The Monster of Aramberri

research

3/2005 The Monster of Aramberri Could There be Life in the Jovian System? The Stages of “TraditionalEnmity” The Business of Being Princess

New Insights into Fat Metabolism

Magazine of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft

germ

an

In this issue

Is There Water onJupiter’s Moons?One of the key questions posedby many space missions is:Where else is – or was thereonce – water to be found in oursolar system. Is this fundamen-tal prerequisite for the develop-ment of life present on the fourJovian moons, for example? Do Io, Europa, Ganymede andCallisto have large oceansbelow their surfaces? The infor-mation sent back by the Galileoprobe was particularly impor-tant in the quest to answer thisquestion. For the first time ever,a periodically varying magneticfield was measured, indicatingthe presence of a salt-waterocean about 100 km below themoon’s crust. Page 8

War As A Way of Forming Public OpinionFor centuries, the Germans andthe French encountered eachother primarily on the battle-field. It was thus war that influ-enced their opinion of eachother and the respective imageof the other country over thecourse of many decades. Howdid these “stages of traditionalenmity” develop? Page 12

The EnterprisingPrincessShe had outstanding experi-ence and expertise in agricul-ture, and used this to bringabout an agrarian revolution atthe Saxon court in Dresden.Anna von Sachsen, born aPrincess of Denmark, was anunusually enterprising Renais-sance princess. Not only did shemanage about 70 farm estates,but was also an agrarian pio-neer. Page 18

Commentary

Ernst-Ludwig WinnackerThe Excellence Initiative: High Hopes for Boosting University Research in Germany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 2

Natural Sciences

Eberhard Frey, Wolfgang Stinnesbeck, Marie-Céline BuchyThe Monster of Aramberri . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 4

Tilman Spohn, Frank Sohl, Hauke HusmannCould There be Life in the Jovian System? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 8

Arts and Humanities

Ewa Anklam, Heidi Mehrkens, Ute Daniel, Almut Lindner-Wirsching, Joachim Schröder, Gerd KrumeichThe Stages of “Traditional Enmity” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 12

Ursula Schlude, Heide Inhetveen, Albrecht HochThe Business of Being Princess . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 18

Portrait

Of Anarchy in Apian Society . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 17

Life Sciences

Jürgen Machann, Andreas Fritsche, Fritz SchickNew Insights into Fat Metabolism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . p. 21

ISSN 0172-1518

The Whistle Stop MonsterAramberri, a picturesque small town in north-eastern Mexico, has – to date – been best knownfor its unusual variety of cacti. Now it has shot intothe international limelight, however, thanks to thediscovery of the skeleton of a 50 tonne sea monster(Page 4). Cover: Grousset

german research 3/2005

Impressum

german research is published by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation); Editor-in-chief: Dieter Hüsken (responsible for con-tent and design); Publishing Executive Editor: Dr. Rembert Unterstell; Copy Editors:Stephanie Henseler, Angela Kügler-Seifert; Translation: SciTech CommunicationsGmbH, Heidelberg; Publisher: WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Wein-heim, P.O. Box 10 11 61, 69451 Weinheim (Germany); Annual Subscription price2006: € 48,00 (Europe), US $ 68.00 (all other countries) including postage and handling charges. Prices are exclusive of VAT and subject to change. Address ofeditorial staff: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Press and Public Relations Division, Kennedyallee 40, 53175 Bonn (Germany); E-mail: [email protected]; Internet: www.dfg.de; Printed by: Bonner Universitäts-Buchdruckerei; printed on chlorine-free bleached paper with 50% recycling fibres.


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In the summer of 2005 Germany’sfederal and state governmentleaders approved the “Excellence

Initiative”, finally putting an end tothe political deadlock that had keptthe science community holding itsbreath for well over a year. In Janu-ary 2004 the then Federal Ministerfor Education and Research, Edel-gard Bulmahn, called for a new startin German science. A competitionentitled “Brain up! – Germany’slooking for its top universities” wasannounced. It aimed to find thoseuniversities in Germany that wereable to successfully compete at aninternational level and attract thebest minds, or had the potential tobecome an elite centre of learning.This campaign also pointed to theserious problem of the long-termchronic underfunding of the univer-sities and the consequent weaken-ing of German universities as placesof research. The president of theFraunhofer Society, Hans-JörgBullinger, compared the situation tothe saying “a horse will only jumpas high as it has to”. In order to in-crease performance, the bar has tobe raised; but at the same time, itshouldn’t be forgotten that themeans to do so are also required.

It soon became apparent that itwas more important to measure thequality of the individual subjectareas or departments, rather thanmeasuring the overall performanceof a university. After all, even Har-vard isn’t “number one” in everysubject all of the time. In addition toexcellence in one‘s own discipline,peak performance also demands acompetitive air.

Over the course of a few monthsthe details of the initiative weredrawn up and handed over to sci-ence organisations to carry it out:the Deutsche Forschungsgemein-schaft (DFG) and the German Sci-ence Council. The funding pro-gramme is now based on three pil-lars: graduate schools, clusters ofexcellence and institutional strate-gies designed to optimise the gener-al conditions for university research.

Universities were requested tosubmit a declaration of intent by 1August 2005, which, though notbinding, would serve to enable peerreview panels to be formed in ad-

vance. The deadline for submissionof draft proposals was 30 September2005.

In response to the first call for pro-posals, a total of 319 draft proposalswere submitted by 74 universities.These draft proposals were distrib-uted between the three lines offunding as follows: 157 for clustersof excellence, 135 for graduateschools, and 27 for institutionalstrategies. Twenty internationalpeer review panels, called intobeing by the DFG, reviewed the 292draft proposals in the first two linesof funding; the German ScienceCouncil reviewed the 27 proposalsfor institutional strategies.

Committee on 13 October. Then anannouncement will be made as towhich of the graduate schools (ap-proximately 20), clusters of excel-lence (approximately 15), and insti-tutional strategies will receive fund-ing for the five-year period, begin-ning in November 2006.

What makes these three pillarsstand out? Graduate schools are in-stitutions that form an umbrella,under which graduate students arebrought together in order to providethe best conditions possible forthem to work towards and gain theirdoctorates. Unlike Research Train-ing Groups, graduate schools are in-tended to be set apart by their inter-

Commentary

In January 2006 the Joint Com-mission, which is made up of mem-bers of the DFG‘s expert commis-sion and the German Science Coun-cil’s strategic commission, made itsinitial decisions in the first stage ofthe proposal process for the Excel-lence Initiative programme. A totalof 36 universities have been invitedto submit full proposals for 39 grad-uate schools, 41 clusters of excel-lence, and 10 institutional strategiesto promote top-level university re-search. The proposal deadline is 20April 2006. These proposals will bereviewed over the summer and finalfunding decisions will be made bythe Excellence Initiative Grants

disciplinary scientific profile. Agraduate school may span severaldepartments, possibly even encom-passing the whole university, andmay even include local non-univer-sity research institutions. A dean ofstudies and a professional manage-ment board will head each graduateschool.

Clusters of excellence generallycorrespond to the DFG ResearchCentre model. They are based uponoutstanding research performanceat the proposed location and are notto be mistaken for oversized Collab-orative Research Centres. Rather,they should set a particular area ofpriority, which may also enable the

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involvement of non-university re-search institutions and potentiallyeven universities of applied sci-ences. The funding provided will begranted to support the establish-ment of new structures and the re-quired infrastructure, professor-ships, major instrumentation, etc.International partnerships withother European countries are also apossibility, if this adds value to thecluster.

The third pillar aims to support“institutional strategies to promotetop-level research”. The main re-quirement for this line of funding isthat at least one graduate schooland one excellence cluster are also

ditions for visiting foreign re-searchers. It would be possible, forinstance, to set up institutes of ad-vanced studies for a predeterminedperiod of time, which could includeaccommodation for students andguests, or new ways of impartingknowledge. It would even be con-ceivable to consider ways in whichscience and research could be intro-duced in schools. A secondaryschool can even be included as oneof the partners in a cluster of excel-lence. Perhaps the most significantoutcome of the whole initiative,from my personal point of view, isthat each grant will be accompaniedby an additional 20 percent to fund

Through this initiative, applicantshave the opportunity to utilise thefunds in areas where they are need-ed most or will have the most im-pact, such as structural or institu-tional weak points within their insti-tutions.

The second round for the Excel-lence Initiative programme is due tobegin in April 2006 and close in Oc-tober 2007. The full scope of the pro-gramme is envisaged to fund ap-proximately 40 graduate schools,providing an average of € 1 millioneach year for each graduate school,and 30 clusters of excellence, whichwill each receive an average of € 6.5million annually, as well as an as yet

established under this initiative. In-stitutional strategies also require agreat deal of creativity. They shouldtake into consideration the extent towhich the issue of personnel istaken up in the widest sense of theword, in order to make the locationattractive for students, researchersand professors, both from Germanyand abroad. This may include ap-proaches to research that include ahigh element of risk, which must or-dinarily be funded using the univer-sity’s own funds. Or, to take a sec-ond example, part of this strategycould include instruments to im-prove the basic conditions for com-bining family and career, or the con-

the essential indirect costs that re-search brings with it. This will, atlong last, make it possible to financeprojects such as the clusters of ex-cellence without the need to rely exclusively on existing funds, whichare often scarce. For those submit-ting proposals, it will no longermean making themselves unpopu-lar within their departments, sincethe indirect costs such as roomspace and IT equipment will be pro-vided for. Of course, 20 percentdoesn’t cover all of the indirect coststhat accompany research, which are probably nearer 60 percent, but nevertheless it is a good start towards solving this problem.

undecided number of institutionalstrategies. A total of € 1.9 billion hasbeen allocated to funding the Excel-lence Initiative over a five-year peri-od. The DFG and the German Sci-ence Council anticipate that thisprogramme will make a significantcontribution towards improving thequality of research at German uni-versities, thus boosting their inter-national profile significantly.

Prof. Ernst-Ludwig WinnackerPresident of the DFG

Prof. Dr.

Ernst-Ludwig Winnacker

The Excellence Initiative:

High Hopes for Boosting UniversityResearch in GermanyThe rapid establishment of graduate schools, clusters of excellence and institutional strategies aims to strengthen research in Germany

T oday, it is a picturesque smalltown with approximately 13,000 inhabitants in the state

of Nuevo León in north-easternMexico: Aramberri. It has long beenknown for its unusual cacti. Howev-er, Aramberri’s fame is for a marinemonster that expired its life approxi-mately 145 million years ago in theUpper Jurassic, 1.8 kilometres fromtoday’s city centre.

At that time, in the Kimmerid-gian, a period of the Upper Jurassic,the bizarre faults of the SierraMadre Oriental on the outskirts ofAramberri were flat ocean floor 150to 200 metres below sea level. Acontinuous rain of fine clay particlesmixed with dead fish, ammonitesand other marine animals fell intothe dark depths to be compacted toa black, stinking mud that rapidlyburied and preserved the carcassesof animals. There was almost nooxygen, and no ocean currentsreached this lifeless world. Todaythe black mud has compacted to abrown sedimentary rock of clay andlime, so-called marl bands, whichare full of fossils. Calciferous gnarls,so-called concretions, built uparound some of the carcasses, pro-tecting the fossils from pressure formillions of years. These fossils aregenerally preserved in 3D, whereasthose in the marl are flat like littledecals.

The excavation team in Aramber-ri is working on an enormous con-cretion. It has a diameter of over sixmetres and is almost one metrethick. Visible on the edge are thebluish bones of the gigantic marinereptile that made Aramberri fa-mous. Fragments of the monstrous

stone coffin rolled down the entireslope to a dry river bed and now lieamongst cacti and thorn shrubs. Inthe blazing heat, work progresseswith gasoline driven jack hammers,pick axes and pick hammers. Dur-ing the monotony of hard physicallabour the mind has time for fanta-sies and to travel back in time towhen this was still the ocean floor:The bathyscaph shudders. The ca-bles tighten and the research teamis slowly hauled upwards. Apliosaurus warning just came in onthe radio. In a black muddy cloudthe hull of the bathyscaph slowly

4

The Monsterof Aramberri145 million years ago a 50 tonne marine monsterprowled the Gulf of Mexico. Its almost complete skeleton is now excavated


At 15 to 18 metres, the pliosaur ruled the Gulf of Mexico.

Below: A 450 kilogramme plaster and stonechunk with remains of the marine dinosaurneeds to be moved to the valley. Assistants

place slings for transport by helicopter.Right: A preparer has opened the plaster

casing and is working his way through therock using an air pressure chisel.

Natural Sciences

leaves the ocean floor. Dead fish lieeverywhere, most of them almostcompletely buried in the soft silt.The disc-shaped body of a ganoidfish, ammonite shells and the arm ofa feather star waft through the raysof the spotlights. Then the researchship “Kimmeridge” increases itsspeed and heads for Aramberri Is-land, which lies more than 300 kilo-metres off the mainland. The waterbecomes more turbid with everymetre. This muddiness permitsabundant life in the upper layers ofthe water. Cool deep currents pushplankton over the edge of the shelfand upwards where it mixes withthe warmer surface water. There,

these microorganisms thrive andform the basis of one of the mostmultifarious food chains of theUpper Jurassic.

Shoals of fish: In addition to theheavily armoured ganoids, earlybone fish dart through the waterwhenever a shark comes into view.The higher the bathyscaph rises, themore ammonites there are. Most ofthem hang in the water like bal-loons. The outlines of ichthyosaursare also visible. In small groups theydrive molluscs such as belemnitesbefore them. The reason for inter-rupting the mission is still not insight. They are the most formidablepredators the world has ever seen: 5


the pliosaurs. Just as Aramberri Is-land becomes discernable in thecloudy blue of the ocean the bathy-scaph is rocked by a terrific blow.The four metre long fin that passesbefore the portholes is immediateproof that the boat has beenrammed by a pliosaur. Records andinstruments are thrown around thecabin as the bathyscaph rumblesover the back of the enormous, 50tonne monster. It must be between15 and 18 metres long. The twopairs of fins move up and down likegigantic wings. Its body with theshort tail looks almost like that of asea turtle. Its neck is almost as longas its body and thick as a tree trunk.Its head is over three metres longand equipped with conical teeth,the longest measuring over 20 cen-timetres. As the marine reptile turnsto the left, one small eye covered byan eyelid is visible in its mighty,scarred head. One of the scars formsa deep groove behind the left eye.Then we stare into its terrifyingmaw. Pale shreds of flesh hang be-

tween the fearsome teeth like paperhandkerchiefs fluttering in the cur-rent. What happens next send shiv-ers down our spines. It appeared outof the void; none of us had noticed it,not even the pliosaur. Too late theponderous marine behemoth at-tempts to change direction whenthe almost five metre long jaw of asecond pliosaur grabs it. Like 40centimetre long daggers, its teethsink into the other’s skull. The dullcrunch of bones penetrates theboat’s hull. The small pliosaur pullsits head away as the attacker tries toadjust its grip. It dives under thebody of its attacker, leaving a trail of

blood in its wake. The mortallywounded pliosaur slowly sinks intothe depths as its attacker surfacesfor air. It is too massive for a quickturnaround and immediately aban-dons the pursuit.

“Lunchtime!” This welcomeword after a good three hours ofback-breaking work brings us backto everyday excavation life. Purefantasy, you might think. But it isn’t.There is certain proof that the mon-ster of Aramberri met its match 145million years ago. The spines of thevertebrae, which had detachedthemselves from the body of the ver-tebrae without breaking, show that

6

A group photo with the pliosaur. Themayor, municipal council, teachers andstudents gaze with amazement at the

white silhouette of the marine monster.Below: At the Aramberri excavation site,

the crew with volunteers and workers have cleared away half the mountain.

despite its length of 15 to 18 metresthe pliosaur was a young animal. Todate about a quarter of its skeletonhas been excavated; the bones pro-vide information about the mon-ster’s final weeks. One bite to thehead hit the upper side of the leftpterygoid bone and broke through,deep into the bone. To have leftsuch a wound, the tooth must havepenetrated the entire depth of theskull. To do this the crown of thetooth must have been at least 40centimetres long. That the bonehealed is proof that the monster ofAramberri survived that bite. How-ever, a second wound to another

skull bone was fatal: Its edges aresharp, there are no signs of healing.Nevertheless, shortly before itsdeath, the giant pliosaur had luckhunting. Slightly digested bonefragments from a final meal werefound where its stomach once was.

What started as a chance discov-ery in 1985 has now turned into aGerman-Mexican research project.In 2003 the newly elected governorof Nuevo León provided a heli-copter to recover a fragment weigh-ing 450 kilogrammes. He also ap-proved the construction of a road tothe excavation site, which was com-pleted during the 2004 campaign.

7

The pelvis of the pliosaur encased in plasteris hoisted out of the pit and will be movedto the pick-up location using the woodenladder. Since there are no roads across theimpassable terrain to the excavation site,the colossus must be transported byhelicopter. Below: Temperatures at theexcavation site frequently reach 40 degreesor more in the shade – extreme conditionsfor the crew.


Now the infrastructure is in place torecover the gigantic concretion thathas now been uncovered to a depthof three metres. The outline of largebones is visible on the surface. It isnot yet known how deep the concre-tion projects into the hill, but an ex-cavator will soon answer that ques-tion. What type of pliosaur it can willonly be determined after it has beenprepared. Is it a new species? Is itmore similar to European or Pacificpliosaurs? Or is this behemothunique and native only to the Gulfof Mexico? One thing is certain: It isthe largest known and most com-plete skeleton of a pliosaur thathaunted the prehistoric Gulf ofMexico during the Jurassic age,which at that time was hardly 2000kilometres away from Karlsruhe,where its remains are being pre-pared and studied today.

PD Dr. Eberhard FreyStadtliches Museum fürNaturkunde KarlsruheProf. Dr. Wolfgang StinnesbeckDipl. Biol. Marie-Céline BuchyUniversität Karlsruhe

W hen in 1610 Galileo Galilei discovered the

four large Jovian satellites,named the Galilean satel-lites after him, he sawthem as confirmation ofCopernicus’s heliocentrictheory. After all, the foursatellites, Io, Europa,Ganymede, and Callisto,which revolve aboutJupiter in nearly circularorbits, form a miniaturesolar system which is notcentered at the Earth.

Nowadays we not onlylook at the planets andtheir satellites through telescopes,such as the Hubble Space Tele-scope, but also send robotic explor-ers out into space in order to studythe celestial bodies up close. As faras the Jovian moons are concerned,the Galileo spacecraft, which orbit-ed Jupiter from 1995 onwards andconducted multiple flybys of all ofthe Galilean moons before it wasdeliberately crashed into the planetin September 2003, is particularnoteworthy. One of the key ques-tions posed by this and other mis-sions is where water can be found inthe solar system or where there oncewas water, which is thought to beessential for life to develop. Thenew clues indicating the presenceof large oceans below the surfacesof Europa, Ganymede and Callistoare particularly significant. Themost convincing argument for thisare induced magnetic fields aroundEuropa and Callisto, measured forthe first time by the Galileo space-

oceans, in which dissolvedsalts act as an electrolyte.Almost all of the moons in

the outer solar system con-sist of rock and at nearlyequal shares, the latter ofwhich is primarily waterice along with somemethane and ammoniaice. This can be inferredfrom their densities, mea-sured by the two Voyagerprobes launched in the1970s. Galileo measuredthe gravitational fields ofJupiter’s large moonsmore precisely. This datacan be used to model their

internal structure indicating that,with the exception of Io, the moonsare encased in a crust of ice andwater. On Europa the outermostwater-ice liquid shell is about 130kilometres thick according to thesecalculations and on Ganymede andCallisto about 600 to 700 kilometresthick. On Europa and Ganymedethere is a rocky metal/silicate corebelow the outer ice shell. If one as-sumes that these moons formedfrom more-or-less homogeneousmixtures of ice, rock and iron, then itis apparent that these componentshave separated out over time. Cal-listo, on the other hand, appears tobe composed of an ice-rock mixtureboth inside and out, much as it origi-nally would have been. As is thecase for any planetary body, pres-sure rises with increasing depthwithin the Jovian moons. InGanymede’s and Callisto’s iceshells the pressure becomes so greatthat layers of high-pressure ice, of8

Could There be Life in the Jovian System?Recent studies indicate the possible presence of sub-surface oceans within the large icy satellites of Jupiter. Researchers use space probes and computer simulations to investigate the evidence


craft. Because Jupiter’s magneticpoles are tilted relative to its axis ofrotation and its satellites revolve inits equatorial plane, they are sub-jected to a periodically varyingmagnetic field. The presence ofelectrically conductive layers withinthe moons would cause Jupiter’spowerful magnetic field to createelectrical currents within the moon,and those currents in turn wouldcreate a secondary magnetic fieldaround the moon. Data recorded byGalileo show that such layers existat a depth of about 100 kilometres.This suggests the presence of water

Right: Beautiful and imposing: The fourGalilean satellites of Jupiter, Io, Europa,Ganymede and Callisto (from top). Above:Europa’s icy surface is marked by a varietyof geological formations – a clearindication of geological activity in the nottoo distant past. This picture covers an areaof about 14,000 square kilometres.

Natural Sciences

different crystal structure and high-er density, form. The formation ofoceans is possible due to a familiarcharacteristic of ordinary low-pres-sure ice I, whereby the melting pointdecreases with increasing pressure(this phenomenon is what makes iceskating possible, since the pressurefrom the ice skate causes a layer ofmolten water to form). If the temper-ature and pressure are sufficientlyhigh within the moons, then anocean could form between the iceshell on the surface and the high-pressure layer of ice, since the melt-ing point of the ice rises again withincreasing pressure in the high-pressure phases. But how can tem-peratures within these moons reachor even supersede the melting point

of ice? The surface temperature ofthe Jovian moons is approximatelyminus 173°C, and thus about 150degrees below the lowest meltingpoint of pure ice. However, it is pos-sible that the melting point is evenfurther depressed if the ice in thesatellites is not pure H2O, but con-tains other components such as am-

monia, methane, and/or salts. Heatis also generated within the moonsby the decay of radioactive sub-stances with a long half-life, whichare contained in the rock. Computersimulations have shown that thetemperature of the ice may rise tojust a few degrees below zero,which would explain how the

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Tidal friction within Io causes intenseheating and volcanic activity. The heat flux

within this Jovian moon of several Wattsper square metre is around 20 times greaterthan that on Earth. Below: Grooved terrain

on Ganymede. Ganymede has highlycratered areas, as seen on Callisto, as well

as younger tectonic deformations.

The internal structure of the Galileansatellites. With the exception of Io (top left)all of them have a high proportion of ice orwater.

oceans could come about thanks tothe heat generated.

In the case of Europa, the heatgenerated by tidal friction alsoneeds to be included in the energybalance. Tidal friction is frictionwithin the moon’s interior, broughtabout by the tidally induced defor-mation caused by Jupiter’s enor-mous gravitational acceleration. Al-though the amount of heat generat-ed in Europa is thought to be lessthan that caused by Jupiter’s tidalflexing of Io, whose orbit is muchcloser to Jupiter (the volcanic activi-ty and the heat generation resultingfrom tidal flexing on Io is far morevigorous than that on Earth) com-puter simulations show that the heatgenerated by tidal friction in Eu-ropa’s ice shell could exceed thatgenerated by radiogenic heating. Itis impossible to predict a precisethickness of the ice layer since theproperties of the ice are not suffi-ciently well known. It is fairly safe toassume, however, that the ice layerwould be no more than 50 kilome-tres and no fewer than a few kilome-tres thick. If these estimates are cor-rect, then the oceans would be froma few tens of kilometres up to over100 kilometres deep with the rockycore at the bottom. The oceans inGanymede and Callisto are proba-bly covered by significantly thickerice sheets of 100 kilometres or morein thickness, since tidal heatingwould be negligible due to their fargreater distance from Jupiter. Nu-merous geological features on thesurface of Europa suggest the pres-ence of a layer of liquid water un-derneath the cold icy crust coveringthe surface. For example, impactcraters on Europa look differentfrom those on other icy moons. Theparticular crater morphology is cur-rently best explained by a weak,mobile layer beneath the brittle icycrust at the very surface. Such alayer could possibly be water, orslush, capable of flowing, beneaththe moon’s icy surface. However,the magnetic field measurementsand the thermal simulations rathersuggest the presence of an internalocean. No such geological cluesexist on Ganymede or Callisto.Since the oceans would be at muchgreater depth on these moons, this

is not unexpected. Europa is partic-ularly interesting as a candidate forthe possible existence of life in itsoceans for two reasons. Firstly, tidalfriction provides an effective sourceof heat. Secondly, the moderatedepth of the ocean allows compara-tively simple measurement by fu-ture missions. Estimates haveshown that the tidal heating couldmeet the energy requirements of aprimitive biosphere. What remainsunclear at present is whether Eu-ropa’s ocean could have existed forlong enough, in other words, for bil-lions of years, in order to allowenough time for life to evolve. Toanswer this question it is necessaryto examine the moons’ heat balanceand orbit trajectory together. Indoing so interesting interactions be-tween Jupiter’s three inner moonsbecome apparent. Due to their reso-nant orbits, called Laplace-resonant

orbits after Pierre-Simon, Marquisde Laplace, the French mathemati-cian and astronomer who explainedthe phenomenon, the moons trans-fer energy and angular momentum.On the one hand, this results in aparticularly stable orbit configura-tion. On the other hand, it allowsnon-linear feedback to bring aboutperiodic oscillations in Europa’sorbit and thus heat generation with-in Europa. This causes variations inthe thickness of the ice crust. Com-puter simulations, however, haveshown that complete freezing of theocean is also prevented over pro-longed periods of time. Europatherefore remains a key candidate –alongside Mars – in the search forextraterrestrial life in our solar sys-tem.

Prof. Dr. Tilman Spohn,Dr. Frank Sohl,Universität Münster and the Institut für Planetenforschung,Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- undRaumfahrt e.V. (DLR), BerlinDr. Hauke HusmannUniversität von São Paulo, Brasilien 11


Our accommodation was ex-cellent today. Our hosts werefriendly, we ate well and we

drank well, very well, Burgundyand Bordeaux wines, as much as wewanted. We’ve never had such goodquarters, and probably never willagain. The people were really afraidof us. They thought we were goingto kill everybody! But now they’veseen for themselves that we’re notbarbarians, just ordinary people.”

In his letter to his wife dated the 8 September 1870 from the cam-paign in France, Regimental Quar-termaster Friedrich Nützel from Er-langen was recounting a story thatcould equally well have been re-peated on a daily basis by innumer-able other campaigners aboutcountless other encounters betweenthe German and the French in the1870-71 war between their coun-tries. Before the advent of masstourism, the people of these twocountries encountered each othermost often as a result of war. Warwas thus one of the most significantfactors in how French and Germanscame to perceive each other. TheSeven Years’ War from 1756-1763,the 1870-1871 Franco-German War,as well as the First and SecondWorld Wars all serve as good exam-ples.

When French troops crossed theborder in the spring of 1757, theybegan what was to be a six-yearFrench occupation of German terri-tory. Attitudes to the occupyingforces varied from region to region.Inhabitants of the Palatinate, closeto the border, remembered how theFrench wrought destruction uponthe region at the end of the Palati-nate phase of the Thirty Years Warin the 17th century. Now however,the two countries were allies, andthe residence city of Mannheim reg-ularly saw them celebrate festivalstogether at carnival time. In con-

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Day-to-day life during the First WorldWar: German prisoners of war are led

away by French soldiers. Georges Scottpainted this watercolour that appeared

in 1914 in the large-circulation Frenchweekly “L’Illustration”. Scott rose to

considerable fame as a war front artist inthe First World War.

The Stages

Arts and Humanities

For centuries, the French and the Germans encountered each other primarily on the battlefield. This had a formative effect on their perception of each other

13

of “Traditional Enmity”

trast, northern parts of the country,such as the state of Hannover, hadnever known occupation by Frenchtroops.

Contacts between the militaryelite of both sides were typical of thetime: across Europe, members ofthis elite recognised each other, andwere bonded by the business of war,not by national identity. After apitched battle, high-ranking officersfrom both sides would meet and dis-cuss in inns or in ducal drawingrooms. At times they would meet asfellow-travellers, at other times asprisoners of war who had been re-leased upon their word of honour.Or they might tear a leaf from theKing of Prussia’s book, and corre-spond with each other.

Contacts between soldiers andcivilians were governed by logisticsrequirements. The length of occu-pation varied from region to region –from the eight month occupation ofHannover, through the three yearsin Göttingen to the continuous sixyear presence in the western Prus-sian provinces along the Rhine. TheFrench military supply system, re-liant on field magazines, only func-tioned in the early stages of the war.By no later than 1761 disorderlyconfiscation, commandeering andplundering had become common-place. Taking of local councillors ashostages in order to extort moneywas frequent, and at times took onsuch proportions that local adminis-trations almost broke down. Atroci-ties by the French, such as rape andmurder remained the exception,however. Off the battlefield, it wasunderstood that civilians and sol-diers would stick to the conventionsof war, of which two points werenon-negotiable: firstly, civilianswere not to be involved in combat,and secondly, they would supplythe armies with food and provisions.

The 1870-71 Franco-German Wartook place in two phases, with vary-ing degrees of confrontation be-tween the two sides. In the firstphase, from the start of the war inJuly 1870 until the Battle of Sedanon 1 September 1870, the Prussiansand their allied troops foughtagainst the troops of the French Em-pire. The German army’s initialthrust was followed by the occupa-tion of defeated departements andthis resulted in a great deal of con-tact between German soldiers andFrench civilians at all levels.

The German army fed itself large-ly from the conquered territory andwas certainly an economic motordue to the money it spent in France.The French civilian population, onthe other hand, had to put up withbilleting officers and the confisca-tion of personal property and food. Ifa village refused to provide whatwas required it would come underpunishing fire. Nevertheless, thebasic unwritten law, which statedthat the lives and property of civil-ians not involved in combat were tobe protected by the rules of war, ap-plied. The German proclamation of1870 promised the civilian popula-tion protection, but at the same timethreatened them with severe pun-ishment, should they take up armsagainst the German army, or en-gage in spying for their own side.

The second phase of the war last-ed from the collapse of the Empireon 2 September 1870 until thearmistice in January 1871. At thistime, there were already severalhundred thousand French prisonersof war on German soil. They en-joyed some limited contact with thecivilian population. The prisoners ofwar were interned in fortresses orcamps. Only some of the officerswere accommodated in privatehomes.

The founders of the newly estab-lished Third Republic in France re-cruited fresh volunteers in the au-tumn and winter of 1870. Althoughit would be an exaggeration tospeak of a popular uprising againstthe occupying forces, the Germanarmy nevertheless found itself con-fronted by new soldiers and unex-pected combat tactics. The “franc-tireurs”, as the Germans called the14


Propaganda posters from the SecondWorld War. Right: Advertising for

Civilian labour service in Germany.Middle: The National Socialist [Nazi]

agitators call for the manpower “to save Europe from Bolshevism”.

Bottom: Trying to improve the negativeimage of the German soldier: “Refugees!

You can trust German soldiers”

new troops (an oversimplification)sabotaged railway lines and at-tacked transports. Some of thesefighters neither wore uniform, mak-ing them indistinguishable fromcivilians, nor were under the com-mand of an officer.

The German army respondedwith increasing pressure on thecivilian population, whom theycould now no longer consider gen-erally peace-loving. Whole villageswere burnt down because theywere suspected of having franc-tireur hideouts or ambush points.Civilian hostages were tied to loco-motives in order to protect trainsand railway lines. The German fearof what came to be called “the littlewar” continued until the First WorldWar.

The historical remembrance ofthe franctireur troops in the 1870-71war set the backdrop for the takingof hostages and the mass executionsof civilians, as well as the destruc-tion of cultural monuments by Ger-man troops, which happened espe-cially during the mobile phase of thewar in August and September 1914.French newspapers reported the“atrocités allemandes” on an almost

daily basis. Surprised by the fierceresistance of the invaded countryand the destructiveness of the at-tackers in this industrialised war,both sides accused each other ofmistreatment and mutilation of pris-oners of war and casualties.

During the static phase of thewar, which began in November1914, opposing soldiers faced eachother in trenches sometimes lessthan a hundred meters apart. Beingthis close to the enemy did no moreto cast doubt on the image of Ger-mans as barbarians than personalcontact with German prisoners ofwar. It did, however, result in isolat-ed acts of humanity, such as thearrangement of spontaneous cease-fires to allow for recovery of thewounded.

Contact between the Germanmilitary and the French civilianpopulation occurred above all in theten departements in northern andeastern France that fell under Ger-man military rule in 1914. In an agebefore radio, the border regionswere almost completely isolatedfrom the rest of France right up untiltheir liberation. The occupied terri-tories served as a source of suppliesand provisions for the Germanarmy, as well as being a transit zoneand rest area. The behaviour of theGerman soldiers towards the localinhabitants depended on the typeand duration of their mission. Itranged from indifference througharrogance to outright aggressive-ness when war-suitable materialsand large mansions and privaterooms were commandeered. Al-though isolated instances of resist-ance by civilians against the occu-pying forces were punished by de-portation, imprisonment or death,there was no repetition of the ex-cesses of the initial weeks duringthe four years that occupation lasted

An easily remembered image of misery:German prisoners of war herdedtogether like cattle to spend the nightbehind barbed wire. The painting byLucien Jonas dates from 1917. Temporarycamps were often set up behind thefront for prisoners of war to await theirtransportation.

German occupying soldiers in Franceduring the First World War: Rude German

soldiers invite the lady of the manor tojoin them in drinking to the Kaiser’s

health. This affront forces the genteelwomen to rise stony-faced from the table.

The painting is entitled ”Courtoisieboche” (“German courtesy”) and was

painted in 1915 by Lucien Jonas. 15

in some places. It was only duringthe German retreat in the spring of1917 and the autumn of 1918 thatentire regions in the occupied areaswere systematically destroyed.

After the invasion of France inMay 1940 the German army suc-ceeded in forcing the French forcesto capitulate after a relatively short

campaign. The static war with manycasualties, dreaded by many afterthe experience of the First WorldWar, did not take place. Hundredsof thousands of people fled beforethe advancing German troops, withthe “atrocités allemandes” of theFirst World War in mind, fearingatrocities by the German soldiers.The act of occupation, however,passed without great bloodshed.The country was divided into sever-al occupation zones and a Germanadministration was put in charge ofthem. In southern France the VichyRegime under Marshall Pétainruled, collaborating with the occu-pying forces. German rule lasted fornearly four years, during which itwas able to exploit France’s econo-my and implement its racist policies.

German control was maintainedby a relatively small but neverthe-less constant military and policepresence. Broad sections of theFrench elite collaborated with andthus supported the effort of the oc-cupying forces to maintain “law andorder”. The vast majority of the pop-ulation remained reserved and pas-sive toward the Germans, especiallysince only a minority of the Frenchpopulation – Jews and communists– were exposed to persecution. Thisreserve was reinforced by intensepropaganda on the part of the Ger-mans and the Vichy government.

Only an infinitely small minorityoffered active resistance, which inthe first place was met with disap-proval by the majority of the popula-tion, because it always led to ruth-less reprisals by the occupyingforces such as executions ofhostages.

Only from 1942 onwards, whenincreasing numbers of French citi-zens were forced to go to Germanyfor “labour service” (“Arbeitsein-satz”), did the “Résistance” gain inpopularity. A partisan war devel-oped, to which the occupying forcesresponded with increasingly viciousreprisals.

The day-to-day experiences ofthe French civilian workers andprisoners of war in Germany – attimes numbering more than 1.3 mil-lion – varied immensely. Theirworking and living conditions werenevertheless far better than thoseexperienced by the Eastern Euro-peans – they could even, to a limitedextent, develop personal relation-ships with Germans. The Frenchlabourers were, however, also theobject of resentment by racist“Volksgenossen” as well as beingat the mercy of German security andpolice authorities.

Ewa AnklamHeidi MehrkensProf. Dr. Ute DanielTechnische Universität BraunschweigDr. Almut Lindner-WirschingJoachim SchröderProf. Dr. Gerd KrumeichUniversität Düsseldorf

http://opus.tu-bs.de/opus/volltexte/2005/699▼16

The destruction of Reims Cathedral in1914 infuriated the French, who for a

long time held a bitter grudge against theGermans as a result. Not only the French

viewed this act, which took place at the beginning of the First World War,

as evidence of the German Army’s“barbarism” and “lack of culture”. In

propaganda literature “Reims” crops uptime and time again.

ome of the earliest objects of Neumann’s curiosity were

wasps and ants which he observedon the beach during long summerholidays at the Baltic. Even as ayoung child, Peter Neumann wascaptivated by what ants are abledo with something like a piece ofchocolate. But that was just the be-ginning. Later he wanted to “knowmore about the colourful life ofcolonies of social insects,” he re-counts with a slight Berlin accent,“and to understand how the manysocial layers, for instance in acolony of 30,000 bees, function.”

The privatdocent at the Zoologi-cal Institute of the University ofHalle-Wittenberg is fascinated bythe biology of honeybees. “Youhave to see it – it’s wonderful,” saysNeumann, and hurries from theconference table in his office to across-sectional model of a honey-bee the size of a violin case. Thistall, young scientist can explain theanatomy of a worker bee as vividlyas his studies describe Europeanand South African bee species.

As the recipient of an EmmyNoether fellowship, Neumannstudied the characteristic behav-iour of the South African “Capehoneybee” (Apis mellifera capen-sis), and within the framework ofhis DFG independent junior re-search group, he studied “socialparasitism among honeybees”.The parasitism of the Cape honey-bee consists of its female workerbees taking over colonies of otherhoneybee subspecies. They estab-lish themselves as “pseudo-queens” in the foreign colony andlay their own fertilised eggs. Work-ers laying eggs means that “thenormal role allocation in the hive,namely the queen being responsi-ble for laying eggs, and the femaleworker bees being responsible for

nest building and foraging, isturned upside down ,” explains Dr.Neumann. The consequence is an-archy in the apian society: Thepopulation of the host colony de-clines and normal operation of thehive collapses. The consequence ofthis is that over 100,000 infestedbee colonies were destroyed in justa single year of observation, andmigratory beekeeping in northernSouth Africa is set to collapse. Inclose collaboration with SouthAfrican scientists, Neumann wasable to decode “the social-parasiticreproduction cycle”. Based onmodern molecular genetic analy-ses, the research also offers the op-portunity “to study the evolution ofsocial parasitism in real-time usingthe Cape honeybee as a model”.This is a new piece in the evolu-tionary puzzle.

Born in 1967, Peter Neumannstudied chemistry and biology atthe Technical University and theFree University of Berlin. His re-search took him to Uppsala andSheffield, before he was awardeda doctorate at the Martin LutherUniversity in Halle-Wittenberg in

1998 for his thesis on apiculture.As a postdoctoral student he spenttwo years conducting research atRhodes University in Grahams-town, South Africa. On his returnto Germany he entered the second(domestic) phase of the EmmyNoether programme in the springof 2001 and established the inde-pendent junior research groupmentioned above. At the sametime he qualified as a universitylecturer in Halle. Since 2005 hehas coordinated a network re-searching the “small hive beetle”,which was funded by the GermanFederal Ministry of Consumer Pro-tection, Food and Agriculture.

The rather nondescript, shinyblack hive beetle, about six mil-limetres in length, is a compara-tively harmless bee parasite in itsnative South Africa. However, itposes a serious threat to beecolonies on other continents. Intro-duced through the internationalbee trade, the parasite has alreadycaused damage in the millions inNorth America and Australia, andit seems only a matter of time be-fore the beetle reaches Germany.So, in addition to information cam-paigns, it is now more importantthan ever “to research the as yetunknown biology of the small hivebeetle as well as new and modifiedmethods of pest control,” stressesNeumann, adding that “basic re-searchers, apiarists and environ-mentalists need to work togetherto counteract this threat.” Onething is certain: Neumann’s re-search on the biodiversity and evo-lutionary ecology of invasivespecies will make a significantcontribution.

Rembert Unterstell

In this column we publish occasional arti-cles on outstanding young researchers.

Portrait

S

Of Anarchy in Apian SocietyBiologist Peter Neumann, from Halle, is studying social parasitism

among South African honeybees

17


The Businessof BeingPrincess

Anna von Sachsen was a Renaissance princess with very good business competence.

She used her experience and expertise in agriculture at the Dresden Saxon Court to bring

about an agrarian boom

All that can be heard in thereading room are keyboardsclicking and the occasional

whisper. The Saxon State Archivesin Dresden, like any other library, isa place of quiet and dedicated con-centration. A researcher in the his-tory of women’s development issearching through old hand-writtendocuments for evidence and ac-counts of authorship by women.

Princess Anna von Sachsen(1532-1585) left us a great manysuch documents: her correspon-dence runs to some 16,000 German-language letters and copies of let-ters, written to princes and princess-es, administrators and people atcourt. They are real-life, everydaydocuments: transactions, queries,news, suggestions and advice, in-structions and replies to other peo-ple’s letters.

They bear testimony to the ener-gy and dedication of a Renaissanceprincess, of her vitality and compe-tence in politics, theology, botany,and what is even more out of keep-ing for a princess, agricultural and18

Arts and Humanities

meekness and obedience; to thesethe Protestant ideology added thepractical qualities of diligence aswell as the ability to work with num-bers. In this respect, Anna, as aProtestant “patroness”, contributedgreatly to the Prince’s economicpolicies. Anna’s initiative can besaid to be behind the large-scalecountry farm-estates (or “projects”as they were then called) becomingstrong and independent self-man-aged affairs from 1568 on. Anna ap-pointed new regional administra-tors, as well as a professional advi-sor, the Saxon aristocrat Abrahamvon Thumbshirn, with whom shediscussed her ideas and her goals.

Aruling couple such as Annaand August von Sachsen op-erated according to sound

economic principles, and formed ajoint enterprise. A large proportionof their income came from the pro-duce of the labour of the rural serfsworking on their farm-estates. Taxrevenue was small.

If we wished to illustrate their sit-uation by drawing a comparisonwith a modern-day example, wecould imagine the German Chan-cellor and his wife as being manag-ing directors of a car manufacturer.The entire Court would be like the

Federal Chancellery or any othergoverning body, but supporting it-self by its own resources. SixteenthCentury documents reveal the mostastounding economic everyday re-alities at the Elector’s Court in Dres-den, such as when Anna orders thetransfer of 200 sheep to Dresden,destined for the Court kitchens orwhen she authorises, in minute de-tail, a project administrator to useSaxon forest wood for repair workon a barn-stable roof, we find it hardto imagine that people of ducal rankcould concern themselves with suchtrivial details. However, it doesshow us the painstaking care need-ed when managing natural re-sources such as forests, sheep pas-tures and arable land. Practicallyeverything that was consumed atthe Court in Dresden was the fruit ofits own economic activity. Annapersonally saw to it that butter andcheese production surpluses got

Left: Princess Anna von Sachsen. Herportrait is drawn from the altarpiece of the Princess’ family by Lucas Cranach the Younger. She was active as an agrarianpioneer at the Elector’s Court in Dresden,where, in 1570, there also appeared thefirst German-language manuscript ofagrarian studies.

agrarian affairs. This kind of exper-tise on the part of a woman, in land-scaping, in farming and economics,was hitherto unknown in the historyof agriculture.

Anna von Sachsen lived from1532 until 1585, a time of vigorousintellectual change brought aboutby the Reformation as well as theRenaissance, which had graduallycrossed the Alps from the south. An-cient documents, including docu-ments about agriculture, were com-ing to light during this period andwere often eagerly emulated. Print-ing made it possible for ancient doc-uments to be widely disseminated.

Knowledge and expertise werenot only taught at universities, butalso at court, in craftsmen’s work-shops, in convents and on countryestates. Anna von Sachsen, bornPrincess of Denmark (from theHouse Oldenburg), studied botanyand the art of healing throughplants in her youth, and very proba-bly learnt the basis of landscapingand the progressive methods ofDanish agriculture.

This is borne out by her compe-tent management, of some 70 large-scale farm estates working from theElector’s Court in Dresden. Womenof Princess Anna’s rank were edu-cated and trained for “managementpositions”. As Consort to the Arch-duke Prince August von Sachsen(1526-1586) she belonged to a royalfamily with sufficiently consider-able political power to be able to ap-point Heads of State of the GermanHoly Roman Empire.

Anna was a second generationProtestant. Her letters convey asense of responsibility, as PrincessConsort for a positive outcome ofthe religious revolution. Anna’s in-terest and involvement in econom-ics was closely linked to the new re-ligious doctrine. In the Protestantprincipalities, economic activity andcompetition from the Church waslargely neutralised. Martin Lutherelevated marriage as an institution.It became a nucleus for exercisingeconomic dominance and dedica-tion. The Prince and Princess werenow to be seen as a conscientioushusband and wife team working to-gether. The ideal qualities of theChristian wife had always been 19

good market prices.Whenever Anna andAugust travelled fromDresden to take the wa-ters in Karlsbad in Bo-hemia, as in the springof 1750, they took withthem large quantities offish, caught in thestreams and rivers ofthe Erz Mountains andthen sent along in bar-rels. Even when theyjourneyed to otherplaces, such as the im-perial parliament, theirprovisions came fromDresden. A full set ofcooking utensils wastaken along, and evena field stove. They werethe last word in modernlogistics. The Saxoneconomy functionedlike a de facto com-mand economy. InAnna’s letters to heraristocratic administra-tor, this cannot be dis-guised, in spite of herrespectful tone. Shemight address him as “Dear EsteemedFriend”: he neverthe-less had to follow or-ders from above, for ex-ample, all produce fromthe projects was to beaccounted for in termsof monetary value, even when in-tended for consumption at the Courtof the Prince. Economic expertise,which was then known as “house-keeping” or “oeconomia”, in Anna’sday, above all meant land andhouse husbandry. Like many formsof knowledge that today are taughtin universities, transmission waslargely oral. It was only towards theend of the 16th century that the firstwritten agrarian studies began toappear, setting themselves apartfrom the writings and examples ofAntiquity by serving to record con-temporary experience. We owe theearliest examples of this type to theSaxon Court at Dresden. Theanonymous manuscript Haus-haltung in Vorwerken [Estate FarmHusbandry] (ca. 1570), is a 366 pagefolio volume. This was the first book

in common language that dealt withagrarian practice in a German re-gion. Subsequent printed works onagricultural management were todraw upon this manuscript. To getan idea of the way in which PrincessAnna contributed to the develop-ment of Saxon agriculture andagrarian studies in Dresden, weneed to carry out subtle text colla-tion. One important criterion isRechenhaftigkeit, the belief and theability in computation. This was ascharacteristic of the Prince andPrincess as Haushaltung in Vor-werken. A good example of this isthe way that the year-round ex-

ploitation of a singlehead of sheep wasworked out to the lastHeller.One of the most sur-prising documents inagrarian history is to befound among Anna’scorrespondence withher administrators. Inone register, dated 9October 1570, there is adetailed list of seeds,along with techniquesfor sowing fields ma-nured in differentways. This is probablydocumentation relatingto the start of a fieldtrial campaign. Thevariables in these ma-nuring equations werecow and sheep dung,as well as direct pastur-ing of sheep, known as “penning”. Annalearnt from experience,but also by exchang-ing knowledge withfriendly principalities,Saxon noblemen andrural serfs. Occasional-ly she kept her knowl-edge to herself, astoday one might keepan industrial secret,partly because of possi-ble economic advan-tages. Anna and Au-

gust, Saxon Prince and Princess andworking team, were not averse tomagical practices, in political aswell as economic matters. One di-vining technique widely resorted toat that time was geomancy. Butabove all, the Princess was a reli-giously devout woman as well as acapable businessperson. She be-lieved in the omniscience of heaven,and in divine providence. After re-ceiving an administrator’s reportconcerning a ruined harvest in thesummer of 1569, she remarked with sagacious confidence “TheAlmighty Father’s future harvestswill be all the more abundant”.

Ursula Schlude M.AProf. Dr. Heide InhetveenAlbrecht Hoch M.A. Universität Göttingen20


The ornately decorated frontispiece of thefirst Saxon Book of Herbs, thought to becommissioned by Princess Anna in 1563.

Desk work, minimal physicalrecreational activity and high-calorie nutrition – who is not

familiar with daily life in our afflu-ent society? However, our modernlifestyle has its price. Diabetes mel-litus type 2 is a widespread diseasethat has increased drastically in re-cent years. At this time, approxi-mately six percent of Germans aresuffering from this disease. Re-searchers estimate that in Germany,eight million people will have thedisease by the year 2010. Althoughformerly known as adult-onset dia-betes and usually only occurring inpeople over forty, today more andmore young people are affected bythe disease.

Besides having a direct adverseeffect on health, diabetes also sig-nificantly increases the risk ofstrokes and heart attacks and,thereby increasing the costs of thehealth care system. Not least for thisreason, the prevention of diabetes is of paramount importance. Re-searchers are looking into the possi-bility of determining the personalrisk profile of each individual inorder to provide targeted and sys-tematic preventive treatment forpeople at high risk. Ideally, the pos-sibility of individual prognoses

would aid in determining the neces-sity and tolerance of various preven-tive measures.

In addition, the decrease in theproduction of insulin, a hormonethat lowers blood sugar levels, thedecrease in the effectiveness of theinsulin, so-called insulin resistance,is one of the dysfunctions that arethe result of diabetes mellitus type2. The end result is a decrease in thesensitivity towards insulin of, in par-ticular, muscle, liver and fatty tis-sues, which is most frequently ob-served in overweight people. Sinceapproximately 85 percent of pa-tients with diabetes are overweight,

the excessive accumulation of fat intissue (also called adiposis or obesi-ty) is seen as the most significantrisk factor for inducing the disease.On the other hand however, thereare people whose blood sugar levelsare not elevated or are relativelysensitive to insulin despite beingmarkedly overweight. So which fac-tors in fatty tissue are associatedwith insulin resistance? What caus-es the different levels of insulin sen-sitivity in people with the sameamount of body fat? What role doesthe distribution of fatty tissue in thehuman body play? Scientists at theUniversity Hospital of Tübingen are

21

New Insights into Fat MetabolismBeing overweight is one of the main risk factors for diabetes. What role does the distribution of fatty tissue in the human body play? Modern imaging processes are providing new answers

Examination with a magnetic resonance(MR) tomograph. In order to determine the

distribution of body fat, the subject ispassed step by step through the tomograph

in a ventricumbent position withoutstretched arms. This permits the entire

body, from the fingers to the toes, to be scanned.

Life Sciences

searching for the answers throughthe Tübingen Lifestyle InterventionProgramme (Tübinger Lebensstil-Interventionsprogramm, TULIP).The subjects, primarily overweightpeople as well as first degree rela-tives of people already sufferingfrom diabetes, are participating innutrition and sports programmelasting two years with the objectiveof losing weight and improvingtheir physical condition. The studybegan in the summer of 2003; in thefirst two years alone 250 partici-pants were examined.

One important aspect of theTULIP study is to record measurable

none of these methods can revealinformation regarding the distribu-tion of fatty tissue in the body. Infact, according to recent discover-ies, not only the percentage of fat inoverall body weight is decisive as towhether or not a person will developinsulin resistance but, furthermore,where the fat is stored in the body.

The body stores fat primarily in the subcutaneous fatty tissue and the abdomen. Normally

there is a balance between thebreakdown of fatty acids and fatstorage in cells. However, in obesepeople this balance is disturbed.Not only the actual fat cells build upand break down fat when there aretoo many fatty acids in the blood,other organ cells also store fat forreasons which are still unknown;these cells are frequently so dis-turbed that their reaction to insulinis impaired. Therefore, the fat con-centration of various organs thatnormally contain hardly any fat butare, nevertheless, primarily affectedby insulin resistance, for instancethe skeletal muscles or the liver, is ofgreat interest.

As already mentioned, it is there-fore necessary to be able to view in-side a person and obtain three-di-mensional images of the fat distrib-ution from the finger tips to the bigtoes. The most suitable method forthis purpose is magnetic resonancetomography (MRT), which is safe forthe organism when specific safetymeasures are observed. It is one ofthe most up-to-date imaging modal-ities and is firmly established as amethod of radiological diagnosis.

MRT measures the distribution ofhydrogen protons in the body, cre-ating images in every desired levelof the interior of the body. Thismethod is based on proton rotationand the associated magnetisation.

22

Comparison of MR tomograms: On the left:Images of various regions of the body of aslim insulin-sensitive person and (beside itto the right) of an overweight insulin-resistant person. The fatty tissue in theimage is significantly lighter. A series of 120images provides individual fat profiles(yellow) and also shows the abdominal fat(blue).

data concerning the fat distributionprior to and after the lifestylechanges. To date, the standard pro-cedures for measuring body fatwere weighing under water and theso-called DEXA method. The un-derwater method utilises the differ-ent specific densities of body tissue.The DEXA method assumes thatdifferent body tissues attenuate x-rays to varying degrees. Hence,body mass can be broken down intolean tissue, fatty tissue and bones.In addition, less price intensiveprocesses have become establishedthat require no radiation and arebased purely on statistics. However,

The tomograms are viewed on thescreen. The MR tomograph can be seenin the background. The measurementsare controlled from the examinationroom, but there is continuous visualand voice contact with the personbeing examined.

To measure the latter, the patient issubjected to a very strong but safemagnetic field in a tomograph.When a high-frequency pulse is ra-diated with the resonance frequen-cy of the hydrogen protons, themagnetiasation’s state of equilibri-um is disturbed. After switching offthe pulse, the patient automaticallyemits frequency signals enabling acomputer to calculate images of in-dividual body layers. Due to the factthat the signals or the “replies of thenuclei” vary in strength and lengthdepending on the type of tissue,they are transformed into the vari-ous levels of light intensity of the in-dividual images. In this case, fattytissue is significantly lighter thanother tissue, and its distribution canbe seen and measured by means ofspecial evaluation software pro-grams.

In the TULIP study, during a mea-suring period of approximately 20minutes, a series of 100 to 120 im-ages are taken of the volunteer inorder to measure the proportion ofbody fat and, furthermore, to identi-fy the different areas containingbody fat. In this way, the re-searchers create individual fat pro-files, which also permit the precisedetermination of so-called visceralfatty tissue which surrounds theinner organs of the abdomen. Due tometabolism, the visceral fat is espe-cially active and its mass is closelyassociated with insulin resistanceand the risk of diabetes.

In Tübingen, magnetic resonancespectroscopy is furthermore usedto view miniscule quantities of fat

in muscle or liver tissue. The con-centration of globular fat droplets inmuscle cells is of special interest.Current studies prove that there is alink between this form of fat and in-sulin sensitivity. Insulin resistantpeople have a significantly higherconcentration of fat droplets than in-sulin sensitive people. Furthermore,these fat deposits seem to have aneffect on glucose metabolism. In ad-dition, they are evidently subject tocomplex control by hormones andgenetic factors. Therefore, it isworthwhile carrying out research toobtain how the fat concentration inthe muscles alters with a different

lifestyle and whether or not lifestylechange offers a positive effect on in-sulin sensitivity. The TULIP studyhas already obtained some resultsfrom the examination of fat concen-trations in the liver and visceral fatconcentrations. After nine months,the first 100 participants had re-duced their weight by an average of2.5 percent, whereas the concentra-tion of visceral fat had decreased by14 percent and the concentration offat in the liver by 32 percent. On thisbasis, a change in lifestyle seems tohave a particularly beneficial effecton fat deposits that are crucial formetabolism. In addition, it wasshown that the visceral fat concen-trations and fat concentrations inthe liver are closely linked but eachis, at the same time, a separate deci-sive factor in insulin sensitivity. If aparticipant had a high concentra-tion of visceral fat at the beginningof the study, he is less likely to beable to improve his insulin sensitivi-ty and his blood sugar level despiteintensive improvements in nutritionand increased physical activity.

The combination of variousprocesses carried out by the TULIP

study has, for the first time, allowedfor the measurement of differenttypes of body fat and a detailed ex-amination of fat metabolism. Thelong term observation of lifestylechange through nutrition and train-ing programmes offers a unique in-sight into physiological correlations.Knowledge gained as to the correla-tion between the distribution ofbody fat and the course of insulin re-sistance as well as other measure-ments, permits conclusions to bedrawn as to how the preventativetreatment of patients at risk can beindividually optimised.

Dipl.-Phys. Jürgen MachannPD Dr. Andreas FritscheProf. Dr. Dr. Fritz SchickUniversitätsklinikum Tübingen 23


The Deutsche ForschungsgemeinschaftThe DFG (German Research Foundation) is the central self-governing organisation re-sponsible for promoting research in Germany. According to its statutes, the DFG servesall branches of science and the humanities. The DFG supports and coordinates researchprojects in all scientific disciplines, in particular in the areas of basic and applied re-search. Particular attention is paid to promoting young researchers. Researchers whowork at a university or research institution in Germany are eligible to apply for DFGfunding. Proposals will be peer reviewed. The final assessment will be carried out by re-view boards, the members of which are elected by researchers in Germany in their indi-vidual subject areas every four years. The DFG distinguishes between the following programmes for research funding: In theIndividual Grants Programme, any researcher can apply for financial assistance for anindividual research project. Priority Programmes allow researchers from various re-search institutions and laboratories to cooperate within the framework of a set topic orproject for a defined period of time, each working at his/her respective research institu-tion. A Research Unit is a longer-term collaboration between several researchers whogenerally work together on a research topic at a single location. In Central Research Fa-cilities there is a particular concentration of personnel and equipment that is required toprovide scientific and technical services. Collaborative Research Centres are long-term university research centres in which sci-entists and academics pursue ambitious joint interdisciplinary research undertakings.They are generally established for a period of 12 years. In addition to the classic Collab-orative Research Centres, which are concentrated at one location and open to all subjectareas, the DFG also offers several programme variations. Transregional CollaborativeResearch Centres allow various locations to cooperate on one topical focus. CulturalStudies Research Centres are designed to support the transition in the humanities to anintegrated cultural studies paradigm. Transfer Units serve to transfer the findings ofbasic research produced by Collaborative Research Centres into the realm of practicalapplication by promoting cooperation between research institutes and users. DFG Research Centres are an important strategic funding instrument. They concentratescientific research competence in particularly innovative fields and create temporary,internationally visible research priorities at research universities. Research Training Groups are university training programmes established for a specifictime period to support young researchers by actively involving them in research work.This focuses on a coherent, topically defined, research and study programme. ResearchTraining Groups are designed to promote the early independence of doctoral studentsand intensify international exchange. They are open to international participants. In In-ternational Research Training Groups, a jointly structured doctoral programme is of-fered by German and foreign universities. Other funding opportunities for qualified young researchers are offered by the Heisen-berg Programme and the Emmy Noether Programme. Humanities Research Centres were created in the new federal states to improve the ex-isting research infrastructure. These centres have been established for a specific timeperiod and serve to promote interdisciplinary research. The DFG also funds and initiates measures to promote scientific libraries, equips com-puter centres with computing hardware, provides instrumentation for research purpos-es and conducts peer reviews on proposals submitted within the framework of theHochschulbauförderungsgesetz, a legal act which provides for major equipment andthe construction of institutions of higher education in Germany. On an internationallevel, the DFG has assumed the role of Scientific Representative to international organ-isations, coordinates and funds the German contribution towards large-scale interna-tional research programmes, and supports international scientific relations. Another important role of the DFG is to provide policy advice to parliaments and publicauthorities on scientific issues. A large number of expert commissions and committeesprovide the scientific background for the passing of new legislation, primarily in theareas of environmental protection and health care.

The legal status of the DFG is that of a private association. Its member organisations in-clude research universities, the Academies of Sciences and Humanities, the MaxPlanck Society, the Fraunhofer Society, the Leibniz Association, the Helmholtz Associa-tion of National Research Centres, research organisations of general importance, and anumber of scientific associations. In order to meet its responsibilities, the DFG receivesfunding from the German federal government and the federal states, as well as an an-nual contribution from the Donors’ Association for the Promotion of Sciences and Hu-manities in Germany.

Authors’ AddressesEwa AnklamHeidi MehrkensProf. Dr. Ute DanielHistorisches Seminar der Technischen Universität Braunschweig, Schleinitzstraße 113, 38106 BraunschweigPD Dr. Eberhard FreyStaatliches Museum für Naturkunde Karlsruhe, Erbprinzenstraße 13, 76133 KarlsruheDr. Hauke HusmannUniversidade de São Paulo (USP)Instituto de Astronomia, Geofísicae Ciências Atmosféricas (IAG)Departamento de AstronomiaRua do Matão, 1226 - Cidade Universitária05508-900 São Paulo SP, BrasilienDr. Almut Lindner-WirschingIm Klausenstück 6, 60439 Frankfurt/MainDipl.-Phys. Jürgen MachannPD Dr. Andreas FritscheProf. Dr. Dr. Fritz SchickUniversitätsklinikum Tübingen, Radiologische Klinik, Abt. für Radiologische Diagnostik, Sektion für Experimentelle Radiologie, Hoppe-Seyler-Str. 3, 72076 TübingenUrsula Schlude M.A.Prof. Dr. Heide InhetveenAlbrecht HochInstitut für Rurale Entwicklung, Universität Göttingen, Waldweg 26, 37073 GöttingenJoachim SchröderProf. Dr. Gerd KrumeichUniversität Düsseldorf, Historisches Seminar I, Lehrstuhl f. Neuere Geschichte, Universitätsstr. 1, 40225 DüsseldorfProf. Dr. Tilman SpohnDr. Frank SohlDeutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raum-fahrt e.V. (DLR) in der Helmholtzgemein-schaft, Institut für PlanetenforschungRutherfordstr. 2, 12489 BerlinProf. Dr. Wolfgang StinnesbeckDipl.-Biol. Marie-Céline BuchyUniversität Karlsruhe, Geologisches Institut, Kaiserstr. 12, 76131 KarlsruheProf. Dr. Ernst-Ludwig WinnackerPresident of the Deutsche Forschungsge-meinschaft, Kennedyallee 40, 53175 Bonn

IllustrationsGrousset (cover, pp. 4 b. l., 7 a.); Querbach(p. 2, back); Andrea Schmidt (p. 4/5); Staat-liches Museum für Naturkunde Karlsruhe(p. 5 b.); Frey (pp. 6 c., 7 c.); Buchy (p. 6 b. l.);NASA/JPL (pp. 8-11); Lindner-Wirsching/L’Illustration (pp. 12 / 13, 15); Schröder(pp.14,16); private (p.17); Schlossbetriebs-gesellschaft mbH Augustusburg/Scharfen-stein /Lichtenwalde (p. 18); Sächsische Landesbibliothek/Staats- und Universitäts-bibliothek Dresden (p. 19); SLUB Dresden/Deutsche Fotothek/Regine Richter (p. 20);Machann (pp. 21-23).Layout of pictures: l.: left; r.: right; a.: above;c.: centre; b.: below24


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A rare scene indeed! The DFG Head Office in the

snow. Here we see the Head Office in Bonn covered in white.If it happens at all, it never lastsfor long.

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