reach conclusions and self-assess their performance in class.

Different definitions of CT have been suggested by several educators although there is not much difference among these definitions. According to Elder and Paul (1994), CT refers to the skill of individuals to control their own thinking and build up suitable criteria and standards for examining their own thinking. As Maiorana (1992) stated, CT intends for achieving understanding, evaluating, and finding the answers for the problems.

Nowadays numerous EFL instructors emphasize the requirements for teaching CT in EFL university composition classes; this idea has been described by several researchers and educators. The appearance of these various descriptions is a result of its cognitive characteristic in which CT is considered as an "ongoing activity" (Canagarajah, 2002, p. 101) and learner writers are anticipated to achieve the skill to think critically as they go through process-directed activity. Beyer (1995, p. 8), for instance, explained CT as "…making reasoned judgments," that may imply applying CT to assess the quality of something, from "cooking to a conclusion of a research paper" (Alagozlu, 2007, p. 119). The aim of this study was to explore the attitudes of EFL learners towards CT instruction.

1.1 Significance of Critical Thinking

There are various concepts of CT. As Paul (1995) explained, the concept of CT is best understood as to the context and aim it is applied. The purpose of educating for critical, democratic citizenship has lately been



developed with the title called ‘critical thinking’. In the 1980s, there was an outbreak of attention in CT. In several studies and policy reports in the USA it was mentioned that a higher-order thinking skill was missing among learners and that democratic society needed learners to think crit ically (Glaser, 1985; National Education Goals Panel, 1992). The common concentration on CT as a pedagogical aim does not modify the fact that CT is an intricate construct, changing from a politically directed pedagogical end (Giroux, 1992; Mclaren, 1995) to higher-order thinking abilities (Halpern, 1998).

The significance being given to CT is at present an extensive event. In education reports of countries like Australia, the United States, and United Kingdom, CT has been recorded as an important domain t o be improved and estimated in higher education (American Association of Colleges and Universities, 2005; Australian Council for Educational Research, 2002; Higher Education Quality Council, 1996). Beside Western countries, late educational improvements in Asian countries like Hong Kong (Education Bureau, 2003) and Japan (Atkinson, 1997) have as well supported the progress of CT so that learners can take part in a liberal society. In spite of the agreement of educators and scholars on the importance of cult ivating learners to become critical thinkers, training for CT has not been an easy task.

1.2 Teaching for Critical Thinking There are numerous approaches to training learners to practice critical thought; two separate philosophies present how education is best viewed. Some educators and professionals approve the imbedded approach based on which the course structure and educator enhance higher-order thinking without direct training in the language and practice of CT abilities (Case, 2002). Others supported explicit instruction, where particular abilities are taught; these are total cognitive skills that converged different academic and real-life conditions. There is considerable study to advocate both methods (Cotton, 1991) but little is understood about their relative effectiveness. The former has the clear benefit of not needing an extra course in the school study program although a defect is that imbedded instruction is dependent on teacher and may or may not be exercised at class (Presseisen, 1989). This is a demanding subject because little consideration has been given to CT education for scholars and may not be a chief interest in a pedagogical condition that concentrates on ‘content -matter’ control (Paul, Elder, & Bartell, 1997). However, in courses that CT has long been connected, it is acceptable that thinking about content does not happen reflectively. 1.3 Critical Thinker Booo (1982) claimed that an essential part of the thinking skill is thinking about thinking. The thinker should be able to look at his/her thinking and judges it to his/her former task. S/he should also have the ability to look at the thinking that other people apply for themselves. Paul and Elder (2004) indicated that a good critical thinker has some characteristics as the following:

S/he asks important questions and troubles, forming them evidently and efficiently; s/he obtains and evaluates related information, using abstract concepts to measure it effectively; s/he gets logical results and solutions, testing them against related criteria and rules; s/he communicates efficiently with others for understanding solutions to complicated problems.

According to Paul and Elder (2009), there are three important types of thinkers: The native critical thinker, the selfish critical thinker, and the fair-minded critical thinker. The first one, the native critical thinker, is the person who is not concerned about, or does not have awareness of, his/her thinking. The second one, the selfish critical thinker, is the one who is good at thinking, but in fact not fair to others. The third one, the fair-minded critical thinker, is the one who is good at thinking and also fair to others.

King (1995) believed that the clear characteristic of a critical thinker is having an investigative mind; good critical thinkers are those who are expert at asking good questions. Paul et al. (1997) mentioned that self -assessment is a vital factor to CT, and just those learners who learn to evaluate their own thinking are critical thinkers. A critical thinker can reflect, discover, analyze, and can select to think in these complex ways.

To be a critical thinker is actually stating the intellect with the feelings, views, and disposition. Furthermore, Carroll (2004) claimed that critical thinkers chiefly benefit from two crucial advantages: Self-assurance, and sense of authority over their life. Paul and Elder (2002) indicated that emerging CT is a developmental process which needs hard work, and becoming a good thinker is not possible by only taking a



beginning course. So, the essential features of a critical thinker demand a long-lasting time of progress. To this end, there are six steps to go through to progress as thinkers:

Step 1- The unreflective thinker: The person is not aware of important problems in his/her thinking. Step 2- The challenged thinker: The person gets awareness of problems in his/her thinking. Step 3- The beginning thinker: The person tries to make himself/herself better, but without systematic practice. Step 4- The practicing thinker: The person identifies the necessity of systematic practice. Step 5- The advanced thinker: The person develops in accordance with his/her practice. Step 6- The master thinker: Skilled and careful thinking becomes second nature.

2. Literature Review Different researches have been done concerning CT influences on several aspects of foreign language learning and most of them belong to the past decade. Most of these studies are in favor of this theory and proved that the participants in the related studies improved in terms of their knowledge in the experimental groups in various fields. Some studies are presented in this section chronologically. One of the first effective methods of tactful growth in university learners was the work of Perry (1970). Perry performed open-ended interviews with learners at Harvard in the 1960s and applied these observations to present a stage theory of tactful growth throughout the university years. Learners do not unchangingly move through in a linear order, as it was assumed that there are pausing and backward movements as well as forward movement. Likewise, there seems to be personal variances in the pace with which learners develop through the stages. Perry recognized nine positions, but there were three chief stages. The first one was called dualism. Dualists considered the world according to "right/wrong, black/white, and good/bad. Dualists are passive learners who depend upon authorities to hand down the truth" (Carroll, 2007, p. 214). Then, when confronted with variant attitudes, learners got awareness of the diversities of points of view and more relativistic in their perspective. At this stage, they comprehend that disparate individuals have variant viewpoints, but do not consider a basic foundation for evaluating these points of view. Later, after their tasks have been demanded by the teachers` emphasis on proof, they reach the agreement within relativism stage, where they come to take permanent attitudes but with suitable, accepted reason as well as awareness of other perspectives. Aelger (1993), in his research on the influence of thinking skills on learners` reading comprehension, chose a sample of 257 fifth grade learners. He divided them into two groups of experimental and control. In this regard, he taught regular readings to the experimental group with thinking skills developed by Cognitive Research Trust Centre. The learners replied to both pre-test and post-test in all groups. Finally, the researcher found that all learners gained important improvements in reading comprehension over this period although there was not any statistical difference between experimental and control groups. Moreover, another study similar to this area of investigation was done by Eghtedari (2002). 200 English language students took part in this study. 90 students were selected from them based on their language proficiency. After that, they were divided into three groups of elementary, intermediate, and advanced language learners. Likewise, the subjects answered three different language proficiency tests, and then they took CT questionnaire. The result of the analysis indicated that there is a strong relationship between participants` way of thinking and their reading comprehension skill. In a study on the correlation between collaborative learning and CT of Iranian EFL learners, Naeini (2005) used 144 adult female intermediate English language students. She separated the participants into two groups of control and experimental ones. The subjects answered the Intermediate Nelson Language Proficiency Test and a CT questionnaire by Honey (2004). After training them to think more critically in groups, she distributed the CT questionnaire twice; moreover, she gave a pre-test at the beginning of the term and a post-test at the end of the term to measure their understanding, analysis, and measurement skill of Iranian EFL learners. After evaluating the results, she concluded that the experimental group performed better than the control group. In a study by Mirzai (2008), the relationship between CT and lexical inferencing of Iranian EFL learners was examined. To this end, 130 male and female students of a language institute were given a TOEFL and Honey’s CT questionnaire including 39 items. The result of the CT questionnaire showed that 70 students had high CT ability and 60 had



low CT ability as a pre-test. Students were given a checklist containing 170 words and by checking yes/no, they showed how many words they knew. To this end, they had to use inferencing strategies. In the last part, the students were given two passages with underlined new words, and were supposed to guess the meaning of those words using inferencing strategies. The results of the study revealed that those students with high CT ability outperformed the ones with low CT ability in lexical inferencing. In another study by Kamali and Fahim (2011), the relationship between CT ability, resilience, and reading comprehension of texts containing unknown vocabulary items was examined. The results of the study showed that (a) the levels of CT had significant effect on the scores of the participants on the resilience scale; (b) the levels of CT had significant effect on the participants` comprehension of texts with unfamiliar vocabulary items, and (c) the levels of resilience had significant effect on the participants` comprehension of texts with unfamiliar vocabulary items. They were also some studies which cast doubt on the effect of CT on the related items. For example, Facione, Facione and Sanchez (1994) applied the CCTDI to a group of entering freshman (n=587) at a private comprehensive university. The finding of the mean score of the disposition for truth-seeking was below 40. It showed the least approval and a weakness in this disposition. Colucciello (1997) also found same findings in her study of CT skills and dispositions of baccalaureate nursing learners (n=328). She applied the CCTDI to calculate CT dispositions; outcomes showed that the mean scores for every group of learners registered in all of the academic grades--sophomore II through senior II—were below 40 for the disposition of truth-seeking and below 50 for every of the following six dispositions. The disposition scores` of the sophomore II students were the least in comparison with the mean scores of the junior and senior learners. In addition, Dayioglu (2003) investigated the CT levels of students majoring in science and social sciences at Hucettepe University English Preparatory school. To carry out this study, Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal test, the information from and the English proficiency exam were administered to 193 students. The results revealed that there was no significant relationship between CT levels and English proficiency levels, but there was a significant low relationship between reading and writing skills and the CT skills of the participants. Myers and Dyers (2006) also investigated the effect of students̀ learning style on CT skill. The results of the study indicated that there were no differences between the CT skills of male and female students. However, students with deeply embedded abstract sequential learning style preferences showed significantly higher CT scores. No differences in CT ability existed between students of other learning styles. In another study by Rashtchi (2007), it was attempted to explore whether cooperative writing enhanced CT in EFL learners. The findings of the study showed that students̀ CT scores at the time of their entrance in the university were not satisfactory and their rank in the university exams was not related to these skills. It was concluded that it is necessary to consider teaching and promoting CT skills in the university educational planning. Based on the literature, the following research questions was proposed to be answered through the present study:

What are the EFL learners’ attitudes towards Critical Thinking instruction in language classes?

3. Method 3.1 Participants 30 randomly-selected female students studying English at a language institute, Rasht, Iran participated willingly in this study. The level of their English proficiency was intermediate. 3.2. Instruments

The first instrument used in the study was an Oxford Placement Test (OPT) (3B1-2) to determine the participants` level of proficiency. Cronbach’s alpha was computed for the OPT test items through a pilot study on 15 EFL learners who were identical to the main group in terms of their level of overall foreign language proficiency and a reliability of .836 was obtained which was considerably higher than the minimum required value of .70. The second instrument was an open-ended researcher-made questionnaire, the items of which were based on existing literature to explore the participants’ views and attitudes towards the type of instruction offered to promote the participants’ CT skills. The items of the questionnaire were piloted and its validity was ensured.



3.3 Treatment The first eight sessions was called the control phase of the research since it was based on lower-order thinking skills; each session the course instructor, provided the learners with lower-order thinking skills based on Bloom`s Taxonomy. The lower part includes knowledge, comprehension, and application levels. Every level involved special question words. For instance, for the first level, question words such as define, and describe, for the second level question words like discuss, and explain, and for the third level question words such as illustrate, and classify were presented. Besides, particular learning strategies related to various levels of Bloom`s Taxonomy were taught to students. The second eight sessions of the research was called experimental phase since it was based on higher-order thinking skills; each session the instructor provided the learners with higher-order thinking skills based on Bloom`s Taxonomy. The higher part includes analysis, synthesis, and evaluation levels. Each level involved special question words. For instance, for the first level question words like contrast, and generalize, for the second level question words like categorize, and contrast, and for the third level question words like conclude, and justify were presented; besides, particular learning strategies related to various levels of Bloom`s Taxonomy were taught to students. Furthermore, an open-ended questionnaire was answered by the participants in the final session to explore their attitudes towards the implementation of CT-based activities. The following table presents the Bloom`s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain.

Table 1.1 Bloom's Taxonomy of Educational Objectives in the Cognitive Domain

LEVEL QUESTION WORD LEARNING STRATEGIES

KNOWLEDGE (rote memory, recall of specifies)

define, describe, enumerate, identify, label, list

Rehearsal strategies: Highlight key vocabulary from text or lecture notes, generate flash cards, devise mnemonic devices.

COMPREHENSION (basic understanding, putting an idea into your own words)

discuss, explain, restates, traces

Explain a concept to a classmate; associate material with prior knowledge; summarize key concepts from lecture notes and compare to a "model."

APPLICATION (applying a general principle to a new and concrete situation)

illustrate, classify, compute, predict, relate, solve, utilize

General original examples; design and complete classification systems; solve and analyze new problems; predict test questions

ANALYSIS (breaking the information into component parts in order to examine it and develop divergent conclusions)

contrast, generalize, illustrate, diagram, differentiate, outline

General comparison and contrast lists and use these to predict test questions; identify themes or trends from text or case studies; organize material in more than one way

SYNTHESIS (creatively or divergently applying prior knowledge and skills to produce a new or original whole)

categorize, contrast, design, formulate, generate, design a model, reconstruct

Predict test questions and outline the answers; locate evidence to support a thesis; generate a thesis to support certain evidence

EVALUATION (judging the value of material based on informed personal values/opinions resulting in an end product without a distinct right or wrong answer

appraise, conclude, justify, criticize, defend, support

List supporting evidence; listing refuting evidence, generate concept maps, debate; find weaknesses in other arguments.



3.4 Data Collection and Analysis Procedure First, a group of EFL learners studying in a language institute was pre-tested to determine their level of proficiency. Then, intermediate EFL learners participated in the main phase of the study. About one semester (16 sessions), the participating group was instructed according to Bloom`s Taxonomy. Then, the participants completed an open-ended questionnaire that sought to explore their attitudes towards the implementation of CT-based activities in their learning. The treatment lasted for 16 sessions twice a week (8 weeks). Every session lasted for 2 hours. To analyze the data, descriptive statistics including mean, range, and standard deviation were calculated and reported for the scores obtained from the participating EFL learners. The participants’ answers to the open-ended questionnaire were analyzed to determine their attitudes towards the implementation of CT skills. 4. Results and Discussion

The only difference between the two phases of the study (control and experimental) related to the lower-order and higher-order thinking skills as defined in Bloom`s taxonomy. The participants in the first eighth sessions that comprised the control phase of the research were taught skill based on lower-order thinking skills of Bloom`s taxonomy. The purpose of this phase was to make the participants aware of the appropriate words related to various activities they were supposed to do. The researcher considered the first session as the pre-test and the eighth session as the post-test to evaluate their performance. On the other hand, the participants in the second eighth sessions (experimental phase) were taught based on higher-order thinking skills of Bloom`s taxonomy. The purpose of this phase was to make the subjects aware of the appropriate words related to different activities they were supposed to do in this stage.The research question scrutinized the participants’ attitudes towards the activities done in the experimental phase of the study. Six open-ended questions were given to twenty participants of the experimental group. Their responses were summed up and frequency and percentages were computed for the responses provided by the participants. The research question in this study scrutinized the participants’ attitudes towards the activities done in the experimental phase of the study. Six open-ended questions were given to twenty participants of the experimental group. Their responses were summed up and frequency and percentages were computed for the responses provided by the participants. The six questions are as follows:

1. Which group of topics (the first 16 topics or second 16 topics) did you like the most? Why?

2. Which group of topics motivated you more to write in English?

3. Which group of topics helped you show your writing ability better (to the best of your ability)?

4. How do you evaluate your progress in writing skill during the instruction?

5. What is your idea about the type of writing instruction you had and the topics you covered in two phases of the writing course?

6. Please write down if you have any other comments or suggestions about writing instruction. As for the first question that dealt with choosing between two groups of topics, 13 students were interested in lower-order skill topics and 7 students were interested in higher-order skill topics. Overall, about 68.3 % were interested in the lower-order skill topics and 94% of them were interested in the higher-order skill topics. As for the second question that dealt with choosing more motivated topics, 11 students were interested in lower-order skills and 7 students were interested in higher-order skills. Overall, about 75.8% were eager in the lower-order skills and 74.2% were eager in the higher-order skills. As for the third question that dealt with more helpful topics for showing writing ability, 8 students were interested in lower-order skill topics and 10 students were interested in higher-order skill topics. Overall, about 72.8% was eager in the lower-order skill topics and 60.6% was eager in the higher-order skill topics. As for the fourth question that dealt with the students̀ evaluation of their own progress during the instruction, the answers were diverse. Overall, about 79.3% were eager in this topic.



As for the fifth question that dealt with the idea of students̀ about type of writing instruction and topics, the answers were diverse. Overall, about 85.3% were interested in the type of writing instruction and 88.9 % were interested in topics. As for the sixth question that dealt with writing students̀ comments or suggestions about writing instruction, the answers were diverse. Some students believed that the writing instruction was attractive, difficult, etc. Some mentioned that it was influential for improving their writing. However, there were no suggestions in their replies as well. Overall, about 64.2% were interested in this topic. Overall, about 64.2% were interested in this topic. It is noticeable that for the first three questions, there were two groups of skills (lower-order and higher-order) to discuss. Also, for each group, just the positive items were summed up and reported as percentages. Furthermore, according to the tables mentioned in attitude questionnaire section, the results of both positive and negative items would be 100 percent as a whole. But, as far as the last three questions were concerned, there was not separate groupings as lower -order and higher -order skills; moreover, just the positive answers were summed up and reported as percentages. As Lun, Fischer and Ward (2010) mentioned, the application of CT has been considered as a significant part of education, especially in today`s learning environment where learners are exposed to a large amount of information, that needs efficient cognitive strategies to process them. Furthermore, based on Akyuz and Samsa (2009), the purpose of educational system that change based on progress in educational technology is to prepare more active learners in the learning process, and make them the people who have skills like CT, problem-solving, etc. They added that in the present information age, thinking skills are regarded as an essential part for educated people to handle the changing world. Developing learners ̀CT has been considered to be one of the first educational aims. Likewise, as Bowell and Kemp (2003) stated, CT made students to have good purposes to believe; and also teacher`s treatment accordingly helped learners to begin the process of becoming a critic of their thinking. Of course, this treatment should be done gradually. Teacher helps them first to discover their thinking and make relevant changes in their thinking too. Similarly, students could figure out their bad habits of thoughts and understand that they could learn to think better. 6. Conclusion

To answer the question, some open-ended questions were given to twenty participants of the experimental phase. Their responses were summed up and frequency and percentages were also computed. Based on the findings, regarding the participants’ interest, 68.3% were interested in the lower-order skill and 94% were interested in the higher-order skill. Concerning the second one, 75.8% were eager in the lower-order skills and 74.2% of the participants were eager in the higher-order skills. For the third question, about 72.8% were interested in the lower-order skill activities and 60.6% were interested in the higher-order skill ones. For the fourth question, about 79.3% were eager in this activity. For the fifth, about 85.3% were eager in the type of instruction. As for the sixth question, the answers were diverse. Overall, about 64.2% were interested in this topic. According to the findings, more than two-third of the participants were interested in instruction by using CT skills. Generally, this study has implications for syllabus designers, material developers and language teachers. First, this study may be helpful to syllabus designers who need to employ CT for teaching. Second, language teachers can also benefit from the results of this study. This study may give language teachers the insight that incorporating CT into the classes helps the teachers identify the weaknesses of their learners. Moreover, this study gives helpful guidelines to teachers for implementing CT into their language classes. They may feel more confident with practical guidelines that are provided in method section, where the teaching process is presented in a step-by-step manner. The findings of this research offer insights to language teachers. It is worthwhile for teachers to realize the role of CT in the improvement of EFL learners` instruction. It is hoped that the findings of this research provide teachers with a framework that helps them guide EFL learners towards further understanding of CT. Indeed, in EFL context in which the only source of comprehensible input is classroom exposure and practice, attention drawing activities towards CT should be considered as an indispensable part of language teaching. Hence, justified time and energy should be allocated to the provision of students with tasks that guide them to controlled production of activity accompanied with the instructors̀ feedback and support.



There were some limitations in this study. The first limitation of the present study was due to the number of students; since language institutes did not cooperate with the researcher well, the researcher was forced to select a limited number of participants. In addition, only one group took part in study based on repeated measure design. First and foremost, this study can be replicated to find out whether the same results would be obtained or not. Other studies could be performed in order to investigate the possible relationship between CT and specific language learning skills and with language learning styles. A further study can be designed in which the data are collected from other settings like university with learners at various levels, e.g., freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and seniors and public education system. It seems very useful to carry out the same research on other proficiency levels as well. It is hoped that the results obtained from the present study would open new avenues for helping language learners to promote their critical thinking skills.

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ENGLISH LEARNING STRATEGIES OF VARIOUS NATIONS: A STUDY IN MILITARY CONTEXT

Ekrem SOLAK

Department of Foreign Languages, Amasya University, Turkey [email protected]

ABSTRACT How successful learners learn English has been one of the primary interest of scientists and researchers in recent years. Therefore, this study aimed to determine what language learning strategies the military personnel from different nations used while learning English. 56 subjects from 14 different nations deployed in three different military settings in the world participated in the study. Strategies Inventory of Language Learning was used to collect data about the research. According to the result of the study, although a native speaker of a language more or less used learning strategies to be a successful language user, he\she was not much better than the others at using learning strategies in every aspect. However it can be stated that some native speakers used language learning strategies more frequently than others. KEY WORDS: English learning strategies, learning strategies in military context, learning strategies of various

nationals 1. Introduction It has been observed by many researchers and teachers that each language learner uses consciously or

unconsciously learning strategies during the learning process. In education, every individual is considered as a whole person having his-her own learning strategies that make him/her different from others. Therefore, how learners learn, remember and process new information and what kinds of strategies they use to understand have been the primary concerns of researchers dealing with language learning since 1960s. Especially, cognitive psychology has contributed in a large extent to the studies done on language learning strategies (Williams and Burden, 1997). The common core of these studies has been to identity what successful language learners do to learn a second or foreign language.

Although language learning strategies have been studied in various contexts, especially at universities, it has been rarely researched in military context in international dimension. Therefore, the implications of t his study will shed light on the new teaching methods and syllabi which will aim to prepare the military personnel for international joint missions in terms of language proficiency.

2. Review of Literature Some researchers define the term language learning strategy as follows: Richards and Platt (1992) state that

learning strategies are "intentional behavior and thoughts used by learners during learning so as to better help them understand, learn, or remember new information." Faerch Claus and Casper (1983 :67) stress that a learning strategy is "an attempt to develop linguistic and sociolinguistic competence in the target language." Wenden and Rubin (1987) define learning strategies as "... any sets of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to facilitate the obtaining, storage, retrieval, and use of information." According to Stern (1992), "the concept of learning strategy is dependent on the assumption that learners consciously engage in activities to achieve certain goals and learning strategies can be regarded as broadly conceived intentional directions and learning techniques."

One of the most prominent figures on language learning strategies, Oxford (1990) classifies the learning strategies into six main categories.

Cognitive strategies help the learner to use the language material in direct ways. Learners take advantage of the strategies like analysis, note-taking, summarizing, synthesizing, outlining, reorganizing information to



reach the objectives. Metacognitive strategies consist of identifying one’s own learning needs while planning, organizing, arranging, monitoring and evaluating the learning process. Various studies conducted in different countries proved that metacognitive strategies directly influenced foreign and second language proficiency. ( in South Africa, Dreyer & Oxford, 1996; and in Turkey, Oxford, Judd, & Giesen, 1998)

Memory-related strategies help learners to learn and retrieve information in an orderly manner via acronyms, rhyming, images, the keyword method, body movement, mechanical means and location. Learners usually benefit from memory-related strategies to memorize vocabulary and structures in early stages of language learning. Compensatory strategies help the learner make up for missing knowledge like guessing from the context in listening and reading, using synonyms, gestures or pause words. Affective strategies involve the strategies like identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings, rewarding oneself for good performance, and using deep breathing or positive selftalk. Affective strategies can be useful for beginner learners but learners do not need these strategies as they go through proficiency (Oxford, 1996). Social strategies help the learner work with others like asking questions to get verification, asking for clarification of a confusing point, asking for help in doing a language task (Oxford, 1996).

In addition, according to Oxford (1990), motivation, gender, type of task, age and L2 stage, cultural background, learning style, tolerance of ambiguity, attitudes and beliefs are the factors influencing the choice of strategies used by language learners. She also maintains that using these strategies effectively “make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations” (Oxford 1990, p. 8). Moreover, it was revealed that learning strategies also enabled students to become more independent, autonomous, lifelong learners (Allwright, 1990; Little, 1991).

The recent studies on language learning strategies have mainly focused on the types of language learning strategies of university students. Çakmak (2010) explored learning strategies and motivational factors influencing information literacy self-efficacy of e-learning students in Turkey. This study was administered to 119 e-learners and results of the study revealed that metacognitive, critical thinking strategies, and control belief influence literacy self-efficacy.

Ünal et al. (2011) studied the use of language learning strategies by university students learning English, German and French in Turkish context. They found that teaching memory, cognitive and affective strategies were necessary for language learners. In addition, they revealed that there was a statistically significant difference between the strategy types except one.

Demirel (2012) investigated language learning strategies of university students to determine whether there were any significant differences between the use of strategies in terms of gender and academic achievement. She conducted language learning strategy inventory on 702 university students in Turkey and her study suggested that university students had an average level of language learning strategies and they mostly used composition strategies and they rarely used memory strategies. In addition, she revealed that females took advantage of language strategies more than males and the use of language strategies were directly related to language achievement.

Korkmaz (2013) explored the most and the least frequently used language learning strategies of ELT learners when learning German or French as their third language. The study revealed that while compensation strategies were the most frequently used ones; affective strategies emerged as the least frequently used ones. Furthermore, no positive significant correlation was found between the use of strategies and the learners’ achievement except for the memory strategies used by French learners. Moreover, negative correlation was found between the learners’ affective strategy use and academic success for German learners.

3. The Aim of the Study and Research Questions In international joint missions in military context, there are many military personnel from different nations

with different ages, educational background, language levels and mother tongues. In these missions, it is vital to use accurate and fluent language to accomplish the mission. Otherwise, misunderstanding sometimes results in causalities on the battle field. The personnel in these joint missions demonstrate various language proficiencies while performing their duties. In other words, some personnel are



proficient enough to communicate effectively in English though some others have lower level of language skills. Therefore, this study aims to find out what language learning strategies the military personnel from different nations have used to learn a foreign or second language. Although language learning strategies have been studied in various contexts, it has been rarely researched in military context in international dimension, which makes this study unique. Moreover, the large number of participants from many different nations makes the scope of the study extended and distinguishes it from the current literature. It is believed that the data collected in this study will shed light on the new teaching methods and syllabi which will aim to prepare the military personnel for international joint missions in terms of language proficiency. The following research questions were answered in this study.

1. What strategies were used the most and the least by the participants? 2. How frequently did the participants use language learning strategies? 3. What were the highest and lowest means in terms of subfactors? 4. What was the relationship between mother tongues in terms of learning strategies?

4. Methodology 4.1. Instrument The research was carried out by using the descriptive research model and data were collected by means of the

SILL questionnaire (Strategies Inventory of Language Learning) by Rebecca Oxford (1990). There were six parts and 42 items in the questionnaire. Three- point likert scale ranging from “I agree” to “I disagree” was used to measure the participants’ ideas about the topic. The parts were composed of memory strategies (9 items), cognitive strategies (13 items), compensation strategies (6 items), metacognitive strategies (5 items), affective strategies (5 items) and social strategies (4 items). The questionnaire was conducted on three different locations: NATO Headquarters in Belgium, NATO Headquarters in Spain and a Military Language School in Turkey.

4.2.Participants As for subjects, there were four main groups. The first and second groups were the military personnel from

different nationals who used English as a means of communication and served at NATO headquarters at different positions in Belgium and Spain. The third group was the military personnel from different nationals (Gambian, Jordanian, Azeri and Kyrgyz who could speak English and they were taking professional military education at military facilities in Turkey. The fourth group was the Turkish military personnel who had a certain level of proficiency in English and they were taking English course in Turkey to improve their English level. There are totally 56 subjects from 14 different countries and there were equally four subjects from each nation. Since Gambians knew several tribal mother tongues and they acquired English as official language, English speakers referred to Gambian military personnel in the study. In addition, Arabic native speakers referred to Jordanian military personnel whose mother tongue was Arabic. As for the first and second group, the SILL questionnaire was sent to a mediator at NATO headquarters in Belgium and Spain and it was given to the participants on the volunteering basis. As for the third and fourth group, the questionnaire was administered to the military personnel taking professional and English education (Gambian, Jordanian, Azeri, Kyrgyz and Turkish) in Turkey. In addition, participants were informed about the aim and the content of the questionnaire beforehand.

5. Findings and Results The data collected were analyzed by SPSS and Excel program. Primarily, the data collected were analyzed in

terms of participants’ mother tongues and their choice of language learning strategy while learning English. The means show the frequency of the usage of learning strategy during the learning process. The three items or strategies which were marked at the highest rate by native speakers were presented in Table 1.



Table 1: Three Strategies Which Were Marked At The Highest Rate By Native Speakers

Mother tongues item number-item mean

Arabic

3 I connect sounds with images or pictures of new words 3 6 I use flashcards 3 7 I physically act out new words 3

Azeri

9 I remember the location of the page or blackboard 3

18 I look for similarities between English and native words 3

21 I translate word for word 3

Dutch

8 I review English lessons 3 10 I say or write words several times 3

12 I use known words in different ways 3

English

11 I talk to native speakers 3

13 I watch English movies or news 3 14 I read in English 3

French

1 I establish the relationship between already known and new things 3

2 I use words in sentences 3

4 I connect word with a special situation 3

German

1 I establish the relationship between already known and new things 3

2 I use words in sentences 3

4 I connect word with a special situation 3

Greek

22 I make summaries of information 3

23 I guess the meaning of unknown words 3

28 I use word and phrases which mean the same thing 3

Hungarian

23 I guess the meaning of unknown words 3

25 I make up new words 3

26 I continue to read without looking up every word 3

Kyrgyz

34 I try to relax when I feel afraid of using English 3

35 I encourage myself to speak English 3

36 I reward myself when I do well in English 3

Lithuanian

12 I use known words in different ways 3

13 I watch English movies or news 3

16 I speak in English 3

Polish

39 When I do not understand someone I ask him to slow down and say it again 3

41 I like to practice English with other students 3

42 I like to learn about the culture of English speakers 3

Portuguese

34 I try to relax when I feel afraid of using English 3

35 I encourage myself to speak English 3

36 I reward myself when I do well in English 3

Spanish

31 I try to find how to be a better learner 3 35 I encourage myself to speak English 3 41I like to practice English with other students 3



Arabic speakers

connected sounds with images or pictures of new words, used flashcards and physically acted out new words. As to Azeri speakers, they remembered the location on the page or blackboard, looked for similarities between English and native words and translated word for word. Dutch speakers reviewed English lessons, said or wrote words several times and used known words in different ways. French speakers stated that they established the relationship between already known and new things, used words in sentences and connected word with a special situation. As for English speakers they maintained that they talked to native speakers, watched English movies or news and read in English. Greek subjects marked that they guessed the meaning of unknown words, used words or phrases which mean the same thing and made summaries of information. As to Hungarian speakers they guessed the meaning of unknown words, made up new words and continued to read without looking up every word. Krygyz speakers tried to relax when they felt afraid of using English, encouraged themselves to speak English and rewarded themselves when they did well in English. As for Lithuanian speakers, they preferred to use known words in different ways, watched English movies or news and spoke in English. As for Polish speakers they asked someone to slow down and said again if they did not understand him, liked to practice English with other students and liked to learn about the culture of English speakers. Portuguese speakers cited that they tried to relax when they felt afraid of using English, encouraged themselves to speak English and rewarded themselves when they did well in English. Spanish speakers stated that they tried to how to be better learner, encouraged themselves to speak English and liked to practice English with other students. Finally, Turkish speakers preferred to review English lessons, remembered the location on the page or blackboard and listened in English.

The following table shows the three items or strategies which were marked at the lowest rate by native speakers.

Table 2: Three Strategies Which Were Marked At the Lowest Rate by Native Speakers Mother tongues item number-item mean

Arabic

23 I guess the meaning of unknown words 1 38 I use language learning diary 1 42 I like to learn about the culture of English speakers 1

Azeri

17 I write in English 1,25 4 I connect word with a special situation 1 42 I like to learn about the culture of English speakers 1

Dutch

21 I translate word for word 1

25 I make up new words 1

38 I use language learning diary 1

English

9 I remember the location of the page or blackboard 1 24 I use gestures 1 27 I try to guess what the other person will say next 1

French

24 I use gestures 1 26 I continue to read without looking up every word 1 34 I try to relax when I feel afraid of using English 1

German

32 I plan schedule in a way to have enough time to study English 1,5

37 I notice if I am tense or nervous while studying English 1,5

24 I use gestures 1

Greek 27 I try to guess what the other person will say next 1

Turkish

8 I review English lessons 3

9 I remember the location of the page or blackboard 3 15 I listen in English 3



34I try to relax when I feel afraid of using English 1

37I notice if I am tense or nervous while studying English 1

Hungarian

21I translate word for word 1 34 I try to relax when I feel afraid of using English 1 37 I notice if I am tense or nervous while studying English 1

Kyrgyz

1 I establish the relationship between already known and new things 1,5 19 I focus on structures 1,5 22 I make summaries of information 1,5

Lithuanian

38 I use language learning diary 1 40 I ask English speakers to correct me 1

42 I like to learn about the culture of English speakers 1

Polish

6 I use flashcards 1,75

37 I notice if I am tense or nervous while studying English 1,75

7 I physically act out new words 1,5

Portuguese

21 I translate word for word 1 26 I continue to read without looking up every word 1 37I notice if I am tense or nervous while studying English 1

Spanish

32 I plan schedule in a way to have enough time to study English 1,5 21I translate word for word 1,25 20 I divide English words into parts that I understand 1

Turkish

38 I use language learning diary 1,5 42 I like to learn about the culture of English speakers 1,5

25 I make up new words 1,25 Arabic speakers declared that they guessed the meaning of unknown words, used language learning diary and

liked to learn about the culture of English speakers. As for Azeri speakers, they wrote in English, connected word with a special situation and liked to learn about the culture of English speakers. Dutch speakers translated word for word, made up new words and used language learning diary. French speakers used gestures, continued to read without looking up every word and tried to relax when they felt afraid of using English. English speakers stated that they remembered the location of the page or blackboard, used gestures, tried to guess what the other person would say next. Greek subjects marked that they tried to guess what the other person would say next, tried to relax when they felt afraid of using English and noticed if they were tense or nervous while studying English. As for Hungarian speakers, they translated word for word, continued to read without looking up every word and noticed if they were tense or nervous while studying English. Kyrgyz speakers maintained that they established the relationship between already known and new things, focused on structures and made summaries of information. Lithuanian speakers used language learning diary, asked English speakers to correct themselves, liked to learn about the culture of English speakers. As to Polish speakers, they used flashcards, noticed if they were tense or nervous while studying English and physically acted out new words. Portuguese speakers cited that they translated word for word, continued to read without looking up every word and noticed if they were tense or nervous while studying English. Spanish speakers stated that they planed schedule in a way to have enough time to study English, translated word for word and divided English words into parts that they could understand. Finally, Turkish speakers used language learning diary, liked to learn about the culture of English speakers and made up new words.

The following Table shows the frequency of using learning strategies by native speakers in terms of

all the items in the questionnaire.



Table 3: The Frequency of Using Learning Strategies by Native Speakers

According to the Table, Kyrgyz (2,64), Polish (2,60) and Portuguese (2,55) native speakers got the highest

means in using English learning strategies. On the other hand, Lithuanian (2,14), Azeri (2,20) and Dutch ( 2,30) native speakers were the subjects who used the learning strategies at the lowest rate.

Table 4 displays the mother tongues which had the highest and lowest rates of strategy use in terms subfactors.

Table 4: The Mother Tongues Which Had the Highest And Lowest Means In Terms of Subfactors

Mother Tongues N Minimum Maximum Mean

Std. Deviation

English 42 1,00 3,00 2,44 ,66

Kyrgyz 42 1,50 3,00 2,64 ,49

Arabic 42 1,00 3,00 2,48 ,72

Azeri 42 1,00 3,00 2,20 ,57

German 42 1,00 3,00 2,41 ,56

Dutch 42 1,00 3,00 2,30 ,67

French 42 1,00 3,00 2,46 ,77

Lithuanian 42 1,00 3,00 2,14 ,78

Spanish 42 1,00 3,00 2,45 ,57

Turkish 42 1,25 3,00 2,50 ,51

Greek 42 1,00 3,00 2,48 ,65

Portuguese 42 1,00 3,00 2,55 ,63

Hungarian 42 1,00 3,00 2,48 ,68

Polish 42 1,50 3,00 2,60 ,44

Valid N (Listwise) 42



According to the Table 4, Turkish (2,75), Arabic (2,69), and Portuguese (2,69) speakers had the highest rate in

memory strategies. In this subfactor, Azeri (2,22), English (2,17) and Hungarian (2,11) speakers were the subjects who scored the least of all. In accordance with cognitive strategies, although German (2,60), Polish (2,56) and English (2,54) speakers marked the highest points, Lithuanian (2,38) , French (2,31) and Azeri (2,08) native speakers had the lowest ones. In compensation strategies, Krygyz ( 2,75), Hungarian (2,75) and Polish ( 2,6) subjects preferred to use learning strategies dominantly, but Turkish ( 2,16), Dutch ( 2,12) and English (1,87) speakers used this group of strategies the least. As to metacognitive strategies, English ( 2,95), Kyrgyz ( 2,9) and French (2,9) speakers had the highest means while Spanish (2,3), Azeri (2,1) and Lithuanian (1,65) speakers marked the lowest. Affective strategies were primarily used by Kyrgyz (2,8), Polish (2,6) and Portuguese (2,6) speakers, however Hungarian ( 2,1), Dutch (1,55) and Lithuanian (1,4) speakers preferred to use them at the lowest rate. Finally, English (3,0), Kyrgyz (3,0) and Polish (2,88) speakers got the highest rates in using social strategies. On the other hand, in this group Arabic (2, 50), Azeri (2,0) and Lithuanian (1,56) speakers were at the lowest.

The following Table displays the relationship between mother tongues in terms of learning strategies by means

of Pearson Correlation method. Table 5: The Relationship between Mother Tongues in Terms of Learning Strategies (Pearson Correlation)

PART 1 (memory strategies )

PART 2 (cognitive strategies )

PART 3 ( compensation strategies )

Mot

her T

ong

ues

Fre

quen

cy

Mea

n

Mot

her T

ong

ues

Fre

quen

cy

Mea

n

Mot

her T

ong

ues

Fre

quen

cy

Mea

n

Turkish 4 2,75 German 4 2,60 Kyrgyz 4 2,75

Arabic 4 2,69 Polish 4 2,56 Hungarian 4 2,75

Portuguese 4 2,69 English 4 2,54 Polish 4 2,6

Azeri 4 2,22 Lithuanian 4 2,38 Turkish 4 2,16

English 4 2,17 French 4 2,31 Dutch 4 2,125

Hungarian 4 2,11 Azeri 4 2,08 English 4 1,875

PART 4 ( metacognitive strategies )

PART 5 ( affective strategies )

PART 6 ( social strategies )

Mot

her T

ong

ues

Fre

quen

cy

Mea

n

Mot

her T

ong

ues

Fre

quen

cy

Mea

n

Mot

her T

ong

ues

Fre

quen

cy

Mea

n

English 4 2,95 Kyrgyz 4 2,85 English 4 3,00

Kyrgyz 4 2,9 Polish 4 2,65 Kyrgyz 4 3,00

French 4 2,9 Portuguese 4 2,6 Polish 4 2,88

Spanish 4 2,3 Hungarian 4 2,1 Arabic 4 2,50

Azeri 4 2,1 Dutch 4 1,55 Azeri 4 2,00

Lithuanian 4 1,65 Lithuanian 4 1,4 Lithuanian 4 1,56



Mother Tongues

En

gli

sh

Ky

rgy

z

Ara

bic

Az

eri

Ger

ma

n

Du

tch

Fre

nch

Lit

hu

ania

n

Sp

an

ish

Tu

rkis

h

Gre

ek

Po

rtu

gu

ese

Hu

ng

ari

an

Po

lish

English

1

-,37

,60 ,12 ,25 ,31 ,62 ,17

-,26

,30

-,23

,44 ,28 ,87

Kyrgyz -,37

1

-,68

-,85

-,44

-,74

-,71

-,21

-,07

,38

-,32

-,77

-,69

-,74

Arabic

,60

-,68

1 ,51 ,19 ,90 ,96 ,67 ,00 ,16 ,31 ,24 ,36 ,70

Azeri

,12

-,85

,51 1 ,75 ,51 ,61 ,42 ,54

-,73

,67 ,74 ,37 ,46

German

,25

-,44

,19 ,75 1

-,02

,36 ,40 ,69

-,75

,54 ,69

-,09

,35

Dutch

,31

-,74

,90 ,51

-,02

1 ,81 ,51

-,11

,13 ,28 ,17 ,48 ,55

French

,62

-,71

,96 ,61 ,36 ,81 1 ,67 ,20

-,03

,47 ,38 ,42 ,70

Lithuanian

,17

-,21

,67 ,42 ,40 ,51 ,67 1 ,52

-,06

,64

-,11

-,31

,13

Spanish -,26

-,07

,00 ,54 ,69

-,11

,20 ,52 1

-,77

,90 ,18

-,20

-,26

Turkish

,30 ,38 ,16

-,73

-,75

,13

-,03

-,06

-,77

1

-,67

-,61

-,14

,07

Greek -,23

-,32

,31 ,67 ,54 ,28 ,47 ,64 ,90

-,67

1 ,17 ,05

-,14

Portuguese ,44

-,,24 ,74 ,69 ,17 ,38

-,,18

-,,17 1 ,56 ,69



77

11

61

Hungarian

,28

-,69

,36 ,37

-,09

,48 ,42

-,31

-,20

-,14

,05 ,56 1 ,52

Polish

,87

-,74

,70 ,46 ,35 ,55 ,70 ,13

-,26

,07

-,14

,69 ,52 1

According to Table 5, there were three main levels of correlation as follows: 0-0,3 (low correlation), 0,3-0,7

(medium correlation), 0.7-1 ( high correlation). In accordance with the scale, there was high correlation between English and Polish native speakers in using learning strategies, however, no correlation was found between English and Kyrgyz, and Lithuanian, Spanish, Greek native speakers. As of Kyrgyz native speakers, there was nearly no correlation between Kyrgyz and other language speakers. Arabic native speakers had high correlation with Dutch, French and Polish native speakers but no correlation with Kyrgyz native speakers. Azeri native speakers marked that they had high correlation with German and Portuguese native speakers, but no correlation with Kyrgyz and Turkish native speakers. Dutch native speakers stated that they had high correlation with Arabic and French native speakers, however no correlation with Kyrgyz, German and Spanish native speakers. French native speakers had high correlation with Arabic, Dutch and Polish native speakers, but no correlation with Kyrgyz and Turkish native speakers. Lithuanian native speakers had medium correlation with Arabic, Azeri, German, Dutch, French, Spanish and Greek native speakers, however no correlation with Kyrgyz, Turkish, Portuguese and Hungarian native speakers. As of Spanish native speakers, they marked high correlation with Greek native speakers, however no correlation with English, Kyrgyz, Dutch, Turkish, Hungarian and Polish native speakers. Turkish native speakers stated medium correlation with English and Kyrgyz native speakers but no correlation with Azeri, German, French, Lithuanian, Spanish, Greek, Portuguese and Hungarian native speakers. Greek native speakers maintained high correlation with Spanish native speakers but no correlation with English, Kyrgyz, Turkish and Polish native speakers. Portuguese native speakers displayed high correlation with Azeri native speakers, however no correlation with Kyrgyz, Lithuanian and Turkish native speakers. As for Hungarian native speakers, they had medium correlation with Arabic, Azeri, Dutch, French, Portuguese and Polish native speakers but no correlation with Kyrgyz, German, Lithuanian, Spanish and Turkish native speakers. Finally Polish native speakers stated high correlation with English, Arabic and French native speakers, however no correlation with Kyrgyz, Spanish and Greek native speakers in using language learning strategies.

6. Discussion and Conclusion A human being is quite different from others in many aspects, so his\her learning strategies are naturally

diversified from one nation to the others. This study proves that a native speaker of a language more or less uses learning strategies to be a successful language user. However, it is not true to state a nat ive speaker of a language is much better than the others at using learning strategies in every aspect.

According to the results of the present study, while Kyrgyz, Polish and Portuguese speakers are the groups that use the learning strategies the most, Lithuanian, Azeri and Dutch speakers prefer to benefit from the strategies the least. In addition, it is understood that as of memory strategies Turkish speakers, as for cognitive strategies German speakers, as of compensation and affective strategies Kyrgyz speakers, as for metacognitive and social strategies English speakers are the best users of the relevant strategies. In accordance with the correlation between the languages, high level of correlation is determined between the following languages: English with Polish native speakers; Arabic with Dutch, French and Polish speakers; Azeri with German and Portuguese speakers; Dutch with Arabic and French speakers; French with Arabic, Dutch and Polish speakers; Spanish speakers with Greek speakers; Portuguese with Azeri



speakers and finally Polish with English, Arabic and French speakers. On the other hand, there is no correlation between Kyrgyz and other language speakers. Since the scarcity of the studies on language learning strategies in military context, the comparison of the findings of this study and the current literature cannot be stated.

Furthermore, it can be understood from the study, the data collected gives some clues about the ways of learning foreign languages of different nationals. For example, Arabic speakers like to act out new words, remember the location of the page and look for the similarities between English and native words. On the other hand, they do not like to learn about the culture of target language, do not like to write in English, and do not like to connect word with a special situation. Therefore, these characteristics should be taken into consideration while designing a syllabus and developing materials to prepare native speakers for international joint missions in terms of language proficiency.

It does not imply that the more a speaker or learner uses language learning strategies, the more he\she is successful in communicating in English. Reminding that language learning is a social, behavioral and mental process, becoming a good user of language learning strategies helps to spend less time, effort and money to be a successful communicator in the target language.

7. Suggestions for Further Studies This study focused on the differences and similarities of English learning strategies of some nationals in

military context. However, it did not explain the reasons for the differences and similarities in the use of language learning strategies. Whether the reasons for the differences and similarities in learning strategies resulted from culture or other factors it would be the focus of another study in the same or a various context.

REFERENCES Allwright, D., (1990). Autonomy in language pedagogy. Centre for Research in Education, University of

Lancaster, U.K. Dreyer, C. & Oxford, R., (1996). Learning strategies and other predictors of ESL proficiency among Afrikaans-

speakers in South Africa. In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-cultural Perspectives (pp. 61-74). Manoa

Çakmak, E. (2010). Learning strategies and motivational factors predicting information literacy self-efficacy of e-learners. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology 26(2), 192-208.

Demirel, M. (2012). Language Learning Strategies of Undergradute Students. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 43. 141-153

Faerch, C. & G. Kasper. (1983). Strategies in interlanguage communication. London: Longman Little, D. (1991). Learner autonomy: Definitions, issues, and problems. Dublin: Authentik. Korkmaz, Ş. (2013). Third Language Learning Strategies of ELT Learners Studying either German or French.

Hacettepe University, Journal of Education 28(1), 92-104 O'Malley, J.M. & Chamot, A.U. (1990). Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press. Oxford, R.L. (1990). Language learning strategies. USA: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Oxford, R.L. (1996). Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives. Manoa: University of

Hawaii Press. Oxford, R.L., Judd, C., & Giesen, J., (1998). Relationships among learning strategies, learning styles, EFL proficiency,

and academic performance among secondary school students in Turkey. Unpublished manuscript, University of Alabama, Tuscaloosa, Alabama, USA.

Reiss, M.A. (1985). The good language learners: Another look. Canadian Modern Language Review, 41, 511-23. Richards, J. & J. Platt. (1992). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. Essex: Longman. Stern, H.H. (1992). Issues and options in language teaching. Oxford: OUP. Ünal, D., Ayırır, İ., Arıoğul, S. (2011). The Use of Foreign Language Learning Strategies by University Students

Learning English, German and French. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 41. 473-484 Wenden, A. & J. Rubin. (1987). Learner strategies in language learning. New Jersey: Prentice Hall.



Williams, M. & R.L. Burden. (1997). Psychology for language teachers: A social constructivist approach. Cambridge: CUP.

THE EFFECT OF DOCUMENTARY SUBTITLES ON LISTENING

COMPREHENSION OF IRANINAN EFL LEARNERS AT INTERMEDIATE LEVEL

Behzad Barekat Associate Professor, University of Guilan

Parisa Farrokhian

M.A. in TEFL, University of Guilan (Pardis Campus) [email protected]

ABSTRACT This paper is an attempt to find out whether subtitles have any positive effect on listening comprehension of Iranian EFL learners, and if yes, which of the two English and Persian subtitles have more significant effect on learners. The participants were 90 intermediate students who were selected from 135 freshman English translation students of Tonekabon Islamic Azad University via applying an oxford placement test (opt) and then randomly divided into three groups, two experimental, one control. The data from the English and Persian subtitled documentaries were measured by paired sample t-test to prove which group outperforms better than the other; in addition, data gathered from post listening test among three groups were calculated by one-way ANOVAs to demonstrate whether subtitled documentaries have any effect on listening comprehension of students or not. The overall results showed that while neither of the two English and Persian subtitle groups had significant difference with the each other considering the effect of subtitles, both of them showed significantly higher scores in their listening post-test, when compared to the control group after treatment. KEY WORDS: documentaries, English subtitles, Persian subtitles, EFL learners, listening comprehension 1. Introduction Among the four major areas of communication skills and language development namely listening, speaking,

reading, and writing the most basic one is listening (Arosenius, 2011). Moreover, listening ability plays a significant role in the development of other language skills, i.e. "Listening comprehension is currently considered the most prominent aspect of language, as it is believed to facilitate the other language skill;



reading, writing and speaking" (Vandergift, 2011, p.455). According to Hawatt and Dakin (1974), listening is the ability to identify and understand what others are saying. This ability involves the knowledge of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary, and grasping meaning. This would be research intends to deal with the effect of movie subtitles on listening comprehension ability of Iranian EFL Learners. To be exact, this study is going to find out whether subtitles have any significant effect on enhancing listening skill ability. It will further compare the Persian and English subtitle to see if there is any difference between their effects on students’ listening comprehension ability.

The main issue represented in this study is the effects of documentary's subtitled movie on learners’ listening comprehension. It should be noted that multimedia devices are the most modern strategies of teaching listening skill. Listening is one of the most important skills which engages teaching of grammatical points, correct structures, and also correct pronunciation to the EFL learners.

According to Richards and Gordon (2004, p. 2) videos, as medium, enable learners to use visual information to enhance their comprehension (cited in Hayati & Mohmedi, 2011). In another study, Haghverdi and Vaezi (2012) claimed that Movies with subtitles are one of the effective tools in English language teaching and learning. Al-seghager (2001) reported that written text in multimedia class including video and subtitle more develop learners' vocabulary knowledge bound than teaching by pictures and passage. This idea intends to shed light on the effectiveness of multimedia subtitles on listening comprehension ability.

Markham (1999) referred to the effects of subtitles on listening comprehension ability. He considered both positive and negative aspects of subtitles. Its positive side was similar to the above mentioned studies in which experimental group outperformed the control group in recognizing more words, understanding better the meaning of dialogues. The negative point of subtitled movie in his study was the performance of the captioned group which was more due to the memorization rather than listening comprehension (cited in Latifi, Mobalegh & Mohammadi, 2011). Moreover, Mac William (1986; cited in Wagner, 2007) stated that visible features of subtitled movie draw students’ attention away from the grasp of audio meaning and it may actually disrupt their apprehension.

According to Bird and Williams (2002) and Danan (2004) captions promote language learning in learners as they watch what they hear , while particular information of the movies may be beyond the learners' linguistic knowledge or aptitude. Captions can enhance language comprehension by providing an easy approach for cognitive processes. Parks (1994) reported that " students using captioned materials show significant improvement in reading comprehension, listening comprehension, vocabulary acquisition, word recognition, decoding skills, and overall motivation to read" ( Cited in Zanon, 2006, p. 43)

In contrast, in other study Danan (2012) stated that, “Subtitles are most commonly viewed as distracting: they accused of encouraging viewers to rely on the written text, taking attention away from the actual spoken language, and even fostering a form of laziness bordering on cheating” (Danan, 2012, p. 67). Therefore, many researchers debated on the positive and negative effects of subtitles. Taking all of the above mentioned controversial results into account, in the present study it was attempted to examine the effects of using subtitle on listening comprehension of intermediate Iranian EFL students in a new context.

2. Review of literature Since in this study it is attempted to measure the ability of listening comprehension, the first and the major

point is answering to the question: what is listening comprehension? Some researchers’, such as Rost (1990); Brown (1995); Anderson and Lynch (1988), had recommended their agreement concerning about listening comprehension definition, describing listening comprehension respectively as an ‘interpretation’ rather than ‘comprehension’, or ‘shared mutual beliefs’ rather than ‘shared mutual knowledge’, and the last term defined listening comprehension on the act of ‘active model builders’ instead of ‘tape recorders’ (Cited in Barta, 2010, p. 62).

Graves (2000) states that, it is important for a teacher in designing a course, to choose materials, and activities in a way that students can reach the objectives that will help them achieve the purposes of the course (Graves, 2000). Considering the fact that, most of the EFL students do not use English in their



daily-life; teachers can utilize modern technology to help them become familiar with various aspects of native speakers’ life; including, culture, structure, pronunciation, and so on. “Good various materials will help boost students’ enthusiasm and motivation to learn” (Soong, 2012, p. 132).

According to harmer (2007) there are some stages in using listening materials for students. First of all, teachers should create motivation and make encouragement for learners expanding the listening activity through using TVs, internet, CDs, tapes, and so on. Second, before starting those activities, it is better to activate some background knowledge relevant the content of the listening task; it can help learners to pick up the key words while listening. The last stage is about ‘intention and impression’ which can be made by background knowledge, standardizing or classifying the control level of video tape, and also using motivating subjects for teaching to the students (Cited in Sulistyowati, 2011).

In many studies, researchers came to this conclusion that Iranian students have problems in communication to the target language (EFL). According to Harji, Woods, and Alavi (2010), while Iranian students’ aim is learning English as a foreign language, they are faced with various problems in their own life such as listening comprehension, or the proper usage of function words because of being in a foreign situation and not being able to use English in their daily life. As a result, students couldn’t have an adequate apprehension of the function of words and comprehension of speech meaning. They suggested that it is better to investigate a new method which is surrounded by an authentic or real life situation while teaching in the classroom, as it helps the learners to make a better perception of the target structure format while communicating, and since their curriculum is based on grammar, vocabulary, and reading , it limits their communication.

Baltova (1994) reported about the consequence of authentic video which is shown the different aspects of real life by visualize type, but he mentioned that this equipped lonely could not make enough comprehension into learners. As a result, subtitled video was used for enhancing comprehension of all information related to video texts (cited in Sydorenko, 2010).

Soong (2012) conducted a study about the tolerance of watching documentary movies among students in various groups. He refers to confidence and motivation of native English speakers watching longest documentary movie between 15-20 minutes, but non-native speaker with less confidence or even lack of background information chose shortest documentary movies less than 5 minutes. The result of his study provided answers to the question of what the major handicaps in understanding a documentary film are. He mentioned three main factors relating to this weakness based on the students’ responses. 68 students out of 129 (52.5%) admitted that they suffer from listening comprehension which is needs further practice by listening to the video or soundtracks. While, other 49 (38.2%) and 8 (6.2%) students respectively believed that their problem in failure of understanding is lack of vocabulary knowledge and poor background knowledge which impeded their listening comprehension (soong, 2012).

Garza (1991) stated that subtitling has advantages in teaching language because of it develops the learning process through linking auditory to visual input While, in contrast, Mayer, Heiser, and Lonn (2001; cited in Sydorenko, 2010) confirmed that learners who watched written text of speakers' dialogue on the screen outperformed those who watched the videos with the language of subtitle being different from the language of the speakers. In other words, they confirmed that the learners who watched the video and listened to the dialogue of speaker in L2 (target language) with the L2 subtitle be refitted more than those learners who watched video by captions as in three modalities, with the subtitle being in a different language. Therefore, they believed that captions make distraction because of their similar given information which can be named ' redundancy principal'.

There are three other major clues of documentary films, which are mentioned by Stemplesk and Tomalin (1990); in other words, these are important and fundamental clues to choose an appropriate and standard documentary film to be displayed in the classrooms. These three elements are interest, length, and language level. One of the most important criteria for the selections of movies is the range of measuring enthusiasm and attraction of documentary film for learners; also, considering interesting content could create motivation in learners to listen carefully to speakers’ dialogue. As for the length, researchers confirm no more than five minutes in length for the completion of activities in English language classrooms. Finally, the last factor is language level, which is not a crucial criterion for



different language levels, particularly low levels, who struggle to grasp the meaning from key words of texts. It should be mentioned that, researchers prefer to use this documentary films at the intermediate or upper-intermediate level.

3. Method This part presents the results of the current study. The multi-faceted nature of the hypotheses of the study

necessitated the researcher to apply both descriptive and inferential methods of statistics in order to sort, display and describe the data on the one hand, and to interpret the data on the other.

Thus, in this section first, a descriptive analysis of the data for each hypothesis has been presented; then, the inferential analysis of the data has been given using Tables and figures. The descriptive statistics for all hypotheses consisted of the mean, standard deviation and the standard error of measurement. Similarly, the inferential analysis of the data in this study consisted of calculating the paired-sample t value between the pretest and the posttest of English and Persian subtitles, and one-way ANOVA between three groups of the present study treatment tests score, and finally an ANOVA will be conducted to compare the means of the three posttests.

Furthermore, it should be mentioned the goal of this statistical part which are being to answer the questions of the current study. Questions are designed as follows:

RQ1: Do documentary subtitles have any positive effect on listening comprehension of Iranian EFL learners at intermediate level?

RQ2: Considering to the positive effect of subtitle, which of the two subtitles, English or Persian, has more significantly positive effect on Iranian EFL learners at intermediate level?

In the present study two placement test set was conducted as a measure of general knowledge of students and listening comprehension ability of the participants. First of all, the result of Oxford Placement Test (OPT) which was administered to 135 students with different proficiency levels. In this case, students' scores should be between 28 -35 for being acceptable in the intermediate level of proficiency; therefore, 112 students (86.7 % out of 100%) with the mean of 31.79 were shown to be at the intermediate level in the first general placement test. Reliability of OPT test which consisted of 60 items in the range of 2 8_35 was close to the maximum correlation of test (+1) with a reliability of 0.872.

The result of the second placement test to homogenize groups on the basis of their listening comprehension ability indicated that out of 112 students, 90 homogeneous students were accepted for participating in the current study. To put it more specifically, considering the score range of 16_24, 90 students (80.4 %) passed this test and 22 students (19.6%) failed. In this case, it should be mentioned that after taking listening IELTS test as a placement test and selecting the 90 intermediate students based on their listening comprehension ability they were randomly divided into three groups.

The Table (3.1) shows the descriptive statistics for the pre-listening test of ESG and PSG. The table reveals that the mean score of ESG group is 15.10 (x = 15.10) and the mean of is 13.97 (x= 13.97), respectively. English subtitled group obtained score in the range of 12 to 18 and Persian subtitled group obtained score in the

Table 3.1 descriptive table of ESG and PSG pre-listening test score

N Range Minimum

Maximum

Mean Std. Deviation

Variance

Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Statistic Std. Error

Statistic Statistic

Pre Es 30 6 12 18 15.10 .226 1.241 1.541

Pre Ps 30 7 10 17 13.97 .282 1.542 2.378

Valid N (listwise)

30



range of 10 to 17 point. Each group had 30 participants. This test was used to compare students’ listening comprehension ability before treatment which is explained more in the following tables of this section.

3.2 Results of hypothesis 3.2.1 Results of the First Hypothesis (H1) The first hypothesis of this study targeted the listening comprehension of Iranian EFL learners as a result of

documentary English subtitles. The descriptive analysis of the data for this hypothesis is summarized in Table 3.2.1 below:

Table 3.2.1 pair sample of pre and post listening test of ESG (English subtitled group)

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pair 1 Pre ES1 15.1000 30 1.24152 .22667

Post ES 2 16.0333 30 2.10882 .38502

As Table 4.8.1 indicates, the mean of the ES (English subtitle) group in pretest is 15.1000 ( =15.1000) while the

mean of the ES (English subtitle) group in the posttest is 16.0333 ( =16.0333). The following table reveals paired differences of pre and post listening test base on correlation coefficient with 95 % or alpha less than 0/05.

3.3 Inferential analysis data of English subtitle Group

Table 3.3.1 pair differences between pre and post listening test of ESG (English subtitled group)

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Std.

Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1

Pre ES –

post ES -.93333 2.51798 .45972 -1.87356 .00690 -2.030 29 .052

Table (3.3.1) rejects the assumption of this study related to the effect of English subtitle movie on improvement

of listening comprehension of ESG after treatment. In light of this, there was no significant difference before and after treatment; meanwhile, the significance of difference between pre and post listening test of English subtitled group base on the alpha level of 0.05 is p ≥ 0.52. Although it is not much higher than alpha 0.05, it cannot prove the positive influence of English subtitled movie on enhancing the listening comprehension ability of students. Accordingly, our first null hypothesis is rejected.

3.4 Results of the Second Hypothesis (H2) The second hypothesis of this study targeted the listening comprehension of Iranian EFL learners as a result of

documentary Persian subtitles. The descriptive and inferential analysis of the data for this hypothesis is summarized below:

3.4.1Paired Samples Statistics

Table 3.4.1 pair sample of pre and post listening test for PSG (Persian subtitled group)

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean



Pair 1 Pre PS 13.97 30 1.542 .282

Post PS 14.20 30 1.031 .188

According to table 3.4.1 the mean score of pre listening test for Persian group is 13.97 and the mean for post

listening test is 14.20. This was evaluated for 30 participants and the range of score was out of 20.

Table 3.4.2 pair difference between pre and post listening test of PSG ( Persian subtitled group)

Paired Differences t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1

Pre PS – post PS

-.233 1.501 .274 -.794 .327 -.851 29 .402

The mean of the Ps (Persian subtitle) group in pretest is 13.97( =13.97) while the mean of the Ps (Persian

subtitle) group in the posttest is 14.20 ( =14.20). The mentioned tables (paired sample test) were used to demonstrate the effect of independent variables (subtitled groups) before and after of treatment. Although there is a significance relationship between test items of pre and post listening test, there is not a significance difference between students’ scores before and after treatment as the p-value is greater than our assumed alpha level (p>.402) The relationship between pre and post listening test was described by the observed t of -.851 which is less than critical t (2.04) (tcrit=2.045 with the level of significance of 0.05 and degree of freedom of 29 df=29).

In this case, the results of paired sample t-test separately between two experimental groups showed that there is not a significance difference between them. Therefore, the first and second hypothesis of the current study rejected by type I error. The treatment of this study had no positive effect on listening comprehension ability of experimental group. With respect to the time of treatment, this study failed to prove which experimental groups performed better than the other one in listening comprehension.

3.5 Results of the Third Hypothesis (H3) The third hypothesis included comparison of the three participant groups. To this end, One-way ANOVA was

run through SPSS software to compare the means of the control, English subtitle and Persian subtitle groups of the study.

3.5.1. Descriptive Statistics for the groups of the study

Table 3.5.1. descriptive statistic table among experimental and control group

Groups

N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error

95% Confidence Interval for Mean

Minimum Maximum

Lower Bound Upper Bound

ES 30 16.03 2.109 .385 15.25 16.82 13 20



PS 30 14.20 1.031 .188 13.82 14.58 12 16

CG 30 12.03 1.129 .206 11.61 12.45 10 14

Table 3.5.2 the results of one-way ANOVA for the experimental and control groups' differences

According to table (3.5.2) the F- value is 53.166 which is significantly higher than the criteria 1 (much higher than critical F value 3.10), this shows that the means of the three participating groups are different and the significance level is less than 0.05 which indicates that the difference is not by chance rather because of the effect of the variable of the study. Furthermore, the mean score of English and Persian subtitled group is much higher than CG (Control Group). The range of score in experimental groups are respectively lower and upper bound of ES (15.25- 16.82), PS (13.82- 14.58), and CG (11.61- 12.45) with correlation confidence of α ≤ .05.

Means Plots

Figure 3.1 mean of post listening upper bound confidence for three groups

Figure (3.1) displays the upper bound of confidence interval of mean with the significant level of 0.05 for the

three groups namely, ESG, PSG, and CTRL group.

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

ESG

PSG

CG

listening mean (upper bound)

Descriptive

Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig.

Between groups 240.578 2 120.289 53.166 .000

Within groups 196.838 87 2.263

total 437.416 89



3.6 Result of Study's Question The present study was based measured on qualitative and quantitative research. To answer the research

questions of this study data was measured by two types of statistical method: paired sample T-test and One-way ANOVA.

3.6.1 Research question 1: Do documentary movies' subtitle has positive effect on listening comprehension of

EFL Iranian intermediate students? While students going to learn foreign language, students should cover target language under four skill of

language such as: listening, reading, speaking, writing. Listening skill is one of major skill (vandergift, 2011) whose students can learn it by various sort of teaching methods. The present study, investigate how does it can be improved while using documentary movies with subtitle to students. also, considering its improvement or its positive effect, this study focus on which of two subtitle, English or Persian, has more effect on listening comprehension of EFL intermediate students.

To answer the first question that was mainly about the effect of documentary subtitled videos on EFL learners' listening comprehension measured data by One-way ANOVA about the ability of listening comprehension of EFL learners toward utilizing documentary subtitled videos. In this case, while–listening test consider to documentary videos whether subtitled videos or non-subtitled videos were watched by three groups. After the 8 sessions of treatment, post-listening test was calculated with ANOVA. This method concerned to calculate comparison results between groups and within groups. The result of data analysis based on ANOVA was revealed that subtitled group had better outperform than control group without any treatment.

3.6.2 Research Question 2: considering the positive effect of subtitle, which subtitle whether English or Persian

has the more significant effect on listening comprehension of EFL Iranian intermediate students? The statistical method measured for the second question was paired sample T- test the analysis of data

answered to the question which type of subtitle 'Persian or English' has more effect on EFL learners' listening comprehension ability. The gathered data of pre and post listening test of both experimental groups (ESG and PSG) was compared to each other. The results revealed no significant difference between two groups. Although there is the positive effect of subtitle with regards to the result of first research question, two experimental groups in comparison related to second question had not significantly differentiated with each other before and after listening test. Both of their alpha level were p≤ .05; meanwhile, during the time of this study's treatment students had not significant different between their pre-listening and post-listening test.

As it was mentioned in the review of literature, most of the existing study in literature related to teac hing listening skill by subtitles confirmed that one of the facilitating instrument to enhance EFL/ESL subtitled movie. Their investigation determined the positive effect of subtitled group rather than just audio or visual audio. The data analysis of the first question in this stage showed the same positive results concern to subtitled groups toward control group without subtitle; but, the second question's data revealed no significant difference among the subtitled groups in this study.

4. Conclusion Based on the finding of this study, the use of documentary subtitled movies has positively effect on the

listening comprehension ability of EFL learners. Therefore, with respect to the result of finding, instructors could use this method base on the fruitful effect of this investigation. Movies as a multimedia instrument in teaching listening make students more attribution and motivation to learn listening skill. Students have more concentration while speakers are talking regard their action, gestures, facia l expressions, and information by written text on screen. Although there are various types of movies, the documentary movie with its Standard English language and its standard's rate speed speech which could be more useful for teaching listening skill to students than other interesting movies which might be distract students from their main purpose of learning. “Multimedia applied in teaching can create a



relaxing and non-threatening learning environment in which learners’ motivation and self-esteem can be promoted and learners’ anxiety can be reduced” (Warschauer, 1997, p. 478; cited in Fang, 2010: 10). For language teachers, a set of pedagogical implications can be drawn based on the results of the study. As the findings demonstrated, the freshman university students improve more in their listening comprehension ability by using subtitled movie in their oral interpretation course.

Multimedia teaching plays an essential role with students' anxiety and leads to increase that, and heightens the importance of "interaction" between teachers and students. Students can access massive information with the help of multimedia application and also they are more attracted to learning. Moreover, Brown (2006) mentioned that “listening must be done in real time; there is no second chance, unless, of courses the listeners specifically ask for repetition” (p. 3). In this issue, depends on the results of this study, written text of movie with the same of its oral language more facilitates students to decrease information that they could miss them. Additionally, students' anxiety will be reduced even if they are not able to understand a word or phrase which they are not familiar depend on their knowledge, they will find them in subtitles frequently and simultaneously without miss information, therefore they focus more on listening.

In sum up, it should be noted that, subtitles give more motivations to focus on context of movies consider to L2 written text that students could link between oral pronunciation and written form of word. Moreover, the same oral language of movie and written text facilitate to enhance leaners' listening comprehension ability. Another point which should be considered in using movies for teaching listening is the length of the movie to be appropriate for learners' tolerance in class. According to the studies existing in current study, educational movies should be shown around 3- 6 minutes; in other words, the less educational movies length is presented, the more students' listening comprehension is expected. Soong (2012) further suggested that, “if a film is too long and too difficult for EFL students, they won’t show any interest in it” (p. 132), therefore these kinds of films are not suitable to be used in teaching a foreign language. Documentary movies expected to be one of the most appropriate types of movies regard to teaching listening comprehension to students. Overall, from results I would suggest that teachers use subtitled movies permanently in their oral course, so that they can gain hopefully more and effective outcomes in order to teach listening comprehension.

BIBLIOGRAPHY Al-Seghayer, K. (2001). The effect of multimedia annotation modes on L2 vocabulary acquisition: A

comparative study. Language Learning and Technology. V 1, 202-232. Arosenius, D. (n.d.). (2011). A study on the impact of visual cues in listening comprehension on Swedish

learners of English (Master’s thesis).University of Gothenburg, Department of Languages and Literatures English at the University of Sussex. Retrieved from HYPERLINK http://gupea.ub.gu.se/bitstream/2077/26200/1/gupea_2077_26200_1.pdf

Barta, É. (2010). Test takers' listening comprehension sub-skills and strategies. WoPaLP, 4, 59-85. Bird , S. A., & Williams, J. N. (2002). The effect of bimodal input on implicit and explicit memory: An

investigation into the benefits of within-language subtitling. Applied Psycholinguistics, In Press, 23(4), 509-533

Brown, S. (2006). Teaching listening. New York: Cambridge University Press. Danan, M. (2004). Captioning and subtitling: undervalued language learning strategies. Meta: Translators'

Journal, 49(1), 67-77. Fang, L. (2010). Using multimedia to motivate EFL students' interest in English language learning Garza, T. (1991). Evaluating the use of captioned video material in advanced foreign language learning. Foreign

Language Annals, 24(3), 239-258. Graves, Kathleen. 2000. Designing Language Courses: A Guide for Teachers. Boston: Heinle and Heinle Publishers. Haghverd, H. R., & Vaezi, M. N. (2012).The impact of english and persian movie subtitle on the listening

comprehension of iranian EFL learner. Islamic Azad University Khorasgan (Isfahan) Branch.retrived from march 8, 2012 from HYPERLINK http://conference.khuisf.ac.ir/DorsaPax/userfiles/file/pazhohesh/zaban%2087/1.pdf



Harji, M. B., Woods, P. C., & Kamal Alavi, Z. (2010). The effect of viewing subtitled videos on vocabulary learning. Journal of College Teaching & Learning, 7(9), 37-42.

Hayati, A., & Mohmedi, F. (2011). The effect of films with and without subtitles on listening comprehension of EFL learners. British Journal of Educational Technology, 42 (1), 181–192.

Howatt, A. and J. Dakin. (1974). Language laboratory materials, ed. J. P. B. Allen, S. P. B. Allen, and S. P. Corder.

Latifi, M., Mobalegh, A., & Mohammadi, E. (2011). Movie subtitles and the improvement of listening comprehension ability: Does it help? The Journal of Language Teaching and Learning ,1 (2), 18‐29.

Soong, D. (2012). Using documentary films in oral interpretation class what is the appropriate length? International Journal of Applied Linguistics & English Literature, 1(6), 131-141.

Stemplesk, S., & Tomalin, B. (1990). Video in action: Recipes for using video in language teaching. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Sulistyowati, T. (2011). The impact of teaching listening comprehension by audio video and audio picture aids on the third semester students' listening proficiencies of English education department students of Muria Kudus Uuniversity in the academic year 2009/2010. 1-21.

Sydorenko, T. (2010). Modality of input and vocabulary aquisition. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 50-73.

Vandergrift, L. (2011). Second language listening: presage, process, product and pedagogy. In: Hinkel, E. (ed.) Handbook of research in second language teaching and learning . 2nd ed. New York: Routledge. p.455-471.

Wagner, E. (2007). Are they watching? test-taker viewing behavior during an L2 video listening test. Language Learning & Technology , 11 (1), 67-86.

Zanon, N. T. (2006). Using subtitles to enhance foreign language learning. Porta Linguarum, 6, 41-52.



RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN COLLABORATION AND TEACHER SELF-REGULATION DEVELOPMENT

A STUDY OF IRANIAN PRE-SERVICE TEACHERS

Amir Kaviani Associate Professor in Applied Linguistics Department of English and Writing Studies

Zayed University, Dubai [email protected]

Hamed Ghaemi Assistant Professor in TEFL

Islamic Azad University, Gonabad Branch, Gonabad, Iran

[email protected]

ABSTRACT This study investigated the relationship between collaboration among pre-service teacher trainees and their self-regulation in dealing with common problems in the language classroom. Twenty pre-service teacher trainees worked on various collaborative tasks such as Learning Together (LT), Student-Team-Achievement-Divisions (STAD), Group Investigation (GI), and Teams-Assisted Individualization (TAI) to develop strategies to handle challenges in the areas of language teaching and classroom management. Initially, the participants were given a Teacher Self-Regulation Scale (TSRS) Questionnaire and were also interviewed to discover the extent to which they engaged in self-regulation. Eventually, after 10 sessions, the TSRS Questionnaire was again employed to find out if there has been any change(s) in their self-regulation. In addition, when the trainees started to teach in their real classes, they were asked to keep a diary during their first two months of teaching to record their daily teaching difficulties and to suggest if and how they were able to draw on their collaborative experience during their teacher training course. The analysis of data reveals that the collaborative experience had a substantially positive effect on the trainees' self-regulation as it helped them develop a more positive attitude towards teaching, experience less anxiety and feel more motivated to help their students learn the language. The data also indicates that the trainees were able to largely utilize the knowledge shared during their collaboration with other trainees and could, as a result, improve their teaching practice.



KEYWORDS: Collaboration, Learning Together, Student-Team-Achievement-Divisions, Group Investigation, and Teams-Assisted Individualization, self-regulation, pre-service teachers.

Introduction Collaborative learning is one of the most pedagogically significant areas of research and practice in education.

Collaborative learning happens in the situations when students work together to accomplish shared learning goals (Johnson & Johnson, 1999). Each student can achieve his or her learning goal if and only if the other group members achieve theirs (Deutsch, 1962). Over the past decades, collaborative learning has become an extensively utilized instructional tool in primary schools through graduate school levels, in all fields of studies, in all aspects of teaching and learning, in modern and traditional learning situations, and even in after-school programs. Collaborative learning is widely used in teacher preparation programs, pre-service professional development, and practitioner publications. The use of collaborative learning saturates education in the way that it is hard to find books on inst ructional methods, or instructional materials that do not name and use it.

On the other hand, self-regulation is defined as "self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are planned and adapted to the attainment of personal goals" (Zimmerman, 2000). It encompasses "cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral elements that provide the people with the capacity to adjust their actions and goals to achieve desired results in light of changing environmental conditions" (Zeidner, et al 2000, Dörnyei, 2005). According to Pintrich, self-regulation includes three types of strategies: (a) cognitive learning strategies, (b) metacognitive or self-regulatory strategies to control cognition, and (c) resource management strategies (Pintrich 1999, pp.459-470.). Cognitive and metacognitive strategies include rehearsal, elaboration, and organizational strategies as well as self-regulation.

It should be emphasized that educational contexts have extensively used theories and practices related to self –regulation, and have hence contributed to the progress of self- regulated learning theory. Self-regulation is an activity or approach that students are involved in their personal, behavioral, motivational, and cognitive learning behaviors in order to fulfill significant and valuable academic goals (Zimmerman 1998:73-86.). Self regulated learning theory claims that self-regulation is categorized into four levels: observational, imitative, self-controlled, and self-regulated levels (Zimmerman 2000:13–39).

Moreover, self-regulated learning includes three main components there are three basic components for self –regulated such as: cognition, metacognition, and motivation- which can be further subdivided into several subcomponents (Schraw Crippen and Hartley 2006, pp.111–139). Cognitive component entails simple strategies problem solving, and critical thinking. Metacognitive component consists of two general components- knowledge of cognition and regulation of cognition- each includes several subcomponents as: declarative, procedural, conditional knowledge and planning, monitoring, evaluation, respectively. Finally, the motivation component includes two subcomponents: self-efficacy and epistemological beliefs the former indicating the individual’s awareness of his/her abil ity to perform tasks effectively and the latter revealing his philosophical approach to teaching and learning.

2. Research on Collaboration Most of the current major educational reforms call for extensive, meaningful teacher collaboration. Two of the

reforms--tech prep and the integration of vocational and academic education--attempt to dissolve the dichotomy between academic study and preparation for work; in these reforms, teacher collaboration is essential: Academic and vocational teachers are expected to work together to alter the curriculum and pedagogy within subjects, make connections between subjects, and explore new relationships between the school and the world of work.

By and large, however, teacher collaboration is a departure from existing normal rates and, in most schools; teachers are colleagues in name only. They work out of sight and sound of one another, plan and make ready their lessons and details alone, and strive on their own to find a solution for their instructional, curricular, and management problems.

In spite of this, substantial collegial relationships among teachers are encouraged in some schools, and considerable benefits and advantages for students, teachers and school are caused by teacher



collaboration. Apart from the unusual amount of teacher collegiality, there is nothing special about these schools. Some are small, some are large, some are in rural areas, and some are urban, and they depend on usual budgets. It seems that the difference between these exceptional schools and the other can be organizational.

It is not obvious from the survey how the initial decision to collaborate is made. The general main force to rectify schools and the main pressure of the Perkins Act, which concentrated in the unification of vocational and academic education, have created the circumstance for collaboration to occur. (Is there a source for this section?)

2.1. The Benefits of Teacher Collaboration Although the results are not uniformly good, teachers who have worked together see substantial

improvements in student achievement, behavior, and attitude. Teachers in a junior high school traced their students' remarkable gains in math achievement and the virtual elimination of classroom behavior problems to the revisions in curriculum, testing, and placement procedures they had achieved working as a group. In schools where teachers work collaboratively, students can sense the program coherence and a consistency of expectations, which may explain the improved behavior and achievement.

For teachers, the isolation of the classroom is broken by collegiality and also career rewards and daily satisfactions are brought for them. It keeps away from end-of-year burn-out and stimulates enthusiasm. Instead of as an alternative to grasp for the single dramatic event or the special achievements attainment of a few children as the main source of pride, teachers are more able to notice and celebrate a pattern of accomplishments within and across classrooms (Little, 1987, p. 497). Over time, if teachers work closely together on matters of curriculum and instruction, they find themselves better equipped for classroom work.). They take noticeable contentment from efficient relationships that withstand differences in viewpoints and occasional conflict.

Teacher collegiality avoids the sink-or-swim, trial-and-error mode that beginning teachers usually encounter. It brings experienced and beginning teachers closer together to strengthen the competence and confidence of the novice.

New curriculum or the need to refine an existing curriculum introduces these complexities, which are challenging. Teacher teamwork makes these complex tasks more attainable, stimulates new ideas, and improves coherence in a school's curriculum and instruction. Together, teachers have the organizational skills and resources to attempt innovations that would exhaust the energy, skill, or resources of an individual teacher. The results that one draws from the experiences of closely orchestrated, task-oriented groups in schools are compatible with conclusions drawn from other studies of organization: It was considered that the accomplishments of a proficient and well-organized group are widely better than the accomplishments of isolated individuals (Little, 1987, p. 496).

It can thus be argued that schools benefit from teacher collaboration in several ways:

Through formal and informal training sessions, study groups, and conversations about teaching, teachers and administrators get the opportunity to get smarter together.

Teachers are better prepared to support one another's strengths and accommodate weaknesses. Working together, they reduce their individual planning time while greatly increasing the available pool of ideas and materials.

Schools become better prepared and organized to examine new ideas, methods, and materials. The faculty becomes adaptable and self-reliant.

Teachers are organized to ease the strain of staff turnover, both by providing systematic professional assistance to beginners and by explicitly socializing all newcomers, including veteran teachers, to staff values, traditions, and resources. (Is there a source for this section?)

2.2. Increasing Student Achievement



Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001), assert that there is “a rarity of research investigating the extent to which teachers’ collaborative school development practices are related to student achievement. Most existing investigation is in the form of surveys and case studies, which do not afford proof of cause-and-effect relationships. A study in a large urban school district in the Midwest was carried out by Goddard and colleagues for investigating the issue. First, the researchers considered 452 teachers in 47 elementary schools to discover the extent to which they worked collectively to affect decisions related to school progress, curriculum and instruction, and professional development. To determine the relationship between teacher collaboration and student achievement, reading and math achievement scores for 2536 fourth-graders, controlling for school context and student characteristics such as prior achievement were used by researchers. Finally, a positive relationship between teacher collaboration and differences among schools in mathematics and reading achievement was found by them.

Goddard and colleagues argue further studies are needed on collaborative practices but that their study provides initial support for efforts to improve student achievement by elevating teacher collaboration around curriculum, instruction and professional development.

3. Research on self-regulation As mentioned above, self-regulation is defined as ‘self-generated thoughts, feelings, and actions that are

planned and cyclically adapted to the attainment of personal goals’ (Zimmerman 2000: 14). Zeidner, Boekaerts and Pintrich (2000: 751) assert that self-regulation involves ‘cognitive, affective, motivational, and behavioral components that provide the individual with the capacity to adjust his or her actions and goals to achieve desired results in light of changing environmental conditions’.

According to Pintrich (1999), self-regulation comprises three general classes of strategies: (a) cognitive learning strategies; (b) metacognitive or self-regulatory strategies to control cognition; and (c) resource management strategies.

Cognitive approach involves rehearsal, elaboration and organizational strategies. Fundamental practice includes reciting or repeating items in a list. Activation of information in working memory entails application of these strategies which seem to influence consideration and encoding processes. As Pintrich (1999) declares, these strategies by themselves do not result in higher order processing of materials to be learned. In order to achieve a deeper understanding of material for learning, elaboration and organizational strategies should be in used. Elaboration strategies including paraphrasing, summarizing and analogy-making, play vital roles in keeping information in long-term memory by creating internal connections between the items. Via organizational strategies, learners choose suitable information and apply structure on the learned materials.

On the other hand, metacognitive strategies, which are the second type of self-regulation, comprise knowledge about cognition and self-regulation of cognition (Flavell 1979). The current models of metacognitive control or self-regulating strategies have mentioned three general kinds of strategies: planning, observing and regulating. Planning strategies help learners in planning their use of cognitive strategies and in activating pertinent prior knowledge (Pintrich, 1999). Some samples of planning activities include scanning a text and forming making questions prior to reading a text. The second subcategory – monitoring activities – involves the application of self-assessment methods, test-taking strategies and comprehension checking techniques in opposition to self-set purpose (Weinstein and Mayer 1986). These observing and controlling techniques, signaling breakdowns in comprehension, hint at the need for regulating strategies to repair deficits in understanding and to re-establish performance in compatibility with self-set goals. Examples of self-regulatory strategies while reading, for instance, include re-reading materials, backtracking to check comprehension and skipping subsidiary ideas (Pintrich, 1999).

The third group of self-regulation – resource management strategies – is determined in helping individuals not only adapt to their environment but also assist the environment to their goals and standards (Pintrich, 1999). Resource management strategies include handling time, effort, study context and other individuals, such as teachers and peers via the application of help-seeking strategies. Theories and practices associated with self-regulation have been extensively applied to educational settings and school learning, leading to the development of self-regulated learning theory. Self-regulation of learning



is a stage that needs students to become proactively involved in their personal, behavioral, motivational and cognitive learning endeavors in order to achieve important and vital academic goals (Zimmerman 1998). Experiential studies have showed an important relationship between academic achievement and the use of regulatory skills and an understanding of how to use these skills (Cross and Paris 1988; Zimmerman and Schunk 2001). As Weimer (2002: 102) has mentioned: ‘self-regulated learners proactively seek out (try to find –look for) information when needed and take steps to learn it. When they face difficulties such like poor study conditions, confusing teachers, etc, they find a way to succeed’. Self-regulatory strategies can also improve effective independent learning skills such as writing (Zimmerman and Kitsantas 1999) and reading (Pressley et al. 1992).

Since research has shown that students’ use of self-regulatory behaviors is vital for academic achievement, it is plausible that teachers’ use of self-regulatory behaviors should positively affect their teaching practice. Baylor, Kitsantas and Chung (2001) noted that students’ learning during self-directed practice and also teachers 'skills in developing effective lesson plans can be directed and improved by teacher regulatory strategies). Davis and Gray (2007), representing the strategies for developing self-regulation, supported self-regulation as an avenue to professional development. Similarly, Monshi Toussi, Boori and Ghanizadeh (2011) announced a significant positive connection between EFL teachers’ self -regulation and their teaching effectiveness. It seems probable, conversely, to suppose that teachers who have need of self-regulatory skills will find it hard or even impossible to construct the self-regulation of their students.

A significant relationship between academic success and the use of regulatory skills and an understanding of how to use these skills were deduced from empirical studies (Cross and Paris 1988, pp.131–142, Zimmerman and Schunk 2001, pp. 289-307). In a similar way, it has been found that "self-regulated learners seek out information when needed and take steps to master it. When they confuse teachers, they find a way to succeed" (Weimer M., 2002). It has also been showed that efficient autonomous learning areas such as writing and reading are improved by self regulatory strategies. (Zimmerman and Kitsantas A., 1999, pp. 241-250, Pressley M., El-Dinary P.B., Stein S., Marks M.B. and Brown R., 1992, pp.333-358)

The trends observed with respect to student self-regulation also generalize to teachers. It has been claimed that students’ learning during self-directed practice can be guided by teacher self regulatory strategies and also their skills in developing effective lesson plans can be improved (Baylor A., Kitsantas A. and Chung H., 2001, pp.56-59). Davis and Gray supported self regulation as an avenue to professional development (Davis S.G. and Gray E.S., 2007, pp. 31-47). Viewing from another perspective, it seems plausible to presume teachers who lack self-regulatory skills will find it difficult or even impossible to construct the self-regulation of their students.

Because of the potent role of teacher self-regulation in the teaching and learning processes, it seems essential to explore the factors that may contribute to its development. Based on the theoretical contentions stated earlier, CT appears to be one of the constructs associated with self-regulation (Phan 2010, pp. 284-292 and Pintrich 1999, pp. 459-470).

To empirically examine the assumption of the present study, an effort was made to investigate the possible Relationship between Collaboration and Pre-service Teachers' Self-regulation Development. In so doing, the following research question was posed and investigated in the present study:

1) Is there any relationship between collaboration and pre-service teachers’ self-regulation development? 4.1. Participants The participants of the present study were selected from B.A. students of TEFL studying in Tabaran Institute of

Higher Education, Mashhad, Iran. Their age ranged from 19 to 23 and based on the prior completion of the course, they were all considered intermediate TEFL students, studying in the 6 th semester. thus, they were regarded homogenous.

4.2. Instruments 4.2.1. Teacher Self-Regulation Scale (TSRS)



To assess teacher self-regulation, the researchers utilized the 'Teacher Self-Regulation Scale (TSRS)', designed and validated by Yesim, Sungur & Uzuntiryaki (2009) was developed based on Zimmerman's self –regulation model and semi-structured interviews with pre-service and in-service teachers; and consists of 40 items on a 6 point Likert scale ranging from 'strongly disagree' to 'strongly agree'. One item was also included as a filler item which was not used in further analyses. Confirmatory factor analysis yielded the following nine factors.

Table 1. Nine factors of TSRS along with the corresponding descriptions

Factor Description 1. Goal setting Process of establishing objectives to guide actions

during instruction

2. Intrinsic interest Beliefs concerning personal interest in the profession 3. Performance goal orientation Goals to do better than others as a teacher and to

have others believe in one’s competence 4. Mastery goal orientation Goals to improve competence in teaching and master

the teaching task against self-set standards

5. Self-instruction Process of monitoring one’s own performance in teaching and making instructional changes when necessary

6. Emotional control Strategies for controlling and regulating affect, mood, and emotions

7. Self-evaluation

Process of evaluating current teaching performance by comparing it with previously established goals and past performance

8. Self-reaction Affective responses following a teaching performance

9. Help-seeking Getting help from others to resolve problems encountered in teaching process

Scores on the 40 items were averaged to form an overall indicator of the teachers' self-regulation, defined by

Yesim, Sungur & Uzuntiryaki (2009) "as teachers' own self-regulated strategies, which they use during lessons" (p. 354). In this study, the total reliability of the scale, estimated v ia Cronbach’s alpha, was 0.88.

4.3. Procedure Twenty pre-service teacher trainees worked on various collaborative tasks such as Learning Together (LT),

Student-Team-Achievement-Divisions (STAD), Group Investigation (GI), and Teams-Assisted Individualization (TAI) to develop strategies to handle challenges in the areas of language teaching and classroom management.

Initially, the participants were given a Teacher Self-Regulation Scale (TSRS) Questionnaire and were also interviewed to discover the extent to which they were engaged in self-regulation.

Eventually, after 10 sessions, the TSRS Questionnaire was again employed to find out if there has been any change(s) in their self-regulation.

In addition, when the trainees started to teach in their real classes, they were asked to keep a diary during their first two months of teaching to record their daily teaching difficulties and to suggest if and how they were able to draw on their collaborative experience during their teacher training course.

5. Data collection and data analysis

Table 2. Descriptive statistics of TSRS in Pre-administration N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard



Deviation

TSRS 20 109 219 164 20.5

Table 3. Descriptive statistics of TSRS in Post-administration

N Minimum Maximum Mean Standard Deviation

TSRS 20 121 239 180 23.5 As indicated in tables 2 and 3, there was a statistically significant growth in the self-regulation development of

Iranian teacher trainees from pre-administration of TSRS to the second administration.

Table 4. Independent t-test for gender and self-regulation t-test for equality means

t Df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean difference

Std. error difference

Self-regulation .367 91 .0765 2.322 4.875

As Table 3 shows, gender does not play any significant role in teachers’ total self-regulation (t=0.36, p<.05). Apart from statistical analysis mentioned above, the researchers also investigated diaries of teacher trainees. The analysis of data reveals that the collaborative experience had a substantially positive effect on the trainees'

self-regulation as it helped them develop a more positive attitude towards teaching, experience less anxiety and feel more motivated to help their students learn the language. The data also indicates that the trainees were able to largely utilize the knowledge shared during their collaboration with other trainees and could, as a result, improve their teaching practice.

6. Results and Discussion The present study was an attempt to discover if the inclusion of collaborative tasks in teacher training courses

can inform and improve the trainees’ classroom teaching practice. The analysis of quantitative data indicates that the trainees benefitted noticeably in emotional control, self-evaluation, self-reaction and help-seeking. Nevertheless, the data shows that collaboration amongst pre-service teachers did not have a significant effect on goal setting, intrinsic interest, performance/mastery goal orientation and self -instruction. Likewise, the data suggests that there is no significant relationship between the gender of the participants and their overall self-regulation in teaching.

Overall, the findings of the study highlight that collaboration amongst teacher trainees has psychological and sociocultural implications for language teachers and teacher trainers. As regards the psychological effects of the study, one can easily notice that the trainees have benefitted from collaborative tasks both affectively and cognitively. This, as the data points out, is mostly in the area of teacher emotions where the trainees have revealed more self-confidence, emotional awareness and competence in dealing with their everyday classroom challenges. The data also evinces that the teachers had a more positive attitude towards their teaching because the bonding they developed in the teacher training sessions was emotionally empowering for them.

As stated earlier, the collaborative tasks had some effect on the teachers’ cognition, but this as suggested by the data was not significant. This is perhaps because early teaching experiences are mostly characterized by emotional intensity and conceivably one’s teaching is mostly fraught with anxiety. It can be argued, in all likelihood the trainees mostly draw on the knowledge and skills they acquired in the formal training component of their training which focuses on methods and procedures. The trainees also show a



tendency to depend on the knowledge of the trainers as a more “reliable source” minimizing the likely effects of collaborative tasks in this area.

It should further be emphasized that the collaborative tasks, due to their sociocultural nature, have a significant effect on preparing teachers for their careers as these tasks offer the trainees an opportunity to share their own stories, dilemmas and predicaments and to also listen to their peers. Such an opportunity endows the teachers with requisite emotional resources to deal with their daily tasks and to have better awareness of the mostly unpredictable nature of second/foreign language teaching. Learning to talk to fellow teachers at early stages of one’s training creates a desire to engage in professional discourse, encourages collegiality and thus boosts the morale of the trainees. While more research is needed in this area, it can be concluded that the inclusion of collaborative tasks in teacher training courses can have major pedagogical implications for both the trainers and the trainees; the former can improve their relevant training skills and the latter can feel more self-assured about themselves and their teaching.

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CUMMING’S (2007) TEACHING APPROACH TO POETRY BASED ON THE SOCIO-CONSTRUCTIVE VIEW OF LEARNING: THE

EFFECT ON IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS’ POEM COMPREHENSION

Sedigheh Golmohammadi M.A. Candidate in TEFL, Department of English Language, Tonekabon Branch, Islamic Azad University,

Tonekabon-Iran. Email: [email protected]

Omid Pourkalhor Assistant Professor, Department of English Language, Chaloos Branch, Islamic Azad University, Chaloos-Iran.

Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT This study aimed to investigate the effect of using two different approaches to teaching poetry in Iranian EFL classes. The question this study tried to answer was whether using Cumming’s (2007) approach to teaching poetry would have any effect-as compared to the existing method-on Iranian EFL learners’ poem comprehension. To investigate possible answer(s) to this question, 30 Iranian EFL learners (junior translator trainees) were selected via applying an OPT test and were randomly assigned into two groups of experimental (N=15) and control (N=15). A pretest of poem comprehension was administered to elicit the potential comprehension ability of the participants. Then, the experimental group of the study was treated by using the Cumming’s approach while the control group by the existing method of teaching poetry. The groups were then exposed to the posttest of poem comprehension (a repetition of the pretest of the study). The data of the study were analyzed via running an Independent Samples T-test between the posttests of the study as well as two separate Pearson correlations between the pretest and the posttest of each group. The results indicated that the experimental group of the study received a higher mean in the posttest, and thus, the null hypothesis of the study was rejected. KEY WORDS: Cumming’s Approach, Poetry, Socio-Constructive View, Poem Comprehension, Translator

Trainees Introduction and Literature Review Rahimy and Pourkalhor (2011) in their study on the methods of quantification of literature have focused on

different issues in literature teaching and research. Accordingly, the nature of literature has always been



a controversial issue, thus, it has not yet been possible to present a comprehensive definition of literature that is able to cover its aspects totally. They quoted from Maley (2001) that literature has traditionally been considered as a set of the best writings available in each language or society, and that educators have considered its appropriateness for studying a sort of rule although such an approach was totally opposed during the post-modern era. However, literature has undergone significant developments during centuries; a number of reasons for its developments can be the use of concepts including ‘parallelism’, ‘rhyme’, ‘weight’, and ‘metaphor’ in texts with no literary genre such as commercials and public declarations.

Rahimy and Pourkalhor (2011) considered the skeleton of literature basically related to its claims about classroom teaching because the scope of literature covers the text types used for the purpose. They believed that classical texts usually contain linguistic, historical and cultural genres, which are considered useful as their contemporary usages. Quasi-literary texts such as propaganda lack those genres, and it is for such a reason that students immediately consider them as ‘simple’. Literature issues can be discussed generally in two topics of: ‘the nature and applications of literature’ and ‘trends in literary studies’ that will be elaborated on in this article. The first topic will deal with various forms of literature represented in different literary texts like prose, poem, etc. and then, the applications of literature, for instance, its role in teaching English language will be explained. The second topic will be elaborated under four sub-titles: teaching literature, research in literature, testing literature and literary criticism.

They stated that literature enjoyed a vast nature and different applications. They quoted from Moody (1971) that thinks of the word ‘literature’ that has trace in every statement. This shows that literature is not merely a simple word, rather, it is an extension that refers to various activities: generally, one of the usages of literature is that it is looked at as a branch of human activities different from agriculture and science, in which no race and nationality is considered a priority.

On the other hand, literature can be assumed a sort of phenomenon representing the specifications of certain nations or groups of people like French literature, English literature, American literature, Arabic literature, Indian literature, African literature, etc. in which case literature will certainly be significant cumulatively, and the significance is beyond the individuals that have established and used it. Literature can also be seen from the standpoint of circulations and movements, which are sometimes cross-cultural (specific literary eras can be found in different cultures), for example, the renaissance literature, romantic literature, surrealist literature etc. Another aspect of literature consists of its application to an issue or a topic like children’s literature, industry literature, linguistics literature, in which literature means all the content written about the mentioned topics or issues.

The role of literature in daily verbal or non-verbal communication is the next role of literature. If we suppose that the nature of literature is, in fact, the role of language, then, people’s whole daily verbal communication will be considered as literature. Examples for verbal communications can be daily family conversations, shopping and purchasing, personal correspondence as well as books and articles etc. Care must be taken of course that the richer is the literature, the richer will be the verbal and non-verbal communications unless specific language or literature has undergone historical changes due to some reasons.

Teaching Literature and Teaching Poems The vastness of the concept of ‘Literature’ and the variety of its dimensions cause that its teaching seems

complicated in different forms and levels. According to Moody (1971), the general principles of teaching literature are identically applicable to all forms of it ranging from prose to poems, novels or short stories. Accordingly, the teacher of literature is duty-bound to make the learners discover what literature is; s/he should only provide them with suggestions, also guide and encourage them when necessary.

On the other hand, the knowledge needed for the teacher of literature consists of: ‘Linguistic Knowledge’, and ‘Operational Linguistic Knowledge’. Linguistic knowledge means the knowledge of phonological, lexical, and the word order systems for sentence and larger units. Operational linguistic knowledge means knowledge about informativeness, expression of feelings, persuasiveness, organization, thought



and realities as well as hypotheses in general. Teacher of literature should also raise motivation and interest towards literature in the learners (particularly EFL learners).

Teaching literature can be done in the form of teaching poems, prose and teaching drama whether in escape or in interpretation. Each literary item can be taught via its own method(s). For instance, poems can be taught using oral methods such as reading aloud, or via practical methods including summarization, outline explanation and writing poems. Also, teaching prose can be implemented in the form of general reading while using techniques such as exemplification, suggestion of study methods, providing literary reading facilities and finally, encouragement by the teacher. Teaching drama can be done in the form of explaining drama, role-playing and discussing the drama. However, teaching of these dimensions is possible and different in different cultures with different pedagogical situations.

Cubukcu (2010) believes that today’s teachers may be intuitively aware that poetry has much more to offer, but, perhaps because of negative experiences in their own school life, they have difficulty and they show reluctance to use poetry in classes for their pupils, due to the anxiety and worry poetry evokes for them. If ‘‘the teacher is the key to the delivery of the curriculum and the teacher’s own experiences, act ions and attitudes will exert their own influence’’ (Wade and Sidaway, 1990, p. 75), then it would seem that any framework for helping teachers to teach poetry must acknowledge teachers’ feelings, attitude and experiences about poetry, and encourage them to engage with poetry in a positive and nonthreatening way. This study is aimed to encourage teachers to develop their understanding of poetry to enhance creative thinking skills in the classroom.

Poems pose a challenging cognitive task. Readers must first have a basic understanding of a concept or emotion and then transform that understanding into meaningful creative expression by exploring and distilling complex ideas. Understanding a poem involves the construction of meaning, enabling its writer to see new possibilities The rhythm and structure of poetry communicate far more than simply presenting information; the construction of imagery and choice of specific words is as meaningful as the content (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996).

Socio-Constructivism in Teaching Poetry Cubukcu (2010) gives an elaborated description on sociological issues in teaching poetry. Accordingly,

research in cognitive science (Newman et al., 1989; Rogoff and Lave, 1984) has shown that everyday experience of the learners is the foundation upon which they construct an ‘intuitive understanding’ (Vosniadou, 1992, p. 349) of their cultural environment. This understanding can also be referred to as naive knowledge and could be considered by teachers as being unimportant. But, as Boekaerts (1992) argues, for high quality knowledge acquisition to take place it is extremely important to make use of the creative and critical thinking skills of the learners. Vosniadou (1992) shows that when ‘school knowledge’ contradicts experiential knowledge, children assign it to separate domains rather than extending and developing previous knowledge. It therefore remains separate from, rather than a part of, the restructuring that goes into appropriation.

It is well known that the theory of socio-constructivism can be applied to the teaching of many different subjects in the curriculum including foreign languages (Littledyke and Huxford, 1998). A more traditional view of construction of knowledge by mainstream educators has been that knowledge is constructed individually with little reference given to the surrounding environment. However, social constructivism sees personal constructs being developed in a social context, with particular emphasis in Western schooling on language as the main communicator of those experiences. Tobin puts it succinctly: ‘‘Social interactions using a shared language enable the teacher and learners to communicate and test the fit of their knowledge with others’ representations. When the fit reaches an acceptable level it is concluded that a consensus has been achieved, in the sense that personal constructions bear a family resemblance to the constructions of others with whom negotiation has occurred’’ (1998, p.195).

A teaching approach to poetry based on the socio-constructive view of learning is presented below (Cumming, 2007)

Orientation



Arousing students’ interest, imagination, creativity, emotion and intellect by engaging in poetic experiences that are easily accessible, e.g. reading and discussing a poem together on a subject that students can relate to.

Elicitation/Structuring Helping students to engage with poetry and with each other’s ideas by giving time for students to respond

individually and corporately. This might involve periods of quiet meditation ‘thinking time’ followed by sharing of responses such as ideas, feelings and experiences that are stimulated by engaging with the poem.

Intervention/Restructuring Encouraging students to experiment and play with language through engaging in activities such as sha ring

favourite lines, writing in different forms and communicating their thoughts and feelings in exciting ways. Students are to see poetry as an exciting medium of expressing feelings, thoughts and ideas, which can be worked on together, or individually, and shared among the classroom community.The in depth meanings are clarified.

Review Helping students to recognise the significance of their play with language by sharing what they have found

out about poetry, about themselves and about the constructs of language through meta-language. Application Is the Last Stage in Creative and Critical Thinking Relating work on poetry to wider constructs of language development in school and home leads to lively

discussions. Teachers might encourage bridges between home and school knowledge by relating achievements to literary environments they engage in outside of the classroom and by stimulating students to participate in the development of the classroom community through active involvement and acknowledgement of private and corporate literary practices. This represents a generic approach to the teaching of poetry but the following demonstrates how socio-constructivist principles can be applied specifically in a literary session. In the following session, the poem The Rose and the Bee is chosen as the focus for the event.

Research Question and Hypothesis of the study Based on the literature reviewed in this study, the research question and the hypothesis are as follows: RQ: Does using Cumming’s (2007) approach to teaching poetry have any effect-as compared to the existing

method-on Iranian EFL learners’ poem comprehension? H0: Using Cumming’s (2007) approach to teaching poetry has no effect-as compared to the existing method-on

Iranian EFL learners’ poem comprehension. Methodology Participants Adopting a quasi-experimental design, the participants of the study were 30 junior translator trainees from the

Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon branch (Tonekabon-Iran). They were selected from among a population of 150 translator trainees via administering an Oxford Placement Test (See next section) with the criterion of at least 1 standard deviation below the mean both for the purpose of homogeneity and for witnessing the possible progression of the under-mean participants in terms of poem comprehension ability.

Materials and Procedures



The materials of this study contained the material for the proficiency test, the material for the pretest, the material for the treatment and finally the material for the posttest of the study. The material for the proficiency test consisted of the OPT (40 minutes) to homogenise the participants of the study in terms of their proficiency level. It contained 15 items of grammatical points, 15 items of vocabulary test of synonyms and two reading comprehension tests with 5 false/true items for each with a total score of 40 items and as a result 40 scores. The material for the pretest and the posttest of the study (20 minutes each) contained two poems selected from the participants’ textbook: ‘Poetry by Laurence Perrine (1974), Harcourt Brace Jovanovich’ with 5 essay-type comprehension questions for each and the inter-rater reliability of 0.66 (r = 0.66). The material for the treatment of the experimental group of the study contained 5 poems with an instruction sheet in which the five main principles of Cumming’s approach to teaching poems (Orientation, Eliciting/Structuring, Intervention/ Restructuring, and Review) were included and followed by the teacher. Finally, the material for the posttest of the study contained the material used in the pretest since the effect of the treatment was supposed to be observed. All tests were administered in the form of paper and pencil.

Methods of Analyzing Data The data of the study were analysed via running an Independent Samples T-test between the posttests of the

study and two separate One-Way ANCOVAs between the pretest and the posttest of the experimental and the control group of the study. The t-test was used to show the possible difference between the means of the two groups of the study and the one-way ANCOVA was used to show the possible progress in the participants’ mean score from the pretest to the posttest of the study.

Result Findings The findings of the current study have been illustrated in tables 1 to 4 as follows:

Table 1. The summary of the descriptive statistics of the pretests of the study Table (1) indicates the summary of the descriptive analysis of the data in the pretest of poem

comprehension in the experimental and the control group of the study. Here, the means of the groups do not show significant difference which means that the groups have been homogeneous.

Table 2. The summary of the descriptive statistics of the posttests of the study Table (2) indicates the summary of the descriptive analysis of the data in the posttest of poem

comprehension in the experimental and the control group of the study. Here, the means of the groups show significant differences with each other which means that the groups have been significantly different in terms of progress.

Groups N Mean Std. Deviation

PreEx 15 15.33 1.97

PreCon 15 15.15 1.90

Groups N Mean Std. Deviation

PosEx 15 17.53 2.147

PosCon 15 15.75 2.134



Table 3. The summary of the Independent Samples T-test of the study

Table (3) indicates the summary of the inferential analysis of the data (Independent Samples T-test)

between the posttest scores of poem comprehension in the experimental and the control group of the study. Here, the degree of freedom of the groups is 28 and the significance level is much lower than 0.05 (p<0.05).

Table 4. Summary of the One-Way ANCOVA for the experimental group of the study

Source

Type III Sum of Squares df

Mean Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 5.470a 1 5.470 5.861 0.002

Intercept 1408.714 1 1408.714 1933.816 0.000

Pretest*Posttest Experimental 5.470 1 5.470 6.961 0.012

Error 20.397 28 0.428

Table (4) indicates the summary of the inferential analysis of the data (One-Way ANCOVA) between the

pretest and the posttest scores of poem comprehension in the experimental group of the study. Here, the degree of freedom of the groups is 28 and the significance level is lower than 0.05 (p<0.05), also, the F value is 6.961 (F=6.961) which is significantly higher than 1 (the base criterion to interpret the results of ANCOVA).

Table 5. Summary of the One-Way ANCOVA for the control group of the study

Source Type III Sum of

Squares df Mean

Square F Sig.

Corrected Model 5.130a 1 5.130 5.861 0.002

Intercept 1408.714 1 1408.714 1933.816 0.000

Pretest*Posttest Control 5.130 1 5.130 0.981 0.002

Error 20.397 28 0.428

Table (5) indicates the summary of the inferential analysis of the data (One-Way ANCOVA) between the

pretest and the posttest scores of poem comprehension in the control group of the study. Here, the degree of freedom of the groups is 28 and the significance level is much lower than 0.05 (p<0.05), also, the F value is 0.981 (F=0.981) which is lower than 1 (the base criterion to interpret the results of ANCOVA).

Hypothesis Testing, Discussion and Conclusion Based on the findings of the study reported here, now the results of hypothesis testing is presented. The

hypothesis of the study targeted the possible impact of using the 5 principles of Cumming’s approach to teaching poems on Iranian EFL learners’ poem comprehension ability. The findings of the Independent Samples T-test of the study reject the null hypothesis: the observed t value (tobs=3.121, see table 3) is higher than the critical value of t (tcrit=2.048) which confirms the existence of a significant difference between the experimental and control group posttest scores as a result of the treatment of the study, further, the level of significance of the t value is 0.003 (Sig.= 0.003) which is significantly lower than 0.05.

Tobs value df Sig. (2-tailed) Tcrit value

3.121 28 0.003 2.048



This shows that the difference between the groups is not by chance and has been the result of the treatment of the study.

The findings of the one-way ANCOVA also confirm the rejection of the hypothesis of the study: the F value

calculated between the pretest and the posttest scores of the experimental group is higher than 1 which is indicative of a progress from the pretest of poem comprehension to the posttest of reading comprehension, and this progress is not by chance since the level of significance is 0.012 lower than 0.05 (see table 4). On the other hand, the F value calculated between the pretest and the posttest scores of the control group is lower than 1 which is indicative of no progress from the pretest of poem comprehension to the posttest of reading comprehension, and this no-progress trend is not by chance since the level of significance is 0.002 lower than 0.05 (see table 5).

Thus, it is concluded that the null hypothesis of the study is rejected and such a rejection means that

applying Cumming’s approach to teaching poetry has worked in the experimental group. One suggestion this study may present can be that teaching poems particularly at more advanced levels such as university levels are directed towards using cognitive/constructive models so that the learners’ would be motivated to analyse literature (here poems) thoughtfully and meaningfully. Perhaps, translating poems or dealing with poems as a mere reading comprehension process makes no significant and prominent change in learners’ comprehension ability. Finally, the investigation of teaching poems can, by no means, be restricted to this specific study: literature is so vast in its nature that no limitations can be posed to its studies, particularly if the goal is Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Therefore, future researchers are recommended to replicate the current study on other philosophical, psychological, and/or linguistic models or theories.

REFERENCES Boekaerts, M. (1992). Introduction: new directions in educational practice. Applied Psychology: An

International Review, 41.4, pp. 307–315. Csikszentmihslyi, M. (1996). Creativity: Flow and the psychology of discovery and invention. NY:Harper

Collins. (Newman et al., 1989; Rogoff and Lave, 1984) Cubukcu, F. (2010). Creative Thinking and Poetry in ELT Classes. International Conference on New Trends in

Education and Their Implications. 11-13 November, 2010 Antalya-Turkey Cumming, R. (2007). Language play in the classroom: encouraging children’s intuitive creativity with words through poetry. Literacy, 41,2, 93-101. Littledyke, M. & Huxford, L. (Eds.). (1998). Teaching the Primary Curriculum for Constructive Learning.

London: David Fulton Publishers. Maley, A. 2001. Literature in the Language Classroom. In Carter, R. and Nunan, D. 2001. The Cambridge Guide

to Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge University Press, Pp: 180-185. Moody, H. L. B. 1971. The Teaching of Literature with Special Reference to Developing Countries. Longman. Perrine, L. (1974). Poetry: Elements of Poetry. Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Rahimy, R. and Pourkalhor, O. (2011). Research in Literature: Components and Methods of Qualification and

Quantification. Unpublished article, Department of English language, Islamic Azad University, Tonekabon Branch, Tonekabon-Iran.

Vosniadou, S. (1992). Knowledge acquisition and conceptual change. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 41.4, pp. 347–357.

Wade, B. & Sidaway, S. (1990). Poetry in the curriculum: a crisis of confidence. Educational Studies, 16.1, pp. 75–83.



GETTING ELL STUDENTS OUT OF THEIR SHELLS: ENHANCING

STUDENT ENGAGEMENT THROUGH WRITING

Ronnie E. Goodwin, Ph.D. Gulf University for Science & Technology

P. O. Box 7207 Hawally 32093

Kuwait [email protected]

ABSTRACT When teaching students that speak a foreign language how to speak English or any other second language, engaging the students in the lesson is integral to the students’ achievement of maximum retention of the lesson. However, engaging English language learners (ELL) students tends to be difficult due to the multitude of multicultural differences that may exist between the teacher and the many different nationalities that comprise ELL students. Further compounding the problem of engagement are language anxiety (LA) or foreign language anxiety (FLA), which are interchangeable phrases used to conceptualize the same circumstance ELL students experiences when they are asked to complete any assignment involving explicit use of the second language (L2) and become overwhelmingly nervous. Writing and group activities have both been identified as effective tools for engaging students of all paradigms in the material being taught and reducing the occurrences of LA or FLA amongst ELL students. This research explores the occurrence of LA or FLA amongst several classes of ELL students to determine how effective writing and group are at alleviating the occurrence of student anxiety in conjunction with L2 assignments and whether these tools help get ELL students out of their shells to help facilitate learning and retention of the L2 for students learning another language. The determinations extrapolated from the surveys administered to ELL students indicated that the participants were less likely to experience LA or FLA when L2 writing involved group exercises as opposed to individual exercises. KEYWORDS: ELL, LA, FLA, anxiety, language anxiety I. Introduction The physical condition known as anxiety has been categorically defined as three specific forms, identified as

trait anxiety, which denotes this condition as a personality trait; state anxiety that occurs when an individual experiences apprehension at a precise moment in time; and situational anxiety that occurs within the context of a well-defined situation (Awan, Azher, Anwar, & Naz, 2010). The feeling of



nervousness associated with language learning termed as language anxiety (LA) is a form of situational anxiety (Awan, Azher, Anwar, & Naz, 2010). The term ‘foreign language anxiety’(FLA) is typically used to describe a generally vague impression of apprehension or fear that can arise when English language learner (ELL) students are engaged in different kinds of activities performed both in and out of the classroom designed to facilitate the acquisition of the second language (L2) (Chen, Kyle, & McIntyre, 2008; King, 2013). Foreign language anxiety is determined to stem from a multifaceted collective of behaviors, self-perceptions, feelings, and beliefs associated with classroom language learning derived from the distinctiveness of the language learning process (Chen & Chang, 2009). In the context of this definitive explanation, three overall constituents of language anxiety have been proposed, which are test anxiety, fear of negative evaluation, and communication apprehension (Young, 1991). Although language anxiety is sometimes viewed as a helpful facilitator of successful completion of the complex tasks required of L2 learning, it can also evolve into a debilitating anxiety, or writing apprehension, which cannot be easily dismissed (Awan, Azher, Anwar, & Naz, 2010). The potentially harmful effects of anxiety can occur frequently in the context of L2 teaching and learning (Trang, 2012).

It has been theorized that scaffolding for ELL learners through group activities can reduce the severity of language anxiety as well as writing apprehension and help improve the outcomes for the completion of the L2 activity (Foss & Reitzel, 1988). Research concerning the efficacy of pairing ELL students in groups using associative learning techniques indicates that these situations encourage oral participation when L2 students collaborated through group learning, their motivation increased, they took more initiative, and experienced lower levels of anxiety regarding their learning (Tong, 2010; Trang, 2012). This study will explore whether writing assignments that include scaffolding are more effective at enhancing student engagement through writing by encouraging and engaging ELL students in the L2 activity as opposed to writing assignments that require individual completion.

Research Aim & Objectives The aim of this research is to examine the impact of writing apprehension on ELL learners and their ability to

retain the lesson with the intention of providing an overview of the most prominent problems as well as solutions. Second language learning should be instituted within the context of the micro-social structures of the educational setting (Campbell, Combs, Kovar, Napper-Owen, & Worrell, 2009). Integrating a socio-cultural approach addresses the need to expound on situations involving instruction in linguistic knowledge that can be improved by social and cultural institutional structures as well as the understanding of how teaching relates to the pedagogical practices and the social background of the learners (Ajayi, 2008b). In examining the paradigms involving the occurrence of language anxiety, the specific objectives of this research are to:

Specify the attributes and characteristics of language anxiety;

Identify the frequency or prevalence in which ELL students experience language anxiety; and Specify the contexts of associative learning through group scaffolding and how this supports

improved learning experiences for ELL students Learning strategies are very susceptible to the learning context as well as the students’ cognitive capabilities.

Different tasks require different learning strategies that will help the learner achieve predetermined learning goals (Griffiths & Parr, 2001).

Research Question & Hypothesis In achieving these aims and objectives, this research will be guided by the flowing research questions: Do ELL students experience language anxiety more frequently when they engage in L2 exercises that

necessitate individual work as opposed to activities that include associative learning/scaffolding through group work?

Do L2 activities that integrate associative learning through group scaffolding improve ELL students’ writing apprehension and enhance student engagement?

In seeking the answer to these research questions, it is hypothesized that:



Hypothesis 1) ELL students frequently experience language anxiety but this is greatly reduced through associative learning exercises that provide opportunities for scaffolding to assist learning.

Hypothesis 2) L2 activities that integrate associative learning strategies enhance student engagement in the writing activities and facilitate learning as well as retention of the lesson better than activities requiring individual efforts.

The overall influence of teachers on student learning must be analyzed against the findings that have established certain practices as counter-intuitive in the acquisition of a second language (Katyal, 2005). These same counter-intuitive practices have been examined to assess the relevant factors specify that teacher leadership has a pronounced effect on the degree of each student’s scholastic engagement (Katyal, 2005). However, teacher leadership, student engagement and home/school interaction are three areas of import that require additional clarification. The student’s desire to become engaged in scholastic activities must be voluntary in order to facilitate an environment conducive to learning and ensure the student will adhere to proper classroom etiquette and protocol.

2. Review of Literature …written language functions as both statements and linguistic artifact, demanding of the reader an

“awareness of language as language.” Patrick Hartwell ELL Development For ELL students, the foundation they base all future knowledge regarding language acquisition is derived

from the linguistic paradigms of their mother tongue (Hussein, 2013). The increasing number of ethnically diverse students exponentially increases the likelihood that there will be numerous individuals that do not speak English as their first language and are therefore vulnerable to experiencing FLA when asked to engage in L2 activities (Gholson & Stumpf, 2005). All of the attributes of the student’s daily environment can have a drastic impact on the student’s ability to become literate in the target language (Feeney, Moravcik, Nolte, & Chritensen, 2010). Teachers that are properly educated in the implementation of pedagogical formats tend to be conscientious of the student’s needs, so they are more successful in helping their diverse students have a positive learning experience while becoming fluent in their new language (Casteel & Ballantyne, 2010).

How students interpret and comprehend spoken words determines whether they are able to develop the phonetic skills to become literate and understand written words (Giorgis & Glazer, 2008). When students develop oral competencies, they learn how to mimic the sounds as they gain an understanding of the implications of the words being spoken to them, which increases their ability to articulate thoughts, ask questions, and be better learners. Oral competency enables students to demonstrate superior literacy aptitudes in phonemic awareness, vocabulary development, syntactic comprehension and production, as well as narrative awareness and production. Facilitation of literacy development in oral language competencies includes growth in areas that will help the student acquire the skills to become literate.

Impact of FLA & LA on Learning Experiencing FLA or LA has been determined to have ensuing effects on L2 learning and lesson retention,

which can present a significant challenge to educators as well as the student since it has substantial potential to hinder the optimal learning achievement (Awan, Azher, Anwar, & Naz, 2010). The L2 teaching context may also be considered as a source of anxiety if it does not support multicultural learning and this can be challenging for educators create such an open environment within the classroom (Eberly, Joshi, Konzal, & Galen, 2010). Existing research on FLA and language learning anxiety has offered insights into the nature of LA experienced by L2 learners in their learning processes (Chen, Kyle, & McIntyre, 2008).

Strategies that include relaxation techniques have been noted to help teachers create a non-threatening and relaxing atmosphere in the ELL classroom, but the research does not indicate whether the strategy actually facilitates a reduction of anxiety on the part of each individual student in class (Ajayi, 2008a).



The primary concern of such anxiety-reduction techniques has previously concentrated on the teachers’ ability to help students cope with their anxiety, particularly in the language classrooms (Ajayi, 2008a). In L2 learning, one blanket solution will not adequately support the L2 development of all ELL students since the acquisition of language is a complex phenomenon, which makes FLA equally complex (Helfrich & Bosh, 2011). Additionally, the actual manifestations of LA can vary from one student to another, reflecting each student’s individual differences (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). In this capacity, it is appropriate to emphasize that each student has his/her own manner of dealing with their anxiety, which corresponds to their individual characteristics.

While assumptions typically favor the notion that teachers have the responsibility to help students overcome their LA by providing a relaxing multicultural learning environment, the complex and multidimensional facets of anxiety place undue pressures on the skills of the teacher (Casteel & Ballantyne, 2010). However, providing writing assignments to ELL students has been noted as an effective tool for facilitating engagement as well as affective self-management in students (Payán & Nettles, n.d.). This suggestion does not imply that the teachers then become exempt from their responsibility to engage students despite their anxiety, but that both teachers and students can share the responsibility so that both sides can benefit from each other in their attempts to manage language anxiety in a collaborative manner (Casteel & Ballantyne, 2010). The potential benefits of writing, which are often neglected in ELL learning contexts because of the emphasis placed on other language skills, such as listening, speaking, and reading, is worth examining based on its relevance to the development of those other skills in addition to its utility as an affective FLA managing tool (Goldenberg, 2008).

Benefits of Writing There are several established benefits associated with the act of writing that have been cited in literature

although it has also been noted that such benefits vary from one person to another, depending upon the personal level of affinity toward writing. Prewriting exercises such as brainstorming is one example of how the potential of writing can be used regardless of the different levels of ELL mastery the student has (Katyal, 2005). Additional practical benefits gained from writing can be quite different based on the individual differences in the manner in which each student approaches the various writing activities, but this does not detract from the comprehensive value that writing has for ELL learners (Samson & Collins, 2012). Basically, the true value of writing is derived from the innate qualities that permit multiple variations of the same technique to be applied in response to each student’s individual needs and purposes (Wei, Brok, & Zhou, 2009).

Writing is an irreplaceable utility with notable benefits that other language or non-language alternatives cannot offer. Several specific benefits of writing include the ability to formulate tangible constructs, establish self-revealing attributes, and facilitation of deeper thought. Writing helps formulate tangible constructs because it provides opportunities for the writer to examine his/her ideas with objectivity and have the ability to scrutinize the language they produce in a way that nat ive speakers cannot (Trang, 2012). It is through the tangible nature of writing that ELL students are able to perceive the connection between the writer and what is being written, which naturally involves negotiation of meaning through interaction between the two. Furthermore, writing enables language to be regarded as an object, or language data to be examined and discussed through the use of meta-language (Goldenberg, 2008).

Writing can be self-revealing because, unlike spoken language, writing does not require an audience other than the writer unless it is intended for either informal or formal publication and will be read by others. The personal possibility of writing provides a sense of security and comfort that enables the writers to freely explore their ideas or thoughts during as well as after the writing process, which can also contribute to the facilitation of the self-searching or self-analysis processes through deconstruction and reconstruction (Helfrich & Bosh, 2011). In such processes, beliefs or assumptions can be challenged in a retrospective manner before they are reconstructed based on self-discovery and analysis. In this respect, writing allows students to view the reality from a different perspective as it draws them into a search for a connection between cognitive and intuitive understanding of the world (Ajayi, 2008b).



The tangible nature of writing can facilitate deeper thought by providing opportunities for the critical examination of the student’s ideas as well as their revision. This demonstrates that the relationship between thought and writing is not unidirectional one, but instead can be influenced either way, constructing an inter-directional or interactive relationship that facilitates the development of both thought and writing (Ajayi, 2008a). Although some theorists claim that writing has enabled abstract thought and explicit manner, the same kind of abstract thinking can also be accomplished in some forms of speech, such as lectures, since ideas in these contexts are often highly elaborated or explicit in comparison to the succinctness of some forms of writing, such as personal notes or memos (Ajayi, 2008a). This demonstrates that the relationship between thought and writing is actually interdependent, whereas improvement brings benefits to the growth and refinement of both entities. It is also suggested that the reciprocity between writing and thought is such that writing empowers specific types of, but the potential of thought is what makes writing possible even though writing can facilitate thought.

Theoretical Frameworks for Understanding Language Development Linguistic and ethnic diversity impacts the ELL student’s ability to learn, particularly if the teacher has not

received pedagogical training educating them on how to integrate multicultural instructional methods into their educational environment (Otto, 2010). Furthermore, a multitude of aspects within the student’s environment also affect their ability to develop literacy skills that the educator must consider, such as the individual traits of the student, the learning environment, and the quality and quantity of the linguistic input the student receives within the home (Ball, 2010; Crim, et al., 2008). The nativist perspective on language development emphasizes innate linguistic capabilities as the primary contributory factor to language development in students (Morrison, 2009). This perspective of linguistic acquisition encourages educators to employ a curriculum that will allow numerous opportunities for students to explore language and explore various aspects of their growing knowledge and keep their language acquisition device (LAD) active (Morrison, 2009).

The cognitive development perspective speculates that linguistic acquisition comes with maturation and cognitive development, which is the foundation for teaching language (Ball, 2010). This perspective encourages educators to pay close attention to the cognitive developmental stages of young students to encourage stimulatory activities as precursors to the onset of linguistic development (Hill, 2007). The behaviorist perspective highlights the role of “nature” and the stimuli, responses, and reinforcements that occur in the student’s environment based on ‘operant conditioning’ along with the notion that students are “blank slates” before they are taught through various situations and learn language through imitative speech (Decker, Decker, Freeman, & Knopf, 2009). This perspective encourages teachers to focus on the types of stimuli and reinforcements regarding language that students encounter and would encourage them to communicate verbally.

3. Research Method For this research paper, the qualitative empirical research method was followed with an aim to examine the

relationship between language anxiety and group learning. The research design elucidates the strategy used to integrate the various facets of the research project in a coherent and cohesive manner (Flick, 2011). The study involves non-numerical data, which imparts empirical attributes to the research since the information is retrieved from textual analysis of the questionnaires. As such, this enquiry will be predominantly empirical although the established framework is derived from extensive literature in this area (Creswell, 2009). Since the research will be primarily empirical, much data will be collected through observations, self-administered questionnaires with explicit instructions and discussions with willing participants (Creswell, 2009).

Research Design A case study approach has been employed to investigate the language development in the writing and reading

processes of the ELL learner. The reason for adopting the approach is that it is inductive, heuristic, and



descriptive (Graziano & Raulin, 2009). Based on research that has been conducted, the case study is a careful and holistic view of the relative context of the study. With this view, the researcher chose to examine the writing, and reading experiences of the ELL learners that have attended courses taught by the researcher for easy accessibility to willing participants.

Participants The participants are ELL learners who are studying English formally whose English proficiency ranges from

beginner to upper/intermediate levels. It is very crucial to any teacher to know, and identify the learners’ present strategies, strengths, and weaknesses to determine his/her baseline achievement so that any subsequent progress can be adequately measured. This will assist the teacher in implementing the new strategies so that the performance of the learners is improved. The participating students encompass 480 ELL learners that have completed the surveys completely and accurately.

Data Collection Method The study was conducted over a course of three years using students already enrolled in a total of 24 Freshman

Composition 1, Freshman Composition 2, or Business Writing classes taught by the researcher. The learner was given writing and reading exercises both individually and assigned to a group for cooperative completion. The task was to produce a writing described as creative, and the participants were also requested to read their individual writing and group writing in front of the class in order to assess their reading skills. The participants were instructed to be imaginative and produce a writing that depicts their childhood experiences for both assignments.

The respondents were made to be at ease by informing them that this was not a test, and there was no need to panic or become tense when giving answers, and that any answer given was neither wrong nor right. The participants were also instructed to ask for any clarification if needed. During the whole exercise, the researcher remained in order to observe and collect data. The respondents were given all the necessary items. A duration of thirty minutes was given to the respondents for each assignment, with an additional three minutes to read the writing out loud, and the researcher ensured that time was adhered to. Once the writing task was over, the respondent was interviewed using the survey presented in Appendix A: Aggregate Survey Results, which asked specific Likert-scaled, yes/no, or multiple choice questions that were designed to determine whether the participant experienced LA, the perceived causes, and the degree in which respondents experienced LA during individual assignments versus when they were paired with peers in group assignments.

Ethical Issues In order not violate the ethical considerations of the respondent, all participants were fully informed by verbal,

and written forms, in a language that they best understand regarding all their respective rights. Each participant was well-informed of what was required from him/her, how the information collected was to be used, and that all the information given was anonymous to protect privacy. The respondents were also asked sign a form of consent showing that he/she agreed and was providing information of their own free will.

4. Results This section will detail the results of the survey questionnaire interspersed with observational notes collected

by the researcher during the course of the study. The survey contained various multiple choice Likert -based questions with five or seven options, such as ‘not anxious at all, slightly anxious, moderately anxious, very anxious, and extremely anxious’ for the five option questions; and ‘strongly disagree, disagree, slightly disagree, neither disagree nor agree, slightly agree, agree, and strongly agree for the seven option questions, as well as the analysis of the results for each individual survey question will first be presented followed by demographic details of the participants. The results will be presented in the form of graphical illustrations to represent the research findings. Following the presentation of the



results, a discussion of the determinations that can be drawn from these results will present a comparative examination of how these results represent norms in ELL education.

Survey Results The survey questions are preluded by instructions that state: ‘This survey is intended to examine your

experience with language anxiety. Language anxiety is used to describe feelings of apprehension experienced in association with completing a written L2 assignment. Please answer each question completely. Your participation is appreciated.’ The survey was presented to each student written in their native tongue to avoid complications due to linguistic misinterpretation. With the understanding of LA established, the first question asked: Have you ever experienced language anxiety? The results are shown in

Figure 1: Results of Survey Question One below which illustrates that 87% or 418 students reported having

experienced LA while 13% or 62 students stated they had not experienced it.

Figure 1: Results of Survey Question One

The next survey question asks: To what extent was your level of anxiety? The responses are designated based

on a five-point Likert scaled selection, where the respondents could answer Not Anxious at All; Slightly Anxious; Moderately Anxious; Very Anxious; or Extremely Anxious. The respondent answers for this question are shown in

Figure 2: Results of Survey Question Two, shown below.

Figure 2: Results of Survey Question Two

418; 87%

62; 13%

Question 1. YES NO

62; 13%

76; 16%

117; 24%

158; 33%

67; 14% Question 2. Not Anxious at All

Slightly Anxious

Moderately Anxious

Very Anxious

Extremely Anxious



The majority of student respondents, 33% or 158, selected ‘very anxious’ while the next largest cohort, 24% or 117, selected ‘moderately anxious’. The response, ‘slightly anxious’ was the next largest cohort at 16% or 76 students, while 14% or 67 students selected ‘extremely anxious’ and only 13% or 62 students stated they were ‘not anxious at all.’

The third survey question asked: Could you tell me the reasons why you experienced language anxiety? The respondent results for this question are shown in

Figure 3: Results of Survey Question Three below, which shows that the vast majority of students, 45% or 219, stated that the reason why they experience LA is because they ‘become frustrated’ because they forget how to express their thoughts.

Figure 3: Results of Survey Question Three

The next largest response group at 27% or 129 students stated that they are ‘afraid of making a mista ke’ in

front of their peers and 17% or 81 students said they were ‘afraid of speaking in public’ while 11% or 51 students said they ‘become confused, nervous, and forget what to say’ when asked to complete an L2 assignment.

The fourth survey question asked about the participants’ level of anxiety in an independent L2 assignment, shown in

Figure 4: Results of Survey Question Four using the same Likert scale previously mentioned, and 29% or 137 students stated such assignments made them ‘extremely anxious.’

Figure 4: Results of Survey Question Four

0 50 100 150 200 250

Afraid of Speaking in Public

Afraid of Making a Mistake in Front of People

Forget How to Say Things I Know & Become Frustrated

Become Confused, Nervous, & Forget What to Say

81

129

219

51

Question 3.



The next largest cohorts were 25% or 118 students that stated they were ‘very anxious’, 20% or 98 students said

they were ‘moderately anxious, 15% or 73 students said they were ‘slightly anxious’, and 11% or 54 students said they were ‘not anxious at all’ when given independent L2 writing assignments.

The fifth survey question asked what would encourage participation in a writing activity without anxiety, shown in

Figure 5: Results of Survey Question Five below.

Figure 5: Results of Survey Question Five

The majority of students, 41% or 198, indicated that ‘more interactive group activities’ would facilitate greater

participation while 29% or 137 students stated ‘more writing activities’ would engender their engagement, and 16% or 78 and 14% or 67 students stated ‘understanding the rules of English’ and being able to prepare in advance for the assignments, respectively, would spark greater engagement.

The sixth survey question, shown in Figure 6: Results of Survey Question Six below asks whether participants experienced LA during group

writing exercises and the results show 78% or 375 students said they do while 22% or 105 students said they do not.

Figure 6: Results of Survey Question Six

0

50

100

150

Not Anxious at All

Slightly Anxious Moderately

Anxious Very Anxious Extremely Anxious

54 73

98 118

137

Question 4.

0 50 100 150 200

Understanding the many Rulesof English

More Writing Activities

More Interactive Activities in Groups

Assignments that Allow Preparation in Advance

78

137

198

67

Question 5.



The next question, shown in Figure 7: Results of Survey Question Seven below asks about the level of the students’ anxiety when participating

in a group writing activity.

Figure 7: Results of Survey Question Seven

The majority of participants, 37% or 177 students, indicated that they were ‘moderately anxious’ about

completing an L2 assignment in a group while the next largest cohort, 22% or 103 students, stated that they were only ‘slightly anxious,’ and of the remaining participants, 18% or 87 stated they were ‘not anxious at all,’ while 14% or 69 stated that they were ‘very anxious,’ and 9% or 44 students said that they were ‘extremely anxious.’

The results of the eighth survey question show in Figure 8: Results of Survey Question Eight below asked about the perceived factors students thought

contributed to the group writing activity being less likely to cause anxiety than an independent writing exercise.

Figure 8: Results of Survey Question Eight

375; 78%

105; 22%

Question 6.

YES

NO

0 50 100 150 200

Not Anxious at All

Slightly Anxious

Moderately Anxious

Very Anxious

Extremely Anxious

87

103

177

69

44

Question 7.



The majority of the respondents, 44% or 209 students, indicated that their reason was because the activity

allowed the opportunity for them to learn from their peers, 29%or 138 students said that peers corrected errors in their writing, 16% or 78 participants indicated that group activity enabled them to engage with their peers, and 11% or 55 individuals indicated that the assistance of group members made the activity less time consuming.

Question nine of the survey asked participants whether they experienced less anxiety when engaged in L2 group activities and the response selection was based on a seven point Likert scale ranging from ‘strongly disagree’ to ‘strongly agree.’ The participant results for question nine are shown in

Figure 9: Results of Survey Question Nine below.

Figure 9: Results of Survey Question Nine

0

50

100

150

200

250

The Activity Allows me to

Learn from My Peers

The Activity Allows me to

Engage with My Peers

Availability of More Time Since others are Helping

Peers Provide Correction that

Improves Writing

209

78 55

138

Question 8.



The largest cohort of 35% or 167 students agreed with the statement while the next largest cohort of 23% or 108

said they strongly agreed and 18% or 88 participants indicated that they slightly agreed, placing a total of 76% of participants in agreement with this statement. Of the remaining participants, 11% or 51 students stated they neither agreed or disagreed with the statement, 6% or 29 students said they slightly disagreed, 4% or 21 students said they disagreed, and 3% or 16 participants said that they strongly disagreed with the statement.

The results from survey questions one through nine enabled the researcher to determine an answer to the first research question, which asked about the frequency of LA in regards to group work as opposed to individual L2 assignments. The fourth and seventh survey questions are compared in

Figure 10: LA Experience in Group vs. Individual L2 Writing Exercises, which shows that a total of 45% or 255

students indicated they were extremely or very anxious and only 20% were ‘moderately anxious’ in response to question four whereas responses for question seven, only 25% or 113 students indicated that they were extremely or very anxious.

Figure 10: LA Experience in Group vs. Individual L2 Writing Exercises

0

50

100

150

200

Strongly Disagree Disagree Slightly Disagree

Neither Disagree nor Agree Slightly Agree Agree

Strongly Agree

16 21 29

51 88

167

108

Question 9.



This supports the first hypothesis that ELL students frequently experience language anxiety but this is greatly

reduced through associative learning exercises that provide opportunities for scaffolding to assist learning.

The results to questions ten through fourteen are shown in Figure 11: Results of Survey Questions 10-14 below, which also provides a comparative view of the series since

they are all based on the same seven-option Likert-based scale.

Figure 11: Results of Survey Questions 10-14

0 50 100 150 200

Not Anxious at All

Slightly Anxious

Moderately Anxious

Very Anxious

Extremely Anxious

54

73

98

118

137

87

103

177

69

44

Question 7

Question 4



Question ten asked whether students felt more confident when completing group assignments as opposed to

independent assignments. Overall, 84% of the students indicated some form of agreement in response to this question while 7% did not agree or disagree and the remaining 9% indicated some form of disagreement with the statement. The next survey question, number 11, asked if students agreed that they felt more confident about their overall knowledge during group assignments, of which a total of 16% indicated some level of disagreement with this statement and 11% did not agree or disagree. The remaining 73% indicated some level of agreement to the statement.

The third survey question in Figure 11: Results of Survey Questions 10-14 is number 12, which asks if students agree that scaffolding &

associative learning in group writing assignments enhance the educational experience, to which a total of 85% of the students indicated some degree of agreement. While 8% indicated they did not agree or disagree, the remaining 7% indicated some level of disagreement with the statement. However, question 13 asked students whether they agreed that they learned more during group exercises than during independent assignments, a total of 82% of the students agreed to some degree that they had while 10% did not agree or disagree and the remaining 8% disagreed to some degree. The final question in the series, number 14, asked students if they agreed that their experience of LA was significantly reduced in group activities as opposed during independent assignments, to which 82% of the students

0 50 100 150 200 250

Strongly Disagree

Disagree

Slightly Disagree

Neither Disagree nor

Agree

Slightly Agree

Agree

Strongly Agree

9

14

18

33

118

93

195

17

28

34

52

139

115

95

12

8

13

37

109

185

116

12

7

18

49

205

91

98

11

10

13

54

177

111

104

Question 14

Question 13

Question 12

Question 11

Question 10



agreed to this statement to some degree while 11% did not agree or disagree and the remaining 7% indicated that they disagreed with the statement in varying degrees.

Overall, the answers to survey questions 10-14 enabled the researcher to determine an answer to the second research question, which asked whether L2 activities that integrate associative learning through group scaffolding improved ELL students’ writing apprehension and enhanced student engagement. The overwhelming majority of students that agreed to the series of statements in varying levels as opposed to the percentages that disagreed showed that more students experienced educational benefits than did not. This also supports the second hypothesis, which posited that L2 activities that integrate associative learning strategies enhance student engagement in the writing activities and facilitate learning, as well as retention of the lesson better than activities requiring individual efforts.

5. Discussion In addition to the four options that encourage ELL students to participate in L2 activities mentioned in

question five, studies suggest that the degree of oral or written participation students’ give is increased if application and presentation activities are used; the right vocabulary is offered when students need it to continue; questions related to students’ prior experiences are asked; and an informal and friendly classroom atmosphere is present (Tong, 2010, p. 240). When sociolinguistic skills improved, conversation increased as did the grammatical analytical input, and accuracy, which decreased the negative feedback that verbal hypothesis testing elicits (Tong, 2010, p. 240). Individuals have psychological and social differences that contribute to the uniqueness of each student, and therefore cannot use the same learning strategies. Strategies used for adolescents and adults cannot be used for all students. There is a need for the ELL teachers to understand the skills and cultural heritage of their students’. Fluency and literacy in the mother tongue provides a cognitive and linguistic foundation for learning additional languages when their mother tongue is the primary language of instruction (Ball, 2010).

It has been established that language learning is especially successful when the L2 is used to facilitate understanding well as for the purpose of enhancing reading and listening skills. To achieve this end, ELL educators encourage their students to participate vocally in language classrooms and produce intelligible feedback. Such involvement can help students establish a foundation that will enable them to accurately communicate what they want to say and can be the determining factor in the level of engagement achieved, as was indicated in the responses provided for question three. Furthermore, student participation in verbal interaction offers language learners the opportunity to follow up on new words and structures to which they have been ex-posed during language lessons and to practice them in context, as indicated in the responses for question eight. These factors can provide students with the motivation to learn and improve their conversational skills and behavioral patterns.

Common Literacy Challenges in Multicultural Classrooms Comprehensive linguistic input is vital to students’ ability to understand oral or written language (Roskos &

Christie, 2011). Customizing the lessons according to the students’ age, cognitive levels, and capabilities will ensure that they able to retain the knowledge and assimilate the new language being taught. These three factors, along with continued opportunities for development in their mother tongue, are vital to the successful development of bilingualism in students of diverse linguistic backgrounds (McNaught, 2002). Success in this area also depends on the availability of competent, bi/multilingual instructors that are able to engage the students and provide a multitude of opportunities for development of both languages (McNaught, 2002). The implementation of a multicultural curriculum should be derived from appropriate behaviors facilitated through unprejudiced thoughts and principles. Acceptance of cultural differences are necessitates that prelude the emergence of indicators of good teaching and enables the teacher to create environments that confirm and respect cultural as well as linguistic diversity (York, 2006).



6. Conclusion Reflecting the complex and multidimensional nature of anxiety, several recent techniques for anxiety reduction

have placed more emphasis on the importance of the student’s self-awareness in dealing with their anxiety, but such techniques as self-talk or imaginary self-dialogue do not always guarantee the actual engagement by the students especially when they are already in anxiety-provoking situations. If employed in conjunction with some personal writing activities, however, their potential utility can be multiplied, because writings accompanied by self-talk exercises seem to naturally foster the students’ own responsibility or initiative to tackle their own language anxiety.

The idea of incorporating writing activities into a collection of anxiety-reduction techniques that already exist as a teacher resource seems to be quite in line with the recommendation offered, which says that the teacher encourage their students to verbalize any fears or nervous feelings that they have experienced in the process of learning and performance in L2 and write them down in a self-reflective journal or diaries. While in some cases, expressing their anxious feelings or inner conflicts in L2 orally may create another psychological burden or further anxiety in some students, writing personal journals or diaries, for example, can provide them with plenty of freedom in terms of time and security, as well as a good opportunity for self-reflection and analysis. Such advantages of writing over those of speaking seem to deserve more attention from both teachers and students alike, especially when they attempt to deal with the issue of anxiety effectively. Limitations to this study present in that the researcher was limited to students in the classes taught. Furthermore, additional studies should be conducted that also analyze how ethnic or multicultural learning differences impact ELL students.

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Appendices Appendix A: Aggregate Survey Results

Survey Questionnaires

This survey is intended to examine your experience with language anxiety. Language anxiety is used to describe feelings of apprehension experienced in association with completing a written L2 assignment. Please answer each question completely. Your participation is appreciated.

Question Response # of Respondents

1. Have you ever experienced language anxiety?

YES 418

NO 62

480

2. To what extent was your level of anxiety?

Not Anxious at All 62

Slightly Anxious 76

Moderately Anxious 117

Very Anxious 158

Extremely Anxious 67

480

3. Could you tell me the reasons why you experienced language anxiety?

Afraid of Speaking in Public 81

Afraid of Making a Mistake in Front of People

129

Forget How to Say Things I Know & Become Frustrated

219

Become Confused, Nervous, & Forget What to Say

51



480

4. When you think of writing in English in an independent assignment, what is your level of anxiety?


Slightly Anxious 73


Very Anxious 118


480

5. What kinds of things would encourage you to participate in a writing activity without feeling anxious?

Understanding the many Rules of English

78

More Writing Activities 137

More Interactive Activities in Groups

198

Assignments that Allow Preparation in Advance

67

480

6. Do you experience language anxiety when participating in group writing exercises?

YES 375

NO 105

480

7. When participating in a group writing activity, what is your level of anxiety?




Slightly Anxious 103


Very Anxious 69


480

8. What are some factors that make the group writing activity less likely to cause anxiety over an independent writing exercise?

The Activity Allows me to Learn from My Peers

209

The Activity Allows me to Engage with My Peers

78

Availability of More Time Since others are Helping

55

Peers Provide Correction that Improves Writing

138

480

9. When participating in group activities, I experience anxiety less frequently than when completing independent activities.

Strongly Disagree 16

Disagree 21

Slightly Disagree 29

Neither Disagree nor Agree 51

Slightly Agree 88

Agree 167



Strongly Agree 108

480

10. When participating in group activities, I feel more confident than when I complete independent assignments since I get help from my peers.

Strongly Disagree 9

Disagree 14



Slightly Agree 86

Agree 93

Strongly Agree 195

480

11. When completing a group assignment, I feel more confident about what I know.


Disagree 28



Slightly Agree 139

Agree 115

Strongly Agree 95

480

12. Group writing assignments that provide scaffolding & associative learning enhance the learning experience.


Disagree 8





Slightly Agree 109

Agree 185

Strongly Agree 116

480

13. I learned more during the group writing exercise than I did completing the independent writing assignment.


Disagree 7



Slightly Agree 205

Agree 91

Strongly Agree 98

480

14. My learning anxiety was greatly reduced during the group writing exercise than when completing the independent writing exercise.


Disagree 10



Slightly Agree 177

Agree 111

Strongly Agree 104

480

DEMOGRAPHIC QUESTIONS (for statistical purposes only)

15. What is your age group?

18-22 95



23-27 137

28-32 77

33-37 61

38-42 36

43-47 28

48-52 25

53 & Above 21

480

16. What is your gender?

MALE 248

FEMALE 232

480

17. What is your nationality or ethnic origin (First Language)?

Spanish/Latino 121

Italian 67

Indian 53

Chinese 89

Pakistan/Middle Eastern 76

Russian 31

Malay 9

Japanese 20

African 6

Other 8

480



IMPLEMENTING ENGLISH STUDY IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: INVESTING IN EARLY INTERACTIVE READING AND

CHILDREN LITERATURE

Zahra Hakimi (corresponding author) Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran

E-mail: [email protected]

Seyed Jamal Abdorahimzadeh Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran


Ali Asghar Kargar Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran

E-mail: [email protected] ABSTRACT Teaching English to young students has become especially important in recent years. The present study attempted to address the question whether Iranian primary school children can learn English with a reading based approach to teaching and also to monitor the effect of working with children literature on students' development of reading comprehension skills. To this end, 26 girl primary school students in grade 5 were taught English with an interactive reading model and children literature for 15 months. To check overall achievement, four tests were administered at the end of the program. The tests tapped word meaning recognition, sentence meaning comprehension, short text comprehension, and overall comprehension of simple children stories. Analysis of the data demonstrated that students were at the good level of achievement in word meaning recognition and sentence meaning comprehension tests with reference to the criteria of achievement success applied by the Organization of Education. While students’ performance in the short text comprehension test was at the acceptable achievement level, the results of the literature based test revealed that they could handle children literature short stories at the good achievement level. In the quest for finding effective ways to teach English as a foreign language in primary education contexts and to provide a motivating and engaging instructional tool in language learning, interactive reading and children literature are suggested to be employed in foreign language classes offered to primary school children. KEYWORDS: phonics, Look-say, primary education, interactive reading, children literature, teaching reading 1. Introduction In today’s world there is an overwhelming interest in learning and teaching foreign or second languages. In

the past, learning a foreign or second language was restricted to special groups of children, but today in the world of technology, the recurrent idea is that foreign language learning should be part of every child's education. Therefore, in the profession of language teaching, several methods have been devised as practical means for teaching foreign languages to children. Regarding children’s educational development, the study of foreign languages has been shown positive effects on improving communication skills and explicit impacts on memory and listening skills. English is an important language in the world, and in many countries the most emphasis is on learning English as a second or foreign language. According to Brewster, Elis and Girard (2004, p.14), foreign language at a young age gains its importance from following reasons: "children are full of physical energy, are developing literacy in their first language, are developing conceptually and are good mimics". Therefore, there is a strong belief among experts that children learn languages without any problem better than adults.



Because of the fact that teaching of reading has been the center of attention over the past twenty years, there have been different approaches to teaching reading to children. Some say reading is mastery in phonics (LaBerge & Samuels, 1974), that is, in learning reading, children at first translate letters into sounds and then use their comprehension skills to recognize what words are made by the sounds. Regarding another view, known as look-say or whole word, children's reading is primarily visual. Smith (1971) argued that children can read words as visual 'wholes' without any prior translation of symbols into sounds.

Today, using children literature for teaching English to young learners is also an accepted way for teachers because children are always enthusiastic readers. The definition of children's literature is categorized based on: intended audience and the purpose. It has three subcategories including entertainment, entertainment and information, and empathy and style/quality. The widely used definition has accentuated on intended audience meaning children's literature is body of any texts that is selected for a particular individual, by any particular society. Children are defined in terms of range of socio-cultural and individual characteristics (Galda & Cullinan, 2002).

English is a compulsory course in primary education in many countries worldwide. Unfortunately in Iran children do not enjoy such an opportunity in primary school curriculum; and it is an unjustifiable weak point for the educational system in Iran in comparison to other system around the world. Therefore, this study tries to investigate the possibility of teaching English at primary school intentionally with a reading orientation so that the integration of such a program into the primary education curriculum can be carried out as smoothly as possible. To this end, the present study seeks to address the following research questions:

1. Is it possible to initiate English teaching at primary school based on the interactive model of early reading?

2. Could a program in reading children literature succeed in supplementing such an approach to teaching English at primary school?

2. Literature Review The two major approaches to reading instruction in a foreign language are phonics and look-say. Phonics is

based on the recognition of letter and sounds relationship, that is, the link between graphemes (printed letters) and phonemes (their associated sounds). In a report by Anderson et al. (1985), phonics was considered as one of the essential ingredients in early reading instruction. Investing how the best schools teach reading, Ofsted (2010) found support for synthetic phonics in primary schools. Moreover, it was found that concentrated and systematic teaching of phonics played a central role in attaining success in school subjects. According to (Macmillan, 1997), learning to read requires understanding the fact that print is a code for representing speech sounds. The look-say method offers another angle to look at reading instruction to children. The fundamental characteristic of this method, according to Campbell (1995), is that language is taken as a whole and, accordingly, it is best learnt as a whole provided that meaningful and relevant text is presented. Goodman (1975) stated that the common controversy between the two approaches to reading simply could be boiled down to talking about the two sides of the same coin, that is, both approaches seem to deal with words as “ends in themselves”. Taking account of these insights, it seems that what we need in teaching early reading is an approach to combine bottom-up and top-down reading sub-processes associated with phonics and Look-say respectively. This is what is known as the interactive model of reading. As Rumelhart (1985) elaborated, reading could be thought of as both a "perceptual and cognitive" process, that is, it is a process which phonics is based on the interaction between text and reader. Barmford and Day (2004) pointed out that decoding of the word in reading is the prior factor for meaning-construction; subsequently, the reader decodes the massage that a writer has encoded into a text. Successful word-decoding gives rise to the activation of reader's information and prior knowledge so that comprehension is finally achieved. Call's (1967) study showed the effectiveness of early phonics instruction and illustrated the point that dome focus on phonics for developing decoding skills was necessary but not sufficient. She argued that as children learn how to read, they need instruction that focuses on both decoding and comprehension.



Reading is a complex process that may follow different strategies, activities, and purposes. HelleKjar (2007) defined the relationship between the cognitive and interactive processes as 'reading comprises decoding of the written text on one hand, and efficiently processing the information gained on the other' (p.23). Also in another view reading involves two main processes: word recognition and comprehension. Word recognition is defined as understanding the way written symbols are related to one's spoken language, and comprehension is the process of making meaning of words, sentences, and connected text. For understanding written text readers usually require their background vocabulary knowledge, grammatical knowledge and being familiar with text (Bernhardt, 1991). Improving reading skill is an important end for both children and adults because the ability to read open new world, experiences and opportunities for reader. Gaining new knowledge and enjoy everything of new life to some extent depends on being able to read, and many people learn to read in their native language without more difficulties (Hulstijn, 1991).

Snow, Burns, and Griffin (1998) stated that reading needs learning about writing system and use it for representing speech. They reported that there is a close relationship between oral vocabulary and early reading ability. Also the ability to blend individual sounds within words which is an oral skill has a close connection with reading skill. Adams (1998) state that phonological awareness is closely associated with reading skill and it is important for alphabetic language because the link of alphabet letters on to individual sounds. They reported that children who can make the individual phonemes in alphabetic language learn more about alphabetic principles and they can identify the printed words quickly and accurately.

Block and Pressley (2002) discussed that in developing reading skill, readers use their knowledge and reasoning to know the texts. Comprehension strategies Such as, flow charts, story structure, and focusing on vocabulary are useful for students to deal with comprehension difficulties. Tuner and Paris (1995) argued that sometimes readers’ motivation affect their reading comprehension, that is, motivation can affect the way a book is read by readers and teachers.

A good strategy for developing reading skills is writing. The process of writing guides children to write what they say and have experienced. It helps to make connection between oral and written language (Clay, 2001). Texts for reading practice should be specified based on the level of the learners. Texts which are not difficult and include interesting points will encourage children to read and enjoy what they are reading. Authentic texts facilitate the process of reading comprehension for both children and adults (Carver, 1994). Reading assessment in beginning levels should be done by listening to students reading aloud. In high levels of reading, assessment should focus on text comprehension, and teachers' reading assessment is necessary to provide feedback to students (Caldwell, 2002).

In reading comprehension, children require their prior knowledge. Topics that are familiar in one culture may be unsuitable in another, as children in rural communities have different experiences from urbanized Children. Therefore, cultural knowledge will affect reading comprehension (Gee, 2001). Reading more is an important factor to make progress in reading comprehension. By reading more students can increase their knowledge and vocabulary, and become more fluent in reading. Encouraging students to read different types of texts helps them develop their reading proficiency (Shany & Biemiller, 1995).

Phonemes which are represented in the spellings of words are different from graphemes that are units of written language (Venezky, 1999). Williams (1980) taught students how to use graphemes and phonemes to blend the words. This is word decoding. Ehri and Wilce (1987) taught learners to use graphemes and phonemes to segment words. They said this program produced more motivation on children learning a language.

In some correlational studies, researchers assessed children's capability to manage phonemes and their reading ability and they reported that there is a strong relationship between phonemic awareness and learning to read (Ehri, 1979; Stahl & Murray, 1994). Phonics instruction by spelling programs teach learners to change sounds into letters to write words. In Look–say approach, children learn to read words as wholes, and they should acquire between 50 to 100 words, then when this program is completed after their first grade phonics instruction start for them (Aukerman, 1984).



Hoover and Gaough (1990) explained that reading skill has two main processes. One process includes learning to change the letters into identifiable words. The other involves comprehending the meaning of the print. In reading skill children learn to preform both of these processes, and they acquire comprehension skill to arrive at learning to speak. For developing reading skill readers should learn to read words in different ways. The first step to build a sight vocabulary is to apply some decoding strategies to read unknown words. These caused the words become familiar to the learner. Decoding of words through the process of letter-sound relations also lead to make alphabetic connections. These alphabetic connections record the words in memory as sight words (Ehri, 1992; Share, 1995).

Systematic phonics facilitates the process of learning to read words in different ways by teaching the alphabetic system. Alphabetic knowledge for decoding words, saving sight words in memory, and using sight word, memory to read words by analogy is useful and suitable for students. Also, it helps the process of predicting words from context. Word prediction gains more importance when readers mix the context cues with letter–sound cues in guessing unknown words in text (Tunmer & Chapmen, 1998).

Designers of phonics program want children's parents and teachers to start these programs when they are in kindergarten or first grade, as they have no reading skill. To understand the effect of age and grade, two groups of children were recognized: the younger children in kindergarten and first grade; and the older student's in second through sixth grades. The finding of the study showed that, in both groups, systematic phonics had an important impact on children's growth as reader, and both groups were equal (Chal, 1992).

The study of Tangel and Blachman (1995) indicated that phonics instruction with its concentration on teaching letter–sound relations would improve beginning readers’ ability to spell words. Also, they showed that younger children used developmental spelling scoring systems that gave respect for phonetically plausible spelling. Senechal and Cornell (1993) confirmed that reading a single book was sufficient to improve children's new demonstrative vocabulary of ten target words in the stories to a large extent, and after one week, the five year – olds children were better than four year – olds in remembering words. Robbins and Ehri (1994) claimed that for understanding and teaching of unfamiliar words to children, story book reading is a helpful path.

Literature has gained more importance in the past two decades, and its relationship with language learning is still the subject of research. Kramsch (2000) claimed that literature was considered as the explicit port of the foreign language studies at the beginning of 20th century and was the authentic source at the end of century. Krashen (1982) defined that children's literature provides comprehensible input through content and style, so this fact explain its use in learning English as a foreign language.

There are a lot of reasons which explain the use of stories in foreign language classroom; for example, Bowen and Marks (1994) provided a list of reasons. First, children's literature conveys what has occurred in the past, and what is happening in the present and future. Second, foreign or second language learners make connection with the language through the plot and characters in the stories. Third, introducing new vocabularies and language forms within a good context leads to remember and reinforce them into learners mind, and at least they are also give opportunities to learners to have contact with language context instead of receiving it in pieces and bits. The result of some studies which have investigated the use of children's literature with adults in EFL/ESL settings show that it has a positive effect on student's interest and motivation (chen, 2006; Estridge, 2000; Goh, 1996). The other study based upon the relationship between student's responses to children's literature and read-aloud in college ESL classes represented that "reading such materials aloud to be extremely useful and productive, and equally enjoyable for instructors and student's" (Khodabakhshi & Logos, 1993, p.56). Some experts examine sentence length, frequency used words form, everyday life and grammatical difficulties to find a suitable language of children in different age groups. As White (1992) suggested some criteria for children such as:

• The explanation for younger children should be simple and effective; • For older children more complex language with more words should be used; • Providing easier sentence construction in order to consider younger as a reader; • Books should include more basic vocabularies for younger children.



Kingberg (1978) administrated a study on reading interest, reading frequency and emotional reaction to stories between Sweden boys and girls of all social classes, age groups also in both town and country, and counted the most frequently attribute toward children's favorite books and reported that boys stated the adjective "exciting" first. On the other hand, girls stated both “exciting” and different types of emotional adjectives in first place. Children’s literature is one influential factor to motivate and entertain them. Topics and themes of their interest are based on children’s developmental characteristics needs. Children learn more about some concepts such as: happiness, sadness, friendship, dangerous situation, playing and so on. The socialization process happens in second language class, through which learners can think about the values and civilized standards in target language, for their own community literature helps them to touch their world and increase their understanding of life and human condition (Appleyard, 1990).

The result of some studies held that when children experience EFL classes through stories, whether by listening or reading, they can improve second language vocabulary acquisition (Carger, 1993; Collins, 2005; Ellay, 1989; Roberts, 2008). Similarly, some other experts, who investigated reading stories, reported its positive influence on children’s second language reading comprehension and skills (Aranha, 1985; Eadge, 1997; Elley, 1991). Exposure to stories showed that children are influenced by second language texts and use them as a writing model when they want to write about topics, and help to expand children’s imagination (Hudson, 1989; Samway & Taylor, 1993).

Children always are interested in plays and stories. The interaction and dialogues are characteristics of literature study, as Urzua (1992) noted that children like to say their ideas and interact with their friends during literature study and whenever they read an interesting story or hear an enjoyable context, they can develop verbal fluency by interaction sharing to reading and also children can improve their language learning by arranged interactions. The result of the other study showed that children use more literary language features and understand the union by using literature in class (Gohsn, 2007; Huie and Yahia, 2003).

3. Methodology 3.1. Participants The participants in this study were twenty six girls studying in the fifth grade of primary school. They were

checked for homogeneity regarding knowledge of English and it was ascertained that none of them had any familiarity with English. These students were living in Izadkhast, one of the regions of Abadeh. It is about 60 kilometers from the town, so it was also definite that they had no access to any kind of exposure to English in regular classes. The socioeconomic condition of the participants' families was also checked by means of the data gathered from the school officials and it was found to be almost the same for all participants, an issue that further contributed to the homogeneity of the sample members. The age range for the participants was between 11 and 12.

3.2. Instruments Teaching reading in English to primary school students following an interactive model and by means of

children literature were the objectives of this study. To this end, some materials were prepared by the researcher for teaching with Phonics and Look-say methods. The materials included a series of flashcards for teaching English sounds and 15 units designed by Abdorahimzadeh (2005) incorporating reading practice with the help of both Phonics and Look-say in each unit. As for the second step in the teaching process, the first half of another text book was covered. It was entitled Programmed Reading 1 authored by Buchanan (1973). To further direct the route of starting to learn English through reading, supplementary materials featuring children literature were also employed. These materials included four simple short stories selected and taught for the final phase of the treatment. The titles, authors’ names, number of pages, and dates of publication are given in the following:

A) Po-Po, written by DH Howe (1987) with 19 pages. B) Mary and her basket, written by DH Howe (1987) with 18 pages. C) Turkey, written by Jo Windsor (2004) with 18 pages.



D) The Bird and the Bread, written by DH Howe (2000) with 20 pages. Tests of word meaning recognition, sentence meaning comprehension, short text comprehension along with a

literature-based test that was separately developed and validated by the investigator were used to measure achievement as a result of reading training with a mixture of Phonics and Look-say.

3.3. Data Collection Procedure Participants in this study were to be taught how to read English through both Phonics and Look-say approach

in the first place, and to make use of their reading ability to enjoy children literature in the target language. This study was divided into three phases. In the first phase the training with a mixture of Phonics and Look-say methods lasted for six months. During this period, students had four 30-minute class sessions per week. In the second phase which lasted for three months, twelve 60-minute sessions were allocated to working with Programmed Reading 1. The purpose of this phase was to help learners develop comprehension of individual sentences and combination of them. The third phase lasted three months; the participants took part in two 60-minute class sessions per week. In this phase, the participants were given a chance to further expand their reading ability with the help of attractive themes in short stories. In the first phase, learners were directed to phonemic awareness through phonics instruction investing in associating the printed letters with sounds. The treatment started with short vowels such as: /a/, /e/, /i/, /o/, /u/. The students were provided with some flash cards holding the pictures of an “apple”, an “egg”, an “ink bottle”, an “orange”, an “umbrella” each signifying a word featuring a short vowel in focus. The short vowels that went with each picture were written under each picture and shown to the students. For teaching vowel /a/, for instance, the participants were shown the pictures of "apple", "ant" and "alligator" .The teacher (the researcher) pronounced /a/ sound in these words and acted as a model for producing sounds to students. At the same time, she instructed learners how to write the letters. As for the second step in this phase, the participants experienced reading words as a whole with the Look-say method. The goal of this step was to enhance learners’ ability to recognize the selected words by sight without trying to decode the words. To this end, new words were systematically introduced to the students with the help of pictures associated with words. To better manage teaching, some flashcards were used with individual words written on them. Flash cards were shown several times to the students until they keep in mind the selected word. As a last step, a text containing short sentences and featuring the worked-on sound segments prepared by Abdorahimzadeh (2005) based on both Phonics and Look-say, was taught in this stage. After students learnt to recognize words by using phonics and look-say, the focus was shifted to teaching individual brief sentences and combinations of them. Therefore, the first half of an elementary reading text book (Buchanan, 1973) was chosen for the second phase. The third phase involved reading simple stories selected from available children’s literature. Children readers are considered to carry the basic elements of children literature were to be extensively worked with, so four simple short stories were selected. Three stories were selected from Grade One and one story from Grade Two. In each class session, first the teacher gave very short explanation of grammatical points to the students if they were new. This will help less proficient students to participate in the task as well as providing valuable input by the teacher. The investigator read each part of the story several times, and students repeated the sentences after her for receiving correct pronunciations of words. Then students were divided into groups, and they read the selected pages together and tried to understand the meaning from the pictures. If they could not understand the meaning, the investigator used body movement, gesture, and as a final resort gave students some explanations in their native language so as to guess the meaning.

3.4. Data Analysis The purpose of this study was teaching interactive reading through phonics, Look-Say. The mean scores obtain

from students on different tests were subjected to check the success and suitability of such a teaching program against the norm index (According to the experts in charge of the Organization of Education, class mean scores at or above 85% of the total possible score indicate the excellent level; those at or above 70%, represent the good level, and mean scores at or above 50% of the total score, show the acceptable



level). To find the effect of literature on teaching reading comprehension, the statistical program SPSS were used to analyze data. Again, the criterion stated above was considered as an index to conclude students’ success in reading comprehension through children literature.

4. Results Q1: Is it possible to initiate English teaching at primary school based on the interactive model of early

reading? To answer the first questions of present study, learners performed three tests, in order to find their

understanding of words, sentences, and short text. Table 1 presents the statistical description for the word meaning recognition test.

Table 1. Word Meaning Recognition Test

N Range minimum maximum mean Std. deviation variance

26 6.00 13.00 19.00 16.42 1.79 3.24

As Table 1 shows, scores on the word meaning recognition test ranged from a minimum of 13 to a maximum

of 19, with a mean score of 16.42 and a standard deviation of 1.79. The variance of the scores on the test is 3.24. The mean score represented 82.25% of the total possible scores and it represented that students were at the good level of achievement on the basis of the success criteria.

The frequencies of individual scores are given in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Frequency scores of Word Meaning Recognition Test

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

13.00 1 3.8 3.8 3.8

14.00 4 15.4 15.4 19.2

15.00 4 15.4 15.4 34.6

16.00 3 11.5 11.5 46.2

17.00 5 19.2 19.2 65.4

18.00 6 23.1 23.1 88.5

19.00 3 11.5 11.5 100.0

Total 26 100.0 100.0

With reference to the criteria for achievement success applied by the Organization of Education, Table 2

indicates that 3.8% of the participants had achievement at the acceptable level. The performance of 42.3% of the participants was at the good level of achievement and 53.8% performed at the excellent level.

Table 3 presents the statistical description for the sentence meaning comprehension test.

Table 3. Sentence Meaning Comprehension Test

N Range Minimum maximum Mean Std. deviation Variance



26 7.00 11.00 18.00 15.15 2.30 5.33

As Table 3 shows, scores on the sentence meaning comprehension test range from a minimum of 11 to

maximum of 19, with a mean score of 15.15 and a standard deviation of 2.30. The variance of the scores on the test is 5.33. The mean score represented 75.75% of the total possible scores and it represented that students were at the good level of achievement according to the criteria established by the Organization of Education. As seen in above Table, there is a slight difference in the mean score of this test with previous test.

The frequency table below shows the frequency of individuals’ scores on the test.

Table 4. Frequency scores of Sentence Meaning Comprehension Test

Valid Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

11.00 3 11.5 11.5 11.5

12.00 1 3.8 3.8 15.4

13.00 3 11.5 11.5 26.9

14.00 2 7.7 7.7 34.6

15.00 4 15.4 15.4 50.0

16.00 3 11.5 11.5 61.5

17.00 6 23.1 23.1 84.6

18.00 4 15.4 15.4 100.0

Total 26 100.0 100.0

As regards the criteria for achievement success applied by the Organization of Education, Table 4 indicates

that 26.8% of the participants had achievement at the acceptable level. The performance of 34.6% of the participants was at the good level of achievement and 38.5% performed at the excellent level.

Table 5 presents the statistical description for the short text comprehension test.

Table 5. Short Text Comprehension Test

N Range Minimum Maximum Mean Std. deviation Variance

26 5.00 4.00 9.00 6.69 1.31 1.71

As Table 5 shows, scores on the short text comprehension test ranged from a minimum of 4 to maximum of 9,

with a mean score of 6.69 and a standard deviation of 1.31. The variance of the scores on the test is 1.71.The mean score was equal to 66.9% of the total possible scores and it indicated that students were at the acceptable level of achievement on the basis of the success criteria.

A frequency table was also used to show the frequencies of individuals’ scores as depicted in Table 6



Table 6. Frequency Scores of Short Text Comprehension Test

Valid

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

4.00 1 3.8 3.8 3.8

5.00 3 11.5 11.5 15.4 6.00 5 19.2 19.2 34.6 7.00 6 23.1 23.1 57.7 8.00 9 34.6 34.6 92.3 9.00 2 7.7 7.7 100.0 Total 26 100.0 100.0

With respect to the criteria for achievement success applied by the Organization of Education, Table 6 indicates

that the performance of 3.8% of the participants was at the unacceptable level of achievement. 11.5% of the participants had achievement at the acceptable level. The performance of 42.3% of the participants was at the good level of achievement and 42.3% performed at the excellent level.

Q2: Could a program in reading children literature succeed in supplementing such an approach to teaching English at primary school?

To answer the second question of this study, the literature based test was administered, in order to understand students’ development in reading skill.

Table 7 presents the statistical description for the literature based test.

Table 7. Literature Based Test

N Range minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Variance

26 8.00 11.00 18.00 15.34 2.26 5.11

As Table 7 shows, scores on the literature based test ranged from a minimum of 11 to a maximum of 18, with a

mean score of 15.34 and a standard deviation of 2.26. The variance of the scores on the test is 5.11. The mean score represented 76.7% of the total possible scores and it showed that students were at the good achievement level according to the criteria established by the Organization of Education.

The frequency table below shows the frequencies of individual scores.

Table 8. Frequency scores of Literature Based Test

Valid

Frequency Percent Valid Percent Cumulative Percent

11.00 1 3.8 3.8 3.8

12.00 2 7.7 7.7 11.5 13.00 2 7.7 7.7 19.2 14.00 4 15.4 15.4 34.6 15.00 4 15.4 15.4 50.0



16.00 17.00 18.00

3 5 5

11.5 19.2 19.2

11.5 19.2 19.2

61.5 80.8 100.0

Total 26 100.0 100.0

Regarding the criteria for achievement success applied by the Organization of Education, Table 8 indicates that

19.2% of the participants had achievement at the acceptable level. The performance of 42.3% of the participants was at the good level of achievement and 38.4% performed at the excellent level.

5. Discussion 5.1. Research Question 1 Is it possible to initiate English teaching at primary school based on the interactive model of early reading? In order to answer the first question, tree tests were administered, and the performances of students were

considered. The outcomes of the study revealed that in teaching English with an interactive model, students can learn a foreign language more effectively and fluently. Results obtained separately from the analysis of various tests including, word meaning recognition, and sentence meaning comprehension indicated that students were at the good level of achievement in these tests but in short text meaning comprehension test students’ mean scores reveled that they were at the acceptable level of achievement, and they did not perform successfully in this test. Their weak performance may be resulted from the fact that the selected text book, Programmed Reading 1 (Buchanan, 1973) was taught in the second phase was not based on students’ interest. In this text book, the concentration was on reading comprehension with simple individual sentences and combination of very short sentences. Each item accompanied one simple illustration. Students’ weakness in this test may be linked to the nature of the text book. The illustrations and framework given in the text book might not have been attractive enough for students to develop their understanding of short texts.

Comparing the findings of this test with Abdorahimzadeh’s (2005) study in which participants performed successfully in short text comprehension test may reveal that some factors such as families’ socio-economic condition and living in different areas had impact on students’ learning as students with higher socio-economic condition who were living in Shiraz were successful in this test. The general conclusion drown from other related studies show that teaching English through interactive model improved learning to read (Day, 1993; Dechant and Emerald, 1991; Burns, 2003). The National reading Panel (2000) reported that phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary and comprehension are the five components to be included in reading instruction. Chien and Chen (2002), Liaw (2003), and Leou and Huang (2006) studied elementary school students in Taiwan, and one finding they shared in common is that by using explicit instruction on phonological awareness and phonics in classroom; students made great improvements on their vocabulary and reading comprehension.

Teaching English as a foreign language at primary level has a significant role in children education. As Curtain (1990) claimed, children in elementary schools are eager about the ideas of global understanding. In other words it can be said that elementary school education is a suitable time to expand the student s’ intercultural views and enhancement of cognitive skills.

Park (2002) reported that students believed their elementary school English had a positive effect on their English learning at middle school in the domains of reading, speaking and listening. Similar results were found in Lee, Choi, Boo, and Lee (2001). In teaching beginning reading, phonics puts great concentration on the gradually introduction of and intensive practice on performing sound-symbol relationship at different successive stages. According to Cunningham (1995), children benefit most when phonics instruction begins in kindergarten in Grade One. This instruction needs to be clear and done in sequence. Bradley and Bryant (1983) stated that regardless of children socio-economic status, explicit phonics instruction is more beneficial for them. Also children who have difficulty in learning to read gain the most benefit. The results of the Thompson’s (1999) study showed that phonics instruction help



children with word recognition, spelling and reading. When children become more fluent in decoding and reading words, they are capable to concentrate on building their comprehension.

Look-say helps children associate whole concepts in their mind with their symbolic representations in the form of whole words. Flash cards with individual written words on them are used for this method usually accompanied with a related picture. Wern (1999) mentioned that one reason to start teaching early reading through look-say is that children tend to learn individual concepts as wholes rather than a combination of separate parts, or whole concepts should be represented by whole symbols. Zakaluk (1996) proposed that beginning reading was thought to be facilitated by making children memorize effective words in terms of meaning; words that are quickly remembered at sight are also easily stored in mind.

Nikolov (2009) mentioned that there is a strong relationship between parents’ level of education and students performance in language learning in Hungary. According to Munoz (2008), socio-economic condition and improvement are related to each other. As students with strong social background have access to different kinds of schools and also have opportunity of exposure to the language. For example they can use private tuition and learning resources. Gardner (1985) observed the important effects of parental encouragement and rewards on students’ behavior and their language learning. Lamb (2002) investigated three Indonesian learner groups, and he found that those living in provincial areas had a strongest instrumental purpose on language learning in comparison to those living in rural areas. Hornsby (2000) reported that a good reader has basic sight vocabulary of at least 50 words, and not only recognizes a word but also knows the meaning of the word. So, learning to read through Look-say approach is an effective wary for learners to record the new words in their minds. Barnett, (1989), and Carrell, Devine and Eskey (1998) claimed that effective reading is the combination of both phonics and look–say approaches and for developing reading skill learners need to learn both of them appropriately. As Lee and Vanpatten (2003) mentioned in reading comprehension, readers retrieve a general knowledge about topic by using relevant information from memories, and at the same time they consider details such as, letters, words, and illustrations. So, using interactive model in teaching reading leads to a better learning of this skill.

5.2. Research Question 2 Could a program in reading children literature succeed in supplementing such an approach to teaching English at

primary school? In terms of the second question, the literature based test was administered by the investigator to show the

degree of children successful in reading comprehension using literature. As it was revealed in the data analysis, the students’ performance in literature based test was acceptable based upon 75% criterion level. The nature of literature based test and short text comprehension test was the same. The purpose of both tests was to measure reading comprehension with simple individual sentences and combination of very short sentences. Thus, what was the reason for students’ good performance in the former test and their weak performance in latter. The results suggested that teaching reading comprehension through literature had a positive effect on the students’ reading achievement. According to the findings, claims about the effect of using children literature in learning reading skill can be confirmed. Following are some examples of studies that are in line with second question of this study.

Studies based utilizing reading stories have revealed a positive influence on children L2 reading comprehension and skills (Aranha, 1985; Tunnell and Jacobs, 1989; Eade, 1997; Elley, 1991, 2000). According to these studies, children literature was used in this investigation because of the following reasons:

1. They were natural and provided engaging language experiences; 2. They had simple language; 3. Illustrations helped learners to read and understand meaning; 4. Students learned vocabularies better in context. Bowen and Marks (1994) claimed that students learning of new words often occurred within the context of the

special story or situation in which they first encountered. Myuskens (2003) affirmed that using literary



text at the beginning and intermediate levels, help students for language practice and reading comprehension. Lin (2006) study indicated that literature had a positive effect on students’ attitude toward reading. Tamminga (2001) found that story telling not only provides access to different cultures but also helps to develop social skills and the ability to solve problems through cooperating with others.

Chung (1999) claimed that acquiring vocabulary naturally and a life–long reading habit as well as developing creativity and imagination is the results of using children literature in teaching English as a foreign language in his study. Van (2009) used literature in an EFL classroom and reported that literature develops cultural awareness and critical thinking as well as performing range of vocabulary, dialogues and imagination.

Gajdusek (1988) mentioned some advantages for the use of literature in language classroom such as: • It helps students overcome negative attitude, if any, forward the target language. • It gives variety into the language classroom. • It is in line with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) principles. • It produces highly motivated small group work. Viggiano (2003) carried out a study on the effectiveness of telling stories to students in four classrooms. She

claimed that storytelling can be a powerful tool of meaning making and teaching. To understand the learners emotionally and academically, a comprehensible framework was taught for the teachers, based on their cultural background. The researcher found that narrative story telling helped Latino immigrant students to connect their first culture to their new American culture by using their imagination.

6. Conclusion Teaching reading in English to primary school students following an interactive model and by means of

children literature were the objectives of this study. This study was conducted in Abadeh, Iran. The results obtained through the given tests confirmed that in teaching English, learners require both phonics and Look-say approach to be able to learn language successfully. One way to help students to improve their reading skill is through literature. Stories promoted learning which takes place in a more natural, interactive and meaningful context. They also motivate students to have a connection with their learning. Thus, learners’ performance also supported the research hypotheses. The outcomes of the study supported the claims of Haven (2000) that students take part in storytelling tasks actively, so stories motivate students to be more interested in language learning. Ross (2000) stated that using stories help our students to develop their competence to think clearly and creatively. Students can also express their understanding in different ways.

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A SURVEY OF IRANIAN EFL TEACHERS’ AND LEARNERS’ ATTITUDES TOWARD AUTHENTIC LISTENING MATERIALS

AT UNIVERSITY LEVEL

Sepideh Homaei The University of Guilan, Faculty of Literature & Humanities,

English Language department, Guilan, Iran [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study intends to deal with attitudes of teachers and learners toward authentic listening materials at pre-intermediate level. Present study addressed EFL teachers and students at pre intermediate proficiency level. Participants included 60 students, from both genders; male and female university students studying at Rodaki Higher Institute Education in the following fields: Accounting, Computer Engineering and Commercial Management and also 30 teachers who have been teaching listening at Rodaki Higher Institute Education. Students were randomly selected and assigned to two groups. Then, a standard placement test was distributed among them (Oxford Placement Test) to check their proficiency levels. The participants were divided into two groups, one group (authentic) was exposed to and received authentic listening materials, taken from the UK radio program, and the other group (simplified) received simplified listening materials, taken and adopted from the authentic listening materials used in this study. After that, to be sure that they know what authentic materials are, they were exposed to two each of related materials, and then the questionnaire was distributed among them the results taken from the questionnaire showed that the participants of this study (Iranian students at pre-intermediate level) prefer authentic materials and have positive attitudes toward using them. By the same token, the analysis of teachers’ questionnaire also denoted their satisfaction and positive attitudes toward authentic listening materials. The teachers asserted a cautious orientation toward using this material in the classroom. These findings can have implications for language learning/teaching, curriculum development paving the way for educational policy makers, teachers and learners to introduce authentic listening materials to EFL learners at pre-intermediate proficiency level. KEY WORDS: Listening Skills, Authentic Materials, EFL, pre-intermediate 1. Introduction Listening is one of the most important but Cinderella skill in EFL situation. Traditionally it was considered

as a “passive skill … our ears were receivers into which information was poured…” (Schmitt2002:193). Having been demystified those unjustly-neglected simplistic views, (myths) nowadays; it is regarded, as Schmitt (2002) aptly cited, an …” active, interpretive process”. For the variety of reasons maneuvering on this domain is really a worth-while process in applied linguistics and related disciplines in new millennium. Ever since the advent of communicative approaches in teaching, lots of efforts have been made by material developers and educational policy makers to make learning materials (tasks) as real-life like as possible. However there is significant difference in opinions regarding the presence of authentic materials in the FL classroom. Views range from strong caution to encouragement. The term authentic material has been defined in different ways throughout the literature. Scholars argue for the motivating power of authentic materials. By reviewing the related literature it become clear that using authentic materials has been mentioned a lot. It directly and effectively affects and is affected by other skills especially, speaking. In other words, our speaking shapes and are shaped by listening, how we involve in listening, what we listen, how we listen and how we are grown up with it. McNeil (1994) and Kilickaya (2004) indicate that the use of authentic texts is now considered to be one way for increasing students’ motivation for learning since they give the learner the feeling that he or she is learning the real



language—the target language as it is used by the community that speaks it. Empirical studies (Bacon &Finnemann’s, 1990; Otte, 2006; Thanajaro, 2000) have confirmed that students’ motivation and self-satisfaction increased after exposure to authentic aural texts... However, Guariento and Morley (2001) assert that such difficulties can be overcome by designing tasks that require only partial comprehension; the benefits that authentic materials bring to the FL classroom greatly outweigh the challenges. In addition, it is possible to overcome the challenges through task design. Thus, integrating authentic materials will merit the extra time and effort required of FL teachers and learners. The issue of when to introduce authentic materials has been surrounded by controversy in the field of language teaching. On the one hand, researchers such as Kilickaya (2004) and Kim (2000) claim that authentic materials can be used with intermediate and advanced students only. These researchers believe that the use of authentic materials at lower levels causes students to feel frustrated and de-motivated since students at these levels lack many lexical items and structures used in the target language. According to Guariento and Morley (2001), “ At lower levels, however, even with quite simple tasks…the use of authentic texts may not only prevent the learners from responding in meaningful ways but can also lead them to feel frustrated, confused, and, more importantly, demotivated” (p. 347). Kim (2000) further argues that authentic language may not expose students to comprehensible input at the earliest stages of acquisition. However, others claim that exposure to authentic materials should start in the earliest stages of language learning (McNeil, 1994; Miller, 2005), asserting that an early exposure to such texts will help students develop useful strategies for more complex tasks later on.

1.1 Statement of the problem It is thought that non-native speaking teachers’ and learners’ views would be valuable as they themselves,

are often successful learners and would know better of its benefits if any. Miller (2003) indicates that a survey conducted on The ESL Magazine website concerning the most used medium for obtaining authentic listening materials for ESL/EFL instruction found the TV the most used one). The literature indicates that researchers have investigated the impact of authentic materials on language comprehension and performance at various levels. Studies have demonstrated that adults spend nearly half of their communication time on listening (Gilman & Moody 1984; cited in Vandergrift, 1999), but according to many (Nunan, 1999; Oxford, 1993; Schmitt, 2002; Vandergrift, 1999) it has not been dealt with as it was supposed to be. Since the role of listening comprehension in language learning was taken for granted, it merited little research and pedagogical attention. Listening comprehension, despite the prominent roles it plays in language learning, has been ignored in language learning. In EFL situation, it has been viewed as a great issue that lots of students are bereft of an acceptable level of comprehension in a par with other skills. Having unique characteristics such as, being ephemeral, enjoying non-written language feature, redundancy, etc., made listening by nature different from other skills. . It plays a significant role in daily communication and educational process. In spite of its importance, the development of listening ability has received only slight emphasis in language instruction. From the other hand, there are many limitations and restrictions in getting access to materials. Most notably the lack of 'exposure' to real life situation for 'natural' development of language, EFL learners are bereft of a balanced level of listening. It is, therefore, important for EFL educational policy makers to prepare students for successful listening in EFL contexts by implementing and introducing authentic listening materials in the EFL classes. Iranian students live in an EFL environment, where they do not need to communicate with each other in daily life. Some studies provided insights about learners’ attitudes toward authentic input. In addition, pedagogical research sought to provide recommendations for material selection and sources. However, no study has been conducted with the aim of eliciting teachers’ and learners’ perceptions toward using authentic materials in their classes. Because of the importance of the teachers’ role in providing authentic input for the students, the present study attempts to address this issue. A cursory glance on the literature shows that there is a virtual gap survey research on EFL teacher’s and learners’ attitude on using authentic listening materials and its contributions on learning.



1.2 Significance of the study Listening is the most frequently used form of language skill (Thanajaro & Shrum, 2000), which plays a

significant role in daily communication and educational process. According to what has been stated by Krashen (1987) in input hypothesis , listening materials plays a great role in 'natural' development and moving from one step to the others, to learn effortlessly He argues that, learners should be in a acquisition-rich environment and be in natural exposure to language. Undoubtedly, this is one of the most rigorous claims which ascribe great importance to listening functions. Developing listening skills comes 'naturally' for some students, but with great difficulty for others. Acquiring listening skills can even be frustrating for some students. For some time, listening was regarded as a 'passive' or 'receptive' skill and, consequently, not particularly crucial as a skill area to be taught. Researchers then began to recognize the importance of listening and its role in comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982), and attention to and adoption of newer comprehension-based methodologies brought the issue to the fore. Listening became a skill to be reckoned with and its key position in communication was recognized (Feyten, 1991; Hadley, 2001). There are some issues in the literature regarding the teachers’ and learners’ attitude toward authentic materials that are pertinent and are reviewed. As a matter of easiness we discuss them separately. Authenticity brings back the enquiry of what is accurate, real and integral about language (Breen1985) .as far as the learners considerably depend on textbooks that are frequently used in Iran, and this may influence the language they produce, so the issues of authentic or inauthentic materials are posed. In addition, Kim (2000) argues that authentic materials make a major contribution to overcoming certain cultural barriers to language learning. On the other hand, some scholars do not see the value of using authentic materials. Clark (1983) claims that media do not affect learning under any conditions; thus, the question of authentic versus non-authentic makes no difference (as cited in Miller, 2005). Kilickaya (2004) further points out that authentic texts are random in respect to vocabulary, structures, functions, content, and length; thereby causing a burden for the teacher. Teachers face challenges regarding access to authentic materials, the expense of purchasing them, and the time required to find an appropriate authentic text and design suitable pedagogical tasks (McNeil, 1994; Miller, 2005)Such issues often make it impractical for instructors to integrate authentic materials into the curriculum successfully. Schmidt (1994) argues that authentic discourse may panic learners who find themselves faced with the speed of delivery coupled with a mixture of known and unknown vocabulary and structures. In teaching methodology, by advent of communicative approaches in teaching, educational policy makers tend to provide a real-life task (materials) as possible. Even after the advent of post method, exposing learners to language is a tenet. Building learners’ autonomy, facilitating and internalizing motivation are all principles in post method can be exerted by authentic materials. As a post method tenet, there is “an urgency& restructuring of classroom content and procedure”(Kumuravadevelue2001,p.538)serves as a notable way for building autonomy, it helps for providing many enriched ,ubiquitous and easily-accessible sources for extensive learning, learn to learn, raising cultural consciousness all be achieved by authentic materials.

Regarding teachers ‘perception, the literature is laden with various forms of teachers’ and learners’ opinions about different tips in applied linguistics in general. As McDonough (in Johnson and Johnson1998:14) says attitude can be ‘’opinions and belief, ways of responding with respect to some set of problems’’. Further attitude as it was suggested by Littlewood (1981) can be used for the investigation of subjects in need analyses. Overall exploring teaches’ and learners’ attitude toward authentic materials will be worthwhile.

1.3 Review of literature The definitions of authentic materials are slightly different in the literature. Rogers (1988) defines it as

"appropriate' and quality in terms of goals, objectives, learner needs and interest and natural in terms of real life and meaningful communication "(p. 467). Harmer (1991; cited in Matsuta, (2004)) defines authentic texts as "materials which are designed for native speakers; they are real texts designed not for language students, but for the speakers of the language".



Jordan (1997, p. 113) refers to authentic texts "as texts that are not written for language teaching purposes". According to Peacock (1997) authentic materials are those materials that have been produced to fulfil some social purposes in the language community. Martinez (2002) defined that “authentic would be material designed for native speakers of English used in the classroom in a way similar to the one it was designed for”(p.1).Widdowson (1983) stated that “authenticity…is a term which creates confusion because of a basic ambiguity” (p.30). Therefore, the term ‘authentic material ‘has been defined in different ways in the literature. What is common to these definitions is 'exposure to real language and its use in its own community'. Nunan (1989; cited in Adams, 1995) refers to authentic materials as “any material which has not been specifically produced for the purposes of language teaching” (p.4). Little et al. (1988, as cited in Guariento & Morley, 2001) define authentic material as “an authentic text …created to fulfill some social purpose in the language community in which it was produced” (p.347). Bacon & Finnemann (1990) define authentic materials as texts “produced by and for native speakers of the target language” (p.469). Rogers & Medley (1988) used the term ‘authentic’ to refer to "language samples ... that reflect a naturalness of form and an appropriateness of cultural and situational context that would be found in the language as used by the native speakers" (p. 468).

Other definitions of authentic material have emphasized the primacy of communicativeness. For example, Lee (1995) states that “a text is usually for a real life communicative purpose, where the writer has a certain massage to pass on to the reader” (p. 324). On the other hand, others believe that there are more elements to the definition of the term ‘authentic than’ textual authenticity (Breen, 1985; Chaves, 1998; Jacobson, Degener, & Purcell-Gates, 2003; Rings, 1986; Ur, 1996). Widdowson (1990), for example, distinguishes between authentic text and authentic discourse, saying that “the language presented to [SL learners] may be genuine record of native speaker behavior, genuine, that is to say, as textual data, but to the extent that it does not engage native speaker response it cannot be realized as authentic discourse” (p.45). Similarly, Breen (1985) suggests that authenticity does not relate only to the language selected to be taught (authentic texts) but to the tasks on which the learners are engaged and the social setting created in the classroom. He explains that “authenticity to the target language needs to be seen as only one of a number of demands for authenticity which confront the teacher. … The learners’ own contributions, the activity of language learning, and the actual classroom situation are also constituent elements” (p.61).

1.3.1 The role of authentic materials in FL teaching and learning There is growing body of research on the impact of authentic materials on FL teaching. Researchers and

teachers have increasingly acknowledged the need for and usefulness of authentic materials in the field of language teaching. Empirical studies have substantiated the positive results taken by learners who have opportunities to interact with and deal with authentic texts. Studies, such as Miller (2005) and Thanajaro (2000), revealed that incorporating authentic materials lead to aural language development. In addition, Otte (2006) investigated the impact of aural authentic texts on listening comprehension abilities of four adult ESL students at an American university. He concluded that exposure to authentic materials would lead to improving students’ listening comprehension abilities and motivation. By the same token, conducting a study on intermediate-level students, Herron & Seay (1991) found that those students who listened to authentic radio tapes as a substitute for regular classroom activities demonstrated significantly greater listening comprehension than those students for whom the authentic radio program was not a part of the semester's curriculum. Their research confirmed that the more exposure to authentic speech, the more improvement in listening-comprehension skill. Moreover, Berardo (2006) argued that several studies have asserted that authentic materials can increase reading development by representing students to new vocabulary and expressions. For example, Young (1999) examined reading comprehension of 127 second year Spanish language students at a state university. It was revealed that authentic materials, as opposed to simplified, tended to better recall score versions of the same texts. Similarly, Leow (1993, as cited in Devitt, 1997) investigated learners’ intake of selected linguistic items from both authentic and simplified texts and found that although the simplified versions were significantly more comprehensible, but authentic texts did facilitate greater levels of intake.



Besides, Crossley, McCarthy, Louwerse, and McNamara (2007) examined differences in linguistic structures between sampled simplified and authentic reading texts using computational tools. They found when teaching more mature students, simplified texts show more syntactic complexity than authentic texts do. In this regard, Carney & Franciuli (1992) stated that the use of authentic texts has obvious advantage over simplified texts in reading. Further, many professionals in the field of langua ge pedagogy argued that using authentic materials will lead to improve the communicative competence of learners (Guariento & Morley, 2001; Wilcox et al., 1999). Comparing the impact of authentic versus textbook materials on developing learners’ communicative competence, Gilmore (2007) investigated the impact of authentic versus textbook materials on developing learners’ communicative competence in a one-year quasi-experimental study at a Japanese university. He found that those who received the authentic input, made statistically significant improvements over those who received textbook input on six out of eight tests designed to measure different types of competence. He found that “this result was attributed to the fact that the authentic input allowed learners to focus on a wider range of features than is normally possible … and that this noticing had beneficial effects on learners’ development of communicative competence” (p.111).

In this regard, Weyers (1999) examined the impact of exposure to authentic video on the language acquisition process of university students of Spanish. The results indicated that those students who were exposed to authentic video showed a significant improvement in listening comprehension skills and some component parts of the communicative competence.

According to Ur (1996), understanding texts outside the classroom is troublesome for students because classroom reading materials do not depict the real-world language. She argues that “we want our learners to be able to cope with the same kinds of reading that are encountered by native speakers of the target language” (p.150). Similarly, Brantmeier (2008) claims that authentic reading materials should be an essential component of language programs. Moreover, Hadley (2001) concludes that the “use of real or simulated travel documents, hotel registration forms, biographical data sheets, train and plane schedules, authentic restaurant menus, labels, signs, newspapers, and magazines will acquaint students more directly with real language than will any set of contrived classroom materials used alone” (p.97). Thus, it seems sensible to base students’ reading practice on a variety of authentic texts.

Moreover, Morton (1999) asserts that developing strategies in comprehending authentic texts can help students to develop writing proficiency in the target language. He explicates, “Students … need to learn the register that is appropriate for their own essays. For this, there is no substitute for authentic academic texts …. which can develop students’ ability to master basic rhetorical devices” (p. 182). In this regard, Carter & Nunan (2001) asserted that the use of authentic materials raises learners’ awareness of not only grammatical and lexical but also stylistic features. Moreover, professionals in favor of authentic materials assert that exposure to authentic materials should be introduced to the learners in the earliest stages of language learning (Bacon, 1989; McNeil, 1994; Miller, 2005), claiming that an early exposure to such texts will aid students to develop useful strategies for more complex tasks later on. Herron and Seay (1991) stated that using authentic materials pave the way for students to experience the language learning.

Authentic materials can still be useful in another way; empirical studies have confirmed that less proficient students can benefit from such materials. In an investigation of high school students studying German as a FL, Bernhardt and Berkemeyer (1988, as cited in Otte,2006) found that all levels of students have the capacity to manage using authentic texts. Maxim (2002) concluded, “The students’ limited linguistic competence did not short-circuit their ability to read authentic texts in class with the support of their classmates and instructor” (p.29).

The findings of the above-mentioned studies have indicated that authentic materials can be useful in many ways. Such materials introduce students to how language is used in the real world and improve their overall language proficiency as well as reading and listening comprehension, communicative competence, and lexical and stylistic knowledge. However, such advantages run counter to arguments that the use of authentic materials at early stages hinders the language learning process. Nevertheless, incorporating authentic materials in teaching a FL offers more than just linguistic advantages. In this



regard, scholars maintain for the motivating power of authentic materials (Gilmore, 2007; Sherman, 2003), which by and large, is a key factor in successful language learning (Keiko Komiya, 1992; Krashen, 1981; Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). As Gilmore (2007) states, “Claims that authentic materials are a motivating force for learners are widespread through the literature” (p. 106). Similarly, McNeil (1994) and Kilickaya (2004) argue that since authentic texts donates the learner the feeling that he or she is learning the real language – the target language as it is used by social colonies that speak it, their use is now regarded as one way for enhancing students’ motivation for learning. Rivers (1987) asserts that students who work with authentic materials have a practical intention and dynamic interest in the language. Kim (2000) argues that authentic materials provide a means for learners to overcome certain cultural barriers to language learning. Sherman (2003) states, “One reason why [authentic material] is so important for language learning is that it is a window into culture” (p.12). McGinnis and Ke (1992), in their study about using authentic cultural materials to teach reading in Chinese, concluded that “through a carefully organized and richly divergent variety of authentic materials, students can acquire … the greater ability to develop cultural understanding by themselves” (p. 238).

Despite these, some scholars rarely see any worth for authentic materials. Clark (1983) claims that there is no effect learning via media under any conditions; thus, the question of authentic versus non-authentic makes no difference (cited in Miller, 2005). Similarly, Kienbaum et al. (1986) pointed out that there is no significant difference in the language performance of children using authentic materials compared with those in a more traditional classroom context.

Authentic materials, says Martinez (2002), may be too culturally biased and difficult to understand outside the language community. Nostrand (1989) says that “authentic texts from one culture may give a false impression to a student from another unless they are presented in an authentic context which makes it clear precisely what they exemplify” (p.49). According to McNeil (1994), Kilickaya (2004) and Ur (1996), lower-level learners may feel frustration and de-motivation when confronted with an authentic text. According to Guariento and Morley (2001), “ at lower levels, however, …the use of authentic texts may not only prevent the learners from responding in meaningful ways but can also lead them to feel frustrated, confused, and, more importantly, de-motivated” (p. 347). Kim (2000) further argues that authentic language may not expose students to comprehensible input at the earliest stages of acquisition. In sum, the idea of authenticity in language teaching has been debated over the past three decades. However, the benefits that authentic materials bring to the FL classroom may be said to greatly outweigh the difficulties they might give rise to. In other words, there is a trade-off. In addition, it is possible to overcome such challenges through task design. Field (1998; in Richards & Renandya , 2002) stated that “instead of simplifying the language of the text, simplify the task that is demanded of the student. …With the text above the language level of the class, one demands only shallow comprehension” (p.244). Guariento and Morley (2001) also claimed that such difficulties can be overcome by designing tasks that require only partial comprehension.

In conclusion, it is clear from the above review that incorporating authentic materials into the FL/SL classroom is worthwhile. To sum up, here arethe positive effects of authentic listening materials reiterated in the review above. The main advantages of using authentic listening materials are (Philips & Shettlesworth, 1978; Clarke 1989; Peacock, 1997; cited in Richards, 2001):

They have a positive effect on learner motivation. They provide authentic cultural information.

They provide exposure to real language. They relate more closely to learners’ needs. They support a more creative approach to teaching

1.3.2 Selection of authentic materials According to Berardo (2006), there are three criteria for choosing authentic texts: suitability of content,

exploitability, and readability. Suitability of content refers to the idea that the text should be in congruence with students’ needs and interests.



For Bacon and Finneman (1990), the culturally relevance of the text to the experience of the students should be taken into account. In this respect, Lee (1995) stated that “a careful and wise selection of materials focused on learners is a must if we want a positive response from them” (p.325). Moreover, exploitability refers to usability of the texts for developing the students’ competence and its exploitability for teaching purposes. Finally, readability refers to the language of the text, including the structural and lexical difficulty as well as the amount of new vocabulary and grammatical forms. Brown and Eskenzai (2004) indicted that the primary criteria for selecting appropriate authentic text should be the reader’s current vocabulary knowledge and the desired vocabulary knowledge throughout the curriculum, in addition to grammar difficulty and text cohesiveness. However, Rivers (1987) claims that the primary criterion for selecting appropriate authentic text is content. He states that “although length, linguistic complexity, and interest for the student all play significant roles in the selection of materials, the single most important criterion for selection is content” (p. 50). Meanwhile, Rivas (1999) and Mishan (2005) argue that learners’ interests and needs are the most essential factors in the choice of authentic texts. In this respect, Little et al. (1989, p. 71) state, “The more texts are related to learners’ personal concerns and interests the deeper and more rabid the processing will be” (cited in Mishan, 2005, p.28). Moreover, Lee (1995) states that the text must be in harmony with the course objectives, i.e., it can improve the language skills educators want the learners to practice.

Besides, both the length of the text and teaching approach must be considered by the teachers. Further, a variety of genres must be selected, such as articles, advertisements, interviews, poems, application forms, train timetables, and brochures.

1.3.3 A review on the research on realm of authentic listening texts (materials) on teaching A study by Lingzhu & Yuanyuan (2010) revealed that using authentic materials is a non-negotiable item

but in dealing with that, encountering some problem is inevitable. Its probable challenges are being “too culturally based” containing "difficult language, unneeded vocabulary items and complex language structures (Richard, 2001, p. 287). Therefore, students should be equipped with sufficient cultural background knowledge and vocabulary and grammar knowledge. They also mentioned that authentic materials could be problematic for the teachers, too. Therefore, they claimed, special preparation is necessary for them. Moreover, they added that although authentic listening materials are most useful for advanced learners but using authentic materials should not be dismissed in early levels. They pointed out to the ways for introducing authentic (listening) materials to elementary students. These ways, of course, are reiterated in the literature by various scholars: (Anderson & Lynch, 1988; Field, 2008)

1. Simplifying the task: as teachers may counter-balance the increased linguistic difficulty of the text by

simplifying the requirements of the task (Anderson & Lynch, 1988). It is not necessarily the language that makes a piece of listening difficult. Difficulty may also arise from the task that is set. It is possible to use a listening passage which is well beyond the learners’ level, provided that what is demanded of the learner is correspondingly simple. If one notches up the text, one notches down the task. (Field, 2008)

2. Grading the text: it is important to bear this point in mind that even in the authentic materials the types,

mood, and genres of texts is not the same for learners in terms of difficulty, so having different sample is important. Finally, bearing following points into account is important while grading: (Field 2008; cited in Lingzhu & Yuanyuan, 2010)

More frequent vocabulary; Simple syntax; Simpler and less dense ideas and facts;

A degree of redundancy, with ideas/facts expressed more than once; A degree of repetition, with the same form of words repeated;

A very specific context or genre of communication which to some extent pre-determines how participants behave (Field, 2008, p.123).



3. Staging the listening: it refers to simplicity and presentation of task in progression manner. Peacock (2000) carried out a study to investigate whether authentic materials increase the classroom

motivation of learners to test a hardly-ever claim. He selected two beginning-level EFL classes and used authentic and artificial materials alternately. Results from two observation sheets and a self -report questionnaire revealed that on-task behavior and observed motivation increased significantly when authentic materials were used. However, authentic materials were significantly less interesting than artificial materials for them.

Madden (2008) in his study followed a series of techniques for adapting authentic listening and proposed a sort of dealing with materials from media and its repetition in oral mood. Chavez (1998) did a survey asking 190 university-level learners of German to rate 53 situations (composed of 12 authenticity factors) on their level of (a.) authenticity; (b.) contribution to language learning; (c.) ease/difficulty; and (d.) resulting anxiety/enjoyment. Results showed that learners view authentic materials as essential to language learning and enjoyable. In contrast, positive correlations between authenticity and perceived difficulty were rare. He found that learners enjoy interacting with authentic materials but are appreciative of pedagogical support, especially in listening situations and when reading literary texts. In short, he found that learners prefer grading tasks to grading texts. Norris (2011) in his thesis on authentic video and audio for developing cultural awareness in listening explored the positive aspects of combining the visual and auditory modes to present authentic samples of contextualized language and culture through video. He notably made authentic listening materials more tuning for beginner by combining tasks. As he concluded, accompanying tasks provide authentic means for beginning English Language Learners to gain exposure to, and learn to use, the English language as it is spoken by native-speakers in the local setting. He found that the videos, materials, and tasks also highlight varied cultural themes and can be used as supplementary materials.

1.3.4 Research in the realm of authentic materials in Iran The numbers of studies in the realm of authentic materials in Iran are not so many. Here are some of them: A thesis under the title of ‘a study of the problem of authenticity and comprehensibility of linguistic input

in second language acquisition ‘was carried out at Tabriz University by Nowrouzi (1997, cited in Naseh, 2007).This study concentrated on the issues of comprehensibility of linguistic input and its authenticity in second or foreign language acquisition. If the learners are exposed to adapted, simplified texts, though comprehensible as an essential for acquisition, but might be bereft of naturalness and lose its authenticity. From the other hand, exposing learners to original authentic texts might be difficult, if not impossible, for learners to grasp very, if any. In his study, he discussed a controversial but covered issue regarding the dilemma how to compromise between simplified materials and authentic ones for arriving at appropriate outcome regarding learning. Having discussed the nature of each, he came up with some solutions in doing so. He recommended that the presentation of materials should be as authentic -like as possible. In addition, the activities should be simplified via instruction.

Another study (thesis) was conducted by Keshavarz , Hedayati (1999, cited in Naseh, 2007)at Tehran Azad Islamic University, Central Branch under the title of ‘the effect of authentic broadcast materials on the listening comprehension of Iranian EFL Learners’. This study was carried out to examine the probable significance of authentic materials over simplified materials and it effect on learners’ motivation. Having selected two groups of both male and female in each, the researcher assigned them to control and experimental group randomly. As it was claimed in the study, seemingly they passed their intermediate courses. Having been fed with authentic broadcast and simplified materials, experimental and control groups each received a different treatment respectively. The experimental group also received necessary background knowledge. After 13 sessions of teaching, for either group, a similar test was administered. Having analyzed the elicited the data, he concluded that using authentic materials has a significance effect on students’ comprehension and their motivation also improved.

one the latest study in the realm of authentic listening materials was carried out by Mousavi &Iravani (2012). They investigated the effect of authentic aural materials on listening comprehension of Iranian EFL learners at high intermediate proficiency level. Having selected two groups randomly, they



exposed two series of listening materials to the two groups, namely authentic radio-tapes and non-authentic listening materials to experimental and control group, respectively. They found that those who had received authentic radio-tapes gained a higher degree of listening comprehension and proficiency than non-authentic groups. They confirmed that the use of aural authentic listening materials in EFL classrooms improves learners’ listening comprehension, and it has positive effects on EFL learners.

Finally, Khalili & Mahsefat (2012) conducted a research under the title of the impact of authentic listening materials on listening skills of EFL learners at elementary level. They selected 60 students at elementary proficiency level and divided them two groups, experimental and control group. After running a pretest, these two groups exposed to two series of material, authentic and simplified materials for experimental and control group respectively. The analysis and comparison of results taken from two groups in posttest revealed that, using authentic listening materials has positive effect on the listening skills of EFL elementary learners. Further they reported positive feedback on the part of students exposed by authentic listening materials.

1.4 Research questions The following questions will drive the present study. 1. What are the Iranian students’ attitudes toward the effectiveness of using authentic listening materials in the

EFL classrooms? 2. What are the Iranian teachers’ attitudes toward the effectiveness of using authentic listening materials in the

classrooms? Based on the research question (question number 1) and the nature of the study the hypothesis is as

follow: First hypothesis: students have positive attitudes regarding using authentic listening materials. Second hypothesis: teachers have positive attitudes regarding using authentic listening materials. 2. Method of the study: 2.1 Participants The study was carried out at the Rodaki Higher Institute Education, Mazandran, Iran. 100 students and 30

teachers participated in the study. They were from both genders, male and female. They were randomly selected. In order to control the level of the participants, Oxford Placement Test (OPT) (2007)(appendix A)was administered to make sure that they are unanimously at the pre-intermediate proficiency levels. As a result, 60 students were at pre-intermediate level. The students were all in their courses of English for general purpose, aged from 18 to 30. They were majoring in non-English fields, such as computer software, business management, sociology, law etc. As stated earlier, per-intermediate levels. Their mother tongue was Persian. Besides a few of them had background in the Turkish (Azari) language. All participants had the same syllabus (coursework/book) in their English classes.

2.2 Instruments The instruments in this study were an English placement test (Oxford Placement Test, 2007, appendix A), m

teachers and a student feedback survey: Oxford Placement Test (OPT) is a paper-based test administered to determine the proficiency level of the participants. This placement test (appendix A) consisted of 50 multiple choice questions which assess students’ knowledge of key grammar and vocabulary from elementary to intermediate levels. A reading text with 10 graded comprehension questions and also an optional writing task that assesses students’ ability to produce the language. The time allotted for this test was 65 minutes. According to its manual, it enables teachers to have a greater understanding of what level their students are at. in order to provide a deeper understanding of Students and Teachers’ Attitudes Toward Presenting Authentic Listening Materials in the EFL Listening Class was deemed to conduct an interview. It was conducted with 80 students and 30 teachers who had agreed in advance to participate in follow-up interview for the purpose of the study. Before interview they signed consent form to in which they agreed to be audio-taped. Both teachers and learners were asked five questions designed to elicit qualitative data regarding their belief, and opinions on the use of authentic materials in listening classes, the interview was conducted face to face, the first three questions for both teachers



and learners were the same, whereas the two were different, all of the questions were about their perception to authentic listening materials. Finally, the students had a chance to provide feedback as far as the materials they were exposed to, was concerned. The instructor administered a student feedback survey (adapted from Al-Musallam, 2009) which asked a series of questions to generate the students’ opinions and perspectives on instructional materials, i.e. authentic listening materials (See appendix D). The survey asked how effective the students found the authentic materials. It is a Likert–based scale questionnaire. Results of the survey provided valuable information helped the explanations of the conclusions of the study provided by the analysis of the data which is collected. The questionnaire consisted of 35 multiple-choice questions which is designed to collect information related to the authentic listening materials. It was adapted from Al-Musallam (2009). It was covered with a consent form, which informed the participants that completing the questionnaire meant that they consented to participate in the study. To avoid any misunderstanding on the part of the students, the questionnaire was translated into Persian, the participants' mother tongue (appendix E).

3. Result The results were depicted in following tables.

Table1. students attitudes regarding authentic listening materials

SA % A % D % SD % Mean Std. D

1 13 36.1 15 41.7 3 8.3 5 13.9 2.00 1.014 2 19 52.8 10 27.8 2 5.6 5 13.9 1.81 1.064 3 3 8.3 7 19.4 18 50.0 8 22.2 1.86 0.867 4 14 38.9 6 16.7 12 33.3 4 11.1 2.17 1.082 5 15 41.7 11 30.6 7 19.4 3 8.3 1.94 0.984 6 1 8.3 7 19.4 5 13.9 21 58.3 3.22 1.045 7 11 30.6 13 36.1 8 22.1 4 11.1 2.14 0.990 8 2 5.6 2 5.6 10 27.8 22 61.1 3.44 0.843 9 17 47.2 7 19.4 6 16.7 6 16.7 2.03 1.0158 10 19 38.9 17 27.8 6 16.7 6 16.7 2.11 1.116 11 16 44.4 12 33.3 2 5.6 6 16.7 1.94 1.094 12 9 25 12 33.3 12 33.3 3 8.3 2.25 0.937 13 10 27.8 10 27.8 13 36.1 3 8.3 2.25 0.967 14 9 25 7 19.4 12 33.3 14 38.9 2.69 1.231 15 7 19.4 2 5.6 14 38.9 13 36.1 2.92 1.105 16 3 8.3 2 5.6 12 33.3 19 52.8 3.31 0.920 17 12 33.3 15 41.7 7 19.7 2 5.6 1.97 0.878 18 13 36.1 18 50.0 4 11.1 2 5.6 1.92 0.906 19 20 55.6 9 25 6 16.7 1 2.8 1.67 0.863 20 1 2.8 5 13.9 11 3.6 19 38.9 33.3 0.828

The survey contained 35 multiple-choice questions (appendix D). The mean for each question has been

depicted in the table. Questions (1,8,9,10,11,12,13,14,15,16,17,18,19) which ask the participants' attitudes toward authentic listening materials and their preferences received high numerical value for mean score(mean=3.5 and p=65%). Conversely, questions (2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 20) which ask participants about the no use of authentic listening materials received lower mean score (mean=2.10 and p=30%).By the same token question (20) who asks participants about the motivation also received high mean and high percent (mean=3.24 p=60%). Regarding the sources which are most preferred by participants are movie and music (mean=3.24 p=65% and mean=3.1 p=63%). Finally the tools which has the highest preference among participants is film and TV (mean=3.5 p=67%). The findings of the survey revealed that the experimental group receiving treatment responded favorably on the majority of the questions,



exerting a higher level of satisfaction with the authentic listening materials. The percentages explicate that the experimental group who received treatment scored higher in the most of the variables, such as willingness and preference to use authentic materials, tendency towards listening to authentic listening materials, usability of authentic listening materials in society and out of class situation, motivational power of authentic listening materials, the effect of authentic listening materials on speaking, grammar, vocabulary proficiency and the effectiveness of authentic listening materials on listening skills. Moreover, movie and music were the most significant sources of authentic listening materials for the participants of the study. Besides TV and movie were the most accessible sources for the students. The results of this survey confirmed that Iranian EFL learners' at pre-intermediate proficiency level have positive attitudes toward using authentic listening materials.

Table 2. Teachers attitudes toward the type of listening materials Types of

materials/

Authentic simplified Both Mean S.d

Frequency % Frequency % Frequency %

Q2 3 10 3 10 24 80 2.70 .651

Q3 3 10.0 18 60.0 9 30.0 2.20 .610 This table illustrates teachers’ ideas regarding the type of materials for listening classes namely, authentic,

simplified or both. As it is obvious, majority of the teachers ( about 80%) believed that a listening class with both authentic and simplified materials would be the best one.

Table 3. Teachers attitudes toward the importance of listening Qn SA A N D SD Mea

n

S.d

Item

Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

%

Q4 8 26.7

6 20 6 20 6 20 4 13.3

2.73 1.413

Q5 16 53.3

5 16.7

4 13.3

3 10.0

2 6.7 2.00 1.313

Q6 5 16.7

7 23.3

7 23.3

6 20.0

5 16.7

2.97 1.351

Q7 9 30.0

7 23.3

5 16.7

5 16.7

4 13.3

2.60 1.429

This table depicts teachers’ ideas toward the importance of listening in EFL. About 70% believed that

listening course enable students to listen and comprehend the materials outside the classroom. Teachers had similar ideas about (60%) the motivation caused by listening class which they say push forward learners to learn out of school or in the real life situation. They stated that listening class paves the students to listen out of class to other materials.

Table 4. Teachers’ attitudes regarding authentic listening materials



The following table shows that, question (7, 8, and 9) around 50% of teachers believed that authentic

listening materials introduce students the real life use of language. Question illustrates that 45% of the teachers state that authentic listening materials help students to fulfill their needs. By the same token they around 55% of the participants believed that it improves learners’ listening comprehension more than simplified materials. They said in comparison with simplified materials, authentic materials help students develop their speaking abilities. They had no similar ideas regarding authentic listening materials and familiarity with the use of grammar rules in the original context.(Question, 15). On the contrary, about 50% stated that(Question, 17) authentic listening materials increase knowledge of vocabulary item. About 56% said that authentic listening materials have more motivation on outside listening. Teachers participated in the study said that it is difficult to get access to authentic listening materials and they unanimously argued that selecting authentic listening materials is a barrier and difficult.( Questions, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28).

Table 5. Teachers’ attitudes regarding the starting the exposure to authentic materials Qn SA A N D SD Mea

n S.d

ite Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

%

Q29

8 26.7

8 26.7

6 20 4 13.3 4 13.3

3.73 1.613

Qn SA A N D SD Mean S.d

Item Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Freq. % Q8 6 20.0 7 23.3 6 20.0 6 20.0 5 16.7 2.90 1.398

Q9 6 20.0 6 20.0 7 23.3 6 20.0 5 16.7 2.93 1.388

Q10 8 26.7 7 23.3 5 16.7 5 16.7 5 16.7 2.10 .845

Q11 8 26.7 6 20.0 6 20.0 4 13.3 6 20.0 2.80 1.495 Q12 6 20.0 7 23.3 6 20.0 6 20.0 5 16.7 2.90 1.398

Q13 6 20.0 9 30.0 6 20.0 4 13.3 5 16.7 2.77 1.382 Q14 5 16.7 8 26.7 7 23.3 6 20.0 4 13.3 2.87 1.306

Q15 5 16.7 8 26.7 9 30.0 4 13.3 4 13.3 2.80 1.270 Q16 8 26.7 9 30.0 7 23.3 3 10.0 3 10.0 2.47 1.279

Q17 8 26.7 7 23.3 6 20.0 4 13.3 5 16.7 2.70 1.442 Q18 5 16.7 7 23.3 6 20.0 6 20.0 6 20.0 3.03 1.402

Q19 6 20.0 7 23.3 8 26.7 5 16.7 4 13.3 2.80 1.324 Q20 11 36.7 6 20.0 5 16.7 3 10.0 5 16.7 2.50 1.503

Q21 7 23.3 6 20.0 6 20.0 5 16.7 6 20.0 2.90 1.470

Q22 8 26.7 6 20.0 7 23.3 5 16.7 4 13.3 2.70 1.393 Q23 5 16.7 8 26.7 7 23.3 4 13.3 6 20.0 2.93 1.388

Q24 5 16.7 7 23.3 6 20.0 6 20.0 6 20.0 3.03 1.402 Q25 3 10 6 20 5 16.7 8 26.7 8 26.7 2.97 .928

Q26 7 23.3 11 36.7 1 3.3 10 33.3 1 3.3 2.57 1.278 Q27 10 33.3 6 20.0 5 16.7 4 13.3 5 16.7 2.60 1.499

Q28 8 26.7 9 30 5 16.7 5 16.7 3 3.3 10 .980



Q30

16 53.3

5 16.7

3 10 4 13.3.0

2 6.7 3.78 1.313

Q31

5 16.7

7 23.3

7 23.3

6 20.0 5 16.7

2.97 1.351

This table extracts teachers’ ideas regarding the starting time of exposure to authentic listening materials.

Unlike many experts in the realm of the TEFL, 60% of teachers in this study believed that learners should be exposed to these materials early(Question, 29). About 70% of teacher (Question, 30) said they prefer intermediate level the frontline of exposure to authentic materials. Finally, teachers stated that advance proficiency level is late to expose authentic listening materials.

Table 6. Teachers’ attitudes regarding the kinds of authentic materials in class

Qn / item SA A N D SD Mean

S.d

Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

%

TV commercials

6

20 9 30 6 20 5 16.7 4 13.3 2.73 1.33

7

cartoons 16 53.3 5 16.

7 3 10 4 13.3.

0 2 6.7 2.53 1.43

2

News clips

10 33.3 6 20 6 20 4 13.3 4 13.

3 2.97 1.35

1

Soap opera

9 30.0 7 23.

3 3 10.

0 11 36.7 4 13.

3 2.53 1.27

9

Internet materials

6 20 8 26.7 6 20.

0 6 20.0 4 13.

3 2.80 1.34

9

Taped short stories and novel

17 56.7 3 10.

0 4 13.

3 3 10.0 3 10.

0 2.07 1.43

7

Radio 5 16.7 13 43.

3 9 30.

0 1 3.3 2 6.7 2.40 1.03

7 Song 11 36.

7 8 .62

7 6 .2 2 627 3 02 1.97 .928

Regarding the type of authentic listening materials, Taped short stories and novel, cartoons, TV and Songs

received highest selections by teachers. 75% of teachers in this study said that they prefer Taped short stories and novel, around 65% of them stated that they select cartoons, TV. The least was Radio, only 45% of teacher said they select it.



Table 7. Teachers’ attitudes regarding factors in selecting authentic materials in class

Qn / item SA A N D SD Mean

S.d

Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

% Freq.

%

Language level

12

40 6 20 4 13.3

4 13.3

4 13.3

2.40 1.476

Length of text

6 20 7 23.3

5 16.7

6 20 6 20 2.97 1.450

Students needs

5 33.3

8 26.7

6 20 5 16.7

6 20 2.97 1.402

Students’ intrests

6 20.0

7 23.3

6 20 6 20 5 16.7

2.90 1.398

Percentage of new vocabulary

10 33. 3

9 30 2 6.7 9 30 5 16.7

2.33 1.241

Complexity of grammar structures

10 33.3

8 26.7

6 20 3 10.0

3 10.0

2.37 1.326

Course objectives

11 36. 4 13.3

7 23.3

8 26.7

3 10 2.40 1.248

Types of materials

12 40.0

7 23.3

2 6.7 6 20 3 10 2.37 1.450

Teachers participated in this study had similar idea regarding the factors based on which they select their

authentic listening materials. 60% of them stated that they select authentic listening materials according to the language level, 53.3% said their criteria to select authentic listening materials is the Length of t ext. Similarly, 53.3% stated that Students needs is their light in material selection. 66.3% believed that Percentage of new vocabulary is important to them in selection of authentic listening materials.60% teachers participating in this study believed that, Complexity of grammar and structures is their



favorite factor in their selection. Finally, Course objectives and Types of materials received 49.3 and 63.3 percent respectively, by teachers as factors of selecting authentic materials.

4. Discussion In this study, in order to have homogenous groups, a preliminary test (Oxford Placement Test) was

administered to both groups and based on the results, all students were at the same level. Similarly, they were divided to two groups to receive two series of materials, authentic materials and simplified materials.

The results suggested that Iranian EFL learners at pre-intermediate proficiency level have highly positive attitudes toward the use of authentic materials in listening classes, which confirms f indings of previous studies (Bacon & Finnemann, 1990; Chaves, 1998; Gonzalez, 1990; Hillyard et al., 2007; Kienbaum et al., 1986; Kim, 2000; Peacock, 1997). Indeed, this result is not surprising as the students moved from their limited learning environment (using only textbooks) to another environment connecting them with the language as it is used in the real world by native speakers. The use of authentic materials also seemed to arouse a great deal of interest among the students; they appeared to enjoy learning by being able to deal with a variety of authentic texts away from their usual classes (simplified). The students’ positive attitudes were based on the merits that authentic materials bring into FL instruction. The students agreed that authentic materials (a) increased their knowledge of vocabulary items needed in real situations, (b) introduced them to how language is used in the real world, (c) improved their cultural understanding and language proficiency as well as listening comprehension, (d) were interesting, (e) fulfilled their needs, and (f) enabled them to enhance their writing styles. These findings are consistent with the current literature, which shows that several researchers (e.g., Berardo, 2006; Carter &Nunan, 2001; Guariento& Morley, 2001; Hadley, 2001; Miller, 2005; Morton, 1999; Thanjaro, 2000; Ur, 1996) provided evidence supporting the advantages of using authentic materials in improving FL learning. The results of the current study further revealed that the majority of the student participants indicated that authentic materials increased their motivation. Previous research also found motivation to be a key justification for the use of authentic texts in language learning (Gilmore, 2007; Kilickaya, 2004; Sherman, 2003).

The majority of students participating in the current study did not believe that authentic materials were difficult to comprehend, made them feel frustrated, or would cause cultural conflict and thus hinder comprehension. This finding contradicts the claims of some scholars who argue that the use of such materials may not be beneficial as they may be too difficult for EFL/ESL students to understand and cause cultural conflicts, thereby making students feel frustrated when confronting authentic texts (Martinez, 2002; Nostrand, 1989; Young, 1999).

However, more than half of the students preferred the use of a combination of authentic texts and textbooks, supporting Hadley’s (2001) claim that a combination of both authentic and instructional materials seems to be more appropriate. Almost all of the students indicated that a reading class that used a textbook only was the worst. This supports previous research arguments that textbooks do not expose students to examples of real language and fail to reflect students’ needs and interests (Brown &Eskenzai, 2004; Brusch, 1991; Swan, 1991).

The analysis of the results showed that the teacher participants have a positive attitude toward the use of authentic materials in their listening classes. As stated earlier, a growing body of researchers believes that authentic materials introduce students to how language is used in the real world and improve students’ overall language proficiency as well as reading and listening comprehension, communicative competence, cultural awareness, lexical and stylistic knowledge, and motivation (Bacon, 1989; Berardo, 2006; Garcia, 1991; Herron &Seay, 1991; Otte, 2006; Peacock, 1997). The extra advantages such materials provide clearly justify the teachers’ positive attitude.

Moreover, almost all of the teachers indicated that the ideal listening class uses a combination of both authentic texts and textbooks, which provides further support for Hadley’s (2001) claim that such a combination is more appropriate. Most of the teacher participants also stated that a listening class that exclusively used textbooks was the most ineffective, which supports previous research findings that



textbooks can build a wall between the students and the real language and fail to reflect the students’ needs and interests (Brown &Eskenzai, 2004; Brusch, 1991; Swan, 1991).

The teachers in the current study also indicated the types of authentic texts they preferred for use in their listening classes. As with students, short stories were the most preferred, whereas poems were the least preferred, providing further support for Ghosn’s (2002) claim that authentic short stories effectively motivate students and promote the development of skills necessary for L2 academic literacy. The current study also examined the teachers’ attitudes in regard to the right stage to introduce authentic materials to EFL learners. The results revealed that the majority of instructors believed that exposure to authentic texts should start at the intermediate levels of language learning. However, several previous studies have found that even beginning language learners can benefit from the use of authentic materials in language instruction (Allen et al, 1988; Bernhardt &Berkemeyer, 1988; Maxim, 2002). Regarding the selection criteria they would apply in their selection of authentic materials, the teachers indicated that language level was the most important factor in selecting authentic texts. The students’ interests were second and their needs third. Moreover, the teachers ranked the percentage of new vocabulary fourth and course objectives fifth in deciding upon texts to use. The length of the text, complexity of grammatical structures, and type of text all placed sixth. However, Rivas (1999) and Mishan (2005) argue that learners’ interests and needs are the most essential factors in the choice of authentic texts, and Brown and Eskenzai (2004) claim that the primary criteria for selecting appropriate authentic texts should be the reader’s current vocabulary knowledge and desired vocabulary knowledge throughout the curriculum in addition to grammar difficulty.

To sum up, the findings of this study show that students at pre- intermediate have a positive attitude toward authentic listening materials. The study also shows that comprehension in EFL students improves after their exposure to authentic materials in the classroom due to the treatment, apparently. It can be concluded that to better prepare students and enable them to react accurately to the listening outside the classroom, it is necessary that teachers provide their students with ample opportunities to listen to samples of natural or real language, i.e. authentic language, in the classroom. It was also showed that participants in experimental group had positive attitude toward authentic listening materials. Finally, authentic listening materials are found to be more effective than simplified listening materials at elementary level, provided that they are instructed in logical manner as it was reiterated in the literature (Anderson & Lynch, 1988; Field, 2008; Lingzhu&Yuanyuan, 2010). As they pointed out, limiting listeners to graded materials, fitted with their levels, leads to their disqualification from the outside face to face wrestling with the language. As they indicated, task simplification, text gradation and staging the listening progression should be taken into account while introducing authentic (listening) materials to pre- intermediate students. By the same token it can be understood teachers also have a positive attitudes toward authentic material at pre-intermediate level.

5. Suggestion for further researches The conclusion of this study maintains the need for further study into the impact of authentic listening

materials in developing listening skills. Due to favorable impact of authentic listening materials, there is a need to investigate the effectiveness of

different genres of authentic listening materials. It also worth recommending that, the impact of different modes and genres of authentic materials investigate at elementary level.

Next, the study can be wider in scope if it includes all possible modes and sources of authentic materials such audios , videos, from different sources, it also enjoys more pedagogical significance if compares contrasts these discrepancies and their efficiencies in developing listening skills.

Also the impact of authentic listening materials can be investigated to see its effect on other aspect of language acquisitions such learning and intonation, stress patterns, vocabulary proficiency, incidental learning, extra linguistic factors, grammar, establishing speaking and so forth.

Different listening strategies in relation to authentic listening materials and non-authentic materials (simplified) in different levels of proficiency can be a fruitful study as well.

Finally attitudes of teachers and learners at other levels of proficiency will be valuable study as well.



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THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TYPES OF DICTIONARY USED AND IRANIAN INTERMEDIATE EFL LEARNERS’

PRONUNCIATION ACCURACY

Fatemeh Javan Delzendeh (corresponding author) Department of English Language, Science and Research Branch,

Islamic Azad University, Guilan, Iran [email protected]

Fereidoon Vahdany

Payame-Noor University of Iran [email protected]

Masoomeh Arjmandi

Department of English Language, Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Guilan, Iran [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study was conducted to investigate the relationship between types of dictionary used [Monolingual, Bilingual (L1-L2), and Bilingual (L2-L1) dictionaries] and Iranian Intermediate EFL learners’ pronunciation accuracy. Oxford Placement test was administered to select 80 intermediate EFL learners as the main sample. Two questionnaires were used to collect data. Questionnaire I was given to the 80 participants to collect some quantitative data about their preferred type of dictionary. Based on the participants’ preferences in dictionary use they were divided into three groups including monolingual, bilingual (L1-L2), and bilingual (L2-L1) groups. The participants of the three groups then responded to the questionnaire II which reported their habits in dictionary use. They also took part in a task to check their skill in dictionary use. Subsequently, they were asked to read aloud a story in order to measure their pronunciation accuracy. Finally, some of them from each group were selected to attend an interview. According to the results of questionnaire I, the most frequently used dictionary type was Monolingual Mobile Dictionary and the least favored dictionary was Bilingual (L1-L2) Computer Dictionary. The data obtained from questionnaire II showed that consulting a dictionary for word definition, sentence example, pronunciation, and finding meaning were the most common habits of students. The results of Eta test showed a significant relationship between the type of dictionary used and pronunciation accuracy. Based on the results of the Pearson Correlation Test, it was found that there was a correlation between skill in dictionary use and pronunciation accuracy. KEY WORDS: dictionary use, habits, types of dictionary [monolingual, bilingual (L2-L1), bilingual (L1-L2)], pronunciation accuracy

1. Introduction English is an international language and a good command of this language is essential to function in the world. Learning English for non-native speakers has become so important that it cannot just be confined to formal school curriculum: it is an activity which people feel they need to engage in throughout their lives. English teachers are unavailable outside the schools, so learners need to find a reliable source to refer to when they encounter a variety of problems related to English. Several studies (Ryu (2006); Cubillo (2002)) introduced dictionaries as a reliable source that provides learners with useful linguistic and cultural information, especially when teachers are unavailable and the learners are responsible for their own learning.



The first thing a foreign language learner purchases is a dictionary (Baxter, 1980). Huang (2003) considered dictionaries as useful, fairly common and even necessary tools in language acquisition by EFL learners. It is as an essential source, if not the main source, of information on language for all literate persons who have questions on form, meaning, and/or use of a word(s) in their L1 or in another language (Kirkness, 2004). Pronunciation is viewed as a sub-skill of speaking. Fraser (2000a) explains that being able to speak English includes a number of sub-skills of which pronunciation is by far the most important one. 1.1. Statement of the problem The dictionary is one of the common learning tools for second and foreign language learners. Various types of dictionaries are used to help learners work on their language development. Inappropriate dictionaries and inappropriate use of dictionaries can be destructive to learners' language proficiency in EFL context. Untrained user of dictionaries may encounter some problems: unfamiliarity with the layout, inability to use phonemic script, lack of competence to locate the right meaning of a word according to the context, frustration and wasting time. There are some students who are too weak in productive skills and these are among the learners who either do not use dictionary or they use bilingual ones. Pronunciation is an important aspect of language and it needs special attention for both teachers who teach it and learners who try to learn it. It is one of the problems that students in the ESL programs and also in their communications in the real world face it; because in all of them the sensation is how to say something in a foreign language. Fraser (2000) reported that many learners of English as second language have major problems with pronunciation. This could be the reason why many textbooks or learning materials usually include pronunciation section. 1.2. Significant of the study There are some studies that have worked on importance of pronunciation as one of the most important skills in English language teaching. If speakers have very bad pronunciation, their speech will not be understandable to the listeners (Gilakjani, 2011). Therefore the focus of this study is on dictionary use and pronunciation accuracy which, in spite of their high importance, have received little attention in Iran. Dictionary use would be of great concern for language teachers. This study is important in that using dictionary plays a vital role in language development especially in EFL context, so by knowing the type of preferred dictionary, the educator can recognize the strengths and weaknesses and consequently can use these results to prepare a course for training good habits and also recommend the best type of dictionary. So by knowing the relationship between the dictionary used and pronunciation accuracy, students can use the best type of dictionary for improving their pronunciation. 1.3. Objectives of the study The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between types of dictionary used and Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ pronunciation accuracy. It also tried to explore the types of dictionary which intermediate students use at Fouman language institutes. It also tried to determine if there was any correlation between the skill in dictionary use and pronunciation accuracy. 1.4. Research questions and hypotheses Q1: What type of dictionary do intermediate students use at Fouman language institutes? Q2: Is there any relationship between the type of dictionary used and Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ pronunciation accuracy? Q3: Is there any correlation between the skill in dictionary use and pronunciation accuracy? In line with the mentioned research questions, these null hypotheses were formulated: Hypothesis 1: There is not any relationship between the type of dictionary used and Iranian intermediate EFL learners’ pronunciation accuracy. Hypothesis 2: There is no correlation between skill in dictionary use and pronunciation accuracy.



2. Literature Review 2.1. Related theoretical studies 2.1.1. Classification of dictionaries According to Alhaysony (2011) different criteria can be used to classify dictionaries. They can be classified according to language (monolingual, bilingual, or bilingualized), according to variety of language (British English, American English) or according to the medium through which dictionaries are presented and accessed (paper, On-line, electronic, etc.). Other criteria related to the age of the users and the size of dictionary can be used to classify the dictionaries, too. Most frequently used dictionary types among EFL learners with different proficiency level were bilingual dictionaries especially at the initial stages (Battenburg, 1989; Kent, 2001; Kharama, 1985; Marin-Marin, 2005; Tomaszcyk, 1979) and Monolingual dictionaries are infrequently used (Baxter, 1980; Tomaszcyk, 1979). 2.1.2. Research on dictionary use Since 1980s, a lot of attention was paid to the research on dictionary use. Hartmann (1987) identified four areas of research on dictionary use: 1. Research into the information categories presented in dictionaries (‘dictionary typology’) 2. Research into specific dictionary user groups (‘user typology’) 3. Research into the contexts of dictionary use (‘needs typology’) 4. Research into dictionary look-up strategies (‘skills typology’) The first researcher who initiates an investigation into dictionary use by EFL learners was Tomaszcyk (1979). He distributed a survey questionnaire among Polish EFL learners at university level, foreign language instructors, and translators. The results showed that translation was the most reason for using dictionaries and after that writing and reading tasks were of secondary importance. In this study, the majority of learners preferred bilingual dictionaries over monolingual ones. Bejoint (1981) studied the use of monolingual dictionary by French EFL students. Contrary to the result of Tomaszcyk's study, minority of participants preferred a bilingual dictionary. The results showed that dictionaries were used more frequently for decoding than encoding, and more specifically for meaning. Al-haysony (2011) conducted a research to identify patterns of dictionary usage among EFL students in Saudi Arabia and concluded that bilingual (L2-L1) dictionaries are the most frequently used dictionaries and hand-held electronic dictionaries are used more than the printed ones and looking up the meaning of words was the prime objective for dictionary use. 2.1.3. Dictionary types on different skills and sub-skills Hayati and Fattahzade (2006) investigated the effect of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries on vocabulary recall and retention of EFL learners. They found bilingual dictionaries more beneficial when there was time limitation but totally they concluded that dictionary types have no significant effect on the retention and recall of vocabulary. Some researchers such as Hayati and Pour-mohammadi (2005) investigated the effect of bilingual and monolingual dictionaries on reading comprehension of intermediate EFL students. Results showed that the performance of students using bilingual dictionary was not significantly different from the ones who used the monolingual one. They concluded that both dictionaries are useful for reading comprehension but monolingual dictionaries are more effective, so advised EFL learners not to resort to a bilingual dictionary except as a last resort. Ard (1982) studied the bilingual use as a part of composing process during writing. It was concluded that the success rate of dictionary use depends on the native language background of the writer. He found that the use of bilingual dictionaries may lead to certain types of errors that most of them are the results of shortcomings in the dictionaries (i.e. lack of meaning distinction, collocation information, frequency), but he did not encourage the dictionary use.



2.2. Research on pronunciation accuracy As cited in Hariri (2012), in investigating pronunciation accuracy, at first, we must notice the definition of accuracy to measure it. Accuracy in pronunciation does not mean to pronounce like natives, but it is a subcategory of intelligibility and we can say that it is a kind of mastery in speech production. Another significance of accuracy is in EIL (English as an International Language), that is related to distinct and fluent pronunciation of different consonants and vowels. Van den Doel (2007), in his article explains that an efficient EIL is the one that speakers attempt to make themselves understood to non-native and even native speakers. According to Burns (2003), Clear pronunciation is essential in spoken communication. Even where learners produce minor inaccuracies in vocabulary and grammar, they are more likely to communicate effectively when they have good pronunciation and intonation. Pronunciation involves features at: • The segmental (micro) level • The supra-segmental (macro) level. There are some important factors that affect the learning of pronunciation. They are age factor, motivation, exposure to target language, attitude, instruction, and mother tongue influence (Gilakjani, 2011). Accurate pronunciation involves discovering how sounds are articulated and pronounced for each letter or group of letters when vocalizing a word and to follow what is accepted as standard by native speakers. To have accuracy in pronunciation doesn't necessarily mean to have native-like accent (Jahandar et al, 2012). 3. Method 3.1. Materials To achieve the final goal of this study, five different instruments were used to collect the data in the present study:

1) Oxford Placement Test was administered to 120 EFL intermediate learners. 2) Two questionnaires were used: Questionnaire I and Questionnaire II. After checking the reliability of

both questionnaires, questionnaire (I) was used to collect some quantitative data about participants' preferences in using dictionaries; Questionnaire (II) was be used to identify dictionary habits of the learners.

3) An open ended interview also was used to solicit in-depth responses on learners' choice of dictionaries and their habits.

4) A task which administered during class time without any time limit was given to tap students' skill in dictionary use.

5) An Oral test of pronunciation was used to check learners’ pronunciation accuracy on segmental and supra-segmental level.

3.2. Data collection procedures The standardized Oxford Placement test (OPT) was administered to 120 EFL students to ensure the subjects are at the same level of language proficiency. Based on OPT direction, eighty intermediate students whose score was 31+ in grammar and vocabulary and 8+ in reading section was selected as main sample for the present study. In order to fulfill the purpose of the study, a pilot study was conducted with 15 intermediate students. Questionnaires I and II, Skill in Dictionary Use test, and pronunciation test were administered to the participants in order to ensure their reliability and validity. In the next step, the main process of the study was carried out. To this end, the instruments were administered to intermediate students. First, the objectives and procedure of the questionnaires were explained to the participants. Then they completed the Questionnaire I during 10 minutes and 30 of them completed the Questionnaire II during 25 minutes. Thirty six of participants were asked to do the Skill in Dictionary Use task in 30 minutes afterwards these participants who completed the Questionnaire I were asked to participate in oral test of pronunciation in 10 minutes.



3.3. Data analysis procedures Descriptive statistics including measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion along with measures of distribution were presented for the OPT test as a placement test and two questionnaires. For the statistical analyses, the data was examined under three subheadings: first running Eta test to the results of the questionnaire ( the preferred type of dictionary used) and the pronunciation scores to examine whether there is a significant relationship between the participants’ pronunciation score and each of the three types of dictionaries determined in the questionnaire. Secondly, running Pearson correlation in order to determine the relationship between the skill in dictionary use (task scores) and pronunciation scores. Before running Pearson correlation, Normality assumption was examined through applying Kolmogrove-Smirnove test. In sum, the relationship between the participants’ pronunciation scores and type of dictionary they were used to was examined. For the face-to-face interview, the results of the participants’ use of dictionaries reported at the interview were summarized. 4. Findings and results 4.1. Results of pilot study A pilot study was done with 15 EFL learners who were representative of the main sample with respect to their general foreign language proficiency. The reliability of 60 items of the OPT test as well as the two questionnaires and the pronunciation test used in the study were estimated through running Cronbach’s Alpha. The results are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Reliability analysis

Cronbach's Alpha N of Items N OPT test .835 60 15

Questionnaire 1: preferences .778 9 15

Questionnaire 2: habits .746 22 15

Pronunciation test .732

4.2. Results of the main study 4.2.1. Measure of EFL Proficiency (OPT test for the sampling purpose) To ensure the main subjects were roughly at the same level of language proficiency, the standardized Oxford Placement test (OPT) was administered to 120 EFL students. The objective was to select a homogeneous sample. A cut-point of one standard deviation above and below the mean was set and 80 learners whose proficiency scores were within this range (+ 1 SD from the mean) were selected as the main participants of the present study. The descriptive statistics of the OPT test are presented in table 2.

Table 4.2: Statistics for the OPT test

N Valid 125 Missing

0

Mean 38.6880 Median 38.0000 Mode 38.00 Std. Deviation 13.28740 Variance 176.555 Range 60.00 Minimum .00 Maximum 60.00 Sum 4836.00



4.2.2. The first research question: What type of dictionary do intermediate students use at Fouman

language institutes? Descriptive statistics including the mean scores, standard deviations, and frequencies, were used in order to scrutinize the participants’ preferences in using dictionaries. Table 3 represents the statistics that were collected from the first questionnaire and shows the participants’ preferred types of dictionaries.

Table 3: Descriptive statistics (the first Questionnaire: preferences)


Sum Valid

Missing

Monolingual Desk Dictionary

80 0 2.4250 .88267 194.00

Monolingual Computer Dictionary

80 0 1.6250 .93287 130.00

Monolingual Mobile dictionary

80 0 2.8750 1.05991 230.00

Bilingual (E-P) Desk Dictionary

80 0 2.5000 .87149 200.00

Bilingual (E-P) Computer Dictionary

80 0 2.0625 1.07142 165.00

Bilingual (E-P) Mobile dictionary

80 0 2.6250 .89124 210.00

Bilingual (P-E) Desk Dictionary

80 0 1.7000 .84793 136.00

Bilingual (P-E) Computer Dictionary

80 0 1.3750 .60326 110.00

Bilingual (P-E) Mobile dictionary

80 0 1.5625 .86922 125.00

Table 3 showed that, the participants announced their highest preferences for using Monolingual Mobile dictionary (X= 2.8750), followed closely by the Bilingual (E-P) Mobile dictionary (X=2.6250) and Bilingual (E-P) Desk Dictionary (X= 2.5000). Use of Bilingual (P-E) Computer Dictionary, and use of Bilingual (P-E) Mobile dictionary were among the least favored types of dictionaries (X≤ 1.56). Table 4 presents the descriptive statistics, the mean scores, standard deviations, and percentages with respects to the learners’ dictionary habits.

Table 4: Descriptive statistics for the second questionnaire (habits in dictionary use)

Mean Std. Deviation

N

1) How often do you use your dictionary while reading?

1.53 .900 30

2) How often do you use your dictionary after reading?

3.20 .961 30

3) How often do you use your dictionary before reading?

2.33 .711 30



4) How often do you use your dictionary before writing?

2.57 .728 30

5) How often do you use your dictionary while writing?

3.27 .828 30

6) How often do you use your dictionary after writing?

1.57 .774 30

7) How often do you use your dictionary before speaking?

2.33 1.061 30

8) How often do you use your dictionary while speaking?

1.57 .626 30

9) How often do you use your dictionary after speaking?

1.63 .615 30

10) How often do you use your dictionary before listening?

1.33 .479 30

11) How often do you use your dictionary while listening?

1.80 .761 30

12) How often do you use your dictionary after listening?

3.10 1.062 30

13) While using your dictionary how often word definition is important to you.

3.60 .621 30

14) While using your dictionary how often synonym and antonym are important to you.

3.30 .651 30

15) While using your dictionary how often word collocation is important to you.

2.47 .629 30

16) While using your dictionary how often sentence example is important to you.

3.53 .629 30

17) While using your dictionary how often cross comparisons are important to you.

2.27 .828 30

18) While using your dictionary how often pronunciation is important to you.

3.53 .629 30

19) While using your dictionary how often grammatical pattern or features are important to you.

2.97 .718 30

20) While using your dictionary how often Persian equivalent is important to you.

3.27 .828 30

21) How often do you refer to dictionary to find meaning?

3.53 .629 30

22) How often do you refer to dictionary to learn language (word, grammar, pronunciation and spelling)?

3.10 .803 30

The findings of the second questionnaire that was related to the respondents’ habits in dictionary use revealed that habits like consulting a dictionary for “word definition, sentence example, pronunciation, and finding meaning” were of great importance for the respondents. These habits held the highest mean rank (mean ≥ 3.50).



Peculiarities like consulting a dictionary “while reading, after writing, while speaking, after speaking, before listening, and while listening” were amongst the least favored habits(mean ≤ 2). 4.2.3. The second research question: Is there any relationship between the type of dictionary used and

Iranian EFL learners’ pronunciation accuracy? In order to find the relationship between the type of dictionary used and pronunciation scores, a chi- square Test along with Eta Test was used. Tables 5 and 6 present the result of chi-square and Eta test respectively.

Table 5: Chi-square test for the type of dictionary and pronunciation score

Value df Asymp. Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 66.000a 42 .010 Likelihood Ratio 73.555 42 .002 Linear-by-Linear Association

29.521 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 36

The two-sided asymptotic significance of the chi-square statistic was lower than 0.05, so it was appropriate to conclude that the relationship between type of dictionary used and pronunciation ability was not due to chance variation, which implied that use of each type of dictionary caused different levels of pronunciation proficiency. The significance value of the test was (.010) was lower than (.05), consequently, it can be inferred that the association illustrated in the cross-tabulation is real and not due to chance and thus the first null hypothesis is rejected.

Table 6: Eta test for the type of dictionary and pronunciation scores

Value Nominal by Interval

Eta Pronunciation scores Dependent

.922

Types of dictionary Dependent

.979

Based on Cohen’s (1988) guideline, values between 0.5 to 0.9 show that the relationship is strong. Thus the results showed that the association between preferred type of dictionary (monolingual, bilingual L2- L1 and bilingual L1-L2) and pronunciation ability was positive and relatively high (Eta= .922).



Figure 1: the relationship between the type of dictionary used and Iranian EFL learners’ pronunciation

accuracy 4.2.4. The third research question: Is there any correlation between skill in dictionary use and

pronunciation ability? To address the third research question, that is to discover the possible correlation between Iranian EFL learners' skill in dictionary use and pronunciation ability, a Pearson correlation test was run to the results of the task and pronunciation scores.

Table 7: Correlations for the task and pronunciation scores

Pronunciation

Task

Pronunciation

Pearson Correlation

1 .779**

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 36 36

Task Pearson Correlation

.779** 1

Sig. (2-tailed) .000 N 36 36

**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).

The statistically significant correlation coefficient (value = .779) which is statistically significant (s ig= 0.000, P≤ 0.05), roughly indicated that the observed sample data provided ample evidence to reject the second null hypothesis concluding that there was a significant correlation between Iranian EFL learners' skill in dictionary use and their pronunciation ability.



5. Discussion and Conclusion This study attempted to identify the dictionary use preferences of Iranian EFL learners. The aim is to investigate not only the preferences but what type of dictionary is the most frequently used in different learning situations. Looking at the dictionary preferences of the respondents, the researcher noticed that the majority of students reported using Monolingual Mobile Dictionary(x=2.87) followed closely by Bilingual (E-P) Mobile Dictionary (x=2.62) more frequently than any other type of dictionary reported in the study. Analysis of data gathered revealed students’ willingness to use bilingual (E-P) dictionaries (sum=7.18) more than monolingual ones (sum=6.91).This preference does not necessarily mean that bilingual dictionaries are actually more helpful. According to Bejoint (1981), bilingual dictionaries are ideal for quick consultation, while monolingual ones "though more difficult to use, have the extra merit of introducing the user right into the lexical system of L2". The preference for the E-P bilingual dictionary over other types of dictionaries coincides with the results of other studies which found that L2-L1 bilingual dictionaries were used more frequently than other types of dictionaries (Tomaszczyk, 1979; Baxter, 1980; Kharma, 1985; Battenburg, 1989; Alqahtani, 2005). Data obtained from the second questionnaire suggested that looking up the meaning of words, definition of words, sentence example and pronunciation were the prime purposes of dictionary use. Using a dictionary to find definition of a word obtained a mean frequency higher than any other situations with a mean of 3.60 and SD of .62. This is in line with what was discovered in other key studies on dictionary use where subjects mostly checked their dictionaries for the meanings of words and findings the definitions of the words (Tomaszczyk, 1979; Bejoint, 1981; Battenburg, 1990; Alqahtani, 2005). Eta measure of association with value equal to .922 close to 1 indicated a high degree of association between the type of dictionary used and pronunciation scores. The findings showed that monolingual dictionaries as well as bilingual (L1-L2) and bilingual (L2-L1) dictionaries were all useful tools for guiding language learners through looking up the relevant information and thus learning new vocabulary in this study. Based on the information in Table 4.3, the participants in this study favored using monolingual dictionaries and bilingual (E-P) dictionaries more than bilingual (P-E) dictionaries. But monolingual users seemed to benefit more from information provided and thus improved their pronunciation accuracy. It seems that using monolingual dictionaries provide more precise information about the word than bilingual dictionaries. In other words, monolingual dictionaries improve pronunciation accuracy more than bilingual dictionaries. Pearson correlation confirmed the strength and direction of the association between skill in dictionary use and pronunciation accuracy. Actually, the purpose of the third research question was to examine the relationship between pronunciation accuracy and the task. Pronunciation accuracy of the participants was measured by a rating scale which included some features such as vowels, consonants, intonation, stress, linking. It is quite obvious that pronunciation accuracy and skill in dictionary use are important for successful foreign language learning. The results of the Pearson correlation depicted significant relationship between the task which was used to measure the skill in dictionary use and the participants’ pronunciation accuracy. REFERENCES Alhaysony, M (2011). Dictionary Look-Up Behavior of Saudi Female EFL Students. European Journal of Social

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http://www-personal.une.edu.au/~hfraser/docs/HF_ANTA_REPORT.pdf



THE EFFECT OF PHONOLOGICAL LOOP ON IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS' VOCABULARY RECALL AND RETENTION

Zabih Ollah Javanbakht

Department of Education, Isfahan, Iran [email protected]

Fatemeh Miri

Department of Education, Bushehr, Iran [email protected]

ABSTRACT The phonological-loop model as a significant theoretical description of verbal working memory explains that serial memory span should be inversely related to the articulatory duration and phonological similarity of verbal items in memorized sequences. Regarding this model, the present study was designed to see whether phonological loop has any significant impact on iranian efl learners' vocabulary retention. To do this, 48 intermediate efl learners were selected based on their performance on nelson proficiency test. They were randomly assigned into two equal groups in order to fulfill the purpose of the study. Two lists of words (containing 14 words) were selected that had been matched for their number of letters and frequency in order to test retention ability of learners. The list a included less can recall in five minutes. The same procedure was done for list b. The second group of the study received similar instruction of two wordlists. The results of paired-samples t-tests indicated that both groups of study recalled the second word lists better than the first word lists. Frequency and abstractness of the words positively affected their retention. The results of independent sample t-tests revealed that both groups of study had recalled two sets wordlists significantly different from each other. Generally, it was found that working memory can develop the phonological loop for visual modality as well as speech modality. KEY WORDS: phonological loop, vocabulary retention and recall, short-term memory 1. Introduction Short-term memory or working memory has a limited capacity to store information. According to Baddeley

and Hitch (1974, as cited in Northern, 2010), working memory is composed of three components: phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and episodic buffer. They are shown in Figure 1. The phonological loop stores the auditory information and it is consisted of two sub-components. The phonological store is responsible for keeping auditory information for very short periods of time before they begin to fade and the articulatory control system (also called articulatory rehearsal component and articulatory loop) revives information in the phonological store. Any auditory verbal information enters automatically into the phonological store. The phonological loop has a crucial role in vocabulary learning and generally second language learning.

The second component is visuospatial sketchpad that stores visual information such as remembering shapes and colors, or the location or speed of objects in space. The processes of storing information are the same as phonological loop.

The third component of the model is episodic buffer that links information according to their sequence to integrated episodes. Baddeley (2000) added this component to the model.

All three components are under the control of central executive component of working memory. It has two main functions: it controls attention by focusing, dividing, and shifting and it processes information with limited capacity.

Vocabulary is “the knowledge of meanings of words. Knowledge of words also comes in at least two forms, receptive—that which we can understand or recognize—and productive—the vocabulary we use when we write or speak” (Kamil & Hiebert, 2005, p. 3). Nation (2001) divided the issues related to learn a



vocabulary into three sets of questions concerning the word form (i.e., spoken, written, and word parts), meaning (i.e., form and meaning, concept and referents, and associations), and use (i.e., grammatical functions, collocations, and constraints on use). Nation (2001) distinguished between receptive and productive vocabulary knowledge. Whereas, receptive vocabularies refer to the words comprehensible for the learners in listening and reading, not used by the learners in speaking or writing; productive vocabularies are the vocabularies actively used by the learner in speaking and writing. It means that productive vocabularies are not only comprehensible for the learners but they are also among the active lexical repertoire used by the learners in real communicative situations.

Baddeley and Hitch's model of working memory supported the idea that phonological loop and visual encoding play a major role in word recognition. Furthermore, it was found that learners realize and remember a word from its phonemic and graphemic activation form (Ding, 2011). Their function in recognition of words varies across different languages. For example, English speakers tend to phonemic activation for word identification and recall more frequently in their native language (Ding, 2011). On the other hand, the capacity to retain phonological information in the short term is a very significant feature for learners to achieve success in language learning (Campoy, 2008). Despite the fact that a large number of studies investigated the role of the phonological loop in word-retention, very scarce studies investigated Iranian EFL learners' ability in recalling English vocabulary. The present study is going to pursue the extent to which phonological loop provides the situations for learning and remembering visually introduced words among Iranian intermediate EFL learners.

2. Review of literature Vocabulary is one of the significant components of language that is the basis for second language learning.

Vocabulary learning is an on-going and longitudinal process that cannot be acquired in a limited period of time like syntax and phonetics (Ding, 2011). Findings of different studies indicated that phonological loop affected significantly in recalling and recognizing a word (Frost, 1998, Van Orden, Pennington, & Stone, 1990). It was also found that phonemic activation causes to increase the accuracy (Perfetti et al., 1998). On the contrary, Perfetti and Tan (1998) found that Chinese ESL learners are dependent upon more on visual activation for recognition of words. In addition, their speed in word retention and their ability in word identification are poorer than learners who have alphabetical writing system. Chinese ESL learners recognize a word from its whole shape and they have difficulty to switch from whole word recognition to letter clusters.

The results of Van Orden's (1987) study revealed that the automatic activation of phonological information was provided the conditions for word naming. It was found that participants put the word “hare” as well as “tooth” and “sack” into the category of “a part of the human body” than the nonhomophonic control words equated for orthographic similarity “harp”. Brown (1994) confirmed that the phonological mediation was the faster way for naming irregular words for English speakers.

Wang, Koda and Perfetti (2002) presented the semantic category judgment task to two groups of ESL learners from Korea and China. First, a category name (e.g. “a flower”) and then a word (e.g. “rows”) was shown to learners. They were asked to judge whether the word belonged to the category. The Korean participants' judgments in homophones were false. The judgments of Chinese on the words with similar spelling were false.

The above studies investigated the the role of phonological loop in language learners' word recall across different languages. Lack of studies in EFL contexts and specially Iranian EFL learners provided the primary motivation for the present study to conduct a research in Iran.

In order to serve the purpose of study the following research question was posed:

Does phonological loop have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall? The following research hypothesis was formulated in order to answer the research questions of study:

Phonological loop does not have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall.



3. Method 3.1. Participants The present study investigated the effect of phonological loop on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall. To do

this, a structured procedure was designed for data collection. A group of 48 intermediate EFL learners who studied English in a language institute located in the city of Bushehr were participated in this study. They were all male and native speakers of Persian language. They were randomly divided into two equal groups in order to fulfill the purpose of the study.

3.2. MATERIALS Two lists of words were selected in order to test recall ability of learners. List A was consisted of 14 words

(strange, brought, sparkle, dressed, through, station, glanced, squeeze, clothes, ground, bridge, please, scratch, flowers) that have been matched for their number of letters. They have also been roughly matched for frequency. List B was also included 14 words (caravan, imitate, cinema, visible, satisfy, animal, economy, educate, holiday, potato, family, occupy another, musical) with similar features. The list A included less frequent and more abstract words. The laptop computer and projector were also provided to present visually the word lists to learners. The groups of study were experimented in two different classrooms.

3.3. Procedures Both sets of words were presented to groups of study with the aid of laptop computer and projector. The first

group (n = 24) of study received vocabulary items in list A, one by one, with 2 seconds time interval. They appeared in white color on a black background. The participants sitting in front of a computer could adjust the seat to find the most comfortable and suitable angle reading the visual presentation of words. After the learners have seen the list A, they were asked to write down all the words they can recall in five minutes. The same procedure was done for list B. Both sets of papers were then collected for further decisions.

The second group (n = 24) of study almost received the similar procedures in observing vocabulary items. At first, list B was presented and then the items in list A were demonstrated to learners. After each list, the students were required to write all the words they have remembered. The data were collected and submitted to statistical analysis.

4. Results The major results of this study are in the form of descriptive statistics such as frequency, mean and standard

deviation. They are shown in Table 1. The means of different groups on two word lists are shown that in both groups the participants had higher mean scores on list B.

Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Groups

Group 1 - List A Group 1 - List B Group 2 - List A Group 2 - List B

N 24 24 24 24

Mean 5.4167 9.2500 3.5000 8.3333

Std. Deviation 1.88092 1.65831 1.44600 1.92275

Range 7.00 5.00 5.00 7.00

Minimum 2.00 7.00 1.00 5.00

Maximum 9.00 12.00 6.00 12.00

Sum 65.00 111.00 42.00 100.00

In order to address the research question of study to see if there is any significant difference between the

participants of first and second groups regarding the extent to which they recall the words, two t-tests were performed. The first t-test was performed between the participants of first group on list A and B,



and the results, as shown in Table 2, indicated that the difference between recalling two lists were significant at the level of .05. They recalled two lists of words in significantly different ways.

Table 2. Paired Samples Test

Paired Differences

t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean


Lower Upper

Pair 1

Group 1-List A- Group 1-

List B -3.833 2.167 .625 -5.210 -2.456 -6.127 11 .000

Pair 2

Group 2-List A Group 2-

List B -4.833 2.552 .736 -6.455 -3.211 -6.560 11 .000

The performances of participants of second group on two word lists were also compared to each other and the results in Table 3.

Table 3. Independent sample t-test between first group's performance on wordlists of A and B

Levene's Test for Equality of Variances

t-test for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Difference

Std. Error Difference


Lower Upper

Lists for Group 1


.017 .899 -5.296 46 .000 -3.83333 .72387 -5.3345 -2.33212



The results showed that there is a significant difference at the level of .05. Therefore, the second group of study was also recalled the word lists similar to the first group.

In order to ensure that the groups of study performed similarly in recalling the word lists, another t-test was performed. The results are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Independent sample t-test between second group's performance on wordlists of A and B



F Sig. t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Difference



Lower Upper

Lists for Group 2


.270 .60 -6.95 46 .00 -4.83 .694 -6.27 -3.39

The results revealed that there is not any significant difference between the participants of both group in

recalling word lists (t = 6.95, p < .05). An independent sample t-test was performed between both groups of study in order to find whether

phonological loop have any significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall. The results are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. Independent Samples t-test





F Sig. t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Difference



Lower Upper

Group


.710 .404 1.751 94 .087 1.41667 .80888 -.21153 3.04486

The results showed that there is a significant difference between both groups of the study (t = 1.75, p < .05).

Thus, Phonological loop have a significant effect on Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall and the null hypothesis of the study was not accepted.

5. Discussion Descriptive statistics showed that both groups of study that experienced almost different order of

presentations recalled the second word lists better than the first word lists. As it was mentioned, the words in list B were more frequent and less abstract. They were also pronounced easier than words in list A. Therefore, it seems that these factors positively affected better retention of these words.

The results of t-test analyses indicated that both groups of study had recalled two sets wordlists significantly different from each other. Therefore, the null hypothesis of study was rejected.

The evidence for supporting the efficiency of articulatory rehearsal loop in visual retention of words was investigated in a similar study by Wilson and Emmorey (1997). The results revealed that working memory can develop the phonological loop for visual modality as well as speech modality. The findings of this study confirmed Wilson and Emmorey's (1997) study.

Hamada and Koda (2011) developed a research to pursue the role of phonological loop in visually introduced words among Chinese ESL learners and English native speakers. They received treatments in two different conditions of control versus articulatory suppression and two word types (regularly spelled versus irregularly spelled words) that they were also differed in degree of phonological accessibility. The results showed with difference in the degree of phonological accessibility. It was concluded that visual representation of words as well as phonological presentation could contribute equally in word retention. The results of the present study confirmed the findings of Hamada and Koda's (2011) study.

All in all, this study provided the condition for investigating the role of phonological loop in EFL context. Iranian EFL learners with an alphabetic writing system in their native language, Persian, demonstrated that visual representation as well as phonological features of words could help them to better words' recall.

6. Conclusion The present study was done in order to investigate the extent to which visually presented vocabulary items

could help Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary recall. The participants of study (n = 48) were randomly divided into two groups and they were presented two sets of vocabulary items with a short time interval. They were asked to write what they remembered after the visual presentation of each set of words.

One of the major findings of this study was detecting the fact that visual representation of words can influence learners in such a way that their retention of words would be enhanced. Visual instruction of words is as effective as the phonological articulation of words.



As it was mentioned, the articulatory rehearsal component or articulatory loop refreshes the information in the phonological store. It could be inferred from the results of this study that verbal rehearsal may be related to visual rehearsal of words.

REFERENCES Baddeley, A.D. (2000) The episodic buffer: A new component of working memory? Trends in Cognitive

Sciences, 4, 417-423. doi:10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01538-2 Brown, P., Lupker, S. J., & Colombo, L. (1994). Interacting sources of information in word naming: A study of

individual differences. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance , 20(3), 537-554.

Campoy, G. (2008). The effect of word length in short-term memory: Is rehearsal necessary? The Quarterly Journal Of Experimental Psychology, 61 (5), 724–734.

Ding, Q. (2011). Phonemic activation or graphemic activation: An investigation on the access to word identification of Chinese ESL learners. Unpublished MA Thesis, Ball State University.

Frost, R. (1998). Towards a strong phonological theory of visual word recognition: True issues and false trails. Psychological Bulletin, 123, 71-99.

Hamada M, & Koda K. (2011). The role of the phonological loop in English word learning: a comparison of Chinese ESL learners and native speakers. Journal of Psycholinguist Research. 40(2). 75-92.

Kamil, M., & Hiebert, E. (2005). Teaching and learning vocabulary: bringing research to practice. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in another language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Northern, J. (2010). Anxiety and cognitive performance: a test of predictions made by cognitive interference

theory and attentional control theory. Unpublished PhD Dissertation. Bowling Green State University. Perfetti, C.A., Bell, L.C., & Delaney, S.M. (1988). Automatic (prelexical) phonetic activation in silent word

reading: Evidence from backward masking. Journal of Memory and Language, 27(1), 59-70. Perfetti, C. A., & Tan, L. (1998). The time course of graphic, phonological, and semantic activation in Chinese

character identification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 24(1), 101-118.

Van Orden, G. C. (1987). A ROWS is a ROSE: spelling, sound, and reading. Memory & cognition, 15(3), 181-98. Van Orden, G. C., Pennington, B. F., & Stone, G. O. (1990). Word identification in reading and the promise of

subsymbolic psycholinguistics. Psychological review, 97(4), 488-522. Wang, M., Koda, K., & Perfetti, C. A. (2003). Alphabetic and nonalphabetic L1 effects in English word

identification: A comparison of Korean and Chinese English L2 learners. Cognition, 87, 129-149. Wilson, M., & Emmorey, K. (1997). A visuospatial "phonological loop" in working memory: Evidence from

American Sign Language. Memory and Cognition, 25(3), 313-320.



THE EVALUATION OF LANGUAGE METHODOLOGY AND ITS EFFICIENCY ON SPEAKING SKILL AT IRAN LANGUAGE INSTITUTE

(ILI)

Safie Kazempour Balagafshe (corresponding author)

Department of TEFL, Guilan Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Guilan, Iran [email protected]

Fereidoon Vahdany Payame-Noor University of Iran

[email protected]

Masoomeh Arjmandi Department of English Language, Islamic Azad University, Rasht Branch, Guilan, Iran

[email protected]

ABSTRACT This study investigated the perceptions of teachers and learners at the Iran Language Institute regarding the speaking skill at the institute. It also tried to find out if there is any difference among the two groups in terms of their perception. This study is a descriptive study in which three data collection procedures have been applied. They included observation, questionnaire, and interview. In order to answer the research questions three data collection procedures were adopted. In the ILI, Rasht branch, 100 students including around 38 advanced students and 65 intermediate students took part in this study with the age ranging from 20 to 28. The teachers also were asked to answer the same questionnaires in order to find the common ideas between teachers and students and also to find out their different views on the questions. Fifteen teachers took part in the data collection procedure. Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations were computed for the items of the questionnaire (both first and second sections). Additionally, Mann Whitney U test was run to the results of the questionnaire. The results showed that there is difference among the teachers’ and the learners’ perceptions. KEYWORDS: perception of teaching, speaking skill, Iran Language Institute, Mann Whitney U test 1. Introduction The ability to speak a second/foreign language is widely assumed to be a distinct advantage for the speakers of that language. Particularly in an EFL context where there is no contact with native speakers, this skill has obtained higher prestige among the other skills. Thus there is a considerable amount of interest in the development of students’ speaking proficiency. Speaking skill has always been problematic for second language learners, and this has been revealed in their speaking test performance. One of the potential sources of these problems in speaking test performance refers to differences in the methodologies being applied by different language schools. In Iran, every single institute works on a different methodology and there is not agreement upon the same method even between two institutes. But there is, hardly ever, any scientific evaluation on efficiency of t he methods at hand. There are different linguistic and non-linguistic factors which influence learners’ speaking in English as a non-native language. Each factor can constitute a facilitating factor or a problem for learners’ speaking in English.



Different learners from different geographical entities and linguistic backgrounds face different problems in their efforts aimed at achieving a measure of proficiency in the skill of speaking in English. Persian-speaking EFL learners and students in the Iranian context face their own unique set of linguistic and non-linguistic problems while striving to come to grips with English language skills, including the skill of speaking. In the area of grammar, Yarmohammadi (2005) , in an apparent critique of the status of English language education in Iran, has suggested that Iranian high school graduates entering Iranian universities have numerous problems in different areas of grammar including gerunds, infinitives, conjunctions, subordinations, relatives, prepositions and affixes (2005). 2. Review of the literature The concept of speaking and the related issues like the teaching and testing of this skill are explained. The experiments conducted on this language skill are presented and the categories concerned in speaking are elaborated. Much research has been done and much has been written about the low level of speaking skills found among university and other students in Iran. However, there has been very little research specifically regarding speaking among students in regard with the methodological related issues and the effect they might have on the success or failure of the leaners. Accordingly, in this second chapter a general overview of all speaking related issue is presented. 2.1. Speaking Definition Speaking in a second language (L2) involves the development of a particular type of communication skills. Because of its circumstances of production, oral language tends to differ from written language in its typical grammar, lexical and discourse patterns. In addition, some of the processing skills needed in speaking differ from those involved in reading and writing (Bygate, 2002). Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing, receiving and processing information. Its form and meaning are depending on the context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. However, speech is not always unpredictable. Speaking requires that learners not only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar, pronunciation, or vocabulary ("linguistic competence"), but also that they understand when, why, and in what ways to produce language ("sociolinguistic competence") (Nunan,1999:216). The learning of language involves acquiring the ability to compose correct sentences and it involves an understanding of which sentences or part of sentences is appropriate for a particular context (Widdowson, 1978:2). We do speaking in order to communicate with each other. Better communication means better understanding of others and ourselves. Communication is a continuous process of expression, interpretation, and negotiation. The opportunities for communications are infinite and include systems of signs and symbols (Savignon, 1982:8). Communication requires a sender, a receiver and a medium. It can be said that both hearers and speakers do interactions by giving responds to what they have heard and listened to. Generally, people who encounter others through this oral communication have a certain goal that they want to achieve, the goal that underlies people to do the communication. According to Kayi (2006) speaking refers to the gap between linguistic expertise and teaching methodology. Linguistic expertise concerns with language structure and language content. Teaching speaking is not like listening, reading, and writing. It needs habit formation because it is a real communication and speaking is a productive skill so it needs practicing as often as possible. 2.2. The Nature of Speaking Speaking in the foreign language has always been considered the most demanding skill to develop in the learners of the target language compared to such other skills as listening, reading, and writing. This is in part due to the fact that it involves more than simply knowing the linguistic components of the language. Of course, knowledge of the linguistic components such as vocabulary and grammatical structures seems essential but not sufficient. What makes Speaking distinct from the other skills is that the speaker needs to have a quick access to all the relevant knowledge required to produce the appropriate language in relatively short lags of time, whereas in other skills the learners normally have enough time to either match the input with the existing



knowledge, e.g., in reading or writing or to search for the accurate forms to produce the language with no immediate recipient who might be waiting even some times impatiently to receive the language, e.g., in writing. Chastain (1988) maintains that speaking a language involves more than simply knowing the linguistic components of the message, and developing language skills requires more than grammatical comprehension and vocabulary memorization. Teachers and students come to language classes with conscious or subconscious attitudes, expectations, interests, and needs. These are especially germane to establishing course objectives for speaking, which has tended to receive the greatest attention and emphasis in recent years and for which achievement has tended to be the most disappointing, perhaps because expectations have been elevated beyond realistic levels (p. 270). 2.3. Teaching speaking Speaking is "the process of building and sharing meaning through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, in a variety of contexts" (Chaney, 1998, p. 13). Speaking is a crucial part of second language learning and teaching. Despite its importance, for many years, teaching speaking has been undervalued and English language teachers have continued to teach speaking just as a repetition of drills or memorization of dialogues. However, today's world requires that the goal of teaching speaking should improve students' communicative skills, because, only in that way, students can express themselves and learn how to follow the social and cultural rules appropriate in each communicative circumstance. According to Nunan, 2003 what is meant by "teaching speaking" is to teach EFL learners to: - Produce the English speech sounds and sound patterns -Use word and sentence stress, intonation patterns and the rhythm of the second language. -Select appropriate words and sentences according to the proper social setting, audience, situation and subject matter. -Organize their thoughts in a meaningful and logical sequence. -Use language as a means of expressing values and judgments. -Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. -Use the language quickly and confidently with few unnatural pauses, which is called as fluency. Now many linguistics and EFL teachers agree on that students learn to speak in the foreign language by "interacting". Communicative language teaching and collaborative learning serve best for this aim. Communicative language teaching is based on real-life situations that require communication. By using this method in EFL classes, students will have the opportunity of communicating with each other in the target language. In brief, EFL teachers should create a classroom environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language. This can occur when students collaborate in groups to achieve a goal or to complete a task. The activities that can be done in the speaking classroom will be discussed later. There are four things that students need to do with new language: be exposed to it, understand its meaning, understand its form (how it is constructed) and practice it (Harmer, 1998:52). English in Indonesia is still as foreign language, that is why EFL (English as Foreign Language) students need lots of exposures since they are much less exposed to target language, target culture and target people than ESL (English as Second Language) learners. In the classroom, a major part of the teacher’s job is to expose students to language so that they can use it later. Foreign language learners need opportunities to develop the skills especially speaking skill, by being exposed to situations where the emphasis is on using the language for communicating meanings as efficiently and economically as possible. The use of English is limited only in the classroom. The lack of exposure to real English speaking setting can limits the quantity and quality of the input. Therefore, in EFL classroom, teachers need to set the situations like ESL situation. When EFL teachers use only English, the EFL students can get the exposure. However, many learners are studying English simply just because it is stated, on the syllabus. Students can be exposed to the language besides from the teacher utterances; they can also listen to tapes, read texts and look at computer printouts. In each case, the students are given chances to see or hear the language before they are asked to produce it themselves. Context of learning is known as language exposure and context of teaching is known as instruction. Context of learning provides learners with natural input from interaction in



community and context of teaching is a situation in which learners receive input from instruction. Exposure seems to be the main source of success in foreign language acquisition (Huda, 1999). The goal of the classroom is not to substitute for the outside world, but to bring students to the point where they can use the outside world for further acquisition (Krashen, 1982). Although bringing the outside world into the classroom is not possible in the EFL setting, teachers can prepare EFL learners for further learning as independent learners in an English-speaking environment. The goal is not to produce fluent English speakers but to produce learners who can use their own language abilities and the language input in the real world to meet their own needs to function in English. Language learning can take place only through natural process, which operates when a person involved in using the language for communication. Therefore, communicative ability (inside or outside the classroom) is an important part of the total learning process. 2.4. Principles for Teaching Speaking In the communicative model of language teaching, the teacher helps the students in real-life communication. They help their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts. According to Nunan (2003), there are some principles for teaching speaking. Some of which are described as follows: 1. Give students practice with both fluency and accuracy At the beginning and intermediate level of studies, learners must be given opportunities to improve their fluency as well as accuracy. Accuracy means using the target language correctly and fluency is using language quickly and confidently. The teacher should not emphasize on any one aspect of speaking. Rather , students should get practice on both accuracy and fluency. 2. Use group work or pair work To improve students’ speaking, they should be given enough opportunities to speak in class. So, teacher talk time should be less and student talk time should be more. It is important for language teachers do not take up all the time. According to Nunan also, “Pair work and group work can be used to increase the amount of time that learners get to speak in the target language during lesson.” In this way, the students will get chance to interact and practice the language with other students. 2.4.1. How to Teach Speaking Now many linguistics and EFL teachers agree on that students learn to speak in the foreign language by "interacting". Communicative language teaching and collaborative learning serve best for this aim. Communicative language teaching is based on real-life situations that require communication. By using this method in EFL classes, students will have the opportunity of communicating with each other in the target language. In brief, EFL teachers should create a classroom environment where students have real-life communication, authentic activities, and meaningful tasks that promote oral language. This can occur when students collaborate in groups to achieve a goal or to complete a task. The activities that can be done in the speaking classroom will be discussed later. There are four things that students need to do with new language: be exposed to it, understand its meaning, understand its form (how it is constructed) and practice it (Harmer, 1998:52). English in Indonesia is still as foreign language, that is why EFL (English as Foreign Language) students need lots of exposures since they are much less exposed to target language, target culture and target people than ESL (English as Second Language) learners. In the classroom, a major part of the teacher’s job is to expose students to language so that they can use it later. Foreign language learners need opportunities to develop the skills especially speaking skill, by being exposed to situations where the emphasis is on using the language for communicating meanings as efficiently and economically as possible. The use of English is limited only in the classroom. The lack of exposure to real English speaking setting can limits the quantity and quality of the input. Therefore, in EFL classroom, teachers need to set the situations like ESL situation. When EFL teachers use only English, the EFL students can get the exposure. However, many learners are studying English simply just because it is stated, on the syllabus. Students can be exposed to the language besides from the teacher utterances; they can also listen to tapes, read texts and look at computer printouts. In each case, the students are given chances to see or hear the language



before they are asked to produce it themselves. Context of learning is known as language exposure and context of teaching is known as instruction. Context of learning provides learners with natural input from interaction in community and context of teaching is a situation in which learners receive input from instruction. Exposure seems to be the main source of success in foreign language acquisition (Huda, 1999:158). The goal of the classroom is not to substitute for the outside world, but to bring students to the point where they can use the outside world for further acquisition (Krashen, 1982). Although bringing the outside world into the classroom is not possible in the EFL setting, teachers can prepare EFL learners for further learning as independent learners in an English-speaking environment. The goal is not to produce fluent English speakers but to produce learners who can use their own language abilities and the language input in the real world to meet their own needs to function in English. Language learning can take place only through natural process, which operates when a person involved in using the language for communication. Therefore, communicative ability (inside or outside the classroom) is an important part of the total learning process. 3. Research Questions and Hypotheses Based on the problem mentioned in this study tried to answer the following questions: Q: Is there any significant difference in the perceptions of EFL learners and teachers of the effectiveness of methods of teaching speaking at the ILI? Based on the above mentioned research questions, this study proposed one hypothesis: H0: There is no significant difference in EFL learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of methods of teaching speaking at the ILI. 4. Methodology 4.1. Participants In the ILI, Rasht branch, 100 students including around 40 advanced students and 65 intermediate students took part in this study with the age ranging from 20 to 28. The teachers also were asked to answer the same questionnaires in order to find the common ideas between teachers and students and also to find out their different views on the questions. Fifteen teachers took part in the data collection procedure. By the way, both students and teachers were female . 4.2. Procedure During the research it was tried to use the real time method of data collection; the classes were observed at session 15 and 16 of each level in order to cover all the activities. If the observations were done in a very early or very late session it may not give the ideal result for the research because at the very beginning the teacher may not be able to cover all the activities like asking the dialogues or reading so an important part of observation which is asking the lesson may have been missed. Although the checklist was used to check the activities which were done, an MP3 player was taken to the class to record the teachers and the students' voice to keep more details. What was really on the position of importance for the observer was the way of teachers' method in following the institutes' methodology. And also the language teaching methodology was noticed carefully. The form of error corrections and teaching new lesson to the learners was the matter of observation. The students 'participation in the discussions before and after the new lesson especially reading skill was highly important because it was considered to be of the parts that has given more chance to the students to talk. 4.2.1. Observation Classroom observation scheme: Numerous methods of investigating language teaching and learning are in common use. One current method is direct classroom observation, the most widely used form of which is interaction analysis. As Baily (1978) reported, because of the problems such as lack of reliability, observer’s bias, multiplicity of the categories and cumbersome reading system, interaction analysis was found faulty. Hence,



recording was found most effective for observing objectively definable behaviors which were seen in the classrooms. Studying several carefully developed observation schemes (All wright & Baily, 1991; Riazi et al., 1995) and gathering daily lesson plans from 20 experienced instructors of the ILI EFL institutes. 4.2.2. Questionnaire The primary method of inquiry which was used in this study was questionnaires. The purpose of the questionnaires was to collect qualitative and quantitative data which would investigate learners’ and teachers’ perceptions of the effectiveness of teaching methodology in ILI speaking classes. The questionnaire was based on Huynh, 2006 and Jarvis & Atsilarat survey of EFL teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards speaking skill. However, some modifications and revisions were done to make the instrument more compatible with the purposes of this study in Iranian EFL situation. It consisted of 24 items arranged in a 4 point-Likert scale format, ranging from strongly agree to strongly disagree. The following themes were addressed in the questionnaire: -The role of repetition in learning vocabulary and speaking (3 items), -The importance of speaking English in classes and making sentences with new words in English (2 items), -The presence of Persian equivalents in front of new words (1 item) -The use of group work and pair work in speaking classes (3items), -The role of the language teacher in speaking classes (2 items) -The role of teaching part of speeches and using dictionary to the students (3 items) -The role of warm up and follow up activities in classes (2 items) -The efficiency of teaching a lot of new words each term ((2 items) -The effect of learning the culture of target language beside the language itself (2 items) 4.2.3. Interview

In order to gather more detailed information a face to face interview was held with both experienced teachers and students; the questions which were asked from them was somehow the same as the questionnaires with more details and they dealt with personal attitudes of the speakers. It was meant to find out whether they find the methodology of the institute which they are studying at effective or not? If yes why? And if no what can be done to promote the efficiency of the institute. 4.3. Methods of analyzing data

After the data collection procedures were completed, the collected data was coded and analyzed using both quantitative and quantitative techniques in order to recognize the perception of teachers and students of ILI toward teaching the speaking skill. According to the observation section of this study, descriptive statistics in the form of tables and charts were applied to indicate the amount of discipline problems in each group on the observation checklist at young and adult learners’ classes and determine the types of problems in the classes. These statistics were analyzed through qualitative techniques. After collecting the results of the Likert scale questionnaire, a Mann-Whitney U test was run to find out whether there is a significant difference between adult and young learners’ classes’ discipline problems in each type of misbehaviors. For this research, the researcher selected inferential statistics because two groups of raters were independent and the data which collected through questionnaire were of ordinal type. So, a non-parametric statistics was chosen for data analysis. SPSS software was used for running the test in order to find any significant difference between teachers and students of ILI regarding perception of teaching speaking skill. All participants’ responses were included in the final Mann-Whitney U test performed by SPSS software.

5. Results Descriptive statistics including means and standard deviations were computed for the items of the questionnaire (both first and second sections). Additionally, Mann Whitney U test was run to the results of the questionnaire (teachers and students) to examine the possible difference between Iranian ILI EFL teachers and learners’



perceptions of effectiveness of teaching methodologies for speaking classes at the ILI. This section presents the results of data analyses in order to provide answers to the questions and to test the research hypotheses. Frequency distributions and percentages were determined through the statistical package for social sciences (SPSS, version 22) to analyze the Likert-scale responses for general attitudes towards the effectiveness of teaching methodologies for speaking classes at the ILI.

Table 5.1: Ranks for teachers and students

group N Mean Rank Sum of Ranks Attitude (first part of the questionnaire) teachers 15 60.17 902.50

students 65 35.96 2337.50 Total 80

Attitude (second part of the questionnaire) teachers 15 70.97 1064.50 students 65 33.47 2175.50 Total 80

The rank table was divided into two groups (teachers and students), one group for each test variable. The first test variable measured teachers’ attitudes and the second one showed students’ perceptions. First, each case was ranked without regard to group membership. Cases tied on a particular value of attitude received the average rank for that value. After ranking the cases, the ranks were summed within groups. For teachers’ group, for the first section of the questionnaire, the average ranks were over (24.21) points apart. Moreover, for the second section of the questionnaire, the average ranks for the teachers were (37.5) points higher than EFL learners’ average rank.

Table 4.7: test statistics for the attitude questionnaire

Test Statistics a Attitude (first part of the

questionnaire) Attitude (second part of the questionnaire)

Mann-Whitney U 192.500 30.500 Z -3.640 -5.660 Asymp. Sig. (2-tailed)

.000 .000

a. Grouping Variable: group

The negative Z statistics (Z= -3.64) for first part of the questionnaire and (Z= -5.66) for second part of the questionnaire indicated that the rank sums were lower than their expected values. The significantly lower rank sums of the EFL learners’ group indicated that there was a significant difference between Iranian EFL teachers and EFL learners in terms of their attitudes towards the effectiveness of methods of teaching speaking at the ILI. (Sig= .000). This significant difference was reported for both first and second section of the questionnaire, too. Mann Whitney U test results rejected the null hypothesis and suggested that there was a significant difference between EFL teachers and EFL learners (P≤0.05). 6. Discussion This study aimed to find that whether there is any difference between the view of teachers and students toward perception of speaking skill in the Iran Language Institute or not. The results as mentioned in prev ious part showed that there is a great difference between these two groups. The results showed that most of the items received a mean score around above 3 except for item 13 in the first part of the questionnaire which indicates a fairly positive opinion towards the ILI methodology.



Most of them agreed that repetitions in case of grammar and dialogues would be helpful for the learners speaking. They also agreed that English has to be the only medium of communication in the classrooms. They mainly agreed that abundant vocabulary instruction is a good point but they differed on their ideas on the methodology of teaching according to the expected norms of the system. Generally most teachers had a positive attitude towards the method. The overall mean score equaled 3.55. As for the second part of the questionnaire which dealt with the activities which can be done most of the items received a mean above 3 except for the item 6 which implies the positive role of repetition in speaking. Some items even had a mean above four which implies that they are willing to make changes in the present system of teaching like for the items 9 and 10 which indicated the integration of culture into the lessons and the importance of all language skills and sub skills. Generally the teachers had a fairly positive attitude towards the activities which can be done in the ILI. This is due to the higher mean score of 3.84. Since the mean score of the second part of the questionnaire was higher, it can be concluded that the teachers are more willing to make some changes in the current method at hand. As it was discussed above, there is significant difference among the ILI teachers and learners on the issue of the methodology. Thus the hypothesis of the study has been rejected. The significant difference between teachers and learners on the questionnaire item answers provide evidence that the teachers and learners have different perceptions regarding the method at hand at the ILI. The results corroborate and verify the hypothesis that the learners and the teachers have different views on the methodology at the ILI. With regard to the results of the study, some practical implications can be provided which may be useful to EFL institutes of Iran in general and the ILI in particular. 1. The results of the study indicated that the ILI institutes gave priority to the principles of audio-lingual approach. Therefore it is recommended that all the EFL institutes follow and build on the principles and techniques of the same method. 2. Teachers should not just stick to the textbooks. Supplementary materials such as short stories, films, tapes, handouts, and so on should also be used. Furthermore, EFL institutes should install modern language laboratories and a situation should be provided so that the students use the laboratories whenever they need to. 3. The role of repetition is undeniable in the learning process. However, too much reliance on sole repetition and neglecting the meaningful learning can decrease the outcome of learning. REFERENCES Abdan, A. (1991). An Exploratory Study of Teaching English in the Saudi Elementary Public Schools, System,

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Richards, J. & Rodgers, T. C. (1990). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Vocabulary Learning in Greece. System, 24 (1), 117- 127.



EMP STUDENTS’ USE OF READING STRATEGIES AND THE IMPACT OF STRATEGY INSTRUCTION ON MEDICAL TEXT

COMPREHENSION

Maryam Khoshbouie (corresponding author)

Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

Seyed Jamal Abdorrahimzadeh Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran


Mohammad Amin Sorahi

Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Reading is one of the pillars of language learning that plays a key role in successful academic performances. To become proficient readers in ESP, learners should know how to tackle expository texts. The present study aimed at broadening our knowledge of the types of reading strategy used by EMP learners and the effectiveness of reading strategies instruction as regards developing reading comprehension. Moreover, the differences between high and low proficient readers were analyzed in light of patterns of strategy use and effectiveness of strategy instruction. In a comparative quasi-experimental design, forty learners of nursing, and lab students from Jahrom University of medical sciences participated in the study. Learners responding to a reading strategy survey also went through a reading strategy instruction course. To compare learners’ performances, their reading achievements were assessed through pre-, post- and delay tests. Descriptive statistics, chi-square, independent and pair samples t-test were applied to analyze learners’ reading attainments. The results revealed that EMP learners mostly and significantly employed skimming and scanning strategies. To a lesser extent, they used discourse markers to comprehend medical texts. More proficient readers showed significantly higher rates of using skimming and scanning as compared with less proficient readers. However, differences in the use of discourse markers were not significant. Furthermore, findings indicated that learners in both high and low groups performed meaningfully better in their post- and delay tests after reading strategy instruction as compared with their pre-tests performance. The findings highlight the noteworthy effect of reading strategy instruction on learners’ reading comprehension. KEYWORDS: patterns of strategy use, reading comprehension, reading strategy instruction 1. Introduction Reading is of utmost necessity for learning because it is the basis for all knowledge. Foreign language learning

which entails both knowledge accumulation and skill development is an endeavor that supports this necessity quite clearly. Learning to read in a foreign language is a difficult task and the most important and critical skills for second language (L2) students to achieve academic success. In other words, it is a kind of interaction between the reader and the text which implies a degree of knowledge of the world, topics and target language.

Readers often encounter problems in reading a text and understanding the intended meaning. In fact, there are many factors that affect efficacy in the reading of a text in a second language of which one of the most



important ones is lack of using appropriate reading strategies (Hsu, 2006). In general, research on language learning strategies started in the 1970s. However, empirical investigations on reading strategies use and its relationship to successful and unsuccessful second language readers have been carried out more recently (Jafari & Shokrpour, 2012; Rokhsari, 2012). Research studies in second language contexts have demonstrated that strategy use is different in more and less proficient readers. That is, more proficient readers use different types of strategies in different ways. From another point of view, it is found that using reading strategies facilitates reading comprehension and helps learners become more proficient and autonomous readers (Booth & Swartz, 2004).

The problem of how to develop reading comprehension proficiency is one of the main concerns for learners of English as a foreign language and English teachers in Iran since reading is the major classroom activity in the public language education. In addition, it is an unquestionable fact that English plays a vital and prominent role in higher education in academic settings especially in medicine. Medical group students have to read medical textbooks and professional journals which are mostly written in English. That is why English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and, in the medical field, English for Medical Purposes (EMP) are necessary courses in curriculum planning for academic English education (Ghalandari & Talebinejad, 2012). Unfortunately, studies investigating reading strategies used by medical students or the effect of instructing such strategies have been rare in spite of the fact that EMP students have to heavily rely on their ability to comprehend English medical texts. To deal with this problem, the present study tries to investigate Iranian EMP students’ use of reading strategies and impact of strategy instruction on medical text comprehension. To meet this aim, the present study seeks to address the following research questions:

1. What types of reading strategies are used by Iranian EMP students? 2. Is there any significant difference between self-reported patterns of strategy use? 3. Is there any significant difference between the types of reading strategies used by such students at high and

low levels of L2 reading proficiency? 4. How does reading strategies instruction affect reading comprehension achievement at these two levels of

reading proficiency after the intervention of such instruction and over time? 5. How does reading strategies instruction influence reading comprehension improvement at these two levels

of reading proficiency after the intervention and over time? 1.1 Statement of the Problem The lingua franca of medicine is English which is employed by doctors, nurses and other medical groups in

writing medical records, reading medical journals which are published in English, and communicating with each other (Yang, 2005). As such, EMP students, clinicians and researchers whose native language is not English must learn it to avail themselves to the large body of medical knowledge published in English, and also they have to use English for their future career. A large number of medica l group students in a country like Iran suffer from poor English language proficiency, perhaps due to a variety reasons open to regular and preferably collective research studies.

Students’ difficulties in comprehending and using English for academic purposes might be due to a number of reasons. In public education, students at schools have some English courses which are not effective enough. Additionally, at universities, except English majors, students pass some credits in general English and ESP courses which, according to Ghonsooly and Pishghadam (2007), do not seem to be useful and interesting for students. Many students, unfortunately, merely rely on English courses offered at universities and do not try to develop the ability to communicate effectively in English for specific purposes in their own field of study. In particular, they do not get the opportunity to develop and improve their academic English reading skills and strategies. Therefore, most of them are unfamiliar with the employment of English reading strategies that potentially enhance their reading proficiency. That might be the reason why researchers have observed that Iranian university students, in spite of having a certain level of English reading ability, experience problems in applying effective reading strategies to comprehend scientific texts (Jafari & Shokrpour, 2012). Thus research on strategies used by



Iranian EMP students seems to help us better figure out how they deal with academic texts in English and how they could better manage their practical use of those texts.

1.2 Significance of the Study The results of the present study are supposed to help medical group students with an awareness of reading

strategies in dealing with medical text comprehension in their education and beyond that while they are involved in their career continually referring to English sources for the information they need. Furthermore, Iranian ESP instructors can apply the findings of this study to develop more effective instructional strategies addressing learners’ needs for a variety of reading strategies which will help them cope with difficulties in reading medical texts in English.

2. Literature Review Reading is one of the fundamental skills for academic success. Reading aids learners to learn, acq uire

knowledge and experience world. It is the skill of coordinating and constructing meaning through complex processes encompassing language, word reading, word knowledge and fluency (Park, 2005; May, 2010; Vacca, 2002).When reading a text, learners utilize a vast of skills and processes to decode authors’ intention. Comprehension has been built upon interactive processes which are overshadowed by a variety of cognitive models. In what follows, theoretical models of reading, reading strategy and reading strategy instruction will be illustrated in details.

Literature has reported a plethora of studies on reading strategies and reading strategy instruction which highlights the helpfulness of reading strategy and the part they play in enhancing reading comprehension; dearth of knowledge about strategies always cause learners not comprehend texts and be poor categorization Scheme for Instructional readers (Baire, 2005; Ozek & Civelek, 2006; Sporer, Brunstein & Kieschke, 2009; Cogmen & Saracaloglu, 2009; Geladari, Griva & Mastrothanasis, 2010).

In one study, Geladari, Griva and Mastrothanasis (2010) explored the reading strategies used by immigrant children. The sample consisted of 32 Albanian and Romanian speaking children who attend the fifth and sixth primary school grades. Think-aloud protocols and retrospective interviews were applied to collect data. The analysis of findings indicated that higher competent bilingual learners use more top-down and more complex reading strategies in contrast to less proficient learners revealing dependence on bottom-up decoding strategies and limited awareness of the reading process. According to the researchers, “the successful readers showed greater strategic knowledge, since they were more flexible in using both cognitive and metacognitive strategies and employed a wider range of more ‘elaborated’ strategies ... On the contrary, the less successful readers read slowly and showed more limited lower-level processes and strategies” (p. 3768).

Baire (2005) investigated whether learners how employ reading comprehension strategies during reading retain more information and understand the test better. He also further analyzed whether learners who have good reading comprehension skills attain better on reading comprehension tests. Fourteen sixth grade learners were participated in the study. Learners were firstly asked to complete the Qualitative Reading Inventory - 4 reading comprehension pretests after finding out their individual reading levels. Following that, learners go through a six-week study of the Self-Questioning Reading Strategy. At the end of the study the learners were again given the Qualitative Reading Inventory - 4 reading comprehension posttests. The analysis of findings revealed that twelve of the fourteen sixth grade learners developed in the reading comprehension scores. Two of the fourteen learners resulted in no change in the reading comprehension scores. There were no learners that exhibited a decline in scores. Baire concluded that reading strategy instruction effectively overshadow their reading performances.

In 2001, Bimmel review six intervention studies on the effect of reading strategy instruction in secondary education. He aimed at finding characteristics of reading strategy instruction programs which indicate the efficiency of such programs. In the model, the study distinguished features as strategic reading activities included in the instructional program, components of the instructional program (orientation/explanation, practice/application, awareness-raising activities) and effects (on knowledge



about strategies, command of strategic reading activity, and/or reading comprehension). Bimmel reported that “if the aim is to achieve positive effects on standardized reading comprehension tests – awareness-raising activities, in combination with orientation/explanation about reading strategies and practice in the execution of strategic reading activities, could be a crucial element in reading strategy instruction in regular secondary education” (p. 273).

In his meta-analysis, Davis (2010) explored comprehension strategy instruction for upper elementary and middle school students. Davis reviewed intervention studies published between 1980 and 2009 in which learners in grades 4-8 are taught to utilize two or more comprehension strategies. Following that, the collected studies were coded using a systematic data extraction scheme. He summarized findings as:

1. Instruction in the use of multiple comprehension strategies has a positive impact on student achievement in grades 4-8.

2. The expected impact of strategy instruction depends on how the intervention is implemented and how it is studied.

3. Reciprocal Teaching has a positive impact on reading comprehension. 4. Peer-Assisted Learning Strategies, Think-aloud instruction, Transactional Strategies

Instruction, and Concept-Oriented Reading Instruction are other type of effective strategies. 5. Both struggling and non-struggling readers benefited from MCSI, with some evidence that

below average readers benefited more on non-standardized measures than average or above average readers.

6. No strong systematic relationships were detected between instructional duration and effectiveness of treatment.

7. Interventions provided by teachers appear to be equally effective as those provided by researchers. Computerized instruction also appeared to be as effective as researcher or teacher delivered instruction.

8. There was no evidence that MCSI was more effective when provided during reading classes than in content area classes.

9. The addition of student practice (without the teacher) is associated with positive gains in reading comprehension on both standardized and non-standardized measures but not for strategy knowledge and use.

10. There was no evidence that MCSI was more effective when provided in small groups versus whole classes.

11. There was no evidence that increased emphasis on self-regulated comprehension resulted in increased treatment effectiveness.

12. Some specific strategies were identified that appear to have a positive effect on comprehension. These include analysis/reflection, graphic organizers, and previewing (Davis, 2010, pp. 194-195)

May (2010) delved the effects of explicit reading strategies instruction applied to 3 rd year EFL lycee pupils. The

study attempted to indicate if these students truly comprehend some effective reading strategies, they would be able to employ them more effectively and implement them properly for their meaningful reading comprehension. Running t-test analysis, the study reported that “explicit reading strategies instruction enables EFL learners to achieve reading comprehension” (p. iii).

Ozek and Civelek (2006) evaluated the type of reading strategies applied by ELT learners during reading and the type of reading strategies required to be developed to comprehend text better. 185 students, including 88 first- and 97 fourth-year students in Ziya Gokalp Education Faculty at Dicle University involved in the study. Out of the sample, nonetheless, only 23 of the students volunteered to join the think-aloud component of the research. A questionnaire on cognitive reading strategy use while reading a text during pre-reading, while-reading and post-reading phase was used. Furthermore, students were asked to think-aloud in front of a tape recorder as they read an authentic text. Results indicated that “the 1st and the 4th year subjects employed the strategies of relating the title to the text content, reading without translating verbatim and they did not classify the words according to their meanings” (p. 21).



Besides, learners’ gender, age, and proficiency in reading, school source, and duration in learning English cause differences in the use of cognitive reading strategies.

Yee (2010) aimed at exploring methods for improving reading comprehension among struggling adolescent readers. 29 students from a rural school division in Saskatchewan who volunteered to participate in a period of four to five weeks study. Beginning to the intervention, learners were divided to three groups: the MSI group practiced decoding and learned six comprehension strategies; the FSI group practiced decoding and learned just two comprehension strategies; and the control group who participated in their typical education program. ANOVA and MANOVA test were run to analyze findings. The analysis produced the following results:

1. Pull-out intervention did not offer a statistically significant advantage over the typical classroom setting when attempting to remediate reading comprehension;

2. Participants in the MSI group demonstrated significant improvement on measures of decoding; 3. Although statistical testing did not reveal significant results, effect sizes were large for: participants in

the MSI group on measures of fluency; participants in the FSI group on measures of fluency and the Oral Reading Quotient; participants in the control group on measures of decoding, comprehension, fluency, and the Oral Reading Quotient; and

4. Decoding accounted for a statistically significant 15.4% of the unique variance in post -test comprehension scores, but differences in grouping contributed a negligible amount (Yee, 2010, pp. iv-v).

Working with learners with learning disabilities, Antoniou and Souvignier (2007) assessed a reading-strategy program containing reading and self-regulation strategies. Seventy-three learners with learning disabilities from special and integrative schools of the Rhein-Main area in Hessen, Germany, participated in the study. The learners were in the fifth to eighth grade and attended 27 classes. Instructors taught explicitly cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies as well as self-regulation techniques. To make simple, the program included four concrete reading strategies: Thinking About the Headline, Clarification of Text Difficulties, Summarization- Narrative Texts, and Summarization-Expository texts, as well as a self-regulation strategy in the form of a reading plan accompanied by a checklist. The study reported a significant improvement for learners with learning disabilities in the long term. In Antoniou and Souvignier’ words, “immediately after completion of the program only effects on reading strategy knowledge were significant; however, follow up measures yielded meaningful gains in the experimental group for reading comprehension (d = .80), reading-strategy knowledge (d = .62), and reading self-efficacy (d = .78)” (p. 41).

Sporer, Brunstein and Kieschke (2009), explored the effects of three different forms of strategy instruction. 210 elementary-school learners were divided to intervention conditions or traditional instruction condition. Training students were taught four reading strategies (summarizing, questioning, clarifying, predicting) and practiced these strategies in small groups (reciprocal teaching), pairs, or instructor-guided small groups. The study revealed that “at both the post- and follow-up test the intervention students attained higher scores on an experimenter-developed task of reading comprehension and strategy use than the control students who received traditional instruction. Furthermore, students who pract iced reciprocal teaching in small groups outperformed students in instructor-guided and traditional instruction groups on a standardized reading comprehension test” (p. 272).

Dreye and Nel (2003) aimed at presenting the format and structure of a strategic reading instruction component of an English for Professional Purposes course offered within a technology-enhanced environment. In a quasi-experimental non-randomized control group design, 131 first-year ESL students who were speakers of Afrikaans and Setswana majoring in Communication Studies involved in the study. Students in each experimental and control groups were divided to two additional groups, namely successful and unsuccessful or “at risk” for failure. A Reading Strategies Questionnaire, the TOEFL test and two reading comprehension tests were the instruments of the study. The analysis of findings revealed that

The experimental group differed statistically, as well as practically significantly, from the control group on all the reading comprehension measures (posttest scores).



Similarly, the successful students also differed statistically, as well as practically significantly, from the at-risk students on all the reading comprehension measures (posttest scores) (p. 357).

The study further argued that learners who received strategic reading instruction in this environment received

both statistically and practically meaningfully higher scores on three reading comprehension measures than did the learners in the control group.

Zoghi (2013) evaluated cooperative, collaborative, and teacher-directed teaching methods on the reading comprehension performance of EFL learners. 93 learners in three selected groups were instructed over a period of 8 weeks in a pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design. Zoghi states that “cooperative technique as a highly structured-learning practice is more effective than collaborative and teacher-directed instructional strategies in improving learners’ reading comprehension performance” (p. 541).

Muhammad (2013) used a mixed-method research design to find out the reading beliefs and classroom instructional practices of English teachers in public sector universities in Pakistan. A purposive sample of 71 English teachers took part in the study. Findings signifies that majority of the English teachers, who teach English L2 reading /text materials or language skills courses, still prefer to employ traditional methods while teaching English, especially reading.

In another study, Andreassen and Braten (2011) delved implementation and effects of explicit reading comprehension instruction in fifth-grade classrooms. 55 girls and 48 boys in five mixed-ability fifth-grade classes at three different schools in a small town in south-east Norway were the intervention group. The control group consisted of 64 girls and 49 boys from six randomly selected mixed-ability fifth-grade classes at the remaining schools in the same town. Explicit Reading Comprehension Instruction (ERCI) was then implemented in five 45-m social studies lessons a week over a period of 18 weeks. In the same period, the students in the control group were taught according to the same social studies curriculum using ordinary practices, that is, with no special emphasis on reading comprehension instruction. Results showed that learners in the intervention group augmented their strategic competence and comprehension performance with regard to controls. Nevertheless, no effect was found on reading motivation.

Cogmen and Saracaloglu (2009) identified the frequency level of reading strategies that the college learners employ while they are reading the academic materials and examined these strategies according to some variables. 230 college students attending the Faculty of Education in Pamukkale University completed Metacognitive Reading Strategies Questionnaire (MRSQ). Mean, standard deviation, correlation, the t -test, one way ANOVA, Kruskal Wallis and Mann Whitney U tests for independent samples were the statistical technique of the study. Learners employ both analytic and pragmatic strategies in “I often use” level. The study concluded that they aim both to remember and construct the concepts while reading academic texts.

In the case of ESP/EMP learners, studies though limited, reported the fruitfulness of reading strategy use and reading strategy instruction on learners’ achievements. Martinez (2008) delved the reported strategy use of English for Specific Purposes (ESP) university students, particularly learners from the Faculty of Chemistry and the Technical School of Engineering. Differences, if any, between male and female students in their perceived use of reading strategies while reading academic materials were also explored. 157 non-native-English speaking Spanish students, 48% were female and 52% were male, from the University of Oviedo took part in the study. To collect data, Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI), Global Reading Strategies (GLOB), Problem-Solving Strategies (PROB), Support Reading Strategies (SUP) were administrated among learners. Martinez argued that “there is a moderate to high overall use of reading strategies among Spanish ESP students when reading their academic materials. Moreover, the study shows higher reported use for problem-solving and global reading strategies. Women also tend to report significantly higher frequency of support reading strategy use.” (p. 172).

In context of Iran, Jafari and Shokrpour (2012) studied the reading strategies of Iranian EMP students when they read authentic expository texts in English. 81 male/female university sophomore students studying



environmental health, occupational health and safety, and midwifery at Shiraz University of Medical Sciences were selected as the subjects of the study. The Persian version of Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) and a reading comprehension test were administrated among learners. To the researchers’ interest, learners show moderate awareness of reading strategies and the most frequently employed strategies were support strategies, followed by global strategies, and then problem solving strategies. Furthermore, learners majoring in environmental health implement more overall reading strategies than those majoring in occupational health and safety and midwifery.

Tabataba’ian and Zabihi (2011) assessed the differences between strategies employed in reading ESP and GPE texts. Four EFL learners studying in an upper-intermediate level at College of Ferdowsi University in Mashhad received a GPE (General Purpose English) text along with four ESP (English for Specific Purposes) texts. Think-aloud approach as a way of understanding the mental processes the subjects go through and also a technique of eliciting the strategies utilized when they are performing a task was the methodology of the study. According to the study, while cognitive strategies were utilized often in both texts, socio-affective strategies were nit employed at all. “It was revealed that drawing on background knowledge is done more often when learners read ESP texts. In addition, drawing on background knowledge and confirming the knowledge proved to be important strategies for reading ESP texts” (p. 53).

Amirian (2013) studied the impact of teaching reading strategies on reading comprehension improvement of ESP readers. The study also attempted to discover whether there is any interaction between readers' proficiency level and the effectiveness of reading strategy training. 60 ESP sophomore learners studying geography at Hakim Sabzevar University were taken as the sample of the study. Following that, learners were divided to two groups of experimental and control. Through 14 weeks, experimental students received reading strategy instruction on skimming, scanning, summarizing and guessing meaning from context. However, learners in control group receive regular instruction. The pre-, post-test analysis indicated that reading strategy training to ESP students effectively enhance learners’ proficiency. Furthermore, readers with lower proficiency level take the most advantages out of the instruction. Amirian recommended that “while teaching ESP readers how to use a given strategy, they must also be taught how to determine if they are successful in their use of that strategy. It must be emphasized that low proficient readers need guided practice if strategy training is to be successful” (p. 7).

In 2012, Kashef, Damavand and Viyani intended to investigate the effect of a Strategies-Based Instruction (SBI) on improving male and female students' reading comprehension ability in an ESP context. 50 homogeneous subjects, 24 men and 26 women, were selected based on their age range, reading comprehension ability, and motivational features. Two standard and reliable tests of English reading comprehension, one as a pretest and the other one as a posttest assessed learners on their comprehension improvement. The study claimed positive and significant effects of cognitive and meta -cognitive skills and strategies training on developing learners’ reading comprehension ability of students. However, gender’s effect was not significant.

In a different study, Tanyeli (2009) trained learners in an online course. Law students in Eastern Mediterranean University (EMU) were observed in web-assisted or traditional methods of learning. Learners’ reading proficiency and comprehension are measured in pre-test and post-tests administered before and after the experiment. Tanyeli mentioned an improvement in the reading comprehension skills. He concluded that the experimental group who are involved in online reading skills achieved higher level of learning.

Park (2005) studying agriscience learners explored learners’ comprehension by employing content area reading strategies (CARS). Grade level, gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), grade point average (GPA), Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT) reading levels of students, variance in agriculture comprehension and motivation to read were variables of interest. The study followed a quasi-experimental nonequivalent control group design investigating the effect of using CARS on agricultural comprehension and attitude toward reading of a purposively selected sample (n = 95) of secondary agriscience learners, enrolled in Agriscience Foundations in Florida. The study compared CARS instruction with the teacher’s normal instruction. Park concluded



Over 60% of students read at the lowest two FCAT reading levels, while 11.6% read at the highest two levels. Students were generally lacking in motivation to read. Agriculture pre-test score, grade level, GPA, gender, ethnicity, and FCAT reading level predicted 65.0% of variance in agriculture post-test scores. Regression analysis did not produce a model that was statistically significant for motivation to read. GPA and FCAT reading level predicted 39.4% of variance in the comprehension portion post-test score (Park, 2005, p. xv).

It might not be surprise to state that without advancing effective reading strategies through instruction to learners, especially in the case of ESP learners, they will find it even much more harder to grasp and learn new words and concepts from written texts. It is so important to know about how to employ the different reading strategies and how to utilize them properly, inasmuch as it let readers to widen their minds and go deeply in the language through reading. What is of high importance is the situation of ESP/EMP learners in academic settings. ESP/EMP learners aiming at optimizing their knowledge have to study and explore original texts in English and prepare projects on specific subjects reading L2 articles. Future career is another vital factor which highlights the necessity of knowledge and capability in reading. Accordingly, teaching reading strategies significantly may help ESP/EMP learners in their academic performances. In this regard, the present study aimed at exploring the practical effect of strategy intervention on EMP learners’ reading proficiency.

3. Methodology 3.1 Participants This study was carried out at Jahrom University of Medical Sciences in Iran. A total of 45 students (males and

females ranging in age from 18 to 27) including 21 studying Nursing and 24 studying Lab Sciences in the first and second year of their medical studies took part in this study. All of the participants had experienced formal instruction in English for a period of 7 years during their public education.

Regarding the English program in medical schools, Nursing students are required to pass 8 credits in general English and 2 credits in ESP while Lab Sciences students are required to pass 4 credits in general English and 2 in ESP. At the time of data collection, the participants were enrolled in the same general English course with the same materials. They had four hours of instruction per week focused on reading comprehension through different topics in the field of medical sciences.

3.2 Instruments 3.2.1 Reading Strategy survey To determine the type of strategies used by medical students in general and to categorize strategy types in

light of student’s proficiency levels in particular, a Reading Strategy survey was administered to the experimental groups. It was intentionally prepared in Persian in order to help the participants with easily understanding and responding. The survey was in two sections. Section one contained a definition of reading strategy to help respondents gain an impression of strategies. In section two, the participants were required to indicate if they used any kind of reading strategies during reading of medical texts.

3.2.2 Reading Comprehension Test A reading comprehension test was utilized in order to determine participants’ reading comprehension

proficiency at high and low levels. The test included TOEFL sample tests with 10 passages and 31 multiple-choice questions retrieved from www.toeflindonesia.com. The reading passages covered a variety of topics related to the medical field of study. The selected topics were: How to Live Longer (3 questions), National Health Service (3 questions), Practice of Medicine (3 questions), Alcohol and Women Infertility (3 questions), Is Tea Beneficial? (3 questions), Mental Illnesses (3 questions), what is a Virus Made of? (3 questions), Common Cold and Flu (3 questions), Active Passive Smoking (3 questions), and Exocrine glands (4 questions). Pearson Product-Moment correlation coefficient was used to check for the reliability of the test through test retest procedure working with a sample of 35 anesthesia students. The rounded reliability index for the test was .80.



3.3 Data Collection Procedure With regard to reading strategy instruction, the targeted reading strategies introduced by Oxford (1990),

O'Malley & Chamot (1985) were determined for the strategy instruction treatment. They included the following 12 strategies: Identifying the purpose in reading, Prediction, Skimming for main ideas, Scanning, Using semantic mapping or clustering, Guessing the meaning of new words when you are not certain, Vocabulary Analysis, Capitalizing on discourse markers to process relationships, Inferring, Self -monitoring, Generating Questions and Summarizing.

In the second place and concerning the university schedule and impracticality of random selection of students, two classes of Nursing and Lab Sciences with 45 students in the second semester were taken as intact groups to participate in the study. The treatment lasted for 7 weeks. During the experiment, 3-5 students from both classes were repeatedly absent due to some personal reasons. Thus, those who did not sit the pre and post-tests were not included in the data analysis procedure which was followed based on 40 students’ performance on the tests.

Prior to the initiation of the study, with the cooperation of the head of the department and students’ instructors, the participants were provided with the necessary information about what they were required to follow in the study. Before the instruction started and during two successive sessions, the reading strategy survey and the reading comprehension pre-test were administered to the participants. In first session, the participants were provided with a brief definition of reading strategies a long with some examples of reading strategies which could help readers to have better understanding of strategy. Then, they were asked to indicate what type of reading strategies they would commonly use while reading in English. Thirty minutes was allocated to data collection with the questionnaire. In second session, the participants took the TOEFL test, which was intended to classify students at two proficiency levels in reading comprehension. They had forty five minutes to take the test. To probe the dif ferences between learners’ level of proficiency based on their pre-test reading comprehension performances, the results of the pre-test were analyzed and students were divided into two groups of high and low proficiency levels.

The instruction was conducted for students in L1 in order to avoid any misunderstanding the practical nature of strategies on the part of the participants. In each session, the instructors would focus on the application practice of 1 or 2 reading strategies depending on the complexity of the task. They would explain about the strategies in focus and how to apply them before, while, and after working with reading passages. Then, they would choose a passage from the text book for the practice of strategy application.

Moreover, during the process of teaching, they would try to familiarize the students with the structure of different texts and different types of reading comprehension questions along with the required reading strategies to handle the task at hand. Due to the fact that the participants did not receive anything similar to this instruction on a regular basis outside the research environment, the possibility of history effect was out of question. To check for the due implementation of the instruction, 4 random class sessions (240 minutes) were observed. Reading strategy instruction was conducted by two instructors and lasted for seven weeks.

After the treatment, the same reading comprehension test that was used for pre-testing was administrated to the groups to compare gain scores and accordingly check for any possible differential effects of reading strategy instruction on reading comprehension test performance of groups at different reading proficiency levels. Once again and after 2 weeks, the same test was exploited as a delay test to monitor reading achievement over time.

3.4 Data Analysis Percentages and frequency counts were used to give a description of the results from the questionnaire

regarding the type of reading strategies used by learners at different levels of reading proficiency. As for handling the inferentially statistical analysis of the results, Chi-square tests were run to compare the frequency of strategy types indicated by the participants in the two groups.



Independent samples t-tests were utilized to monitor differences between the two groups’ performance on the post and delay tests in the course of tracing the effect of reading strategy instruction on the groups’ achievements through the treatment. Such a statistical technique was also used to double check delineation of proficiency groups at the outset of the treatment.

To check for improvement in reading comprehension under the effect of reading strategy instruction through the treatment as well as over time, paired samples t-tests were employed. In other words, at each proficiency level, performance on the pre-test was compared with that of the post-test and the delay test in order to trace and examine progress in reading comprehension within groups as a result of the treatment implementation.

4. Results Q1: what types of reading strategies are used by Iranian EMP students? To address this question, the results of the reading strategy survey were analyzed. Students’ responses to the

survey were evaluated on the basis of frequencies in strategy use. The results are reported in the following table.

Table1. Patterns of Reading Strategy Use by EMP students

Frequency Percentage %

Skimming 21 78.0 Scanning 13 67.5

Discourse Marker 6 29.3

As Table 1 shows, students mostly reported the application of skimming (78%) and scanning (67.5%) strategies

in dealing with reading texts. To a lesser extent, they apply discourse marker strategies (29.3%). Skimming helps learners to predict the main idea and what the text will discuss in general. Besides, learners scan the text for specific information to get a sense of the overall meaning.

Q2: Is there any significant difference between self-reported patterns of strategy use? The second question of the study was about the possibility of significance of the differences in the patterns of

strategy use in general. A Chi-square test was run to test differences. The results are shown in Table 2.

Table2. Chi-Square for Patterns of Strategy Use by EMP Students

Frequency

Chi-Square 8.450a

Df 2

Sig. .015

According to Table 2, there are significant differences in the pattern of strategy use reported by the participants (Sig. =. 01).

Q3. Is there any difference between the types of reading strategies used by such students at high and low

levels of reading proficiency? To this end, students were first divided into two groups of high and low proficiency based on their

performance in the pre-test. A cutoff point (17.5) was selected regarding the students’ scores in the reading test. Table3 presents descriptive statistics.

Table3. Descriptive Statistics of High and Low Proficient Readers

Group N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Pre-test 1.00 21 21.2243 2.78347 .60740




Pre-test 1.00 21 21.2243 2.78347 .60740

2.00 19 10.4232 4.22011 .96816

According to table3, out of 40 students, 21 students were regarded as high proficient readers and 19 as low

ones. In this regard, Table 4 below depicted to show the result of independent sample t-test applied to check the significance of differences between high and low groups.

Table4. Independent Sample T-test between High and Low Proficient Readers

Sig. T df

Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference


Pre-Test Equal variances assumed

.096 12.322 38 .000 11.80113 1.12005


12.075 30.681 .000 11.80113 1.14292

Following table 4, learners in higher group significantly (p=.00) gain better results in their proficiency test

compared to lower ones. It can be inferred that both groups truly differentiate in their reading performances

To further check the differences of patterns in strategy use by high and low proficient readers, a Chi-square test was run. The results are tabulated in Table 5.

Table5. Patterns of Strategy Use by High- and Low- Proficient Readers

Reading Strategies

Skim Scan DMs Total

Group

I Count 11 7 3 21

% within Group 52.4% 33.3% 14.3% 100.0%

% within Reading Strategies

52.4% 53.8% 50.0% 52.5%

% of Total 27.5% 17.5% 7.5% 52.5%

Group

II Count 10 6 3 19

% within Group 52.6% 31.6% 15.8% 100.0%


47.6% 46.2% 50.0% 47.5%

% of Total 25.0% 15.0% 7.5% 47.5%

Total Count 21 13 6 40

% within Group 52.5% 32.5% 15.0% 100.0%




100.0% 100.0% 100.0% 100.0%

% of Total 52.5% 32.5% 15.0% 100.0%

Considering the information presented in Table 5, high proficient readers mostly reported the application of

skimming strategy while reading passages in English (52.4%). The implication is that high proficient readers tend to get a preview of the text more than low proficient ones. Moreover, high-proficient readers check the text for specific details more than low-proficient ones (53.8% vs. 46.2%). However, these differences were not the case for employing discourse markers reported as a third type of reading strategy being used by the participants (50% vs. 50%). Generally speaking, EMP readers with higher proficiency seem to employ more reading strategies (52.5%) in processing a text as compared with low-proficient readers (47.5%).

As clarified above, the differences between raw frequencies and percentages point to differences in the reported patterns of strategy use in the case of skimming and scanning, though employing discourse markers could not be taken as a distinctive feature. To scrutinize the nature of the reported differences in an empirical way, however, a series of Chi-square test were run; the results are presented in the following tables successively. Table 6 presents the results of comparing groups’ patterns of strategy use as regards skimming.

Table6. Chi-square results for Skimming Strategy

Value Df Sig. (2-sided)

Pearson Chi-Square 30.643a 17 .022

Likelihood Ratio 40.948 17 .001

Linear-by-Linear Association 15.333 1 .000

N of Valid Cases 40

As depicted in Table 6, the findings show that high and low learners showed significantly different preferences

for using skimming strategy (Sig. = 0.02).

Table7. Chi-square results for Scanning Strategy





N of Valid Cases 40

Chi-square test results in Table 7 shows a significant difference between high- and low-proficient readers

regarding the use of scanning (Sig. = 0.03).

Table 8. Chi-square results for discourse markers Strategies







N of Valid Cases 40

Regarding the findings given in Table 8, there is no significant differences between high- and low-proficient readers in the use of discourse markers (Sig. = 0.18).

Q4. How does reading strategies instruction affect reading comprehension achievement at these two levels of reading proficiency after the intervention and over time?

In this quasi-experimental study, students were instructed over seven weeks on applying various reading

strategies while reading academic passages in English. A post-test and a delay test were administrated to check learners’ achievement just after the treatment and also after a time interval. The results of the analyses will be given below.

To give a clearer view of learners’ achievement, descriptive statistics for their performance in the post-test and the delay test are presented in Table 9 below.

Table9. Descriptive Statistics for the Post and Delay Tests


Post T 1.00 21 24.6538 4.17244 .91050

2.00 19 18.3158 2.16160 .49591

Delay T 1.00 21 29.1905 2.11232 .46095

2.00 19 20.8421 1.80318 .41368

Given the data in the table, both high- and low-proficient learners have shown success in their reading

performance after the intervention of the treatment (MH=24.65, ML=18.31) and over time (MH=29.19, ML=20.84). Differences being considerable, their significance was check using independent samples t-tests analyses. Results of the t-tests are presented in table 10.

Table10. Independent Sample T-tests for the Post and Delay Tests

Regarding the results given in Table 10, the participants in the high group performed significantly better

compared with their low-proficient counterparts both in the post-test (Sig. = 0.00) and the delay-test (Sig. = 0.00).

Q5. How does reading strategies instruction influence reading comprehension improvement at these two levels

of reading proficiency after the intervention and over time?

t Df Sig. (2-

tailed)

Mean Difference


Post Test Equal variances assumed 5.935 38 .000 6.33802 1.06792


6.113 30.631 .000 6.33802 1.03679

Delay Test

Equal variances assumed 13.371 38 .000 8.34837 .62436


13.479 37.884 .000 8.34837 .61936



In this quasi-experimental study, the participants were instructed over seven weeks on applying various reading strategies while reading English passages. Pre-, post- and delay tests were successively administrated to check for possible differences in learners’ performances before and after the treatment and overtime.

To check for learners’ improvement differences, paired samples t-tests were run. Results of descriptive statistics and t-test analyses are given in Tables 11, 12, and 13.

Table11. Descriptive Statistics for the Pre-, Post- and Delay-Tests


Pre-Test 1.00 21 21.2243 2.78347 .60740

2.00 19 10.4232 4.22011 .96816

Post Test 1.00 21 24.6538 4.17244 .91050

2.00 19 18.3158 2.16160 .49591

Delay Test 1.00 21 29.1905 2.11232 .46095

2.00 19 20.8421 1.80318 .41368

Table12. Paired Samples t-tests for both Proficiency Groups

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 Pre/Low – Post/Low

-10.892 5.169 1.186 -9.18 18 .000

Pair 2 Pre/High – Post/High

-3.667 3.661 .799 -4.59 20 .000

As indicated by the results presented in Table 12, there are significant differences between EMP learners’

performance before and after the intervention of the treatment in both groups (Sig. = .000). In order to get a deeper view of learners’ reading comprehension improvement as a result of strategy instruction, learners’ scores on a delay test two weeks after the treatment were compared with those on the pre-test. Results of the comparison are presented in the following table.

Table13. Paired Samples t-test on the Post- and Delay Tests Results

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error

Mean t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 Post/Low – Delay/Low -2.526 1.123 .25784 -9.79 18 .000 Pair 2 Post/High – Delay/High -4.536 3.269 .71336 -6.36 20 .000

Table 13 shows that for both groups, students in their delay tests got significantly better results tha n those on

their post-test after the treatment.



5. Discussion 5.1. Research Question 1 What types of reading strategies are used by Iranian EMP students? The reading strategy survey was administrated to the participants the data were analyzed based on the

frequencies of the selected strategies (see Table1). Findings indicated that students mostly preferred to preview a text to get an accurate depiction of it. That is a kind of cognitive strategy by which students attempt to have a quick assessment of the text. Learners employ such cognitive strategy as a mental routine or procedure for achieving a cognitive goal, understanding passages in this case. Results also revealed that learners next tended to use scanning to find particular facts or pieces of information in the text (Table1). Learners were likely to search texts for numbers, proper names, dates and definitions. They would run their eyes rapidly over several lines to hold an image or idea clearly in mind.

Similar to skimming, scanning is also a cognitive reading strategy usually applied to process information for learning, obtaining, and saving. In addition, findings confirm employment of discourse markers by learners in the course of reading comprehension. As a cognitive strategy, these markers are ut ilized by learners to find relationships among ideas indicated in phrases, clauses and sentences. Learners apply these cognitive strategies in order to better retrieve and use information (Oxford, 1990).

The findings are in line with previous research findings as regards strategy assessment. According to Ozek and Civelek (2006), skimming and scanning are effective cognitive strategies that learners use in their reading comprehension; “relating the title, illustrations/pictures and background knowledge to the text, skimming, using dictionary parsimoniously, guessing, remembering a word through situations, rereading, using the first language as a base, visualizing events, being careful about how the text is organized, making notes and summaries of the important information, and classifying words are the strategies help readers to improve their reading ability significantly” (p. 23).

Geladari et al. (2010) report that skimming and scanning are among strategies that are employed by bilingual learners; “a considerable number of the bilingual students showed interest in skimming the text to get the idea quickly, to get an overview of the content and organization of the text (84.4%)” (p. 3767). They also reported 68% use for scanning strategy by bilingual learners. Davis (2010) as well argues that skimming and previewing “were identified that appear to have a positive effect on comprehension” (p. 199).

Generally speaking, skimming and scanning and discourse marker are cognitive reading strategies which give learners the gist of the text, help them discuss the issues raised, and provide them with specific details of a topic and key expressions. These abilities raise students’ awareness of the text being read and let them learn and retain information in the course of applying of received input and these are the basic objectives in language education.

5.2. Research Question 2 Is there any significant difference between self-reported patterns of strategy use? Respondents’ self-reports of strategy use were further analyzed for checking the significance of the differences

in the application of reading strategies by EMP learners. As the finding indicated learners apply skimming, scanning and discourse marker strategies significantly differently. It denotes that learners meaningfully apply reading strategies one by one during their reading. As Geladari et al. (2010) state, learners significantly go through the text and utilize reading strategies. It indicates that reading is more than using linguistic and decoding skills. Learners significantly and carefully use strategies. EMP learners attempt to have a preview of the text before read it in detail. It helps them to evaluate the writer’s point of view and the whole structure of the text. According to the findings, EMP learners reading technical texts significantly apply this strategy, skimming.

They similarly pay attention to specific information so as to increase their comprehension of the text. EMP learners focus on dates, particular items, places and proper names to create text meaning. They meaningfully apply scanning strategy. To the same extent, learners significantly focus on the conjunctions and connectors throughout the text. Contrasting, creating similarity, generalizing, and adding shows the connection and organization of the text of how sentences are interrelated. Learners



work on these connecters to make reading understandable. According to Davis (2010), learners meaningfully and effectively apply reading strategies to organize text perception and apply it in their academic performances. These strategies boost learners’ perception of reading passages (Davis, 2010).

Briefly stated, learners significantly utilize these strategies, skimming and scanning and discourse marker, to discover the author’s meaning and use the information within the texts. Accordingly, strategies fortify learners’ awareness and help them acquire and recollect information.

5.3. Research Question 3 Is there any significant difference between the types of reading strategies used by such students at high and low levels of

L2 reading proficiency? Participants took a TOFEL test at the outset of the treatment and were divided into 2 groups of high and low

proficient readers in accordance with the test results. It was generally found that more proficient readers employ more types of reading strategies, namely, skimming, scanning, and utilizing discourse markers to process text in English. It shows that high proficient readers try more to get the gist of texts, elicit particular details as well as employ cohesion and coherence in comprehending texts.

Concerning group differences in patterns of strategy use, Chi-square tests were run to compare the frequency of strategy use reported by the participants in the two groups. According to the findings, there are significant differences between high proficient readers and the low ones in their reading strategies employment. Results showed that high proficient readers read texts to get an overview of the content, intention of the author or, how materials are structured. They similarly scan text so as to concentrate mainly on coming upon a particular idea or an answer that satisfies their search for specific information.

According to Rokhsari (2012) the more successful readers are, the more type of reading strategies they employ in terms of reading strategy use. In the same vein, Geladari et al., (2010) confirm that “cross tabulation produced statistically significant differences (X²=21.259, p<0.000) between the more competent readers (since all of them (100%) were recorded to skim the text) and the less competent ones (13.6%)” (p. 3767). That is, readers with higher proficiency level skim a passage to form a preliminary understanding of the content that will be come across. Ozek & Civelek (2006) as well argues that successful readers employ more pictures/illustrations (4.1>3.3) and skimming (4.4>3.8) against poor readers.

Moreover, Geladari et al., (2010) reported that successful readers used scanning strategy to identify specific information (90%) in contrast to poor readers (13.6%) (X²=17.338, p<0.000). Additionally, results revealed significant differences between the type of bilingualism (X²=8.960, p<0.011); all simultaneous bilingual children employed scanning the text either adequately (50%) or partially adequately (50%), compare to successive bilinguals who did not use it at all (50%). It is implied that successful readers try to locate information and do not follow the linearity of the passage.

In line with the findings of this study, Griva et al. (2009b) assert that poor readers show lower level ability in text processing as they engage more in bottom-up processing strategies. As stated in chapter two, learners with lower level of reading skill often concentrate on decoding single words and rarely engage in monitoring comprehension (Cotterall, 1990; Palincsar & Brown, 1984). On the other hand, Griva, et al. (2009b) argue that more competent readers seem to employ top-down strategies. According to Green and Oxford (1995) and Oxford (1996), successful readers are more capable in adapting strategies to their learning needs. Besides, they can adapt their comprehension strategies to the purposes for reading (Hulstijn, 1993), their perception of the topic, and the text organization (Spencer & Sadoski, 1988). What is worth mentioning concerning reading strategy use by learners at different proficiency levels in general is that successful learners show capability in using more reading strategies in realizing passages while poor readers utilize fewer strategies.

5.4. Research Question 4 How does reading strategies instruction affect reading comprehension achievement at these two levels of reading

proficiency as monitored after the intervention of such instruction and over time?



As it was indicated in chapter four, more proficient learners showed significantly better gain in their post and delay test performances after the instruction (Table9). In line with findings in previous studies (Al-Tamimi, 2006; Bereiter & Bird, 1985; McNamara, 2007), this study provided support for the point that reading strategy instruction boosts learners’ strategy employment and assists them in understanding texts. According to Bereiter and Bird (1985), strategy instruction helps learners in coping with technical texts. By the same token, McNamara (2007) asserts that low proficient readers can make the best use of strategy employment and strategy instruction and as they get familiar with various strategies they can apply them more while reading texts and analyzing authors’ messages. Based on this assertion, it can be stressed that strategy instruction could embark learners on a path of correct strategy implementation and accordingly successful reading comprehension.

5.5. Research Question 5 How does reading strategies instruction influence reading comprehension improvement at these two levels of reading

proficiency after the intervention and over time? Pre-, post- and delay tests were administered and the required data were collected and analyzed. The analysis

of findings revealed that high proficient readers had significant improvement due to reading strategy instruction. The implication could be that high proficient readers’ performance was significantly influenced by strategy instruction as manifested by scores in post- and delay tests. Similarly, low proficient readers perform significantly better after reading strategy instruction in post- and delay tests (see tables 11, 12, and 13).

The findings in this study could be taken as empirical support for the point raised by McNamara (2007) that is, reading strategies instruction is definitely very effectual for learners who show lack enough knowledge in reading, in addition to those with lower reading skills. Al-Tamimi (2006) reported significant improvement in reading comprehension of participants in the experimental group in their study as compared with their pre-test performance. According to May (2010), “RSI with a focus on comprehension monitoring, is very effective to help poor readers to overcome their difficulties in reading” (p. 20).

Moreover, Bereiter and Bird (1985) argue that reading strategy instruction promotes reading comprehension and that the reason why students do not grasp texts and show poor reading performance is that they are not equipped with knowledge of strategies. May’s (2010) results confirmed that participants got considerably higher scores after the strategy intervention; “this means that learners who are accustomed to receiving further information explicitly, can deploy more efficient strategies to comprehend and understand concepts and words of the written texts” (p. 34). According to May (2010), students who receive appropriate training of reading strategies; they have better understanding of written texts.

6. Conclusion It goes without saying that reading has become the half of learners’ educational studies. It is not also needed to

state that ESP learners encounter reading originals books and text passages besides using specific terms. In EMP context, reading provides rich and abundant samples of L2 input, which is required to develop students’ overall language proficiency. From a practical point of view, reading is just what EMP students want most both in their academic studies and in their future work.

The present study was an attempt to build up EMP learners’ reading proficiency, specifically reading strategy use. Through reading strategy use learners can optimize their comprehension and understanding of passages. The analysis of findings of the study stressed how reading strategy employment and reading strategy instruction promote EMP learners’ reading attainments. This study provides a comprehensive discussion of how reading strategies instruction overshadows high and low readers’ understanding. The findings provide strong empirical support for the employment of reading strategy to improve literacy accomplishment for students. Furthermore, practical implications and suggestions can be taken from these results to assist instructors and curriculum developers plan and apply strategy instruction.



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LEARNING STRATEGIES INSTRUCTION AND IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS’ ACHIEVEMENT IN SUB-SKILLS DEVELOPMENT AT

JUNIER HIGH SCHOOL

Mona Mahnani Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran

[email protected]

Seyed Jamal Abdorrahimzadeh Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran

[email protected]

Mohammad Rostampour Department of English, Abadeh Branch, Islamic Azad University, Abadeh, Iran

[email protected] ABSTRACT Learning strategies play an important role in the process of learning English as a foreign language. Good learners use a variety of learning strategies in order to internalize the target language better. In order to determine how language learning strategy (LLS) training affects junior high school students’ sub-skill development, cognitive and metacognitive learning strategies were instructed to a group of 15 EFL students at a junior high school along with their English study as their public education. The performance of the experimental group in sub-skill tests was compared with that of the control group on two occasions just after the treatment and overtime to check for long-term retention. Findings of a questionnaire on patterns of strategy use administered before and after the treatment show that teaching of cognitive and metacognitive strategies had the greatest effect on the use of metacognitive strategies followed by cognitive and memory strategies. Social and compensation strategies were two other strategies self-reported as being used by the participants in the experimental group follow the mentioned strategies and teaching these two strategies had least effect on affective strategies. In sub-skill development which was the major focus of the study, students in the experimental group had the most improvement in pronunciation and the least performance in grammar section in comparison with other two sections. KEY WORDS: Learning strategies; sub-skill development 1. Introduction Learning strategies play an important role in the process of learning English as a foreign language. Good learners use a variety of learning strategies in order to internalize the target language better. What is required for success in this respect is persistence on the part of learners in practicing and using a whole battery of strategies for language learning, whether learners are in a regular language classroom or working on a self-study program. When learners are taught how to look at themselves and how to capitalize on their talents and experiences, they learn lessons that carry them well beyond any language classroom. In EFL contexts, much of language learning takes place in formal classroom environments. Learners should be familiar with learning strategies and how to use them in order to do satisfactorily when they are engaged in activities within the classroom learning environment but out of the classroom also. 1.1. Statement of Problems A large number of students in this educational milieu are beginners and an English class in its curriculum provides them with the first occasion to experience working with a foreign language. Students in grade one and



two learn basics in reading and writing in English, but they face complicated grammar points, vocabulary items, and pronunciation tips in grade three. They have problems with determining the tense of verbs in sentences, the role of the words in a sentence, and cannot distinguish the differences between grammatical points which are similar to each other such as the structure of present continuous and past continuous forms. In the case of vocabulary, students have problem in remembering the words in dialogue or during speaking, they are unable to find synonyms and antonyms among learned vocabularies, and they cannot remember the meaning of some easy words in a sentence. Students have a lot of problems with correct pronunciation of words. 1.2. Objectives of the Study The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between familiarity with and use of learning strategies and learners’ success in maintaining and organizing materials they are taught and their success in classroom activities. In particular, it aimed at improving Iranian junior high school English learners’ performance in classroom achievement by making language learning strategies familiar to those learners through instruction. 1.3. Research Questions 1. To what extent are Iranian junior high school English learners familiar with language learning strategies? 2. How does language learning strategy instruction (LLSI) help such learners with improvement in patterns of

strategy use? 3. Does language learning strategy instruction (LLSI) influence junior high school learners’ vocabulary learning

in terms of word recognition?

4. Is achievement in specified areas of grammar such as determining the time of verbs, words’ functions, and the use of different pronouns affected by LLSI?

5. Is there any causal relationship between LLSI and such learners’ pronunciation achievement?

6. Does LLSI help such learners make significant progress with respect to their vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation performance?

1.4. Significance of the Study

This study was carried out in junior high school public education setting. Students in this educational milieu are the first who will benefit from the results of this study. The Organization of Education will also be informed of the results and it will be possible for those in charge to use the findings to improve the process of syllabus design in light of concrete evidence regarding the effects of language learning strategy instruction on learners’ sub-skill achievement and improvement. Finally, the findings of this study are hoped to be of relevance to the field of foreign language teaching research because in several studies, learning strategy instruction has been found to play an important role in learning enhancement and increasing the efficiency of teaching at the tertiary level of education.

2. Literature Review 2.1. Classification of Language Learning Strategies Frameworks Oxford’s (1990) classification of L2 learning strategies into six distinct categories has been welcomed and followed by most researchers in their studies on strategy use and training. The Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) developed by Oxford (1990) subdivides these strategies into cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensatory, affective, and social strategies. In the following, each of these strategies is defined in order.

1. Cognitive strategies enable learners to manipulate language materials in a direct way.

2. Metacognitive strategies are employed for managing the overall learning process.



3. Memory-related strategies help learners to link one L2 item or concept with another but do not necessarily involve deep understanding.

4. Compensatory strategies help the learner make up for missing knowledge. 5. Affective strategies include measures such as identifying one’s mood and anxiety level, talking about feelings

and rewarding oneself for good performance. 6. Social strategies help learners work with others and understand the target culture as well as the language. 2.2. Research Studies on Language Learning Strategies in ESL Contexts Chou (2011) investigated the influence of learning strategies on oral presentation. The study was carried out with a group of 52 French major college students taking the Professional English course in their third year of study. The results showed that use of learning strategies caused enhancement in language performance. Furthermore, learners used metacognitive, retrieval, and rehearsal strategies more frequently in individual presentation than group presentation while the opposite was the case for communication strategies. Abdul Razak, Abdul Aziz, Adamu, Babikkoi and Ismail (2012) assessed the use of language learning strategies among secondary school students. According to findings, Students of secondary school used all six strategies (cognitive, metacognitive, memory, compensation, social and affective) in order to learn English as a second language and female students used more strategies for learning English than male students. 2.3. Research Studies on Language Learning Strategies in EFL Context McMullen (2009) studied the use of language learning strategies to improve the writing skills of Saudi EFL students. Results of the study showed that learning strategies are one of the most effective tools for students’ achievement in language learning and developing their skills at different levels of language proficiency. His study examined the way by which learning strategies could be taught to Saudi Arabian English learners and how they could use them to improve the ability of their writing. Zhou (2010) investigated the English learning strategy use by Chinese senior high school students. The study has revealed that senior high school students used compensation strategies more frequently and used social strategies less frequently. Study showed that female students used language learning strategies more than male students and students who had higher grade used learning strategies less than others. 2.4. Research Studies on Language Learning Strategies in Iran

Rahimi and Katal (2011) studied the effect of learning strategies on learners’ success in learning English on Iranian EFL learners. The result showed that learners who were conscious about what they were doing and they used variety number of strategies seemed to be more successful than others. The use of metacognitive strategies helped learners to control and evaluate their own learning and gain better learning outcomes. The results of the study done by Gerami and Ghareh Baighlou (2011) on language learning strategy used by successful and unsuccessful Iranian EFL learners majoring in TEFL and English translation provided that Iranian successful EFL university students were aware of the importance of learning English. They tried to facilitate their learning. They used more learning strategies than unsuccessful learners. The successful learners used metacognitive strategies more than their unsuccessful peers while unsuccessful learners used cognitive strategies more. Successful learners used overall learning strategies more often than unsuccessful learners. 3. Methodology 3.1. Participants A total number of 41 students in two intact classes from Hazrate Zeinab Junior High School in Siraf (Bushehr) participated in this study. From among members in this sample and by means of the matching procedure on the basis of the results of a pre-test, 30 students were considered to be assigned to homogeneous control and experimental groups. Their English proficiency level could be considered lower-intermediate because they had primary knowledge about English gained during the courses they had had in grades one and two.



3.2. Instruments 3.2.1. Test There were nine lessons in the book of grade three covered before starting the treatment. A test on sub-skills containing 30 items was constructed and validated.. It included 11 questions on grammar, 11 questions on vocabulary and 8 questions on pronunciation. The grammar section included some items on modal verbs, objective pronouns, possession, frequency adverbs, adverbs of manner, past, future, and past continuous tenses. Since one of the objectives of the study (in addition to comparing participants’ achievement regarding sub-skill development) was to monitor progress over the instruction period, the post-test was the same as the pre-test in order to compare participants’ performance before and after the treatment. To validate the test, the test retest procedure was employed and the reliability index was found to be 0.80. 3.2.2. Questionnaire The basic instrument for collecting data about patterns of language learning strategy use in this study was the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) (Oxford, 1990). According to Oxford (1996) many major studies have used this inventory. It is the 50-item version for speakers of other languages learning English (Oxford, 1990) It utilizes the five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never) to 5 (always or almost always). However, a five-point scale is considered a little hard for junior high school students to respond to, so it was determined to change it into a three-point scale ranging from 1 (never or almost never true of me) to 3 (always or almost always true of me). Because the students were at the lower intermediate level of proficiency and were unable to understand the questions written in English, the questionnaire was translated into Persian. Two of the questions were deleted since they were related to Second Language (SL) speakers (I ask SL speakers to correct me when I talk, I ask for help from SL speakers) and they were inapplicable to EFL classes. The researcher explained the way in which the questionnaire was to be filled out. This questionnaire was administered to both groups once before the treatment and once after the treatment only to the experimental group. Students were also asked about reasons for their choices before the treatment and they could justify some of their responses. Regarding the reliability of the questionnaire, Oxford (1996, p.37) claims that “in general, the SILL reliability indexes have been high”. These indexes, calculated by means of Cronbach alpha for internal consistency, were quoted in Green and Oxford (1995) as ranging from .93 to .95 depending on whether the students took the survey in their own language or in the target language. Carol Griffiths (2003) stated that the reliability of the SILL declined if taken in the target language rather than in the first language. However, Oxford and Burry-Stock (1995, p.6) claimed that the reliability index remains very acceptable. 3.3. Procedure The study was a quasi-experimental research project carried out at Hazrate Zeinab Junior High School. All participating students were given a pre-test on sub-skills (grammar, vocabulary and pronunciation). Since the text book was covered before the treatment, a pretest was constructed the nine lessons of the textbook and was administered at the outset of the project as a means of ensuring subject homogeneity by matching pairs of students and also by means of the results of an independent t-test. The two participating groups (N = 15) were asked to fill out a questionnaire on language learning strategies (Strategy Inventory for Language Learning) prepared by Oxford (1990) which contained 48 items. The questionnaire was translated into Persian since junior high school students studying English as a part of public education are not expected to make sense of such inventories by any means. The questionnaire was used to gather information about patterns of strategy use among all participants before beginning the treatment. The participants were interviewed with the purpose of finding about the reasons for specific responses. From among those specified by Oxford (1990), cognitive and metacognitive strategies (considered as core and basic ones) were selected for the instructional program offered to the experimental group as the treatment. The teacher taught a limited number of sub-categories of these two strategies. She started from the first lesson of the book and reviewed vocabulary, pronunciation and grammatical points of each lesson while introducing some strategies. Then, she would ask students to do the exercises of in their workbook and would try to encourage learners to use practiced strategies while doing exercises.



For the following sessions and before teaching new strategies, old strategies were to be practiced but this time the participants would use the questions of the official final exam. The two-month treatment covered 16 sessions each of which was allocated to practicing at least two cognitive strategies. In addition, one metacognitive strategy was worked on every other session. At the end of the treatment, the post-test which was the same as the pre-test was administered and the same questionnaire was given to the experimental group. 3.4. Materials The English textbook of grade three in junior high school was used for instructing the two learning strategies in focus and practicing sub-skills accordingly. 3.5. Data Analysis A qualitative analysis method was used for analyzing the findings. To this end, independent samples and paired samples t-tests were run to address the research questions in relation to comparing achievement in sub-skill development under the effect of language learning strategy instruction and improvement both after the treatment and overtime. A paired samples t-test was also run to check progress in patterns of strategy use among students in the experimental group. 4. Findings and Discussions 1. To what extent are Iranian junior high school English learners familiar with language learning strategies? The average means for students of both groups show that they were average users of language learning strategies (control group’s mean = 79.93, experimental group’s mean = 80.87). Findings indicated that some of students were familiar with these strategies but they did not know that they are called language learning strategies.

Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for the questionnaire before the treatment

students N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation

control group scores 15 60 115 79.93 16.820 Valid N 15

experimental group scores 15 63 117 80.87 12.994 Valid N 15

The findings are in line with the theories of strategy assessment. Chamot (2005) believed that earning strategies are the specific mental and communicative procedures that learners employ in order to learn and use language. 2. How does language learning strategy instruction (LLSI) help such learners with improvement in patterns

of strategy use? From the analysis of the six parts of the questionnaire, results show that teaching cognitive and metacognitive strategies resulted in significant improvement in using metacognitive, cognitive and memory strategies. Use of social and compensation strategies followed those strategies in frequency and teaching of cognit ive and metacognitive strategies had the least effect on affective strategies pattern of use. Results show that cognitive and metacognitive strategies acted as key strategies since teaching them influenced use of other strategies except affective strategies.

Table 2 Paired Samples t-test for the Memory Strategy Section

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean t df Sig. (2- tailed)

Pair 1 Pretreatment scores Post-treatment scores

-3.267 3.731 .963 -3.391 14 .004



Table 3 Paired Samples t-test for the Cognitive Strategy Section

Mean

Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean t df

Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 Pretreatment scores Post treatment scores

-4.467 4.565 1.179 -3.790 14 .002

Table 4 Paired Samples t-test for the Compensation Strategy Section

Mean

Std. Deviation


Sig. (2-tailed)


-1.267 2.120 .547 -2.314 14 .036

Table 5 Paired Samples t-test for the Metacognitive Strategy

Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean



-2.667 2.610 .674 -3.958 14 .001

Table 6 Paired Samples t-test for the Affective Strategy Section

Table 7 Paired Samples t-test for the Social Strategy Section

Mean

Std. Deviation


Sig.(2tailed)

pair 1 Pretreatment scores – Post-treatment scores

-1.467 2.134 .551 -2.662 14 .019

In the same vein, Alhaisoni (2012) investigated language learning strategy use of Saudi EFL students in an intensive English learning context. The results showed a high preference for cognitive and metacognitive strategies. Students preferred cognitive and metacognitive strategies over other types and the least frequently-used strategies were affective and memory strategies among Ha'il university students. 3. Does language learning strategy instruction (LLSI) influence junior high school learners’ vocabulary

learning in terms of word recognition? The analysis of mean score differences show that teaching of cognitive and metacognitive strategies did not bring about any significant effect on students’ gain in vocabulary. Since there were not enough texts for working more vocabularies with the participants in class and because of lack of time, they had a weak performance in this part and were unable to remember a word or its meaning. Students understood the meaning of specific vocabulary in a long text since they were able to find the meaning of vocabulary by getting help from the

Mean

Std. Deviation


Sig. (2-tailed)


-.533 1.959 .506 -1.054 14 .310



meaning of other words near that specific vocabulary item. Students were not proficient enough, so they were unable to apply the learned strategies. Because of lack of exposure to English in foreign language society, they could not use different vocabularies in different situations and remember newly learned words.

Cengizhan (2011) who worked on vocabulary learning strategies concluded that learners who were aware of vocabulary learning strategies more felt secure when they used those strategies. Using strategies, learners learned and memorized new vocabulary in an efficient way and did not easily forget the new learned words.

4. Is achievement in specified areas of grammar such as determining the time of verbs, word functions, and the use of different pronouns affected by LLSI?

There was no significant difference between the mean scores of the two groups of study for the grammar section on the post-test. Students seemed to be unable to make a connection between learned materials in previous years and newly learned items, so they had problems with using the correct form of grammatical rules. Some grammatical rules are similar only with small differences, but apparently, students could not find these similarities and differences. Because of their low level of proficiency and their age range, they were unable to summarize the different structures of grammar. They were not experienced enough to find the relationships among different parts and compare new materials with learned items in order to internalize the grammar structures and use them in different situations appropriately.

Table 9 Descriptive Statistics of the Grammar Section

students N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Post test scores control 15 7.07 2.963 .765 experimental 15 8.07 2.987 .771

5. Is there any causal relationship between LLSI and such learners’ pronunciation achievement?

Cognitive and metacognitive strategies instruction apparently could not have significant effect on pronunciation achievement. Students seemed to have been able to figure out some rules for pronunciation of different words. They worked on pronunciation exercises more frequently in class since these activities took less time than activities with vocabulary and grammar. The same might have been the reason why they were more eager to work on this sub-skill but lack of exposure to English caused that students forget the pronunciation of the words easily. Furthermore, the participants in the experimental group might have believed that pronunciation was one of the easiest sub-skills.

Table 8 Descriptive Statistics of the vocabulary Section

students N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Post-test scores control 15 8.20 2.111 .545 experimental 15 8.27 2.549 .658

Table 10 Descriptive Statistics of the Pronunciation Section

students N Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

Post test scores control 15 5.93 2.052 .530 experimental 15 6.47 1.407 .363



Patchara and Aykol (2013) concentrated on the identification of pronunciation learning strategies among Turkish EFL learners. The general conclusion of the study was that in order to make pronunciation more enjoyable, autonomous and suited to the demands of communicative-oriented classes, there should be much more attention paid to learning strategies and strategy research.

6. Does LLSI help such learners make significant progress with respect to their vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation performance?

With respect to the findings presented in this study, it could be stated the cognitive and metacognitive language learning strategies instruction led to significant improvement among the participants of the study only in pronunciation and such progress could not be observed in grammar and vocabulary. The pre- and post-test mean difference provides support for the point that students applied the learned items from cognitive and metacognitive strategies instruction to pronunciation practice and development more than the other two sub-skills.

Table 11 Paired Samples t-test of the Vocabulary Section

Mean

Std. Deviation


Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 pretest - posttest -.267 .594 .153 -1.740 14 .104

Table 12 Paired Samples t-test of the Grammar Section

Table 13 Paired Samples t-test of the Pronunciation Section

5. Conclusion The analysis of findings of the study showed how language learning strategies instruction promoted such students’ improvement in pronunciation. However, this instruction could not bring about significant improvement in other sub-skills. Regarding achievement, the findings did not provide empirical support for the effect of such instruction on either of those sub-skills. An argument to be raised in this regard is that junior high school students might not be at an appropriate level of mental and educational development to be able to make use of language learning instruction in the course of language education especially as regards sub-skill development. Apart from these two strategies, the results of the analysis of each part of the questionnaire showed significant improvement in other learning strategies even if they were not of focus in the treatment period. Those strategies included memory, social, and compensation strategies. Use of affective strategies was found to be least influenced by the instruction of cognitive and metacognitive strategies.

Mean Std. Deviation

Std. Error Mean

t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 Pretest scores – Posttest scores

.133 1.978 .361 .369 29 .715

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Pair 1 Pretest scores – Posttest scores

-1.400 1.298 .335 -4.176 14 .001



REFERENCE Abdul Razak, N. Z., Abdul Aziz, A., Adamu, M., Babikkoi & Ismail, F. (2012). Assessing the Use of Language

Learning Strategies among Secondary School Students in Malaysia Johar: University Technology of Malaysia. Alhaisoni, E. (2012). Language Learning Strategy Use of Suadi EFL Students in an Intensive English Learning Context .

Department of English, Suadi Arabia: Ha'il University. Chamot, A.U. (2005). Language learning strategy instruction: Current issues and research. Annual Review of

Applied Linguistics, 25, 112-130. Centizhan, L. (2011). Vocabulary Learning Strategies: a case of Edirne Anatolian high school. Turkey: Edirne. Chou, Mu-hsuan. 2011. The Influence of Learner Strategies on Oral Presentation: A Comparison between Group and

Individual Performance. Department of Foreign Language Instruction, WenzaoUrsuline College of Languages.

Gerami, M. H., & Ghareh Baighlou, Sh. (2011). Language Learning Strategies Used by Successful and Unsuccessful Iranian EFL Students. Department of English Literature, Azad University of Soofian, Iran: Soofian.

Griffiths, C. (2003). Patterns of language learning strategy use and proficiency: The relationship between patterns of language learning strategy (LLS) use by speakers of other languages (SOL) and proficiency with implication for the teaching/ learning situation. Doctoral Dissertation, University of Auckland, 367-383.

Mc Mullen, M.G. (2009). Using language learning strategies to improve writing skills of Suadi EFL students: Will it really work? English Department, Suadi rabia: Yanbu University College, Yanbu Al-Sinaiyah.

Oxford, R. L. (1996). Language learning Strategies around the world: Cross-cultural Perspectives. Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.

Oxford, R. L. (1990). Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. New York, NY: Newbury House.

Patchara, P. (2007). An Action Research Study of Pronunciation Training, Language Learning Strategies and Speaking Confidence. School of Education Faculty of Art, Education and Human Department, Victoria University.

Rahimi, M., & Katal, M. (2011). Metacognitive Strategies Awareness and Success in Learning English as a Foreign Language: an overview.English Department, Faculty of Humanities, Iran:Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Lavizan, Tehran.

Zhou, Y. (2010). English Language Learning Strategy Use by Chinese Senior High School Students . Foreign Language School, China: Zheijiang Ocean University.



THE EFFECT OF PARTNERS' GENDER DURING PEER INTERACTION ACTIVITIES ON LISTENING IN EFL CLASSES

Hamed Mahsefat(Corresponding author) English teacher, Iran Language Institute, Langrood Branch, Iran

[email protected] Tel: 00989117577131

Roghayeh Amooyi MA in TEFL at the University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran.

[email protected]

ABSTRACT Language learning encapsulates the identities of learners (Coates 1998, cited in Zao, 2011) . Since gender is viewed as a social identity. The view of gender varies across and within the cultures (Pavlenko and Piller, 2001, ibid). This study investigated the merits of pairing learners into different genders in peer interaction activates, here the listening activities, in EFL classes in Iran. The participants were twelve pre-intermediate EFL students learning English in a Foreign Language Institute. During two 10 sessions, students worked together on listening activities. To diminish the effect of peer interaction activities done during the course, first learners were paired in different sexes for 10 sessions and for the last ten sessions they were put in to same sex pairs. They were given a pretest and a posttest in the tenth and twentieth session to find out the impact of gender in peer interaction activities. The results revealed that the learners, who had participation with a partner of different sex during the pair and small group activities, demonstrated improved production of target forms and their overall their performance significantly improved when they worked with a heterogeneous gender partner.

KEYWORDS: Peer interaction activities, Gender effect, Interaction, Listening activities

1. Introduction In recent years, interactionism research, propelled by Long's interaction hypothesis (1983, 1985, 1996), has become one of the most exciting topics of exploration for second language acquisition (SLA) researchers. Several theoretical approaches to L2 acquisition state that pair and small group activities generate learning opportunities through various interactional features that occur when learners engage in the communication of meaning. In recent years, a number of studies have been conducted to investigate the merits of learner-learner interaction on various aspects of language learning (see Swain, Brooks & Tocalli-Beller, 2002 for a comprehensive review). There are a number of studies which have investigated the effect of pair work on grammar tasks (Baleghizadeh, 2009; Storch, 1999, 2007). Storch (1999) found that pair work had a positive effect on overal grammatical accuracy when ESL students in Australia completed a series of grammar-focused exercises (a cloze exercise, a text reconstruction, and a short composition). Regarding this issue, other small-scale studies explored instructors' and learners' perceptions about the use of pair and small group activities in different EFL context, and examined whether the learning opportunities theoretically attributed to pair and small group activities occurred in an intact classroom. Apart from all the studies done in this regard, the important factors in how pair the students is neglected. Significant factors such as age, gender, proficiency and personality of learners in groups can determine the efficiency of pair work. Having worked as a teacher in the English institutes for several years, I became familiar with my colleagues' concerns about using pair and small group activities in their EFL classes. My assigned teaching duties included a course that incorporated pair and small group activities into the syllabus, so I decided to analyze whether the learning opportunities attributed to pair and small group interaction occurred when learners carried them out. I observed how important the way that teachers make the groups or pairs is. The age and gender of each pair were found out to be concerned as the significant criteria in pairing learners. So, this research is to find the effects of peer interaction and gender of peers specifically in cloze



activities used as logical models that elicit what students are doing in classrooms. 2. Literature Review According to Bourdieu (1977, cited in Harmer, 2001) learners speaking is accompanied with not just the exchanging information with their interlocutors but engaging in identity and negotiation through (re)organizing a sense of their social identity and social world pair group activities involving interactions between learners are often used in second language (L2) classrooms and supported theoretically and pedagogically. A variety of theoretical approaches to L2 acquisition provide a rationale for the use of pair and small group activities. Pedagogical reasons for using pair and small group activities in L2 classrooms also have been offered. Pair and small group activities provide learners with more time to speak the target language than teacher-fronted activities, promote learner autonomy and self-directed learning, and give instructors opportunities to work with individual learners (Brown, 2001; Crookes and Bourdieu (1977) learners speaking is accompanied with not just the exchanging information; Harmer, 2001; Long and Porter, 1985). In addition, learners may feel less anxious and more confident when interacting with peers during pair or small group activities than during whole-class discussions (Brown, 2001; Davis, 1997; Willis, 1996). Even though theoretical and pedagogical arguments in favor of pair and small group activities have been advanced, L2 practitioners may have reservations about their use. More recently and in an EFL setting, Baleghizadeh (2009) compared Iranian intermediate learners' performance on a conversational cloze task under two conditions: individually versus collaboratively. The given cloze task consisted of three types of gaps, namely articles, prepositions, and coordinating conjunctions. The findings revealed that the learners' overall performance in the collaborative mode was significantly better than their performance in the individual mode. Now, there are many factors in case of how to make pairs during the class activities. Such factors of peer interaction in small groups include students' ability, gender, personality, age and the others. Hypotheses about important, but neglected, aspects of peer interaction that may predict learning have been discussed but not in a large amount. (Noreen M. Web. University of California, Los Angeles, USA) Thus, this research is almost new because in addition to discovering the effects of peer interaction, it is to investigate how learners' gender in pair groups influences on their learning process. 3. Method 3.1 Participants The study was carried out in Kooshyar Higher Education Institute located in, Rasht, Guilan, Iran. Twenty four students participated in the study. They were from both genders, male and female. The numbers of male and female students were 12 and 12 respectively. To control the level of the participants, Oxford Placement Test (2007) was administered to make sure that they are unanimously at pre-intermediate level. After that, they were assigned to two equal groups randomly. The students were all in their courses of English for general purpose, aged from 18 to 27. They were majoring in non-English field, accounting. To determine the homogeneity of the participants in terms of their language proficiency, they were given a written test and also interviewed orally, manifesting that their proficiency level is almost pre-intermediate. They were selected in the same range of age to reduce the gender effect in pair groups' activities. The students were not aware of pairing trends (pairs in same sex and pairing in different sex) in the research process. 3.2 Materials Oxford Placement test (OPT) consisted of 50 multiple choice questions which assess students’ knowledge of key grammar and vocabulary from elementary to intermediate levels. A reading text with 10 graded comprehension questions and also an optional writing task that assesses students’ ability to produce the language. The time allotted for this test was 65 minutes. The task used in this study was cloze tests used as logical models that elicit what students are doing in classrooms. The texts, adapted from Stanton and Morris (1999), were a leaflet and a newsletter with 15-18 numbered gaps and 15-18 given words. The participants were required to fill in the gaps with the correct form of the given words. Besides, the researcher, the instructor, was observing the class during the activities to determine the best trend of making pairs.



3.3 Procedure Before collecting the students’ data in the classroom, it was observed that two of colleagues' classes who taught the same course in order to obtain insight into their perceptions about the use of pa ir and small group activities in that course. As an instructor, the participants have been divided the class into two-nine-sessions during a semester in the institute. In the first period (first nine sessions), they have been paired in the different gender to reduce the effect of practicing on the cloze tests instead of gender effect. Six pairs, each one consisted of three boys and three girls. Every session they have been given each pair one cloze test of 15 -18 gaps and they were supposed to complete it in 20-25 minutes and after finishing we all review the answers. By getting help from what is done in previous researches regarding peer interaction, before starting the task, the students were not only taught the Think-Pair-Share technique but also made aware of basic collaborative skills such as asking for clarification, listening attentively, giving reasons, etc. In short, they were informed that they have to: *think about each item individually * pair up with their partner, explain their answer, and listen to their partner's comments carefully * share their ideas and come up with a joint answer for each item. In the 10th session, we gave them a cloze test to be done by the same partner as a posttest. For the next 9 sessions, they were paired to the same sex, 3 pairs of girls and 3 pairs of boys. Again every session, they were assigned a listening test and the researcher monitored them to make sure that they would speak in English. At the last session they were given a listening test to be done by the same partner to find out the results. 4. Results This section presents the results from the analysis of the obtained data. As the scoring was objective, one rater (researcher) scored the listening tests which were given to students to be done in pairs. The mean score for each listening test was calculated to see how each pair performed on its pretest (different sex pairs) and posttest (same sex pairs). The result of the participants' pretest and posttest was compared through Paired Sample T-Test. Paired Sample T-Test used to see students' performance on two different tests. Table 1 presents the result of each pair's pretest and posttest. As indicated in the table below, the mean score of the learner's on their pretest was 15.05 which show a higher achievement compared to posttest in which the mean score of the pair's was 12.19.

Table1. Descriptive Statistics

**** Means of N pairs Standard deviation(SD) Standard error of measurement

Pre-test

15.05 2.03343 0.35946

Post-test

12.19 2.44207 0.43170

As it was mentioned before, this test was performed to discover the possible gender effect in peer interaction activities, here in the cloze tests. The mean difference between the two tests was equal to -2.86. To see if the gender had a considerable impact on pair work activities, confidence interval of difference and significance

value of the test has been provided. Confidence interval of difference does not contain zero. (Upper =2.63, lower =-3.09) and significance value of the test is much less than alpha level of the test. This is shown in Table 2 below:

Table2. Paired Samples T Test

Mean(M) 2.85938

Standard Deviation(SD)

0.63797



Standard Error of Mean

0.11278

Confidence interval of df for upper level 0.95 3.09

Confidence interval of df for lower level 0.95 2.63

t pre-test(df2tailed)

25.33

t posttest(df2tailed)

33.00

So, we can conclude pairing students in different gender is more effective than in the same gender in peer interaction activities. 5. Discussion The current study examined the effect of gender of pairs in the peer interaction activities on listening during two types of pairing learners: different and same sex pairs. The data analysis revealed that learners who had involvement with their different gender partners during pair and small group activities demonstrated improved production and worked better on listening activities as logical models that elicit what students do in classroom. The mean score of the learner's on their pretest was 15.05 which shows a higher achievement compared to posttest in which the mean score of the pair's was 12.19. In this study the mean in the posttest is less than in the pretest. As mentioned earlier, since the purpose of the study is not to consider the improvement of students as the impacts of more involvement in peer interaction activities rather than the merits of different sex pairs, intentionally they have been paired in different genders in the first 10 sessions. The findings of this study suggest that urging EFL teachers to pair learners in different genders in peer-interaction activities especially for grammatical activities. REFERENCES Balegizadeh, S. (2009). Investigating the effectiveness of pair work on a conversational cloze task in EFL classes.

TESL Reporter, 42(1), 1-12. Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles: An integrative approach to language pedagogy . New York: Addison

Wesley Longman. Davis, R. (1997). Group work is NOT busy work: Maximizing success of group work in the L2 classroom.

Foreign Language Annals, 30(3), 265-279. Chamot, A.U., & O’Malley, J.M., (1996) Implementing the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach

(CALLA). In R. Oxford (Ed.), Language Learning Strategies Around the World: Cross-cultural Perspectives (pp. 167-174). Manoa: University of Hawaii Press.

Clark, H. and Roof, K. (1988). Field Dependence and Strategy Use. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 66: 303-307 Cohen, A.D. & Weaver, S.J., (1998)Strategies-based instruction for second language learners. In W.A. Reyandya

& G.M. Jacobs (Eds.), Learners and Language Learning. Anthology Series 39. Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Center, pp. 1-25.

Cohen, A.D., (1998) Strategies in Learning and Using a Second Language. Essex, U.K.: Longman Gass, S. (1997). Input, interaction, and the second language learner. Mahwah, NJ. : Lawrence Erlbaum. Hammen, C. L., Peplau, L.A(1978). Brief encounters: Impact of gender, sex-role attitudes, and partner's gender

on interaction and cognition. Journal of research ,(1), 75-90 Kasanga, L., 1996. Peer interaction and L2 learning. Canadian Modern Language Review 52, 611–639. Khalili. M, Mahsefat, H. (2012). The Impact of authentic listening materials on elementary EFL learners'

listening skills.International journal of applied linguistic and literature.1(4)216-229 Long, M., & Porter, P. (1985). Group work, Interlanguage talk, and second language acquisition. TESOL

Quarterly, 19, 207-227. Long, M., Robinson, P., 1998. Focus on form: Theory, research, process. In: Doughty, C., Williams, J.(Eds.), Focus

on Form in Classroom SLA. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge

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Mackey, A., Gass, S., & McDonough, K. (2000). How do learners perceive interactional feedback? Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 22, 471-497.

Mahsefat, H. Homaie, S. (2012). Using internet technology in teaching vocabulary for Elementary students. Iranian EFL Journal.8(5)39-61

Mahsefat, H. (2012). The Effect of Partners' Gender during Peer Interaction Activities on Learning in EFL Classes. In: 2nd International Conference on Foreign Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics (FLTAL’12), May 2012, Sarajevo. Bosnia & Herzegovina.

Mahsefat, H. (2012). Factors to Consider in the Transition from a Teacher-Centered Model to a Learner-Centered Model in Learning Environment. International conference on future of education,2nd edition, March, Fiorentina,Italy.

Mahsefat, H. (2012). An investigation of the effect of student's major on the type of motivation in second language learning based on self determination theory. Tubingen, Germany, Available at: www.simal2012.de/grafik/SIMAL_Abstractbook_2012.pdf

Noreen, M,. (1998). Web University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Storch, N. (1999). Are two heads better than one? Pair work and grammatical accuracy. System, 27(5), 363-374. Swain, M., Brooks, L., & Tocalli-Beller, A. (2002). Peer-peer dialogue as a means of second language learning.

Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 171-185. Stanton, A. and S. Morris, (1999). CAE Practice Tests, UK: Pearson Education. Williams, J., (1999). Learner-generated attention to form. Language Learning, 49(2), 583–625 Zhao, H. (2011). Gender construction and negotiation in the chinese EFL classroom. Cambridge Scholars Publishing

Newcastle, UK



THE STATUS OF TEACHING AND TESTING L2 PRAGMATICS AMONG IRANIAN EFL TEACHERS

Seyyed Ayatollah Razmjoo Associate professor, TEFL

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran [email protected]

Rahele Mavaddat (corresponding author) MA graduate, TEFL

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

[email protected]

Elyas Barabadi PhD candidate, TEFL

Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran

[email protected] ABSTRACT Pragmatics plays an important role in developing L2 learners’ communicative competence. The results of many studies have indicated the necessity for teaching pragmatics especially in foreign language contexts because languages and cultures differ in terms of both pragmalinguistics and sociopragmatics. However, no broad and clear consensus has been achieved over the specific forms of instruction, namely, explicit or implicit. This study aimed at investigating to what extent, if any, Iranian EFL teachers in private language institutes pay attention to L2 pragmatics in their teaching or testing. To this aim, a questionnaire was designed and filled out by 88 EFL teachers. The results indicated that a few teachers targeted pragmatic features in an explicit way irrespective of their majors or years of experience. However, PhD participants differed from other participants in that they favored explicit teaching. As for the implicit instruction, the teachers’ responses were not consistent across teachers with different majors, degrees or even years of professional experience. It seems that teachers are a bit hazy about implicit instruction and how to implement it. Ironically, almost all teachers were of the strong opinion that L2 pragmatics should be instructed. Furthermore, two areas in which most teachers unanimously voiced their opinions were assessment of L2 pragmatics and the courses that teachers themselves took when they were at university. In case of the former, almost all teachers stated that they did not welcome pragmatic features for inclusion in tests they design for learners. In case of the latter, most teachers noted that their instructors and the materials they used did not take into account L2 pragmatics seriously. Given the constructive role of instruction and assessment in developing L2 pragmatics, it is strongly recommended that teachers give special and equal prominence to both teaching and testing of L2 pragmatics in a systematic way. KEYWORDS: L2 pragmatics, explicit instruction, implicit instruction; pragmatics assessment. 1. Introduction In recent years, there has been a burgeoning increase in studies that stress the importance of teaching L2

pragmatics in language classrooms (Martinez-Flor & Fukuya, 2005; Koike & Pearson, 2005; Rose, 2005;



Bardovi-Harlig & Griffin 2005 and Soler, 2005). This orientation was partly due to the import that was given to communicative competence as proposed by Hymes (1971) as well as the key role of noticing and awareness as developed by Schmidt (1993). Interpreting communicative competence from the perspective of linguistic anthropology, Hyme (1974) viewed communication including linguistic communication as part of the cultural knowledge and behavior. This entails the recognition of diversity of communicative possibilities and practices. In like manner, Wolfson (1990) pointed out that people coming from different cultural backgrounds show their different valued systems through speech and social behavior, and these differences may lead to intercultural misunderstanding. Moreover, added impetus was given to the role of pragmatic competence both in instruction and testing by Canale and Swain (1980), Canale (1983) and Backman (1990) who included pragmatic knowledge in their framework of communicative competence.

As a result of these theoretical advancements with regard to the importance of pragmatics in L2 instruction and testing, an increasing number of researchers in recent years have investigated the effectiveness of instruction for the development of L2 pragmatics especially in Foreign contexts in which learners do not have enough opportunities for communicating in L2 outside of the classrooms (Jeon & Kaya, 2006; Martinez-Flor, & Fukuya, 2005; Rose & Kwai-fun, 2001). As mentioned before, situated in the framework of awareness and noticing hypothesis, almost all the literature available on the role of instruction in developing L2 pragmatics ascribe a critical role to instruction (Rose & Kasper, 2001). However, it should be noted that the accumulated evidence regarding this issue has not identified with absolute certainty which type of instruction (e.g. implicit or explicit) is more beneficial to the furthering of this aspect of language (jeon & Kaya, 2006). Nonetheless, it seems that the explicit instruction has proved more useful especially when the instruction period has been short, and more importantly in context in which English is taught as a foreign language.

Given the key role of pragmatic competence for appropriate communication, and hence the necessity of both instruction of L2 pragmatic features and its inclusion in language testing, the current study was undertaken in order to determine to what extent and how if any, Iranian EFL teachers at English institutes cover different aspects of L2 pragmatics in their teaching materials and practices. To achieve this aim, we developed a questionnaire which addresses various features of L2 pragmatics from teaching materials to teaching and testing practices in English classrooms. The items of the questionnaire were derived from the main studies carried out in L2 teaching pragmatics. In what follows, we first discuss pragmatics and pragmatics in language teaching, then, we will analyze participants’ responses to different items, and finally we summarize the findings of the study in concluding section.

2. Literature Review In this part, first some of the studies conducted on pragmatics and inter-language pragmatics are presented

and then some studies on teaching l2 pragmatics are illuminated. 2.1. Pragmatics and Inter-language Pragmatics Interpreting pragmatics based on Morris’s (1938) definition, Schiffrin (1994) noted that pragmatics is the study

of signs to interpreters (users) or “the study of how interpreters (users) engage in the taking account of designate (the construction of interpretants) of sign-vehicles. Levinson (1983) defined pragmatics as the study of those aspects of meaning not captured in a semantic theory including dexis, implicature, presupposition, speech act and aspects of discourse structure with heavy emphasis on context for their understanding (as cited in Cheng, 2008).

Likewise, Rose and Kasper (2001) defined pragmatics as “the study of communicative action in sociocultural context” (P. 2). According to them, communicative action includes not only the use of speech acts such as requesting, apologizing and complimenting but also involvement in various types of discourse, speech situations and speech events.

Interlanguage pragmatics is the study of how non-native speakers perform and understand particular speech act in target language, and how they acquire the pragmatic competence in that language (Kasper, 1992& Kasper & Rose, 2002). Kasper (1992) believed that learner's pragmatic knowledge of their first language



and culture affects their comprehension, production and learning of pragmatic information of second language. Pragmatic transfer can be positive which shows the pragmatic universality among languages, or it can be negative that shows the inappropriate transfer of L1 norms to L2 which may result to pragmatic failure in which learners are not able to understand the meaning of target language (wolfson, 1990).

Intercultural competence is defined as the ability to interact effectively and appropriately with those who are linguistically and culturally different (Intachakra, 2004). Since what is appropriate in one culture is not so in the other, intercultural communication creates awareness about the importance of understanding speech acts cross-culturally. The recognition of the meaning of a particular speech act in a given cultural setting is at the heart of successful intercultural communication (Bardovi-Harlig, 2010). The main problem in intercultural communication relates to pragmatics. Most teachers devote the classroom time to linguistic knowledge, and ignore pragmatic knowledge. Eslami-Rasekh et al. (2004) warn teachers that ignoring pragmatic knowledge will result in pragmatic failure while communicating with native speakers. The best way to come up with this failure between native speakers and non-native speakers is acquiring pragmatic competence. Kasper and Rose (2002) also suggests that learners should be aware of pragmatic competence in addition to linguistic competence; that is, learners should be exposed to the context, social conditions, and the force of utterances besides all aspects of appropriate usage.

2.2. Teaching L2 Pragmatics Investigating the influence of classroom instruction on social interaction, Billmyer (1990) made a

comparison between native and non native production of compliment and compliment responses during interaction. By applying quasi-experimental design, one group received instruction on rules of complimenting and compliment responses and the other did not. Besides, participants were asked to perform certain tasks related to compliments outside the classroom with their native counterparts. The aim of this instruction was to develop learners' skills in expressing and interpreting the compliments and make them aware of the norms and values of the target community. The data was analyzed based on some measures (such as, level of appropriacy, level of spontaneity, frequency of norm- appropriate compliments, linguistics well-formedness, and various adjectives). The analysis showed that those who were exposed to instruction produced a higher frequency of norm-appropriate, speaker-initiated compliments, better-formed and made use of wide range of positive adjectives and produced more compliment responses which were longer and more effective in sustaining the interaction. He noticed that instructing social rules of language use in classroom help learners get engaged in more elaborate interactions with native speakers outside the classroom.

Koike and Pearson (2005) examined the effectiveness of teaching pragmatics information through the use of explicit and implicit pre instruction and the use of implicit and explicit feedback to learner to see the effect of instruction of pragmatic information in building pragmatic proficiency. They attempted to investigate the speech act of suggestion and whether it can be learned through focusing on explicit and implicit instruction and feedback. Their study addressed the use of instruction in order to help learners notice pragmatic forms and successfully produce suggestion in interactions. They found that the rate of acquisition of pragmatic competence was faster when English-speaking learners of Spanish received explicit instruction and feedback before doing exercise. The explicit instruction and feedback helped learner understand pragmatic elements and context, while implicit instruction and feedback helped learners produce appropriate pragmatic utterances. They suggested and encouraged teachers to use pragmatic instruction in order to develop learner pragmatic competence because learners do not have adequate awareness of what is involved in a speech act behavior. In similar vein, Bardovi-Harlig and Griffin (2005) reported that explicit classroom instruction can benefit ESL learners from different backgrounds even if more advanced learners may develop awareness without instruction.

Sociocultural differences should be taken into account when dealing with speech acts. For example, Cohen (1996) observed that while in one culture, one speech act such as thanking might be appropriate at the end of a meal, in another culture the same situation would call for an apology. He suggested that sociocultural knowledge (when to perform a speech act and which is appropriate in a given context) as



well as sociolinguistic knowledge (cultural linguistic realization of each speech act appropriate to a particular situation) are required for performing speech acts. He came to this conclusion that learners would behave like native speakers if the teachers expose them to common realization patterns of target culture, and enable them to practice the use of speech act.

Grossi (2009) focused on compliment and compliment responses in spontaneous conversations as examples and used them to expose learners to ways this speech act is used in Australian English. He suggested teachers use naturally occurring data to increase pragmatic awareness and to explain the workings of speech acts by preparing various classroom activities.

3. Methods This section includes descriptions of participants, instruments, and data collection and data analysis

procedures. 3.1. Participants Participants for this study were English instructors at different English language institutes in several Iranian

cities. There were 45 males and 40 females ranging in teaching experience from 2 years to 16 years, with a mean of 9 years of teaching at institutes. Participants were selected only from private language institutes since state-run schools pay little attention to conversational skills, let alone to pragmatic features of L2. The majority of participants were TEFL majors at MA level. They were selected from major Iranian cities like Shiraz, Isfahan, Tehran and Mashhad. Thus, they shared basic characteristics, such as L1 (Persian Language), field of study and experience of teaching English at private institutes with a focus on conversational skills. Additionally, most of them had graduated from one of the most prestigious universities of Iran, such as Shiraz University, Isfahan University, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Tehran University and Allama Tabatabaee University. Initially, the questionnaire was sent through email to more than 150 instructors across the country, but due to the low return rate (20), we had to give it in person. In this way, 68 instructors filled out the questionnaire. This number plus those 20 participants who responded via email led to the total number of 88.

3.2. Instrument The data for this study were obtained through administering a questionnaire developed by the researchers of

this study. The questionnaire consisted of 33 items addressing different issues on teaching L2 pragmatics. Specifically, there were three scales related to different trends and techniques in teaching L2 pragmatics, including explicit instruction, implicit instruction and teachers’ viewpoints about teaching pragmatics. Besides, there were two other scales: one asking participants whether they included pragmatic features in the tests they designed, and the other asking them if the courses they studied at university covered pragmatics.

The items of the questionnaire represented the issues and topics on teaching L2 pragmatics which have been addressed in recent studies and book chapters dealing with the effect of instruction on developing L2 pragmatic competence. Initially, there were about 50 items on the questionnaire. However, the researchers got some feedback on content and wording of the items after the questionnaire was reviewed by some FEFL experts at Shiraz University and further tried out on a few participants through a pilot study. Consequently, the number of items reduced to 33.

3.3. Data Collection At first, we found it more convenient and practical to send the questionnaire to EFL instructors at different

English institutes across the country via Email. Therefore, as it was mentioned above, it was sent to more than 150 instructors via Email. The email addresses were obtained through TESOL site belonging to Tarbiyat Moallem University of Tehran which is responsible for informing English instructors, professors and students of major conferences and workshops across the world. Unfortunately, the return rate was very low (20 instructors), and thus we had to distribute the questionnaire among EFL teachers in person. We could get the cooperation of 10 institutes where more than 68 instructors filled out the



questionnaire. Therefore, we could overcome the problem of the low return rate and obtain a sufficient number of participants for our research purpose.

3.4. Data Analysis The data collected through the questionnaire were analyzed using SPSS, version 16. Descriptive statistics was

run and mean, standard deviation and percentage values were calculated. As for the inferential statistics, Spearman rank order correlation, independent-samples t-test and one-way ANOVA were run. Spearman rank order correlation was used to examine if there was any significant relationship between participants' viewpoints on pragmatics and their actual practices in the language classroom. Besides, independent-samples t-test was employed to see the effect of teachers’ years of experience on their viewpoints and their actual practices of teaching pragmatics. Moreover, one-way ANOVA was used to investigate the influence of participants' major and academic degree on their methods of/ or viewpoints on teaching pragmatics. Finally, in order to understand where in the categories of major or degree the probable differences between participants lay, Scheffe Test was run. In what follows, the readers are provided with the findings of this study.

4. Results The results of the study indicated that only 14.8% of all participants incorporated pragmatic features in the

tests they gave to their students. Likewise, the scale dealing with the courses they had taken at university showed that only 9.3% of the materials they studied at university was about pragmatics. Of this infinitesimal amount however, it is not clear to what extent there have been discussions about the how of teaching L2 pragmatics. In other words, it is possible that the courses they had taken might have dealt with pragmatics in a pure theoretical way with no attention to instructional and pedagogical aspects of L2 pragmatics. Moreover, participants' positive responses to explicit and implicit teaching amounted to 56.8% and 22.8% respectively. With regard to implicit teaching, it is worth noting that 73.9% of participants were neutral. As for the scale asking for participants' viewpoints about teaching pragmatics, no matter in an implicit or explicit way, 87.5% of participants advocated the inclusion of pragmatics in the curriculum. Yet, as their responses to the two previous scales (implicit and explicit teaching) concerning what they actually do in the classroom indicated, there is a gulf between what they believe and what they actually do in classrooms. As Table 1 shows, there is no statistically significant and meaningful relationship between participants’ viewpoints on teaching pragmatics and their actual practice in the language classroom.

Table 1 Spearman Rank Order Correlation for Participants’ Ideas on Teaching Pragmatics and Their

Practice Within the Language Classroom Variables Teachers’ Ideas Explicit Method Implicit Method Teachers’ Ideas 1.000 .148 .033 In order to find out whether teachers’ years of experience had any significant effect on their explicit/ implicit

methods of teaching pragmatics, or on their viewpoints about whether pragmatics should be taught to students or not, first descriptive statistics and then inferential statistics or more precisely independent -samples t-test were run. As you can see in the following table, participants were divided into two groups: those with more than five years of experience and those with less than five years. The following table describes participants in terms of number, mean score and the standard deviation with regard to their methods of teaching pragmatics, and also with regard to their viewpoints about teaching it. Furthermore, it indicates whether participants’ years of experience have had any effects on their methods of teaching pragmatics or viewpoints about teaching it.



Table 2 Independent-Samples T-Test Results on the Effect of Years of Experience on the Participants’ Methods of or Ideas on Teaching Pragmatics

Pragmatics

Descriptive Statistics

Years of Experience

t

Sig.

Less than 5 Years (N=42)

More than 5 Years (N=46)

1. Explicit

Mean 3.2857 3.8696 -6.015

.077 Std. Deviation .45723 45258

2. Implicit

Mean 3.7381 3.8261 -.769

.119 Std. Deviation .54368 .52933

3. Ideas

Mean 3.8810 3.9348 -.564

.666 Std. Deviation .39524 .49000

As indicated in Table 2 above, of the 88 participants, 42 had an experience of five years or less and 46 had an

experience of more than five years. Comparing the mean values for the first category; explicit method, it

is evident that teachers with an experience of more than five years have had a bit higher mean value (

=3.86) than those less experienced teachers ( =3.28). However, it should be born in mind that the difference between the two groups are not statistically significant in terms of explicit practice of pragmatics (p=.077, p>.05, t=-6.015). With regard to the other two categories; implicit teaching and viewpoints about teaching pragmatics, it can be seen that there is no considerable differences in the mean values between teachers with different years of experience. In other words, there is no difference between the two groups either in their implicit teaching of pragmatics or in their ideas on teaching it. The level of significance also confirms it (Implicit: p=.119, p>.05, t = -0.769), (Ideas: p=.666, p>.05, t = -.564).

As for the effect of participants' academic degrees on the three categories mentioned before, it should be noted that only PhD participants differed from BA and MA participants, and this difference only lay in the explicit method of teaching pragmatics. The results of the descriptive statistics revealed that participants

with a PhD degree had a higher mean value ( =4.16) than participants with an MA degree ( =3.46) or

a BA degree ( =3.59). In other words, they benefit from explicit method of teaching pragmatics more than the other participants. Likewise, it was also revealed that PhD teachers had a higher mean value (

= 4.16) in their viewpoints about teaching pragmatics than those with an MA ( =3.90) or BA (=3.77) degree. But in order to determine whether the differences between participants in each of the categories were significant or not, one-way ANOVA was used.

Table 3 One-Way ANOVA Results on the Effect of Academic Degree on Participants’ Method of / Ideas on

Teaching Pragmatics Source of Variance D.F. Sum of Squares Mean Square F Sig.

1. Explicit Between Groups 2 4.862 2.431 10.124 .000

Within Groups 85 20.411 .240 Total 87 25.273

2. Implicit

Between Groups 2 .580 .290 1.013 .368 Within Groups 85 24.318 .286

Total 87 24.898

3. Ideas Between Groups 2 1.205 .603 3.188 .046


As can be seen in this Table, there was a statistically significant difference between participants in terms of the

use of explicit method of teaching pragmatics (p=.000, p<.05). However, there was no statistically significant difference among participants in terms of the application of the implicit method in teaching

https://www.google.com/url?q=http://www.pballew.net/arithme1.html&sa=U&ei=-kg6U-itIJHMsgbKq4H4AQ&ved=0CEAQ9QEwCQ&usg=AFQjCNFDBiaqhwL0aEylB3V-dzmyqaog5g










pragmatics (p=.368, p>.05). Finally, it was also revealed that there was a statistically significant difference among participants in their viewpoints about teaching pragmatics (p=.046, p<.05). Thus, it is evident that participants were different in terms of the use of explicit method of teaching pragmatics and in their ideas on teaching pragmatics. As mentioned before, participants had either a BA or an MA or a PhD degree. In order to understand where the differences between participants lay in each of the relevant categories, Scheffe test was run.

Table 4 Scheffe Test for Table 3

Academic Degree Academic Degree Mean Difference Sig.

Explicit

BA

MA .12795

.559

PhD -.57576* .004 MA PhD -.70370* .000

Ideas

BA

MA -.13468 .442 PhD -.39394* .035

MA PhD -.25926 .154 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The results of Table 4 show a difference between participants in terms of the use of explicit method of teaching

pragmatics. Participants with a PhD degree have been significantly different from those with a BA degree (p=.004, p<.05) or those with an MA degree (p=.000, p<.05). However, there has been no statistically significant difference between participants with a BA degree and those with an MA degree concerning the use of explicit method of teaching pragmatics (p=.559, p>.05). Concerning participants’ ideas, one can see that a statistically significant difference lay between participants with a PhD degree and those with a BA degree (p=.035, p<.05). However, there has been no statistically significant difference between participants with a BA degree and those with an MA degree (p=.442, p>.05) or participants with an MA degree and those with a PhD degree (p=.154, p>.05).

Another variable of interest in this study was participants' major, namely, TEFL, linguistics and English literature. The following table depicts participants in terms of their majors for each of the three categories of explicit teaching of pragmatics, implicit teaching of pragmatics, and ideas on teaching pragmatics.

Table 5 Descriptive Statistics of Participants Based on Their Major

Major N Mean Std. Deviation

1. Explicit

TEFL 44 3.6136 .57933 Linguistics 22 3.5455 .50965

Literature 22 3.5909 .50324

2. Implicit TEFL 44 3.6591 .56828

Linguistics 22 3.9091 .52636 Literature 22 3.9091 .42640

3. Ideas

TEFL 44 3.9091 .47339

Linguistics 22 4.0455 .37509 Literature 22 3.7727 .42893

It can be seen that exactly half of participants have been from TEFL majors. Furthermore, ¼ of participants

have been from Linguistics major and ¼ from Literature. It can also be seen that in none of the three categories there was a considerable difference among participants in their mean values. The results of the one-way ANOVA test confirm this insignificant difference among participants with different Majors (see Table. 6)



Table 6 One-Way ANOVA Results on the Effect of Major on Participants’ Method of/ Ideas on Teaching Pragmatics

Source of Variance

D.F. Sum of Squares

Mean Square

F Sig.

1. Explicit

Between Groups 2 .068 .034 .115 .892 Within Groups 85 25.205 .297

Total 87 25.273

2. Implicit Between Groups 2 1.375 .688 2.484 .089


3. Ideas

Between Groups 2 .818 .409 2.113 .127 Within Groups 85 16.455 .194

Total 87 17.273

As it was mentioned before, the difference in the mean values of participants from the three majors in terms of the relevant categories was not significant. The above table can confirm this. One can observe that there has not been any statistically significant difference among participants from different majors in terms of using explicit methods (p=.892, p>.05) or implicit methods (p=.089, p>.05) of teaching pragmatics. Furthermore, there has not been any statistically significant difference between them in terms of their ideas on teaching pragmatics (p=.127, p>.05).

5. Discussion As mentioned before, there was no significant correlation between participants' viewpoints about teaching

pragmatics, no matter in an implicit or explicit way, and their practices in EFL classrooms. Indeed, this finding was true for all participants with different years of experience. This might arise from the fact that EFL teachers who participate in this study had not got the opportunity to articulate their beliefs and assumptions about teaching practices in general and teaching pragmatics in particular so that they could become aware of them. It is widely recognized that if teachers become aware of their beliefs which are mainly tacit, this awareness will affect their practices in a positive way since it enables teachers to initiate reflective practice (Feiman-Nemser & Remillard, 1996; Phipps & Borg, 2007). Borg (2011) states that "… beliefs are propositions individuals consider to be true and which are often tacit, have a strong evaluative and affective component, provide basis for action, and are resistant to change" (P. 371). As Borg (2011) argues, it seems that teachers' awareness of their beliefs is important since this awareness provides them with a rationale for their practices. Teachers gain an explanation for their actions which in turn can be exposed to reflection. Borg (2011) brings one interview excerpt of one teacher who says "…..understanding your beliefs and connecting these to wider theory will put you in a better position to reflect on your practice (P. 376).

Contrary to the commonsensical view that teachers with higher level of experience will gain an intuitive understanding of what is the right course of action; this study indicated that teachers with an experience

of more than five years had an infinitesimal higher mean value ( = 3.86) than those with less than five

years ( =3.28) with regard to explicit and implicit teaching and the difference was not statistically significant. This noticeable undue attention to pragmatic features across all participants except PhD students may be interpreted in a number of ways: first, teacher education programs are generally characterized as knowledge transmission (Wardford, 2011). Thus, teachers who are brought up in such transmission models of teachers training which follow in the tenets of what Freire (1970) call "Banking education" are not able to experience investigative learning by being a teacher researcher (Lempert -Shepell, 1995). Accordingly, no matter how many years EFL teachers have taught English, they are less





likely to grow and develop professionally since they have not been taught in the first place to be reflective practitioners (Golombek & Johnson, 2004). Second, assuming that teachers are aware of pragmatics and its crucial role in appropriate communication and also assuming that they know enough about teaching pragmatics implicitly or explicitly, in practice they will not invest enough in teaching pragmatics since Iranian learners learn English in a foreign context in which neither students nor their teachers and even teacher educators are instigated to spend time and energy and use resources in teaching pragmatics. Their justification for this undue attention to teaching pragmatics, including both explicit and implicit teaching comes from cognitive psychology. As Bartels (2005) put it "…it is not enough to simply provide a short apprenticeship in applied linguistics and hope for the best because the knowledge that teachers use in their practice is more complicated than just knowing facts and general conceptions of language and language learning" (P. 419). The point here is that teachers have problems with the transfer of what they have learned in their Applied Linguistics courses to their classrooms. Knowledge transfer would be more successful when the practice tasks (i.e. what is done in teacher education programs or universities) are similar to the target tasks (i.e. what L2 teachers do in schools). Getting involved intensively with knowledge of applied linguistics including teaching pragmatics implicitly or explicitly through action research (Howes, Davies & Fox, 2009) in which teachers can work on classroom problems is another important factor that help teachers transfer what they have learned in their teaching education program to their classrooms. To put it in a nutshell, teacher development and expertise has less to do with teaching experience than with their willingness and ability to "consistently reinvest their time in learning more and more about their teaching" (Tsui, 2003 as cited in Bartels, 2005, P. 410).

The only significant results of this study refer to participants' academic degree and its relationship to their conceptualization of teaching pragmatics as well as their ideas to teaching pragmatics. As mentioned

before, PhD participants had a higher mean value ( =4.16) than other participants with regard to L2 teaching pragmatics which was statistically significant (p= .000, p<.05). Likewise, PhD participants had a

higher mean value ( =4.16) than other participants regarding their viewpoints about teaching pragmatics and the difference among participants in their beliefs on teaching pragmatics was statistically significant (p= .04, p< .05). Such a result is reasonably expected because it is supposed that participants who are PhD students have acquired much more knowledge of applied linguistics including teaching pragmatics. So, they tend to approach teaching pragmatics with a stronger theoretical base in language, language learning and language teaching issues. Besides, since most of these participants have gained the opportunity to reflect on their own practice as well as those of their student teachers. In other words, PhD participants might have gained this opportunity to get involved in what Pinnegar and Hamilton (2009) call "self-study of teaching and teacher education practices (S-STTEP)". S-STTEP is a kind of qualitative research used by teacher practitioners who base the research in their practices in relation to other people including their students and colleagues in order to improve their practice.

The final result of the study is related to participants' major. As indicated in Table 6, there was not any statistically significant difference among participants from different majors in terms of the use of explicit (p=.892, p>.05) or implicit method (p=0.089, p>0.05) of teaching pragmatics. Although it is contrary to expectation that participants with TEFL major did not differ significantly from those of other majors, such as linguistics and literature, the same lines of reasoning that were suggested with regard to participants with different years of experience can be applied here as well, and as result, the reader can refer to the same third reasons discussed previously.

6. Conclusion To conclude, this study showed that there was no significant difference among participants concerning

teaching pragmatics or their beliefs about it. In other words, teachers majoring in TEFL, linguistics and literature approached teaching pragmatics similarly. None of them took teaching pragmatics seriously into account. Additionally, their beliefs regarding pragmatics teaching did not differ from each other. Similar to the result of the effect of participants' major of study on teaching pragmatics, it became clear





that participants' level of experience was not influential in shaping their teaching of pragmatics in a particular way. Moreover, it was found that the only variable that differentiated participants regarding teaching pragmatics both at the level of practice and beliefs was their academic degree. Indeed, PhD participants were more oriented toward teaching pragmatics in an explicit way. Likewise, their beliefs toward teaching pragmatics were more oriented toward the explicit end of the implicit -explicit continuum. In contrast to PhD participants, participants with MA and BA did not favor implicit or explicit methods of teaching pragmatics neither at the level of practice nor at the level of beliefs.

Given the importance of pragmatics in communicating appropriately and given the fact that in foreign language contexts learners cannot be left to their own resources to acquire pragmatic features, due to insufficient input they are exposed to, EFL teachers are recommended to pay due attention to pragmatic features. Drawing on Schmidt's noticing hypothesis, many researchers (Such as Leow, Rosa & Leow, & Rosa and O’Neill, as cited in Gass and Selinker (2008), argue that for input to turn into intake, students' attention should be drawn to L2 linguistic [or pragmatic] features. Moreover, teacher education programs can improve teaching pragmatics by taking into account candidates' beliefs about pragmatics and teaching it. Finally, teacher education programs need to invest in training student teachers who are reflective practitioners because it is only through investigative learning via action research that knowledge of applied linguistics including pragmatics can be translated into effective teaching practices.

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THE IMPACT OF ETYMOLOGICAL INSTRUCTION ON IRANIAN EFL LEARNERS’ COMPREHENSION OF IDIOMS

IN SHORT READING TEXTS

Maryam Danaye Tous, PhD, University of Guilan [email protected]

Abdorreza Tahriri, PhD, University of Guilan

[email protected]

Toktam Miri, M.A. student of TEFL, University of Guilan [email protected]

ABSTRACT The present study was conducted to investigate the impact of etymological elaboration instruction on EFL learners' comprehension of idioms in short reading texts. Out of 108 EFL female learners studying at Islamic Azad University of Mashhad (Khorasan Razavi province, Iran), based on the results of an Oxford Placement Test (OPT), 60 homogenous learners at upper-intermediate level (with the age range of 18-26 years old) were selected based on convenience sampling method. Afterwards, they were randomly divided into control and experimental groups, each consisting of 30 learners. To make sure that the participants were more or less at the same level according to their comprehension of idioms, a researcher-made test was administered to both control and experimental groups to make a judgment about learners’ idiomatic knowledge of idioms in short reading texts, and the learners’ progress after offering the treatment. The treatment of the study took five one-hour sessions, during which the participants in both groups received five idioms using different instructional techniques, i.e., ‘the etymological elaboration instruction of idioms’ technique for the experimental group and traditional technique (rote learning) for the control group. The results of independent samples T-test revealed that the experimental group in the post-test outperformed the control group. The results of the paired samples T-test, moreover, showed a significantly higher improvement for the experimental group compared to the control group. It was concluded that knowledge of idioms’ etymology generally raised Iranian EFL learners' comprehension of idiomatic expressions in short reading texts. KEY WORDS: Idioms, Etymological Elaboration, Comprehension, Iranian EFL learners, Short Reading Texts.

1. Introduction Some scholars and researchers believe that lexicon is not limited to single words, but it is a dynamic system

containing larger lexical items (Read, 2000). Figurative expressions in general and idioms in particular are indispensable parts to human languages. Since an essential part of achieving proficiency in a language, especially for foreign and second language learners, is constructing and maintaining a large repertoire of idiomatic expression, many researchers have focused on idiom domain and studies related to it (Guo, 2008).

‘Idiom’ is known in the literature as constituting a large and heterogeneous class of (semi-)fixed multiword expressions (Grant & Bauer, 2004). These expressions, according to traditional view, carry distinct meanings which are not literal, i.e. idioms’ figurative meaning cannot be guessed from their literal meaning.

It is a long-established belief in second or foreign language teaching that due to the lack of reliable clues within idiomatic expressions, learners could solely rely on the existing clues in the context in order to understand the meanings of idioms, and rote-learning was the only viable way for memorizing such



expressions (Moon, 1998). On the other hand, researchers in cognitive sciences such as Boers, Eyckmans and Stengers (2007), stated, “Instead of being completely arbitrary, the meaning of many idioms is motivated by their original, literal usage and this offers the possibility of presenting idioms in ways that promote insightful learning rather than ‘blind’ memorization” (p.43).

Idioms can be motivated by referring to their origin or source domain. This approach, called ‘etymological elaboration’, is a subtype of semantic elaboration (Boers, Demecheleer & Eyckmans, 2004). As Boers et al. (2007) argued, “this etymological association is likely to call up a mental image of a concrete scene which can be stored in memory alongside the verbal form” (p.43). For instance, the idiomatic expression of be waiting in the wings, remarked by Boers et al. (2007), is associated by referring to its original, literal counterpart in the theater (i.e. actors waiting in the wings of the theatre before making their appearance on the stage).

As successful second language acquisition is an ultimate aim of anyone in the field of language learning, the relationship between idioms and second language learning was investigated by numerous researchers (for example, Abel, 2003; Andreou & Galantomos, 2008; Dastjerdi, Ketabi & Sadeghi, 2010).

Reading comprehension in particular is the key element in successful SLA. Several studies have been carried out on idioms and second language reading comprehension (Cain & Towers, 2008; Fust-Hermann, 2008; Doroodi & Hashemian, 2011). Cain, Oakhill, and Lemmon (2005) also maintained that “context might facilitate the interpretation of figurative language by providing the necessary semantic information from which readers can extract or infer the appropriate sense of expression” (p. 67).

According to Baleghizadeh and Mohammad Bagheri (2012), most of idioms’ stories have been forgotten throughout history, but their specific source domains can be identified in their figurative aspects. Sinc e language learners have difficulty, because of that hidden part, in making a connection between an idiom’s literal constituent parts and its idiomatic or figurative meaning, this study focused on filling in this gap and investigates the impact of etymological elaboration instruction on Iranian EFL learners’ comprehension of idioms. To this end, the present research study addresses the following question:

Does etymological instruction have a statistically significant impact on Iranian upper-intermediate EFL female learner's comprehension of idioms?

2. Theoretical and research background 2.1. Reading comprehension

Reading as one of the most important skills of language proficiency plays a vital role in academic achievement of students in general and that of foreign or second language learners in particular. According to Brown (2007), “with the exception of a small number of people with learning disabilities, reading is a skill that is taken for granted” (p.185).

It is generally believed that reading comprehension is an interactive mental process in which a reader’s linguistic knowledge, knowledge about a given topic, and knowledge of the world are interwoven. While reading, the reader constructs several representations of the text which have a significant role in comprehending the text (Kintsch, & Rawson, 2005). As Gambrell, Block, and Pressley (2002) stated, the most important constituent of reading is comprehension which helps students in dealing with the complicated texts they encounter. Actually, comprehension is the ultimate goal of reading, but this goal cannot be achieved unless learners can recognize the words in the reading text. Among different linguistic skills utilized by reading comprehension, vocabulary knowledge in general and figurative language and idioms in particular are of great value. Generally speaking, figurative language departs from literal sense, so as to gain special effect in written or spoken language; therefore, being able to interpret idiomatic expressions is a prerequisite for learners to comprehend written or oral messages containing such expressions.

2.2. Etymological elaboration

Etymology is briefly defined as the scientific study of origin of words, and of their history and changes in their meaning and form (Ross, 1969). For example, the original usage of the modern English noun fish can be



traced back to Old English fisc. Application of etymology to L2 vocabulary learning, in general, has long been of great significance among SLA researchers (e.g., Pierson, 1989).

It is assumed that, in contrary to traditional beliefs in second or foreign language learning, learners can possibly acquire idiomatic expressions in ways that go beyond ‘rote-learning’ or ‘blind memorization’(Grant & Bauer, 2004). Numerous cognitive linguists held that, a class of figurative idioms can be derived from rather specific experiential domains acting in association with cultural or historical origins. For instance, to come up trumps can easily be traced back to the source domain of card games. As a result, one way which helps learners to figure out the metaphoric nature of idioms is through reactivating the literal meaning of the idiomatic expression or tracing back to the idiom’s original contextual use. Such an approach was called by Boers (2004) as etymological elaboration that “serves as a more specific application of a combination of conceptual metaphor and semantic elaboration strategies” (Zhang, 2009, p.25). This effective mnemonic approach in L2 idiom acquisition in particular has been of particular interest among SLA researchers (e.g., Boers, 2001, Boers et al., 2004; Gibbs, 1994; Grant & Bauer, 2004; Kövecses & Szabó, 1996).

2.3. Research background

In what follows, first the foreign research on this topic would be reported and then the related studies conducted in Iran would be reviewed in each section.

Etymological instruction as a pedagogical approach at the Chinese University of Hong Kong was suggested by Pierson (1989). He conducted a study in which knowledge of words’ source domains was incorporated to encourage meaningful vocabulary learning in ESL. One example which is remarkable in his work is concerned with active learning of new words in reading materials. Since students at that university were dictionary-dependent, he asked them to use an advanced learner dictionary and find out the origins and sources of the words too. In one reading, for instance, they were required to discover the sources of such three words as: fascinate, precludes, and cranial. They came to the conclusion that fascinate and precludes have a Latin antecedent, while cranial is from a Greek source. Students, then, were asked to analyze the contexts of those three words based on their origins. As such, vocabulary acquisition occurred through a deeper level of comprehension.

Pierson’s pedagogical proposal, later, was used by other researchers such as Frank Boers, a well-known scholar who had done many studies concerning idioms. From 1998 to 2004, a series of experiments and studies on the impact of etymological elaboration on idiom acquisition have been done by him and his colleagues. They concluded that literal and original usage of idioms helps learners to acquire, comprehend, and remember L2 idioms more easily.

In a study, for instance, the effectiveness of Etymological elaboration as a pedagogical approach in L2 idiom instruction was examined by Boers (2000) and Boers et al. (2004). There were two groups. Experimental group was taught the literal, original usage of the target idioms, while the control group received explicit instruction on the figurative meaning of the same material. A post-test and a delayed post-test were run to measure the effectiveness of the treatment and instruction. Findings indicated that the participants who had access to the etymological information acquired significantly more idioms compared to those in the control group.

Bagheri and Fazel (2010) conducted a study to examine the effect of etymological elaboration on learners' comprehension and retention of idioms. In their experiment, 50 Iranian advanced students were divided into two homogeneous experimental and control groups. The test of the experimental group comprised a matching task concerning the original usage of idioms, a multiple – choice task as to the idiomatic meaning of idioms, and a gap-filling task in which subjects were required to provide the missing keyword for each idiom. The latter group was provided with a test which included multiple choice as well as gap filling tasks. The matching task was used as a treatment to illustrate the effect of knowledge of the origin of idioms on the participants' performance on the other tasks. In both "identify-the-meaning' and 'gap-filling' tasks, the participants' mean scores were calculated. The mean score of students who were instructed via the etymological elaboration was more than those who did not receive



this treatment, which clearly demonstrated that etymological elaboration effectively enhanced the learners’ comprehension and also retention of idioms.

In another study, Doroodi and Hashemian (2011) assessed the correlation between reading comprehending and figurative competence in L2 learners. In doing so, 49 Iranian senior BA students of English were divided into 2 groups of skilled and less-skilled reading comprehenders based on the results of a proficiency (TOEFL) test. They were exposed to 30 short texts, ending with idiom fragments (e.g., Paul broke the . . . for the idiom to break the ice) and they had to select the appropriate words from among the 3 options: idiomatic, literal, and figurative. Then, 185 freshmen, sophomores, juniors, and senior were presented with the same texts for the purpose of cross-examining their figurative competence. Results showed that the skilled readers outperformed the less-skilled ones in comprehending both the transparent and the opaque idiomatic expressions. Moreover, among the 4 university levels, the performance of the seniors differed greatly from that of the freshmen, sophomores, and juniors, all of whom approximately did the same on the idiom test.

Baleghizadeh and Mohammad Bagheri (2012) in their study showed that “Etymological elaboration can serve to help student’s better understand and retain the idioms they are exposed to” (p.52). Two groups of students in the experimental and control groups were presented with similar set of idioms in the same contexts. The idioms along with their origins were provided for the experimental group, while the control group was not given the related origins. In each session, both groups were given five idioms and they were required to define them. After the treatment in the final session, to check the appropriateness of the treatment a t-test was run. The findings indicated a significant difference between the two groups. Considering the retention of the idioms, a posttest which contained the idioms taught during the treatment, was conducted. Once again, the results revealed that the experimental group outperformed the control group.

Until now, some studies have been reported that concentrate, directly, on the impact of etymological instruction on EFL learners’ comprehension of idioms (for example, Bagheri & Fazel, 2010; Baleghizadeh & Mohammad Bagheri, 2012; Boers et al., 2007; Guo, 2008), but none of them studied the comprehension of idioms in short reading texts. So, this study aimed to investigate the effectiveness etymological elaboration instruction of English idioms’ on Iranian upper-intermediate EFL learners’ comprehension of idioms in short reading text.

3. Methodology 3.1. Research design

To achieve the purpose of this study, a quasi-experimental study with pre-and post-test design was used. The variables of this study are as follows: The independent variable includes teaching technique that has 2 levels: traditional and etymological instructions, and the dependent variable includes students’ scores on pre and post-tests. It should be noted that in this study gender and language proficiency are the control variables, i.e. the study was done on just females who were at upper-intermediate level of proficiency.

3.2. Participants

The present study was carried out at Islamic Azad University in Mashhad, Iran. Out of 108 university female students, 60 ones were selected based on convenience sampling method. The students, whose age ranged from 18 to 26, were all junior majoring in English Language and Literature.

3.3. Materials

The required English idioms were selected from, A Dictionary of American Idioms (Makki, 2003), The Oxford Dictionary of English Idioms (Ayto, 2009), Dictionary of Idioms and Their Origins (Flavell, 2000), and A Dictionary of Current English Idioms and Proverbs (Aghajanzadeh Kiasi, 2013) based on being opaque and having rich etymological origins (see for example Gou, 2008, Boers et.al, 2004).



In order to check the students’ familiarity with those idioms, the researcher-made familiarity rating form was designed based on the strategies of Dale (1965) and Beck, McKeown, and Omanson (1987), with some modifications.

Also, some short reading texts were selected based on search engine. All these texts were selected by the researcher and their content was checked by two experienced Iranian professors and one experienced foreign professor. Each reading text included an idiom and it was followed by a multiple-choice item. Actually, the resulting items were used in a researcher-made test to get students’ understanding of idioms in context.

Additionally, a pamphlet including the etymological information of the target idioms in the short reading texts were designed and used for the experimental group.

3.4. Instruments

3.4.1. Oxford Placement Test (OPT) The OPT was administered in order to make sure about the level of proficiency of students and selecting

students at upper-intermediate level. The test was taken from www.englishservice.cz. It consists of 50 items which provide a practical way of grading students and assessing their level of general English proficiency. The content validity of the 50–item test as well as its face validity was checked by two experienced EFL instructors. The participants were required to choose the correct answer for each item. The mean and standard deviation (SD) were calculated. And 60 students, out of 108 ones, whose score fell between one standard deviation above and below the mean, were considered as a homogeneous group.

3.4.2. Comprehension of Idioms’ Test

Prior to test designation, idioms were selected based on the following procedure: a pool of 80 American idioms which were opaque and had rich etymology were selected from the aforementioned dictionaries. Then the students’ familiarity with those idioms was checked using a researcher-made rating form and 50 upper-intermediate students were required to place a check mark in the column that best described their knowledge of each of the 80 idioms within 25 to 30 minutes. At the end, the completed forms were scrutinized by the researcher and 40 idioms that had the low mean were selected as the least known ones. Among those 40 idioms, 25 idioms which were assessed as more relevant and interesting for the participants were selected and based on them the comprehension of idioms’ test was constructed. Regarding the rationale behind the test design, it should be said that one procedure for measuring reading comprehension is the short-context technique. It is essentially a method of testing reading ability through the use of very brief materials stimulus followed by one- or two- item testing comprehension of overall meaning (Farhady et al., 2004). In other words, short-context texts conform to the theory that considers reading to be a unitary ability.

Also it is known that measuring idiomatic knowledge of participants in a reading text including only one or two idioms is impossible and an adequate number of idioms are needed. Moreover, it is impossible to include all idioms in one reading passage.

As stated by Hughes (2003) and Farhady, Ja'farpur and Birjandi (2004), test construction is not a one-dimensional process and piloting the items should be done after preparing and reviewing them. In doing so the researcher arranged a pilot study in which the aforementioned comprehension test was administered among a sample of 15 students who were not the participants of the major study to determine, objectively, the characteristics of the individual items such as: item facility (IF), item discrimination (ID), and choice distribution (CD).

The reliability of the comprehension test was calculated via Cronbach Alpha (r =.72). Concerning the content validity of the test, it was submitted to 3 experienced professors for their recommendations and some modifications were made.

The researcher-made comprehension of idioms’ test was used as pre- and post-test, and utilized as the pre-test and post-test in this study for experimental and control groups before and after treatment and placebo. It contained 25 multiple-choice items, and each idiom was presented in a short reading text



accompanied by four idioms as options (one correct response and three distracters). Participants were required to choose the most appropriate option. The stem of each test, i.e., a short reading text including an idiom, was selected based on search engine.

3.5. Procedure

In this study 3 tests were used. First, the Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was administered to 108 EFL female learners in AIU with the purpose of determining the proficiency level of students and 60 participants at upper-intermediate level were selected. It contained 50 items and participants were required to answer them in an hour. Then they randomly assigned into control and experimental groups, each consisting of 30 students.

A pre-test, aimed to determine the prior idiomatic knowledge of participants in short reading texts before offering the treatment to the experimental group. A comprehension of idioms’ test was run on the same participants in experimental and control groups and the results showed that they were more or less at the same level of comprehension of idioms.

In what follows, instruction of idioms to the experimental and control group has been explained: 1. Etymological instruction of idioms to the experimental group

The instruction process was as follows: The researcher met the experimental group twice a week for 6 sessions and each session lasted for an hour. In

the first session, the researcher elaborated in detail the purpose of study, the concept of idiom and the significant role of it in language learning. Materials to be used in the classroom were introduced as well. Materials included some idiom dictionaries and a pamphlet in relation to English idioms’ etymology. From the second session up to the sixth session, idioms were taught to the students in this group in the following way: using five examples taken from dictionaries, the researcher presented the meaningful contexts in which the idioms are used for each session. The students were asked to read the examples. Moreover, they were required to use a pamphlet including the etymological information of the idioms in one or more than one paragraph. Afterwards, they were taught to hypothesize the original usage of idioms so as to figure out the meaning of idiomatic expressions.

2. Idiom instruction to the control group: The approach of idiom instruction to the control group was different from that of experimental group,

although the idioms taught in both groups were the same. The control group was required to learn new idioms by rote learning and memorization and according to conventional way in which idioms were introduced.

So, in the experimental group etymology of English idioms was taught with explicit instruction of their etymology, while in the control group teaching was concentrated on idioms without explicit instruction of their etymology.

Finally, the post-test which was the same as the pre-test was administered to both experimental and control groups just two weeks after the treatment with the purpose of determining learners’ progress in comprehension of idioms.

4. Results

This section firstly illustrates results of the OPT, it then highlights the results of statistical analyses of the experimental and control groups’ scores in pre- and post-tests.

4.1. The results of the Oxford Placement Test The homogeneity of the participants, i.e., 108 EFL female learners, regarding their level of language proficiency

was checked by means of OPT, the results of which are shown in table1. Table 1. Descriptive statistics for Oxford Placement Test

Participants N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

EFL female learners 108 15.00 48.00 36.15 9.50 .914



Regarding the performance of 108 participants, the mean score was 36.15 (SD =9.50). The minimum score was 15.00, while the maximum score was 48.00. Sixty students, who had scored one standard deviation above and below the mean, were selected as a homogeneous group at upper-intermediate level for the present study. Afterwards, they were randomly divided into two groups including 30 experimental and 30 control groups.

4.2. The results of the comprehension of idioms’ pre-test

Before introducing the treatment, a comprehension of idioms’ pre-test (25-item test) was administered among all participants in the experimental and control groups. In what follows, the descriptive statistics of these two groups’ scores in comprehension of idioms’ pre-test are illustrated within the table 2.

Table 2. Descriptive statistics for comprehension of idioms’ pre-test

Table 2 compares each of the two experimental and control groups in terms of their mean scores, standard

deviation of their scores, and standard error of mean in pre-test. As it can be seen, the experimental group performed as well as the control group in the pre-test. To determine the significance of this difference, an independent samples T-test was conducted to indicate the degree of significance between the two groups.

Table 3. Independent samples T-test

Table 3 reveals that there was not a significant difference in the mean scores’ differences of the participants in

the experimental group and control group (t (58) = .36, p = .71 > 0.05). These results show that the both groups are almost at the same level of proficiency in terms of their comprehension of idioms in the administered test.

4.3. The results of the comprehension of idioms’ post-test

After two weeks of treatment, the comprehension of idioms’ post-test (25-item test) which was the same as the pre-test was administered to both experimental and control groups. In order to examine the possible effect of etymological elaboration instruction, an independent samples T-test was run on both experimental and control groups’ performance. Firstly, the results of descriptive statistics involving mean and standard deviation of participants are displayed in table 4.

Table 4. Descriptive statistics for comprehension of idioms’ post-test

As it is revealed in table 4, the mean of the control group in the post-test was 11.30 with a standard deviation of

1.44. Regarding the performance of experimental group in the post-test, the mean score was 16.60 with a standard deviation of 2.60. Hence, it can be concluded that the mean of the experimental group

Groups N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Control group 30 11.13 1.43 .261 Experimental group 30 11.00 1.41 .258

Leveneʼs Test t-Test T-test for Equality of Variances for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig.(2-tailed) Comprehension .009 .92 .36 58 .718 of idioms’ pre-test

Groups N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean

Control group 30 11.30 1.44 .263 Experimental group 30 16.60 2.60 .476



(M=16.60) is higher than that of the control group (M= 11.30) in the post-test. Below the results of independent samples T-test are shown (table 5).

Table 5. Independent samples T-test

Equal -9.74 45.21 .000

variances not assumed

The results revealed that the significance index of the Levene statistics was p= .008. Since this rating was lower

than 0.05, it could be assumed that the two experimental and control groups did not have equal variances; therefore, the next reported significant amount in the second row (0.000) was used. Since this value was lower than 0.05, it can be concluded that there was a significance difference between the two groups concerning their comprehension of idioms in the post-test (t (58) = - 9.74, p =.000 < 0.05).

In order to examine students’ progress within groups, two paired samples T-tests were conducted, which highlighted the differences in the comprehension of idioms’ pre- and post-tests’ scores. The results of paired samples statistics are reported in table 6 below.

Table 6. Paired samples descriptive statistics for comprehension of idioms’ pre -test and post-test

According to the results of the table 6, the mean score of the experimental group in the post-test was higher than in the pre-test. Nevertheless, to achieve better results, two paired samples T-tests were conducted, the results of which are presented in table 7.

Table 7. Paired samples T-test for comprehension of idioms’ pre-test and post-test

Leveneʼs Test t-Test T-test for Equality of Variances for Equality of Means

F Sig. t df Sig.(2-tailed) Comprehension Equal 7.50 .008 -9.74 58 .000 of idioms’ post-test variances assumed

Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Pair 1 pre-test post-test control group

11.13 30 1.43 .261

11.30 30 1.44 .263

Pair 2 pre-test post-test experimental group

11.00 30 1.41 .258 16.60 30 2.60 .476

Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean t df Sig.(2-tailed) Pair 1 pre-test .17 post-test control group

1.01 .186 -.89 29 .378



As depicted in the table 7, the difference between the means of pre-test and post-test scores of experimental

group was statistically significant (p < 0.05), with their post-test scores higher than their pre-test scores. Thus, it can be concluded that students who are exposed to etymological elaboration instruction performed better than those who were introduced to rote-learning. This difference, moreover, illustrates that exposure to idioms’ etymology helps learners be proficient in comprehension of idiomatic expressions.

5. Discussion and conclusion

Regarding the research question which investigated the efficiency of etymological instruction on EFL female learners’ comprehension of idioms, the results indicated that the experimental group outperformed the control group in the comprehension of idioms’ post-test scores.

Results of quantitative data analyses showed that the etymological instruction had a statistically significant impact on EFL learners’ comprehension of idioms. This result is justified by the considerable growth of experimental group’s mean score compared to the control group’s mean score in the comprehension of idioms’ immediate post-test (see table 5). This finding is in congruence with what was reported by Boers et al. (2007). As stated by them, etymological familiarity helps learners to figure out the idiomatic meaning of the expressions and consequently enhances their general language fluency. This result is also in line with the result of Guo (2008), which put emphasis on the focal role of idioms and their origin in SLA. The same findings were reported by Cain et al. (2005), Cain and Towers (2008), Fust -Hermann (2008), and Doroodi and Hashemian (2011), as well.

In addition, this finding provides evidence for Wu’s (2008) claim. He stated that context has a central role in language learning and introducing English idioms within interesting contexts can help EFL students to understand them better.

To date, some studies on the topic have been conducted in Iran and other countries, however, none of them investigated the impact of etymological elaboration on EFL learners’ comprehension and retention of idioms in short reading texts. From the pedagogical point of view, therefore, the findings of this study as a new one could help those dealing with foreign language teaching, such as materials developers and curriculum designers, educational institutions, language teachers, and test developers.

Some limitations of this study need to be mentioned for improvement in future studies. First, the duration of treatment was short and it lasted only one-month due to the university restrictions (e.g. final exams in January). Allocating sufficient amount of time and treatment sessions on the training of experimental group could lead to better results than it was in this study. Second, the number of idioms used in the treatment was just twenty-five ones which were selected based on students’ familiarity and their interest. Thus, any generalization based on the results of the present study should be made cautiously. Third, due to the university restrictions, a limited number of female learners participated in this study and they were selected based on convenience sampling method. Hence, the results cannot be generalized to both male and female EFL learners even in the same condition.

More specific issues can be put forward as suggestions for future studies. Considering the importance of communication, as the ultimate goal of language learning, this study suggests that other studies be conducted in the future to explore the probable impacts that etymology instruction can have on other language skills such as listening, speaking, and writing. Furthermore, as the present study was conducted in an academic context and with upper-intermediate level EFL learners, further research is needed to be done in other learning contexts considering advanced level.

Pair 2 pre-test 5.6 post-test experimental group

1.75 .320 -17.48 29 .000



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THE EFFECT OF MULTI-MEDIA AND MULTI-MODE GLOSSES ON INCIDENTAL VOCABULARY RETENTION OF

IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS

Zhaleh Moazzeni (PhD Candidate in TEFL) Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

Mohammad Sadegh Bagheri (Assistant Professor) Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

Firooz Sadighi (Professor) Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

Mostafa Zamanian (Assistant Professor) Department of Foreign Languages, Shiraz Branch, Islamic Azad University, Shiraz, Iran

[email protected] ABSTRACT Glossing is a well-known technique for enhancement of incidental vocabulary learning. The present study examined which gloss type, multi-media or multi-mode, is more effective for vocabulary learning through reading. After administering a proficiency test, 105 homogeneous students were assigned to two experimental groups (X1 & X2) and one control group. Afterwards, a pre-test (Test of Novelty) was administered to verify students’ unfamiliarity with the intended target words to be learned later. During this study experimental groups received different types of glosses for unknown words. As opposed to experimental groups, the control group received no glosses. In order to assess the efficacy of each gloss type, two types of post-tests were administered: recognition and production. A one-way ANOVA indicated that learners with access to different gloss types demonstrated significantly greater retention of word meanings. Additionally, a further analysis known as the Tukey test was conducted to pinpoint exactly where the differences exist in a pair-wise way. The results of this analysis showed that X2 outperformed the other experimental group (X1) and the control group. Furthermore, to assess the difference in outcome between short-term and long-term word retention a within-subjects was applied. KEY WORDS: Incidental vocabulary learning, Gloss, Multi-media gloss, Multi-mode gloss, Retention. 1. Introduction Arguments have been advanced supporting the reading of L2 literary texts as powerful sources of linguistic

and cultural input. In fact, the use of any authentic selection is apparently very appealing to foreign language students (Swaffar, 1985; Laufer, 2001; Krashen, 2004). Many literary passages, however, contain so many low-frequency vocabulary items that the readers’ background knowledge may be unavailable because of the undue attention required to decode individual word meanings. In this case, reading no longer provides a minimally stressful access to real language but becomes instead a “three to four” hour ordeal, mainly because of the non-native readers’ constant recourse to a dictionary. The importance of vocabulary is underscored by a study which found that, in certain contexts, just one unfamiliar word can render a sentence or even a whole passage incomprehensible (Wittrock, Marks &



Doctorow, 1986; Watanabe, 1997). Such studies provide teachers with excellent reasons for devoting attention to the vocabulary enhancement of their students. But language teachers face a dilemma in current teaching situations. Although they have admitted the importance of vocabulary learning in English teaching and wanted to teach a lot of it to their students, it is impossible for them to spend most of the class time on vocabulary teaching alone. Moreover, students, themselves, are not interested in intentional vocabulary learning in which they are requested to do some exerc ises that focus on vocabulary itself. That is, EFL students prefer incidental vocabulary learning in which their attention are focused on some other features. In this vocabulary learning style, they learn vocabulary through reading texts, working on reading comprehension tasks or doing other activities that are not directly related to vocabulary learning.

However, the process by which incidental vocabulary learning takes place is slow and the amount of vocabulary acquired through this kind of learning is relatively small (Krantz, 1991; Paribakht & Wesche, 1997; Min, 2008). That is, successful and efficient incidental vocabulary learning just through reading alone cannot be expected.

Therefore, developing techniques for handling unknown words during reading activities has always been one of the principal challenges of English reading classes. One such technique that facilitates vocabulary learning and saves students' time and effort in reading L2 texts is "Glossing." This study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of different gloss types, that is, multi-media and multi-mode glosses on incidental vocabulary retention of Iranian students.

1.1.Objectives of The Study and Research Questions This study aimed at investigating the effectiveness of different types of glosses on incidental vocabulary

retention of Iranian third-semester Azad University students. The following questions are to be answered through this study: 1. Do multi-media annotations facilitate vocabulary acquisition across the time? Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods MJLTM ISSN: 2. Does glossing words through different modalities (dynamic image, sound and printed text) affect incidental

vocabulary retention? 3. Does exposure to any type of gloss have a significant effect on L2 readers’ learning of target vocabulary

words as measured through a) recognition or b) production tasks? If so, will this effect be maintained over a period of time?

To be on a safe side, the following null hypotheses were proposed: HO: Glosses of any type do not have any facilitating effects on incidental vocabulary retention of Iranian

students. HO: Glosses do not have any effects on long-term retention of learned words. 2.Literature Review Researchers have examined the effectiveness of glosses on incidental vocabulary learning (Hulstijn, 1992;

Jacobs, Dufon, & Hong, 1994; Paribakht & Wesche, 1996; Watanabe, 1997; Al-Seghayer, 2001; Wang, 2005; Yoshii, 2006; Min, 2008). Comparison of gloss conditions with non-gloss conditions has revealed the advantage of using glosses for enhancing incidental

vocabulary learning. The question, therefore, has shifted from whether or not glosses are useful for vocabulary learning through reading to which gloss type is most effective. Some researchers have further investigated the effectiveness of different formats in text glosses (Gettys, Imhof, & Kautz, 2001; Grace, 2000; Rott, Williams, et al. 2002). Attempts to compare the impact of different types of glosses on reading comprehension and incidental vocabulary retention have brought mixed results, some indicating no difference between them and others suggesting the advantage of one gloss type over the others (Chen, 2002; Hulstijn & Laufer,2006).



2.1.Definition of Gloss Lomicka (1998) states that glosses are brief definitions or explanations which are most often supplied for

“unfamiliar” words in a text. According to Hullen (1989), glosses were once of three types: synonyms, encyclopedic comments, and grammatical notes. Reading strategy suggestions and interspersed questions (Otto & White, 1982), too, have been called glosses. Stewart and Cross (1991) strongly maintain that glosses “should not be confused with embedded or inserted questions… , since marginal glosses, notes written in a blank space round the printed matter on a page, represent a markedly different treatment of texts. More examples of a gloss “by any other name” are: adjunct aids (Chun & Plass, 1996), metanotes (Wolfc, 1990), metatext (DeCoster, 2004), and paratext (McDonell, 2006). Oxford (1995) provides many possibilities under the rubric of assistance: error correction… a useful learning strategy… a full explanation, a schematic/partial explanation … a leading question … a pictorial representation of a verbal expression… a cooperative learning activity… an encouraging word at just the right moment.

2.2.Classification of Gloss Glosses can be described and classified according their authorship (teacher-developed/ learner-generated),

presentation (priming/ prompting), function (procedural/ declarative), focus (textual / extratextual), choice of language (L1/ L2/ L3), form (verbal/ visual/ audio), and format (basic dictionary form/ sentence level equivalents).

2.3.Different Gloss Types and Their Effects on Incidental Vocabulary Retention 2.3.1.Multi-Media Gloss: Salem (2006) suggested that “multi-media or hypermedia refers to computer-based

applications that provide information in a nonlinear way through multiple types of resources such as text, graphics (still pictures) and sound.” (p. 23)

2.3.2.Multi-Mode Gloss: Salem and Aust (2007) stated that multi-mode glosses refer to short definitions or explanations with nonlinearly linked-data associated with graphics, audios, and videos (dynamic pictures) in computerized texts.

2.4.Multi-media Glosses and Their Effects on L2 Vocabulary Retention In a critical analysis of L2 vocabulary learning techniques, Brown, Waring, et al (2008) stated that most learners

are capable of associating new information to concepts in memory by means of meaningful visual images that make learning more efficient. Visual imagery is known to help learners’ package information more efficiently than they could if using just words alone. Moreover, the pictorial-verbal combination involves many parts of the brain, thus providing greater cognitive power (p. 17).

The introduction of computers into the field of second/foreign language education caused a large number of practitioners to concur that this technology holds great potential for language learning (Levy, 1997; Pennington, 1996; Warschauer & Healey, 1998; Plass & Jones, 2005; Hulstijn & Laufer, 2006; Yanguas, 2009). This belief leads to what is known as Computer-Assisted Language Learning, more commonly referred to as CALL. Even though the field is still young, many language educators are endorsing its use as an essential component in language teaching. Embracing the use of computers seems to be due to the fact that computers are capable of performing multiple tasks and thus are more than simply text processors. The computer can organize, select, and present multiple sensory components.

Several types of glossing when reading for comprehension have been addressed in the literature and could be subsumed under textual and visual glossing and a mixture of the two. Texts and pictures which are placed at the margin of texts when the students click on the hyperlinked word help the readers understand the meaning of difficult words in the text.

In a widely cited study, Yanguas (2009) investigated the effect of visual information for vocabulary learning and students’ look-up behavior. The results were twofold: firstly, incidental vocabulary acquisition rates of 25% in production tasks and 77% in recognition tasks were observed; secondly, significantly higher scores were found for words annotated with text and picture than those glossed with text only.



Salem (2006) also measured how different types of glosses influenced incidental vocabulary growth of the students. Results showed that those participants who had access to both textual and pictorial glosses outperformed those under the textual gloss conditions in the recognition of target words on both short -term memory and retention tests over a period of time. He argued that these results were due to the different degrees of cognitive effort needed to process: the mapping of pictures onto the mental model provides a stronger bond than the mapping of words due to the different representations of their information.

Based on work carried in the field of psychology, Mayer proposed that it is through two channels that human beings represent and manipulate knowledge: a visual-pictorial and an auditory-verbal channel (Mayer, 1997, 2001, 2002, 2005b). Therefore, the use of textual and pictorial glosses would enter the cognitive system through those two channels. He argued that “meaningful

learning occurs when learners engage in active processing within the channels, including selecting relevant words and pictures, organizing them into coherent pictorial and verbal models, and integrating them with each other and appropriate prior knowledge” (Mayer, 2002, p. 60).

2.5.The Effect of Multi-mode Glosses on L2 Vocabulary Retention A key issue in L2 vocabulary acquisition is whether or not learning would be improved if information about an

individual lexical item were to be presented simultaneously via multiple modes. Although there are studies of the efficacy that multimodal glosses within a computer program have on vocabulary acquisition, to date there do not seem to be studies focusing, as the main objective, on comparing the efficacy of different types of pictorial annotations. More specifically, no investigation has been done of the difference between the impact of static pictures and dynamic video on learning annotated words. Therefore, this study was designed to investigate the effects of different types of annotations on vocabulary acquisition, and to compare the efficacy of printed text definition coupled with still pictures as opposed to video.

The central question which guided this study is which is more effective for facilitating vocabulary acquisition: video mode or static picture? Due to the contextual richness, meaningfulness, facility of recall, and cultural authenticity of video, maybe, video is a more effective tool to foster the acquisition of new words in a foreign language.

In the realm of second language acquisition (SLA), the most recent effort to enhance the process of language learning has involved computer technology. In this regard, Gettys, Imhof, & Kautz, (2001) pointed out that the adoption of computer technology in foreign language education is part of a larger phenomenon known as the “new humanism” and represents one of the most exciting developments coming out of the participation of advanced technology in education. They contended that “new humanism” is an attitude whereby technology helps to integrate the efforts of researchers from different fields. Technology enables the humanists to investigate traditional concerns in novel approaches, exploiting technology potential to build on the values of a given sphere and to create “principled connections” among the disciplines of the humanities.

Among the concerns often raised in the domain of CALL is how to use the potential of a computer to enhance the language learning process and how to use different media modes in teaching and learning of the vocabulary items. The concern has been narrowed to the investigation of the efficacy of presenting information using multiple modalities, such as text, audio, and dynamic videos in the field of SLA. An area that has recently received attention is the impact of glossing individual vocabulary via annotations embodied by different modes and media. Researchers were inspired by the premise that a variety of glosses for words in various modalities, such as printed text, graphics, dynamic video, and sound, might have differing capacities to facilitate vocabulary acquisition and retention. (Davis & Lyman-Hager, 1997; Al-Seghayer, 2003; Hew & Ohki, 2004; Knag, 2005; Gruba, 2006; Robin, 2007).

Al-Seghayer (2001) investigated what type of gloss, dynamic video or still picture, was more effective in aiding vocabulary acquisition. In the context of second language vocabulary acquisition, this study investigates the relative efficacy of two different annotation modes in a multimedia environment: the printed text definition coupled with a still picture, and the printed text definition coupled with a dynamic video clip.



The study’s focal issue is to determine which mode of imagery, still picture or dynamic video, is more effective in aiding vocabulary retention. Results of the analysis carried out indicated that learners presented with text+ video had scores that were significantly higher than the text+ picture condition.

3. Methodology 3.1.Participants The subject pool consisted of 158 third semester Iranian students who had enrolled at the Islamic Azad

University, Firoozkooh Branch. Only male students were considered as subjects in this study. The average age of the participants was 28.5 years, ranging from 18-48 years of age. The subjects had the same native language and cultural background. After administering a proficiency test (TOEFL Test), 105 homogeneous students were chosen as the main subjects of the study. They were then put into two different experimental groups and one control group.

3.2.Instruments Four instruments were used in this study: a test of language proficiency, a test of novelty, immediate post -

tests (Production & Recognition), and delayed post-tests (Production & Recognition). The language proficiency test (TOEFL Test) was used at the beginning of the study to determine the subjects’

language proficiency level. It comprised eighty multiple-choice items. The first thirty items concerned the measurement of the students’ vocabulary knowledge; the second thirty items were constructed to assess the students’ grammatical knowledge, and the last twenty items were intended to measure the students’ comprehension of the selected passages.

The test of novelty was also used before starting the study to ensure the subjects’ unfamiliarity with the words to be retained later. The novelty test comprised 60 vocabulary items which had been selected from the assigned materials to be read by the subjects. These vocabulary items were presented in 3 sections: the matching section with 10 items, the multiple-choice section with 10 items, and the production section which contained a list of 40 target words for which the subjects were supposed to provide English definitions. This test was administered to the subjects and only those words with which none of the students was familiar were included in the study.

Vocabulary post-tests, the same as the test of novelty, with the familiar words discarded, were administered as the post-tests (Immediate & Delayed) to assess the subjects’ vocabulary retention.

Two types of post-tests were administered: production and recognition. The production post-test comprised 50 production items for which the subjects were asked to provide English definitions. And the recognition post-test comprised 8 matching items, and 42 multiple-choice items for which the subjects were asked to choose the correct choices. In preparing the multiple-choice items of the recognition test one criterion was met: The stems of the items did not provide any contextual clues which might help the examinees find the correct responses without knowing the meanings of the intended words. Participants performed the production task first so that the multiple-choice recognition task would not provide additional exposure to the target words.

Furthermore, to assess the difference in outcome between short-term and long-term word retention, immediate post-tests (recall of the words immediately after reading the texts) and delayed post-tests (recall of the words after three weeks) were administered.

3.3.Data Collection Procedures To accomplish the purpose of the study, the following procedures were carried on: The language proficiency test (TOEFL Test) was administered in the first session of the study to assess the

homogeneity of students. All 158 students took part in the test. The results were then used to select those students who were supposed to be the final participants of the study. Those students whose scores fell between 15.73 and 5.33 were chosen for the final data analysis.

The novelty test was administered in the second session of the study. The rationale for using this kind of test was its feasibility and its appropriateness for the level of the subjects.



Six roughly-equivalent non-fictional texts were used as the assigned materials. Texts were quite similar in terms of readability and lexical profiles. Using the “Fog index of readability”, the difficulty level of the passages was computed. Readability indexes were presented in Table 1.

Table 1.Readability Indexes of the Assigned Materials

passage 1 2 3 4 5 6

Readability Index

22.07 22.96 23.55 24.96 26.12 27.34

Average 24.49 Piloting of the experimental texts: Twenty randomly selected participants underlined all the unknown words

in the texts. Only words underlined by more than half of the participants were selected to be glossed. After piloting, 120 potential target words were selected. Specifically, the number of new target words per text was approximately 20.

Glossing: Approximately 20 words in each text were glossed. In the experimental conditions, multi-media, and multi-mode glosses were provided for the nominated words of the texts. For the provision of multi-media glosses, the words were hyperlinked. When the participants clicked on a word, a box appeared below the word with a definition in English, a still picture, and also the pronunciation of the word was uttered. In multi-mode glosses, the words were hyperlinked but different modalities of pictures, that is, dynamic pictures were used.

Participants in the first experimental group (X1) received glosses in the form of printed text definitions coupled with still pictures and sound (multi-media glosses). The second experimental group (X2) was also introduced to a hypermedia-learning program in which glosses were provided in the form of printed text definitions coupled with video clips (dynamic image and sound). As opposed to experimental groups, the control group received no glosses for the troubling vocabulary items in the texts.

The passages were assigned one session a week over a 3 week period (during each session two passages were covered and also two immediate post-tests were given), saving two sessions for the pre-tests (Language Proficiency Test & Test of Novelty) administration and one session for the delayed post-tests administration.

Vocabulary post-tests, the same as the test of novelty, with the familiar words discarded, were administered as the post-tests (Immediate & Delayed) to assess the subjects’ vocabulary retention.

Two types of tests were administered: production and recognition. The production test comprised 50 production items for which the subjects were asked to provide English definitions. And the recognition test comprised 8 matching items, and 42 multiple-choice items for which the subjects were asked to choose the correct choices. Participants performed the production task first so that the multiple-choice recognition task would not provide additional exposure to the target words.

Furthermore, to assess the difference in outcome between short-term and long-term word retention, immediate post-tests (recall of the words immediately after reading the texts) and a delayed post-test (recall of the words after three weeks) were administered. On the whole the subjects’ vocabulary retention was measured based on their performances on the post-tests. The students’ scores were recorded to be used in the final data analysis.

3.4.Design The design of this investigation was an experimental design which can be called the pre-test post-test

homogeneous groups design. This design was often used in classroom experiments when experimental and control groups were such naturally assembled groups as intact classes, which were made homogeneous. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was also used to determine whether or not the mean test scores of each of the three groups were significantly different from one another.



A mixed experimental design was adopted. A between-subjects design was applied to measure the effects of the application of different gloss types. To assess the difference between short-term and long-term retention of words, a within-subjects was applied.

4.Data Analysis Procedures Data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Descriptive statistics consisted of the

means, standard deviations, and frequency counts obtained from the scores of the students in the experimental groups and the control group both on the pre-tests and the post-tests. They were used to reveal a general picture of the three groups under investigation. Inferential statistics comprised the application of ANOVA to determine whether the means of the three groups were too different to attribute to sampling error, and the application of a Tukey test for the further analysis of the data.

Statistical Analyses were done based on the obtained scores of the subjects on the pre-tests and post-tests. They

were presented in the following tables. 4.1.Analysis 1 The descriptive statistics of the subjects’ scores on the proficiency test were presented in Table 2.

Table 2.Descriptive Statistics of the Subjects’ Scores on the Proficiency Test N Mean Std. Deviation (Kr.21)r

Subjects 105 10.21 5.o12 0.643

N of Items 75(acceptable items)

Table 3.Reliability Analysis-Scale (Split) of the Subjects’ Scores on the Proficiency Test

N Correlation Equal-length Guttman Unequal-length

Subjects 105 .8012 .9214 .9202 .9212 N of Items 80

40 Items in part I 40 Items in part II Alpha for part I = .9165 Alpha for part II = .9239 A one-way ANOVA was utilized to show the homogeneity of the three groups. The results were presented in

Table 4.

Table 4.One-way ANOVA for Performance on the Proficiency Test Source Sum of

Squares

df Mean Square F ratio F critical

Between Groups

.009 3 .005 .000 3.05

Within Groups

1089.123 1 12.986

As the results of the one-way ANOVA showed, there was no difference between the three groups and they

were homogeneous. 4.2.Analysis 2 Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ scores on the Test of Novelty were presented in Table 5.



Table 5.Descriptive Statistics of the Subjects’ Scores on the Pre-test (Test of Novelty)


Std Error Minimum Maximum

Control 35 1.9460 1.1867 .2056 .00 4.00 Experimental

1 35 1.9350 1.1543 .2132 .00 4.00

Experimental 2

35 1.9420 1.1986 .2001 .00 4.00

A one-way ANOVA was also used to determine whether the means of the three groups differ significantly on

the pre-test (Test of Novelty). The results were presented in Table 6.

Table 6.One-way ANOVA for Performance on the Pre-test (Test of Novelty) Source Sum of

Squares


Between Groups

.02 3 .01 .005 3.15

Within Groups

128.365 1 2.114 .005

As the result of the one-way ANOVA showed, the F ratio (.005) did not exceed the F critical value (3.15) at the

.05 level of significance. This implied that there was no significant difference among the control and two experimental groups and as a result the three groups were almost homogeneous.

4.3.Analysis 3 Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ scores on the immediate post-test (Production Test) were presented in

Table 7.

Table 7.Descriptive Statistics of the Subjects’ Scores on the Immediate Post-test (Production Test) N Mean Std. Deviation Std Error Control 35 2.101 .83 1.342

Experimental 1 35 5.45 2.03 .986

Experimental 2 35 7.36 2.98 1.003 Then production scores were submitted to repeated measures ANOVA which were presented in Table 8.

Table 8.One-way ANOVA for Performance on the Immediate Post-test (Production Test) Source Sum of

Squares


Between Groups

129.543 3 86.112 22.985 3.15

Within Groups

100.678 1 4.226



As the results of the one-way ANOVA showed, the obtained F ratio (22.985) exceeded the F critical value (3.15) at the .05 level of significance, implying that there was a significant difference between the three groups’ performances on the production test.

Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ scores on the immediate post-test (Recognition Test) were presented in Table 9.

Table 9.Descriptive Statistics of the Subjects’ Scores on the Immediate Post-test (Recognition Test)

N Mean Std. Deviation Std Error Control 35 5.65 1.6543 .3112

Experimental 1 35 15.05 3.8752 .3877 Experimental 2 35 20.12 5.3421 .4045

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to see how the control and the two experimental groups performed on the

immediate post-test (Recognition Test) and whether the differences among their means were significant or not. The results were presented in Table 10.

Table 10.One-way ANOVA for Performance on the Immediate Post-test (Recognition Test)

source Sum of Squares


Between Groups

235.09 3 146.521 36.824 3.15

Within Groups

281.06 1 5.168

As the results of the one-way ANOVA showed, the obtained F ratio (36.824) exceeded the F critical value (3.15)

at the .05 level of significance, implying that there was a significant difference between the three groups’ performances on the vocabulary post-test.

4.4.Analysis 4 Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ scores on the delayed post-test (Production Test) were presented in

Table11.

Table 11.Descriptive Statistics of the Subjects’ Scores on the Delayed Post-test (Production Test)

N Mean Std. Deviation Std Error

Control 35 1.01 .917 .5076

Experimental 1 35 9.25 1.65 .4776 Experimental 2 35 11.35 1.87 .4890

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to see how the control and the two experimental groups performed on the

delayed post-test (Production Test). The results were presented in Table 12.

Table 12.One-way ANOVA for Performance on the Delayed Post-test (Production Test) source Sum of

Squares


Between Groups

100.65 3 59.987 16.591 3.15

Within 79.08 1 3.112



Groups

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to see whether or not there is a significant main effect for Time, a

significant main effect for Group and a significant interaction between Time and Group. They were presented in Table 13.

Table 13.Production ANOVA for Group and Time



Group 97.65 3 49.723 2.201 1.15

Time 46.54 1 11.997 6.002 .0001 Time x Group 22.11 3 10.685 2.755 .069

Results yielded a significant main effect for time, with significant main effect for Group and a significant

interaction between Time and Group Descriptive statistics of the subjects’ scores on the delayed post-test (Recognition Test) were presented in

Table14.

Table 14.Descriptive Statistics of the Subjects’ Scores on the Delayed Post-test (Recognition Test)

N Mean Std. Deviation Std Error

Control 35 5.24 1.543 .3028 Experimental 1 35 12.86 3.765 .3789

Experimental 2 35 16.95 5.113 .3887 Recognition scores for every group were submitted to repeated measures ANOVA to see whether the

differences among their means were significant or not. The results were presented in Table 15.

Table 15.One-way ANOVA for Performance on the Delayed Post-test (Recognition Test) source Sum of

Squares


Between Groups

221.98 3 125.457 20.111 3.15

Within Groups

375.454 1 7.115

As the results of the one-way ANOVA showed, the obtained F ratio (20.111) exceeded the F critical value (3.15)

at the .05 level of significance, implying that there was a significant difference between the three groups’ performances on the vocabulary delayed post-test.

A one-way ANOVA was conducted to see whether or not there is a significant main effect for Time, a significant main effect for Group and a significant interaction between Time and Group. They were presented in Table 16.

Table 16.Recognition ANOVA for Group and Time



Group 185.654 3 89.564 8.002 2.15



Time 66.90 1 30.543 16.008 .0001

Time x Group 42.86 3 20.456 4.125 1.70 Results yielded a significant main effect for Time, with significant main effect for Group and a significant

interaction between Time and Group. 4.5.Analysis 5 However, this significant F did not pinpoint exactly where the differences exist in a pair-wise way. That is, the

three groups differed significantly, but did group 1 differ from group 2, and/or group 3? Did group 2 differ from group 3, and/or 1? These questions could be answered by a further analysis of the data using a post hoc test known as the Tukey test. The results of multiple comparisons were presented in Tables 17 and 18.

Table 17.Multiple Comparisons

Results of the Tukey-HSD Test for Performance on the Post-test (Production Test) (I)Group (J)Group


Control Experimental 1 Experimental 2

*-3.4500 *-4.6500

Experimental 1 Control Experimental 2

*3.4500 *-1.2000


*4.6500 *1.2000

*The mean difference was significant at the .05 level. Table 17 showed that the experimental groups differed from each other. In other words, experimental 2

outperformed the control group and the experimental 1.

Table 18.Multiple Comparisons Results of the Tukey-HSD Test for Performance on the Post-test (Recognition Test)

(I)Group (J)Group


Control Experimental 1 Experimental 2

*-5.2500 *-6.5500


*5.2500 *-1.3000


*6.5500 *1.3000

*The mean difference was significant at the .05 level. Table 18 showed that the experimental groups differed from each other. In other words, experimental 2

outperformed the control group and the other experimental group.



4.6.Discussion The scores of immediate post-tests (Production & Recognition) which were submitted to repeated measures

ANOVA showed that there was a significant difference between the three groups’ performances on the immediate post-tests (Production & Recognition).

As the results of the one-way ANOVA for performance on the delayed post-tests (Production & Recognition) showed, the obtained F ratios exceeded the F critical value at the .05 level of significance, implying that there was a significant difference between the three groups’ performances on the delayed post -tests.

Concerning the research questions in which the effect of multi-media and multi-mode glosses was investigated in relation to vocabulary retention, results of the Tukey test showed that participants exposed to multi-mode glosses reported retention of the target vocabulary words significantly more than participants exposed to multi-media glosses. Therefore, the null hypothesis which suggested that there was no significant difference between the mean scores of the students who learned vocabulary items using multi-media and multi-mode glosses and those who learned unknown words using no gloss was rejected.

In relation to research question, which investigated the effect of type of gloss on production and recognition tasks, significant effect was found both in the recognition and production tasks.

With respect to the issue of time, a significant main effect was shown for both recognition and production tasks. Learners in the experimental conditions for both recognition and production tasks significantly increased their scores from the pre-test to the immediate and delayed post-tests but also showed a significant loss from the immediate to the delayed post-tests three weeks later. However, this negative effect is counterbalanced by the fact that participants still showed a significant gain in scores from the pre-test to the delayed post-tests.

5.Conclusions and Implications The results showed that experimental groups who received different types of glosses outperformed the control

group both on the production and recognition tests. That is the provision of glosses for the unknown words seemed to be a good technique in helping students learn unknown words incidentally. As the results of the one-way ANOVA showed there was a significant difference between the five groups’ performances on the vocabulary immediate and delayed post-test. Furthermore, results yielded a significant main effect for time, with significant main effect for Group and a significant interaction between Time and Group.

The results of this study may be of great benefit to EFL learners since glosses allow them the easiest and fastest access to the meanings of unfamiliar words. Glosses also provide multiple exposures to target items and hence increase the retention of previously unknown words. That is, encountering an unknown word in the passage (the first exposure), looking at its gloss (textual’ pictorial, multi-media, or multi-mode) to understand its meaning (the second exposure) and going back to the word in the passage to see whether the meaning fits in the context (the third exposure). Moreover, the provision of glosses facilitate the burden of dictionary use which kills all interest in reading and even interferes with the process of constructing a mental representation of text meaning. And since it is usually too large an order for students to memorize all of the unfamiliar word meanings from word-lists, the glossing technique can help them pick up vocabulary items through reading activities incidentally in an efficient way.

The findings of this research may also encourage teachers who still believe in teacher-centeredness in language teaching to change their viewpoints in favor of more learner-centered techniques. As indicated by Stewart and Cross (1991), with glossed text, three voices become involved in the reading: the inner voice of the reader, the voice of the author, and the voice of the teacher manifested in the gloss (p. 5). So the purpose of glossing is to produce independent readers which is the ultimate goal of teaching.

Based on the findings of this study materials developers can also make use of this technique and provide glosses for the troubling vocabulary items of authentic texts either in the students’ first or second language but their responsibility lies in providing unambiguous glosses (glosses which themselves do not present new puzzles).



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University, Firoozkooh Branch). 2. The provision of comprehensible textual and pictorial glosses had its own limitations such as lack of exact

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USING ILLUSTRATIVE DEVICES AND EFL LEARNERS’ WRITING SKILL

Mojdeh Shirvani (MA student of TEFL) (Department of English, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran)

[email protected]

Massoud Tajadini (Ph.D.) Department of English, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Kerman, Iran

ABSTRACT Chastain (1976) defines writing as a communicative activity. It is via writ ing that a person can communicate a variety of messages to a distant or close, known or unknown reader or readers. Writing as a communication act suggests an interactive process which takes place between the writer and the reader via the text. However, it is perceived to be one of the most difficult skills to learn because many have difficulty to express their feelings, ideas, and persuade others (Bruning, 2005).The present study investigates the effect of using pictures and other facilitative devices on EFL learners’ writing performance. To this end, 28 EFL learners who were chosen randomly participated in this study. The participants were randomly assigned into two equal experimental (n.14) and control groups (n.14). Their language proficiency was determined by Oxford Placement Test. The findings revealed that the implementation of pictures as an illustrative device had a positive effect on EFL learners’ writing achievements. KEYWORDS: illustrative devices, writing skill, EFL learners 1. Introduction Writing as one of the major language skills has been ignored for many reasons. One of the reasons lies in the nature of writing and its difficulty. However, it benefits from a number of advantages. Besides, it bears a number of characteristics that make it a distinctive skill. According to Chastain (1976), writing is a productive skill, i.e., it is not received but produced. Writing in mental processes is quite closely to the other productive skill, speaking. In both cases, students are required to encode messages which carry their thoughts for true communication. For both they must activate the passive knowledge of structure and vocabulary which have been developed in listening and reading skills. In this sense, writing and speaking are more difficult skills t o acquire because the students must have a more complete control of the elements of language. Writing is a complicated process which involves a number of cognitive and metacognitive activities, for instance; brainstorming, planning, outlining, organizing, drafting, and revising. Cognitive aspects of writing have received a particular attention, as investigators have attempted to understand the thought processes underlying the compositions of students (Flower & Hayes, 1981). According to Omaggio Hadley (1993), writing requires composing, which implies the ability either to tell or retell pieces of information in the form of narratives or descriptions, or to transform information into new texts, as in expository or argumentative writing. Therefore, it is best viewed as a continuum of activities that range from the more mechanical or formal aspects of writing down on the one end to the more complex act of composing on the other end. Writing in a second or foreign language seems to be the most difficult language skill for language learners to acquire. Learning to write is difficult especially for those writing in a second or a foreign language in academic contexts since they do not know enough about how to generate ideas for writing. Writing is defined to be a productive skill (Harmer, 2001). It means that people write to convey a message and to share information, thoughts and ideas with other people. Besides, it is a cumulative skill and is different from other language skills



(Harris, 1969). However, it is perceived to be one of the most difficult skills to learn because many have difficulty to express their feelings, ideas, and persuade others (Bruning, 2005). As effective writing is considered to be a problem for EFL learners, a need is felt to find out some ways of teaching that can help learners improve their writing performance. A substantial body of research suggests that training students to use language learning strategies can help them become better language learners. Early research on “good language learners” (Naiman, Fröhlich, Stern, & Todesco, 1996) suggested a number of learning strategies that successful students employ when they learn a second or a foreign language. The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effectiveness of illustrative devices on EFL learners’ writing improvement. 2. Review of Literature Teaching writing has experienced a great bulk of studies. Rivers (1981) has emphasized that one important problem for L2 adult learners is when they try to write on their own without being controlled from outside. Left to their own devices too soon, they will hasten to the dictionary and attempt a standard expression beyond their state of knowledge. In a situation like this, their developing skill in this area will deter iorate soon. In the same way, because the learners’ knowledge of the second language is still very inferior to their knowledge and control of the native language, the learners resort to using difficult and complicated structures which may cause them to produce erroneous forms very frequently in their expressions. Chun & Plass (1996) carried out a research on second language vocabulary acquisition using multimedia and other visual devices. They revealed that words which are associated with actual objects or imagery techniques are learned more easily than those without. They claim that with multimedia applications, it is possible to provide different types of information, such as pictures and videos. Thus, one of the fundamental research questions posed in the use of multimedia systems is: How effective are annotations with different media types for vocabulary acquisition? Their study reflects the results of three studies done with 160 university German students using Cyber Buch, a hypermedia application for reading German texts that contains a variety of annotations for words in the form of text, pictures, and video. The results showed a higher rate of incidental learning than expected (25% accuracy on production tests, 77% on recognition tests), significantly higher scores for words that were annotated with pictures + text than for those with video + text or text only, and a correlation between looking up a certain annotation type and using this type as the retrieval cue for remembering words. Vasiljevic (2012) by using pictures and other graphic devices performed a study on the use of idioms. According to him, cognitive semantic studies have shown that the dual coding of input (both verbal and visual) promotes the formation of memory traces and, the retention of information. These findings have prompted the use of mental imagery in language teaching, where pictorial elucidation has been found to improve comprehension. There are, however, some grounds for caution when it comes to the application of image-based pedagogy. His study examined the possible ways of integrating images and verbal descriptions so that both the comprehension and the production of idiomatic language are facilitated. The experiment compared the recall of meaning and form of the target idioms when pictures were provided by the teacher and when the learners had to draw their own images after reading verbal explanations. The findings suggested that pictorial elucidation based on learner-generated drawings can promote acquisition of meaning and form of L2 idioms. During the vocabulary treatment, the students performed better on the test of productive idiom knowledge, and the scores on both the receptive and productive post-tests were higher when the students generated their own drawings for the target expressions than when visual support was provided by the instructor. Ji (2011) in a study examines students’ perception of two writing topics and how the writing topics actually affect writing performance. The first task (Education Essay) features a broad topic, while the second (Golf Course Essay) a more focused topic. The two sets of essays were compared influence, syntactic complexity, linguistic accuracy and lexical complexity as well as writing quality. It is found the majority of the students prefer the Golf Course topic, because they have more to say about it and the topic is more thought-provoking. The Golf Course topic is also found to generate better essays in terms of fluency, syntactic complexity, and lexical sophistication, a pattern consistent with students’ perceptions. The analytic rating also indicates that the participants perform significantly better in the Golf Course task. The findings of the study therefore highlight the importance of designing a writing task that can motivate students and encourage more critical thinking.



Kirin (2010) in a study observes the theoretical rationale and research evidence from L1, ESL and EFL supports the relationships between reading and writing as well as the advantages of encouraging students to read as much as possible to enhance their writing ability. Designated ‘high’ and ‘low’ groups, this represented the volume of their exposure to comprehensible input. All subjects had their essay writing abilities measured every five weeks throughout the entire engagement with simplified reading books. For the high reading group they did not facilitate writing skills whereas, for the low reading group, their inability to understand texts even at the beginning level over the 15 weeks of study was only found to boost their written work to a certain level. Siu (2007) in a paper reported how a teacher educator attempted to effect change in the practice of serving teachers through modeling process writing with a real class of ESL children aged at about ten. The process of teaching was observed by two in-service teachers. Young learners have learnt metacognitive skills through process writing but they also exhibit some misunderstandings in the approach in their initial experience with this process. 3. Methodology 3.1. Participants A group of 35 EFL learners made up the total population of the subjects from whom two groups were chosen by taking Oxford Placement Test. The test helped to homogenize the learners and finally 28 ones were chosen and they made up the subjects of the study. These learners having been randomly classified into two groups studied English in Kerman Kish Air Language Institute. 3.2. Instruments The present study implemented three tests to obtain the necessary data. The first test was using Oxford Placement Test (1992) to homogenize the selected group of the learners. After taking the test, those learners whose z score falls one standard deviation above and below the mean were eliminated from the study. Based on the result of the placement test, seven subjects were dropped out and the remaining ones made up the subjects of the study. The next test, or the pretest, was made up of a writing activity assigned equally for both groups. The purpose of this test was primarily tapping the learners’ writing proficiency. The researcher purposefully selected a chronological and meanwhile descriptive pattern of writing because the idea was concrete enough to write about. The writing test was finally scored by two different scorers, each following the Holistic Scoring Procedure or Impression method. This is the technique having been recommended to ensure the scoring of writing tasks objectively (Heaton, 1988; Oller, 1979; McNamara, 2001). The third test or the final writing test comprised of two different writing tasks taken for both groups. They were given enough time (1: 30 hours) to complete the writing. After this time, the papers were collected and submitted for scoring to the same two raters. 3.3. Data-Collection Procedures The basis of the present study is laid on the data provided by the two scorers on the pre- and post-tests of compositions and the analysis of the compositions belonging to both EG and CG. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1. Data analysis of the pre-test As it can be seen, the mean score for the EG, pretest is 15.14, with a homogeneity of 1.70. On the other hand, the mean score for the CG is assumed to be 13.87, a little lower than the EG. However, as the standard deviation for CG indicates, the CG is far more heterogeneous than the EG, with a SD of 3.32. Meanwhile, based on the information achieved from the writing performance of the subjects, the level of the EG for the pretest is clearly higher than that of the CG since the mean score for the EG is 15.14 while this is 13.87 for the CG. The difference between the two mean scores can reveal the difference more clearly.

Table 4.1: Pre-test scores

Pretest N Mean Std. Deviation



EG 14 15.14 1.7033

CG 14 13.87 3.3216 As the next step, the experiment begins. The two groups were treated differently in terms of the writing techniques used for any of them. The researcher used some pictures, tables and the graphic devices to help the subjects improve their writing style and content. However, the procedure for the CG was using mere topics in a traditional way. Writing in its traditional form is undertaken by providing the learners with relevant topics to write about. The procedure is continued all over the teaching sessions and after writing on any topic or pictures, the drafts were revised by the teacher, and if necessary, returned to the learners for revision. After a period of three months, another writing test was taken to weigh the level of the learners and to know about any improvement belonging to any of the groups. Table 4.2. demonstrates the data about the t value test and the other statistical values belonging to the pretest.

Table 4.2: T-value test for pre-test

T-value d.f. Sig.

3.924 27 .001 4.2. Data analysis of the post tests After the experiment had come to an end, a post test was taken to estimate any progress that might exist between the two groups. The same as the pretest, the subjects were provided with the following two topics to write about not less than 120 words. The given topics were chosen on the assumption that the subjects experimentally did better on the descriptive topics. It means that they could reflect their real performance based on the practice activities they were exposed to during the experiment.

Table 4.3: The posttest scores presented Posttest N Mean Std. Deviation EG 14 15.50 2.3288

CG 14 13.28 2.2163 As it can be understood from the table 4.3., the results of the posttest and after the completion of the experiment have changed. The mean score of the EG for both scorers have improved while this has remained almost constant among the CG. Mean for EG= 15.50> 13.28= mean for CG.

Table 4.4: T-value test for post test

As table 4.4. indicates, the sig=000, at 26 degree of freedom, shows that there is perfect relationship between the two variables, here using the pictures for one group and their writing improvement. 5. Conclusion and pedagogical implications The findings of this study suggest that pictorial elucidation can be an effective mnemonic technique for the purpose of retention of word meaning. The learners must clothe their thoughts in simple, lucid language which is well within their command. In other words, to state clearly what the learners wish to express necessitates the learners to have the required control over what they decide to express. This is not possible unless the necessary situation is provided for them to restrict their state of minds and limit it within their range of knowledge. One way to do it is having the learners write about persons, places, and things provided for them in different ways, one of which is using pictures. It is important to have as wide a range of resources as possible in the classroom so that the students can have a rich base and stimulus for this development. And the resources must include pictures. After all, verbal language is only a part of the way we usually get meaning from contexts. Things we see play an enormous part in affecting us and in giving us information. We predict, deduce and infer, not only

T-value d.f. Sig.

2.253 26 .000



from what we hear and read but from what we see around us and from what we remember having seen. Pictures are not just an aspect of method but through their representation of places, objects and people they are an essential part of the overall experiences we must help our students to cope with. This paper has some implications for language teaching and learning. It can help EFL learners and teachers to experience a more success. But in addition to benefits to the learners, picture-generation as a learning strategy seems to have potential problems for the instructors as well. Visual support may facilitate learning, but it can be difficult and time-consuming for teachers to find pictures, illustrations and drawings that match the particular content, especially in the cases when figurative language is the focus of instruction. Applying the pictures is neither the only way nor the best way to improve students' writing skill. There are many methodological issues which need to be explored in future studies to improve the writing process. REFERENCES Chastain, K. (1976). The development of modern language skills: Theory to practice . Philadelphia: the center for

curriculum Development. Chastain, K. (1988). Developing Second-Language Skills, Theory to Practice. USA: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Third ed. China: Longman Publishers. Heaton, J. B. (1988). Writing English Language Tests. USA: Longman Group Limited. Maybin, J. (1994). Teaching Writing, Process or Genre in Teaching Writing London: Routledge. Nunan, D. (1999). Second language teaching & learning. Boston, Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle. Johnson, K. (2002). An introduction to foreign language learning and teaching. Essex: Pearson Education Limited. Kirin, W. (2010). Effects of Extensive Reading on Students’ Writing Ability in an EFL Class. Journal of Asian TEFL.

Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 285-308. Krashen, S. D. (1984). Writing: Research, theory and applications. Oxford: Pergamon Institute of English. Raimes, A. (1983). Techniques in Teaching Writing. London: Oxford University Press. Scrivener, J. (1994). Learning Teaching. Oxford: Macmillan Publishers. Shih, M. (1986). Content-based approaches to teaching academic writing.TESOLE Quarterly, 20 (4), pp. 917 - 648. Siu, I. Y. M. (2007).Investigating the Impact of Modelling on the Teaching of Process Writing in a Primary Class.

Journal of Asian TEFL.Vol. 4, No. 2, pp. 51-68. Stieve, E. (2000). Silence Can be Golden in a Writing Class in English Teaching Forum 38:4, 35-37. Vasiljevic, Z. (2012). Teaching Idioms through Pictorial Elucidation. Journal of Asian TEFL. Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 75-105.



THE INTERACTIVE NATURE OF LEXICAL KNOWLEDGE, READING COMPREHENSION AND READING

STRATEGIES IN IRANIAN EFL CLASSES

Mohammad Reza Talebinezhad, PhD Islamic Azad University, Shahreza Branch

[email protected]

Ahmad Molavi, PhD student (corresponding author)

Islamic Azad University, Isfahan baranch (Khorasgan) [email protected]

Hosein Hoseini, PhD student Islamic Azad university, Isfahan baranch (Khorasgan)

[email protected]

ABSTRACT The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between EFL learners perceived reading strategies, vocabulary size and reading comprehensions. The participants in the study were 226 first -year university students enrolled in Khorasgan Azad University. Participants completed a reading strategies survey and took a vocabulary size test (Smith, 2000) and a reading comprehension test. Descriptive and Inferential statistics were used to describe the participants’ performance on the two tests and their reported reading strategies use, and to assess the relationship between the study s three main variables. In general, Iranian EFL first- year university students had a low reading ability and an estimated small vocabulary size (500-700 word families), which is far below the threshold level needed for reading un-simplified English texts. Except for a few strategies like critical reading, summarizing, using typographical aids, and noting text characteristics, the participants reported using most of the reading strategies with high and moderate frequencies. They also reported significantly more frequent use of problem-solving strategies. However, extensive reading was found to be an unpopular activity among EFL learners in Iran. A statistically significant relationship was found between the participants’ vocabulary size at the 2000 word level and higher reading proficiency reported using reading strategies more frequently than lower proficiency students. The study concludes with some pedagogical implications and recommendations for further research. KEYWORDS: Lexical Knowledge, Reading Comprehension, Reading Strategies

1. Introduction

Reading is an essential component of literacy, and a key to the communication of information and ideas. It is almost impossible for people to go about their daily functions in countries where the literacy rate is high without being able to read. The different views of the nature of reading led to the emergence of several models of reading which attempted to explain the reading process. Prominent models like the bottom-up model (Gough, 1972), the top-down model (Smith, 1971), and the interactive model (Rumelhart, 1980) have received considerable attention in reading research. Among these models, the interactive model appears to be the most promising in helping to explain the reading process. It is more encompassing of the different types of reading, i.e., L1 and L2 reading because it incorporates both bottom-up and top-down processes and realizes the contribution of both the reader and the text in the reading process (Grabe, 1991). The interactive model description of the reading process is also consistent with L2 reading in that it recognizes language factors which



are either taken for granted in the top-down model or are over-emphasized in the bottom-up model. It also recognizes reader variables like background knowledge, prediction, and other global reading processes that are either unaccounted for in bottom up models or account for everything about reading in top-down models. Given the confounding factor of language proficiency in reading second and foreign languages, it is widely believed that interactive models are the most comprehensive in explicating the L2 reading process.

Looking at the reading process from the perspective of the interactive approach, the previous discussion indicates that both language proficiency and reading strategies and skills are contributing factors to L2 reading. However, to truly understand the impact of the most contributing factors in the L2 reading process, L2 reading research needs to examine language proficiency and reading skills and strategies simultaneously. The major problem with examining the impact of language proficiency on L2 reading rests with the different types of language proficiencies which often make it difficult to explore this relationship more closely. Given this difficulty, several researchers have examined the relationship between reading comprehension and vocabulary knowledge, considering this to be the most relevant linguistic construct to L2 reading (Qian, 1999, 2002). To examine the other contributing variable, i.e., the reading factor, the reading strategies employed by L2 learners during the reading process are usually explored. The researchers believes that examining language proficiency and reading problems simultaneously can show how these factors interact with each other to either facilitate or impede L2 reading. Thus, the current study attempts to explore this tri-dimensional relationship between the vocabulary size, reading strategies, and reading comprehension of EFL learners in Iran.

2. Literature Review

Through the following literature review some of the studies done in the field of relationship between vocabulary size and reading strategies and reading comprehension and also reading strategies are looked at. Beck et al. (1982); Kameenui et al. (1982); and Stahl (1983) have demonstrated that an improvement in reading comprehension can sometimes be attributed to an increase in vocabulary knowledge. Laufer (19 91) found good and significant correlations between vocabulary and reading scores of L2 learners. Coady et al. (1993) conducted two experiments that showed that increased proficiency in high frequency vocabulary also led to an increase in reading proficiency. Furthermore, L2 learners themselves reported that their limited vocabulary is the main problem they face when reading L2 authentic texts (Yorio, 1971). Beglar and Hunt (1999) conducted an identical study with 496 Japanese high school students using four versions of the 2000 word level from the VLT and 464 students with four versions of the UWL from the same test. He found that scores on the reading comprehension test correlated with scores on versions A and B of the 2000 word level at .66 and .62 and with scores on versions A and B of the UWL section at .67 and .71. Khosravi (2000) made an attempt to investigate the effect of scanning and skimming, as two reading strategies, on Iranian EFL students' reading rate and reading comprehension. The analysis of the data indicated that scanning could significantly improve the students' both reading rate and reading comprehension, while skimming only accounted for significant improvement of the reading comprehension of the subjects. Salataci and Akyel (2002) investigated the possible effects of reading instruction on reading in Turkish and English. The results indicated that strategy instruction had a positive effect on both Turkish and English reading strategies and on reading comprehension in English.

Yau (2005) in another study found that proficient readers employ more sophisticated approaches to reading than less-proficient readers. For instance, in his study the skilled reader employed strategies of inferencing, summarization and synthesis during and after reading, while the less skilled reader applied bridging inferences, paraphrasing and repetition.

Nagy (2006) contends that vocabulary knowledge positively affects reading comprehension, and instruction needs to be multifaceted. That is, use should be made of both direct and indirect approaches to teaching vocabulary.

Zhang and Suaini (2008) studied the role of vocabulary in reading comprehension with thirty seven secondary students learning English in Singapore. The VLT was used to measure students' vocabulary knowledge. Result showed that students' vocabulary knowledge at the 2000-word and the 3000-word levels were correlated to their reading comprehension.



Malcolm (2009) conducted a survey of reading strategy use with 160 first year and fourth year medical students in Bahrain in order to compare perceived reading strategy use of readers at varying English proficiency levels and years of study. The study found significant differences in reported use of metacognitive strategies in general and in translating strategies from English to Arabic with low English proficiency and the first year reported more translation than the upper-year students report.

Oranpattanachi (2010) investigated the effect of reading proficiency on the reading processes of 90 Thai pre-engineering students at a college in Thailand. The metacognitive reading strategy awareness questionnaire was employed to investigate their reading strategy use. The results showed that the high and the low proficiency readers shared both differences and similarities in their reading processes.

Munsakorn (2012) investigated the awareness of reading comprehension strategies among Taiwanese students from science and social science departments at Bangkok University. With respect to overall records of reading strategies, the Taiwanese students showed a high level awareness of overall reading strategies (Mean=3.60).

3. Statement of the Problem A considerable debate about the poor reading ability of second and foreign language learners and

whether such inefficient reading ability should be attributed to target language proficiency or reading problems took place in the mid eighties. Alderson (1999) examined the main factors impacting L2 reading. The crux of the debate was whether reading in L2 is a reading problem or a language problem. Language problems were manifested in L2 linguistic proficiency while reading problems were related to the learners' L1 reading ability and strategies.

The diagnosis of second and foreign language reading problems seems to be considered in many subsequent investigations. Recognizing a reading problem, several researchers have argued that reading strategies and metacognitive awareness may impact second language reading ability (Taillefer & Pugh, 1998; and Die, 2000). In this line of research, some researchers have also found reading strategies instruction to often improve ESL and EFL reading comprehension (Zhang, 1992). As the most relevant linguistic construct, second language vocabulary knowledge is usually considered an important variable that affects reading comprehension (Nation, 1990; Laufer, 1992; Nagy & Scott, 2000). Grabe (2003) suggests that knowledge of vocabulary and syntax are crucially important to reading comprehension. Some reading researchers and language educators suggest teaching vocabulary to improve L2 learners' reading comprehension. However, the above discussed factors are by no means mutually exclusive. Anderson (1991) suggests that the use of certain reading strategies could be a matter of vocabulary knowledge and general knowledge. Thus, others suspect that if beginning L2 readers are aware of effective reading strategies but do not have enough vocabulary or lack the appropriate schema for a certain text they may not succeed in comprehending the text. Given the interdependence of these factors, the current study investigated the relationship between reading strategies, vocabulary size, and reading comprehension. It is believed that both vocabulary knowledge and reading strategies play an important role in the development of second language reading ability. An examination of these interrelated factors among a certain group of learners will definitely illuminate the relationship between these factors and identify the learners' reading problems and needs.

3.1. Research Questions

The study will specifically answer the following research questions: 1. Is there any relationship between vocabulary size and reading comprehension? 2. Is there any relationship between vocabulary size and reading strategies? 3. Is there any relationship between reading strategies and reading comprehension?

3.2. Research Hypotheses

Based on the above questions, the following hypotheses can be addressed: 1. There is no relationship between vocabulary size and reading comprehension. 2. There is no relationship between vocabulary size and reading strategies. 3. There is no relationship between reading comprehension and reading strategies



4. Methodology 4.1. Participants

The participants in this study were 226 EFL Iranian first-year university students. They came from Khorasgan Azad University of Iran.

4.2. Instrumentation

The instrumentation of the current investigation comprised three basic measures. First, a reading strategies survey adapted from Mokhtari & Sheorey (2002) Survey of Reading Strategies (SORS) was used to examine the students' awareness of common reading strategies and their perceived frequency of use. The second measure was a reading comprehension test taken from three different TOEFL preparation books administered to assess the learners' reading comprehension ability. The third measure was a vocabulary size test -new version of Nation's (1990) Vocabulary Levels Test (VLT) developed by Schmitt (2000)- which assessed the students' knowledge of English vocabulary at three different word frequency levels. 4.3. Procedures

The three instruments were administered together in the student's regular classroom at the beginning of the fall semester 2007. Since it was the first week of school, all professors were very cooperative in allowing their students to participate in the study. The instrument was, to a large extent, self -explanatory. Thus, each department assigned the administration job to professors, who were briefed about the procedure of administering the survey and the two tests. Based on the piloting of the tests and the survey, an administration time of 100 minutes or two class periods was proposed. Consequently, all professors allowed their students to respond to the different parts of the instruments in two consecutive teaching periods, which usually totaled up to 105 minutes. Administrators were also informed to let the participants know about their time, and the time they needed to spend on every section of the instrument. The three instruments were administered together. At the beginning of the administration, the participants completed the reading strategies survey, which usually took from 12 to 15 minutes. The participants then took the reading comprehension test, which took approximately 50 minutes to complete. Finally, the participants took 30-minute vocabulary test. When the administration was completed, the completed copies of the instrument were collected.

Some reliability and internal consistency statistics were run on the overall reading strategies survey and the different subscales. Before embarking on the analyses pertinent to the different research questions, normality tests were run on all the relevant variables. This was done to specify whether parametric or nonparametric tests were more appropriate for certain analyses. For the correlation size effect, the researchers followed Cohen (1988) who considers correlation coefficients below 0.30 to represent weak effect, coefficients above 0.30 to represent moderate effect, and coefficient of 0.50 and above represent large effect. This seems to be the common assessment of interpreting correlation effects in the behavioral sciences. 5. Data analysis

Using SPSS version 16 software several statistics including correlation, independent samples t-tests, and the analysis of variance (ANOVA) were used to address the research questions, since it was difficult to conduct a regression analysis on these three variables due to the expected high correlation between vocabulary size and reading comprehension which usually cancel each in the regression model, the t-test and ANOVA were used to examine this relationship through possible differences among high, medium, and low vocabulary and reading proficiency groups.

6. Results and Discussion 6.1. Results Investigating the First Research Question: The Relationship between Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary size

To explore the relationship between reading comprehension and vocabulary size, a correlation test involving these factors was run. The reading scores were correlated with the partic ipants' scores on each vocabulary level. A significant and strong correlation was found between reading comprehension and vocabulary



size at the 2000 words level, r=0.60, p<0.001. Since the scores on the other levels of the vocabulary test were not normally distributed, the spearman rho was calculated to examine the relationship between reading comprehension and vocabulary size at the other two levels. A significant but moderate correlation was found between reading comprehension and the 3000 words level, rho =0.35, p<0.001. This could have caused by the fact that the participants' scores on this part of the vocabulary test were generally low. The correlation was even weaker between reading comprehension and academic vocabulary, rho=0.28, p<0.001. The 3000 words level and the academic vocabulary seem to be a little bit beyond the participant's vocabulary knowledge, and hence produce significant but not strong correlations with the reading comprehension scores. The limited range of scores on these two levels of the vocabulary test could have also resulted in the small correlation coefficient.

Investigating the Second Research Question: The Relationship between Reading Comprehension and Reading Strategies

To explore the relationship between reading comprehension and reported reading strategies use, a correlation test involving these two factors was run. The reading scores were correlated with the participants' means of reported strategy use. A significant but weak correlation was found between reading comprehension and means of overall strategy use, r=0.19, p<0.005. The reading scores also had significant but weak correlations with the means of the different types of reading strategies; global r=0.24, p<0.005, problem solving r=0.20, p<0.005, and support r=.12, p<0.05.

To explore this relationship from a slightly different perspective, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted to evaluate the relationship between reading comprehension and the use of reading strategies. The independent variable, i.e., reading proficiency, included three levels: a low, middle, and high group. Evaluate one at a time, the four dependent variables were: the overall total of strategy use, global strategies subscale, problem-solving subscale, and the support subscale. As shown in Table 1, the ANOVA was significant for the overall reading strategies and the three subscales. This indicates that students with different reading comprehension ability report using the different types of reading strategies with differing frequencies.

Table 1.

Differences among Vocabulary Groups in Perceived Use of Reading Strategies

Vocabulary Group M SD Low Middle

All strategies Low 3.586 .697 Middle 3.938 .723 *

High 3.989 .603 * NS

Global Low 3.420 .744 Middle 3.730 .779 *

High 3.856 .700 * NS

Problem solving Low 3.971 .844 Middle 4.413 .836 * High 4.431 .714 * NS

Support Low 4.453 .801 Middle 3.853 .879 *

High 3.880 .714 * NS

* Significant difference between the means with a p<.05. Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate the differences among the means. For the overall strategy use,

there were significant differences between the high reading proficiency group and the two other proficiency groups, but no significant differences were found between the lower proficiency group and the middle group. This pattern was consistent for global and problem-solving strategies. For support strategy use, there were significant differences between the high reading proficiency group and the middle group, but no significant differences were found between the lower proficiency group and the middle group or the high proficiency group. No significant differences were found in the high and low reading groups' reported use of the individual reading strategies comprising the support strategies subscale. Interestingly, the low reading proficiency group also showed more



frequent use of support strategies than the middle group. However, the high reading proficiency group always reported more frequent use of all types of reading strategies.

To further explore the relationship between reading strategies and reading comprehension, the researchers examined the relationship between the participants' perceived use of certain strategies and the participants' performance on related comprehension questions. Three strategies, using context clues, guessing unknown words, and examining word roots and affixes, were correlated with the participants' performance on question requiring guessing from context in the reading test. Except for a significant but weak correlation between the guessing of unknown words strategy and performance on guessing questions r=16, p=0.009, no correlation was found between the perceived use of these strategies and the participants' performance on guessing from context questions. The participants' performance on inferencing questions was not found to correlate with any relevant reading strategy. However, a significant but weak correlation r=20, p=0.001 was found between inferencing ability and the strategy of guessing the topic of the text. No correlation was found between participants' perceived use of the skimming strategy and their scores on the five skimming questions on the reading test.

Investigating the Third Research Question: The Relationship between Reading Strategies and Vocabulary Size

To explore the relationship between reading strategies and vocabulary size, a correlations test was run. The participants' means of reported use of all reading strategies were correlated with their vocabulary size. A significant but weak correlation was found between overall strategy use and vocabulary size at the 2000 level, r=0.25, p<0.001. a significant weaker correlation was found between means of reported use of all reading strategies and vocabulary size at the 3000 words level, rho= 0.12, p<0.05.

No significant correlation was found between overall reported reading strategy use and academic vocabulary size. However, to investigate this relationship more thoroughly, the participants' scores on the 2000 words level were divided into three proficiency groups according to their percentile ranks. The outcome of this recording of scores produced 3 vocabulary proficiency groups, as shown in Table 2.

Table 2.

Division of the Vocabulary Proficiency Groups at the 2000 Word Level

Vocabulary proficiency Group N % Percentile Raw scores

Low group 1 99 43.8 0-35.00 0-7 Middle group 2 63 27.9 35.01-65.00 8-12 High group 3 64 28.3 65.01-100 13-30 Total 226 100.0

The reading strategies profiles of the three vocabulary proficiency groups were examined by conducting a

one-way analysis of variance (AVONA). The independent variable, i.e., vocabulary proficiency, included three levels: a low, middle, and high group. Evaluated one at a time, the four dependent variables were: the overall total of strategy use, global strategies subscale, problem-solving subscale, and the support subscale. Results showed that the ANOVA was significant for the overall reading strategies and the three subscales of reading strategies. This indicates that students with different vocabulary size use the different types of reading strategies differently.

Follow-up tests were conducted to evaluate differences between the means of the different vocabulary proficiency groups. For the overall strategy use, there were significant differences between the low vocabulary proficiency group and the two other groups favoring the middle and high groups. But, no significant differences were found between the middle proficiency group and the high group. This pattern was consistent for global, problem solving, and support strategies. The high and middle vocabulary proficiency groups showed more frequent use of all types of reading strategies than the low vocabulary proficiency group.

Although, the relationship between reading strategies and vocabulary size was not so strong in the correlation test, testing the difference between high and low vocabulary proficiency groups showed significant differences in their reading strategies profiles. This also applies to the relationship between reading comprehension and the use of reading strategies. Although the correlation between these two factors was weak,



the analysis of variance showed a significant difference between the different levels of reading comprehension in their use of reading strategies. This indicates that high, middle, and low proficiency EFL students' report using reading strategies differently.

It should be noted here that the vocabulary size groups were, to some extent, consistent with the reading proficiency groups, especially at the high and low levels. About 58% of the high reading proficiency group was among the high vocabulary group while 57% of the low reading proficiency group was in the low vocabulary group. Only 26% of the middle reading proficiency group falls in the middle vocabulary group.

6.2. Discussion

In this section, the findings of the current study as they pertain to major issues and variables are discussed. These include Iranian EFL learner perceived reading strategies, vocabulary size, reading comprehension ability, and the relationship between these three variables. An examination of the perceived use of reading strategies among EFL first-year university students in Iran showed, the perceived use of these strategies to be somewhat high (M=3.80), i.e., above 3 on the frequency scale of perceived use which stands for using the strategy "sometimes", and close to 4 which represents using the strategy "often" . Looking at the means of individual strategies gives the impression that EFL learners in Iran are strategic readers. They perceived using 15 reading strategies with high frequency and 17 strategies with moderate frequency. Only 4 strategies fall in the low usage range. However, when the frequency of perceived use of individual strategies was examined, some essential strategies were found to be underused. If confirmed through more reliable measures like think aloud techniques, those students may have the advantage of using a large combination of reading strategies which sometimes result in more effective use of these strategies than using a limited number of strategies.

When the means of the subscales of the survey were examined, the participants showed a greater use of problem-solving strategies. This is consistent with studies that report on perceived actual reading strategy use (Willcut, 2002). It is also consistent with the results of MARSI (Mokhtari and Reichard, 2002) and SORS (Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001) administrations to both adult and young learners as well as native and nonnative speakers of English.

Because of the small number of new words usually encountered, good readers may not resort to this strategy as frequently as readers with limited vocabulary knowledge. As for global strategies, their less frequent perceived use could be attributed to the overall low level of language proficiency among the participants. High proficiency students are usually reported to use more global strategies (Mokhtari & Reichard, 2002; Sheorey & Mokhtari, 2001). In fact, the current study shows that the difference in the means of perceived use of global and problem-solving strategies is similar for high and low reading proficiency students. The main reason for this difference seems to lie in the high reading proficiency students' more frequent use of both types of strategies.

Some reading researcherss consider having a purpose in reading to promote comprehension by promoting the use of several reading strategies (Blanton & Wood, 1991), and to influence incidental learning of vocabulary (Swanborn & Glopper, 2002). The results of the current study showed that those who lacked a purpose in reading were usually low and medium proficiency students. Students at this level of proficiency would certainly need specific instruction and activities in order to raise their awareness of the importance of this strategy. 6.3. Conclusion

The current investigation lends support to interactive models of reading in their recognition of the importance of both bottom-up and top-down processes for reading comprehension. Both vocabulary knowledge and reading strategies were found to substantially impact EFL reading comprehension. Thus, the current study supports previous research conclusions about the reciprocal strong relationship between vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension. It also substantiates the common tendency that skillful readers are generally more strategic readers. 160

Although they seem to be potentially strategic readers, Iranian EFL learners' vocabulary knowledge is significantly deficient. Their poor vocabulary knowledge was found to negatively impact their reading comprehension ability and limit their choice of useful reading strategies. Therefore, the study suggests that EFL educators in Iran focus more on vocabulary instruction that is supplemented with sufficient and balanced extensive reading activities.



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REVISITING ETHICS IN IRARNIAN LANGUAGE TESTING SYSTEM: AN IGNI FATUUS!

Nima Shakouri

[email protected] Roudbar Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran

Ogholgol Nazari

[email protected] Sama Technical and Vocational Training College, Islamic Azad University, Gorgan

Branch, Gorgan, Iran ABSTARCT Testing is as necessary as water for a flower. More than as an administrative tool, tests are respected as an ethical enterprise. What makes us in dilemma is that how this ethical issue (i.e., tests) is going to be operationalized so that no unfairness and bias are felt. In fact, striving for fairness, as an aspect of ethics, has become an ignis fatuus! Giving attention to the notion of ethics and fairness which are the postmodern product of edumetrics in language assessment raises from the lack of an operational definition for the available phenomenon The paper from one side is an attempt to elucidate the operationalization of ethics in testing and from the other side is to warn the threats that address the validity of tests from the unfairness issues. KEY WORDS: fairness, ethics, bias, power

1. Introduction Tests are frequently used as instruments of educational policy, and they can be very powerful (Shohamy, 2001) in transitional moments. Henceforth, no one denies that testing is a political activity, and the political use of test -based assessment is a reason for public accountability (Brindley, 1998). Undoubtedly, in the nature of testing, a kind of policy is hidden that in the delivery of tests, its social impact must be reconsidered. It goes without saying that test is a powerful instrument acting as gateways at important times of individuals’ lives. Henceforth, considering tests as gateways involves resolving issues about ethicality. Although the concern for ethicality is not a new concern, lack of humanistic orientation in language testing might have been one source of lack of ethicality. No one is in an attempt to deny the fact that ethics in testing is not an absolute term. Nor would anyone disagree that language testers should assume responsibility toward social and individual aspects of the test takers’ lives. What is difficult is how to operationalize ethics in language testing; and how much the extent and limits of ethics should be (Farhady, 1998). Ethical concerns are more or less humanistic than technical. What makes humanism and technicality distinct from each other is the stance of human beings in these two. It is a commonly held belief that the stance of ethics in language testing must be redefined, but what makes issues in assessment worse is that the concept of ethics in language testing is relative. No one can claim what he/she assesses is absolutely ethical. Along the same line, in a postmodernist world, it is much more difficult to assert that any decision—or measurement—is "right" or 'true." The paper is an attempt to revisit the issue of ethics in order to operationalize it. Moreover, the operationalization of ethics is plausible and possible if no one claims that such moral issues can be quantified.

2. Literature review 2.1. Ethics as a commitment Ethics is treated as a commitment to science. As Scriven (1991) goes as far as to claim ethics as “the emperor of the social sciences, imperial because it refers to considerations that supervene above all others, such as obligations to science, prudence, culture and nation” (cited in Fulcher & Davinson, 2007, p. 270). At the heart



of an ethical approach to language testing that is designed to achieve fairness is the concept of professionalism as developed by Davies (1997, cited in Fulcher & Davidson, 2007). As Fulcher and Davidson in line with professionalism, ethical practice involves listening to and considering seriously contrary views and new evidence. In this regard, progress is achieved if every view is challenged from every angle and every word must be listened. Fulcher and Davidson (2007) also claim professionalism is in close line with the concept of democratic approach to education held by John Dewey. Within democratic approach, individualism is an individualism of freedom, of responsibility, of initiative, not an individualism of lawlessness. In effect, ethical practice is held if the individual language tester has a responsibility to be the member of the professional community and to the society within which he works in, being neither subservient to the community or society nor independent from them. In line with Messick’s (1989) notion of consequential validity, the distribution of justice is an attempt towards the operationalized definition of ethics in language testing. In fact, positive consequence is best achieved through distributive justice (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007). Fulcher and Daidson assert that distributive justice deals with the appropriateness of access to the conditions and goods that affect individual well -being, which is broadly include psychological, physiological economic and social aspects. Unfortunately, we are faced with multiple sources of potential injustice—injustice of values, of rules or implementation, and of decision. Investigating the stance of ethics from either modern perspective or postmodern one reveals a shift in paradigm. Cohen, Manion, & Morrison (2000) hold, “Ethical issues in educational research can often result from thoughtlessness, oversight, or taking matters for granted” (p. 60). Having an assumption that the test makers who are in an attempt to construct a standardized test feel no need to deal with ethical issues is a big source of contention that was the product of modern era. Through a critical look at the stance of ethics in language testing, Punch (1994) casts doubts on the ethicality of the whole field of language testing by raising "consent, deception, privacy, and confidentiality" issues. Garrison (1995) also sheds further light on the discrimination and inequality of language tests. Whether it is possible to fulfill the principles of ethics, in the realm of language testing was always a dilemma. To give a straightforward example of an unfair testing practice, research shows that males generally outperform females on multiple-choice items (Davies et al, 1999). Thus, is it fair to rely solely on multiple-choice items to revisit a female student in the pursuit of occupying a vacancy? Furthermore, concerning the deception issue, Lynch (1996) remarks, "Internal to some tests there may be a deception. In the case of the ubiquitous multiple- choice test format, are not distractors (wrong answers) deceptive by definition?" (p. 3). In this regard, the attempt should be made to protect both test-takers and test-givers from the misuse and abuse of tests. Furthermore, test-givers always have a mask of superiority that dominates the futures of a group. As Spolsky (1997) states tests and exams have always been used as instruments of social policy and control, with the gate-keeping function of tests often justifying their existence. This is not really fair that based on a single test, a person’s life is destined. Thus, the criteria for assessment should be clear for a test to be considered fair and ethical or even unbiased. Nevertheless, the problem here is that what seems ‘agreeable to reason’ (Kant, 1785, cited in Fulcher & Davis, 2007, p. 142) differs from culture to culture. As put by Putman (1990), for Dewey (1988) , the scientific method is simply the method of experimental enquiry combined with free and full discussion. This is the same conclusion as that reached by Shohamy (2001, p. 161) where she calls for ‘continuous examination’ of testing. Silence about testing is the real enemy, not the testing practice itself. The stance of ethics in language testing can be investigated from both ideological and sociolinguistic perspectives. The concept of ethics is highly affected by the systems which are ideological. One feature of an ideological system is appealing to the silencing of knowledge. The education system, for instance, may be silent regarding issues as minority cultures, dancing and music to name a few. Thus, silencing serves as an ideological tool for those who are in power. Thus, if the ideology of a system is at risk, there is no doubt that ethics might be marginalized. Henceforth, ethics, which is more or less humanistic rather than technical, is sacrificed at the expense of ideology. The current interest in ethical issues provides opportunities for many scholars to combine an interest in sociolinguistics with language testing. They, inevitably, need to have a critical look at the impact that tests have on test takers and the societies in which they are used. Having a critical look at the use of tests in the probable



future is motivated by the notion of consequential validity attributed to Messick (1989). Between language use and ethics, there is a palpable involvement, and no one, from a post-modernist look, is dare to ignore them. However, it is a great pity that many of test-takers still do not understand the positive and negative effects that a test might exert on one’s future. It seems to be illogically ethical to assume those who fail a test should be excluded. Accordingly, Edgeworth (1888) says, “There remains an inevitable injustice in excluding those who are just below the boundary line of that class.” (p. 626). Therefore, tests givers must take into consideration the probable consequences of tests on micro- and macro-level of the society. Nevertheless, ideality is far from reality. As Davis (1997) claims, it is not possible for testers to take into account all possible social consequences. Considering the issues of ethics is always context bound. The problem here is that what seems ‘agreeable to reason’ (Kant, 1785, cited in Fulcher & Davidson, 2007) differs from culture to culture. Still, the revitalization of ethics entails fee and full discussion. This is the same conclusion as that reached by Shohamy (2001, p. 161) where she calls for ‘continuous examination’ of testing. Silence about testing is the real enemy, not the testing practice itself. Furthermore, taking responsibility is part and parcel of ethical issues in language testing, yet as Farhady (1998) argues in some sociopolitical contexts, a tester is not even allowed to assume responsibility towards the consequences of the decisions made on the test scores. He maintains the ethical issues in different contexts are interpreted differently. Moreover, the tools used to interpret these ethical issues are different. Thus, reconsidering the stance of ethics in a context sensitive to power sharing involves revitalizing the role of individuals as a critical organism who is constantly challenging and questioning the present status. Ethical practice involves listening to and considering seriously contrary views and new evidence can certainly be the first steps in operationalizing the notion of ethics. Those who ignore ethicality in language testing seem to ignore the fact that ethicality is essentially a linguistic construct of the society into which we are born. The significant feature of this type of ethicality is that it does not rule, although reasoning has been the basis of such morality. Ethicality is free of sense of power. Imagine you are going to buy a car; you found that the wheels of the car are not in a good condition; thus, the reasons that you provide in order to give up buying that car does not have any sense of ruling. We are free whether to buy or mot. And it will be out of morality that the seller brings illogical reasons in order to persuade you to buy it since you may have an uninvited accident. 2.2. Test power No one denies that tests are and should by their nature be powerful (Farhady, 1998). In this regard, Spolsky (1997) asserts that the concept of power has been inherently associated with tests. Elsewhere, Shohamy (2001) puts forth that tests are here to stay. However, this power must and should not be misused. Spolsky (1997) outlines three reasons for a test is powerful: (1) tests produce scores that are possessed by the testers, and documentation of these scores places the individual in an area of surveillance; (2)tests are described by decision makers as useful educational means for the advancement and improvement of education. That is educational authorities exert power over the educational systems to make their intended modifications; and (3) testers assume that test scores are obtained through objective measures and that these scores provide true pieces of information on test takers’ ability. To reduce test power monopolized to a group of test takers, it seems logical to bilateralize it. But is it plausible to imagine that power should be shared between test givers and test takers. In an interview test, for instance, the interviewee should possess the same power as the interviewer. To best of my knowledge, the power cannot be shared retroactively, but proactively. By proactive sharing of power, we mean the test, for instance, to be constructed by the teacher and students. This is what we refer to professionalism. The individualists possess a sense of commitment towards the society and the future of the member of society. Henceforth, The individualism refereed to is the individualism of tolerance not the individualism of violence. Everybody must be allowed to freely utter his/her opinions regarding the weaknesses and strengths of an item, for instance, in language testing. Thus, sharing power is not just limited to an interview session. In critical pedagogy, people in the political context are political; thus enjoy the share of power regarding the outcomes of tests. However, those who are in power make educational policies, so they can make decisions that might turn the score into a source of fear. In fact, no one seems to dislike this power. The power that may manifest its tremendous effects in some scores that change one’s future. Critically, test is a tool to impose this power in order to stimulate the educational system. 2.3 Philosophy behind ethical views in language testing



Generally there are two groups of testers: postmodernists and positivists. Postmodernists believe that real truth does not exist or is not knowable. Postmodernists disagree with dominant, oppressive cultures and support power being shifted to those who are oppressed. They also have concern about technology and its influence on society and culture. Unfortunately, most language testers are positivists in a sense that they believe what they are seeking in the world is attainable. Tests are good means to discover it. Thus, their approach toward tests seems to be test-for-test. They claim those who do not meet the criterion of a particular test must be excluded, without considering the tremendous effect of the test on a person’s future. Implicitly, those who are in power must be included and those who do not have the power must be excluded. But, ideality is far from reality, a tester is always in power, and it is he or she that decides who must stay or be excluded. However, Fulcher (n.d.) argues it is not the purpose of tests to keep people out of countries, jobs or education. To what Messick (1989) refers as consequential basis for test use is described as the impact of the (mis)use of the test that had harmful unintended (for example, systematic bias) or intended (for example, discriminating against certain nationalities for immigration purposes) consequences for test takers or society. Henceforth, Messick’s framework incorporates ethics into the concept of test validity or, more specifically, construct validity. To Fulcher and Davidson (2007), ethics also has a clear role in institutional settings where there is concern to declare and to limit institutional duties and responsibilities and also to innovate new paradigms in language testing. Along the same line, Farhady (1998) holds the discrepancies between what is taught and what is tested would lead to changes in instruction, in focus on the materials, and eventually in the quality of education. Thus, whether intended or not, tests administered on a national scale bring about certain modifications in the quality and the quantity of education. These changes are desirable if they are in the direction of improvement though, in some cases, they are not purely educational. From the discrepancy, changes emanate and from the changes a sense of power is achieved either by testers or by the authoritative agencies to frighten the educators in order to stimulate the system. Ethical concerns encountered in language testing can be a complex phenomenon and can place us in unresolvable moral predicaments. This complexity take place when the assessors in searching for truth attempts to find a balance between ideality and reality. As Cohen, Manion and Morrison (2000) hold, ethical issues may stem from the kinds of problem investigated by social scientists and the methods they use to obtain valid and reliable data. To better appreciate the philosophical roots of this dilemma, let the writer briefly elaborate two schools of philosophy: Positivism and anti positivism. Positivism as a version of empiricism (Richards & Schmidt, 2002) was first coined by the French philosopher, Auguste Comte who believed reality can be observed (Mack, 2010). In other words, Comte's concept of positivism was based on scientific objectivity and observation through the five senses rather than subjective beliefs. In other words, positivism defines knowledge solely on observable facts and does not give any credence to non-observable entities such as feelings and values (Mack, 2010, p. 2). In fact, as Mack elucidates, "positivism maintains that the scientist is the observer of an objective reality" (p. 2), not the constructor of this reality. What is implied is the fact that the abstract issues in general and ethics in particular have no place in this trend of philosophy. In fact, to them everything, provided that they are objective and immediately observable can be discovered by setting up experiments in a carefully-controlled conditions. Thus, according to Mack (2010), the purpose of positivist school of thought is "to prove or disprove hypothesis" (p. 2). To end up, positivism is closely tied to quantitative methodologies and experimented method to data collection and analysis. Although positivist school of thought seems to be plausible, it has some pitfalls. The main attack from anti-positivist has been on their mechanistic and reductionist view of nature that excludes ethics and moral responsibility. According to Farhady (1998), within the psychometric perspectives which follow the trends of positivists in philosophy, two major obstacles have persisted. First an operational definition of the phenomenon to be tested has not been available. This lack is because of multiplicity and abstract nature of the construct. Henceforth, ethics, for instance, is among other constructs which faces the lack of operationalized definition. Lack of awareness on how a construct is defined and operationalized may lead to some sort of unethicality in language testing. If the test giver is not familiar with the construct that is going to tested, we might expect that the performance of students for a particular purpose will not be appropriated aimed at. However, as Bachman (1990) argues, “differences in group performance in themselves do not necessarily indicate the presence of bias, since differences may reflect genuine differences between the groups on the ability in question” (p. 271). Along the same line, McNamara and Roever (2006) assert a biased judgment unduly takes



into account factors other than those that should be informing that. They continue bias as construct -irrelevant variance distorts the test results and therefore makes conclusions based on scores less valid. The second shortcoming is rooted in the problems of measurement field. Furthermore, as Farhady continues, what is lucid is that the tester was granted the power of making decision on the educational, social, occupational issues. And tests have become a powerful weapon at the hands of not only teachers but others. This lack of precision in decision making brings about an appreciable attention toward the implementation of tests under the principle of ethics in language testing (Shohamy, 1997). Anti-positivism, in contrast, which is naturalistic in nature holds individuals are part of the ongoing action being investigated; and their model of a person is not the plastic version favored by positivist researchers (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000). According to Beck (1979), the purpose of social science is to understand social reality as different people see it and to demonstrate how their views shape the action which they take within that reality. Since the social sciences cannot penetrate to what lies behind social reality, they must work directly with man’s definitions of reality and with the rules he devises for coping with it (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2000). In this regard, it is worth mentioning that the notion of ethics is context sensitive. As Cohen et al. (2000) declare where research is ethically sensitive, however, many factors may need to be taken into account and these may vary from situation to situation. Lack of awareness on how a construct is defined and operationalized may lead to some sort of unethicality in language testing. If the test giver is not familiar with the construct that is going to tested, we might expect that the performance of students for a particular purpose will not be appropriated aimed at. However, as Bachman (1990) argues, “differences in group performance in themselves do not necessarily indicate the presence of bias, since differences may reflect genuine differences between the groups on the ability in question” (p. 271). Along the same line, McNamara and Roever (2006) assert a biased judgment unduly takes into account factors other than those that should be informing that. They continue bias as construct-irrelevant variance distorts the test results and therefore makes conclusions based on scores less valid. What is of paramount importance is how the content domain and construct are defined and operationalized (Wagner, 2006). Thus, a test giver should have an attempt to lead the assessment to construct relevant variance. Furthermore, the problem of fairness will be dissolved if testers really know what he is going to test and never let the extraneous factors affects his/her decisions. In fact, an item or a test is regarded biased if test takers of equal ability but from different groups score differently on the item depending on their group membership (Angoff, 1993, cited in McNamara & Roever, p.82). McNamara and Roever (2006) put succinctly that bias as a factor makes a unidimentional test multidimensional. In fact, the test measures something in addition to what it is intended to measure and the result is a confound of two measurements. If the characteristic that influences test performance is part of the construct definition of the ability being assessed, including this characteristic in the assessment will lead to construct relevant variance. It is when these differences in performance on the test are associated with characteristics that are not inherent in the ability that is being assessed that bias occurs. Wagner (2006) asserts, “bias, viewed as measurement error, introduces construct irrelevant variance” (p. 1). Thus, it must be defined among the duties of test developers to eliminate this construct irrelevant variance by minimizing test bias (Wagner, 2006). For ethical reasons, it is important to create fair and unbiased tests. No one denies that fairness and bias are validity issue. For a test to be valid, the testers’ employment background must not be involved, since the it becomes a threat to the construct validity of the test. Thus a test that is not valid can never be a fair test. A test taker who has an unfair advantage to be helicopter pilots would have an unfair advantage on this part of the test, and the test takers would be unfairly disadvantaged (Wagner, 2006). Bias, as a sign of unethical issue, might lead to unfair assessment. Some of the features of the test-taker characteristics of an individual that might lead to biased assessments are cultural background, background knowledge, cognitive characteristics, ethinicity sex and age (Bachman, 1990). Another sign of unfairness that threatens the validity of a test is when a test becomes too restrictive, and is not representative of the ability and content domain that test purports to assess (Wagner, 2006). In much the same way, Mesick considers it as a threat to the construct validity. He uses the term construct underrepresentation. For example, a test developer created a test to measure a flight attendant’s ability to use



English when facing passengers, it would be unfair to have a test that assess the flight attendant’s ability to pilot airplanes. Lack of fairness in language testing is not a new issue. It exists there. However, eliminating bias from tests in order to assure that a particular group of test-takers is not unfairly disadvantaged (because of their cultural or linguistic background, age, gender, etc.) is a worthwhile goal, but this must be undertaken in a logical and systematic manner (Wagner, 2006).

3. Conclusion If we consider ethics merely as a matter of social convenience, behavior can be regulated by convention. And convention is culture-bound. That is, it differs from society to society. This is what Fulcher (n.d.) refers as ethical relativism. Accordingly, morality is essentially considered as a linguistic construct of the society into which we are born. Although reason is the basis of moral philosophy, it does not rule in a postmodern society. In much the same way, ethics in a postmodern world is local, temporary and without a logical base. This ethical concept in the realm of language testing entails language testers’ accountability. That is, not only must a language tester let students’ voices be heard, but also must make clear the limitations of our tests to everyone involved - not only test takers, but their parents, their teachers, and political decision makers (Newfield, 2002). Ethics involves decisions about whose voices are to be heard, whose needs are to be met; about how a society determines what is best for the largest number when fairness are in conflict (Hamp-Lyons, 1997). As McNamara and Roever (2006) go on to hold fairness review is a response to social and societal pressures on test makers and serves a parallel function of keeping test content uncontroversial to ensure wide acceptance of scores. Discussing the issues of ethics involves codifying the ethical behavior published in a code of ethics. In this regard the codification of acceptable behavior or conduct allows the test givers to scrutinize the issues of ethics and make them operationalized. Codes of ethics as a set of standards can act as scaffold that contributes to the development of professional conduct. Furthermore, these codes are conducive to the development of sound decision makings of one’s behavior. As McNamara and Roever, C. (2006) go on to hold codes often serve a self -policing function that sanction those members who violate them. By this, the members of a community felt a unilateral promise that follows certain rules and punish those members who do not. Regarding what Boyd and Davis (2002) coin language testing as a weak profession and medicine as strong one, Why shouldn’t test givers, like Hippocrate who took an oath to conduct his profession ethically, take a oath to take into consideration the moral and ethical issues in his profession. What is tangible in the domain of language testing is that there is no there are no serious sanctions against members who violate codes of ethics; the members might exclude him/her, but they may not stop continuing the profession (McNamara & Roever, 2006). REFERENCES Bachman, L. (1990). Fundamental considerations in language testing. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Bachman, L., & Palmer, A. (1996). Language testing in practice. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Brindley, A. (1998). Outcomes-based assessment and reporting in language learning programmes: a

review of the issues. Language Testing, 35(1),45- 85. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London: Routledge. Davis, A. (1997). Demands of being professional in language testing. Language Testing, 14(3), 328-339. Davies, A., Brown, A., Elder, C., Hill, K., Lumley, T., & McNamara, T. (1999). Studies in language testing:

Dictionary of language testing. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Edgeworth, F. Y. 1888. "The statistics of examinations." Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 51, 599- 635. Farhady, H. (1998). Ethics in language testing. Moddaress, 3 (11). Fulcher, G. (n.d.). Ethics in language testing. Retrieved in 2012 from http://taesig.8m.com/news1.html Fulcher, G., & Davidson F. (2007). Language testing and assessment an advance course book. London: Routledge Hamp-Lyons, L. (1997). Ethics and language testing. In C. Clapham, (Ed.), The Encyclopedia of language and

education: Language testing and assessment (pp. 323-333). Dordrecht: Kluwerook Lynch, B. (1996, August). To Test or Not to Test? The Morality of Assessment.In C. Candlin (Chair), International

Association for Applied Linguistics Conference, Jyaskyla, Finland. Mack, L. (2010). The philosophical underpinnings of educational research. Polyglossia, 19, 1-11.



McNamara, T., & Roever, C. (2006). Language testing: The social dimension. London: Blackwell Publishing. Messick, S. (1989). Meaning and values in test validation: The science and ethics of assessment. Educational

Researcher, 18(2), 5‐11. Newfield, T. (2002). Voices in the field: An interview with Liz Hamp-Lyons. Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation

SIG Newsletter, 6 (2), 2-4. Punch, M. (1994). Politics and ethics in qualitative research. In Denzin, N.K. & Lincoln, Y.S. (eds.),

Handbook of qualitative research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Putnam, H. (1990). A reconsideration of Deweyan democracy. Southern Californian Law Review 63, 1671–1697.

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Richards, R., & Schmidt, R. W. (2002). Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics. London: Longman.

Shohamy, E. (1997). Testing methods, testing consequences: Are they ethical? Are they fair? Language Testing, 14 (3).

Shohamy, E. (2001) The power of tests: A critical perspective on the uses of language tests . London: Longman. Spolsky, B. (1997). The ethics of gate keeping tests: What have we learned in a hundred years? Language Testing,

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Papers in TESOL & Applied Linguistics, 6 (2), 1-4.



IRANIAN EFL STUDENTS' PERCEPTION OF THE CONSEQUENTIAL VALIDITY OF THEIR RATINGS OF

COLLEGE TEACHING EFFECTIVENESS

Hakimeh Pourjamal, PhD Candidate, Alzahra University [email protected]

Seyyedeh Susan Marandi, PhD, Alzahra University

[email protected] ABSTRACT Student ratings of college teaching effectiveness (SRCTE) have been common in Iranian universities for many years now. However, the perceptions of the stakeholders, in particular students, toward SRCTEs and their uses have not been comprehensively investigated. The current study explored English language student perspectives on SRCTEs. To this end, two Iranian state universities' English language students were selected based on convenience sampling to respond to a self-developed questionnaire including 26 questions. Descriptive statistics such as frequency were utilized to interpret the data; furthermore, in order to validate the items, the chi-square test was applied to the questionnaire item. The results indicate that students generally believe that they are competent enough to rate their instructors' teaching and that they fill the questionnaires carefully. They assert that SRCTEs can potentially be useful, yet their results do not receive sufficient attention by either instructors or university administrators. Improvement in teaching quality is considered as the main desired consequence of evaluation forms and at the same time it is a function that many respondents are skeptical about. Many participants of this research believed that younger instructors care about students' opinions in SRCTEs more than elderly ones do. Students claimed that they are not afraid of the repercussions of the ratings since the SRCTE forms are anonymously filled out. They suggested that the instructors be informed of the results of SRCTEs after they give the grades. The results of this study can shed light on the validity of SRCTEs and can also influence the way the administrators produce, administer, and use the results. Knowing what students think of SRCTEs can pave the way to a better academic environment. KEY WORDS: Student Rating of College Teaching Effectiveness (SRCTE), EFL Students' Perception, Consequential Validity 1. Introduction Student ratings of college teaching effectiveness (SRCTE) have been in use in universities for years, with the hope of creating more desirable outcomes in the higher education system. They "have been relatively well-accepted by the researchers and practitioners in the field" (Spencer & Schmelkin, 2002, p. 397). There are multiple measures of instructional performance of university instructors, such as self and peer evaluation, students' results in achievement tests (learning outcomes/results) and student evaluation of teaching effectiveness. Among these measures SRCTEs are more widely used in higher education (Lemos, Queiros, Teixeira, & Menezes, 2010). In Iranian Universities SRCTEs are administered by university administrators at the end of each term to evaluate the effectiveness of their staff's instruction during the course. However, the uses these ratings are put to and their consequences need to be investigated and made transparent. There has been vast research on SRCTEs' psychometric properties such as their reliability and validity. Although there are some controversies over their validity, reliability, and utility, research overall indicates that they are "reliable and stable… and relatively valid against a variety of indicators of effective teaching" (Marsh & Baily, 1993, p. 1). SRCTEs are multidimensional and "primarily a function of the instructor who teaches a course rather than of the course that is taught" and also relatively unaffected by a variety of variables hypothesized as probable biases



to the ratings (Marsh & Bailey, 1993, p. 1). A plethora of attention has been devoted to exploring the impact of student characteristics such as age and sex and teacher personality traits on SRTEs (Clayson & Sheffet, 2006), and the evaluation forms' item diagnosticity (Madden, Dillon, & Leak, 2010). Some researchers such as Aleamoni (1999) Cashin (1995) have had a comprehensive look at the issue by considering myths vs. facts about SRCTEs. The usefulness of SRTEs in the educational systems has also been well-explored (e.g. Safavi, Abu Bakr, Tarmizi, & Alwi, 2013). Some studies (e.g. Cashin, 1990) have found that students do rate different academic fields differently. Spencer and Schmelkin (2002) claim that some studies (e.g., Abbott et al., 1990 ; Ballantyne, 1998) that have focused on students' opinions indicate that the evaluations are important to the students and students are qualified to rate their instructors, but they are not optimistic enough about the "overall weight put by administrators and faculty on student opinion" (p. 398). SRCTEs have often been investigated with regard to their empirical validity. Few studies have explored their consequential validity (e.g. Ory & Rayan, 2001; Beran et al., 2005; Safavi et al., 2013) and even fewer studies have explored the different interested parties' perspectives on SRCTEs and on their consequential validity (e.g. Spencer & Schmelkin, 2002). Consequences are an integral part of validity evidence in Messick's Validity theory (1989); therefore, the consequential validity of an instrument use is dealt with by evaluating its actual and potential consequences. According to Ory and Ryan (2001) consequential validity inspects the extent to which an instrument creates the desired end products and consequences. Ory and Ryan (2001) assert that to make the validity of SRCTEs better, there is a need to conduct research on their use and consequences. The three stakeholders or interested parties i.e. students, teaching staff, and administrators are those who are immediately affected by the results and consequences of the application of the SRCTEs as a means of instructor evaluation. These three groups' perception of the beneficial or undesired changes that SRCTEs bring about in educational system needs to be extensively explored. Indeed, there is lack of research on these three groups' perspectives until today. As students are the most strongly influenced group, their perception of these evaluations impacts SRCTEs' validity and as a result utility. There are several types of validity two of which are statistical validity (Hellman, 1998) and consequential validity (Ory & Ryan, 2001). The first one refers to the accuracy of a measure in quantifying a construct and the latter to its appropriateness that may lead to desirable and undesirable consequences. Based on Beran et al. (2005), "consequential validity can be more generally referred to as utility in that both refer to a measure's application" (p. 52) they claim that "consequential validity has received little empirical examination in comparison to statistical validity (how well the student ratings measure teacher effectiveness)" (p. 52). They also continue that "while the utility of data from student ratings of instruction is quite variable, there is evidence of consequential validity particularly from administrators" (p. 52). Beran, Violato, Kline & Frideres (2005) refer to three general uses that might be made of SRCTEs: Although student ratings may measure the quality of the course and instruction, it is not clear how the results of these student ratings are used. If they are intended to measure teacher effectiveness, then ratings could be used in formative evaluation to improve teacher effectiveness by providing feedback to instructors that may lead to behavior change. They could also be used for summative evaluation of faculty for merit pay, hiring and retention of faculty and promotion decisions. Finally, if rating information is available to students, it could be used to guide course selection (p. 51). They hold that most administrators used SRCTEs for summative purposes and as the major source of their faculty evaluations "despite the availability and use of alternative … measures of teaching effectiveness" (p. 66). Beran et al. (2005) see the wide use of SRTEs as a major source of data for decision making due to their "ease of administration, scoring, numeric comparison, and interpretation"(p. 66). Spencer and Schmelkin (2002) claim that while mid-term evaluations where students may see possible changes in teacher's instruction during the remainder of the semester after expressing their ideas about the course are formative, the end of semester evaluations would be used for summative purposes of "reappointment, promotion, and tenure, as well as feedback to other students" (p. 398). Since universities provide for summative evaluation opportunities in their educational system, many teachers can obtain little specialized information about what their students think of their teaching. This means that many university instructors cannot receive



formative feedback from the evaluations. This is while in the formative type of evaluation, the strengths and shortcomings of the instructor becomes clear to him/her before the end of the instruction and this is more likely to lead to enhanced teaching and learning results. On the other hand, Spencer and Schmelkin (2002) also believe that through later or end of semester evaluations students would have the chance to give an overall appraisal of the class, "something they might not have enough perspective for at the middle of the term" (p. 398). They also suggest that, at the start of their new class, teachers mention that they are trying a new approach which stands upon remarks of their students in the past classes' SRCTEs. This will certify the students that their comments and opinions are valuable to their teacher. Beran et al. (2005) investigated the extent instructors, administrators and students consider SRTEs useful, relevant, and appropriate. In their study, only half of the students and alumni indicated that they had made use of SRCTEs in their course selection decision making. With regard to the faculty members, Beran et al. (20 05) found that although the instructors considered SRCTEs useful, "few instructors stated that they actually use information to change the course"; instead, they used SRCTE information or feedback "for general purposes of improving teaching quality or refining overall course instruction, rather than for changing specific aspects of the course (e.g., textbook selection, course assignment)" (p. 65). Beran et al. (2005) doubt SRTE's having a large impact on instructor's teaching effectiveness. Nevertheless, the most important impact that SRCTEs can create on educational system is the impact on teaching. As Murray (2005, p. 4) states "as with all forms of evaluation, improvement of performance is, or is supposed to be, the ultimate purpose of teaching evaluation, and the most justifiable reason for doing evaluation in the first place." However, Murray (2005) claims that the amount of improvement caused by student evaluations is not large unless student feedback is accompanied by expert consultation. Aleamoni (1999) claims that SRCTEs can be misinterpreted and misused if the instructors get raw numerical results and written notes presuming that he/she is competent enough to interpret such results validly. He also continues that in such cases the instructor may resort to normative information to interpret the data. Such interpretations are is subject to misperceptions without help from an expert. In a research on changing teaching behavior after receiving student feedback, L'Hommedieu, Menges, and Brinko (1990) found little evidence of improvement of teaching based on feedback from student ratings. They concluded that this trivial improvement suggests little factual significance for instructors. Many researches (e.g. Centra, 1993; Fries & McNinch, 2003; and Murray, 1984) have shown that there are concerns over administrators' use of student ratings, especially when they are given a lion's share when making tenure decisions such as promotion. "The extent to which such rating information is useful for university students, faculty, or administrators remains unclear" (Beran, 2005, p. 50). Murray (2005) indicates that SRTEs do make a difference in personnel decisions, but not a large difference. There are some criticisms leveled against SRCTEs. A strong and persistent criticism of student evaluation of teaching is that it causes grade inflation and lowers academic standards (Murray, 2005). Murray claims that "a lot of people believe that student evaluation of teaching has had an impact on academic standards, namely a negative impact involving inflation of grades and weakening of academic requirements, but research evidence is not clear in support of this belief" (Murray, 2005, p. 7). On the other hand, he presents another justification for higher grades and says SRTEs "are correlated with grades because higher ratings and higher grades are both caused by the same thing, namely teacher effectiveness. So, highly rated teachers do give higher grades, but do so because their students are actually learning more" (p. 6). Spencer and Schmelkin (2002) mention that SRCTEs enable "students to reach out to their peers and formalize that blend of information and opinion that circulates in the informal student grapevine" (p. 398). Emery, Kramer, and Tian (2003) refocus attentions on outcome-based academic standards in evaluating teachers. They pose the question of whether higher education is evaluating "popularity" or "outcomes" (p. 43). Thus they demand that the administrators compose the wording on SRCTE instruments more "achievement" oriented rather than "satisfaction oriented" (p. 44). Emrey et al. discuss the problems more fully (For more details about shortcomings, refer to Emrey et al., 2003). Spencer and Schmelkin (2002) found that "students are generally willing to do evaluations and to provide feedback, and have no particular fear of repercussions" (p. 397). Nevertheless they also found that students are not sure whether faculty or administrators care about the SRCTE results.



It seems quite logical that students can rate the instructor on some aspects of their teaching such as pace, intelligibility of instruction, and manner of presentation; however, as Follman (1992) claim that students cannot be qualified judges of their teachers on curriculum, classroom management, content knowledge and collegiality. Simmons (1997) also maintains that students are not competent enough to measure their instructor's preparedness and expertise of the field. He adds "it is not the students' opinions that have necessarily been solicited; they will be answering someone else's questions without having given the matter any thought until the point in time when they are supposed to evaluate the teacher" (p. 17). The students are answering the questions that presses the "administrators' bias" forward according to Simmons (1997). In fact, in many cases, students are expected to answer a number of questions about which they have no idea. They might not be asked about issues about which they have a say and they want their voice to be heard. In fact, it is the administrators who decide what to be and what not to be answered. A word of caution is in order here. When we talk about SRCTE, we shouldn't assume that everything else is in the best order and only the instructor needs to be evaluated to spot the problem with the whole course. To put it another way, if the results regarding an instructor do not go with the expected standards, it is the instructor's problem. The questionnaires to evaluate, the students who are rating, the administrators who use SRCTE as the sole source of the data on which they base their decisions, time and place of evaluation, the uses we put the ratings to, are all at work here and none must be ignored. Murray (2005) believes, "Student rating forms are really intended as a substitute or proxy for direct measurement of student learning, which most people would consider to be the best way to measure teaching, but something that is fraught with technical difficulties" (p. 2). All these difficulties and factors must be taken into account. As mentioned above, no single data can make a complete picture of teacher effectiveness. The above mentioned studies have focused on a non-Iranian culture and/or university settings or have taken their participants from diverse fields of study. The current study concentrates on English language teaching and literature students' perceptions of SRCTEs in Iranian context, in order to uncover what is going on in their minds about the end-of-the-term evaluations of instruction effectiveness. It has endeavored to uncover students' perception of the consequences, functions, and utilities of SRCTEs. In other words, it has explored the students' perception of the consequential validity of SRCTEs. This research has considered students' view on issues such as the extent to which students, teachers and administrators take the whole process of evaluation seriously, the goals SRCTEs attempt to achieve, the evaluations' consequential validity, the changes and improvements in teaching and educational system that SRCTEs are agent for. 2. Method 2.1. Instrument The researchers used a self-developed questionnaire (see appendix) and a semi-structured interview as the instruments of the research. The questionnaire used in this study was a self-developed one consisting of 26 questions, 24 in Lickert scale and two general open-ended questions regarding the uses that SRCTEs are put to and should be put to in the students' eyes. The students were asked to respond on a five point agreement/disagreement continuum (ranging from "strongly agree" to "agree" to "disagree" to "strongly disagree" with "no idea or undecided" in middle position) to diverse statements intended to extract their attitudes toward the uses that the administrators, instructors, and students put the SRCTEs to and the consequences that those uses bring about or the uses that the ratings should be put to with the intention of bringing about more desirable consequences. The questionnaire generally focused on the following issues: 1- Do the students believe that the SRTEs are generally useful? 2- Do the students generally believe that their responses and ratings are important to the instructors and an agent for change in their teaching quality? 3- Do they think that the administrators use the SRCTEs in their decision making about the instructors? 4- Do the students fill the forms out with the fear of their negative repercussions; i.e., are they afraid of negative consequences? 5- Do the students think that all students should have access to SRCTE results?



The final section of the questionnaire asked for respondents' personal demographics such as age, sex, and academic level. To ensure the validity of the questionnaire, four university instructors who were experts in research were asked to give comments on the validity of the questionnaire. After receiving their comments and applying them to the instrument, the questionnaire was piloted on 30 students to see if any questions were problematic. After making some changes in the questionnaire, it was administered to students on a larger scale. The reliability of the questionnaire was estimated to be 0.63. The questionnaire was followed by an interview with some of the respondents who expressed their willingness for interview. In the interviews the students were asked to give more detailed answers to some of the questions and in some cases to provide some reasons for their answers. 2.2. Participants Convenience sampling was used to select the participants of this study. Some 117 respondents studying at Alzahra and Guilan Universities in Iran completed the questionnaires for analysis and 14 students were interviewed subsequently. The size of the population from which the samples were chosen was 800. The respondents were all EFL students including teaching English as a foreign language and English literature students who from among all academic levels including BA, MA, and PhD. Approximately 30 percent of the respondents were males, and 70 percent of them were females. Eighty-four percent of the respondents were BA, 11 percent MA, and 5 percent PhD level students. Since the sample was selected based on convenience sampling, and the research was done on just two universities' students; thus, no inferences or solid conclusions based on the study results are reached, nor is there intent to generalize research results to all Iranian universities. 2.3. Procedure The attitudes of students, teachers, and administrators toward the SRTEs are of great importance, as relatively scant attention has been paid to this so far. In this research, we tried to investigate the attitudes of some EFL students' attitudes toward the SRCTEs and also toward the consequences they bring about for the EFL students and their college studies. The survey was administered at Alzahra and Guilan Universities. Nearly the same SRCTE instruments are administered in both universities at the end of each semester. Filling in the SRCTE forms in both universities is obligatory for all students. In Alzahra university the students are required to first refer to the university's website and fill the forms outbefore being given an admittance card enabling them to enter the final exam site. All the participants of the study answered 26 questions of the questionnaire. The paper questionnaire was administered to students during the first and second semesters of 2012-2013 (1391-1392) educational year. At the same time, the researchers conducted complementary interviews with 14 students (6 from Alzahra university, and 8 from Guilan university) who expressed their willingness in both universit ies. The interviews took 5-10 minutes depending on the respondents' replies. In the interviews, the respondents added some points that they were not asked about in the questionnaire, but they thought were relevant to the issue. However when the interviewer noticed that there is an interesting part among the words of the interviewees or they put some more emphasis on some parts, the interviewer asked them more related questions to clarify the topic and get more information in that regard. After collecting the questionnaires, the data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequency to interpret the data. Then a chi-square test was applied to high frequency items of the questionnaire to validate the items. 3. Results and Discussion Table 1 displays the results obtained through the statistical analysis of the data. The answers of "strongly agree" and "agree" are unified under "agree", and those of "strongly disagree" and "disagree" are unified under "disagree" to simplify the results and discussion for the readers.



Table 1

The chi-square test results

Chi Sig Frequency

Item Disagree Undecided Agree

11.43 .003 56 28 33 1

20.66 .000 62 25 30 2 39.14 .000 14 33 68 3

79.77 .000 17 15 84 4

61.74 .000 17 21 79 5 167.53 .000 6 6 105 6

95.7 .000 9 19 88 7 98.73 .000 7 20 88 8

38.6 .000 16 31 69 9 106.78 .000 11 13 90 10

64.20 .000 7 33 77 11 53.89 .000 6 38 70 12

49.46 .000 13 30 73 13 1.38 .5 33 42 42 14

.97 .614 41 42 34 15

56.57 .000 76 24 15 16 21.3 .000 20 35 60 17

15.46 .000 52 44 19 18 53.91 .000 25 15 75 19

58.82 .000 78 17 22 20 27.84 .000 32 20 65 21

88.77 .000 9 21 86 22 26.39 .000 15 41 60 23

38.52 .000 64 40 10 24

3.1. The importance of the SRTEs to the students A majority of the respondents asserted that they fill the SRCTE forms carefully. However, in the subsequent interviews some of the interviewees claimed that there are some students who fill the forms out without actually reading the questions. One interviewee said that if a student generally likes the instructor, he/she rates the instructor as good in all questions without reading them; conversely, the instructor gets rated as inefficient in all questions if the student dislikes the instructor. The students believed that their opinion about instructors should be asked for by the university administrators since it is a reliable source of information to evaluate their teaching staff. Furthermore, they believed that they are eligible judges of their instructors' teaching quality. The students also believed that if university administrators take appropriate measures about their staff, and also instructors make positive changes in their teaching based on SRCTEs, these appraisal instruments could be potentially very constructive. In other words, they consider administering SRCTEs as helpful in their educational system if they notice changes for good. If they do not fulfill this function, a large percentage of the respondents perceive administering the SRCTEs as entirely futile. Students have the most direct contact with teachers. Thus, they can be regarded as a valuable source of data needed to evaluate teachers. Their ratings can be sufficiently valid provided that some conditions such as making students aware of the purposes and uses of the ratings, teaching students how to rate and how to judge properly, validating the questionnaires and asking questions on the topics that the students can have a say, controlling for sources of bias such as teacher's personality characteristics, rating leniency, halo effect, etc a re met.



3.2. Functions the students expect SRTEs to fulfill or consequences they should have The first and most important objective the students expect to achieve by SRCTEs is improvement in the instructors' teaching quality. They maintained that through filling out the SRCTEs, they intend to let their teachers know what they think about their classes and by doing so they aim at helping their teachers improve the their teaching quality. Some may contend that students might not be qualified judges of their teachers. Nevertheless, as mentioned above, the students who took part in this research believed that they are good judges of their teachers' instruction. Improvement in teaching quality is a function that many respondents were skeptical about. They asserted that instructors rarely changed their teaching based on students' opinions, and that more often than not do not, the instructors do not care about the results of the evaluation forms. Some students stated that the key reason why instructors do not try to develop their teaching is their employment status. They claimed that they think that if the instructor is officially employed and enjoys tenure, he/she will not care about the satisfaction of the students, because they are confident that whatever happens they will not lose their job. Many participants of this research believed that younger instructors care about students' opinions in SRTEs more than elderly ones do. Some students expressed that the reason why their elderly instructors do not change is that they are fixed in their teaching method and they presume know how to teach and what suits the context more based on their know-how gained through many years. Another function that the students expected the SRCTEs to fulfill is that the university administrators be able to accurately evaluate their staff (utilizing SRCTEs as evaluation instrument) and take appropriate measures based on the evaluation results. In the subsequent interviews to clarify this point, the students declared that the instructors whose teaching is not rated as good should be purged from the educational system and those who are evaluated as competent or successful must be rewarded by university to get encouraged. Many respondents claimed that no matter how low the evaluations of some instructors, they are never dealt with strictly for their incompetent teaching by the university. The participants expected the universities to take more strict measures in this regard. Some interviewees believed that the reason for lack of acceptable measures by the universities is that some poorly rated instructors are supported by powerful connections. As mentioned before, Murray (2005) claims that the amount of teaching enhancement caused by student evaluations is not large unless student feedback is accompanied by expert consultation. Aleamoni (1999) argues that SRCTEs can be misinterpreted and misused if the instructors get raw numerical results and written notes presuming that he/she is sufficiently competent to interpret such results validly. When this happens the instructor may resort to normative information to interpret the data. This interpretation is subject to misperceptions without the help from an expert. Therefore, an issue that needs reconsideration in our universities is that university reaction to the evaluations should not just take the form of rewarding or punishment. The problem is that the university instructors receive no professional feedback based on the results of the SRCTEs. The administrators leave the instructors alone to draw judgments based on the SRCTEs and to modify their teaching on the basis of the pure data they receive. Yet, making teaching more effective is one of the major consequences or outcomes the educational system can obtain from SRCTEs. The problem is that the administrators do not take wise measures to help the data be translated into useful outcomes. This threatens the consequential validity of the SRCTEs and exposes them to a superficial use for tenure decisions and summative purposes. Therefore, it can be concluded that SRCTE's impact on teaching is minute. This feedback might be provided through seminars, workshops, professional consultation sessions, discussions with colleagues, peer observations, and special training on the methods of improvement if the instructor is evaluated as poor in some items of the SRCTE forms by their students. One of the students suggested that there should be some social websites in which students and instructors can develop constructive discussions about solutions for these problems. This is a plan that can have very constructive implications for teaching if adopted properly. A further function that students expect SRCTEs to fulfill is letting the students make better choices for their future courses. They expect university administrators to publicize the results of SRCTEs so that the students could learn about the instructors' teaching and make more informed choices. However, the students asserted that at the moments, even if they were aware of the results, they would still have no choice, since some specific



courses are taught by the same instructor every term. Letting the students know about the results of SRCTEs can only be functional if the choice is really theirs. 3.3. Importance of SRCTEs to instructors A large number of the participants of this research indicated that they do not think that their instructors modify their teaching quality based on the students' opinions. Some of the respondents expressed their doubts in terms of the impact that the SRCTEs create on the instructors. They claimed that no matter what they said in the evaluation forms, the instructors continued to be the way they used to be. A majority of the students who left comments at the end of the questionnaire expressed their skepticism about the importance of SRCTEs to their instructors. They believed that improvement in teaching is a primary reason for SRCTE administration, and that if there were to be no changes in their instructors' teaching quality, this type of evaluation suffers from lack of consequential validity. 3.4. Fear of repercussions Many respondents said that they do not give higher scores than they should to receive good grades. The students also declared that they do not think that instructors may give them higher grades than they actually deserve to receive better evaluations from their students in return. They believed that it is a good idea that the instructors be informed of the results of SRCTEs after they give the grades. On the other hand, the participants said that they are not afraid of the repercussions or possible negative consequences of the SRCTE forms since they are anonymously filled out. Nevertheless, some interviewed PhD candidates claimed that because the number of students is fewer at the PhD level compared to those in MA and BA levels, and as a result it becomes easier to the instructors to guess their identity, they sometimes feel compelled to give higher grades to their instructors. It is interesting to note that a large number of the respondents expressed that even if some instructors may have inappropriate behavior towards them or assign them unfair scores they do not score the instructors lower in all items to take revenge. 3.5. Reasons why students might perceive SRCTEs as useless The respondents referred to some issues that render SRCTEs useless in their view: 1- They do not see the results of the evaluations in their present classes since the forms are administered at the end of the semester and the instructors might not have a chance to apply the results of the evaluations in their classes if they intend to. The respondents expressed their agreement with the SRCTEs' being administered in the middle of the course so that the instructors have an opportunity to make observable improvements in their current classes and the students can see the positive amendment in their courses. An important measure which might restore the students' confidence in the efficiency of SRCTEs is that in the beginning of the course, the instructors acknowledge and assure their students that some of the current policies in the class are the results of considering the students opinions expressed in their previous classes in the end-of-the-term evaluations. This ensures the students that their attitudes are respected and their instructors care about their ideas. 2- The students claimed that they have not seen noticeable modifications in their instructors' teaching and that this has been the reason for them to lose their confidence in the SRCTEs. If students perceive the evaluations as lacking consequential validity, how could we expect them to fill the forms out with care? Some respondents said that they have no idea whether this lack of adaption is because their instructors do not have intrinsic motivation (e.g. caring about better teaching) or extrinsic incentive (e.g. rewards for good teaching or avoiding penalty for bad teaching) to change for the better. This means that students are unsure about the reason why instructors do not pay enough attention to what students expect from them; is it because the instructor him/herself is not disposed to change or because the university is not doing its best to assist them to improve? 3- As mentioned above, the students think that university administrators do not pay attention to their opinions expressed in SRCTEs. They think that good instructors are not appropriately awarded based on their merits and the unqualified ones are not punished or fired due to their demerits. They will be there no matter what results they get in their instructions.



4- The students do not have the right to choose their own instructors due to university policies such as offering the course with just one instructor. Neither instructors nor students should be left alone to decide what to do with SRCTEs. The university administrators ought to take the responsibility of training both teachers and students to make the evaluations more helpful. Students need to know how to rate their instructors. They need to clearly understand what factors need to be considered in rating. The instructors also need to be trained and provided with appropriate consultation to make the best use of the evaluations. All these can be achieved by making improved policies in universities. 4. Conclusion Students' perception of evaluation forms definitely impacts the way they fill the forms out. If they think that SRCTEs create positive consequences in their educational environment, they will provide more realistic answers in the forms which will lead to more accurate results and to better decisions regarding teaching quality. If students perceive SRCTEs as useless, they will respond to the questions quite differently than when they perceive them as constructive, a fact that would definitely strengthen/undermine the validity of the whole process of evaluation and the decisions that are made based on the results. If the administrators understand what students actually think about these forms, they can base their policies on what consequences are actually desired to be gained by SRCTEs in students' perspective. Students believe that instructor evaluation should not only be used for summative purpose of decision making about universities' teaching staff, but they should also function formatively to improve teaching in academic settings. The researchers believe that this function cannot be achieved by leaving instructors alone to decide what to do and what not to do in regard to the results of SRCTEs. Administrators need to meet the obligation of firstly training students to rate their instructors properly and secondly helping teachers to use the results of SRCTEs to improve their teaching quality. REFERENCES Aleamoni, L. M. (1999). Student rating myths versus research facts from 1924 to 1998. Journal of Personnel

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universities. Assessment and Evaluation in Higher Education, 9(2), 117-132. Murray, H. (2005, June). Student evaluation of teaching: Has it made a difference? Paper presented at the

Annual Meeting of the Society for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island.

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Appendix Students' perception of SRCTEs' consequences 1- We fill the forms out carelessly. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 2- Evaluation forms are important and valuable to all students. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 3- Administration of evaluation forms is generally useful in academic settings. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 4- Students' opinion is one of the most reasonable sources of data to evaluate instructors. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 5- The uses that evaluation forms are put are not clear to me. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 6- I fill out the evaluation forms to let my instructor know what I think about his/her teaching. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 7- I fill the forms out to let and help my university decide better about the people who are teaching me. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 8- Students should have access to the results of evaluations to make better choices as to their future courses. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 9- To me, my instructors' academic behavior is as important as his/her teaching thus I expect my opinion to be also taken into account in this regard. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 10- Our courses are normally offered by one instructor; and we cannot choose the instructors whose evaluation results are good. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 11- University administrators do not care about our opinions expressed through evaluation forms. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 12- Universities never punish/reward the instructors based on what I say in evaluation forms. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree



13- I have not noticed any improvements in the instructors' teaching as a result of considering my opinions expressed in evaluation forms. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 14- I think our instructors have intrinsic (e.g. personal desire to be a better teacher) or extrinsic (rewards by university) incentives to improve their teaching. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 15- I think it is vital for the instructors to get good evaluation results. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 16- I fill good forms even for ineffectual instructors to pass my courses easily. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 17- The instructors should be informed of the results of evaluation forms after they enter the final scores. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 18- Sometimes, instructors might assign good grades to their students to get good evaluation results in return. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 19- Because the forms are anonymously filled, I am not afraid of their possible negative repercussions. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 20- I react to the instructors' inappropriate behavior or unfair score by filling poor evaluation forms for them. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 21- End-of-semester evaluation forms are not valuable and important to me because I do not see their results in my classes. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 22- I prefer the evaluations being administered in the middle of the course so that I could see the results in my classes before they are over. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 23- I perceive evaluation forms as useless since they have caused no changes in my instructors' teaching. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 24- Elderly instructors care more about students' opinions in evaluation forms than younger ones. Strongly agree agree undecided disagree strongly disagree 25- What uses do you think are made of end-of-semester evaluation forms? 26- What uses do you expect to be made of them? Name (optional)………………….. Age …………………… Gender : male female Academic level: BA MA PhD E-mail address (optional)…………………………



THE EFFECTS OF COGNITIVE AND META-COGNITIVE STRATEGIES TRAINING ON ENHANCING VOCABULARY

STORAGE OF IRANIAN STUDENTS

Mehran Rahimipour

(corresponding author) University of Payamenoor , Rasht, Iran [email protected]

ABSTRACT Learning strategies are set to be effective in learning materials in every academic instruction. This study focuses more on the significant of language learning strategies in enhancing foreign language learning in English institutes. So it tries to find out the impact of using cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies on vocabulary development among students of English institutes. To do so, three different ways of training (cognitive, meta -cognitive, and normal instruction) were given to three groups of students each consisting of 30 students. At first, a language proficiency test was given to the students to test there homogeneity and to check if they are at the same level of proficiency. In order to test hypotheses posed in this study the collected data were analyzed by ANOVA (one way). The results of the study showed that using cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies training had a significant effect on the students` learning vocabularies. So, what this study indicates is that strategies play and important role in enhancing students̀ learning and perception. KEY WORDS: strategies training, cognitive strategies, meta-cognitive strategies and vocabulary learning. 1. Background Learning or instructional strategies are generally necessities for EFL learners to enhance their learning. A training strategy is a mechanism that creates what competencies an organization requires in the future and a means to achieve it that concluding a vision, focus, direction, and action planning document (Sergay,2003).There has been some language learning strategies that researches concerning them began in 1960s. Learning strategies are as every set of operations, steps, plans, routines used by the learner to simplify the gaining, storage, retrieval, and applying of information (Wenden&Robin, 1987, p. 19). Language learning strategies were divided by many scholars. For example, Robin stated that learners contribute directly or indirectly to language learning by applying three types of strategies. These consisted of: learning strategies, communicative strategies and social strategies, but two main types of learning strategies are cognitive and meta-cognitive learning strategies that they are main subject of the present study. Cognitive learning strategies contributes directly to language learning including: clarification / verification, guessing / inductive inference, deductive reason, practice, memorization and monitoring, but meta-cognitive learning strategies involve different process, such as : planning, prioritizing, setting goals, and self-management oxford(1990). Since language learning strategies are very important particularly meta-cognitive strategies for learners, it can be said that also the role of training must not be ignored. Through cognitive strategies training, learners can solve new problems, but through meta-cognitive strategies they can improve organization of learning time, self- monitoring, and self- evaluation.Oxford (1990) stressed that cognitive is direct and meta-cognitive is indirect strategy to language learning and that the former involves manipulation of target language and is used for understanding and producing language, but the latter centering on arranging and planning, monitoring and evaluating.

O’Mallyand Chammot (1985) stated that cognitive strategies are used in manipulation of information in specific tasks and meta-cognitive strategies are for regulating learning, and also believed that both based on special thoughts and behaviors that learners apply to help them comprehend, learn, or retrieve the information.



It`s necessary to indicate that the role of strategies instruction in which it helps learners to be autonomy and control their own learning (Manzanares, 1985), they should be paid careful attention and also can help teachers become aware of their students` needs as well (Oxford et al, 1990).

2. Review of Related Literature Teachers can have a significant role in strategies learning. They can motivate and interest the students for better learning and understanding, and also by choosing a scrutinized technique and method they can help students being automaticity and enhance the process of learning. Nevertheless, training of cognitive and meta -cognitive strategies, as they are the main discussion of the present study, can be useful learning strategies to enhance vocabulary learning and storage. Vocabulary has been considered central to the enhancement of language proficiency. Instruction on the basis of these strategies in enhancing vocabulary of students has been more focused and also suggested some vocabulary learning strategies. According to Oxford and Scarcella (1994, p. 236) the importance of vocabulary learning strategies emphasized that they are able to make learners more independent of the teacher and carry out as benefit device that can be applied inside and outside of the class. Regarding vocabulary learning, two approaches among students pointed out by Sanaoui (1995) systematic and unsystematic vocabulary learning. In the former students were further determined and independent and applied more records of vocabulary items, but in the latter they were dependent on the course and applied little or any records of vocabulary items.

The important of strategies instruction on vocabulary development were frequently stressed by many researches. Nation (1990) stated that vocabulary learning is carried out by guessing of unknown of words in reading passages by learners and remembered and storage in mind in a long period of time by training through the teachers. So, training should be integrated in a long period of time into regular activities to students have been had plenty of opportunities to Evaluate themselves (Oxford, 1994). Vocabulary knowledge plays a key role in individuals̀ skills in the first and second language. Furthermore, applying of appropriate learning strategies can be trained, operated, explained and identified that meta-cognitive strategies based on many researches and studies by scholars seem to be more effective because through enhancing and training of meta -cognitive strategies in students or learners may also lead to the enhancement of stronger cognitive proficiencies and much deeper processing (Anderson, 2002).

Enhancing vocabulary by meta-cognitive strategy training is formulated indirectly with guessing words form context when this is done as a class exercise, learning words in lists and vocabulary games and controlling and evaluating of text and exposure with it (Schmitt, 1997). In general, base on strategies that mentioned above students need training into the classroom for further comprehension of vocabulary in which they should be worked and also stored by retrieving and applying them in appropriate situations (Nattinger,Carter&McCarty, 1988). Also, for vocabulary development Steven Stahl claimed that the students can not apply these strategies such as look the vocabularies up the dictionary, applying in a sentence and or context and memorizing their definition but he believed that these strategies are appropriate for students such as integrating new vocabulary to prior knowledge, using words / repetition and meaningful apply, more opportunities to apply new words in reading and writing. Gu and Johnson (1996) believed that EFL students apply a board range of dictionary, meta -cognitive strategy, note taking, repetition, and activation strategies in their vocabulary development. Alavi and Kaivanpanah(2006) stated that in vocabulary enhancing process the meta-cognitive strategies training has been motivated learners and had been more effective than cognitive strategies training. Students̀ vocabulary development would enhance through both explicit cognitive and meta-cognitive strategy training even help students to do a) self-diagnose their strength and weakness in vocabulary storage b) transfer successful strategies to new learning content c) enhance a general range of problem-solving strategies d) monitor and self-evaluate their findings and performances(Cohen, 2003). Brown (1994) emphasized that cognitive strategies training for vocabulary learning are more frequently as EFL learners` attention and by doing a particular activities they can achieve their specific goals. Also , Nazhao (2009) stated that explicitly explaining and discussing meta-cognitive strategies in the classroom can have a direct payoff on students̀ outcomes and it`s training can facilitate students` vocabulary learning.



3. Research Questions On the basis of views held by scholars mentioned in the above the study aims at testing the following research questions which are formulated:

Q1- Do cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies training have any effect in students̀ vocabulary training? Q2- Is there any difference between different types of instructions (cognitive strategies training and meta -

cognitive strategies training)? Based on the above research questions the following null hypotheses are presented:

HQ1- Cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies training don’t effect on vocabulary learning of students who are learning as a foreign language.

HQ2- There is no difference between two types of strategies training (cognitive and meta-cognitive) at 0.05 level of significance. 4. Method 4.1. Subjects The subjects of this study were selected from among the students of English language institute at advanced level from BABOL and CHALOUS of either sex. In the present study, subjects were all senior language learners and since they were all majoring at their last terms in English, they had already passed the required courses to acquire the skill and knowledge in English. Furthermore, since there is a failing score in every institute and students must obtain the score of 70 out of 100 to pass the intended term, it would be of more important that the students be at higher and at the same level of language knowledge, because better conclusion was considered to be achieved. The total number of subjects in this study measured 110, of both sex. The sample was randomly selected from among different classes. For the purpose of the study, an English language proficiency test was administered in order to ensure their homogeneity and determine their language proficiency level.

After administrating the proficiency test, comprising vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension items, 70 students were excluded because their scores measured lower than one standard deviation above the mean. After making sure that students were all the same level and their homogeneity had been verified, the required training based on meta-cognitive and cognitive strategies on two different groups started. Then, at the end of term (after 18 session of instruction), a vocabulary test was given to three groups. It must be noticed that the last group didn’t receive any intended instructions for the purpose of the study to find out it there is any change in their learning.

4.2. Instrumentation The instruments used in this study a language proficiency test. It aimed at measuring students` general knowledge of basic vocabulary, grammar and reading comprehension. All parts were in the form multiple-choice questions. This test was used to determine the level of students in terms of their proficiency in language and to make a homogeneity group.

The students were given a post-test (test of vocabulary) immediately after cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies training. Words which have been used in this section were all the ones taught within 18 sessions by the teacher as the measurement of the training outcome. These tests of vocabulary were taken from students ̀text book which is taught at institutes, Interchange 3, by Jack C. Richards. The reliability and validity of this test was checked by Cronbach’s Alpha and it turned out to be 0.079.

4.3. Procedure Since the students participating in this study were all majoring at their last semesters or levels in the institutes, it was believed that they know the general knowledge of English which was necessary for the present study and was considered to be as the base for being trained through cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. Also, it is worth that, since the effect of applying cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies on vocabulary development was going to be tested in this study, all three groups received the same questionnaires based on their instructions given to them (except the third group without any intended instruction). The question which was directly tested in this experiment was whether the subjects would be able to improve their vocabulary learning concerning cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies. If yes, which one was most beneficial: cognitive strategies or meta-



cognitive ones. On the basis of the above discussion, the following procedures were followed to carry out this study:

First, the vocabulary strategy training based on cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies was given to two groups for 18 sessions. For each class, students were asked to use some strategies to learn vocabularies. They are as: using dictionary, repetition of words, using context and grammatical clues; word card; using words in different context like conversation and writing. The procedure for meta-cognitive strategy training based on three components (planning, monitoring, and evaluating) was used as follows:

Planning: First of all, the teacher thoroughly explained what a meta-cognitive strategy is. Then, he mentioned how important applying meta-cognitive strategy training is on learning vocabularies. Later, students were taught how to plan appropriately for learning vocabularies. Number of words that students have to learn within a specific time limitation, way of accomplishing the plan; and the best time for learning those words as well as time allocation to do so were all told to the students by the teacher. Also, they were asked to record those words vocalized and read by a person who knows English well on their mobile phone. The idea behind this procedure is that students can learn how to manage and regulate their time appropriately and use their dead times (while they are on their way to home in Taxies, buses, etc. when going to bed and etc.).

Monitoring:The teacher motivated the students to work in groups of two or three to monitor each other. They were asked to use those words trained and taught during instruction in different contexts and exercises such as: fill in the blanks, cloze test, and etc. Through these exercises the teacher and students could find out the weaknesses and strength of the students` learning vocabularies.

Evaluation: at the seventeenth session, students were asked to evaluate their learning by answering the following questions:

1. Has the instruction been successful? 2. Were the vocabularies for instruction at the right level? 3. Have all vocabulary strategies been emphasized equally? 4. What points need reviewing? 5. Have I attained my goal? 6. Could I change my vocabulary learning and strategy when I find out it isn’t appropriate? 7. How vocabulary can I learn through reading comprehension? 8. Which vocabulary strategy have I recognized the easiest? 9. Which one is the most difficult? 10.How can I learn and try to draw lessons from this process better for next time? 11. What were my applied vocabulary strategies within training? 12. How can I make a benefit through participating with students and teacher within training? 13. How memorizing can help to me for storage more vocabularies? Since this cognitive strategies are more limited to specific learning tasks and involve more manipulation of

the learning material itself (BROWN, 2000), the teacher used some of those strategies as: A) Repetition which can be described as imitating a language model, including overt practice, B) Translation-using the first language as a base for understanding and / or producing the second language, and C) Creating structure for input and output, including: taking notes, summarizing and highlighting during 18 sessions of instruction.

Second, the last group received normal instructions mainly based on teachers` experiences during years of teaching.

Based on the above discussion, the following procedures were followed to carry out this study. First, the GENERAL MICHIGAN TEST (GMT) consisting of 100 items was administrated to 110 subjects.

The time given was 60 minutes, and the subjects were explained on how to answer the questions. There was no penalty for the wrong guesses.

Upon administrating the test, each subject was given a score based on his/her performance on the test. Out of 110, 90 students were selected because their scores were on standard deviation above the mean. They were considered as proficiency for the present study. Table 1 represents more information:



Table1: statistics for the Michigan proficiency test Test DF Mean STD.DEVIATION

Michigan 90 73.04 6.01 Then, these 90 students were randomly divided into three groups each consisting of 30 students with the

same level of proficiency. Also, it should be mentioned that to encourage and motivate the students in the post -tests, they were told that a prize would be given to the one who outperformed the other members of the group. 4.4. Data Analysis In this study, two sets of data were collected: first, Michigan multiple-choice standardized test of language proficiency; second, a vocabulary test was given to three groups. The scoring was quite objective, since, all the questions were in the form of multiple-choice.

After collecting the required data, they were analyzed. First, one-way ANOVA was used to determine the differences between the mean test scores of the three groups. Finally, LEVENE test was used for comparing means of subjects in their tests. 5. Results and Discussions

Table2: Test of homogeneity of variances for the three groups

Sig. Df2 Df1 LEVENE STATISTIC

.098 87 2 2.385 Since LEVENE`S statistic level of significant proceeds 0.05, it can be concluded that there is a significant

differences among variances of the three strategies training (cognitive, meta-cognitive and normal training).

Table3: ANOVA SIG. F MEAN

SQUARE DF SUM OF

SQUARE

.000 26.000 1340.278 51.549

2 87 89

2680.556 4484.733 7165.289

Between Groups

Within Groups

Total

Table three indicates that the results of the effect of cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies training on

students on the basic of Fisher`s test. Concerning the statistic of Fisher`s test which equals 26.000 at the level of 0.05, it can be included that there

is a meaning full difference among three strategies. As a result, the first null hypothesis suggesting that cognitive and meta-cognitive strategies training don’t

have any effect on students vocabulary learning is rejected, and it can be concluded that applying these strategies affect students` learning vocabulary.

Table4: Comparison of Means of Subjects in different groups

95%Confidence Interval

Sig. STD.ERROR MEAN DIFFERENCE

S (I-J)

(J) group (I) group



Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Lower Bound

UPPER.BOUND

Lower Bound

-2.4278

-5.6752

10.5722

-1.9337

17.9915

9.7330

-12.5722

-17.9915

2.4278

-9.7330

8.6752

1.9337

.002

.000

.002

.002

.000

.002

2.06181 1.88377 2.06181 1.58432 1.88377 1.58432

-7.50000(*) -13.3333(*) 7.50000(*) -5.83333(*) 13.3333(*) 5.83333(*)

Exp1 control DUNNETT T3

Exp2 Control exp1 Exp2 Control exp2 Exp1

AS the result show in table 4, the difference between the average scores of the control group (group with

normal instruction) and cognitive strategies training is quite remarkable, that is -12.5722 for upper bound and -2.4278 for lower bound.

Also the same difference exists between control group and the group that received meta-cognitive strategies training. Also there is a significant difference between cognitive and meta-cognitive at the level of 0.<0.5, therefore, the second null hypothesis formulated in this study is not rejected.

Table5: Descriptive statistics for three groups

Subset for alpha=0.05 N Group 1 3 2 1

90.3000

84.4667

76.9667 30 30 30

Control Turkey B(a)

Exp1 Exp2

With regard to the information provided on table 5, it can be concluded that in this cluster table, the meta -

cognitive strategies training was better than the cognitive one. So, the second null hypothesis formulated in this study is rejected. Furthermore, more information is provided in the following bar-graph.

6. Conclusion and Implications The results of this study are showed that meta-cognitive strategies training had very effective on vocabulary learning, development and storage of institutes̀ students. Of course, this study doesn’t deny the role or impact of cognitive strategies training. The meta-cognitive strategies training and direct attention were more frequently used as planning, monitoring and evaluation strategies.

This study also showed that institute teacher has a significant effect on applying of cognitive and meta -cognitive strategies in vocabulary development. This causes language teachers to think about their different teaching, styles, strategies and techniques that can be contributed to students to enhance vocabulary learning.

The significant implication is the choice and applying of appropriate strategy, namely: students̀ needs. Teachers by analyzing students needs at the initiating of each lesson or course can familiarize students with appropriate and crucial strategies and enable them to achieve their goals. It is not inevitable that by applying appropriate strategy teacher can encourage students to use strategy that promote vocabulary learning.



The final aim of applying the vocabulary learning strategies is to create learner autonomy. That’s why to attain this, teachers have to find out students` needs and use appropriate strategies to students and also students must become aware that by applying these strategies they enable to learn independently of teachers.

The other aim of implication is related to teacher-training program. The aim of such programs is that teachers should become aware with useful impacts of strategies on learners` development. Nevertheless, teachers` awareness of the role of strategies can encourage them to search for beneficial techniques and styles to identify students with learning strategies.

REFERENCES Alavi, S. M. &Kaivanpanah, S. (2006). Cognitive and meta-cognitive vocabulary learning strategies across fields

of study.Pajuhesh-e Zabanha-ye Khareji, 27. Anderson, N.J. (2002). The role of meta-cognition in second language teaching and learning. The internet ERIC

digest. Education Resources information center. Brown, D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching. NJ: prentice Hall Regents. Carter, R. (1998). Vocabulary applied linguistic perspectives. London: ROUTLEDGE. Coady, J. (1997). L2 Vocabulary acquisition: A synthesis of the research. In J. Coady, & T.Huckin, (Eds.), Second

Language Vocabulary acquisition (pp.273-290). Cohen, A.D. (1988). Strategies in learning and using a second language. New York: Longman. Chamot, A.U. & O`Malley, J.M (1994). The CALLA handbook: Implementing the cognitive academic language

learning approach. Reading.MA: Addison-Wesley. EslamiRasekh, Z. &Ranjbary, R. (2003) Meta-cognitive strategy training for vocabulary learning. TESL-EJ.7(2). Gu, Y ,& Johnson, R .K. (1996). Vocabulary learning strategies and language learning outcomes.Language

learning, 64(4).634-679. Nazhao, O. (2009). Mete-cognitive strategy training and vocabulary learning of Chinese college

students.www.ccsent.org / journal.htm Oxford, R.L.(1990). Language Learning Strategies: What every teacher should know. New York. New Bury

House. Richards Jack. C. Interchange 3 (third edition) student book. Rubin .J. (1996).Using multimedia for learner strategy instruction. In Oxford, R.L.(ED), Language learning

strategies around the world: Cross-Cultural perspectives (pp.151-56). Wenden, A. (1991). Learner strategies for learner autonomy. New York: Prentice Hall.



GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY THROUGH CORRECTIVE FEEDBACK ON DIALOGUE JOURNAL

Narges Rezaeizad, MA student Department of English, Semnan Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University

Mazandaran, [email protected]

Abbas Moradan, Phd Department of English and Literature, Humanity College, Semnan University

Semnan, [email protected]

Golnaz Peyvandi Department of English, Semnan Branch, Islamic Azad University, Semnan, Iran

[email protected]

ABSTRACT

The extent to which written corrective feedback (WCF) on linguistic errors can help L2 student writers in ESL/ EFL context contributes to be an issue of interest to researchers since Truscott (1996) mounted a case for its abolition. In line with what other researchers have found and to integrate WCF more to the language learning curriculum, this study tried to examine the role of WCF on dialogue journals which can help both the students and teachers take educational advantage of the time that they spend in L2 writing classes. As the process of language learning is so wide and complex, this research decided to narrow it down to grammatical knowledge accuracy. 60 homogenous upper-intermediate university students majoring in English were selected. Then, a comprehensive NELSON test was administrated to ascertain the homogeneity of two groups. Next, they were randomly assigned into two groups of 30 participants. The dialogue journals between the participants and the researcher were the only interventions implemented for the purpose of the study. For each session of semester both groups handed in their journals. Then, the researcher responded to each student's entries with a letter. In addition, control group received WCF on the content of their writing (not as a treatment) while the experimental group received treatment (coded WCF). Finally, both groups received a TOEFL grammar test as a posttest which was the same as pretest. The statistical analyses indicated that experimental group did better than control group in the posttest. Moreover, the study found significant effects for teachers' WCF on students' overall accuracy improvement. KEY WORDS: Grammatical accuracy, journal writing, dialogue journal writing, corrective feedback 1. Introduction

The main role of L2 writing teachers is to assist their learners to improve their writing proficiency in accordance with the course objectives and student needs. Corrective feedback (CF) is viewed as the significant part of L2 writing instruction by both teachers and students. WCF is one type of CF which may be applied by most L2 writing teachers. It is widely used approach to respond to students' written production. For students, error correction is regarded as the most important part which will lead to their success in L2 writing; and for teachers as writing instructors it is the largest allocation of time which they spend in L2 writing context (Ferris, 2003).



There is a long debate on the effectiveness of error correction on the development and improvement of writing accuracy (Truscott, 1996; Ferris, 1999; Chandler, 2003; Truscoutt & Hsu, 2008). Nevertheless, some researchers (e.g., Bitchener & Knock, 2010; Ferris, 2010; Sheen, 2010) have examined the question of whether error correction should be employed in L2 writing context to help students become proficient writers.

Regarding this point of view on the effectiveness of CF on the improvement of L2 writers' writing accuracy, the present study used quantitative tools in order to investigate the efficacy of WCF as one type of CF on students' written production in the improvement of L2 writing accuracy. 2. Review of Related Literature An overview of Communicative Language Teaching

The idea of communicative language teaching (CLT) has been expanded since the mid-1970s. CLT was greatly influenced by the early version of Long's (1983a, 1983b, 1996) Interaction Hypothesis. Since then, second language instructors have been encouraged to employ CLT methodology in their classes. The main focus of CLT was on meaningful interaction through using spoken language during pair or group work. There are various methods to teach communicatively are, for example, immersion, task- based instruction, structured input, and the natural approach (Krashen & Terrel, 1983).

For some scholars who apply this approach in language teaching (e.g., Haliday, 1985) language is used to communicate rather than as a linguistic construction. Communication is the primary goal of second or foreign language instruction. As a result, the syllabus of language curriculum should be organized around subject matter, tasks or semantic notions, and pragmatic functions not around grammar. In other words, language instruction is content based, meaning full, conceptualized, and discourse based. There is no place for grammar instruction in communicative classrooms. Students grasp the grammar through communicative activities. If they want to learn more grammar, they can acquire it through their home works of reference books

The focal point in CLT is to develop learners' communicative competence through meaningful interaction with others (Brown, 2000; Canale & Swain, 1980; Mochida, 2002). According to Reckheit and Strohner (2008) the fundamental aspect of communicative competence is effectiveness of speech during communication. To achieve communicative competence, it is necessary for learners to be competent in four areas: linguistic, sociolinguistic, discourse and strategic competence (Canale & Swain, 1980& Swain, 1985). As noted by Canale and Swain (1980) linguistic competence concerns learners' ability to use appropriate lexis, syntax, and structures. Sociolinguistic competence concerns learners' appropriate use of language in different settings. Discourse competence refers to learners' ability to form oral and written language properly and meaningfully and strategic competence relates to the use of strategies to make up inadequate abilities in other aspects of competence. Each competence plays a prominent role in the acquisition of communicative competence. Although communicative approach does not imply that fluency is of primary importance, the current focus on communicative approach in language teaching has de- emphasized the role of grammar in writing classes (Wang, 2009). Learners need an understanding of rule system underling the learning language. If the students are able to process the input encountered in authentic texts, they will also need grammatical accuracy alongside the confidence to write fluently Grammatical competence is one of the components of communicative competence. Savignon (2006) assured that communicative competence is different from communicative ability. The former refers to learners' ability to interpret information, express oneself, and negotiate meaning and the latter refers to learners' ability to comprehend meaning and to use structures appropriately. In other words, knowing the grammar of a language is needed to achieve higher level of communication. Thus, it is obvious that the grammar of target language should be taught in every day communicative settings and situations. The Role of grammar in communicative language teaching There has been a mixture of beliefs on including grammar instruction in CLT. Some scholars (e.g., Prabhu, 1987) supported the prevention of grammar learning while others (e.g., Lightbown & Spada, 1990; Nassaji, 2000; Lightbown & Spada, 1993) emphasized the inclusion of grammar teaching in CLT. They suggest that some focus on form may be necessary for learners to achieve accuracy as well as fluency in the acquisition of second or foreign language (Long, 1983a & Rutherford, 1987). However, Spada (1997) claimed that thinking of CLT with an exclusive focus on meaning are a myth. In fact, that widespread belief that CLT suppresses the attention to



grammar is partly true, because although CLT syllabi are organized according to meaning and function, they still have a strong grammar basis (Thurnbury, 2001). However, when discussing the role of grammatical accuracy in CLT, some of this disagreement may be solved if we talk about two main types of CLT, the shallow- end approach and deep- end approach (Thurnbury, 2001). The shallow-end approach in CLT is based on this belief that in order to make the learner use language in a communicative context, first, the learner is required to learn the grammatical rules and then apply them in various communicative situation; on the contrary, the deep- end approach is based on this belief that the learner acquires the grammar of a language naturally during his performance in different situations and consequently, it would be useless to teach grammar explicitly (Thurnbury, 2001). According to this, CLT does not deal with grammar. First, it just uses grammatical structures in different situations, although it is not presented explicitly. Second, as cited by Halliday (1994) grammar is not only the study of linguistic forms but also it is the study of function and meaning (both meaning and function are taught in teaching grammar), based on Hallidayian view in grammar teaching, explicit teaching of function is still grammar teaching. However, the fact that grammar is taught in shallow- end approach does not mean that this type of CLT is not communicative. In this case, grammar is needed as a means which results in learners' communicative performance. In the shallow- end approach, grammar is taught inductively as learners are not presented with a list of grammatical rules to learn by heart but they are provided with examples to infer the rules by themselves. Rutherford (1987) called this approach consciousness raising. By applying this inductive way of teaching, the learners have the ability to relate the new grammatical concepts to other grammatical information they have learned. So, the new grammar is as familiar as possible to the learner and it is not something strange or unattached to the previous knowledge. On the other hand, deep-end approach is based on this claim that grammar should be acquired unconsciously, in line with Krashen's theory (1985), Natural Approach which is employed as an acquisition- oriented model in language teaching. This theory, natural approach, stresses the role of grammar as it affects the final aim of communication. This model has been greatly employed in ELT, and there is still a belief that the teaching of grammar affects negatively input processing and performance. As pointed by Lock (1997) this excluding view of grammar in deep- end approach was strongly influenced by the rejection of traditional methodologies in grammar teaching which grammatical rules were acquired with the approach of the rule plus drilling methodology since learners would be unable to integrate their grammar knowledge within communicative process. However, even when large amount of contradictions on teaching grammar still exist in ELT literature, the deep-end approach is not currently used, as most instructors stress the role of grammar, without dismissing the main target of communication. Larsen- Freeman (1995) believed that:

Despite the popularity of such approaches [the Natural Approach], if the pattern alluded to earlier is perpetuated [no grammatical analysis in the classroom], then one would expect them to be challenged. Indeed, there are already signs that this is happening. […] thus, a more satisfactory characterization of teaching grammar, harmonious with the above assumptions, is that teaching grammar means enabling language students to use linguistic forms accurately, meaningfully, and appropriately (p. 279-28) .

In fact, according to Richards & Rodgers (1986) no actual empirical evidence proves communicative language classrooms which ignore using grammar instructions. Furthermore, Higgs and Clifford (1982) claimed that grammarless communicative approach produces language learners who develop a broken and ungrammatical form of the target language. Such students have fossilized in their language acquisition. Hence, grammar instruction shouldn't be dismissed in these classes.

Grammatical Accuracy in writing Writing involves not just a graphic representation of speech, but the development and representation of

thoughts in a structured way which is often one of the hardest skills even for the native speakers of a language (Jalalifarahani & Azizi, 2012). Learners need to learn how to transfer their oral knowledge to written language and also teachers should focus on grammatical concepts for clear communication of meaning. The application of precise grammar is a noticeable aspect of any good piece of writing. In addition, by producing written work that employs the learned grammatical structures, students can develop their English level. Although it is unpractical



for English language learners to expect to reach 100% accuracy, they should aim to improve their writing accuracy to make their work as readable and efficient as possible (Balaghizadeh & Gordani, 2012(.

What seems obvious to assert is that in writing one should follow rules of grammatical accuracy. Hence, it is crucial that writing is free of impurities through acquiescence with the conventions of grammar to affirm clarity and avoid ambiguity in expression. Leki and Carson (1997) emphasized that in ESL programs teaching, writing needs to provide learners with linguistic and writing skills that can enable learners to be involved with and make sense of new information. Many researchers have rationally argued that for English language learners, grammar accuracy is essential to achieve their educational and professional goals (Celce-Murcia, 1991 & Schmidt, 1994). Celce- Murcia (1991), for instance, stressed the importance of a plausible degree of grammatical accuracy in writing. She noticed that high frequency of grammatical errors in students' writing almost certainly makes their writings unacceptable to the readers. Journal writing Journal writing is a learning and communication approach in which students reflect on ideas and reactions about their interested topics. While journal writing, students are free to write without being frightened about their production. It can also help them to catch their feelings, thoughts and emotions. Peyton and Reed (1990) stated that journal writing is between two student, or a student and teachers who are more concerned with meaning than grammatical errors. Journal writing as a communication way helps learners to shift from the sentence level to the content level .This activity is completely different from other types of writing since it is recorded over a school year or a semester, where students write on their selected interested topic and the teacher as an active partner respond to every journal entry once a week or every other week. Students, in their journals, can write on topic which is more important to them or about the issues they experience during their daily lives and they are not constrained to write on topics assigned by the teacher. Moreover, the length of their journal entries may vary from few sentences to few pages (peyton, 1987). Teachers are required to provide open ideas based on students' needs, interest and writing abilities to respond to students journal entries. Moreover, they are not expected to correct grammatical errors or spelling. Journal writing values the exchange of communicative ideas between the teacher and the student. Feedback that students receive provides them with more motivation to write better. In most cases, teachers may ask students questions on the topic and offer suggestions. However, teachers may correct students' entries indirectly by recasting or rephrasing what students have written . The purpose of journal writing is to motivate learners to express meaning without any anxiety. This approach might make less proficient writers to focus more on developing their wanted ideas instead of worrying about them. Fuhler (1994) claimed that through journal writing, students have more freedom to express meaning than traditional writing tasks do, since teachers do not grade journal entries. As a result, writers can express their ideas assuring that they will get responses from the teacher (Fuhler, 1994( . Tompkins (2004) classified types of journals into six categories "personal journals, dialogue journals, reading logs, learning logs, double entry journals, and stimulated journals" (pp. 193-210). Corrective Feedback in L2 Writing

The extent to which CF on linguistic errors can play a role in helping L2 writers improve the accuracy of their writing continues to be an issue of interest to researchers and teachers since Truscott (1996) mounted a case for its abolition. With the advent of writing process in second language and foreign language pedagogy, CF has been considered as an important tool for improving grammatical accuracy. The vital role of CF In language learning and language instruction, including writing in English as a Second or foreign language context, is evident. Students can gain sufficient benefit from revisions on their drafts to produce final piece of writing . In these processes, students often rely on feedback either from a teacher, peer, or self. Received feedback from a source, or a combination of sources, provides students with needed information about what is good and what needs to be improved so that they can use the feedback in their revisions and in the final product of their writing . Feedback is an essential component of any English language writing course. According to Ur (1996) feedback is defined as the given information to the learner about his or her performance of learning task.



Surveys of students' feedback preference indicate that most English language learners prefer teachers' WCF to alternative forms oral and peer feedback (Satio, 1994). This practice is the primary method to comment on students' writing to assist them in writing development. Teachers WCF indicate problems and help them improve their writing and prevent them to make the same mistake in future writing assignments. Through feedback, students can compare their own performance with the ideal and diagnose their own strengths and weaknesses. Role of Teachers in Providing Feedback on Students' Written production Keh (1990) and Hedgcock and Leftkowitz (1994) considered at least four roles for writing teachers while giving written feedback to students: a reader or respondent, a writing teacher or guide, a grammarian, and an evaluator or judge. Teachers as a reader or respondent interacting with writing respond to the content and they show their agreement about an idea or content of the text. Teachers provide positive feedback such as "well done" or "I agree with you" without giving any correction. Second , as a guide, teachers show their concern about certain points in students' text and certain only ask some clarification or questions about confusing or illogical ideas in the text without giving any suggestion or correction. They may provide learners with offering some strategies for revision such as choice of problem solving or possible examples. In the third role as a grammarian, teachers write suggestions based on grammatical mistakes and relevant grammatical rules. They provide learners with a reason as to why a certain grammatical structure is incorrect such as choice of tense, use of article, or preposition. They may give elaborate explanation on grammatical rules to assist learners to improve their product. Fourth, as an evaluator, many teachers act as a judge who evaluate the quality of students' writing as a final revised text (Arndt, 1992) and grade them according to their evaluation criteria. 3. Methodology

Participants For the purpose of the study, two classes of 60 Iranian Junior university students were selected. The subjects were both male and female majoring in English. The age of participants ranged from 19 to 25.Although the subjects were in the same class and had passed different achievement tests to get to this level and could be taken as homogeneous, in order to have a more homogeneous sample, comprehensive NELSON test was administrated to both groups. According to this kind of proficiency test taken from the students, the participants' level was upper-intermediate .

Targeted Grammar Error In this study, no specific targeted grammar error is considered. All of the grammatical errors which had been found in students' writing were subject to correction. Bitchener and Knock (2010) stated that considering all the errors in error correction is problematic whereas the researcher thinks that it didn't really matter as students' scores were based on overall performance at the end of the experiment. Data Collection Instruments In order to have a reliable and valid result in this research, the following instruments were implemented:

1. Administrating a comprehensive NELSON English test to all the participants as a standard measure to determine their level of proficiency in both groups and selecting two nearly homogeneous groups.

2. The writing scale employed for scoring the paragraphs of the participants was the ESL composition

profile by Jacob et al. (1981) which has formerly been used for teacher-, self-, and peer-assessment by Satio (1994).

3. A TOEFL structure test was piloted as a pretest. This test consists of forty questions. Test takers have

twenty-five minutes to complete the forty questions. The researcher administrated it to make sure there is no statistically significant difference in the learners' (in both group) grammatical knowledge.



Besides, it had been done to have a quantitative understanding of the grammatical knowledge of the learners at the outset of the study, and be able to compare it with the result of the posttest and see how much progress each group has made.

4. Final TOEFL structure test was administrated as a posttest of the learners' grammatical knowledge

to see how much progress each group had made. There are two types of questions in this section the same as questions in TOEFL Structure test which was administrated as a pretest .

5. Dialogue journal writing was used as a tool between students and teachers for the purpose of the

study, in which students could write on every topic they wanted to as much as they needed to express themselves. Then, the researcher responded to their written production in a letter.

Procedure In order to conduct the research question and verify the research hypothesis posed in this study the following steps were taken: Two classes of 30 Iranian Junior university students majoring in English were selected; then, a comprehensive NELSON test was administrated to both groups to find the homogeneity of the groups. After analyzing the data, it was revealed that all participants were upper- intermediate. To make sure that the groups were homogenized, the researcher assigned one class as the control group and the other as the experimental group randomly. The dialogue journals between the participants and the researcher were the only interventions implemented for the purpose of the study . Accordingly, to raise awareness of the students about the procedure of implementing this study during the first week, the instructor introduced the concept of dialogue journals to all participants in both groups. Students were told that they could write about anything they wanted to, their favorite places, what they like to do in their free time, the time when they feel disappointed and the time when they feel excited, or about their vacations and holidays celebrations and etc. The students were mainly focused on how much they had to write and constantly asked how long the entries needed to be. The researcher suggested that they could write about two paragraphs or three, although they could write as much as they needed to fully express themselves. The students could write letters to the researcher which they did occasionally . For each session of semester both groups handed in their journals. Then, the researcher responded to each of students' entries with a letter. If the students asked questions, the researcher answered them. In addition; one group as control group received WCF on the content of their writing (not as a treatment) while the other group, experimental group, received treatment. As a treatment to the experimental group, the teacher simply showed that an error had been made through correction codes on the grammatical points. The WCF was similar to a collaborative process that aimed at building a good rapport and helping to create a supportive and non-threatening environment where students feel secure to write whatever they want to. The students in the control and experimental group received eight session treatment. Finally, both groups received a TOEFL grammar test, according to learners' grammatical problems in the proficiency test as post -test which was the same as pretest.

4. Data Analysis Both descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for the data analysis of the study. After collecting, verifying, coding, entering and forming a data bank in the SPSS statistical software, methods of statistical descriptions such as frequency distribution charts, descriptive graphs measures of central tendency and variability such as mean and mode were employed for describing the data. For statistical inferences test such as an independent t-test was run based on the score of the post test, since the aim was to compare the average of the control and experimental groups, and to answer the research question and decide about the hypothesis of the study and finally to generate the results to the population.



Table 4- 6 Statistics of the post Test Group1 N Mean Std. deviation Std.ErrorMean Experimental 1.00 30 27.33 2.059 .532 Control 2.00 30 19.13 2.800 .723

Table 4- 7 Independent Samples Test



F Sig. t df Sig. (2-tailed)

Mean Difference



Lower Upper

Equal variances 1.487 .233 9.139 28 .000 8.200 .897 6.362 10.038 Assumed Equal variances not 9.139 25.715 .000 8.200 .897 6.355 10.045 Assumed

5. Results and Discussion

The results of this analysis approved that providing WCF, regardless of any type of feedback strategy, helps student writers improve their grammatical accuracy in writing. These findings supported the results of previous studies on WCF by Carroll (2000), Ferris and Roberts (2001), Nagata (1997), Nagata and Swisher (1995), and more recent studies by Bitchener (2008), Bitchener and Knock (2010), Ellis et al. (2008), Sheen (2007), and Rassaei and Moinzadeh (2011). This study found that providing WCF is beneficial for language learners in improving their grammatical accuracy. The findings of the current study also provided additional evidence in support of teacher WCF which can be employed to respond to Truscott's claim who sparked the discussion on the effectiveness of WCF. The findings of this research encountered Truscott's two fundamental argues that providing WCF by teachers in ESL/EFL contexts in ineffective in reducing students' grammatical errors and that error correction is not related to learning. As pointed earlier, Truscott (1996, 1999, 2004, and 2007) argued that grammar correction should be abandoned as it is not only ineffective on improving student writing but it is also harmful. Despite other provided evidence in favor of WCF (Bitchener, 2008; Bitchener et al., 2005; Chandler, 2003; Ellis et al., 2008; Ferris, 1999, 2004; Ferris & Roberts, 2001), Truscott (2007) argued the ineffectiveness of WCF. Furthermore, Truscott and Hsu (2008) concluded that the successful error reduction during revision cannot be regarded as evidence on the effectiveness of WCF on learners' writing accuracy . In the midst of this controversy, Guenette (2007) and Bruton (2009, 2010) claimed that conflicting interpretations of previous studies on the effectiveness of error correction can be attributed to research design, methodology flaws, and uncontrollable external variables by the researchers such as the absence of a true control group. In addition to employing one experimental group receiving WCF as the treatment, the present study also used a control group who received no treatment. This study also compared difference in error correction across subsequent revisions over a long period of time. As the results of this study revealed, contrary to Truscott and Hsu (2008) who assured that successful error correction is not attributed to learning, there was clear empirical evidence on the effectiveness of WCF on reducing students' errors on grammatical items in the production of subsequent written production. The findings of this study also proved that students in experimental group learned effectively from teacher WCF in identifying different types of errors and in incorporating teacher WCF in subsequent revised drafts. Thus, students in the experimental group reduced their grammatical errors in their subsequent revised drafts. The results of this study provided empirical evidence that the reduction of errors in students' writing was the result of learning from teacher WCF that they received during the treatment period. At the same time, students in



control group who did not receive any WCF did not make any significant error reduction during subsequent revised drafts. It was also evident in this study that students in experimental group gained some improvement in grammatical accuracy across revised drafts . The finding of present study also is in line with Vygotsky's (1978) belief in the importance of social context; he placed more emphasis on the social context of learning. He believed everything is learned on two levels: First, through interaction with others, and then integrated into the individual's mental map. Therefore, he believed that social interaction plays a fundamental role in cognitive development. The social interaction that the WCF stimulates, tries to build such mental map in the learners' mind which seems to be successful on that..

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TOWARD LEARNER-CENTERED READING: LINKING EFL LEARNERS’ AUTONOMY, VOCABULARY LEARNING

STRATEGIES, AND READING COMPREHENSION

Mania Nosratinia Assistant Professor, Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran, Faculty of Foreign Languages, English

Department, Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Rosa Salehi Gourabsari MA Candidate in TEFL, Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran, Faculty of Foreign Languages, English

Department, Tehran, Iran [email protected]

Elnaz Sarabchian

MA in TEFL, Islamic Azad University at Central Tehran, Faculty of Foreign Languages, English Department, Tehran, Iran.

[email protected] ABSTRACT The present study aimed at investigating interrelationships among EFL learners’ vocabulary-learning-strategies, autonomy, and reading-comprehension. To this end, 100 Iranian EFL learners, between 16-40 years old, studying at Shokouh Institute at Bandarabas, Iran, were selected. The participants’ reading comprehension level was assessed through Preliminary English Test. Also, students were asked to answer autonomy and vocabulary learning strategy questionnaires. Correlation analysis indicated a statistically significant relationship between learners’ autonomy and choice of vocabulary learning strategies, autonomy and reading comprehension, and finally, choice of vocabulary learning strategies and reading comprehension. Running multiple regressions revealed that vocabulary learning strategies were the best predictor of reading comprehension and predicted 66 percent of scores on the reading comprehension test. On the other hand, autonomy predicted 57 percent of EFL learners’ scores on the vocabulary learning strategies and 55 percent of scores on the Reading Comprehension test. Conclusions and pedagogical implications are further discussed. KEYWORD: Vocabulary learning strategies, autonomy, reading comprehension, learner independence, effective learning 1. Introduction Over the past few decades, learner centered instruction, has gained a significant attention, and thus led to an inevitable increase in research dedicated to finding insights concerning the use and impact of language learning strategies (Cohen, & Aphek, 1981; Wenden, & Rubin, 1987; O’Malley, & Chamot, 1990; Ellis, 1994; Schmitt, 1997; Marefat, & Shirazi, 2003). The trend of learner-based classroom values the significance of learners’ engagement in the learning environment, and consequently changes curriculum towards a more learner-centered method of teaching (Thanasoulas, 2000). In a learner-centered curriculum, students’ strategy-use plays an important role in students’ learning process and helps them to overcome different learning difficulties. Through the use of vocabulary learning strategies,



learners who seek for support to learn ‘how to fish’ can use language-learning strategies, such as keeping the words in their memory, making associations, producing them, when they encounter obstacles. According to Cohen (2003), strategy training aims to provide learners with awareness of language learning strategies through instruction. This awareness can also help learners in becoming more responsible for their own learning. As Holec (1981) and Little (1991) put it, learners cannot feel responsible for their own learning process, in other words cannot be autonomous, unless they have ideas of what, why and how they are learning. Strategic choices of learners can be seen as the conscious choices to solve problems and organize knowledge and skills (Cohen, 1998; McDonough, 1999), and according to Oxford (1990,2001), they are often said to contribute to autonomous learning. Vocabulary learning strategies, as the main variable of the current study, are a part of language learning strategies which have received much attention since the late seventies. However, a small number of studies have been conducted to investigate the relationship among Iranian Vocabulary learning strategies, autonomy, and reading comprehension. 1.1 Autonomy The concept of learner autonomy is becoming “a buzz-word within the context of language learning” (Little, 1991, p. 2), hence, fostering learner autonomy, including self-regulation, self-efficacy, self-awareness, self-care, self-charge, self-command and self-confidence is becoming one of the most important goals in language teaching. Among the varied and evolving definitions of autonomy that prevail, Holec’s (1981: p. 3) apt definition as “the ability to take charge of one’s learning” holds relevance and seems to be the most frequently cited definition as it is the cornerstone and forms the crux in understanding this variable, which essentially means that the learner must take responsibility for his / her learning experiences. Holec (1981: 3) also outlines a number of aspects of learning for which a learner should be able to take responsibility for making decisions, including “determining objectives, selecting and grading content, selecting methods and techniques, monitoring the procedure of acquisition, and evaluating what has been acquired”. In essence, autonomous learners are such learners who are able to develop techniques and strategies appropriate to their individual and idiosyncratic needs. Stern (1983) sums up four strategies tapped by good language learners who possess autonomy sense, namely, active planning strategy, academic learning strategy, social learning strategy and affective learning strategy. Hence, if learners are able to hold a grasp on autonomous learning behavior, they will propel themselves in the language learning process and consequently, improve language proficiency in receptive skills of listening and reading and productive skills of speaking and writing. Nation (200:3941) stressed, “no matter what the teacher does or what the course book presents, ultimately it is the learner who does the learning”. As vocabulary is one of the main problems encountered in developing language proficiency, it is therefore imperative that learners develop a sense of autonomy in learning lexical items. Nation (2001) points out three major attributes of learner autonomy in determining success of vocabulary learning, which are, having a positive attitude, possessing adequate awareness, and having sufficient capability of word knowledge and word forms. Nation (2001) further stresses that autonomy is experienced as long as the learner wields empowerment and explores what should be given the greatest amount of attention and effort, what should be looked at again and reviewed outside class, how the material presented should be mentally processed, and how interaction with the teacher and others in the class should be carried out. Only with all these efforts can learners ensure that they are able to direct their learning to become lifelong learners who are able to learn autonomously, which is the crux of our National Education Philosophy. In this regard, there is a need to draw a line between “learning the meanings of specific words” and “learning strategies to become independent word learners” (Blachowicz & Fisher, 2000: p. 505). In other words, learners should not only learn how to acquire new words for themselves per se, but also learn to be responsible for their own vocabulary development. Some recent studies on autonomous learning (Gurnam Kaur Sidhu, Sarjit, Kaur & Chan Yuen Fook, 2011, Nematipor, 2012) as well as autonomous vocabulary learning in traditional classroom setting (Naginder Kaur, 2012) or online distant learning classroom (Puvaneswary Murugaiah & Thang Siew Ming, 2010) show how teachers and learners can play a complementary role in enhancing learner autonomy for improvement in receptive and productive language skills.



1.2 Vocabulary Learning Strategies According to Oxford (1990), language-learning strategies are particular activities adopted by learners to make learning easier, faster, more enjoyable, more self-directed, more effective, and more transferable to new situations. Utilization of learning strategies is very important in vocabulary learning. Vocabulary learning strategies are a subdivision of language learning strategies, which have attracted much attention since the late seventies. According to Nation (2001), vocabulary-learning strategies make learners enable to take more responsibility for their own learning. He believes that a large amount of vocabulary can be acquired by using vocabulary-learning strategies. Fan (2003) suggests that all vocabulary learning strategies are more or less connected to the following five steps of learning vocabulary in a foreign language which have been identified by Brown and Payne (1994): (a) having sources for encountering new words, (b) getting an obvious image, either visual or auditory, of the forms of the new words, (c) learning the meaning of the words, (d) making a strong memory connection between the forms and the meanings of the words, and (e) using the words. Sokmen (1997: 225) argues for helping learners learn how to acquire vocabulary on their own, noting that it is “not possible for students to learn all the vocabulary they need in the classroom”. In this regard, numbers of studies in the literature have focused on different variables that affect students’ strategy use. In the study that was done by Gu and Johnson (1996), a long questionnaire was used to specify which strategies Chinese university learners use to learn English vocabulary. After correlating the results with measures of vocabulary size and language proficiency, they found that use of strategies for retention was correlated with higher vocabulary size but not language proficiency. Schmitt (1997), in his survey, investigated use of vocabulary learning strategies, usefulness of these strategies and specification of the most useful ones on 600 Japanese EFL students. Using a bilingual dictionary, written repetition, verbal repetition, saying a new word aloud, studying spelling of a word, and taking notes in class were found as most used and most helpful ones. The results showed that dictionary strategies and repetitions were used more by Japanese learners, while imagery and semantic grouping strategies were used fewer by the learners. Furthermore, word forms and mechanical memory strategies were emphasized by the learners of this study. Briefly speaking, Nation (2001) proposes that a large number of vocabulary learning strategies are helpful at all steps of vocabulary learning and can be used to an extensive range of vocabulary. He points to the fact that language learners by help of these strategies can control their own learning without presence of a teacher. In addition, Nation, in his research, reveals that learners are very different in the proficiency tha t they apply strategies with. Thus, language learners should be instructed in use of vocabulary learning strategies. Finally, Cusen (2005) in his exploratory study used diary to identify and classify vocabulary-learning strategies of Romanian English major and minor undergraduates at university of Brasov. He used Oxford learning strategies classification as the analytical framework of his study. He found that advanced learners with a professional interest in the study of English seem to use almost all the types of strategies from Oxford analytical framework. The learners appeared to use other strategies relatable to the context of his study and/or to each individual. 1.3 Reading Comprehension Reading is one of the most important skills for daily life. Pang (2003) assumed that reading opens up new worlds and opportunities, as well as enables people to gain new knowledge, enjoy literature and do everyday things that are part of modern life. According to Farhady (2005: 1), “people usually read because they want to obtain information about a specific subject”. Shankar (2007: 298) underlines the importance of reading among teachers and scholars and mentions that, “theories about reading and its teaching techniques represent the influence reading has on listening, speaking, writing, and even translating”. The importance of reading becomes yet more recognizable when it comes to reading in a second or foreign language and for academic purposes or in an academic context (Carrell, 1983; Day & Bamford, 1998, 2002; Eskey, 2005; Grabe, 2004). Carrell (1983) believes that reading is an important means by which not only new information but also new language skills are learned. Many researchers (Carrell, Devine, & Eskey, 1988; McDonough & Shaw, 1993) believe that though reading is not the only skill to be taught in the language classroom, it bears importance for many ESL/EFL learners. Likewise, Eskey (2005) maintains that in the EFL



setting, reading might be an essential language skill to be learned, since most learners of English might not really need to talk or listen to speakers of English in their day-to-day lives, but may need to read in that language for different reasons. In spite of the importance and complexity of reading, it is sometimes erroneously viewed just as a passive process of reconstructing the author’s intended meaning that is transmitted through language (Nunan, 1988). Rejecting such a perspective toward reading as a single skill that relies on a unitary cognitive process, current views of reading development hold it as a progressive attached sequence of variables that moves from the visual symbol recognition to the text comprehension (Kendeou, Lynch, Broek, Espin, White, & Kremer, 2005). Durkin (1993) states that reading comprehension is the “essence of reading”. According to Bunner (2002), reading comprehension is the ability to interact with words and ideas on the page in order to understand what the writer has to say. It involves the meaningful interpretation of written language and it involves an interaction of the reader, the text and the situation in which the text is read. Due to the significance of reading skill in learning and assessing a foreign language, many attempts have been done in order to determine and identify factors influencing in or correlating with the complex process of comprehension. In particular, many researchers have been interested in understanding what good readers typically do or posses while they read (Block, 1992; Brantmeier, 2002; Burns, Roe, & Ross, 1999; Lehr, Osborn, & Hiebert, 2005). One influential factor in reading comprehension is vocabulary knowledge. Several researchers in the field of vocabulary learning (Laufer, 1991, 1997; Ridgway, 1997; Smith, 1998) found that vocabulary knowledge was closely related to reading comprehension. In reading an English text, vocabulary difficulty has consistently been found to be the most significant predictor of overall readability (Nation & Coady, 1988). The more words the learners are familiar with, the better comprehension they have from the text (Anderson & Freebody, 1981; Koda, 1989). Likewise, learners with high-level reading comprehension skills are able to acquire more vocabularies and retain them better (Coady, 1997; Paribakht & Wesche, 1999; Stoller & Grabe, 1993), so it can be said that vocabulary learning is a by-product of reading (Swanborn, 1999). Hence, vocabulary learning strategies are among the most beneficial factors, which can help readers to achieve their goals (Oxford, 1990; Nation, 1990; Schmitt, 1997; Williams, & Burden, 1997). Vocabulary strategy instruction seems to be very important in equipping the students with the necessary strategies to expand their knowledge of vocabulary instead of giving the students only specific words to learn (Hulstjin, 1993). In line with above discussions, this study investigated the relationship among EFL learners’ vocabulary learning strategies, autonomy, and reading comprehension, and raised the following research questions: 1. Is there any significant relationship among EFL learners’ autonomy, choice of vocabulary learning strategies, and reading comprehension? 2. Is there any significant difference in the predictability of EFL learners’ autonomy and choice of vocabulary learning strategies in term of predicting their reading comprehension? 2. Method 2.1 Participants One hundred intermediate students, between 16-40 years old, studying at Shokooh Language School at Bandarabbas-Iran, were randomly selected as the participants of this study. The participants were almost evenly split between men (48.0%) and women (52.0%). 2.2 Instrumentation In order to accomplish the purpose of the study, the following instruments were utilized:

1) Autonomy questionnaire by Spratt, Humphreys, and Chan (2002) 2) Vocabulary Learning Strategies questionnaire by Schmitt (1997), which is based on Schmitt’s Taxonomy

of Vocabulary Learning Strategies. This taxonomy contains five categories that are: metacognitive, cognitive, memory, determination, and social.

3) A reading comprehension test derived from PET Practice Tests developed by Jenny Quintana (2003) to measure reading comprehension level of the participants.



2.3 Procedure Data collection was done in one ninety-minute session at Shokouh Institute. First, the PET reading comprehension test was piloted with 30 students who had almost the same characteristics as the target sample to uncover any probable problem before the main study was carried out. After calculating item facility and item discrimination, the malfunctioning items were discarded and the test as administered to participants of the study. The reliability of piloted test was estimated to be .82, as demonstrated in the Table 2.1. After deletion of the 2 malfunctioning items, the reliability of the PET reading comprehension test shifted to 0.89. Table 2.2 shows the reliability of the test scores gained after the deletion. The results of reliability analyses of the PET test was good enough as Vogt (2007: 115) states, “an alpha of 0.70 or higher is often considered satisfactory for most purposes”. Participants were asked to answer reading comprehension questions in 60 minuets. Also, students were informed that their performance on the test will not affect their final test results and their scores will be used for the purpose of research. After a short break, participants received a package of research instruments containing two questionnaires of autonomy and vocabulary learning strategies (VLSQ). Researcher provided students’ with required instructions and assured them about the confidentiality of data gathering procedure. In exchange for their participation, individuals were provided the opportunity to receive confidential feedback on their results on each of the questionnaires. 3. Results In order to answer the research questions of the study, the descriptive statistics were obtained and the assumptions of linear correlation were checked. 3.1 Correlation between EFL Learners’ Autonomy, Vocabulary Learning Strategies, and Reading Comprehension The Pearson correlation coefficients was calculated to probe any significant relationships between EFL learners’ autonomy, choice of vocabulary learning strategies, and reading comprehension (Table 3.1). Based on the results displayed in Table 3.1 it can be concluded that EFL learners’ autonomy level has significant relationship with their reading comprehension (R (98) = .75, P < .05), and vocabulary learning strategies (R (98) = .75, P < .05). Also, vocabulary learning strategies showes a significant relationship wth reading comprehension of the EFL learners (R (98) = .81, P < .05) 3.2 Relationship between EFL Learners’ Autonomy and Choice of Vocabulary Learning Strategies The Pearson correlation coefficient was run to probe any significant relationships between the EFL learners’ autonomy and choice of vocabulary learning strategies (Table 3.2). Based on the results displayed in Table 3.2 it can be concluded that autonomy has significant relationship with EFL learners’ determination strategy (R (98) = .78, P < .05), social strategy (R (98) = .74, P < .05), memory strategy (R (98) = .77, P < .05), cognitive strategy (R (98) = .70, P < .05), and metacognitive strategy (R (98) = .80, P < .05) 3.3 Relationship between EFL learners’ Autonomy and Reading Comprehension The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to probe any significant relationships between EFL learners’ autonomy and reading comprehension (Table 3.3). Based on the results displayed in Table 3.3 it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between autonomy and reading comprehension of the EFL learners (R (98) = .75, P < .05). 3.4 Relationship between EFL Learners’ Choice of Vocabulary Learning Strategies and Reading Comprehension The Pearson correlation coefficient was calculated to probe any significant relationships between EFL learners’ vocabulary learning strategies and reading comprehension (Table 3.4). Based on the results displayed in Table 3.4, it can be concluded that there is a significant relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and reading comprehension of the EFL learners (R (98) = .81, P < .05).



3.5 Predictive Power of Autonomy and Vocabulary Learning Strategies in term of Predicting Reading Comprehension Multiple regression analysis was run to predict EFL leaners’ performance on the reading comprehension by using their scores on the autonomy and vocabulary learning strategies (Table 3.5). Based on the results displayed in Table 3.5 (R = .81, R2 = .66), it can be claimed that vocabulary learning strategies is the best predictor of reading comprehension and predicts 66 percent of scores on the reading comprehension test. Autonomy is the second best predictor of reading comprehension (R = .84, R2 = .70) and increases the predictive power of the regression model to 70 percent. The results of the ANOVA tests for the first (F (1, 98) = 190.36, P < .05) and second (F (2, 97) = 116.41, P < .05) steps indicated that the results displayed in Model Summary Table 3.6 are statistically significant. In other words, vocabularies learning strategies and autonomy significantly predict reading comprehension. 3.6 Predictive power of EFL learners’ autonomy in term of predicting their choice of vocabulary learning strategies The regression analysis was run to predict EFL leaners’ vocabulary learning strategies by using their scores on the autonomy. Based on the results displayed in Table 3.6 (R = .75, R2 = .57) it can be claimed that the autonomy can predict 57 percent of EFL learners’ scores on the vocabulary learning strategies. The results of the ANOVA test (F (1, 98) = 129.74, P < .05) indicated that the results displayed in Model Summary Table 3.7 are statistically significant. In other words the autonomy can significantly predict vocabulary learning strategies. 3.7 Predictive Power of EFL Learners’ Autonomy in term of Predicting Their Reading Comprehension The regression analysis was run to predict EFL learners’ performance on the reading comprehension test by using their scores on the autonomy test. Based on the results displayed in Table 3.8 (R = .74, R2 = .55) it can be claimed that autonomy predicted 55 percent of scores on the reading comprehension test. The results of the ANOVA test (F (1, 98) = 128.78, P < .05) indicated that the results displayed in Model Summary Table 3.9 are statistically significant. In other words autonomy can significantly predict reading comprehension. 3.8 Predictive Power of EFL Learners’ Choice of Vocabulary Learning Strategies in term of Predicting Their Reading Comprehension The regression analysis was run to predict EFL learners’ performance on the reading comprehension by using their scores on the vocabulary learning strategies. Based on the results displayed in Table 3.10 (R = .81, R2 = .66) it can be claimed that vocabulary learning strategies predict 66 percent of scores on the reading comprehension. The results of the ANOVA test (F (1, 98) = 190.36, P < .05) showed that the results displayed in Model Summary Table 3.11 are statistically significant. In other words vocabulary learning strategies can significantly predict Reading comprehension. 4. Discussion The major concern of this study was to explore the relationship among EFL learners’ autonomy, vocabulary learning strategies, and reading comprehension. According to the results autonomy had significant relationship with determination strategy (R (98) = .78, P < .05), social strategy (R (98) = .74, P < .05), memory strategy(R (98) = .77, P < .05), cognitive strategy (R (98) = .70, P < .05), and metacognitive strategy (R (98) = .80, P < .05), and finally, reading comprehension of the EFL learners (R (98) = .75, P < .05). On the other hand, autonomy predicted 57 percent of EFL learners’ scores on the vocabulary learning strategies and 55 percent of scores on the Reading Comprehension test. These findings are consistent with other studies on the fact that training learners in language learning and

strategy-use may give them an active and responsible role in theirown learning, help them gain autonomy and

becomebetter learners (Ángel, R.D., 2008, Conttia, L.M.W., 2007, Deng, F., 2007, Little, D., 2003 , Hunt, A. & D. Beglar, 2005). In other words, these finding empower the fact that training learners in language learning and



strategy-use may give them an active and responsible role in theirown learning, help them gain autonomy and

becomebetter learners. Also, vocabulary learning strategies had significant relationship with reading comprehension of the EFL learners (R (98) = .81, P < .05). Results of multiple regression revealed that vocabulary learning strategies was the best predictor of reading comprehension and predicted 66 percent of scores on the reading comprehension test. Autonomy was considered as second best predictor of reading comprehension (R = .84, R2 = .70) and increased the predictive power to 70 percent. These findings are matched with some studies focused on language earning strategy instruction (Philip, B. and T. Hua, 2006, Nambiar-Gopal, R., 2002, Pani, S., 2004, Tang, H.N. & D.W. Moore, 1992, Tassana-ngam, I., 2005, Wharton, G., 2000, Wright, M. and P. Brown, 2006, Wu, W., 2005) according to which language learning strategy instruction has positive effects on development of skills and components of language such as reading comprehension; while some studies found that strategy instruction do not have a significant effect on reading comprehension (Pickard, N., 1995, Rees-Miller, J., 1994, Steinagel, L.O., 2005, Wenden, A., 1987). In another study, Heidari, Karimi, and Imani (2012) found positive relationship between vocabulary learning strategies and reading comprehension. 5. Conclusion The findings of this study suggestes the importance of including vocabulary learning strategies into language

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THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN WEBSTER'S "DADDY LONG LEGS" TRANSLATION FOR PUBLICATION AND ANIMATION:

INSIGHT FROM VAN DIJK 'S IDEOLOGY FRAMEWORK OF CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS

Leila Sharifi Department of Translation Studies, Science and Research branch, Islamic Azad University, Fars, Iran

[email protected]

Amin Karimnia Department of English Language, Fasa Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran

[email protected] ABSTRACT Critical discourse analysis is an analytic approach that attempts to reveal connections between language use, power and ideology of text and discourse. The integration of CDA in Translation Studies is a new field of research. The goal of the present paper was to find out differences between translation for the purpose of publication and translation for the purpose of film dubbing according to van Dijk’s Ideology framework in CDA. In the current study, two different Persian translations of Daddy Long Legs’ novel by Jean Webster have been critically analyzed to its original English text. One translation was for the purpose of animation dubbing (the film tape script) and the other one was for the purpose of publication. To do the analyses some episodes from the animation and the equivalent chapters from the book were selected through purposive sampling and were compared to the original text of the novel. The findings gathered from the analyses of the data were analyzed through Chi-square test. The results showed that translating for the purpose of publication is different from translating for the purpose of dubbing according to the ideology framework (sig. = .000 , p< .05). In addition, the study manifested that ideology framework in CDA is more practicable in book rather than on this animation dubbing, since these two channels of communication have different audiences, and according to their needs translators, translate differently. KEY TERMS: Critical Discourse Analysis, Ideology, Translation, Animation Dubbing

1. Introduction It’s impossible to ignore the vital role of communication in globalized world in all fields. Translation is a purposeful activity through which we will acquire essential information, different experiences and different skills of different people who live around the world with different races, cultures and languages. Critical Discourse Analysis is a linguistic discipline which attempts to reveal hidden meanings, that is, the ideological loads of the discourse whether it’s Source Text or Target Text. Discourse encompasses the use of spoken, written and signed language and multimedia forms of communication, and is not restricted to non-fictional (e.g. stylistics) nor verbal (e.g. gesture and visual) materials. In this study the researchers dealt with CDA as the framework of the study to signify any existing difference between translation as publication and as dubbing. Though these two channels of communication have different audiences, CDA studies the ways social power abuse, dominance, and inequality are enacted, reproduced, and resisted by text and talk in the social context. The two main concerns of CDA are how powerful groups control the public discourse and what are the social consequences of such control and inequality.



According to van Dijk (1995) ideologies are formed, changed and reproduced largely through socially situated discourse and communication. 2. Review of literature Translation as an act of communication involves implicit power (ideology) which is realized through language.A fundamental focus of critical discourse analysis is power, which is about “relations of difference, and particularly about the effects of differences in social structures” (Wodak, 2004).Two main methods of language transfer in use today through media are subtitling and revoicing. As Luyken (1991) cited, the goal of dubbing and subtitling is to carry out a fine balancing act between the creation of a new set of messages which are easily comprehensible to the viewer and with which he is comfortable. In the 1980s, van Dijk (News Analysis, 1988) started to apply his discourse analysis theory to media texts mainly focusing on the representation of ethnic groups and minorities in Europe.CDA provides opportunities to consider the relationships between discourse and society, between text and context, and between language and power (Fairclough 2001b; Luke 1995, 1996, 2002). Chilton has a seminal work which is about the language of the nuclear arms debate (Chilton 1985).Iranian researchers also have conducted relevant researches to manifest the close link between discourse and ideological manipulations.(e.g., Yarmohammadi, 2000, 2001). The elements producing van Dijk’s (1995) Ideology model is being explained briefly as followings: Surface structures: Variable forms of expression at the level of phonological and graphical realization of underlying syntactic, semantic or pragmatic discourse structures. Syntax: Variation in the order or hierarchical relations of the structures of clauses and sentences. Lexicon: Are the words being chosen to express a concept. Local semantics: Defined as trying to make a good impression or avoid a bad impression. Global semantics: They define the overall coherence of the discourse. Rhetoric: Specific rhetorical structures of discourse to make information less prominent whereas negative information is emphasized or vice versa. 3. Methodology: 3.1. Materials In search for the materials which suit the body of this study the best, different elements should be pointed out. To begin with, the selected text must have already been translated for both purposes, namely publication and dubbing. The second element is the target language which is Persian in the present study. The other item deals with the extent to which the objectives of this study can be generalized to slangs, colloquialisms, expression, dialects and etc. These can be the items needed in this regard. The novel of Daddy Long-Legs (Webster, 1912) was then chosen to be studied here. Accordingly, two Persian translations were used to be compared with each other. The first translation was done by Mahdavian (2006) which is available as a publication on the market. The second translation however, was done for the purpose of cartoon dubbing (n.d.), available by watching its film (animation). The Japanese animation “Daddy Long Legs” (1990) was dubbed into English in The United State, and then into Persian in Iran and was shown on TV in 1993. 3.2. Data Collection Procedures Daddy Long-Legs’ series includes 35 episodes of approximately 13 to 28 minutes each. Through purposive sampling, the researchers separated character’s life into three main phases each included 5 episodes (total 15 episodes). The first phase included 5 episodes (1, 2, 3, 4, and 5) that were about her life in an orphanage. The second phase (Episodes 9, 10, 11, 12, 13) was about her life at school, and the third part (Episodes 31 , 32, 33, 34, and 35) was about her life after school. From the book, the researchers chose the parts that were equivalent to these three phases. The source text (English text) was compared carefully with its two target texts (Persian texts) based on van D ijk’s (1995) model of ideology. This model was applied to compare the Persian translation (animation) with the English text. Then the same procedure was applied in comparison between the other Persian text (publication)



and the English text. The framework introduced has six elements which were applied to both Persian translations in this study in order to seek the significant differences between the two Persian translations. 3.3. Data Analysis Procedure Within the present work, both Persian translations of the publication and transcription of the animation were separately compared to the original English text with an insight from van Dijk’s (1995) framework of ideology. Then, using SPSS software, the Chi-Square procedure was applied to see if any significant statistical differences existed between the elements of ideology introduced by van Dijk. In other words, the test was carried out to make comparisons between the translated versions with publication purpose on the one hand, and the animation purpose on the other hand. Finally, the results and findings were presented using tables. 4. Findings and Results The total number of elements found in the book and animation dubbing were 120 and 30 respectively. In order to investigate the descriptive data of the study, the mean and the standard deviation for the number of frequencies obtained from analyses of book variable and animation dubbing variable with the original (English) text based on each element of ideology is presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Mean and Standard Deviation of Elements of Daddy Long Legs’ Book and

Animation

N Mean SD Min Max

Local Semantics 2 8.5000 9.19239 2.00 15.00

Syntax 2 10.5000 1.48492E1 .00 21.00

Lexicon 2 26.5000 1.48492E1 16.00 37.00

Global Semantics 2 1.0000 .00000 1.0 1.00

Surface Structure 2 1.0000 9.89949 2.00 16.00

Rhetoric 2 19.5000 1.48492E1 9.00 30

The mean, standard deviation and variance of book and animation, considering the total number of elements in each variable is presented below in Table 2 in order to investigate the descriptive data between two variables of book and animation.

Table 2. Mean and Standard Deviation of Daddy Long Legs’ Book and Animation in General

N Mean SD Variance Min Max

Animation and Book 2 75.000 6.36396E1 4.050E3 30.00 120.00



To investigate the research question which asked: “Is there any significant difference between translating for the purpose of publication and translating for the purpose of animation dubbing concerning van Dijk’s ideology framework of CDA?” Chi-square procedure was conducted six times. The first five tests were conducted for each element of ideology in both translations and the sixth for the total number of elements found in book and dubbing. As the results of the Chi-square tests revealed, there were significant differences between elements of ‘Ideology’ (local semantics, syntax, lexicon, surface structure and rhetoric) in translation for the purpose of publication and for the purpose of animation dubbing according to van Dijk’s framework of CDA. There wasn’t any difference between the elements of ‘global semantics’ in both translations. The results of the first Chi-square tests showed differences between two variables (book and dubbing) varying from .004 to 1. The results of Chi-square tests are presented as follows.

Table 3. Chi-square for Local Semantics Between Daddy Log Legs’ Book and Animation

Chi-Square df Asymp. sig

Local Semantics 9.941a 1 .002

0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 8.5. Looking at Table 3, one can recognize that the difference between frequencies of local semantics is meaningful and significant between two variables, i.e. sig. =.002 (p< .05).

Table 4. Chi-square for Lexicon Between Daddy Log Legs’ Book and Animation


Lexicon 8.321a 1 .004

a. 0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 26.5. As Table 4. shows lexicon has the highest frequency among other elements, which indicates a significant difference between variables, i.e. sig. = .004 (p< .05).

Table 5. Chi-square for Global Semantics between Daddy Log Legs’ Book and Animation


Global Semantics .000a 1 1.000

a. 2 cells (100.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 1.0. According to Table 5, the difference between global semantics in both variables is the lowest and shows no significance between the variables, i.e. sig. = 1 (p> .05).



Table 6. Chi-square for Surface Structure Between Daddy Log Legs’ Book and Animation


Surface Structure 10.889a 1 .001

0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 9.0. This Table (Table 6) indicates the difference between element of surface structure in both variables, and shows a significant difference between them, i.e. sig = .001 (p< .05).

Table 7. Chi-square for Rhetoric Between Daddy Log Legs’ Book and Animation


Rhetoric 11.308a 1 .002

0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 19.5 Based on the results from Table 7, there is a significant and meaningful difference between element of rhetoric in both variables, i.e. sig = .001 (p< .05). There were five Chi-square tests between five pairs of elements of ideology. Among all the six elements, syntax had the frequency of (0, 21) in animation and book respectively. According to Chi-square test when one variable is 0, it certainly shows difference between two variables and the result of Chi-square test is 0, i.e. sig= 0 ( p< .05).

Table 8. Chi-square of Total Number of Elements Between Daddy Log Legs’ Book and Animation


Total 54.000a 1 .000

0 cells (.0%) have expected frequencies less than 5. The minimum expected cell frequency is 75.0. As Table 8 indicates, there is a significant and meaningful difference between the total number of elements found in translations of Daddy Long Legs’ book and animation dubbing, i.e. sig = .000 ( p< .05). Some examples of all the elements introduced by Van Dijk(1995) are presented as follow. Local Semantics: 1. …bother some little charge…

بودند گرفته عهده به را آنها سرپرستی که کوچولوهایی This example shows how the translator tried to reduce the negative meaning and sense of being an orphan and showed it in a positive way by referring to “bother some charges” as little nice children. 2. At least homesick is one disease that I’ve escaped.

.است خانه برای دلتنگی درد همان باشم داشته مصونیت درد یک به نسبت اگر



Since the character is an orphan and doesn’t have a home, having feelings for family members and missing them is presented as an illness. In translation not having a family is regarded as a positive aspect, because you don’t have an illness. Lexicon: Asylum’s guests

مهمانانIn order to reduce the sense of being an orphan this phrase was only translated to “guests”, because this book was available for adolescence, and doesn’t want to bother them, scare them or even remind them the war and loss of families in Iran, because this book was first published a short time after war. Christian name

کوچک اسم As a matter of fact this phrase translated as first name, since Iran’s religion is Islam and doesn’t want to focus on other religions, so we have religious ideology here. Upper class

باال سال دانشجویان According to the story of the book this phrase means “rich people”, but in order to blur the differences between rich and poor, it has been translated completely different and as students. Syntax: He believes that you have originality, and he is planning to educate you to become a writer.

2شوی ویسندهن و کنی تحصیل میتوانی و داری خوبی ی خالقه قوّه تو کند فکرمی او In Persian the sense that someone else is paying for her education and being her guardian is omitted and educating became the important part NOT the person behind it. The money will be sent to you by the gentleman's private secretary once a month.

2فرستد می برایت ماه هر را پول این آقا مخصوص منشی The person who is sending money became more important than MONEY. Receiving money is notable here not the sender. The first need of orphans is money because there isn’t any family to support them. Global Semantics: I can't believe this is really Judy. You and the Good Lord give me more than I deserve.

2دانم نمی پروردگار لطف همه این مستحق را خودم. هستم اینجا که شود نمی باورم The theme of the story is being an orphan, related problems in life and being supported by others. But the translation shows an ordinary life without serious problems.

Surface Structure: Whenever a Trustee spoke.

...امنا هیئت اعضای از یکی اگر Trustee was written bold in English text to show its prominence, but in order to reduce its importance (not showing being orphans) in translation it’s not bold. I'm going to love being FREE.

بود خواهم آزاد... Being free was an important issue for orphans who were like prisoners, so original text showed the importance by writing “free” in capital letters. Not writing this word in bold or capital letters decreased the sense of the word and shows neutral meaning. Rhetoric: … I live to see Paris!

2هستم پاریس به سفر ی مرده و کشته... Translator used hyperbole to show her eager to visit Paris, but as a matter of fact it’s hiding the fact that she is an orphan and hasn’t even seen other cities before. I am mad about my book.

است شده ام زندگی ی همه کتابم



Translation used hyperbole to show the importance of character’s book to her and her attempts to be a free and independent person. 5. Discussion and Conclusion The current study represents picture of differences between translation for the purpose of publication and translation for the purpose of dubbing (Webster’s Daddy Long Legs 1912), based on van Dijk’s ideology framework of critical discourse analysis. This study dealt with the integration of van Dijk’s (1995) ideology framework of CDA into the translation of books and films. The integration of the CDA in the translation was based on the earlier works on TS scholars as Hatim and Mason (1990, 1997), Schäffner (1997, 2002, 2003, 2004), Valdeón (2007), etc. Ideology is a discursive practice referring to frameworks for making the social cognitions of an individual or groups (van Dijk, 1993b). The statistics from the frequencies used in translation for publication and translation for dubbing indicated the higher number of frequency in publication than in dubbing. This showed that the ‘Ideology’ framework of CDA was more applicable to this book than to this animation dubbing. Ideologies are assumed to control the development, structure and application of socio cultural knowledge, through the minds of the members. This study manifested how translators conveyed information from the source text and controlled audience’s mind whether by reading its book or by watching its animation. The researchers found out that translation of Daddy Long Legs book manipulated the actual information of the source text and aimed to control the mind of its audience, more than its animation dubbing. The results from all (six) Chi-square tests showed that there were significant differences between these two purposes of translation. The researchers’ analyses showed that the frequencies of elements found in two translations were different between these two translations, except for the ‘global semantics’ that was used with the equal frequency in both translations. All the elements were found in two variables with variation in frequencies, except for the syntax that wasn’t found in animation dubbing which still indicated the difference. According to the first five Chi-square tests, the difference between the elements used in two translations varies from 1 to .004. According to the standards if the statistic is less than .05(p< .05), there is a significant difference between variables, otherwise it shows no difference between them. Therefore the elements which were less than .05 (local semantics, syntax, lexicon, surface structure, rhetoric) showed the difference among elements used in both variables (publication and dubbing), but the element that was more than .05 (p> .05) (global semantics) indicted no difference between elements of ideology. Ideologies are assumed to control the development, structure and application of socio cultural knowledge, through the minds of the members. This study manifested how translators conveyed information from the source text and controlled audience’s mind whether by reading its book or by watching its animation. According to the results obtained from analyzing two Persian translations with different purposes of publication and film dubbing, it is apparent that ideology framework of CDA was practicable in publication translation but not practicable on animation dubbing. As it is apparent from the analyses, the groups of audience of books and film are also different due to translating differently for each group base on ideology framework. The study showed that there is a significant difference between translating for publication and film dubbing using ‘ideology’ framework, even though one element (global semantics) had the same frequency in both translations, and this shows that translation of Daddy Long Legs book manipulated the actual information of the source text and aimed to control the mind of its audience, more than its animation dubbing. Since CDA is a multi-disciplinary field recently manifested in the many branches of social sciences including translation studies, students of other fields of science will find the results useful. Furthermore this study has an important role in media translation, which can make translators to be better producers of target language (Persian). REFERENCES Van Dijk, T. (1988). News analysis: Case studies of international and national news in the Press (1-10). Hillsdale

and NJ: Erlbaum Wodak, R. (2004). Critical discourse analysis. In Seale, C., Gobo, G., Gubrium, J. F. & Silverman, D. (Eds.),

Qualitative research practices (197-214). London: Sage.



Van Dijk, T. (1995). Discourse semantics and ideology. Discourse and Society, 6(2), 89-243. Fairclough, N. (2001b). Language and power (2nd ed.) (pp. 120-130). London and UK: Longman. Luke,A. (1995). Text and discourse in education: An introduction to critical discourse analysis. In Apple, M. W.

(Eds.), Review research in education 21, (pp. 3-48). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Luke, A. (1996). Text and discourse in education: An introduction to critical discourse analysis In Apple, M. W. (Ed.), Review of Research in Education. Washington: American Educational Research Association.

Luke, A. (2002). Beyond science and ideology critique: Developments in critical discourse analysis. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 22, 96-110

Luyken, G. M. (1991). Overcoming language barriers in television: Dubbing and subtitling for the European audience. Manchester: The European Institute for the Media.

Mahdavian, M. (2006). Daddy long legs. Tehran, Iran : Ghadyani. Hatim, B., & Mason, I. (1990). Discourse and the translator. London and New York: Routledge. Hatim, B., & Mason, I. (1997). The translator as communicator. London and New York: Routledge. Schäffner, C. (1997). Strategies of translating political texts. In Trosborg, A. (Ed.), Text typology and translation .

Amsterdam, Philadelphia: John Benjamins. Schäffner, C. (2002). The role of discourse analysis for translation and in translation training (pp. 58 -70). UK:

Multilingual Matters LTD. Schaffner, C. (2003). Third ways and new enters: Ideological unity or difference. In Calzade-Perez, M. (Ed.),

Translation studies on ideology – ideologies in translation studies (pp. 23-41). Manchester: St Jerome. Schaffner, C. (2004). Political discourse analysis from the point of view of translation studies. Journal of

Language and Politics, 3(1), 117-150. Chilton, P. (Ed.). (1985). Language and the nuclear arms debate: nukespeak today. London: Frances Pinter. Valdeon, R. A. (2007). Ideological independence or negative mediation: BBC Mundo and CNN In Spanish

reporting of Madrid’s terrorist attacks In Carr, S.M. (Ed.) Translating and interpreting conflict (pp. 99-119). Amsterdam and New York: Rodopi.

Webster, J. (1912). Daddy long legs. Retrived from : http://www.bjzc.org/lib/95/ts095027.pdf. [Retrived on June 10, 2013]. Yarmohammadi, L. (2000). Discourse and the translator. Iranian Journal of Translation, 9(32), 3-10. Yamohammadi, L. (2001). The proportion of the use of qualitative methods to the quantitative methods in

discourse analysis. Nameh Farhang, 39, 48-54.



A SURVEY ON THE LINGUISTIC DIVERSITY OF GILAKI IN CITIES OF RASHT AND SOWME'EH SARA

Ahmadreza Shoa Hasani3, Maryam Adelifar Department of English Language, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Guilan, Iran

[email protected] ABSTRACT This paper designed to reveal some differences of a single dialect within Gilaki language in Gilan province in Iran. In present study, we tried to investigate linguistic variation of Sowme'eh Sarai in contrast to Rashti to get some insight in order to respond to most students’ inquisitiveness who are interested in language studies in different colleges and universities across the country. The data of current study collected amongst native people of mentioned cities mainly in a rural weekly market in order to have a reliable source while led us to a tangible outcome intuitively. At last, we found that these two cities peoples’ dialects are very similar in the case of vocabulary and even accent but with some linguistic variation that usually can be seen at the end of the uttered words and clauses. The objective of this study was an indication to the issue that even in very close towns and cities in the case of distance there can be seen variations and almost different regional dialects; this comparison between two accents show that there is an avoidance strategy in using rural accent. The innovation aspect of this study lies within the theory of power distance. The aspect of result is to find the reason of this avoidance regarding to sociolinguistic studies; they can shed new light on teaching and learning the dialects or accents as well. KEY WORDS: Sowme'eh Sarai, Gilaki, Linguistic Diversity, Rashti, Regional Dialects Introduction Language is one of the brilliant capacities of human kind and regular means of communication. Communication is the major role of language; in every aspect of routine, this role has very significance. Humankind is the only creature that can communicate in a way that transfers his thoughts and feelings. Therefore, language is the most important social phenomenon and means of communication amongst people. It is also the most important factor for constitution of communities and culture and sciences too. Haugen (cited in Wardhaugh, 2006) has pointed out that language and dialect are ambiguous terms. Ordinary people use these terms quite freely in speech; for them a dialect is almost no more than a local and non-prestigious (therefore powerless) variety of a real language. In contrast, scholars often experience considerable difficulty in deciding whether one term should be used rather than the other in certain situations. Anyway Cook (2003) in discussing standard language claimed “dialects are regional and social class varieties of the language which differ from the standard in pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary, and are seldom written down at all” (p. 13). Also in regard to dialect and accent Wardhaugh has stated: “The term dialect, particularly when it is used in reference to regional variation, should not be confused with the term accent. Standard English, for example, is spoken in a variety of accents, often with clear regional and social associations: there are accents associated with North America, Singapore, India, Liverpool (Scouse), Tyneside (Geordie), Boston, New York, and so on. However, many people who live in such places show a remarkable uniformity to one another in their grammar and vocabulary because they speak Standard English and the differences are merely those of accent, i.e., how they pronounce what they say”. (2006, p. 46)

Corresponding author: Department of English Language, Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Guilan,

Iran. Email: [email protected]

mailto:[email protected]



With a brief introductory paragraph it can be inferred that dialects and accents are common to all language around the world. In this paper we will concentrate on Gilaki language; one of the members of the northwestern Iranian language branch of Caspian languages that is spoken in Gilan province which located in northern Iran. This language has been divided into three major dialects, namely: Eastern Gilaki, Western Gilaki and Galeshi (used in the mountains of Gilan). The Sefidrud a River separates the west and east of Gilan (Mikaili, et al. 2012). Western Gilaki or Bie-pas dialect is mainly spoken in west of Sefidrud including Rasht and Fuman while eastern Gilaki or Bie-pish dialect belongs to eastern part of Gilan including Lahijan and its eastern districts (Rasht, n.d.). In addition, Heydarpour (2010) has claimed people of Rasht speak Gilaki (Rashti) differently from people of Lahijan (Lahijani). People who live in southern Caspian shores in east of Gilan that is the area of Rudesar and Langerud to the plains of Lahijan and Astaneh and highlands of Siyahkal and to some extent to borders of Kuchesfahan speak Gilaki in its eastern dialect. Inhabitants of Rasht, Fuman, Sowme’eh Sara, Anzali, Khomam, and Shaft speak Western dialect. It should be noted that each of these regional dialects have varieties in their neighboring districts and towns. According to Ethnologue, (cited in Mikaili et al, 2012) there were more than 3 million native speakers of Gilaki in 1993. The general description of Gilaki language according to Mikaili et al, (2012, p. 223) is shown in table 1.

Table 1: Description of Gilaki language adopted from Mikaili et al, (2012, p. 223) Population 3,270,000 (1993), decreasing. 2,000 Galeshi Region Gilan region, coastal plain, south of Talish. Galeshi is a mountain dialect

Alternate names Gelaki, Gilani, Guilaki, Guilani

Dialects Galeshi, Rashti, Rudbari, Some’e Sarai, Lahijani, Langerudi, Rudsari, Bandar Anzali, Fumani

Similar to Mâzanderâni Classification Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Iranian, Western, Northwestern, Caspian

Language use Home, market, work. All ages. Positive language attitude. Also use Western Farsi development Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar

Writing system Arabic script

Comments Heavy influence from Farsi. Agriculturalists; fishermen. Muslim (Shia), Christian GEOGRAPHICAL BORDERS Gilan is one of the northern provinces of Iran. Iranian official and standard language is Persian (Farsi) that has a long history. Rasht (Gilaki: Rèsht) is a city in and the capital of Gilan Province, and the largest city on Iran's Caspian Sea coast (Rasht, n.d.). Sowme'eh Sara is a city in and the capital of Sowme'eh Sara County, Gilan Province, is located on the south coast of the Caspian Sea, about 25 kilometers (16 miles) west of Rasht, the provincial capital (Sowme'eh Sara, n.d.). Both these cities are located in western Gilan as shown in figure (1). It is believed that standard Western dialect of Gilaki is Rashti which is spoken by people of Rasht, this notion derives from the fact that Rasht has power as capital city and dominated cities of province; Sowme'eh Sarai is a variety of Western dialect. Literature review There are investigations on Eastern & Western dialects of Gilaki; these studies mainly have been done by foreign linguists and researchers. Russians were pioneer as Alexander Chodzko in 1842 studied Caspian languages and

Figure (1) adopted from lonelyplanet.com



published “Specimens of the popular poetry of Persia”; He introduced his book by an introduction on the preface as below: “The specimens of unwritten Asiatic poetry comprised in this Volume belong chiefly to the inhabitants of Northern Persia, and those of the Coasts of the Caspian Sea. I collected them at different periods, during a sojourn of eleven years in those countries, from oral communications with the people-generally, the lower classes, who did not know how to read or write. Their source, therefore, is undoubtedly genuine; and this circumstance, combined with the insight they afford into the character, habits, and manners of the people among whom they are current” Also, N. Brezine was the first who wrote a grammar book for Gilaki. In addition to these valuable written scripts, “Fonetica gilaneskovo mazandaraneskovo yazkov” was published by V. I. Zavayalove in 1955 and a year later in 1956 led to the introduction of the phonological system of Gilaki to the world. As the higher education developed in Iran and consequently in Gilan, many Iranian academics and researchers have done investigations on Eastern and Western dialects of Gilaki as two standard varieties of language respectively for east and west of the province. These researchers namely, M. Payandeh, A. kord zaferanlu, M. Pourhadi and Satippur worked on Gikali (Heidarpour, 2010). It is worth noting that there is an almost total lack of research on most verities of Western dialect. Most studies on Gilaki language mainly focused on strategic cities of province and therefore neglected investigations on the other cities and towns of province which their people’s native language are ever so and different varieties of Gilaki. There might not be any published studies on Sowme'eh Sarai variety of Western Gilaki; hence we consider this paper as a new era of qualitative research on Gilaki language. We assume that Sowme'eh Sarai variation is similar to Rashti whereas they stand in same dialect category that is Western dialect of Gilaki. As mentioned before, there are slightly published studies on Gilaki, as an example Mashayekh (2002) investigated the frequency use of Gilaki and Farsi language at two different age groups -youths and elders- in city of Rasht. The findings of her research showed that the use of Gilaki is going to diminish gradually while Farsi is wildly used as the official language in schools, clinics, and governmental organizations. It means Farsi is superior to Gilaki in the case of usage especially by new generation. She pointed out 80% of old people were bilinguals whose first language was Gilaki and only 44% of youngsters did know Gilaki. The following classifications and tables are adopted from Pourhadi (2008) with some modifications in order to take your attention to Gilaki language system. Linguistic variables Gilaki has a lot in common with Old Persian. In both languages the linguistic variable /v/ has a variant [b] for example4/gâv/ (cow) = /gâb/ or /bræf/ (snow) = /værf/. There is also other linguistic variable; if /n/ comes before /b/, the combination will be pronounced as [m] instead of [n]. For example /Šænbe/ (Saturday) = /Šæmbe/ or /ænbâr/ (storage) = /æmbâr/. People of Rasht and Sowme'eh Sara use all of these linguistic variables similarly. It should be noted that the factor of social class has a wide effect in the use of these variables. Differences between Gilaki and Farsi phones Initial /h/ in Old Persian today exists in some Gilaki words. This sound in modern Persian language (Farsi) represents as /x/.

English Farsi English transcript of Farsi Gilaki/old Persian

wet خیس khis Hist

/p/ sound in Gilaki as the same as Old Persian represents /f/ in Farsi

English Farsi English transcript of Farsi Gilaki/old Persian

Note: All Gilaki words (phonemes) are adopted from Pourhadi (2008) symbol table. See appendix 1.



Persian month name اسفند Esfand ispǝnd

Initial /wi/ in Middle Persian (Pahlavi) which has turned to /go/ in Farsi remains in some Gilaki words.

English Farsi Gilaki hungry گرسنه viṧta

/z/ in Gilaki also existed in Old Persian while changed to /d/ in modern Persian (Farsi). English Farsi Gilaki/old Persian

groom داماد dậmậd zậmậ

In some cases /j/ in Gilaki is used instead of /z/ in Farsi;

English Farsi Gilaki

aching سوز Suj

Phone variations in varieties of Gilaki /i/ in Rashti in some words replaced by /a/ or /e/ in eastern and Western dialects of Gilaki;

English Farsi Gilaki Western Variety

Your book کتاب تو ti kitậb Rashti te kitậb Ziabar & Gaskar

/u/ in Rashti and some neighboring in west and east (in French too) changes to /ṻ/:

English Farsi Other varieties Rashti

smoke دود dṻ Dud

muddy گل الود tṻl Tul

Plural sign Plural sign of Western Gilaki ends in consonant /ận/ while in eastern dialect ends in /on/

English Farsi Eastern dialect Western dialect

tree درخت dirậxt dậr singular

trees هادرخت dirậx.ton dậr.ận Plural

In Gilaki, plural form for relatives and attendants are created by /ṧận/ suffix that is similar to third person plural /aṧận/ and /uṧận/ and is equivalent to /Ina/ in Tehrani dialect5;


Their mother مادراینا mậrậṧận

Definite and indefinite article By adding a determiner to a noun in Gilaki a definite article will be derived; in Western Gilaki /a/ for this and /u/ for that in English, in Eastern Gilaki /i/ for this and /u/ for that in English.

English Eastern dialect Western dialect

this /i/ /a/ determiner

that /u/ /u/

In an objective form /ậ/ in Western and /ậ/ in Eastern dialects are equivalent to /ra/ in Farsi;

Farsi Eastern Gilaki Western Gilaki

5 A Persian / Farsi variety is spoken by natives or inhabitants of Tehran. Tehran is the capital city of

Iran.



kitabậ kitậbậ کتاب را

By adding suffix /i/ at the end of a noun in Gilaki, an indefinite article would derive.


A woman زنی zậnậki

By using /itậ/ in westen Gilaki and /yek ta/ in eastern Gilaki and /y ậ / in Galeshi before a noun, the noun changes to an indefinite article;

English Farsi Talishi Eastern Gilaki Western Gilaki

A book کتابی yậ kitab yậk ta kitab itậ kitab

Personal pronouns

English Farsi Other western varieties Rashti I من Mận mận

you تو tu tu

He/she/it او un un

we ما am ̂am ̂

you شما ṧumậ umậ ṧ

these این ها aṧan aṧận

those ان ها uṧận uṧận

Possessive pronouns Rashti Other western varieties Farsi English

mậ mi مال من mine

tậ ti مال تو yours

un Un ậ (i) مال او His/her/its

Amậ ami مال ما our

ṧima ṧimi مال شما yours

uṧậnậ uṧậni مال انها theirs

aṧậnậ aṧậnậ (i) مال این ها theirs

Prepositions /jậ/ in Western and /ji/ in Eastern Gilaki are equivalent to /az/ in Farsi; applying as a suffix.


raji rậjậ از راه

/e/ or /re/ in Western and /be/ in Eastern Gilaki are equivalent to /baraye/ in Farsi and come after complimentary.


- برای حسن hasậne

mebe mậrǝ برای من

/ậ/ in Western and /ậ/ in Eastern Gilaki are equivalent to /be/ in Farsi and comes after a complimentary.

English Farsi Western Gilaki To Ali به علی aliyậ

To Hasan به حسن haậsnǝ



Connecting words /u/ in Western Gilaki and /o/ in Eastern Gilaki are equivalent to /v/ in Farsi. (Also in English)

English Farsi

Ahmad and Hasan حسن واحمد amậd o hasǝn Eastern Gilaki

Me and my father پدرم ومن mận u mi peir Western Gilaki

Verb There are two stems; present-future and past. Present-future derivation: this is achieved by omitting infinitive signs and past stem: /tận/ /dận/ /ậstận/ /o:n/ / a:n/ /e:n/; Past derivation In Gilaki past form is achieved by omitting /ận/ or/: n/ endings of regular infinitive.

Negative form Negative sign in Gilaki is /n/ which

differs according to initial phone of stem: /ni/ /n ậ / /nu/ or occurs alone; without a vowel. /ni/ category: In simple infinitives, it comes before an infinitive which its initial vowels are: /i/ or /e/;

/nậ/ category: comes before infinitive with an initial vowel

/ậ/ or /ǝ/: /nu/ category: comes before infinitive or stems that their initial vowels are /o/ or /u/. Making negative is the same for eastern and Western Gilaki /n:/, /nậ/, /ne/, /nu/, it only is different in present

continues & past tense. Samples of western Gilaki sentences

/vậsti bậdậnim ksyim, ḉisim, koyǝ bậmoyim/ Gilaki

,باید بدانیم که هستیم چه هستیم , ازکجا امده ایم Farsi

We should know who we are, what we are and where are we come from English

/xậyliyậnậ jǝxtǝrậ ṧo/ Gilaki

Farsi از یادخیلی ها رفته است

It is forgotten by many English

/amậ dur durậ zǝmậtǝ ṧinim/ Gilaki

Farsi ما به زمان های دورتعلق داریم


He went رفت bu.ṧo

They went رفتن ṧo:n


To see دیدن de:n

Not to see ندیدن nide:n


To plant کاشتن kậṧtận

I won’t plant نمی کارم nǝkậrậm


Don’t say نگو nugu

To say گفتن goftận



We belong to past time English

/xu pǝlậyậ buxurd, xu dậs – u dimậ buṧust/ Gilaki

Farsi پلویش راخورد و دست و صورت خود را شست

He ate his rice and washed his face and hand English The main concern of this study is to investigate and understand the phonological and/or morphological differences between two varieties of western Gilaki that is Rashti and Sowme'eh Sarai; with a long introduction and review of previous studies, it is useful to have a look on the phonological system of Gilaki, the following data is adopted from ‘Iranica’ database. Phonology A medial d is lost in the negatives of two WG verbs: danə´m and nanəm “I know” and “I don’t know” (EG dónəm and núdonəm), and darə m and nárəm “I have” and “I don’t have” (EG dánəm and nə danəm), but EG dínəm and báynəm “I see” and “that I see” (WG dinə m and bídinəm). Langarudi seems to have lost this medial d altogether in the verb di-, as in inə “he or she sees.” Medial g is sometimes lost in eastern Gilaki (e.g., vítəm, bútəm), though not in western Gilaki (e.g., fa-gíftəm, bugúftəm) and Gāleši (e.g., vi-gítəm, bəgut). An original a: before a nasal is raised to o (e.g., da:- > dónəm “I know” vs. WG danə m), but only if the nasal is not part of the stem (e.g., EG xa- > xánəm “I want” and dar- > danə m “I have”). Materials and methods To understand the Linguistic variables of Sowme'eh Sarai and Rashti speech community, we spent time with people from two cities in various social settings like parties, taxis, classes, and lunch hours. By interacting with the people, we could hear their speech in context and in conversational speech. Data collection We have recorded voices of Sowme'eh Sarai and Rashti speeches in natural environment that are representative of these varieties. The research generated an ample amount of data, we recorded common people`s voices in their every day conversations. The participants of this study were native speakers of Gilaki from Sowme'eh Sara in a local bazaar that constantly held on Sundays. These people were randomly available in natural context among men and women. For Rashti dialect, the data were collected from two 15 minutes dialog between two men. We extracted 20 verbs from each recording and compared them as shown in table 2.

Table (2). Comparison between extracted verbs and their equivalents

No Sowme'eh Sarai Rashti English

01 tišin tišin For you

02 bukudim bokudimi We did

03 Hærf bæzæim Hærf bæzæimi We talked

04 Kæræ kudi Kudæn dibi He was doing

05 Nævæ kudæn Nævæ kudæn Don`t do

06 I ĵaze dehi I ĵaze dehidi Do you let?

07 Sâf bukudim Sâf bukudimi We make a mistake

08 Fædæiee Fædihidi They give

09 Tæsvib bobose Tæsvib boboste They confirmed

10 Kunid kunidi Doing

11 Čâkude Čâkude They make



12 bogfti bogoftidi They said

13 dâri dâridi You have

14 bebi bebid be

15 fâgire fâgiridi They take

16 bæne bænæn put

17 bošoiid bošoiidi They went

18 goyum Mæn gæm I say

19 boxordi boxoridi Eat

20 Tæmânæ kudim Tæmânæ kudim We finished

Conclusion Research results show clearly that there is no fundamental variation between Sowme'eh Sarai and Rashti varieties of Western Gilaki. Meanwhile some differences still exist phonologically due to special social contexts which native people in Sowme’eh Sara uttered speech. The differences do not occur in any other areas of linguistics such as grammar or vocabulary. It concluded that these two varieties of Western Gilaki also differ slightly in pronunciation that could be considered as geographical accents. Shall we not forget that social class had directly affected in producing these words. Educated people in Sowme'eh Sara somehow seek to speak more like Rashti people. The reason could be that Rashti accent is further clear, ‘pure’ and comprehensible while Sowme'eh Sarai somehow is affected by rural accents of people who live in suburbs and those who commute to the city area. We cannot claim that they are two distinct dialects due to the fact that neither morphological variation nor word differences-except in infrequent numbers-were observed. In addition, isogloss could be drawn to show their differences. Although the distinctions were in minority, the gap still exists among the linguistic variable itself. Maybe the distinction could be in their way articulating the sounds or it could just be limited to social class. The pedagogical finding of this study indicates that if someone wants to study and or teach her students, know about different aspects and minor differences of a dialect in nearby geographical boundaries. Teachers should know their students’ language backgrounds (dialect differences) and consider it in their material and teaching designs. A paper of this length cannot completely cover this topic we suggest researchers work on the topic and investigate differences among varieties of a single dialect within Gilaki language to enrich research area on this ancient language. REFERENCES Chodzko, A. (1842). Specimens of the Poetry of Persia: as found in the adventures and improvisations of Kurroglou, the

Bandit-Minstrel of northern Persia and in the songs of the people inhabiting the shores of the Caspian Sea . London: W, H, Allen, printed for the Oriental Translation Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.

Cook, G. (2003). Applied Linguistics. Oxford: Oxford university press. Gilaki_language. (n. d.) Retrieved June 5, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilaki_language Gilan (n. d.) Retrieved June 3, 2012, from http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/gilan-x Mashayekh, T. (2002). Study of the Usage of Gilaki and Farsi in Rasht (M.A dissertation, Tehran Arts & Cultural

studies research center, 1381. Mikaili, P. Dolati, I. Asghari, M H. Shayegh, J. (2012) A systematic ornithological study of the Northern region of

Iranian Plateau, including bird names in native language, European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2012, 2 (1):222-241

Pourhadi, M. (2008). The Gilaki language. Rasht: Nashr-e Farhang-e Ilia. Rasht (n. d.) Retrieved June 8, 2012, from http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rasht Sowme'eh Sara (n. d.) Retrieved June 8, 2012, from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sowme%27eh_Sara Wardhaugh, R. (2006). An introduction to sociolinguistics. Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing.



Heidarpour, M. (2000). Describing phonological processes in Gilaki language. Guilan local dialects. Lahijan. Mashayekh, T. (2000). A survey on Farsi and Gilaki in Rasht. M.A thesis, Center for social sciences and cultural

studies. Tehran.

Appendix Phonological Symbols

آوا نشانه آوا نشانه

n (همخوان)صامت .1 ن l ل p پ

r ر b ب y ی d د

(واکه) مصوت .2 t ط-ت a ˊ─ k ک e ─ ˏ g گ ə درباره ی about در انگلیسی q غ-ق

ă Í f ف i ای v و u او s ص-س-ث ou او š ش

ă أئو z ظ-ض-ز-ذ ăi أای ž ژ ei إی x خ uo اؤ h ح-ه

ه هاسایر نشان.3 č چ

ج j نشانه ی کشش : م m نشانه ی تهی

Abbreviation symbols

نشانه مفهوم نشانه مفهوم

نگاه کنید نک تبدیل می شود →

توضیح و معنی )( کاستن ─

افزودن + نکته •

افزودن و کاستن ± نا مستند و فرضی بودن *

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