| Date post: | 28-Feb-2023 |
| Category: |
Documents |
| Upload: | khangminh22 |
| View: | 0 times |
| Download: | 0 times |
eCommons@AKU eCommons@AKU
Theses & Dissertations
5-2021
Whatsapp in the newsroom: utilisation of WhatsApp in journalistic Whatsapp in the newsroom: utilisation of WhatsApp in journalistic
practices in Kenya practices in Kenya
Valerie R.A. Koga
Follow this and additional works at: https://ecommons.aku.edu/theses_dissertations
Part of the Journalism Studies Commons, and the Mass Communication Commons
THE AGA KHAN UNIVERSITY
Graduate School of Media and Communications
WHATSAPP IN THE NEWSROOM: UTILISATION OF WHATSAPP IN
JOURNALISTIC PRACTICES IN KENYA
By
Valerie R.A Koga
535145
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Arts in Digital Journalism
Nairobi, Kenya
May, 2021
© Copyright
COPYRIGHT
Copyright © 2021, Valerie R.A. Koga
iii
APPROVAL PAGE
The Aga Khan University
Graduate School of Media and Communications
A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of
Arts in Digital Journalism
Members of the Thesis Evaluation Committee appointed to examine the thesis of
VALERIE R.A. KOGA-535145, find it satisfactory and recommended that it be accepted.
_____________________________
Dr. Samuel Kamau, PhD.,
1st Supervisor
_____________________________
Dr. Wambui Wamunyu, PhD.,
2nd Supervisor
_____________________________
Nancy Booker, PhD.,
Director, Academic Affairs
_____________________________
Member,
Thesis Evaluation Committee
May, 2021
iv
DECLARATION
WHATSAPP IN THE NEWSROOM: UTILISATION OF WHATSAPP IN
JOURNALISTIC PRACTICES IN KENYA
I, VALERIE R.A. KOGA-535145, declare that this thesis does not incorporate without
acknowledgement any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any
university and that to the best of my knowledge it does not contain any material
previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been
made in the text. The editorial assistance provided to me has in no way added to the
substance of my thesis, which is the product of my research endeavours.
_____________________________
Signature
_____________________________________________________________________
Date
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my supervisors – Dr. Samuel Kamau and Dr. Wambui
Wamunyu – for their invaluable input, guidance, questions that helped me think outside the
box and lessons that helped me during this study. I also wish to thank the thesis committee
members for their invaluable input. I appreciate Mr. Hesbon Owilla for his invaluable input
and encouragement. I would also like to express my gratitude to Dr. Nancy Booker for the
extra readings and encouragement; Mr. Augustine Gitonga for your patience in guiding me
on library and research writing resources, the rest of the Aga Khan University Graduate
School of Media and Communications (AKU-GSMC) fraternity for your invaluable
support during my studies, and to my academic sponsors for making the financial load
lighter. To my family, friends and colleagues, I say thank you for the encouragement and
support. Without you all, the journey would have been a truly lonely road. Asanteni sana.
vi
ABSTRACT
Over the years, technological innovations have become useful in communication
and influenced the way people work (UNCTAD, 2018), with social media applications
becoming more acceptable for use at work (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; McIntyre
& Sobel, 2019). Many newsrooms in Kenya have integrated the use of social media
applications in news production. As a result, the social media application WhatsApp has
been domesticated by journalists and is widely used as a tool for news gathering and a
channel for communication and for news production as a whole. Thus, the study sought to
find out what motivates journalists to use WhatsApp for work, how WhatsApp is integrated
in news production in Kenya, and how this integration changes journalists’ routines. The
study makes use of the Domestication of Technology Theory, which explores how people
adopt technology to fit into their lives, adapt it to their use and change their routines in
tandem with the technology. In turn, the routines keep changing how they adopt it, and
sometimes this cycle of change continues. The study targeted journalists in Kenya and
utilised a mixed methods approach. It utilised a survey and key informant interviews to
explore motivations for using WhatsApp in journalism, how WhatsApp has been integrated
in news production, and how this has changed journalists’ routines. Data was collected
using questionnaires and an interview schedule, and analysed at the three levels of
descriptive, explanatory and interpretive analysis. Findings were then presented in tables,
figures and narratives. The study found that WhatsApp is being domesticated in Kenyan
newsrooms and a majority of journalists are motivated to use it, mainly due to its efficiency
and ease of use. Integration of WhatsApp in news production has also led to a change in
journalists’ routines. However, the same integration has come with challenges, the main
one being proliferation of fake news/misinformation. To this end, media houses require
more robust action in tackling the challenge of misinformation. In addition, further studies
could address what effect the integration of WhatsApp has on quality and credibility of
news and/or how it affects newsroom operations and journalists’ roles at a more granular
level.
vii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
APPROVAL PAGE ........................................................................................................... iii
DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................. v
ABSTRACT ........................................................................................................................ vi
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ xi
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS .......................................................................... xii
CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY ........................................... 1
1.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Background to the Study ....................................................................................... 2
1.3 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................... 6
1.4 Objectives of the Study ......................................................................................... 8
1.4.1 Specific Objectives ........................................................................................ 8
1.4.2 Research Questions ........................................................................................ 8
1.5 Justification of the Study ....................................................................................... 9
1.6 Significance of the Study ...................................................................................... 9
1.7 Scope of the Study............................................................................................... 10
1.8 Limitations of the Study ...................................................................................... 10
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms ......................................................................... 11
1.10 Summary .......................................................................................................... 12
CHAPTER TWO ............................................................................................................... 13
LITERATURE REVIEW .................................................................................................. 13
2.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 13
2.2 Theoretical Framework ....................................................................................... 13
2.2.1 Domestication of Technology Theory ......................................................... 14
2.3 General and Empirical Literature Review ........................................................... 16
2.3.1 History of the Internet in Kenya .................................................................. 16
2.3.2 Social Media: Much More Than a Tool for Social Communication ........... 17
2.3.3 WhatsApp: A History .................................................................................. 18
2.3.4 Reporting with WhatsApp ........................................................................... 20
2.3.5 WhatsApp and Journalistic Practice ............................................................ 22
2.3.6 WhatsApp, Security, Misinformation, and Disinformation ......................... 25
2.3.7 Journalism, Media, and Technology ............................................................ 26
viii
2.3.8 New Digital Habits ...................................................................................... 27
2.3.9 New Media Technology and the Digital Newsroom ................................... 28
2.3.10 Kenya’s Media Landscape ........................................................................... 30
2.4 Summary ............................................................................................................. 31
CHAPTER THREE ........................................................................................................... 33
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY....................................................................................... 33
3.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 33
3.2 Research Approach and Research Design ........................................................... 33
3.3 Population............................................................................................................ 33
3.4 Target Population ................................................................................................ 34
3.5 Study Site ............................................................................................................ 35
3.6 Sampling Procedures ........................................................................................... 35
3.7 Sample Size ......................................................................................................... 36
3.8 Research Methods ............................................................................................... 38
3.9 Data Collection Procedures ................................................................................. 38
3.10 Data Generation/Collection Tools ................................................................... 39
3.11 Pre-testing of Data Generation/Collection Tools ............................................ 40
3.12 Validity and Reliability of Research Tools ..................................................... 40
3.13 Data Analysis and Presentation Plan ............................................................... 41
3.14 Ethical Considerations ..................................................................................... 41
3.15 Summary .......................................................................................................... 43
CHAPTER FOUR .............................................................................................................. 44
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTEPRETATION .................................. 44
4.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 44
4.2 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation............................................................ 44
4.2.1 Response Rate and Demographic Results .................................................... 44
4.2.2 Job Position of Respondents ........................................................................ 45
4.2.3 Years of Experience in the Practice of Journalism ...................................... 46
4.2.4 Further Evaluation of Findings .................................................................... 47
4.2.4.1 Use of WhatsApp for Work .................................................................. 47
4.2.4.2 WhatsApp as a Social Platform ............................................................ 48
4.2.4.3 WhatsApp as a Tool for Work .............................................................. 49
4.2.4.4 WhatsApp Integration in News Production .......................................... 50
4.2.4.5 Usefulness of the Integration of WhatsApp in News Production ............... 52
4.2.4.6 Ways in which Integration of WhatsApp is Useful .................................... 53
ix
4.2.4.7 WhatsApp Integration and Productivity ..................................................... 55
4.2.4.8 WhatsApp and Keeping up with the News ................................................. 56
4.2.4.9 How Motivated Journalists are to use WhatsApp for Work ....................... 58
4.2.4.10 Motivations and Demotivations for using WhatsApp for Work ............... 58
4.2.4.11 Further Motivations for using WhatsApp as a Journalism Tool ............... 59
4.2.4.12 WhatsApp’s Relevance in Journalism ...................................................... 61
4.2.4.13 Effect of WhatsApp on Journalism ........................................................... 62
4.2.4.14 How WhatsApp has Affected Journalism ................................................. 63
4.2.4.15 Change in Roles and Routines of Journalists ............................................ 65
4.2.4.16 WhatsApp, Productivity and Years of Experience in Journalism............. 67
4.2.4.17 Job Title, Integration of WhatsApp and Productivity ............................... 69
4.2.4.18 Job Title and Motivation to use WhatsApp for Work ............................... 70
4.2.4.19 Emerging Issues in the use of WhatsApp for Journalism ......................... 72
4.3 Summary ............................................................................................................. 76
CHAPTER FIVE ............................................................................................................... 77
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ................................ 77
5.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 77
5.2 Discussions of Key Findings ............................................................................... 77
5.2.1 Motivation for using WhatsApp in Journalism ............................................ 77
5.2.2 Integration of WhatsApp in Journalism ....................................................... 82
5.2.3 WhatsApp and Journalists’ Routines ........................................................... 85
5.3 Conclusion and Implications for Practice ........................................................... 87
5.4 Recommendations ............................................................................................... 90
5.5 Areas for Further Research ................................................................................. 91
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 93
APPENDICES ................................................................................................................. 101
Appendix A: Questionnaire ...................................................................................... 101
Appendix B: Interview Schedule ............................................................................. 110
Appendix C: Informed Consent Form...................................................................... 111
Appendix D: Profile of Key Informants ................................................................... 112
Appendix E: Timeline .............................................................................................. 113
Appendix F: Budget ................................................................................................. 114
Appendix G: AKU Ethics Review Committee Approval Letter .............................. 115
Appendix H: Introductory Letter from AKU ........................................................... 116
Appendix I: NACOSTI Research License .............................................................. 117
x
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Kenya TV Share, February 1-14, 2019 ................................................................. 6
Table 2: Kenyan media houses with national coverage, and the number of accredited
journalists .......................................................................................................................... 34
Table 3: Selected media houses with the number of accredited journalists in each strata
and the target sample size .................................................................................................. 37
Table 4: Number of journalists who were sent the survey link .......................................... 38
Table 5: Job position of the survey respondents ................................................................ 45
Table 6: Journalists’ years of experience .......................................................................... 46
Table 7: WhatsApp use at work ......................................................................................... 47
Table 8: WhatsApp use as a social platform ..................................................................... 48
Table 9: WhatsApp use for work ........................................................................................ 49
Table 10: Usefulness of WhatsApp in news production ..................................................... 52
Table 11: The impact of WhatsApp integration on productivity ........................................ 55
Table 12: Motivations for using WhatsApp for work ......................................................... 58
Table 13: Effect of WhatsApp on journalism ..................................................................... 62
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1: How respondents use WhatsApp at work ........................................................... 51
Figure 2: Usefulness of the integration of WhatsApp in news production ........................ 54
Figure 3: WhatsApp in news production ........................................................................... 57
Figure 4: Journalists’ motivations and demotivations for using WhatsApp for work ....... 59
Figure 5: Further motivations for using WhatsApp for work ............................................ 60
Figure 6: Relevance of WhatsApp ..................................................................................... 61
Figure 7: Effect of WhatsApp on journalism ..................................................................... 63
Figure 8: Years of experience in relation to thoughts on WhatsApp increasing
productivity ........................................................................................................................ 68
Figure 9: Job title in relation to thoughts on whether integration of WhatsApp increases
productivity ........................................................................................................................ 70
Figure 10: Job title in relation to motivation to use WhatsApp for work .......................... 71
Figure 11: Challenges associated with using WhatsApp for work .................................... 72
xii
ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
AFP: Agence France-Presse
API: American Press Institute
BAKE: Bloggers Association of Kenya
BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation
CA: Communications Authority of Kenya
COVID-19: Coronavirus Disease 2019
ICT: Information, Communication and Technology
IM: Instant messaging
IP: Internet Protocol
ISP: Internet Service Providers
KBC: Kenya Broadcasting Corporation
KNA: Kenya News Agency
KNBS: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics
MCK: Media Council of Kenya
MIM: Mobile Instant Messaging
MoICT: Ministry of Information, Communication and Technology
Mojo: Mobile journalism
NACOSTI: National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation
NGO: Non-Governmental Organisation
NMG: Nation Media Group
RAL: Radio Africa Limited
RMS: Royal Media Services
xiii
SG: Standard Group
SIM: Subscriber Identification Module
SMS: Short Message Service
UNCTAD: United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
WHO: World Health Organization
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY
1.1 Introduction
WhatsApp and other social media platforms are becoming important tools of
communication and many newsrooms globally are embracing the applications in their
reporting (Bahri, 2019). Social media is now used to gather, produce, and disseminate news
complete with multimedia elements (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; McIntyre &
Sobel, 2019; Muindi, 2018), with social media being considered a preferred means of news
production and practice (Agur, 2019; Muindi, 2018).
In Kenya, media products from The Standard Group (SG), Nation Media Group
(NMG), Royal Media Services (RMS), Mediamax Network Limited, and Radio Africa
Limited (RAL) have a presence online in various social networks such as Facebook,
Twitter, and Telegram. The newsrooms also employ the use of WhatsApp in news
production (Gitonga, Ong’ondo, & Ndavula, 2019). Inasmuch as people had already
embraced technology for social and work functions, the Coronavirus Disease 2019
(COVID-19) pandemic that was first reported in 2019 and declared a pandemic in 2020
(World Health Organization [WHO], 2020) also played a role in further technological
uptake as social distancing, virtual communication, and working from home became the
norm. Newsrooms, just like other businesses, resorted to more frequent use of online
platforms such as Zoom, Microsoft Teams and WhatsApp to continue working safely.
WhatsApp, a fast-growing application in Kenya, was among the most downloaded
applications in 2017 and 2018 (Bloggers Association of Kenya [BAKE], 2018; Nendo,
2
2019). And it has become a popular social network in the country owing to the ability to
create public and private groups and invite people to join in discussions on various interests
(Kibet & Ward, 2018).
1.2 Background to the Study
Over the years, technological innovations have become useful in communication
and the way people work (United Nations Conference on Trade and Development
[UNCTAD], 2018). Telecommunications and mobile phone companies enable the use of
the text message, widely known by its acronym SMS (short message service). The SMS
allows users to send a few characters of text charged by their service providers, and voice
calls that allow people to talk through the phone. Mobile phone subscriptions in Kenya
have increased over the years, with data from the Communications Authority of Kenya
(CA) indicating that the country had 55.2 million active mobile subscriptions (Subscriber
Identification Module [SIM] cards) by the end of March 2020, while the Kenya Census
indicates that 20.6 million people over three years of age owned mobile phones (CA, 2020;
KNBS, 2019b). Mobile data subscriptions stood at 38.8 million, (CA, 2020). The evolution
of the internet has also introduced other forms of communication (Agur, 2019), such as
video calls and instant messaging, mainly through online applications (Apps).
The internet was introduced in Kenya in 1993 for use mainly by non-governmental
organisations and established in 1995, amid resistance from the government; and it evolved
to connect Kenya to the rest of the world (Mureithi, 2017). In 2018, internet usage in Kenya
had increased to an estimated 45.7 million users of both fixed and wireless internet
subscriptions (KNBS, 2019a). With the advancement in technology globally, came many
3
applications, including Hangouts from Google, WhatsApp, Signal, Viber, WeChat, and
Facebook Messenger. Most of these applications allow group messaging and therefore act
as a form of mass media and can be efficiently used for communicating with many people
at once (Agur, 2019; R. Kumar, 2019). Some of them also allow for audio and video calls
and sharing of various multimedia elements such as videos, screenshots, pictures, links,
and documents (Omanga, 2018).
The use of internet-based applications is gaining popularity in Kenya as demand
increases for internet connectivity in residential and business premises (KNBS, 2019a).
Individuals are using mobile-based internet connectivity due to its "availability and
affordability compared to fixed broadband" (KNBS, 2019a, p. 217). Not only are these
applications shaping the way people communicate and live, but they are also shaping how
professionals work, including journalists and newsrooms (Agur, 2019; Kaigwa, 2017;
Mureithi, 2017; Nendo, 2019; UNCTAD, 2018).
Furthermore, the rise of various technology has led to more sophisticated ones being
developed (UNCTAD, 2018). As people embrace technology, journalists are doing the
same (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; Church & De Oliveira, 2013). The evolution
of the internet and smartphone means that journalists are also no longer restricted to just a
notebook and paper, or a camera, but are increasingly embracing the use of the mobile
phones in their reporting for ease and efficiency in doing their work (Agur, 2019).
Journalists can now rush to an event with merely their phones, take pictures and videos,
type in notes, and even write the full story and send it with accompanying multimedia
elements via email or available applications on their phones.
4
Internet-based applications have become more accessible and convenient tools in
news production, and they are increasingly playing a more critical role in communication
in various professions and how people do their work (Agur, 2019). Some of the apps, such
as Hangouts from Google, WhatsApp, Telegram, Messenger, Signal, Viber, and WeChat,
allow for real-time communication.
In many parts of the world, including Kenya, various forms of social media are
gaining popularity because of their versatility (A. Kumar & Haneef, 2016; Lin & Li, 2014;
Ndlela & Mulwo, 2017; Omanga, 2018). In India, WhatsApp was found to be a powerful
and useful tool for knowledge sharing among young students (Hemamalini, 2018), while
in Nigeria, it was used to mobilise people during elections (Hitchen, Hassan, Fisher, &
Cheeseman, 2019). In Hong Kong, many journalists have embraced the use of WhatsApp
as a means of news production (Agur, 2019). In Rwanda, journalists use WhatsApp to
advance their profession and to collaborate in the field (McIntyre & Sobel, 2019), whereas
the application has revolutionised journalism and journalistic practice in Pakistan (Azeema
& Nazuk, 2017). In Kenya, WhatsApp has been used for political discourse (Kibet & Ward,
2018; Omanga, 2018), discussions on governance and mobilising the people to take action
(Omanga, 2018), and many newsrooms in Kenya now use social media in their reporting,
including NMG, SG and RAL (which includes Radio Africa Group and the print division
The Star Publications).
In 2017, WhatsApp was among the 10 most downloaded Apps in Kenya (BAKE,
2018), and in 2018, another report indicated that WhatsApp was still among the most
downloaded Apps in Kenya (Nendo, 2019). Furthermore, it was estimated that by
September 2017, there were more than 12 million monthly WhatsApp subscribers in Kenya
5
(BAKE, 2018) with the potential for more growth. In addition, in 2020 during the COVID-
19 pandemic, Kenyan publishers NMG and SG partnered with service providers to
distribute the digital copies of newspapers to their clients via WhatsApp at Ksh20 (Nairobi
News Reporter, 2020; Ngina, 2020; The Standard, 2020). Kenyans have also employed the
use of other media that have similar functions to WhatsApp, such as Telegram, but
WhatsApp remains more popular than these two. Among social media used in Kenya, a
study found that WhatsApp is the most used in 2020 at 89%, with the number of users
increasing compared to 2019 (Wamuyu, 2020). The same study found that Telegram use
was at 15.5%. In addition, in 2019, WhatsApp was among the top three social media in
Kenya (Wamuyu, 2020). Given the level of internet penetration, the prevalence of
WhatsApp use in society and its utilisation in the gathering and dissemination of news, the
researcher would like to explore how it shapes journalism practice.
In Kenya, NMG, SG and RAL have a presence in the print, broadcast and digital
sections of the media with a large audience share. The three companies’ websites are among
the top 50 websites in Kenya (Alexa, 2020) with SG’s website
https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/ at number 3, NMG’s website https://nation.africa/ at
number 4 and RAL’s https://www.the-star.co.ke/ at number 31. In addition, SG’s KTN
(Kenya Television Network) and KTN News, NMG’s NTV, and RAL’s Kiss TV were
among the top 10 television stations in February 2019 (Okulo, 2019). This is demonstrated
in Table 1 below.
6
Table 1: Kenya TV Share, February 1-14, 2019
Station Total share (%)
Citizen 26
KTN 11
KTN News 10
NTV 10
K24 6
Maisha Magic East 5
KBC 4
iNOORO TV 4
KissTV 3
SWITCH TV 3
Other 19
Note: Kenya TV Share, February 1-14, 2019. Adapted from “Kenya TV And Radio
Audience Data: February 2019” by A. Okulo, 2019, Geopoll.
In radio, SG’s Radio Maisha was the second leading in radio share with 10%, while
RAL’s Radio Jambo was in third place with nine percent share. In addition, RAL’s Classic
FM and Kiss FM were also in the top ten list of radio share in Kenya (Okulo, 2019).
Thus, this study explored the utilisation of WhatsApp in journalistic practices in
Kenya and how this shapes journalism in the country. The researcher did this by using a
survey and key informant interviews. The researcher made use of the Domestication of
Technology Theory to help study the integration of WhatsApp in journalism and how this
shapes the practice of journalism.
1.3 Statement of the Problem
WhatsApp, a fast-growing application in Kenya, was among the most downloaded
applications in 2017 and 2018 (BAKE, 2018; Nendo, 2019) and has become a popular
social network in the country owing to the ability to create public and private groups and
invite people to join in discussions on various interests (Kibet & Ward, 2018). In Kenya, it
7
has been changing from being just a social network for informal discussions to a more
formal platform that brings people together in real-time including convening meetings and
holding discussions online (Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; Omanga, 2018).
In journalism, social media is now used to gather, produce, and disseminate news
complete with multimedia elements (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; McIntyre &
Sobel, 2019; Muindi, 2018). WhatsApp is a news technology whose entry into the practise
of journalism has the potential to shape the practice of journalism in Kenya. Various studies
have explored how Kenyans make use of social media applications (Kibet & Ward, 2018;
Omanga, 2018) and how journalists use social media in news coverage (Muindi, 2018).
These studies have mainly focused on usage of new technology such as social media and
their diffusion; they have largely focused on the internet, and more recently Facebook and
Twitter. Studies that address how these social media apps (including WhatsApp) interact
with journalistic practice are important given the prominence of WhatsApp in everyday
life.
Hynes and Richardson (2009) note that users of novel technology like WhatsApp
assign various meanings to innovations and then adopt the new technology to fit their
lifestyles. The technology is then not only integrated into their everyday lives, but also
changes their routines (Hynes & Richardson, 2009). WhatsApp is being used in journalism
and we do not understand everything about its usage in journalism. The utilisation of
WhatsApp in the practise of journalism is therefore likely to portend some changes in the
industry as practitioners adopt it and fit it into their everyday lives. Azeema and Nazuk
(2017) and Omanga (2018) established for instance that WhatsApp’s informality poses
8
challenges to journalistic processes while Bahri (2019) noted that its interactive nature and
the continuous evolution of the application also presents disruptions where it is adopted.
1.4 Objectives of the Study
To explore the utilisation of WhatsApp in newsrooms and how the integration of
WhatsApp shapes journalism practice in Kenya.
1.4.1 Specific Objectives
The research objectives for this study were:
1. To examine motivations for using WhatsApp among journalists in Kenya.
2. To assess the integration of WhatsApp in the news production cycle in Kenyan
newsrooms.
3. To explore ways in which WhatsApp has affected Kenyan journalists’ routines in
the coverage of news.
1.4.2 Research Questions
1. What are the motivations for using WhatsApp among journalists in Kenya?
2. How has WhatsApp been integrated in the news production cycle in Kenyan
newsrooms?
3. In what ways does using WhatsApp affect journalists’ routines in the coverage of
news?
9
1.5 Justification of the Study
With the spread of the internet and advanced technology available to more and more
people in Kenya (Mureithi, 2017), processes, routines, and lifestyles have adapted to
innovations. Mobile phone apps are also becoming more available and useful to many
professions (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; Hendrickson, 2009a, 2009b), including
journalism. WhatsApp is becoming a platform for more formal communication (Omanga,
2018), including offering business aspects (WhatsApp, n.d), and its growing use in Kenya
changes the way people communicate. With reference to the Domestication of Technology
Theory (Hynes & Richardson, 2009; Scheerder, Van Deursen & Van Dijk, 2019), not only
do users of technology adopt it because of their needs, but they can adapt their lifestyle to
make use of the technology. Hence, finding out how journalists in Kenya use WhatsApp
for work and how this affects news production is important as it contributes to a deeper
understanding of how innovations in digital technology impact journalistic practice and
professions in general.
1.6 Significance of the Study
The study helps in understanding of the utility of digital technology and changes in
the journalism practice. Findings on how WhatsApp is integrated into the newsroom and
how it disrupts routines are useful to both practitioners and policy makers. The value of
integration informs can help steer organisations and practitioners to better usage of
technology in general, and WhatsApp specifically, to improve on news production and
newsroom practices. It also informs policy makers on mitigation measures for negative
disruption, thus guiding future policy on innovations.
10
The study contributes to the Domestication of Technology Theory through its
application in the Kenyan context. The study looked at ways in which the use of WhatsApp
affects routines. According to the theory, when a new technology is introduced, people
have to first accept it, use it and integrate them into their routines, thus changing their
routines. Afterwards, their routines can even lead to change in how the technology is
perceived and used. The research explored what meanings users (journalists) assign to
WhatsApp and its adoption to fit their lifestyles.
1.7 Scope of the Study
The study was based on and limited to Kenya, and limited to journalists within three
media houses—NMG, the SG and RAL—which the researcher established use WhatsApp
and other social media platforms for news production. These media houses use social media
(Kamenchu, 2015; Muindi, 2018) to share their stories or links to stories on their websites,
make use of WhatsApp in daily work (Gitonga et al., 2019), and also have a presence in
print, broadcast and digital platforms.
1.8 Limitations of the Study
This study was limited in terms of the time frame and resource constraints. More
time and resources would have allowed for a larger target population. The study also found
some challenges related to the integration of WhatsApp in journalism, but exploring how
these challenges are mitigated was beyond the scope of the study. It was therefore suggested
as an area of future research.
11
1.9 Operational Definition of Terms
Chat App: an application that can be used to send text and multimedia messages
in real-time to elicit responses (Agur, 2019).
Instant Messaging (IM): Sending a message through the internet, and it is received
in real-time text (Agur, 2019; Church & De Oliveira, 2013). It is sometimes referred to as
Mobile Instant Messaging (MIM) when the message is sent through devices such as a
phone or tablet (Lin & Li, 2014).
Journalistic Practice: these are activities that involve a journalist selecting what
to report on, investigating and gathering the information, and presenting the information
(Lohner, Banjac & Neverla 2016).
Mobile Chat App: an application on mobile electronic devices (such as a
smartphone or tablet) that can be used to send text and multimedia messages in real-time
to elicit responses (Agur, 2019).
Multimedia: elements that consist of the integration of text, graphics, video, audio,
photos, animation and other visual elements (Pavithra, Aathilingam, & Prakash, 2018).
Social Media: online platforms that allow for networking through various means
such as chatting, audio and video calls, and sharing of documents, links, and other
multimedia messages (Agur, 2019; Lewis & Molyneux, 2018). Instant messaging is part of
social media.
12
Productivity: the rate at which a person produces work and the amount of work
produced compared to the time, effort and money used to achieve it (Oxford University
Press, 2021).
1.10 Summary
WhatsApp, once considered an informal means of communication, is becoming
quite popular and is being embraced even in professional situations. Just like other social
media applications, it connects people and is increasingly being embraced in Kenya, not
just as a social network, but also as a work tool. As such, this study sought to explore how
its integration in news practice shapes journalism in Kenya.
13
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
A literature review is important in academic studies as it helps a researcher know
what has been studied in the area and the existing gaps, and to create a clear focus of the
subject under research (Reeves, Albert, Kuper & Hodges 2008). It can also guide the
researcher in selecting the appropriate methodology for the study.
Since the advent of technology, various studies are increasingly being done on how
technology impacts day-to-day lives in various aspects, and how we adapt our lives to
innovation and advancement of technology (Mitchelstein & Boczkowski, 2009). As such,
it is a continuous process of innovation and adaptation to make the best of each situation.
Literature about the impact of converging technologies on the practice of journalists is
expanding (Deuze, 2005).
This chapter looks at adoption of technology, how technology has shaped
communication, the rise of WhatsApp, and the future of journalism and technology. It also
explores theory and scholarly arguments concerning WhatsApp use in journalistic practice.
2.2 Theoretical Framework
A review of theoretical literature is important in studies as it helps to shape the study
and refine thoughts with regards to a particular subject. It also helps to understand how best
to study the subject. It is crucial for research, primarily academic studies, to be guided by
14
theories as they help shape the study (Alasuutari, 1996; Reeves et al., 2008) and create a
better understanding of how to explore the subject area.
2.2.1 Domestication of Technology Theory
Domestication of Technology Theory emerged in the 1990s (Hynes & Richardson,
2009), developed by Roger Silverstone, Eric Hirsch and David Morley in 1992 to explain
the impact of technology on people’s lives. Silverstone et al. argued that domestication
“focuses on the development of what technology means to users and non-users and how it
is immersed in daily life” as quoted in Scheerder et al. (2019, p. 3). Silverstone et al.
focussed on how media technology inside the home was integrated into everyday life, while
other scholars later looked at technology outside the home, such as cars (Hynes &
Richardson, 2009).
The theory of Domestication of Technology offers explanations on how people
react to technology and how this, in turn, relates to their social life. It explores how
technology is integrated into the lives of human beings – how technology is introduced,
people’s reactions towards it and its use, how it is first perceived up to the point that people
begin using it, and over time accept and adopt it (Haddon, 2018; Scheerder et al., 2019).
The theory does not only focus on users' adoption of technology in households as a physical
space but also their everyday routines and how this affects their perception of the introduced
technology (Hynes & Richardson, 2009). Users assign various meanings to innovations
(Hynes & Richardson, 2009) and adopt technology to fit their lifestyles. The theory, in a
way, seeks to understand people’s circumstances, and what motivations and importance
they attach to the technologies (Haddon, 2018). Domestication of Technology Theory is
15
valuable because it provides insight not only into how technology is adopted but also into
how it is used and what importance the users assign to it (Hynes & Richardson, 2009).
In some instances, it is a challenge to justify the adoption of a particular technology
as users "design their own" domestication process because they are not a homogenous
group, they have different motivations for adopting the technology, and they use it
differently (Hynes & Richardson, 2009).
Domestication of Technology Theory offers a framework for explaining and
understanding how technology functions in society, and how people make an innovation
relevant in their daily lives. The theory offers ideas on how technology is adopted, how it
is used and the significance it has to end consumers. However, it also suggests that the
process will keep evolving and people will keep reacting to effects of the technology’s
integration. Domestication is an ongoing process (Hynes & Richardson, 2009). It can only
be assumed to be complete when the adopted technology ceases to be considered as new
and perhaps even becomes a necessity that cannot be done away with in the prevailing
circumstances (Scheerder et al., 2019). It is not a rational or fixed model as researchers
found that it keeps evolving because, even after the adoption of technology, users continue
reacting to the technology in their everyday lives depending on the events and their needs
(Hynes & Richardson, 2009).
In Kenya, new media technology has been domesticated in varying degrees and has
become quite prominent in driving news production and newsroom processes (Muindi,
2018). Kenyan media has been quick at adopting technology for news production, including
websites and social media platforms (Muindi, 2018), such as WhatsApp, from which they
can gather, produce and disseminate news. Journalists and newsrooms have been assigning
16
meaning to various technology depending on their needs and motivations. For example,
journalists reporting for the Daily Nation (part of the NMG) use Twitter as a means to
quickly source, produce and disseminate news to remain relevant in the market as opposed
to using more traditional news production methods (Muindi, 2018). The NMG has also
adopted other technologies, including the use of WhatsApp. Although WhatsApp use was
introduced in 2009 (WhatsApp, n.d), its use in the newsroom and news processes can be
considered relatively new, as it is still being adopted and its use being expanded beyond
mere social communication. It is viewed as a more informal means of communication
because it is social, but is increasingly used in professional settings, including the
newsroom. Viewed from a domestication point of view, journalists are now embracing and
adopting the technology and integrating it into their work.
2.3 General and Empirical Literature Review
2.3.1 History of the Internet in Kenya
The internet was first available in Kenya in 1993, but it was not until 1995 when
the internet was established in Kenya (Mureithi, 2017). Since then, it has evolved from
being available to a select few and is now available to many Kenyans who have devices to
access it (Mureithi, 2017). When the internet was introduced in Kenya, only a few
institutions, mainly Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), used it. However, there was
resistance from the government, as the political system viewed the emerging Information,
Communications, and Technology (ICT) development as an affront to demean their control
of information flow (Mureithi, 2017). Nevertheless, in mid-1995, the internet began being
used (Mureithi, 2017) and now, most institutions and individuals in Kenya have embraced
17
it. The government also set up an ICT policy to promote economic growth driven by ICT
and the internet (Ministry of Information, Communications, and Technology [MoICT],
2016). In the revised 2016 policy, the government says it views plans to use ICT to drive
social, economic, cultural and political growth for the good of the country (Ibid).
In 2018, internet usage in Kenya had increased to an estimated 45.7 million users
of both fixed and wireless internet subscriptions, with the majority 45.3 million subscribing
to terrestrial mobile data (KNBS, 2019a). The number of Internet Service Providers (ISP)
in Kenya increased by 17.4 per cent in 2018 from 2017 mainly due to the demand for
internet in residential areas and business premises in many parts of Kenya (KNBS, 2019a).
At the same time, a comparison between the number of SMSs sent from Kenya decreased
from 65.7 million in 2017 to 63.4 million in 2018 "since the uptake of Internet Protocol
(IP) messaging platforms" (KNBS, 2019a, p. 215). This points at a possible increase in the
use of internet-based applications vis-à-vis the SMS.
2.3.2 Social Media: Much More Than a Tool for Social Communication
Social media platforms are powerful communication tools that allow users to
connect with their audience (Batikas, Bavel, Martin & Maghiros, 2013), many in real-time.
Social media has allowed for connections, even with people far away; resulting in a rise in
networking through social media around the world. According to Internet Live Stats (2021)
as at March 30, 2021, there were just over 4.8 billion internet users globally, among them
2.7 billion Facebook users and 372 million active Twitter users. WhatsApp (n.d) indicates
that its platform has more than one billion users globally.
18
Around the world, social media applications are gaining popularity because of their
versatility (A. Kumar & Haneef, 2016; Lin & Li, 2014; Ndlela & Mulwo, 2017; Omanga,
2018). They also ease communication by allowing for individual and group messaging, as
well as online chatting or discussions with many people at once (Agur, 2019; R. Kumar,
2019). In many instances, social media has been found to improve communication and
efficiency in work processes, to be useful tools for knowledge sharing, to mobilise people,
and to promote professionalism, and even in news production (Agur, 2019; Azeema &
Nazuk, 2017; Hemamalini, 2018; Kibet & Ward, 2018; McIntyre & Sobel, 2019; Muindi,
2018; Omanga, 2018). Social media is increasingly playing a vital role in communication
in various professions (Agur, 2019).
In Kenya, where the uptake of social media has been high, WhatsApp was the
second most prominently used social media tool at 31%, with Facebook being most
prominently used at 32% (Media Council of Kenya [MCK], 2019). Many newsrooms in
Kenya now use social media in their reporting with the MCK (2019) survey showing that
WhatsApp was the most prominently used social media tool for disseminating news at 37%,
behind Facebook at 38%. Media products from SG, NMG, RMS, Mediamax and RAL all
have a presence online in various social networks such as Facebook, Twitter, and Telegram.
Social media and other technological innovations have changed how people live, work and
communicate (Agur, 2019; Kaigwa, 2017; Mureithi, 2017; Nendo, 2019; UNCTAD, 2018).
2.3.3 WhatsApp: A History
Jan Koum and Brian Acton founded WhatsApp in early 2009 "as an alternative to
the SMS". According to the platform, it has more than one billion users worldwide
19
(WhatsApp, n.d). WhatsApp provides a platform for users to send text messages,
documents, photos and videos, and also make audio and video calls for free, as long as they
have data or a Wi-Fi connection.
In 2018, WhatsApp was among the most downloaded Apps in Kenya (Nendo,
2019). WhatsApp enables chatting with an individual or a group at a low cost, hence a
handy tool for coordinating group plans and information (Church & De Oliveira, 2013).
WhatsApp also lets users make audio and video calls, and even group calls; and it also
allows for sending and receiving documents, links, audio and video files (WhatsApp, n.d).
Social media apps, including WhatsApp, are gaining popularity even as developers
improve the features of existing ones (Agur, 2019); hence, they are likely to remain popular
means of communication for many people. Just like other social media platforms, such as
Facebook, that have been associated with eating up work time, WhatsApp can be seen as a
distraction because it is also used to catch up with social and private affairs (Brooks,
Longstreet, & Califf, 2017). WhatsApp is available in Kenya and is used for both social
and professional purposes, with many organisations forming workgroups on WhatsApp.
The platform is easily accessible and free to use (WhatsApp, n.d) as long the person has a
smartphone and an internet connection. In some newsrooms, WhatsApp has been adopted
for sharing breaking news or relevant information for the entire team to consume and
therefore plan for stories and events. It also easily connects reporters and correspondents
in the field to those inside the newsroom for better coordination and collaboration and even
connects them to news sources.
In other countries, WhatsApp has been used by journalists in practice either to
advance their profession, make it easy to collaborate with colleagues in the field, make
20
communication more efficient, and make their work easier by being able to communicate
real-time what is happening in the field and being able to share multimedia packages
quickly (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; Hemamalini, 2018; McIntyre & Sobel,
2019). WhatsApp has become popular, especially in Kenya, because it is easily accessible,
easy to use and quickly communicates because it sends messages in real-time (Mwangi,
2017). Various studies have been done on how journalists make use of social media
applications (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; McIntyre & Sobel, 2019; Muindi,
2018). And just like other social media, it would be interesting to find out how WhatsApp
is integrated and how it shapes journalism in Kenya.
2.3.4 Reporting with WhatsApp
Reid (2016) indicates that one out of seven people is using WhatsApp in the world.
Many journalists are increasingly using WhatsApp to facilitate communication with their
sources and to fasten their reporting process, and it is also used for political coverage. The
British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) used WhatsApp during the Indian Election by
distributing information, news, and political trends. Liz Corbin, Singapore-based Bureau
Editor, says that they have been using WhatsApp for major reporting for some time
(Llewellyn, 2016), while BBC News India gives a contact to those interested in Indian
Election progress for instant updates (Barot, 2014). WhatsApp has played a role in the
facilitation of journalistic work.
Tomas Dodds (2019) applied ethnography method when examining the purpose and
advantages of using WhatsApp in two newsrooms in Chile. Results from the study
indicated that WhatsApp use had affected the relationship between the journalists and the
21
sources at a personal and professional level. WhatsApp use promoted mutuality and
intimacy among the journalists, their sources and colleagues (Dodds, 2019). For instance,
when journalists are assigned to write reports, editors or colleagues sends them some
contact to use as a source with instructions such as “send them a WhatsApp message first,
if they don’t reply soon enough, well… then call them” (Dodds, 2019, p. 733). The
responses from the sources often include smiley faces, praying hands and thumbs up, which
people use to mean “thank you” or “please” (Dodds, 2019).
Technologies inside newsrooms are changing, “and journalism is changing with
them” showing that the changes in technology are somehow intertwined with changes in
journalism, as new technologies seem to threaten traditional journalism (Dodds, 2019).
Traditionally, sharing information rapidly to a large number of journalists was limited only
to two options: either a press conference was called, or a press release was sent to the
newsroom. With WhatsApp, it has been made easy, and now many stories can safely land
in journalists’ phones, and the same information quickly reaches other media houses. Bahri
(2019) argues that journalists find WhatsApp fast and reliable for news practice, hence they
frequently use it for work. Journalists also feel that WhatsApp offers them a safer
environment to practice journalism in, such that they can “talk to their sources without
needing to worry about external tapping. By using WhatsApp, their privacy is guaranteed”
(Bahri, 2019, p. 2). This reliability, security and the flow of information is what seems to
motivate journalists to use WhatsApp for their work, and in turn this changes and shapes
how they go about the news process – gathering, analysing, and submitting the news (Bahri,
2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017). The reliability of WhatsApp is an occurring role as some
studies found (Udenze & Oshionebo, 2020; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017), and this reliability,
22
in addition to its convenience of use and affordability, is a motivating factor to keep using
it for work.
However, journalism faces new challenges with change in technology, especially
in terms of change in practice. In some instances, journalists’ roles change to keep up with
technology in the digital space such as how they gather and produce news, and also in new
roles coming up such as social media moderators and digital content creators.
2.3.5 WhatsApp and Journalistic Practice
WhatsApp acts as a medium of connection between journalists, news channels, and
reporters. WhatsApp has been useful in many ways as a tool for newsgathering for many
interviewees. Levy, Newman, Fletcher, Kalogeropoulos, and Nielsen (2014) found out that
journalists mostly used WhatsApp for sharing information and discovering news. The
research further discovered that YouTube, Google+, Facebook, and Twitter and WhatsApp
play a crucial role in electronic media. Since every second is essential in electronic media,
WhatsApp has helped journalists to share information and edit reports for the news channel
quickly. Within minutes, news can be shared in WhatsApp groups.
Dodds (2019) conducted an ethnographic study to examine the use of mobile chat
applications by Chilean journalists and how this impacted the news making process. Dodds
conducted the study in two newsrooms through participant observation, working as a
journalist, and interviewing the reporters, and found that the journalists were moving more
and more towards virtual news gathering rather than face-to-face interactions. He found
that journalists seem likely to use WhatsApp on a regular basis, and the application gives
them faster access to large amounts of information. However, it also changes journalists’
23
routines, that is, the way they engage their sources and how they go about gathering news.
Both journalists and sources seemed to be more willing to engage frequently over
WhatsApp than any other communication platform, which aided in saving time and cost of
collecting information or going to where the source was. On the flip side, the inescapability
that the journalists experience has changed the way they practice, such that they heavily
depended on the application to do their job.
Bahri (2019) conducted a case study in an Indonesian daily to find out the utilisation
of WhatsApp on journalistic practices. In his study, Bahri (2019) found that WhatsApp has
an integral role in news communication and in journalism work, including in gathering and
submission and has the advantage of allowing for the sharing of multimedia elements. In
some instances, though e-mails are still widely used, WhatsApp is the preferred mode of
communication because of its speed in uploading and downloading multimedia elements,
while it is also a preferred channel compared to other messaging platforms, such as
Blackberry messenger or even SMS, because it does not limit a person on how many
characters they can type in and send. Further, just as Dodds (2019) found, Bahri (2019)
also found that WhatsApp integration in journalism enables journalists to carry out their
everyday functions with more ease such as assigning work, gathering news, contacting
sources, interviewing news sources, discussing news stories, and sending and receiving
news items.
Journalism is now evolving more quickly with the advent of technology, and
WhatsApp is an enabler of the evolution of journalism (Udenze & Oshionebo, 2020) and
the change in roles. Udenze & Oshionebo (2020), in a qualitative study on WhatsApp use
among journalists in Nigeria, found that this evolution of journalism through WhatsAppp
24
has encouraged more and improved flow of information, while also enhancing
communication among journalists and, in a way, promoting synergy at work. In addition,
coupled with its dependability (Udenze & Oshionebo, 2020), WhatsApp is becoming an
important tool and channel in the news process.
With the new Visual Journalism trends, most media houses have a webpage where
they update current news. WhatsApp has played a significant role in providing instant
newsfeed. For multiplication deployment or where the team is widespread, WhatsApp
facilitates the sharing of photos, live videos, and audios. Every journalist in the field is
capable of following what everyone else is doing. Therefore, there is no need for the
correspondents to be asked for "lives" when they are out of action or busy (J. Evans, 2015).
The use of WhatsApp has been instrumental in places where access to the camera is
restricted or not allowed to send the news to channels.
Journalistic uses of WhatsApp promote more extensive information sharing as well
as participation of democratic ideals. In practice, the ideals are also shaped by the socio-
political, economic, cultural, and technological contexts in which the journalistic
interaction occurs at the level of individual reporters. Social media has brought not only a
transformation in journalistic practices but also a mix of pre-existing and emergent
reporting interactions. This new “reciprocity” (Holton, Lewis, & Coddington, 2016) takes
place in private places that are negotiated based on the trust of an individual and that of the
technology. By soliciting tips and updates on the MIM (Mobile Instant Messaging) (Barot
& Oren, 2015), journalists are capable of following stories at a distance and integrating
user-generated content into coverage.
25
As much as several studies show that journalists are embracing WhatsApp and are
motivated to using it for work (Udenze & Oshionebo, 2020; Bahri, 2019; Dodds, 2019;
Azeema & Nazuk, 2017), others found that some journalists are still sceptical about
adopting WhatsApp in their work (Azeema & Nazuk, 2017). Furthermore, Azeema and
Nazuk (2017), in a study on news practices among Pakistani journalists, found that the
overreliance on WhatsApp is encouraging some element of “laziness” in journalism, where
reporters prefer not to go out and look for or verify news, but wait for information to be
shared on WhatsApp. In this case, it was changing the role of a journalist through
minimising their time spent out in the field gathering news, interviewing sources and
verifying news independently.
2.3.6 WhatsApp, Security, Misinformation, and Disinformation
As a communication tool, WhatsApp assures users of the security of the application
by having end-to-end encryption to prevent third parties accessing information between
users (WhatsApp, n.d.). Previous research shows that WhatsApp has become a substantial
tool for journalists and their sources, especially for communicating sensitive information
or for the safety of both the source and the journalist. In addition, WhatsApp is seen as
more secure due to its end-to-end encryption and some journalists are more willing to use
it because of this security. However, not all journalists view this the same way (Dodds,
2019), with some questioning its security.
There have been cases where the application has been used to disseminate
misinformation and disinformation. During the COVID-19 pandemic, WhatsApp and other
social media platforms were used to spread untruths on the origin of the infection and
26
treatments and fact-checkers began demystifying misinformation and disinformation
(Africa Check, Volume, & International Fact-Checking Network, 2020; Africa Check &
Africa Centre for Evidence, 2020).
2.3.7 Journalism, Media, and Technology
Journalism has been defined in many ways, and scholars agree on it being the
practice of gathering and disseminating information to the public (American Press Institute
(API), 2021; Shapiro, 2014). Moreover, the media can be defined as a means of informing,
entertaining and educating people (Holtz-Bacha & Norris, 2001). However, several other
aspects define journalism, such as it being time-sensitive, being a public service, being fair
and objective, and earning its legitimacy when practitioners observe ethics in their
gathering and dissemination of information (Deuze, 2005). Journalistic work is also
disseminated using various methods such as through radio, television, and online resources,
and technology has been a great enabler. Journalism could be described as the practice of
gathering and producing information that is of public interest and disseminating it to the
public, using available channels.
With the advent of technology and innovations, journalism has moulded itself and
adapted to new methods of gathering, producing, and disseminating information. A review
of various studies in journalism and communication reveals that journalists have for a long
time been forced to adopt various technology to make their work easier and to be more
efficient. The internet and social media have made it easier for individuals to participate in
journalism through giving independent information (Bowman & Willis, 2003; Kakonage,
2013; Paterson, 2015), thereby providing more platforms for journalists to use for their
27
work. Through innovations, including the internet, computers, and other devices, media
content now travels beyond more and more borders, becoming more global (Berglez, 2008),
as long as the recipients/ audience have a means of receiving the news.
With such innovations, came digital technologies which in turn brought about new
areas of journalism such as digital journalism, multimedia journalism, and mobile
journalism. Digital technologies changed how news is told, such that online news does not
always make use of the once-coveted inverted pyramid. Instead, journalists are using more
interactive (multimedia) news tools to tell their stories (Pavlik, 2000). Pavlik further argues
that technology has always changed journalism. However, some scholars argue differently
– Hermans, Vergeer, and d’Haenens (2009) use the social constructivism approach to argue
for more of a symbiotic relationship, such that rather than just technology shaping
journalism, journalism also shapes innovation of technology. Technology, therefore,
cannot in itself shape journalism, an argument that Mitchelstein and Boczkowski (2009)
point out in their review of various scholarly works on innovation and journalism; but
technology and journalism complement each other.
2.3.8 New Digital Habits
Globally, people are embracing technology to suit their changing lifestyles.
Technology, including the innovation of social media, has encouraged more interaction
with other people online resulting in the rise of citizen journalism and civic engagement
(Ogola, 2015a). Social media is being used not only as a social tool but also as a tool for
professional communication (Muindi, 2018; Ogola, 2015a).
28
Social media groups also play an important role in interactions between members
of various societies and can be used for mobilisation and public participation in national
conversations, governance, and in political discussions (Hitchen et al., 2019; Kibet & Ward,
2018; Ogola, 2015a; Omanga, 2018). The media in Kenya has, over the years, adopted new
practices and technology to help it continue operating effectively with the ever-changing
technology and audience needs (Muindi, 2018) including using social media applications
such as Twitter and WhatsApp to gather, produce and distribute news.
2.3.9 New Media Technology and the Digital Newsroom
New media technology has a place in journalism as it complements reporting and
dissemination of information; which can lead to efficiency in journalistic work.
Mabweazara (2014) contends that digital technologies are affecting and changing the way
news is generated and disseminated by journalists, and the audience consumes it. The
disruptive nature of digital technologies and changing audience needs has led newsrooms
to be creative about what to adopt and how to adapt to their situations.
Mare (2014) conducted an ethnographic study on the @Verdade, a Mozambican
community newspaper that is distributed for free. He wanted to study how the journalists
employ new media technologies in their news generation. He found that the journalists at
@Verdade use internet platforms, mobile phone messaging and messaging apps to gather
news. New media has seen citizen journalists and others file and comment on stories via
SMS or through Facebook, and at the same time enable the newsroom to quickly get news
from areas where its journalists were not present at the time. However, in some areas, it is
limiting due to unaffordability and lack of access to smartphones and laptops.
29
Adapting new technology and using it to get stories has been an advantage of digital
technology. However, as Mare (2014) found, the use of technology in newsrooms also has
a downside. Technology can be misused, and this could lead to ethical issues such as
unverified stories, plagiarism, invasion of privacy, and, sometimes, the promotion of what
he called "elite conversations" that do not necessarily resonate with some people on the
ground.
Jordaan (2013) conducted a study on the professional use of social media by
journalists and whether this can change news processes and culture in the newsroom. She
found that although journalists believe that the use of social media does not change how
they select, write and present their news stories, they are not immune to its influence. In
some instances, social media affect how they go about their work. WhatsApp, a social
media platform, could elicit a similar response to influencing how journalists conduct their
work.
Muindi (2018) conducted a study on how journalists based at the Daily Nation in
Kenya use Twitter to source, produce, and disseminate news. He found that by adopting
Twitter in their daily work, they have increased the speed of sharing news, and thus have
stayed relevant in the news market. He also found that using Twitter was a challenge for
the journalists as they tried to balance the speed of news production and dissemination
against values such as truth, accuracy, and fairness. Just as Muindi (2018) found that social
media poses many challenges to journalism, so do other technology. However, its adoption
and users’ adaptation to their needs make it work.
30
2.3.10 Kenya’s Media Landscape
The Kenyan media landscape is diverse, with the presence of radio, television,
newspapers and online media. Various local and international media operate within Kenya
and have their journalists registered with the MCK, which accredits media professionals in
the country. The list of accredited journalists is available on the MCK website. Some of the
local media houses include the NMG, SG, Mediamax, RAL, RMS, Chams Media, Africa
Uncensored; while some international ones include AFP (Agence France-Presse),
Aljazeera, BBC, France 24 (MCK, 2020).
Some 2,961 journalists (including editors and sub-editors) were accredited in 2020
in Kenya (Ibid). They include journalists attached to local and international media houses,
freelance journalists, and media practitioners attached to learning institutions and
government institutions such as county governments.
New media technology has taken root in many media houses, with industry seeing
a rise in use of the internet and social media tools; and Kenya is no different (Agur, 2019;
Azeema & Nazuk, 2017; Hemamalini, 2018; Kibet & Ward, 2018; McIntyre & Sobel,
2019; Muindi, 2018; Ogola, 2015a; Omanga, 2018). The media in Kenya has, over the
years, adopted new practices and technology to help it continue operating effectively with
the ever-changing technology and audience needs (Muindi, 2018) including using social
media applications such as Twitter and WhatsApp to gather, produce, and distribute news.
In addition, technology plays an important role in news-making, especially with regards to
citizen journalism, and also in discussions concerning news among those who can access
the internet (Paterson, 2013). Generally, there has also been an increase in social media
31
uptake for news, Kenya is no different with a report showing that Facebook (38%) and
WhatsApp (37%) were prominent in the country for disseminating news (MCK, 2019).
NMG, SG and RAL have not been left behind in the use of technology and social
media, including WhatsApp, in news production (Muindi, 2018; Gitonga et al., 2019). SG
has 377 registered journalists, NMG 363, while RAL (including its subsidiary The Star
Publications) have 144 in total (MCK, 2020). NMG and SG dominate the country’s print
media sector, nearly 90% of the market, and have a competitive advantage in the broadcast
sector (Ogola, 2015b). The two, together with RAL all have a presence in print, broadcast
and digital sectors of the media, with all the three having print newspapers and e-copies of
the same, radio stations, television stations, news websites and social media presence. Their
websites and television and radio stations are also prominent in the Kenyan media
landscape (Alexa, 2020; Okulo, 2019).
2.4 Summary
Studies are continuously being done on how technology impacts our day-to-day
lives in various aspects, and how we in turn adapt our lives to innovation and advancement
of technology (Mitchelstein & Boczkowski, 2009). As such, it is a continuous process of
innovation and adaptation to make the best of each situation. Journalism, as a profession,
finds itself adapting to technology with the changing times. With the evolution of the
internet and smartphones, journalists are now embracing social media platforms, including
WhatsApp, as powerful communication tools that allow users to connect with their
audience in real-time. This chapter explores the internet, social media, and the history of
32
WhatsApp. It situates the study on the Domestication of Technology Theory that explains
the adoption of technology and motivations for embracing the new technology.
33
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction
This chapter looks at the research approach and the research design used in this
study on the utilisation of WhatsApp in journalistic practices in Kenya. The chapter also
describes how the researcher selected samples and collected data. The section develops an
overview of the design and methods used, and justifies the choices for using each of them.
3.2 Research Approach and Research Design
The researcher used a mixed methods approach, which involves using of two or
more methods in a research study based on the belief that combining the various strengths
of the methods will lead to more accurate and in-depth information (Creswell, 2014, R.
Kumar, 2019). The study adopted a descriptive research design. This was useful in
describing the phenomenon by looking at how WhatsApp is integrated in news production
in Kenya.
3.3 Population
The population for this study was journalists practising in Kenya, which includes
editors, sub-editors and reporters. MCK, which accredits journalists and communications
professionals in Kenya, listed 2,961 journalists accredited in their website in 2020 (MCK,
2020). The MCK also accredits other communication professionals, students, among
others. To get the number of accredited journalists in 2020, the researcher copied the whole
34
list of accredited professionals on the MCK website, then excluded those who are not
journalists, remaining with a list of 2,961 accredited journalists. The accredited journalists
include those attached to local and national media houses; those attached to international
media houses such as the BBC, AFP; freelance journalists; and media practitioners attached
to learning institutions and government institutions such as the county governments.
Of the 2,961 accredited journalists, those in local media houses with national reach,
including the national broadcaster Kenya Broadcasting Corporation (KBC) and the
government-based Kenya News Agency (KNA), are shown in Table 2 below:
Table 2: Kenyan media houses with national coverage, and the number of accredited
journalists
MEDIA HOUSE NO. OF REGISTERED JOURNALISTS
Standard Group 377
Nation Media Group 363
Mediamax 340
Royal Media Services 274
Radio Africa Limited 144
KNA 116
KBC 83
TOTAL 1,697
The remaining 1,264 include journalists working in local media with limited reach,
those working in Kenya for international media houses, freelancers, and other registered
journalists working for non-media organisations such as county governments.
3.4 Target Population
The research targeted journalists from three media houses: NMG, SG and RAL.
The SG has 377 accredited journalists, NMG 363 and RAL 144 (MCK, 2020). These three
35
media houses were selected because they all have print, broadcast and digital brands and
they also utilise social media tools.
3.5 Study Site
Geographically, the survey was limited to Kenya, and also to journalists who work
within the country’s boundary. The researcher selected journalists from three media houses:
NMG, SG and RAL.
3.6 Sampling Procedures
For the survey, the researcher used stratified sampling which allowed the researcher
to divide the population into sub populations on the basis of supplemental information.
Journalists in the three newsrooms were divided into six strata:
reporters/correspondents/anchors, sub editors, editors, photojournalists/video journalists,
producers/directors and social media moderators (see Table 3). The researcher then selected
respondents from each of the strata in the same ratio to the total number of editors, sub-
editors, photojournalists, reporters/correspondents in the media house (Wimmer &
Dominick, 2014).
With the different target responses already stratified to increase validity of
responses from the wider array of journalists in these media houses, the researcher
employed convenience sampling. Jager, Putnick, and Bornst (2017) argue that
homogeneous convenience samples have clearer generalisability relative to conventional
convenience sample. And in the current study, rather than target journalists in these media
houses generally, the researcher reduced the targets into homogenous strata to increase
36
generalisability and validity. Because of the homogeneity of respondents in each stratum,
responses from respondents conveniently selected to participate in the study would still be
generalisable as they shared the same characteristics.
To this end, the researcher and the research assistants approached those from each
category who were willing to participate in the study and asked for their email addresses or
WhatsApp numbers and consent to share the link. For instance, for the 212
reporters/correspondents/anchors at NMG, the link was shared with the first 39 (35 target
sample size plus 10%) respondents who accepted to participate (See Table 3 for the sample
size and Table 4 for the number of respondents the link was sent to). The researcher and
the research assistants distributed the survey link to 10% more journalists to increase the
likelihood of a higher response rate.
For the interviews, purposive sampling was used to select five key informants to
shed more light in the study. The key informants were comprised of a senior reporter, a
sub-editor and three editors with varying expertise (See Appendix D: Profile of Key
InformantsF), drawn from the three media houses. The goal of the interviews was to give
further insight and to expound on information gathered from the surveys.
3.7 Sample Size
The sample was drawn from NMG, SG and RAL. SG has a population of 377
accredited journalists, NMG (363) and RAL (144) (MCK, 2020). Using the Survey Monkey
online sample size calculator, a sample of 143 respondents was calculated for the survey.
This was calculated using the population of the total 2,961 accredited journalists (Ibid) with
a 95% confidence level and an 8% margin of error. In social research, a margin of error
37
greater or equal to 5% and less than 10% is accepted when sampling (Bryman & Bell, 2003)
and the proposed number falls within this range.
The sample size of 143 is 16% of the accredited journalists in these three media
houses (884). And to get a target sample of 143 from the three media houses, the researcher
drew 16% from each of the 377 SG journalists, which gave 61 journalists as the sample;
NMG with a population of 363 gave a sample of 59; and RAL with a population of 144
returned a sample of 23. See Table 3 below.
Table 3: Selected media houses with the number of accredited journalists in each strata
and the target sample size
NMG SG RAL
Number Sample size Number
Sample
size Number
Sample
size
Reporters/
Correspondents/
Anchors 212 35 184 30 108 17
Sub-editors 38 6 37 6 6 1
Editors 56 9 58 9 15 2
Photo/video
journalists 44 7 58 9 13 2
Producers/
Directors 13 2 40 7 2 1
Total 363 59 377 61 144 23
However, since response rates in surveys tend to be low and the rate tends to decline
in online based surveys (J.R Evans & Mathur, 2005; Roster, Rogers, Albaum & Klein
2004), the researcher oversampled in order to increase the probability of getting sufficient
responses. The researcher increased the 143-sample size by 10% in each stratum to give a
total of 159. See Table 4 below.
38
Table 4: Number of journalists who were sent the survey link
NMG SG RAL Total
Reporters/
Correspondents/
Anchors 39 33 19 91
Sub-editors 7 7 1 15
Editors 10 10 2 22
Photo/video
journalists 8 10 2 20
Producers/ Directors 2 8 1 11
Total 66 68 25 159
3.8 Research Methods
The researcher used a survey and key informant interviews to generate quantitative
and qualitative data to assess how WhatsApp has been integrated into news production
cycles in Kenya and the change in routines occasioned by such integrations. The survey
enabled the researcher to obtain numeric data to explain trends and opinions of the
population under study (Creswell, 2014) and the interviews were useful in corroborating
the data from the survey and providing further information.
3.9 Data Collection Procedures
The researcher used a questionnaire generated on the survey development platform
Survey Monkey, and a web link to the platform was distributed to the respondents to fill in
the questionnaire. An online survey was apt because it helped the researcher reach a high
number of journalists at the same time, and they were able to fill it at their convenience. In
this case, the researcher and research assistants needed only the instrument, the host website
Survey Monkey and the email address or WhatsApp accounts of the respondents. The
research assistants helped to disseminate the questionnaire links to journalists' emails and
WhatsApp accounts, from which they clicked on it to open the online survey. The survey
39
had mobile phone, tablet/iPad and desktop/laptop user friendly interfaces. The researcher
also conducted interviews to get further insight. Key informants were requested to have
one-on-one or phone call interviews. Due to the coronavirus pandemic and physical
unavailability, some key informants requested email and WhatsApp-based interviews.
3.10 Data Generation/Collection Tools
The researcher adopted a questionnaire and interview schedule as data generation
tools. Self-administered questionnaires were used to collect the data from journalists
because questionnaires are a useful tool when one has a large and geographically diverse
sample, and it is quicker and more cost-effective (Sue & Ritter 2012, as cited in R. Kumar
(2019)). In addition, interviews were used to give more insight into the study.
The questionnaire was administered online through Survey Monkey and had close-
and open-ended questions. The first part of the questionnaire had demographic questions,
while the other sections had questions that addressed the motivations for using WhatsApp,
integration of WhatsApp in newsrooms and journalistic practices, and how such
integrations have changed routines and affect the news cycle and the practice of journalism.
The questionnaire was ideal in this study as respondents were not required to share
their thoughts with others as is the case with interviews (Kombo & Tromp, 2006). The
questionnaires offered confidentiality and anonymity.
On the other hand, the interview guide had open-ended questions that allowed
respondents to give in-depth data to expound on the numerical findings obtained from the
questionnaire. The interview guide was developed before gathering data from
40
questionnaires, and was revised after preliminary analysis of the quantitative data to include
questions that offered more insight into the quantitative data.
3.11 Pre-testing of Data Generation/Collection Tools
The questionnaire was subjected to a pilot test to determine its reliability and
improve on the questions where necessary. According to Connelly (2008) and Mugenda
and Mugenda (2003), a study sample for piloting should be 10% of the sample projected
for the larger parent study. However, this is cautioned by Hertzog (2008) since the process
is not a simple issue and is affected by many factors. Other scholars suggest a pilot study
sample of between 10-30 respondents (Hill, 1998; Isaac & Michael, 1995). The researcher
targeted 14 journalists for the pilot test, which falls within the 10% study sample as
suggested by Connelly (2008) and Mugenda and Mugenda (2003), and at the same time
falls within the 10-30 respondents suggested by Hill (1998) and Isaac and Michael (1995).
The researcher sent the questionnaire to 20 journalists to increase the response rate and
received 15 responses. The journalists in the pilot study were selected from various media
houses in Kenya, including Mediamax, RMS, NMG, SG, RAL, AFP, BBC and freelancers.
The researcher marked the email addresses of the respondents who participated in the pilot
and they were not contacted for the main survey.
3.12 Validity and Reliability of Research Tools
Validity refers to whether the tool measures what it is supposed to measure, while
reliability refers to how the tool measures the same thing more than once and consistently
produces the same outcome (Bashir, Afzal & Azeem, 2008). The researcher pre-tested the
questionnaire to ensure that it was understood, and that it was collecting the intended
41
information consistently to ensure validity and reliability. After pre-testing the
questionnaire, it was revised for clarity and to improve the tool.
3.13 Data Analysis and Presentation Plan
The data from the questionnaires was cleaned to edit out questionnaires that were
blank or those that had huge sections of data missing that were important for the study. The
researcher used the inbuilt functionalities of Survey Monkey to download an Excel sheet
containing the data from the survey responses. Open-ended questions were coded so that
they could be analysed quantitatively. The data was fed into SPSS (Statistical Package for
the Social Sciences) and various reports spooled from this in line with the objectives. The
reports are presented in the form of narratives, tables and charts. The analysis was done at
the three levels of descriptive, explanatory and interpretive analysis. The Likert scale
questions were analysed using the valid frequency percentages to gauge the levels of
‘agreement’ and or ‘disagreement’.
The interviews were recorded as audio files and then transcribed; two interviews
were conducted on email and WhatsApp and were compiled and edited for grammar. They
were used to explain the data gathered from the survey, and are presented after the
quantitative data under each question they answer. The interview findings are presented in
narrative formats with verbatim quotes where necessary.
3.14 Ethical Considerations
The researcher was granted permission to undertake this study by the Aga Khan
University’s Graduate School of Media and Communications and was also granted a
42
research licence by the National Commission for Science, Technology and Innovation
(NACOSTI). The researcher sought informed consent from respondents (R. Kumar, 2019),
where she explained the purpose of the study to the subjects. Consent of participation was
sought in the introductory section of the web-based questionnaire where the purpose of the
study was explained and respondents asked to give consent, without which they could not
proceed with answering the questions. If a respondent were to select the option ‘No’ in the
consent section, the survey would automatically close with a thank you note. The ‘Yes’
option opened the next page of the survey and the respondent could then proceed to answer
the questions. For the interviews, the researcher explained the purpose of the study and
sought consent before proceeding with the interviews. Written consent forms were not used
for the safety of the researcher and key informants given the COVID-19 safety protocols
of not sharing physical items whenever possible.
The researcher did not ask for primary details that could lead to the identification
of the respondents and strived to ensure the security of the data collected by using the
security features of Survey Monkey. The questionnaires were filled in anonymously – the
anonymity function of Survey Monkey was activated. Interviews were saved in password-
protected files and coded and transcribed to ensure key informants could not be identified
from their voices. Email and WhatsApp interviews were also coded. The transcriptions do
not contain any primary data that can identify the key informants. The researcher also
employed the use of research assistants to reduce bias.
Further, the researcher strived to ensure that study findings were presented in a
generic manner to the media landscape so that no particular media house or individual is
identifiable from the presentation and discussions.
43
3.15 Summary
The researcher used a mixed methods approach. The research was based in Kenya,
targeting journalists in the country with a sample from three media houses. This chapter
explores the research approach, research design, and data collection and analysis used in
the study.
44
CHAPTER FOUR
DATA PRESENTATION, ANALYSIS AND INTEPRETATION
4.1 Introduction
This study sought to establish the utilisation of WhatsApp in newsrooms and how
the integration of WhatsApp shapes journalism practice in Kenya. It established this by
looking at the motivations for using WhatsApp in journalism work, how WhatsApp is
integrated into the newsroom and how this has affected journalists’ routines. This chapter
presents the findings, analysis and interpretations from the survey responses and the key
informant interviews who were sampled from NMG, SG and RAL.
4.2 Presentation, Analysis and Interpretation
The findings are presented in narratives, tables and charts. They are analysed and
interpreted with reference to the Domestication of Technology Theory and earlier studies
cited in Chapter Two.
4.2.1 Response Rate and Demographic Results
The initial survey target was a sample of 143 respondents. The researcher
oversampled and the questionnaire link was sent to 159 people, out of which 107 responses
were received, giving a 67% response rate. However, not all respondents answered all the
questions and after data cleaning, blank questionnaires or those that did not answer
pertinent questions were left out. A total of 86 questionnaires were found good for analysis,
from where the study drew its generalisation. The researcher also interviewed 5 key
45
informants. The key informant interviewees were made up of one sub-editor, one senior
reporter and three editors with varying characteristics and experience in journalism as
indicated in Appendix D: Profile of . They were coded as PW1, PW2, PW3, PW4 and
PW5.
4.2.2 Job Position of Respondents
On Job position of the respondents; the findings indicated that majority of the
respondents (32%) were reporters/ correspondents, followed by editors at 26%. The data
also shows that a majority (63%) of the respondents are made up of those who give out
assignments and approve content (editors) and those who go out to conduct assignments in
the field (correspondents, reporters and photo- and video journalists), while those who edit
copy (sub-editors) were at 17% as shown in Table 5 below.
Table 5: Job position of the survey respondents
What best describes your current job position?
Frequency Percent
Reporter/ correspondent/ anchor 28 32
Photojournalist/ Video journalist 4 5
Sub-editor 15 17
Editor 22 26
Director/producer 3 4
Social media moderator 2 2
Other 12 14
Total 86 100
The findings indicate that among the respondents, there are more
reporters/correspondents, followed by editors. According to figures from the MCK on the
number of accredited journalists in Kenya (Media Council of Kenya, 2020)
reporters/correspondents make up majority (57%) of journalists in the three media houses
sampled, followed by editors (15%), which is generally consistent with the total number of
46
accredited journalists in Kenya where reporters/correspondents make up the majority of
journalists. The two groups of editors and reporters/correspondents are made up of the
people in the newsroom more likely to communicate to each other often over news stories,
especially with regards to assignments and follow-up, and therefore more likely to have
deep insight on integration of WhatsApp in the news production process.
4.2.3 Years of Experience in the Practice of Journalism
Further, the researcher sought to find out the demographics on the years of
experience of the respondents in the practice of journalism. The findings indicate that
majority of the respondents (37%) had between zero to five years’ experience followed by
those with 6 to 10 years’ experience (28%) and 11 to 15 years’ experience (22%). This is
presented in the Table 6 below.
Table 6: Journalists’ years of experience
For how long have you been a journalist?
Frequency Percent
0 to 5 years 30 37
6-10 years 23 28
11-15 years 18 22
16-20 years 5 6
21 years or more 6 7
Total 82 100
When grouped together, the majority of the respondents (63%) have more than 6
years of journalism experience, and were already working in newsrooms at a time when,
according to Reuters Institute (2018), WhatsApp use for news was increasingly gaining
popularity. This indicates that they have witnessed how news production was done before
the widespread use of WhatsApp for news and have witnessed it morph into a tool now
47
widely used for news. This suggests that they could have further insight on how it has been
integrated into news processes and how this has affected routines over the years.
4.2.4 Further Evaluation of Findings
4.2.4.1 Use of WhatsApp for Work
The study sought to find out whether having the WhatsApp application was a
requirement for work and how this was implemented. The findings as shown in Table 7
below indicate that for a majority of respondents (77%), WhatsApp is a tool that has been
integrated in the news production process. Of this, 70% noted that though WhatsApp is
used for work, it is not officially stated that it is a requirement.
Table 7: WhatsApp use at work
Having WhatsApp is a requirement at my work place
Frequency Percent
Yes, as an official policy 6 7
Yes, but it is not an official policy 60 70
No 20 23
Total 86 100
The findings above indicate that WhatsApp seems to be part of what journalists use
and have integrated into their daily work even with lack of clarity of the official policy. The
fact that only 7% of the respondents have cited and talk of it being in use because of official
policy means that the integration has been seamless. The responses from the open-ended
responses also support this near seamless integration and use of WhatsApp in newsrooms.
The responses show that WhatsApp is implemented through the formation of WhatsApp
groups for work (from a main group for the whole editorial team to smaller departmental
or section-based groups), with the application morphing into an official tool for executing
journalistic functions and communicating assignments. This suggests that the tool is widely
48
used for communication within the newsroom and journalists need to have it to receive
work-based information.
The response from the interviews also corroborated the use of WhatsApp as an
application that found itself as a useful tool from fairly informal usage. According to the
interviewees, journalists and editors started using WhatsApp mainly for communication
and then later began using it for news gathering and submission of content. One key
informant noted that:
The very fact that editors and media houses have allowed it to be used as
a platform shows that they have accepted it as a medium of
communication. I see media houses have created WhatsApp groups for
reporters to post their reports or updates and editors also briefing their
journalists in the field on the very platforms, especially in this era of the
pandemic.
4.2.4.2 WhatsApp as a Social Platform
Despite the use of WhatsApp in newsrooms being mainly a policy, on WhatsApp
as a social platform, the findings showed that majority of respondents, 65%, either strongly
agreed or agreed that WhatsApp is primarily for social purposes, 20% of them were neutral,
while only 15% either disagreed or strongly disagreed that they primarily use it for work
as shown in Table 8 below:
Table 8: WhatsApp use as a social platform
My WhatsApp is primarily a social platform
Frequency Percent
Strongly agree 22 29
Agree 27 36
Neutral 15 20
Disagree 6 8
Strongly disagree 5 7
Total 75 100
49
These findings suggest that despite being used for work, WhatsApp is still
considered an informal platform by most of the respondents, one that they can use for
socialising with family, friends and colleagues and get entertained on, which is also
supported by key informants. And since in most instances WhatsApp for work is considered
an unofficial policy, the users still considered it a personal and social tool. The findings
suggest that despite WhatsApp’s integration in the work place, it is still more widely used
for social purposes.
4.2.4.3 WhatsApp as a Tool for Work
The researcher further investigated WhatsApp as a tool for work. The findings
indicated that a majority of the respondents, 40%, disagreed and strongly disagreed that
their WhatsApp account is primarily for work, while 32% were neutral, and 27% agreed
and strongly agreed it is primarily for work as shown in Table 9 below:
Table 9: WhatsApp use for work
My WhatsApp is primarily for work
Frequency Percent
Strongly agree 8 11
Agree 12 16
Neutral 24 32
Disagree 19 25
Strongly disagree 11 15
N/A 1 1
Total 75 100
The findings suggest that despite most of the respondents using WhatsApp for work,
they do not view it as a tool that they have downloaded to be used mostly for work; they
have other ways they use WhatsApp which they regard with more importance as compared
to using it for work. Hence, WhatsApp still remains an informal tool for socialising even
as it is morphing into a tool for news gathering (Dodds, 2019). However, the finding in this
50
study contradicts Levy et al. (2014) who found that journalists majorly used WhatsApp for
sharing information and discovering news, and that social media applications, including
WhatsApp and others, played a significant role in journalists’ work. Further explanation
from key informants indicate that WhatsApp is both a social and work tool, with key
informants divided on whether it is still majorly a social tool or whether its use for
journalistic work lends more credence to it being majorly a tool for work. They argue that
it is first a social media tool but it is being used more and more for work.
4.2.4.4 WhatsApp Integration in News Production
The study sought to find out how WhatsApp is integrated in the news production
cycle, by looking at various ways journalists use WhatsApp for work. The findings showed
that a majority of the respondents (more than 60% in each case) agreed or strongly agreed
that they use WhatsApp for the following reasons: to send news alerts (82%), get story
tips/leads (82%), discuss story leads (88%), share and get documents (83%) and file photos,
videos and audios (69%) and contact sources (87%). It is worth noting that, only 41%
agreed or strongly agreed that they use WhatsApp to file stories as shown in Figure 1 below.
51
Figure 1: How respondents use WhatsApp at work
The findings suggest that though WhatsApp is being implemented in many
functions in the newsroom, journalists still use other means to file stories for publication.
Therefore, the WhatsApp application is mainly used to source for stories while the end
product is sent using other means. The findings also suggest that journalists are moving
away from more traditional methods of sourcing and angling stories to more modern ones
using social media and other means (Holton et al., 2016; Barot & Oren, 2015; and J. Evans,
2015), but are keeping to the older methods when filing stories. The studies show that social
media has brought a mix of pre-existing and emergent reporting interactions. This also
emerged in the interviews where responses from key informants indicate that the initial
stages of the news process like pitching and sourcing for stories are big on WhatsApp, but
the final stages of the news process tend to be less disrupted with mainly multimedia
elements send through WhatsApp while the longer versions of the stories are sent using
other channels. One of the key informants noted that:
82%
41%
82%88%
83%
69%
87%
9%
29%
7% 4% 6%14%
4%
0%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%
100%
WhatsApp use at Work
N/A Agree and strongly agree Neutral Disagree and strongly disagree
52
When you have a story you are required to pitch it on the platform, then
you will get instant feedback from the editors. Once you are done; you
are required to post the lead of the story for the breaking news desk to
pick it up. It is at this point that you are expected to write a long piece for
the website and an in depth one for the newspaper.
4.2.4.5 Usefulness of the Integration of WhatsApp in News Production
The study also sought to find out journalists’ thoughts on the integration of
WhatsApp as a tool for journalism and the degree to which they find it useful in their work.
The findings indicate that the majority of respondents (74%) found the integration of
WhatsApp in news production either very useful or extremely useful, 22% found the
integration of WhatsApp news production either somewhat useful or a little useful, and
only one percent found the integration of WhatsApp in news production not useful at all.
See Table 10 below with the details.
Table 10: Usefulness of WhatsApp in news production
In your opinion, has the integration of WhatsApp in news production been useful?
Frequency Percent
Not at all 1 1
A little useful 5 7
Somewhat useful 11 15
Very useful 29 40
Extremely useful 25 34
N/A 2 3
Total 73 100
These findings indicate that to a very large extent the respondents appreciate the
integration of WhatsApp in their work, and find is useful in news production. That the
majority (74%) of the respondents find the integration of WhatsApp in newsrooms very
useful and extremely useful points to journalists viewing WhatsApp as an enabler of
journalistic work and having a positive effect on their output. Key informants argue that
the benefits of using WhatsApp for journalism has encouraged newsrooms to adopt it into
53
the news production process. And with the COVID-19 pandemic fuelling the need for more
virtual forms of communication, WhatsApp has become even more useful. The key
informants agreed that:
The very fact that editors and media houses have allowed it to be used as
a platform shows that they have accepted it as a medium of
communication. I see media houses have created WhatsApp groups for
reporters to post their reports or updates and editors also briefing their
journalists in the field on the very platforms, especially in this era of the
[COVID-19] pandemic. I think it's one of those platforms that has dealt
with the distant working situation.
The findings seem to corroborate Haddon (2018) and Scheerder et al. (2019)
arguments that over time technologies and applications such as WhatsApp, which entered
the newsroom as a social platform for social communication, get accepted and adopted in
the daily routines of the users if it offers value.
4.2.4.6 Ways in which Integration of WhatsApp is Useful
The study further sought to find the reasons the respondents find the integration of
WhatsApp useful. A majority (52%) of the respondents said the integration of WhatsApp
in the newsroom is useful because it has made work more efficient, while 17% said it helps
with easy coordination within teams. They also said it is time saving and provides an avenue
for prompt feedback, helps in the seamless flow of information, and allows for the sharing
of multimedia elements, as shown in Figure 2 below.
54
Figure 2: Usefulness of the integration of WhatsApp in news production
The findings indicate that the respondents feel that efficiency is the most important
factor that makes integration of WhatsApp in newsrooms useful. This points to the
application making it easier and faster to gather, submit and produce news items, with
journalists assigning importance to these. In line with the Domestication of Technology
Theory, the respondents react to new technology through not only its adoption but also their
perception of the technology which leads them to assign meaning to it and in turn affects
how they further keep adapting to the technology to fit their lifestyles and in even changing
their everyday routines (Hynes & Richardson, 2009). With WhatsApp, journalists assign
importance to it as an enabler as they perceive it as efficient and hence keep using it as it
“eases” their work and helps them to quickly gather and submit news with the multimedia
elements.
Key informants corroborate these findings by indicating that the ease of use, speed,
instant feedback and a user-friendly interface for discussions make WhatsApp useful in
52%
17%
14%
5%5% 5% 2%
Why Integration of WhatsApp in News Production is Useful
Efficient
Easy coordination in/ofteamsOther
Seamless flow ofinformationPrompt feedback
Allows for multimediaelementsTime saving
55
news production, pointing to its ease of use and convenience. One of the key informants
argued that:
It has reduced the reliance on emails and reduced waiting time for
responses from reporters and other news sources…Feedback from their
editors is more immediate and if there are clarifications needed they are
given promptly.
Moreover, another respondent was of the opinion that:
WhatsApp that helped us in the newsroom to cut the turnaround time.
Previously, you'd have to wait for a reporter to leave the field and come
to the office and file the story…With WhatsApp, in the field, a reporter
can not only just file the updates, but can also file a whole complete
story…Also, even in terms of transmitting photos and videos, I think that
has been a plus for WhatsApp.
4.2.4.7 WhatsApp Integration and Productivity
The study also sought journalists’ opinion on the extent to which integration of
WhatsApp in the news process has affected productivity. The findings indicate that the
majority of the respondents (80%) agreed or strongly agreed that the integration of
WhatsApp in the newsroom has led to increased productivity. See Table 11 below:
Table 11: The impact of WhatsApp integration on productivity
Integration of WhatsApp in the newsroom has led to increased productivity
Frequency Percent
Strongly agree 25 37
Agree 29 43
Neutral 9 13
Disagree 3 5
Strongly disagree 1 2
Total 67 100
56
The findings suggest that WhatsApp has played a role in improving sourcing,
delivery and publication of news and, as indicated by key informants, led to efficiency and
better communication and coordination. With WhatsApp, journalists are able to post story
ideas on the platform and get feedback and contributions from colleagues, thereby
enriching the story. In addition, editors are also able to monitor, assign and improve on
stories, and at the same time easily contact reporters for updates. Furthermore, interviews
revealed that journalists are also able to conveniently contact their sources and receive even
urgent information on their phone in real time without having to travel to the sources, and
they can in turn easily file the stories from wherever they are, thus cutting turnaround time
for stories. Hence, more work can be accomplished within a shorter span of time and still
contain all the important elements, leading to improved productivity. The findings also
further support Muindi (2018) who opines that new media technology has been
domesticated in varying degrees and has become quite prominent in driving news
production and newsroom processes.
4.2.4.8 WhatsApp and Keeping up with the News
The study also sought to find out the extent to which respondents attach importance
to the use of WhatsApp in keeping up with news. The study found that majority of the
respondents agreed and strongly agreed with the following statements: that newsroom
WhatsApp groups are important sources of information (97%), WhatsApp groups help
them to keep up with newsroom information (91%), WhatsApp is convenient to use in the
newsroom (85%), while 67% used WhatsApp groups to verify information, as shown in
Figure 3 below.
57
Figure 3: WhatsApp in news production
The findings suggest that WhatsApp has become integral to communication within
the newsroom and in keeping up both with the news and with newsroom communications,
and it provides a convenient platform for these functions. Journalists are also moving away
from reliance on emails and phone calls to the more convenient applications such as
WhatsApp to communicate amongst each other, while physical meetings, especially during
the COVID-19 pandemic, have also moved to virtual platforms with WhatsApp being one
of them, key informants stated. Interview findings also indicate that WhatsApp has become
an enabler for official communication and brainstorming, helping journalists stay informed
on the go and helping them keep a personal record of the information. WhatsApp has
become an enabler of alternative communication and work tools.
97%91%
67%
85%
3%8%
21%
11%
0% 1%
12%4%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Newsroom WhatsAppgroups are important
sources of information
With WhatsApp, I find iteasy to keep up with
newsroomcommunication
WhatsApp helps me toverify information
I find WhatsAppconvenient to use in
news production
WhatsApp in News Production
Agree and strongly agree Neutral Disagree and strongly disagree
58
4.2.4.9 How Motivated Journalists are to use WhatsApp for Work
The study also sought to find out whether journalists are motivated to use WhatsApp
for work. The majority of the respondents (78%) said they are very motivated and
somewhat motivated to use WhatsApp for work, while 7% are very demotivated and
somewhat demotivated using the application for journalism, as shown in Table 12 below.
Table 12: Motivations for using WhatsApp for work
As a journalist, how motivated are you to use WhatsApp for work?
Frequency Percent
Very motivated 39 54
Somewhat motivated 18 24
Neutral 11 15
Somewhat demotivated 2 3
Very demotivated 3 4
Total 73 100
The findings suggest that journalists have adopted and accepted WhatsApp as an
enabling technology in the news cycle and have further assigned it meaning in line with the
Domestication of Technology Theory (Haddon, 2018; Hynes & Richardson, 2009). This is
further confirmed by the key informants who note that journalists have fully adopted
WhatsApp in journalism and feel motivated to use the application for work.
4.2.4.10 Motivations and Demotivations for using WhatsApp for Work
The study sought reasons for journalists being motivated or demotivated to using
WhatsApp for work. Findings show that the majority (52%) of the respondents find the
efficiency of WhatsApp as a major motivator to use it for journalism, whereas security and
privacy challenges (11%) were a major reason for being demotivated to use WhatsApp.
This is shown in Figure 4 below.
59
Figure 4: Journalists’ motivations and demotivations for using WhatsApp for work
The findings suggest that most journalists are motivated to use WhatsApp for work
but their motivations are almost similar. Hynes and Richardson (2009), when looking at
the Domestication of Technology Theory, opined that in some instances, it is a challenge
to justify the adoption of a particular technology as users "design their own" domestication
process because they are not a homogenous group, they have different motivations for
adopting the technology, and they use it differently. The findings above suggest that the
respondents designed their own domestication process. Key informants further support the
findings on reasons for motivations/ demotivations, with most of them citing ease of use,
speed and time saving—associating their motivation to the efficiency.
4.2.4.11 Further Motivations for using WhatsApp as a Journalism Tool
The study sought to probe further instances where journalists use WhatsApp that
relate to their motivations or demotivations for using the social media tool for work. The
52%
6%6%
6%
11%
2% 17%
Motivations/ Demotivations for using WhatsApp in Journalism
Efficient
Convenient and User friendly
Popular
Constant updates/ instantfeedback
Security and privacychallenges
Information overflow/spamming
Other
60
study found that the agreed or strongly agreed that: using WhatsApp has made reporting
easier (81%), they like using WhatsApp because they can use it on the go (89%), they use
it to communicate with many individuals at once/ in groups (90%) and they will miss out
on important conversations if they don’t use WhatsApp for work (75%). Less than 20%
disagreed or strongly disagreed with these statements as shown in Figure 5 below.
Figure 5: Further motivations for using WhatsApp for work
The findings suggest that the ease and convenience of using WhatsApp and the
importance the tool has been given in the newsroom such that official information is
communicated through it, motivate journalists to use WhatsApp at work and to be on the
newsroom WhatsApp groups. As such, these findings support arguments of the
Domestication of Technology Theory that adoption of technology is not merely just its use
in the physical space but how the adopters perceive its usefulness or importance and how
this in turn affects their routines (Hynes & Richardson, 2009). The findings also support
81%
89% 90%
75%
15%10%
7%14%
4%1% 3%
11%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
WhatsApp has madereporting and filing of
stories easier
I like WhatsApp becauseI can use it on the go
I like using WhatsApp tocommunicate with
many individuals at thesame time
If I don’t use WhatsApp for work I miss out on
important conversations or tips
WhatsApp use for Work
Agree and strongly agree Neutral Disagree and strongly disagree
61
arguments by Agur (2019) and R. Kumar (2019) who say that social media applications
ease communication by allowing for individual and group messaging, as well as online
chatting or discussions with many people at once.
4.2.4.12 WhatsApp’s Relevance in Journalism
The study also sought to find out the degree to which journalists find the use of
WhatsApp for work relevant. It found that a majority of the respondents agreed or strongly
agreed that: they enjoy using WhatsApp for work (77%), WhatsApp was a relevant tool in
journalism (89%), they would recommend the use of WhatsApp for journalism (82%), as
shown in Figure 6Figure 6 below.
Figure 6: Relevance of WhatsApp
The findings indicate that the respondents find integration of WhatsApp in
journalism relevant for their work. The majority of respondents don’t use the application
just because it is a requirement, but because of the gratification it brings them. This supports
the Domestication of Technology Theory that offers a framework for explaining and
77%
89%82%
15%11% 10%8%
08%
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
I enjoy using WhatsAppfor work
WhatsApp is relevant injournalism
I would recommend theuse of WhatsApp as a
reporting tool
Agree and strongly agree Neutral Disagree and strongly disagree
62
understanding how technology functions in society, and how people make an innovation
relevant in their daily lives; where they assign negative or positive meaning to the use of a
technology and their perception of the technology determines how it is integrated into their
lives and how this in turn changes their routine Scheerder et al. (2019). The findings suggest
a positive perception on the use of WhatsApp, which could indicate that the respondents’
perception towards the application makes them adapt it to fit into their lifeestyle; and thus
had led to a change in their routines.
4.2.4.13 Effect of WhatsApp on Journalism
The study also sought to find out the extent to which journalists feel the integration
of WhatsApp at work has had an effect on journalism. It found that majority of the
respondents (82%) felt that the integration of WhatsApp in news production had a huge
effect or a lot of effect on journalism, and none of the respondents felt that integration of
WhatsApp in news production had had no effect on journalism as shown in Table 13 below:
Table 13: Effect of WhatsApp on journalism
In your opinion, has WhatsApp for work had an effect on journalism?
Frequency Percent
None 0 0
Little 2 3
Moderate 10 14
A lot 31 41
Huge 31 41
N/A 1 1
Total 75 100
The findings show that no respondent felt that integration of WhatsApp in the news
process had not had an effect on journalism, giving credence to studies that found that social
media plays a role in various professions when applied or used – social media is
increasingly playing a vital role in various professions (Agur, 2019). This is further
63
supported by key informants who said that WhatsApp has become a channel of
communication and a major tool for gathering and dissemination of news items, even
replacing some older channels such as emails and face-to-face meetings, and, to an extent,
some content management systems.
4.2.4.14 How WhatsApp has Affected Journalism
On further inquiry, respondents mentioned that the biggest impact of WhatsApp use
in journalism was making the news production process more efficient (70%) with 11%
saying it made reporting convenient and 6% mentioning that it boosted productivity of
journalists. However, some 4% of journalists felt that it had a negative effect in terms of
spam messages/ information overflow and a proliferation of fake news as shown in Figure
7 below:
Figure 7: Effect of WhatsApp on journalism
More respondents mentioned the positive effects of WhatsApp on journalism,
indicating the role WhatsApp for work plays. This data supports Agur (2019) who argues
70%
11%
9%
6% 2% 2%
WhatsApp Effect on Journalism
Efficient
Convenient
Other
Boosts productivity
Information overflow
Proliferation of fake news
64
that social media is increasingly playing a vital role in communication in various
professions, and thus influences practice in those professions. In many instances, social
media has been found to improve communication and efficiency in work processes, to be
useful and convenient tools for knowledge sharing, to mobilise people and promote
professionalism, and in news production (Agur, 2019; Azeema & Nazuk, 2017;
Hemamalini S., 2018; Kibet & Ward, 2018; McIntyre & Sobel, 2019; Muindi, 2018;
Omanga, 2018). Furthermore, the efficiency of WhatsApp in news production has been a
recurring theme that is also supported by key informants who note that the efficiency of
WhatsApp is a motivating factor to use the application for work, especially when it comes
to the speed at which one can receive and communicate information, and in how journalists
communicate that information. The interview participants noted that:
WhatsApp has this multimedia acceptability. You can do a video call,
you can do a voice call, you can do a text and the text doesn't have a word
count limit like the usual ordinary texts (SMS). So it is a quicker form of
reaching out to sources or sharing out the details of a story. And this has
helped journalists work better compared to the past where most people
relied on ordinary calls or maybe emails which are not as efficient as
WhatsApp.
Further one respondent reported that:
The moment we leave the newsroom, I would say the most convenient
way of communicating back to the editor is through WhatsApp because
you can send text, videos, photos; all the elements.
Moreover, key informants noted that in terms of the effect of WhatsApp, the
“positives outweigh the negatives” (Interview). And that although some of the effects such
as information overflow may be seen as a negative. The positive impact is that if one is
keen on the main points of the chats, they can find an abundance of information that can be
used for journalistic purposes.
65
4.2.4.15 Change in Roles and Routines of Journalists
Further, key informants said that the WhatsApp application has changed roles and
routines of journalists through how they use it, and, as Domestication of Technology
theorists argue, in the importance they attach to it Haddon (2018) and Hynes & Richardson
(2009). WhatsApp has morphed from a social and informal tool to a partially official one
used to pitch, discuss and file stories and multimedia elements, a move from the past where
official channels such as email or content management systems were used most. This has
led to a change in the way journalists source, submit and publish their stories. One of the
key informants noted that:
Up until WhatsApp came up, we had a lot of trouble accessing
documents, accessing information; you had to be physically present.
Emails were not very safe or you could not send an email immediately,
you had to scan [the document] and send. But [with] a phone you easily,
take a picture, send immediately, have a conversation immediately with
the person who is sending the information.
WhatsApp has further been used to organise and hold meetings, discussions and
brainstorming sessions, saving time and enabling everyone involved to join in remotely,
with key informants suggesting that it has become an important tool not just for news
gathering and production but also for managing journalists in terms of organising
assignments and scheduling meetings. Key informants argued that:
[It has changed] a lot in terms of newsroom operations, not just in
sourcing of stories, but also organising coverage of events, getting
invites, having meetings, ideas.
They further reported that:
66
It is now routine for reporters and editors to be in work WhatsApp groups
where important information and tips on possible news sources are
shared. Previously, it was routine journalists to meet in the office and
share ideas before starting work or receive instructions from editors. This
has changed as the same can be done in WhatsApp groups.
A key informant argued that “you see more work arising because with WhatsApp
there are these new roles for the traditional media. So it generally redefined media”
(Interview), and it can be seen where integration of WhatsApp has forced journalists to take
seriously the role of fact-checking information sent in WhatsApp groups. And due to
information overflow and the viral nature of some messages, “the media has to do their
hard work of fact-checking [and] verifying” (Interview). As much as a journalist’s role has
always involved some degree of fact-checking, it is now more enhanced due to increased
instances of misinformation and disinformation, revolutionising the gatekeeping role of the
media.
But on the other hand, it has encouraged “laziness” and “armchair journalism” such
that journalists are comfortable just gathering all information via the phone and not going
out to look for stories, which supports Azeema & Nazuk (2017) findings on WhatsApp use
in journalism encouraging “laziness”, where some journalists will not go out to verify
stories. A key informant noted that though ‘armchair journalism’ was in existence before
the integration of WhatsApp in news production, the application has enhanced it because
of its multiple functionalities in journalism such as a sourcing, reporting and story
submission tool. The informant posits that:
I think there is a downside where, I don’t know whether to call it laziness,
because people no longer want to go out and meet sources. They no
longer want to go out and look for news. They want to talk to their sources
via WhatsApp; just chatting a source or somebody who's supposed to give
you some information.
67
Some journalists rarely go out to seek stories directly from sources but merely chat
with them or call them through WhatsApp and ask them to send documents via the same
platform. And as much as this is convenient and sometimes efficient depending on the
circumstance, the journalist does not get the chance to observe the nuances of reactions
from sources as they would face-to-face, and reduces chances of them getting extra
information or additional sources in the process.
I believe that you get more value when you go out and meet them
(sources). You can stumble upon much more information, as opposed to
when you just sit and you want all the information fed to you via
WhatsApp. Or if it’s a forward, some document that has been forwarded,
people just process that as a complete story. Whereas, previously, people
had to do some legwork to go and look for these stories out there – they
didn't know how to just sit back, relax and get information via WhatsApp.
4.2.4.16 WhatsApp, Productivity and Years of Experience in Journalism
A cross tabulation on years of experience in journalism and whether WhatsApp
leads to productivity shows that majority (64%) of those that agreed and strongly agreed
that integration of WhatsApp in news production has led to increased productivity in the
newsroom have below 10 years’ journalism experience, while 36% represent those with
more than 10 years’ of experience who also agreed as shown in Figure 8 below.
68
Figure 8: Years of experience in relation to thoughts on WhatsApp increasing
productivity
This finding indicates that fewer (17%) respondents with extensive journalism
experience feel that WhatsApp use in the newsroom has led to increased productivity.
Having more insight into newsroom operations and changes over more than 10 years, they
could have a different view on what has led to more productivity. This data suggests that
they are likely still rooted to more traditional modes of news production and are less likely
to have fully domesticated WhatsApp. However, among key informants with more than 10
years’ experience in journalism, there was agreement that WhatsApp has led to a significant
increase in productivity, with some suggesting that using WhatsApp has made journalists
“more productive”, while others said the cost saving and time saving aspects have improved
productivity, while others still added that the ease of gathering and submitting stories have
led to more productivity. The key informants noted that:
Stories used to take much longer to deliver…but today you just send a
WhatsApp message to the editor or the sub-editor who is producing the
story and they have whatever material that you want them to have. So I
33%
31%
19%
6%
11%
Integration of WhatsApp in the Newsroom has led to Increased
Productivity
0 to 5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
16-20 years
21 years or more
69
think the speed has been one of the biggest changes that has been
introduced by WhatsApp.
They further stated that:
It enables them to be more productive as it saves on the time one uses to
file a story. At the same time, feedback from their editors is more
immediate and if there are clarifications needed, they are given promptly.
4.2.4.17 Job Title, Integration of WhatsApp and Productivity
A cross tabulation of various journalists and their degree of agreement or
disagreement on whether use of WhatsApp for work increases productivity showed that a
high percentage of photo- / video journalists, directors and social media moderators
(100%), editors (84%), sub-editors (79%) and reporters/ correspondents (77%) agreed and
strongly agreed that WhatsApp has increased productivity, as shown in Figure 9 below.
70
Figure 9: Job title in relation to thoughts on whether integration of WhatsApp increases
productivity
This finding indicates that across the various editorial roles, there is an agreement
that WhatsApp has contributed to productivity, and fewer journalists in the above
categories disagreed that WhatsApp has been productive. This could indicate that most of
them take advantage of the WhatsApp platform to help them work more efficiently.
4.2.4.18 Job Title and Motivation to use WhatsApp for Work
A cross tabulation of job titles of the respondents and the level of motivation to use
WhatsApp for work shows that a higher percentage of photo-/video journalists and social
media moderators (100%), editors (85%) and reporters (81%) agreed and strongly agreed
that they are motivated to use WhatsApp for work, while 50% of directors/producers agreed
with the statement and 50% were neutral. See Figure 10 below.
77%
100%
79% 84%
100% 100%
18% 14%5%5% 7% 11%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Job position in Relation to Thoughts on whether Integration of WhatsApp
Increases Productivity
Agree and strongly agree Neutral Disagree and strongly disagree
71
Figure 10: Job title in relation to motivation to use WhatsApp for work
This data suggests that WhatsApp is important for people going to the field
(reporters/correspondents and photo-/ video journalists) and their communication to those
who give and approve assignments or stories (editors). As other studies suggest,
communication has been integral and this could contribute to the motivation for using the
WhatsApp platform. In addition, they are able to source, discuss and file the stories
efficiently on the same platform as suggested by data on integration of WhatsApp (See
section 4.2.4.4 above) and motivation for using WhatsApp for work (See sections 4.2.4.9
and 4.2.4.10 above).
81%
100%
57%
85%
50%
100%
11%
29%
10%
50%
8%14%
5%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Job position in relation to motivation to use WhatsApp for work
Motivated and very motivated Neutral Demotivated and very demotivated
72
4.2.4.19 Emerging Issues in the use of WhatsApp for Journalism
The study also found that there were emerging issues and challenges associated with
the use of WhatsApp for journalism work. The majority 23% of the respondents noted that
fake news/ misinformation/ disinformation was a main challenge of using WhatsApp as the
application was seen as an enabler of the spreading of fake news. Connectivity problems
and information overflow/spamming, both at 11% were other emerging challenges, as other
respondents said that inappropriate content 7% and the cost of using WhatsApp 7% were
also challenges. See Figure 11 below.
Figure 11: Challenges associated with using WhatsApp for work
The findings indicate that there are a range of challenges associated with the use of
WhatsApp for work. The same challenges were noted in the interviews, with
misinformation and intrusion into one’s privacy being noted as the major challenges of
using WhatsApp for work.
4% 5% 5% 5%7% 7%
11% 11%
22% 23%
0%
5%
10%
15%
20%
25%
Challenges in using WhatsApp for Work
73
With the convenience of WhatsApp, colleagues and sources ended up intruding into
one’s personal time and “one often finds themselves receiving work-related messages when
they are off work” (Interview). This supports Dodds (2019) findings in his study on Chilean
journalists, where journalists were often bombarded with several messages even late at
night or in the wee hours of the morning. Often, they had no choice but to respond or act
on the messages, especially from sources, as the sources could turn to the competition if
their information was not acted on. In addition, fake news/ misinformation was a recurring
theme in the interviews, with key informants saying the chances of misinformation going
viral has changed the way journalists go about their work. They noted that:
The biggest challenge is fake news in the sense that today I can craft a
message purportedly from the DCI and share it on a WhatsApp group and
it will spread across WhatsApp groups. By the time they realise that it is
actually fake, it’s when DCI are clarifying that. And that’s after many,
many outlets have published it. So, fighting fake news that is spread
through WhatsApp is a big challenge.
Further, on fake news, the respondents reported that:
You have a higher responsibility now to figure out the fake news or to
fact-check because WhatsApp has aided fake news, and everything is
circulating very fast. You have to convince the people that you have the
right information through your own fact-checking mechanisms.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, misinformation was a major challenge of
WhatsApp where unverified and intentionally created fake news was spread through
WhatsApp, making fact-checkers dedicate a lot of time to demystify ‘COVID-19 myths’
(Africa Check, Volume, & International Fact-Checking Network, 2020; Africa Check &
Africa Centre for Evidence, 2020).
74
Key informants also identified other challenges such as connectivity issues,
information overflow and distraction at work, strengthening results from the survey.
These findings suggest that roles and routines of journalists are changing with and
adapting to the varying challenges posed by advancement of technology and use of that
technology, with deeper levels of fact-checking required especially with viral messages.
This supports Dodds (2019) findings that the use of WhatsApp in the news process changes
the way journalists gather and verify news, and how they interact with the information
received on WhatsApp. Furthermore, the change in routine indicates that journalists are
adopting the technology not only to fit their lifestyles, but also adapting their lifestyles
(roles) to the technology (WhatsApp) to make use of the technology as suggested in the
Domestication of Technology Theory (Hynes & Richardson, 2009; Scheerder et al., 2019).
4.3 Summary of Key Findings
Motivations for using WhatsApp among journalists in Kenya
1. The majority of respondents (78%) are motivated and very motivated to use
WhatsApp for work, and a majority of respondents note that efficiency is a motivating
factor. However, some respondents (7%) said they were demotivated to use WhatsApp at
work, with some saying security or privacy breaches and information overflow/ spam
messages are demotivating factors.
2. Circumstances at work were also viewed as a motivating factor to use
WhatsApp for work. Having work WhatsApp groups where official information is
communicated motivated respondents to have the application so they do not miss out on
any important information. A majority (75%) of the respondents noted that if they do not
use WhatsApp for work, they miss out on important information, while key informants
75
noted that WhatsApp has become a highly important tool for both newsroom
communication and news production such that a journalist just has to use it for work.
Integration of WhatsApp in the news production cycle in Kenyan newsrooms.
3. WhatsApp has been integrated in the news production process in Kenya as
a tool for sourcing, discussing and filing stories, as well as general newsroom
communication. The study found that a majority of the respondents (more than 60% in each
case) agreed or strongly agreed that: they use WhatsApp to send news alerts (82%), get
story leads (82%), discuss story leads (88%), get and share documents (83%) and file
multimedia elements (photos, audio and video) of the stories (69%) and also use it to
contact sources (87%).
4. The study also found that the majority of the respondents (80%) agreed or
strongly agreed that the integration of WhatsApp in the newsroom has led to increased
productivity. Efficiency and convenience (both recurring themes) were seen as factors that
enhanced productivity, including reducing turnaround time for stories and making it easier
to gather news and submit the stories.
5. The study further found that WhatsApp has become integral to
communication among journalists and within newsrooms, with key informants suggesting
that it is slowly replacing other channels of communication such as emails and also being
used in place of other newsroom functions such as face-to-face meetings and brainstorming
sessions.
Ways in which WhatsApp has affected Kenyan journalists’ routines in the
coverage of news.
76
6. The study found that journalists’ activities have changed and WhatsApp has
been one of the enablers of change. Key informants opine that journalism work has been
made more efficient and time and cost-saving because WhatsApp has cut turnaround time
for sourcing and submission of stories, while at the same time enabled journalists to
conveniently broadcast information, pitches, leads and stories. The main routine that has
changed is in the channel used to broadcast all this information so that the journalists don’t
have to make a trip to the office or to have access to a computer and other devices, but only
need a WhatsApp enabled phone to perform all these functions. However, it has also
encouraged ‘armchair’ journalism where everything is done remotely and some journalists
do not go out to seek stories directly from sources but merely chat with them or call them
through WhatsApp and ask them to send documents via the same platform, hence they do
not get nuances of reactions from sources as they would in a face-to-face interview.
4.3 Summary
This chapter presented the findings on the utilisation of WhatsApp within Kenyans
newsrooms and how the integration of WhatsApp shapes journalism practice in Kenya. The
findings were based on the responses that responded to the study objectives, which were
collected through a survey and key informant interviews. The findings were presented in
tables, bar charts, pie charts and narratives, with the tables and figures accompanied by text
describing and explaining them. The chapter also gave a summary of key findings with
regards to the objectives of the study.
77
CHAPTER FIVE
DISCUSSIONS, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Introduction
This chapter discusses the summary of the findings on the utilisation of WhatsApp
in newsrooms and how the integration of WhatsApp shapes journalism practice in Kenya.
The chapter is sub-divided into discussion of key findings based on the objectives and
research questions, conclusions drawn from the findings, recommendations and suggestion
for further research.
5.2 Discussions of Key Findings
The key findings are discussed in line with their corresponding study objective. The
discussion takes into account the theory of the study and the findings of other studies, in
relation to the current study’s findings.
5.2.1 Motivation for using WhatsApp in Journalism
Objective one sought to examine journalists’ motivations for using WhatsApp in
the newsroom. Most of the respondents suggest that they are motivated to use WhatsApp
mainly due to its efficiency. Motivation goes hand-in-hand with the usefulness of the
technology to a person or the importance to which they assign the use of the technology.
These findings when looked at within the framework of the Domestication of Technology
underscores the tenet that the adoption of technology and its domestication is dependent on
how people use and implement an innovation (Haddon, 2018). Technology that is easy to
78
use and apply with effectiveness to a daily routine, in this case journalistic work, is easily
adopted and domesticated and that seems to be the main motivation in the use of WhatsApp
in newsrooms. The use of WhatsApp by most journalists indicates that they are inclined to
use the application due to ease of its domestication as a tool in their trade and how the
application’s functionalities adapt to the newsroom environment of gathering and sharing
information, making it easier to do their core business.
Other supporting reasons for motivation to use WhatsApp were convenience,
efficiency, popularity (many people having the application on their phones), low cost and
the user-friendly interface of the application. These, coupled with the perception of the
usefulness of WhatsApp integration in the newsroom indicates that journalists have
accepted the use of WhatsApp and intentionally use it to serve their needs in the newsroom,
without necessarily being required to use it. Although, a majority of the respondents said
WhatsApp was not an official requirement in the office set-up, the fact that the motivation
to use it was very high leads to the conclusion that it was their individual assigned meanings
on the use of WhatsApp that motivated them to keep using the application. At the individual
level, most journalists found the application fairly useful and that heightened the adoption
of the application in the newsroom.
The efficacy and ease of use at individual level and the domestication of WhatsApp
in newsrooms is corroborated by earlier scholars who argue that new media technologies
have been instrumental when journalists are deployed in various areas far from each other.
These scholars found that technologies such as WhatsApp connect journalists who are far
from each other and the newsrooms, and make everyone aware of what the other is
pursuing, thus enabling communication to the group of journalists at the same time (J.
79
Evans, 2015; Levy et al., 2014). The current findings established that this is the same
scenario in the Kenyan scene with journalists in rural and far-flung areas able to
communicate to the head office or their editors using WhatsApp.
The application is also used as a broadcast platform as journalists working on a
story or a lead is able to reach many others simultaneously when using groups, hence
convenient for communicating to a group. As much the same communication can be done
via email, WhatsApp is faster and less formal and can be used to cut on response time and
discussions when matters are posted on groups. The convenience of its accessibility,
provided a journalist has a smartphone, an internet connection and the application on their
phone, makes its domestication intuitive, as it provides all the content management options
for sharing and managing text, audio, video and still pictures. A key informant noted that
WhatsApp is a convenient means of communication between editors in the newsroom and
reporters out in the field as the reporters can send text and multimedia elements using the
platform. As long as the journalist has a phone and internet connection, WhatsApp then
becomes a useful tool for quick feedback when out in the field, and becomes a critical
channel for communicating with large groups.
Furthermore, journalists are motivated to use the application for work because of
the importance associated with its use in the newsroom as official information is
communicated through WhatsApp groups. In order to be in the know and not miss any
important information, journalists join the work-based WhatsApp group. A key informant
noted that it has become routine for reporters and editors to have work-based WhatsApp
groups where they discuss leads, possible news stories and share information on news
sources. Newsrooms have work WhatsApp groups where important tips, editorial
80
discussions and information is discussed and sometimes even verified, giving additional
input to story leads or pitches. In the long run, more people can give their input to improve
the story angle and give extra information; and this sharing of information helps to prevent
duplication of work as journalists know what story their colleagues are working on.
Furthermore, important documents shared in the work groups could give story leads or
buttress stories, while also offering a single and convenient platform for sharing multimedia
elements of news. This suggests that circumstances made respondents join work WhatsApp
groups.
When discussing the Domestication of Technology Theory, Hynes & Richardson
(2009) opined that in the adoption of technology, users "design their own" domestication
process because they are not a homogenous group, they have different motivations for
adopting the technology, and they use it differently. Inasmuch as journalists are not
homogenous by nature as they are different people, in the instance where they join work
WhatsApp groups because of the similar circumstance they face – working in the same
newsroom – the characteristic makes them homogenous in nature as they have a similar
motivation to join the groups. This contradicts the Domestication of Technology theorists
where users design their own domestication process.
WhatsApp was found to be more cost-effective compared to phone calls and text
messages/SMS as one can use WhatsApp to send a message to a group of people without
incurring any extra cost when compared to sending to people individually. In addition, it
cut on time and money spent to bring in material from the field, edit, process and publish
it in the office as journalists can just send all the material via their phone to the office and
a team in the office would work on it. This also saved time taken to publish breaking news
81
items given the fast-paced digital world. Saving of time and cost contributed to productivity
as more material, especially online-based content, is received and published faster, giving
journalists more time to pursue additional stories.
However, some respondents said they were demotivated to use WhatsApp at work,
with respondents giving examples such as security or privacy breaches and information
overflow/ spam messages as major factors that demotivate them. Some respondents
suggested that WhatsApp “is susceptible to privacy breaches”; security lapses such as
people sharing private messages from groups; spam messages; and exposure to a lot of
misinformation when people share unverified information. These challenges can, however,
be mitigated through enhancing security features and constant re-education on privacy and
ethical use of technology and information in newsrooms, such that users do not forward or
take screenshots of private information and share with unintended recipients.
Respondents and key informants also noted that there are many WhatsApp groups
within newsrooms—from a main one for the entire newsroom to departmental-based and
section-based ones within the work place. Having many WhatsApp group could be
counterproductive as some respondents noted that they get too many messages and find it
difficult to keep up with the rate of communication in the various social and work groups,
such that they feel they are being ‘spammed’, leading to information overflow. Others end
up missing out on important messages buried in the many they receive. This can be
mitigated by users joining the most relevant groups to avoid getting many messages.
However, as a key informant indicated, being keen on the type of messages sent can help a
journalist capture important information relevant for their work. In journalism, more
information would be better than less information to ensure stories and background
82
information are maximised, while at the same time keeping individuals knowledgeable
about newsroom operations and work flow to improve productivity.
5.2.2 Integration of WhatsApp in Journalism
Objective two sought to assess the integration of WhatsApp in the news production
cycle in Kenyan newsrooms. WhatsApp has been integrated in newsrooms in Kenya as a
tool for sourcing, discussing, filing and publishing stories. The study found that a majority
of the respondents (more than 60% in each case) agreed or strongly agreed that they use
WhatsApp to send news alerts, get and discuss story leads, share newsworthy documents
and file multimedia elements (photos, audio and video) of the stories and also use it to
contact sources, while a minority disagreed or strongly disagreed with these statements.
These finding supports the report by Levy et al., (2014), that journalists are
increasingly using WhatsApp for news gathering and the social media tool acts as a medium
of connection between journalists, news channels and reporters. It also supports Agur
(2019) and Azeema & Nazuk (2017) who carried out qualitative studies on the use of
WhatsApp in journalism in Hong Kong and Pakistan, respectively, and found that
journalists have embraced the use of the application as a means of news production, to
gather, produce and disseminate news complete with multimedia elements. Key informants
in the study also support this, saying that they use the platform for a range of things
including holding meetings, discussing story leads and stories, assigning work and
receiving stories and multimedia elements. They also use it to talk to sources, confirming
Dodds (2019) ethnographic study on reporting using WhatsApp and its impact in
83
journalism in Chile. He found that the application is sometimes the first point of contact
with sources and journalists are encouraged to use it to contact sources.
WhatsApp is proving to be a versatile and important tool not just in news processes
but in newsroom management, going beyond what other social media tools such as Twitter
and Facebook or applications such as Zoom would do for a newsroom. This versatility in
use seems to make WhatsApp an apt tool for journalists to use, especially when a newsroom
has many employees in the field and in far-flung areas. The many uses of WhatsApp also
give it an advantage of being both a communication and content tool in the newsroom,
while enabling users to also monitor the goings on of the newsroom, hence keeping
everyone informed. Furthermore, the Domestication of Technology Theory was mainly
used to explain how media technology inside the home was integrated into everyday life,
while other scholars later looked at technology outside the home, such as cars (Hynes &
Richardson, 2009), and mainly by individuals or members of a household, but the use of
WhatsApp in newsrooms and by journalists extends the relevance of the theory to
integration of innovation by organisations.
The findings also indicate that a majority of respondents feel that the integration of
WhatsApp in the newsroom has been very useful and has led to increased productivity,
with efficiency and convenience being recurring themes. Important newsroom information
and news updates are posted in work groups, helping the journalists to quickly act on news
leads and breakings news without having to go through a tedious system upload on the end
of the reporter and the person publishing the story. In addition, the use of WhatsApp enables
journalists to follow what their colleagues are working on (J. Evans, 2015) to enable them
84
contribute and avoid duplication of work, hence contributing to overall productivity of the
newsroom and employees.
By cutting down on the time spent and the number of tools/equipment needed in
news gathering and processing, more work can be done, leading to increased output. Also,
news reaches the production teams faster hence output is quicker, given the fast-paced
digital space journalists are currently working in. However, in some instances, WhatsApp
was also viewed as a tool that led to distraction at work as some respondents would end up
checking their personal messages when they are work. Therefore, using WhatsApp for
work could be counterproductive when it distracts them or they miss out on some important
messages buried in a barrage of many other messages—some respondents and key
informants said information overflow was a major challenge of using WhatsApp for work.
The study further found that WhatsApp has become integral to communication
among journalists and within newsrooms. Key informants suggested that WhatsApp is
slowly replacing other channels of communication such as emails and newsroom functions
such as face-to-face meetings and brainstorming sessions because users can conveniently
use it for news gathering and story submission and at the same time use it to communicate
with colleagues virtually. This was more pronounced during the COVID-19 pandemic
where most people were working virtually, and WhatsApp was a key enabler of virtual
communication together with other applications. It also encourages more official
communication on the application and is a convenient tool of information for journalists on
the go, which also helps them to keep a personal record of information. As a result, the use
of the application is also changing routines of journalists as they embrace new means of
85
communication, new channels of news gathering and the new roles they play in the news
process.
5.2.3 WhatsApp and Journalists’ Routines
Objective three sought to explore ways in which WhatsApp has affected Kenyan
journalists’ routines in the coverage of news. The study found that journalists’ activities
have evolved and WhatsApp has been one of the enablers of change. Key informants opine
that journalism work has been made more efficient and time and cost-saving because
WhatsApp has cut turnaround time for sourcing and submission of stories, while at the
same time enabled journalists to conveniently broadcast information, pitches, leads and
stories.
The main routines that have changed is in the channel used to broadcast all this
information so that the journalists don’t have to make a trip to the office or to have access
to a computer and other devices, but only need a WhatsApp enabled phone to perform all
these functions. Furthermore, sources can be contacted through the same platform and
breaking news also communicated on the same. Embedded in two newsrooms in Chile,
Dodds (2019) found that more journalists are now contacting sources through WhatsApp
and sources were avoiding the need for press conferences or sending press releases to the
newsroom. Now, sources can send information via WhatsApp just as journalists also
contact and interview them through the same platform.
As a result, the journalist is now viewed as being available almost 24 hours a day
to their sources because they can receive information via WhatsApp at any time and read
it as soon as they can; acting upon it quickly so the source does not turn to the competition
86
(Dodd, 2019). In so doing, it intertwines the life of a journalist such that they hardly have
any privacy as information flow intrudes into their personal time, and given the nature of
their jobs, they act on the relevant information almost as soon as they receive it. In keeping
up with the fast-paced digital world, being ‘available’ 24 hours is an advantage of
technology and technology users, as it is keeping up with the change in trends, showing
that journalists and journalism are evolving.
Haddon (2018) and Scheerder et al. (2019) argue that domestication of a technology
happens when technology people begin reacting towards a technology, use it and over time
adopt it. However, Domestication of Technology is not a fixed model (Hynes &
Richardson, 2009) and proponents also suggest that as people adopt technology, they also
evolve and this changes the way they continue adapting to the technology depending on
events and their needs, with the cycle continuing up to a point that the technology is no
longer new. Journalists and journalism are evolving because of the advantages technology
offers them and the benefits they acccrue by using that technology.
The use of WhatsApp for journalism has affected the way journalists source for and
verify information, as now most of this is done virtually rather than physically. Further,
journalists now have to be more robust as fact-checkers due to the proliferation of
misinformation that comes with the use of WhatsApp. The study further buttresses the
Domestication of Technology Theory that shows that users adopt technology which
eventually affects their everyday routines and their perception of the introduced technology
(Hynes & Richardson, 2009).
However, the convenience associated with WhatsApp has also encouraged
‘armchair’ journalism and “laziness”, according to a key informant, where everything is
87
done remotely and some journalists do not go out to seek stories directly from sources but
merely chat with them or call them through WhatsApp and ask them to send documents via
the same platform. When interviewing journalists in Pakistan on their use of WhatsApp for
work, Azeema and Nazuk (2019) concluded that in some instances the application
encouraged laziness as many journalists now did not go out to meet sources and physically
verify the information they have. These instances are counterproductive to the news
business as they lead to journalists missing out on the nuances of reactions from sources as
they would face-to-face, sometimes leading them to write ‘weak’ stories that would have
otherwise been strengthened through further face-to-face probe if the journalist “did the
legwork (went out to look for stories)”.
In physical meetings, a journalist is more likely to stumble upon extra information
that could give more details to their story or even meet more sources to validate their story
findings or give opinions to enrich it. This suggests that inasmuch as WhatsApp has
changed the routine of news gathering from physical to virtual, journalists still need to
practice a few traditional news gathering techniques or modify current ones to produce
similar results. For instance, using a video call to contact sources could offer a better
alternative for face-to-face interviews than chatting with a source.
5.3 Conclusion and Implications for Practice
The study adds to the body of knowledge in the area of digital journalism, and
specifically on social media and journalism. Findings show that journalists are motivated
to use WhatsApp as a tool and channel in news gathering and the production process and
that it plays a key role in the efficiency of the process as well as provides a channel for top-
88
down, bottom-up and lateral communication within the newsroom – a platform where
important news updates as well as newsroom information is discussed. This points to a tool
that offers ease and convenience of communication, changing the way journalists
communicate. This suggests that journalists have adopted the technology and assigned
importance to its use in their work; and, as the Domestication of Technology Theory posits,
are now at a point where the technology is changing their routines and they are individually
reacting to its adoption either through acceptance and desiring it or through a degree of
rejection (being demotivated in using it). This could inform work policies on the use of
WhatsApp for communication and news production.
At the same time, using a social network for work can become a distraction when
the user sees and reads personal messages during work. Since they are using the same
platform for both social and official communication, social messages or many work-related
messages could pop up and distract them as they work. This could inform policy in media
houses on how minimise the distractions and spam messages, especially by reducing the
number of work groups journalists are required to join so that they are only in those that
are most relevant to their work.
WhatsApp is also being domesticated in the news production process in Kenya,
with journalists increasingly adopting the technology for newsgathering, submission and
production (Levy et al., 2014), and assigning their individual meanings to the use and
importance of the ‘new’ technology (Scheerder et al., 2019; Hynes & Richardson, 2009).
However, some people are still reluctant to domesticate WhatsApp.
In addition, the integration of WhatsApp in journalism has been useful. The findings
indicate that WhatsApp has also contributed to increased productivity in newsrooms in
89
Kenya in relation to its efficiency, ease of use and it being a multimedia platform where
journalists can send the story and all its elements in one platform. However, the integration
of WhatsApp in news production has come with challenges such as connectivity issues,
proliferation of fake news (misinformation and disinformation), and security and privacy
problems. Despite this, WhatsApp has become an integral part of newsroom technology
due to its diversity of uses. This suggests that the media houses should find solutions to
counter challenges such as misinformation, while at the same time media houses should
have policies guiding the use of WhatsApp for work so as to maintain professionalism and
avoid challenges to integration. This could also be useful for academicians in studying the
effects of integration of technology and adding to the body of knowledge of the
Domestication of Technology Theory.
Furthermore, reliance on WhatsApp for communication in the newsroom has been
linked to it replacing other channels of communication. The study finds that in most
instances, it is an advantage to use WhatsApp in journalism. However, as a key informant
noted, it is promoting the increase in ‘armchair’ journalism where journalists do not go out
to do stories but instead source stories via WhatsApp. They thus miss out on some nuances
that someone can catch on during face-to-face interviews that can give hints on further
information or on how to approach an interview. This could inform guidelines around
practice of journalism in individual media houses and how to improve news gathering using
technology without compromising on quality.
90
5.4 Recommendations
The study has established that WhatsApp is being domesticated in news production
and the integration of WhatsApp in newsrooms has been useful and has led to increased
productivity. As such, the study recommends that individual journalists should adopt and
adapt to the technology to enhance their contribution to the workplace, while media houses
could encourage the use of WhatsApp and support journalists in domesticating the
application to enhance productivity.
The use of WhatsApp has also brought with it challenges, with the most prevalent
being misinformation/ fake news. The study, therefore, recommends that media houses
should take advantage of the positive uses of WhatsApp to continue enhancing journalists’
work and improving productivity, but also have policies with more robust ways of tackling
misinformation, especially with the digitally disruptive environment. In addition, media
houses could come up with guidelines to inform better use of the application to avoid spam
messages. Individual journalists should continue using WhatsApp as an enabler for ease of
doing work and efficiency, but should also incorporate more rigorous fact-checking. Given
the findings, academics could explore how domestication of WhatsApp in newsrooms is
affecting the quality or credibility of news.
The study found that inasmuch as the integration of WhatsApp has had a positive
impact such as efficiency and productivity, the use of WhatsApp has also promoted
‘armchair’ journalism. As such, the study recommends that media houses come up with
guidelines and best practices in relation to efficiently using technology for news making
without compromising on the quality and credibility of the news product.
91
The study also found that WhatsApp is an enabler of and integral to communication
within newsrooms and in the news making process. As such, the study recommends that,
through in-house guidelines, media houses streamline adoption of WhatsApp for official
use, and at the same time rope in individuals who have not bought into the idea of using
WhatsApp, by demonstrating to them the benefits of using the application that accrue to
the individual and the organisation.
5.5 Areas for Further Research
The current study was a mixed methods study that was carried out on journalists in
three media houses in Kenya, with a limited number of respondents within a limited time.
Future studies could focus on larger sample sizes or a census to have a wider array of data
on WhatsApp integration in journalism. The current study also mainly focussed on
domestication of technology with regards to the integration of WhatsApp and how this has
affected journalists’ routines. Future studies could look at how domestication of technology
affects quality of production (news as a product) or newsroom routines. The current study
looked at the general domestication of WhatsApp. Another study could focus on a more
granular aspect on domestication of WhatsApp such as concentrating on sourcing only, or
other aspects of WhatsApp in news production. Further studies could also compare how
journalists have domesticated various similar applications such as Telegram and compare
to what extent they differ in their integration in the news production process. In addition,
misinformation was found to be a major challenge in the use of WhatsApp in news
production cycle, but an in-depth look at how challenges are addressed by media houses
was beyond the scope of this study. Further research could look at ways in which media is
92
tackling misinformation, especially with regards to domestication of technology, and how
media houses are tackling other challenges associated with the domestication of WhatsApp.
93
REFERENCES
Africa Check, & Africa Centre for Evidence. (2020). Tackling misinformation on WhatsApp in
Kenya, Nigeria, Senegal & South Africa: Effective strategies in a time of Covid-19.
Africa Check and the Africa Centre for Evidence. Retrieved from
https://africacheck.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/Tackling-Misinformation-on-
WhatsApp-December-2020.pdf
Africa Check; Volume; International Fact-Checking Network. (2020). What's Crap on
WhatsApp? Retrieved from What's Crap on WhatsApp?: https://www.whatscrap.africa/
Agur, C. (2019). Insularized Connectedness: Mobile Chat Applications and News Production.
Media and Communication, 7(1), 179-188.
Alasuutari, P. (1996). Theorizing in Qualitative Research: A Cultural Studies Perspective.
Qualitative Inquiry, 2(4), 371-384.
Alexa. (2020). Top Sites in Kenya. Retrieved December 18, 2020, from Alexa:
https://www.alexa.com/topsites/countries/KE
American Press Institute (API). (2021). What is journalism? Retrieved April 14, 2021, from
American Press Institute: https://www.americanpressinstitute.org/journalism-
essentials/what-is-journalism/
Azeema, N., & Nazuk, A. (2017). WhatsApp and Journalism: News Practices of Pakistani
Journalists. Science, Technology and Development, 36(4), 249-258. doi:
10.3923/std.2017.249.258
Bahri, A. N. (2019). The Utilization of WhatsApp on Journalistic Practices of Harian Sumut
Pos. Jurnal Komunika Islamika, 6(1).
Barot, T. (2014). Will Indian election coverage via WhatsApp get the user vote? Retrieved
from http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/collegeofjournalism/entries/75eccc98-f127-348d-
a9cb-a55aa702e4ee
Barot, T., & Oren, E. (2015). Guide to chat apps. Tow Center for Digital Journalism
Publications. Retrieved from
https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8377N0W
Bashir, M., Afzal, M. T., & Azeem, M. (2008). Reliability and validity of qualitative and
operational research paradigm. Pakistan journal of statistics and operation research,
35-45.
Batikas, M., Bavel, R. V., Martin, A., & Maghiros, I. (2013). Use of social media by European
SMEs. Luxembourg: European Commission DG Communications Networks, Content &
Technology. doi, 10, 3344.
94
Berglez, P. (2008). What is Global Journalism? Theoretical and Empirical Conceptualisations.
Journalism Studies, 9(6), 845-858.
Bloggers Association of Kenya (BAKE). (2018). State of the Internet in Kenya 2017. Retrieved
from Kenya: https://www.ifree.co.ke
Bowman, S., & Willis, C. (2003). We Media: How audiences are shaping the future of news
and information. The Media Center at The American Press Institute. Retrieved from
https://www.hypergene.net/wemedia/download/we_media.pdf
Brooks, S., Longstreet, P., & Califf, C. (2017). Social media induced technostress and its
impact on internet addiction: A distraction-conflict theory perspective. AIS Transactions
on Human-Computer Interaction, 9(2), 99-122.
Bryman, A., & Bell, E. (2003). Breaking down the quantitative/qualitative divide. Business
Research Methods, 2(1), 465-478.
Church, K., & De Oliveira, R. (2013). What's up with Whatsapp?: Comparing Mobile Instant
Messaging Behaviors with Traditional SMS. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the
15th international conference on Human-computer interaction with mobile devices and
services.
Communications Authority of Kenya (CA). (2020). Third Quarter Sector Statistics Report for
the Financial Year 2019/2020 (January - March 2020). Communications Authority of
Kenya. Nairobi: Communications Authority of Kenya.
Connelly, L. M. (2008). Pilot studies. Medsurg Nursing, 17(6), 411.
Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods
Approaches (4th ed.): Sage Publications Limited.
Deuze, M. (2005). What is Journalism? Professional Identity and Ideology of Journalists
reconsidered. Journalism, 6(4), 442-464. doi:10.1177/1464884905056815
Dodds, T. (2019). Reporting with WhatsApp: Mobile Chat Applications’ Impact on Journalistic
Practices. Digital Journalism, 1-21.
Evans, J. (2015). How WhatsApp for the web could change the newsroom. Retrieved from
https://blog.wan-ifra.org/2015/01/22/how-whatsapp-for-web-could-change-the-
newsroom
Evans, J. R., & Mathur, A. (2005). The value of online surveys. Internet research, 15(2), 195-
219.
Gitonga, E. N., Ong’ondo, C., & Ndavula, J. O. (2019). Print Media Managers’ Perception of
Integration of New Media by Newspapers in Kenya. African Multidisciplinary Journal
of Research (AMJR), 4(2), 80-104.
95
Haddon, L. (2018). Domestication and social constraints on ICT use: Children’s engagement
with smartphones In J. a. H. Vincent, L. (Ed.), Smartphone Cultures (pp. 71-82).
Abingdon: Routledge.
Hemamalini S. (2018). A Study on Social connectivity through Whatsapp among Rural Students
in establishing “Perpetual Contact”. Paper presented at the 7th Annual International
Conference on Journalism and Mass Communications (JMComm 2018).
Hendrickson, E. (2009a). Instant Messaging and the Virtual Newsroom. A Case Study of
Jezebel: Celebrity, Sex, Fashion for Women. Journal of Magazine and New Media
Research, 10(2).
Hendrickson, E. (2009b). Good for Business? Instant Messaging at a Virtual Newsroom.
Journal of Magazine and New Media Research, 11(1).
Hermans, L., Vergeer, M., & d’Haenens, L. (2009). Internet in the Daily Life of Journalists:
Explaining the use of the Internet by Work-Related Characteristics and Professional
Opinions. Journal of Computer-Mediated Communication, 15, 138–157.
Hertzog, M. A. (2008). Considerations in determining sample size for pilot studies. Research in
nursing & health, 31(2), 180-191.
Hill, R. (1998). What sample size is “enough” in internet survey research. Interpersonal
Computing and Technology: An electronic journal for the 21st century, 6(3-4), 1-12.
Hitchen, J., Hassan, I., Fisher, J., & Cheeseman, N. (2019). WhatsApp and Nigeria's 2019
Elections: Mobilising the People, Protecting the Vote. Retrieved from
https://media.africaportal.org/documents/WHATSAPP-NIGERIA-ELECTION-
2019.pdf
Holton, A. E., Lewis, S. C., & Coddington, M. (2016). Interacting with audiences: Journalistic
role conceptions, reciprocity, and perceptions about participation. Journalism Studies,
17(7), 849-859.
Holtz-Bacha, C., & Norris, P. (2001). To Entertain, Inform, and Educate": Still the Role of
Public Television. Political Communication, 18(2), 123-140.
Hynes, D., & Richardson, H. (2009). What use is domestication theory to information systems
research? Handbook of research on contemporary theoretical models in information
systems (pp. 482-494): IGI Global.
Internet Live Stats. (2021). Internet Users in the world. Retrieved March 30, 2021 from
https://www.internetlivestats.com/
Isaac, S., & Michael, W. B. (1995). Handbook in research and evaluation. San Diego, CA:
Educational and Industrial Testing Services.
96
Jager, J., Putnick, D. L., & Bornst, M. H. (2017). More than Just Convenient: The Scientific
Merits of Homogeneous Convenience Samples. Monogr Soc Res Child Dev., 82(2), 18-
30.
Jordaan, M. (2013). Poke me, I'm a journalist: The impact of Facebook and Twitter on
newsroom routines and cultures at two South African weeklies. Ecquid Novi: African
Journalism Studies, 34(1), 21-35. doi:10.1080/02560054.2013.767421
Kaigwa, M. (2017). From Cyber Café to Smartphone: Kenya’s Social Media Lens Zooms In on
the Country and Out to the World. In B. Ndemo & T. Weiss (Eds.), Digital Kenya (pp.
187-217). London: Palgrave Studies of Entrepreneurship in Africa. Palgrave Macmillan.
Kakonage, J. (2013). The Role of the Media in Africa’s Development: From Vision to Reality.
Global Media Journal (African Edition), 7(2), 172-180.
Kamenchu, F. M. (2015). A study on how social media have changed newsroom operations in
Kenya: a case study of the Standard Group and Nation Media Group. (Masters degree),
University of Nairobi, Nairobi.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2019a). Economic Survey 2019. Nairobi: Kenya
National Bureau of Statistics.
Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS). (2019b). 2019 Kenya Population and Housing
Census (Vol. 4). Nairobi: Kenya National Bureau of Statistics.
Kibet, A., & Ward, S. (2018). Socially Networked Heterogeneity: The Influence of WhatsApp
as a Social Networking Site on Polarisation in Kenya. African Journalism Studies,
39(4), 42-66.
Kombo, D.S., and Tromp, D.L (2006). Proposal and Thesis Writing. An Introduction. Nairobi:
Paulines Publications Africa.
Kumar, A., & Haneef, M. S. M. (2016). Convergence of technologies and journalists:
Translation of journalistic practices through ANT perspective. Estudos em
Comunicação, 22, 105-122.
Kumar, R. (2019). Research Methodology: A Step-by-Step Guide for Beginners (5th ed.): Sage
Publications Limited.
Levy, D., Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A., & Nielsen, R. K. (2014). Reuters
Institute Digital News Report 2014. Report of the Reuters Institute for the Study of
Journalism. Available online: http://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/publication/digital-
news-report-2014.
Lewis, S. C., & Molyneux, L. (2018). A decade of research on social media and journalism:
Assumptions, blind spots, and a way forward. Media and Communication, 6(4), 11-23.
97
Lin, T. T., & Li, L. (2014). Perceived characteristics, perceived popularity, and playfulness:
Youth adoption of mobile instant messaging in China. China Media Research, 10(2),
60-71.
Llewellyn, S. (2016). For breaking news, WhatsApp can be a strong team player. Retrieved
from http://www.bbc.co.uk/blogs/collegeofjournalism/entries/00a10ab9-0923-4a4d-
817c-0a9d9715ba8c
Lohner, J., Banjac, S., & Neverla, I. (2016). Journalistic practices, role perceptions and ethics
in democratisation conflicts: Empirical findings from interviews with journalists in
Egypt, Kenya, Serbia and South Africa. Media, Conflict and Democratisation
(MeCoDEM). Working Paper.
Mabweazara, H. M. (2014). Introduction: ‘Digital technologies and the evolving African
newsroom’: towards an African digital journalism epistemology: Taylor & Francis.
Mare, A. (2014). New media technologies and internal newsroom creativity in Mozambique:
The case of @verdade. Digital Journalism, 2(1), 12-28.
McIntyre, K., & Sobel, M. (2019). How Rwandan Journalists Use WhatsApp to Advance Their
Profession and Collaborate for the Good of their Country. Digital Journalism, 7(6), 705-
724.
Media Council of Kenya (MCK). (2020). 2020 List of Accredited Journalists. Retrieved from
https://mediacouncil.or.ke/en/mck/index.php/mck-accreditation/list-of-accredited-
journalists
Media Council of Kenya (MCK). (2019). Status of the Media Report, 2019. Nairobi: Media
Council of Kenya. Retrieved from
https://www.mediacouncil.or.ke/sites/default/files/downloads/MCK_Status_of_the_Med
ia_Survey_2019.pdf
Ministry of Information Communications and Technology (MoICT). (2016). National
Information & Communications (ICT) Policy, Government of Kenya (2016).
Mitchelstein, E., & Boczkowski, P. J. (2009). Between Tradition and Change: A Review of
Recent Research on Online News Production. Journalism, 10(5), 562-586.
Mugenda, O., & Mugenda, A. (2003). Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative
Approaches. Nairobi: Acts Press.
Muindi, B. (2018). Negotiating the balance between speed and credibility in deploying Twitter
as journalistic tool at the Daily Nation Newspaper in Kenya. African Journalism
Studies, 39(1), 111-128.
Mureithi, M. (2017). The Internet Journey for Kenya: The Interplay of Disruptive Innovation
and Entrepreneurship in Fueling Rapid Growth. In B. Ndemo & T. Weiss (Eds.), Digital
98
Kenya (pp. 27-43). London: Palgrave Studies of Entrepreneurship in Africa. Palgrave
Macmillan.
Mwangi, S. (2017). WhatsApp: The New Age Illusion of Friendships Among Kenyan Young
Adults Digital Transformation in Journalism and News Media (pp. 263-270): Springer.
Nairobi News Reporter. (2020, May 29). Safaricom customers to access e-newspapers for
Sh20. Retrieved November 26, 2020, from Nairobi News:
https://nairobinews.nation.co.ke/editors-picks/safaricom-customers-to-access-e-
newspapers-for-sh20
Ndlela, M. N., & Mulwo, A. (2017). Social media, youth and everyday life in Kenya. Journal
of African Media Studies, 9(2), 277-290.
Nendo. (2019). The State of Mobile Data 2019: Insights & Highlights. Nendo Limited. Retrived
from: https://assets.website-
files.com/59ad2221052e560001d6401f/5c6470b20af1d60fd98394f0_State%20of%20M
obile%20Data%202019%20(Insights%20%26%20Highlights).pdf
Ngina, F. (2020, June 2). How to use your Sh20 airtime to access Kenyan newspapers online.
Retrieved from The Standard:
https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/ureport/article/2001373619/how-to-use-your-sh20-
airtime-to-access-kenyan-newspapers-online
Ogola, G. (2015a). Social media as a heteroglossic discursive space and Kenya's emergent
alternative/citizen experiment. African Journalism Studies, 36(4), 66-81.
Ogola, G. (2015b). African Journalism: A Journey of Failures and Triumphs. African
Journalism Studies, 36(1), 93-102.
Okulo, A. (2019, February 26). Kenya TV And Radio Audience Data: February 2019. Retrieved
December 18, 2020, from GeoPoll: https://www.geopoll.com/blog/kenya-tv-radio-data-
2019/
Omanga, D. (2018). WhatsApp as 'digital publics': the Nakuru Analysts and the evolution of
participation in county governance in Kenya. Journal of Eastern African Studies, 1-17.
Oxford University Press. (2021). Productivity. Oxford Learner's Dictionaries. Oxford
University Press. Retrieved from
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/productivity
Paterson, C. (2013). Journalism and social media in the African context. Ecquid Novi: African
Journalism Studies, 34(1), 1-6.
Paterson, C. (2015). Journalism and Social Media in the African context. In C. Paterson (Ed.),
Journalism and Social Media in Africa: Studies in Innovation and Transformation (pp.
1-6). London: Routledge.
99
Pavithra, A., Aathilingam, M., & Prakash, S. (2018, November). Multimedia and its
Applications. International Journal for Research & Development in Technology, 10(5),
271-276.
Pavlik, J. (2000). The Impact of Technology on Journalism. Journalism Studies, 1(2), 229-237.
Reeves, S., Albert, M., Kuper, A., & Hodges, B. D. (2008). Qualitative Research: Why use
Theories in Qualitative Research? BMJ, 337, 631-634.
Reid, A. (2016). WhatsApp at 1 billion: How can journalists use the chat app for
newsgathering? . Retrieved from https://firstdraftnews.org/latest/whatsapp-at-1-billion-
how-can-journalists-use-the-chat-app-for-newsgathering/
Roster, C. A., Rogers, R. D., Albaum, G., & Klein, D. (2004). A comparison of response
characteristics from web and telephone surveys. International Journal of Market
Research, 46(3), 359-373.
Scheerder, A. J., Van Deursen, A. J., & Van Dijk, J. A. (2019). Internet use in the home: Digital
inequality from a domestication perspective. New Media & Society, 1-20.
Shapiro, I. (2014). Why democracies need a Functional Definition of Journalism now more than
ever. Journalism Studies, 15(5), 555-565. doi:10.1080/1461670X.2014.882483
The Standard. (2020, July 15). Standard Group launches WhatsApp Chatbot for The Standard
e-paper. Retrieved November 26, 2020, from The Standard:
https://www.standardmedia.co.ke/business/business-
news/article/2001378896/whatsapp-chatbot-launched-for-the-standard-e-paper
Udenze, S., & Oshionebo, B. O. (2020, March). The Social Media and the Changing News
Ecology: WhatsApp as a Fifth Estate. Journal of Communication, 2(1), 115-124.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). (2018). Technology and
Innovation Report 2018: Harnessing Frontier Technologies for Sustainable
Development. Retrieved from
https://unctad.org/en/pages/PublicationWebflyer.aspx?publicationid=2110
Wamuyu, P. K. (2020). The Kenyan Social Media Landscape: Trends and Emerging
Narratives, 2020. Nairobi: SIMElab. Retrieved from
https://www.usiu.ac.ke/assets/image/Kenya_Social_Media_Lanscape_Report_2020.pdf
WhatsApp. (2019). Retrieved from https://www.whatsapp.com/
Wimmer, R. D., & Dominick, J. R. (2014). Mass Media Research: An Introduction. (10th ed.).
Boston: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
World Health Organization. (2020, March 11). WHO Director-General's opening remarks at
the media briefing on COVID-19 - 11 March 2020. Retrieved from World Health
100
Organization: https://www.who.int/director-general/speeches/detail/who-director-
general-s-opening-remarks-at-the-media-briefing-on-covid-19---11-march-2020
101
APPENDICES
Appendix A: Questionnaire
Hello,
My name is Valerie Anyango, a student at Aga Khan University’s Graduate School of
Media and Communications. I am conducting a study on the utilization of WhatsApp on
journalistic practices in Kenya. The purpose of the study is to examine how WhatsApp is
integrated into news production and how this affects journalists’ routines.
The survey is anonymous and the questionnaire should take about 10-12 minutes to
complete.
All information obtained will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Data obtained as a
result of your participation in this project may be inspected by the Ethics Review
Committee. Results of the project may be published in summary form for research but will
not give your name or include identifiable references to you.
There is no financial compensation for your participation in study.
Further questions you have about this study will be answered by the principal investigator,
Email: [email protected]. Your participation and input will be extremely helpful.
I thank you for your time.
Authorisation
I have read and understand this consent form. I acknowledge that I am above 18 years of
age and that I may choose to terminate my participation in the study at any time and for
any reason. I also understand my consent does not take away legal rights in the case of
negligence or other legal fault of anyone who is involved in this project.
o I accept to participate in the study.
Yes Proceed with the survey
No Close
102
SECTION A: DEMOGRAPHICS
What is your gender?
Male
Female
Other
Kindly select your age group
Under 18
18-24
25-34
35-44
45-54
55-64
65 and above
Rather not say
What is the highest level of education you have attained?
Secondary/ High School
Certificate
College certificate / diploma
University undergraduate/
Bachelor’s degree
University Master’s Degree
PhD
Post-doctoral degree
What best describes your current job position?
Reporter
Correspondent
Anchor
Photojournalist/ video
journalist
Sub-editor
Editor
Director/ producer
103
Social media moderator
Other (Please specify)
For how long have you been working as a journalist?
Less than 1 year
1-5 years
6-10 years
11-15 years
16-20 years
21 years or more
In which media house do you work?
Nation Media Group
Standard Group
Radio Africa Group
SECTION B: ACCESS TO AND USE OF TECHNOLOGY
Kindly select the relevant response for each of the below statements.
I am a registered user of WhatsApp
Yes
No
List the specific ways you use WhatsApp (open-ended question)
On average, how many hours do you spend on WhatsApp per day?
Less than 3 hours
3-5 hours
5-7 hours
104
8-10 hours
More than 10 hours
Having WhatsApp is a requirement at my work place
Yes, as an official policy
Yes, but not officially stated
No
If yes above, state how this implemented. (open-ended question)
SECTION C: WHATSAPP AND JOURNALISM
In the following section, kindly tick the most relevant response to the statements
below.
To what extent do you agree or disagree with
the following statements?
Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Neu
tral
Agre
e
Str
on
gly
Agre
e
N/A
My WhatsApp is primarily a social platform
My WhatsApp platform is mainly for work
I send news alerts on WhatsApp
I use WhatsApp to pitch stories
I use WhatsApp to file stories
I use WhatsApp to get story tips/leads
I use WhatsApp to discuss story leads
I use WhatsApp to connect to/ communicate with
news sources
I use WhatsApp to share and get newsworthy
documents
I use WhatsApp to file photos, videos and audio
In your opinion, has WhatsApp had an effect on journalism in general?
105
o Not at all
o Little
o Moderate
o A lot
o Huge
o N/A
Explain (open-ended question)
Thinking about your work as a
journalist, to what extent do you agree
or disagree with the following
statements? Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Neu
tral
Agre
e
Str
on
gly
Agre
e
N/A
I find WhatsApp convenient to use in
news production
WhatsApp is difficult to use in
journalistic work
WhatsApp has made reporting and filing
of stories easier
WhatsApp is relevant in journalism
I enjoy using WhatsApp for work
Most journalists I know use WhatsApp to
report news
I would recommend the use of
WhatsApp as a reporting tool
As a journalist, how motivated are you to use WhatsApp for work?
o Very motivated
o Somewhat motivated
o Neutral
o Somewhat demotivated
o Very demotivated
Explain (open-ended question)
106
To what extent do you relate with the
following statements?
Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Neu
tral
Agre
e
Str
on
gly
Agre
e
N/A
I like WhatsApp because I can use it on
the go
I like using WhatsApp to communicate
with many individuals at the same time
If I don’t use WhatsApp for work I miss
out on important conversations or tips
I use WhatsApp to get entertained in the
office set-up
WhatsApp enables me to socialise in the
work space
WhatsApp enables me to socialise away
from the work space
In your opinion, has the integration of WhatsApp in news production been useful?
o Not at all
o A little useful
o Somewhat useful
o Very useful
o Extremely useful
o N/A
Explain
To what extent do you relate with the
following statements?
Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Neu
tral
Agre
e
Str
on
gly
Agre
e
N/A
Integration of WhatsApp in the
newsroom has led to increased
productivity
Important newsroom communication is
shared on WhatsApp
107
Newsroom WhatsApp groups are
important sources of information
WhatsApp helps me to verify information
How many WhatsApp groups relevant to journalism do you belong to?
None
1
2-5
6-10
11-15
More than 15
Don’t know
Apart from WhatsApp groups at your work place, how do you use other WhatsApp groups
related to journalism? (Tick all the relevant options)?
Discuss matters affecting
journalists and journalism
Critique stories in media
Discuss ways of improving
journalistic work
Verify information
Look for journalism
opportunities
Look for opportunities not
related to journalism
Market myself as a
professional
Network with other
professionals
As a welfare platform for
journalists
Others (Please specify)
108
SECTION D: CHALLENGES ASSOCIATED WITH THE USE OF WHATSAPP
FOR WORK
As a journalist, what challenges have you encountered in the process of using
WhatsApp for work? (List)
Kindly select the most relevant response to the below statements.
To what extent do you agree/disagree with the
following statement?
Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Neu
tral
Agre
e
Str
on
gly
Agre
e
N/A
I feel overwhelmed using WhatsApp for work
WhatsApp is too addictive and ends up wasting
productive time
WhatsApp blurs the line between the personal
and the professional
It can be annoying to get too many WhatsApp
messages
I sometimes find it confusing when chatting in
multiple WhatsApp groups
I find WhatsApp too invasive, it should be used
as a social app only
I sometimes end up checking on personal and
social messages when using WhatsApp at work
WhatsApp can sometimes be a distraction at work
WhatsApp should not be used for journalism
Have you or a colleague experienced security breaches on WhatsApp?
o Yes
o No
If you answered yes above, explain.
109
To what extent do you agree/disagree with the
following statement?
Str
on
gly
dis
agre
e
Dis
agre
e
Neu
tral
Agre
e
Str
on
gly
Agre
e
N/A
I don’t feel WhatsApp is a secure platform
I feel safe contacting sources via WhatsApp
I feel secure using WhatsApp to communicate
sensitive information to sources
I feel insecure using WhatsApp to communicate
sensitive information to colleagues
I feel WhatsApp is secure because of its end-to-
end encryption
I feel insecure sharing sensitive information on
WhatsApp because of people taking screenshots
or forwarding the messages
I feel WhatsApp is safe to use for journalism
WhatsApp should have more security features
THANK YOU FOR PARTICIPATING IN THE SURVEY, I APPRECIATE YOUR
FEEDBACK
THE END
110
Appendix B: Interview Schedule
1. What do you see as the role of WhatsApp in journalism today?
2. What would you say are the benefits of using WhatsApp in journalistic
work?
3. What would you say is the main reason why journalists use WhatsApp?
4. In your opinion, what motivates journalists to use WhatsApp for work?
5. How has the use of WhatsApp for work changed the way you practice
journalism?
6. How are media houses incorporating WhatsApp in the newsroom reporting
and production process? How has this changed routines?
7. Are there specific challenges you would associate with the use of WhatsApp
for journalistic work? Please explain.
111
Appendix C: Informed Consent Form
AGA KHAN UNIVERSITY
GRADUATE SCHOOL OF MEDIA AND COMMUNICATIONS
Hello,
My name is Valerie Anyango, a student at Aga Khan University’s Graduate School of
Media and Communications. I am conducting a study on the utilization of WhatsApp on
journalistic practices in Kenya. The purpose of the study is to examine how WhatsApp is
integrated into news production and how this affects journalists’ routines.
The survey is anonymous and the questionnaire should take about 10-12 minutes to
complete.
All information obtained will be treated with utmost confidentiality. Data obtained as a
result of your participation in this project may be inspected by the Ethics Review
Committee. Results of the project may be published in summary form for research but will
not give your name or include identifiable references to you.
There is no financial compensation for your participation in study.
Further questions you have about this study will be answered by the principal investigator,
Email: [email protected]. Your participation and input will be extremely helpful.
I thank you for your time.
Authorisation
I have read and understand this consent form. I acknowledge that I am above 18 years of
age and that I may choose to terminate my participation in the study at any time and for
any reason. I also understand my consent does not take away legal rights in the case of
negligence or other legal fault of anyone who is involved in this project.
Sign: ________________________________ Date: ____________________________
112
Appendix D: Profile of Key Informants
The key informants were coded as PW1, PW2, PW3, PW4 and PW5. Their characteristics
are described below:
PW1: A senior digital reporter who also doubles as an editor for online stories.
PW2: A senior news editor with vast experience in journalism reporting on politics,
parliament and investigative pieces.
PW3: An editor with vast experience in local and international news, and in managing
local and foreign correspondents.
PW4: A senior news editor with vast experience in local news, managing reporters
nationally, and being in charge of various publications on print and digital platforms.
PW5: A sub-editor with experience in local and international news, and managing digital
products of the media house.
113
Appendix E: Timeline
Thesis timeline
May – August 2019
Review of studies of interest, topic conceptualisation and discussion with lecturers
Writing and presentation of the concept paper
Allocation of supervisors
August – November 2019
Proposal writing and development of data collection tools
Revision and consultation with supervisors
November 2019
Proposal presentation (major corrections cited)
January 2020 - November 2020
Revision of proposal
Preparation for second proposal presentation
December 2020 – April 2021
Proposal presentation
Post-presentation corrections
Application for AKU ethics clearance
NACOSTI permit application
Data collection, cleaning, entry, interview transcription and analysis of data
Writing of data findings, analysis and discussion (Chapter four and five)
Corrections and fine tuning with the guidance of the supervisor
Submission for examination
Thesis defence
Final editing
Submission of thesis for approval
Printing of thesis
114
Appendix F: Budget
Research budget:
ITEM COST
Ethics approval - NACOSTI 1,000/=
Transport, bundles and airtime costs 10,000/=
Research assistants (5) 30,000/=
Interview transcription costs 20,000/=
Binding thesis copies 10,000/=
Miscellaneous 10,000/=
Total 81,000/=
115
Appendix G: AKU Ethics Review Committee Approval Letter
116
Appendix H: Introductory Letter from AKU
117
Appendix I: NACOSTI Research License
