1IntroductionEnergyconsumptioninhouseholdscomprisesoveraquarteroftotalenergyuseintheUK[1].Humanbehaviourisoneofthemainfactorsthatcaninfluencedomesticenergyconsumption,togetherwiththe
physicalpropertiesofthedwelling,climate,numberanddemographicprofileofoccupants,householdincome,lifestyle,andapplianceownershipanduse[2–5].Indeed,variationinresidents’behaviourcancause
significantdifferencesinenergyconsumptionbetweendwellingswithotherwisesimilarcharacteristics(e.g.householdsize,income,andbuildingenergyperformance)[3,6].Itisthereforeimportanttounderstand
influencesuponbehaviourinhouseholdsastheseinturnhaveimplicationsfordomesticenergyuse.Inthisrespect,strategiestostimulatepro-environmentalbehaviourrepresentonemeansofmodifyingbehaviourin
householdsinordertopromoteenergyconservationandreduceenvironmentalimpact[7].
Pro-environmentalbehaviour isa formofenvironmentalactionthat ‘consciouslyseekstominimizethenegative impactofone’sactionsonthenaturalandbuiltworld’[8,p.240],and ‘only refers to those
personal actions that aredirectly related to environmental improvement’ [9, p.325]. Such environmental actions canbeperformed individually or collectively, andmaybedirect or indirect in their approach to
mitigatingharmto,andimproving,theenvironment[9].Pro-environmentalbehaviourscanalsobeinfluencedbyinternalfactorssuchasenvironmentalawareness,valuesandattitudes[10]andexternalfactorssuch
associalnorms,interactionwithotherindividualsandfinancialconstraints[11,12].
Inthisstudyweassesshowenvironmentalknowledgeinfluencespro-environmentalbehaviourinhouseholds.Weestablishandconfirmlinksbetweenknowledgeabouttheenvironmentandenergy,actionson
Environmentalknowledge,pro-environmentalbehaviourandenergysavingsinhouseholds:Anempiricalstudy
MaryPothitoua,⁎
RichardF.Hannab
KonstantinosJ.Chalvatzisc,d
aCranfieldEnergy,SchoolofEnergy,EnvironmentandAgrifood(SEEA),CranfieldUniversity,MK430AL,UnitedKingdom
bCentreforEnvironmentalPolicy,ImperialCollegeLondon,SW71NA,UnitedKingdom
cNorwichBusinessSchool,UniversityofEastAnglia,NorwichNR47TJ,UnitedKingdom
dTyndallCentreforClimateChangeResearch,UniversityofEastAnglia,NorwichNR47TJ,UnitedKingdom
⁎Correspondingauthorat:TechnologiesforSustainableBuiltEnvironments(TSBE)Centre,UniversityofReading,UnitedKingdom.
Abstract
Inthispaperweevaluatethe impactofknowledgeaboutenvironmentalandenergy issuesonpotentialpro-environmentalbehaviour inhouseholds,specificallyrelatingtobehaviours,attitudesand
habits towardsenergyuse.Ourresultsarebasedonanempiricalsurveyandwe findsignificantcorrelationswhich indicate thatresidentswithpositiveenvironmentalvaluesandgreaterenvironmental
knowledgearemorelikelytodemonstrateenergybehaviours,attitudesandhabitswhichleadtoenergysavingactivitiesinhouseholds.This isfurthersupportedthroughaPrincipalComponentAnalysis
(PCA),whichsuggeststhatenergysavingbehaviourmayalsovaryaccordingtogenderandemploymentstatus.Conversely,wefindonlylimitedevidenceofstatisticalassociationsbetweenenvironmental
predispositionandknowledge,andownershipandfrequencyofuseofhouseholdappliances.Wearguethatourresultscontributetothesignificantbodyof literaturesupportingtheroleofknowledgein
activeengagementwithenergyissues.ThisstudyistimelyfollowingcloselypolicydevelopmentsinactiveconsumerengagementbytheEuropeanCommission.
Keywords:Pro-environmentalbehaviour;Energybehaviour;Attitudes;Habits;Environmentalpredisposition;Environmentalknowledge
energyconservationandattitudestowardstheseactionsthroughtheanalysisofempiricalsurveydata.Thispaperstrengthenstheliteratureonenvironmentalandenergyknowledgeandactionandwearguethatthe
resultsareusefultopolicymakers,greenmarketing,andotherpartieswhoareinterestedinenhancingpro-environmentalbehaviour.
Anumberof studiescontend thatpeoplewithgreaterenvironmentalknowledgearemore likely tobehaveresponsibly inorder toprotect theenvironment,while thispositiveeffectonpro-environmental
behaviourmaybeconstrainedbyculturalfactors[11,13].ThisisfurthersupportedbyZsókaetal.,whoarguethatenvironmentalknowledgeandpro-environmentalbehaviourareself-reinforcing,forexamplewhen
peoplesearchforinformationonenvironmentalissues[14].
Conversely, it has also been contended that high levels of individual environmental knowledgemay not necessarily lead to the development of positive environmental attitudes [15]. For instance,while
increasedenvironmentalawarenessandconcernmayresultfromadvancedenvironmentalknowledge,thismaynotbesufficienttoinducepro-environmentalbehaviour[14,16].Moreover,Bartiaux[17]andOguzetal.
[18]didnotidentifyasignificantcorrelationbetweenknowledgeofenvironmentalissuesandpro-environmentalbehaviour[17,18].
1.1AimofthestudyThispaperpresentsempiricalresearchbasedonasurveyof249householdsintwoparisheslocatedinPeterborough.Thestudyfocusesonassessingtheinfluenceofindividuals’valuesandknowledgeonpro-environmental
behaviourassociatedwithhouseholdenergyconsumption.Thiscaninformstrategiestoreduceexcessiveresidentialenergyusethroughinterventionssuchasinformationprovisionwhichaimtoinfluenceoccupants’energybehaviour.
The aimof this study is to test the relationship betweenhousehold occupants’ environmental predisposition and knowledge versus their (i) energy behaviour, attitudes and habits; (ii) ownership and frequency of use of
householdappliances.Thelatterissupportedbydetaileddatafromthesurveyonarangeofdifferenthouseholdappliances.Additionally,thestatisticalanalysisassessestheinfluenceofdemographics,i.e.genderandemploymenton
allof theabovevariables. Intermsof thesampledemographics, the findingsarebroadlygeneralizableto thepopulationofEnglandwithrespect togender,proportionof full-timeemployeesandresidents living insemi-detached
houses.Nevertheless,thestudysampleischaracterisedbyahighproportionofretiredpeopleandrespondentslivingineitherbungalowsordetacheddwellingsandthereforetheconclusionsapplytothesedemographicsspecifically.
Theimportanceofstudyingretiredhouseholdsisunderlinedintheliteraturewhichsuggeststhatolderpeopleofretirementagehavehigherhouseholdoccupancyratesandthereforetendtoconsumeenergyinthehomefor
longerperiodsoftime[19].However,whileithasbeenshownthatintheUK,retiredhouseholdsspendagreaterproportionoftheirdisposableincomeonenergyinthehome,non-retiredhouseholdsspendmoremoneyonhousehold
fuelinabsoluteterms[20].Moreover,thelinkbetweenolderresidentsandtheirlevelofhouseholdenergyconsumptioncomparedtoyoungerresidentsdependsonmanyfactorsincludingtheirhealth,incomeandlifestyle[21].Finally,
retiredpeoplealsotendtobeintensiveusersofInformationCommunicationTechnology(ICT)systemsbecauseoftheirabundanceoffreetimeandneedforcompany[22].
Thispaperisstructuredasfollows.Sections2and3outlinethemethodologicalapproachtothesurveyandstatisticalanalysisrespectively.ThefindingsofthisempiricalstudyarepresentedinSection4andareevaluated
againsttheliteratureonhouseholdenergybehaviour,consideringhowindividuals’environmentalpredispositionandknowledgeinfluencetheirpro-environmentalbehaviourintermsofhouseholdenergyuse.Thefinalsectionreflects
ontheimplicationsofthefindingsforpolicyandstrategiestomanageresidentialenergyuse.
2MethodologyForthepurposeofthisstudy,aquestionnairewasdeliveredto800householdsintwoparisheswithinPeterboroughunitaryauthorityinspring2013.Thequestionnairewasdesignedtobecompletedbyhandin
theabsenceoftheresearchersanddeliveryboxeswerelocatedinpubliclyaccessiblebuildingsandapostofficeforreturnbytherespondents.Intotal,249completedsurveyswerereceived,whichrepresentsa
responserateof31%.
Thequestionnairewasdevelopedwithreferencetomethodologicalguidanceonsurveydesignandquestionformulation[23–26].Acombinationofmultiple-choiceandfive-pointLikertscalequestions[27]was
includedinthesurvey.Moreover,withrespecttohouseholdappliances,respondentswereaskedtoinsertexactnumbersindicatingownershipandfrequencyofuse.Thesurveymethodologywasselectedinorderto
collectawiderangeofdatafromarelativelylargesampleofrespondents[28,29]inacosteffectiveway[27].Nevertheless,weacknowledgethatthereisariskofself-selectionbiassinceenvironmentally-motivated
residentsmighthavebeenmorelikelytocompletethesurvey.Aswedidnotconductapost-surveyevaluationofnon-responses,itisnotpossibletoknowtheprecisenatureofanypotentialnon-responsebiases.
Table1maps the variablesmeasuredby individual surveyquestionsagainst the relevant theoretical constructswhichpertain to environmental predisposition [30–33], knowledgeof environmental issues
[34,35],energyhabitsandattitudes[26,36–38]aswellasenergybehaviourrelatedtoapplianceownershipanduse[2,39,40].
Table1Selectedconceptsusedforthequestionnaire.
Latentconstruct Questionnaireitem
Predisposition Valuingtheenvironmentinrelationtoeconomicconsiderations
Knowledge
Carbondioxide(CO2)emissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumption
Electricitysavinginthehome
Zerocarbonhomes
Government’sinitiativestoreduceCO2emissions
Energyattitudes
Payingmoreforhouseholdelectricityversuschangingconsumptionbehaviour
Reducingmyhousehold’sconsumptionwouldhelpprotecttheenvironment
Itwouldsavememoneytoreducemyhousehold’senergyconsumption
Reducingmyhousehold’senergyconsumptionwouldbeinconvenient
DuringthepastyearIhavetakenstepstoreducemyhousehold’senergyuse
Energybehaviours
Iamalwaysactivelyreducingmyenergyconsumption
Upgradinginsulationorheatingsystemtoincreaseenergyefficiency
Buyingenergyefficientappliancestohelptoreduceelectricityconsumption
Iknowatleastthreethingstoreducemyhousehold’senergyconsumption
Havingenergy-savinglightbulbsthroughoutthehouse?
Energyhabits
Changinghabitstoreducehouseholdenergyconsumption
Usingthemainthermostatorradiatorvalvestouseheatingmorecarefully
Whenusingyourheating,aresomepartsofyourhomelessheatedornotheated
Doyoureducethetemperatureonyourthermostatorturnyourheatingoffwhenyouare–Absentforhalfaday;–Absentforoneday;–Absentfortwodaysormore;–Atnighttime?
Applianceownershipanduse:
(1)Ownershipofappliances
Numberof‘entertainmentappliances’(LCD/PlasmaTV;Computer(desktop/laptop),‘utilityappliances’(Dishwasher;Washingmachine;Tumbledryer;Steamiron;Electricshower;Electrichotwatersystem),‘kitchenappliances’(Microwave;Electricoven;Kettle;Fridge/Fridge-Freezer;Deepfreezer)
(2)Frequency/durationofapplianceuse Howoften/long(timesperweek/day;hoursperday)thefollowingappliancesareusedperhousehold:‘entertainmentappliances’;‘utilityappliances’;‘kitchenappliances’
We recognize that behaviours, attitudes andhabits in relation to energy consumption in homes are distinct fromeach other, and variablesmeasured through thequestionnaire aremapped according to
whether they representbehaviours, attitudesandhabits. Ingeneral terms,energybehaviourcanbedescribedas theactions that residents takewhenusingenergy in theirhouseholds [4].Attitudes refer to“a
psychologicaltendencythatisexpressedbyevaluatingaparticularentitywithsomedegreeoffavorordisfavor”[41,p.1].AccordingtoAjzen’s[42]TheoryofPlannedBehaviour,whichexplainstheattitude-behaviour
relationship,attitudesareonepredictorof intent tobehave,alongsidesubjectivenormsandperceptionsofcontroloverbehaviour. Inabroadsense,habits involve repetitiveactions towards theachievementof
satisfactoryoutcomes.Habitualbehaviourismediatedbyamentalprocessinvolvingtherecognitionofparticularsituationswhichleadtotheformationandenactmentofhabitualactions[7].
Applianceownershipanduse
3Data3.1Sampleofpopulation
Thestudysamplecomprisesamarginallyhigherproportionofwomenthanmen,whichisbroadlyrepresentativeoftheequalgendersplitsinEastEnglandandEngland(Fig.1a).Likewise,theproportionofsurveyrespondents
employedfulltimeissimilartothatforEastEnglandandforEnglandasawhole(Fig.1b).Asmentionedabove,thesurveysamplecomprisesasignificantlyhigherproportionofretiredpeople(44%)andresidentslivinginadetached
houseorbungalow(71%)comparedtothelocalregionornationally.Withrespecttoresidencebuildingtype,Fig.1(c)showsonly1.5%ofrespondentslivedinaterraceorendterraceproperty,whichisunderrepresentativeofthe
regionalandnationalproportions (23%and24.5%, respectively).Furthermore,53%of the respondents lived inpropertieswithbetween6and9 rooms1,whileanadditional30%resided inpropertieswith10 to –13 rooms. It is
therefore likely thathigher incomeresidentsareoverrepresentedand lower incomeresidentsunderrepresented,comparedto theequivalentproportions forEastEnglandandEngland.However,household incomedatawasnot
availablefromthesurvey.
3.2StatisticalanalysismethodsTwonon-parametricstatisticaltestswereappliedtothesurveydatausingSPSS(StatisticalPackagefortheSocialSciences)version21forWindows.Firstly,Spearman’srankcorrelationsweregeneratedbetweenvariables
Fig.1Representativenessofselecteddemographicsfromthestudysamplecomparedregionalandnationalgeographiesfromthe2011Census.(Notesto(a–c).(i)Forreasonsofdataconfidentiality,thenamesofthetwoparticipatingparisheshavebeen
withheld.(ii)ProportionsoftotalpopulationofCensusdataonlyincludeemploymentorbuildingtypecategoriesfeaturedinoursurveyandthereforedonotsumto100%in(b)and(c).(iii)Pleasenotethatthecategoryforpart-timeworkersintheCensus
datamayormaynotincludecausalworkers.(iv)Thecategoryofhomedutiesiscomparedwiththecategory‘lookingafterhomeorfamily’fromtheCensus2011.)
representingpredispositionandknowledge,andvariablesrelatedtoenergybehaviour,attitudeandhabits.Hypotheseswereformulatedfromthetheoreticalliteraturetosupportanexpectedcorrelationinonedirection,andtherefore
significantcorrelationswereidentifiedatthe1%level,usingaone-tailedtest.Secondly,theFischerexacttestwasemployedtoinvestigatestatisticalrelationships,againstthenullhypothesis,betweenpredispositionandknowledge,
andapplianceownershipanduse.Fischer’sexacttestwasselectedasamoreaccuratetestcomparedtoChi-Square,becausethelatterproducesanapproximatecorrelation[43].
Further to this, a Principle Components Analysis (PCA)was conducted to determine the relative strength of relationships between 17 variables associatedwith predisposition, knowledge, energy behaviours, habits and
attitudes,aswellastwodemographicvariables:genderandemploymentstatus.Twoofthefourvariablesrelatingtoknowledgewerenotconsideredtoberelevanttotheaimsofthisanalysisandwereexcludedinthistest(‘Zero
carbonhomes’and ‘Government’s initiatives to reduceCO2 emissions’). This is because our study is concernedwith forms of environmental knowledge rather than awareness of specific policy initiatives. Variables representing
applianceownershipandassociatedfrequencyofusewerealsoexcludedfromthePCA,sinceitwasnotpossibletogenerateapositivedefinitecorrelationmatrixwiththesevariablesincluded.
4ResultsandDdiscussion4.1CorrelationAanalysis:PpredispositionandKknowledgeversusEenergyBbehaviour/Aattitudes/Hhabits
Spearman’srankcorrelationsweregeneratedinordertoinvestigatesurveyvariablesrelatingtheenvironmentalvaluesandknowledgeofrespondentswiththeenergybehaviour,attitudesandhabits.Tables2–5presentthose
correlationswhichweresignificantatthe1%levelandthesearediscussedinturninSection4.1.1–4.1.4belowwithreferencetohypothesesdrawnfromthetheoreticalliterature.AlltheSpearman’srankcorrelationsgeneratedare
showninAppendixA,andSection4.1.5discussesthesewithrespecttonon-significantcorrelationsinparticular.
Table2Predispositionversusenergyattitudesandbehaviour.
Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory
Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences
Expecteddirectionofcorrelation
Spearman’srankresults
Significancelevel(1-tailed)
(%)
%Ofrespondents
Valuingtheenvironmentversusreducingmyhousehold’sconsumptionwouldhelpprotecttheenvironment
Predispositionversusattitude
Themorepeoplevaluetheenvironment,themoretheyarelikelytoreducehouseholdenergyuse
[31,38,44,45] Positive 0.23 1 91
Valuingenvironmentversushavingenergy-savinglightbulbsthroughoutthehouse
Predispositionversusbehaviour
Themoreanindividualvaluestheenvironment,thehigherthelikelihoodthattheyhavefittedenergy-savinglightbulbs
[46,47] Positive 0.18 1 91
Table3KnowledgeofGHGemissionsversusenergysavingbehaviour.
Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory
Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences
Expecteddirectionofcorrelation
Spearman’srankresults
Significancelevel(1-tailed)(%)
%Ofrespondents
KnowledgeofGHGemissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumptionversusIamalwaysactivelyreducingmyenergyconsumption
Knowledgeversusattitude
IndividualswhohavegreaterawarenessofCO2emissionsfromhouseholdenergyusearemorelikelytobeactiveinreducingtheirenergyconsumption
[38,45,48] Positive 0.30 1 98
KnowledgeofGHGemissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumptionversusduringthepastyearIhavetakenstepstoreducemyhousehold’senergyuse
Knowledgeversusattitude
WhereindividualshavegreaterawarenessofCO2emissionsfromhouseholdenergyuse,itismorelikelytheyhavetakenstepstoreduceit
[35,49,50] Positive 0.21 1 98
Table4Knowledgeofenergysavingversusbehaviour.
Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory
Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences
Expecteddirectionofcorrelation
Spearman’srankresults
Significancelevel(1-tailed)(%)
%Ofrespondents
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusduring Knowledge Thegreatertheknowledge,thehigherthelikelihoodthat [51–53] Positive 0.38 1 98
KnowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusduringthepastyearIhavetakenstepstoreducemyhousehold’senergyuse
Knowledgeversusenergyattitude
Thegreatertheknowledge,thehigherthelikelihoodthatindividualshavetakenstepstoreducetheirhouseholdenergyuse
[51–53] Positive 0.38 1 98
KnowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusIamalwaysactivelyreducingmyenergyconsumption
Knowledgeversusenergyattitude
Individualswhohavegreaterknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingsaremorelikelytobeactiveinreducingtheirenergyconsumption
[51–53] Positive 0.47 1 98
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusbuyingenergyefficientappliancestohelptoreduceelectricityconsumption
Knowledgeversusenergybehaviour
Thegreatertheknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavings,themorepeoplearelikelytopurchaseenergyefficientequipment
[35,46,49] Positive 0.27 1 98
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversushavingenergy-savinglightbulbsthroughoutthehouse
Knowledgeversusenergybehaviour
Thegreatertheknowledgeabouthouseholdenergysavings,themorepeopleareexpectedtouselow-energylightbulbs
[35,49] Positive 0.21 1 98
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversususingthemainthermostatorradiatorvalvestouseheatingmorecarefully
Knowledgeversusenergyhabit
Themoreindividualsknowabouthouseholdenergysavings,themorelikelytheyaretousethermostatorradiatorvalvestocontroltheirheating
[48] Positive 0.29 1 97
Table5Knowledgeofenergysavingversusattitudesandhabits.
Descriptionofthecorrelation Correlationcategory
Hypothesis Supportingexamplereferences
Expecteddirectionofcorrelation
Spearman’srankresults
Significancelevel(1-tailed)(%)
%Ofrespondents
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusitwouldsavememoneytoreducemyhousehold’senergyconsumption
Knowledgeversusattitude
Themoreindividualsknowaboutenergysavinginthehome,themoretheyarelikelytoconsiderthatreducingtheirenergyusewouldsavethemmoney
[53] Positive 0.23 1 98
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversusreducingmyhousehold’senergyconsumptionwouldbeinconvenient
Knowledgeversusattitude
Thegreatertheknowledge,thelesstheperceptionofinconvenienceinhouseholdenergysaving
[33,54] Negative −0.23 1 97
Knowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeversuschanginghabitstoreducehouseholdenergyconsumption
Knowledgeversushabit
Themoreindividualsknowabouthouseholdenergysavings,themoretheyarelikelytoachievethembychangingtheirhabits
[2,9,33] Positive 0.34 1 98
4.1.1ValuingtheenvironmentversusenergyattitudesandbehaviourMorethanhalfoftherespondentstooursurvey(52%)consideredthattheenvironmentandtheeconomywereequalpriorities,comparedto29%whoassignedhigherprioritytotheeconomyand19%whogavehigherpriority
totheenvironment.Nevertheless,twocorrelationsindicateapositiveassociationbetweenvaluingtheenvironmentand(1)theattitudethatsavingenergyinthehomewouldhelptoprotecttheenvironment,and(2)theinstallationof
energysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehome(Table2).Thereis,however,onlyalimitedliteraturewhichhasexaminedtherelationshipbetweenhowpeoplevaluetheenvironmentandtheirenergyattitudesandbehaviour.
Withrespecttotheformercorrelation,anempiricalstudybyBambergindicatesthatmoreenvironmentally-concernedindividualsbelievethattheycanachieveahigherlevelofbehaviouralcontroloveranypro-environmental
behaviourstheyengagein,comparedtolessenvironmentallyconcernedindividuals[44].Ahigherlevelofenvironmental-concernisalsodemonstratedtobeanindirect,ratherthandirectdeterminantofpro-environmentalbehaviour,
whichdependsuponthespecificsofsituationsinwhichdecisionsaremade[44].Inanycase,itislikelythatindividualsmustpossessenvironmentalvaluesinthefirstplaceinordertocarryoutpro-environmentalbehaviours[38,45].
Further to this,and in relation to ruralhouseholdenergyuse in thedevelopingworld,a reviewbyKowsariandZeriffi finds thatpredisposition towardsvaluingandprotecting theenvironmentenhances theadoptionofpositive
attitudes,leadingtotheperformanceofenergysavinghabits[31].
ThesecondsignificantcorrelationaboveissupportedbyanempiricalstudyofUKhouseholdswhichindicatesthatenvironmentalpredispositionandvaluingtheenvironmentisadriverofconsumers’decisionstoinstallenergy
efficientappliancesandtechnologiesintheirhomes[46].Similarly,ArkesteijnandOerlemansfoundthatresidentsinDutchhouseholdsweremorelikelytoadoptgreenelectricityiftheyperceivedthemselvestohaveahigherlevelof
environmentalresponsibility[47].
4.1.2KnowledgeofgreenhousegasemissionsversusenergysavingbehaviourInoursurvey,55%ofrespondentsindicatedthattheyhadamoderateorgoodknowledgeofcarbondioxide(CO2)emissionsfromhouseholdenergyuse,comparedto44%whoreportedlittleornoknowledgeofhouseholdCO2
emissions.Respondents’knowledgeofgreenhousegas(GHG)emissionsfromhouseholdenergyconsumptionispositivelycorrelatedwithactiontoreducehouseholdenergyuse,inthecaseoftwosimilarbutindependentcorrelations,
i.e.(1)stepstoreducehouseholdenergyuseoverthepastyear,and(2)activereductionofenergyconsumption(Table3).
Anumberofstudieshavefoundarelationshipbetweenhigherenvironmentalawarenessandthepurchaseofenvironmentallyfriendlyproducts,whichismorelikelywhereindividualshavestrongerpro-environmentalbeliefs
[38,45].Nevertheless,andwithrespecttoenergyconsumptionspecifically,individualswithahigherenvironmentalawarenesscanbebothefficientandinefficientintheiruseofenergy.Inefficientuseofenergymayresultwheretheir
behaviourisdrivenbyotherfactorswhichtheyconsidertobemoreimportantthansavingenergy[48].
SuccessivenationalsurveysbytheEnergySavingTrust(EST)andDepartmentforEnvironment,FoodandRuralAffairs(DEFRA)demonstratedthatconcernsaboutclimatechangeincreasedrespondents’willingnesstouse
energyefficientlight-bulbsfrom2006to2009[49].Surveyrespondentswhohadalreadyinstalledenergysavinglight-bulbsintheirhomefurtherindicatedtheywerepreventedordiscouragedfrominstallingmoresuchlight-bulbs,for
reasonsofpracticalityorcomfort–specifically,incompatiblelightfittingsorpoorlightquality[35,49].Nevertheless,andasHobsoncontends,householdpracticesdonotchangethroughtheacquisitionof‘better’scientificknowledge
alone,butthroughthelinksthatindividualsmakebetweenwiderenvironmentalconcernsandtheirowneverydayexperiences[50].
4.1.3KnowledgeofenergysavingversusbehaviourMostofoursurveyparticipants(86%)reportedthattheypossessedmoderateorgoodlevelsofknowledgeaboutelectricitysaving,withafurther4%indicatingthattheyhadexpertknowledge.Only10%reportedthattheyhad
littleornoknowledgeofelectricitysaving.Twocorrelationsindicatethatahighlevelofenergysavingknowledgeisassociatedwithbehaviourwhichreduceshouseholdenergyconsumption,i.e.(1)stepstoreducehouseholdenergy
use,and(2)activereductionofenergyconsumptionathome.AstudyofeighthouseholdsinJapaninvestigatedtheimpactofinstallinganonline,interactiveinformationsystemwhichresidentscouldaccessonlinetolearnabouttheir
energyconsumption[45].Dataonhouseholdandapplianceenergyuserevealedthatresidents’electricityconsumptiondecreasedby9%onaverageovera40-weekdayperiodafterinstallationofthesystem,comparedtoanequal
periodoftimepriortoinstallation.Thisoutcomewasattributedtoenergy-savingbehaviourssuchasbettermanagementofapplianceelectricityuse,includingreducingthetimesuchdevicesoperateinstandbymode[51].
Asimilar informationsystemwas installed inalmost200Dutchhouseholds,whichresidentscouldaccessonline,andthroughwhich theywereprovidedadviceonenergyconservationandcustomized feedbackaboutany
energysavingsthattheyhadachieved[52].Fivemonthsaftertheinstallationoftheinformationsystem,residentsparticipatinginthisexperimenthadreducedtheirelectricityuseby5%comparedtobeforethesystemwasfitted.In
comparison, a control group of households did not have the information system installed, and their energy consumption actually increased by 0.7% over the same period. The experimental group also exhibited higher levels of
knowledgeonhowtoconserveenergycomparedtothecontrolgroup,followinginstallationofthesystem[52].Elsewhere,energymonitorshavebeenshowntoincreaseresidentialusers’energyconsciousness,indicatingthatpriorto
theinstallationofsuchmonitors,energyconsumptionislargelyanunconscious,habitualprocess[53].
Table4showsthatinoursurvey,greaterknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingisfurtherpositivelyassociatedwiththreevariablesrelatingtotheadoptionofmoreenergyefficientappliancesinthehome,i.e.(1)thepurchase
ofhouseholdenergyefficientdevicesingeneral,and(2)theuseofenergysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehouse.
Astudyof‘green’consumersintheUKindicatesthatnumerousfactorsinfluencedtheirdecisionstopurchaseandinstallenergyefficientappliancesortechnologiesintheirhouseholds,includingintentionstosaveenergy,
moneyortheenvironment,consumerincome,attitudesandlifestyle,productcharacteristicsandprice[46].Twobarrierstotheuptakeofenergyefficientproductsthatarefrequentlymentionedbyconsumersareproductutilityand
thegreaterexpenseofenergyefficientproducts[35].InasurveyconductedbyEST/DEFRAin2009,respondentsreportedthattheylookedforandboughtenergyefficientapplianceswiththeEnergySavingRecommendedlogo[49].
Thissuggeststhatenergylabelingcanhelpconsumersmakeenergyconsciouspurchasesofneworreplacementhouseholdappliances[35].
Apartfromtheadoptionofenergyefficienttechnology,increasedknowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingisstatisticallyassociatedwiththeuseofthermostatsorradiatorvalvestocontrolheatingconsumption(Table4).Thisis
supported by a survey of 600 Swedish households, which revealed that those households which received direct feedback on their heating consumption, through bills from their energy supplier, generally kept a lower indoor
temperatureintheirhousesthanresidentslivinginapartmentswheretheirheatingcostswereallinclusiveintheirmonthlyrent[48].However,itwasmorecommonforstudyparticipantstolowerindoortemperatureforreasonsof
improvingtheircomfort(51%ofrespondents),ratherthantosaveenergyormoney(27%ofrespondents)[48].
4.1.4Knowledgeofenergysavingversusattitudesandhabits
Knowledgeofhouseholdenergysavingispositivelycorrelatedwithtwovariables,representingattitudesinthesurvey:theseare(1)reducinghouseholdconsumptionwouldhelptoprotecttheenvironment,and(2)reducing
energyuseathomewouldsavemoney(Table5).Anadditionalcorrelationsuggeststhatthereisnegativeassociationbetweenknowledgeofenergysavingandtheattitudethatitwouldbeinconvenienttoreducehouseholdenergy
usage.
In the literature,variouspersonalityandperceptualcharacteristicshavebeenrelatedtoenergysavingbehaviour, including factorssuchas,concern forenvironmental issues,priceconcern,andpersonalcomfort [33,54].
Residentscategorizedas‘committedenvironmentalists’inasurveyofover1,200householdsinDevon,England,wereconsiderablymorelikelytoforgosomelevelofcomfortinordertosaveenergy,comparedtothoseclassifiedas
‘non-environmentalists’[33].Withrespecttopriceconcern,savingmoneyhasbeenobservedtobeaprimaryreasonwhyconsumerspurchaseenergymonitorsfortheirhouseholds[53].
Inourstudy,apositivecorrelationisalsoindicatedbetweenknowledgeofenergysavinginthehomeandthemodificationofhabitstoreducehouseholdenergyuse(Table5).Sucharelationshipislikelytovaryaccordingtothe
nature of different energy saving habits. For example, in UK households, it has been observed that energy saving behaviours which caused greater discomfort or required greater commitment, such as reducing the heating
temperature,werelesslikelytobeperformedincomparisontohabitualenergysavingpractices,suchasturninglightsoffwhennotinuse[33].Inaddition,itdoesnotnecessarilyfollowthatawarenessofpracticeswhichconsume
moreenergymay leadtochanges inhabits toreduceenergyuse.This isexemplifiedbyastudybasedon interviewswithDanishhouseholds,whichreveals thatwhileseveral familieswereawarethat leavingtheirapplianceson
standbycontributed toaconsiderableportionof theirelectricityconsumption, thisdidnotprompt themtoswitchoff theirapplianceswhennot inuse [9].Moreover,households’knowledgeof theiractualenergyconsumption is
generallylimited,andwheretheydoengageinenergysavingbehaviour,theyaremorelikelytotakesymbolicactions,ratherthansignificantmeasures,tosaveenergy[2].
4.1.5Non-significantcorrelationsAppendixApresentseverySpearman’srankcorrelationtestedinthisstudybetweenenvironmentalvaluesandknowledge,andenergybehaviour,attitudesandhabits.CorrelationsareindicatedinAppendixAaccording to
whethertheyaresignificantata1%or5%level,ornotsignificant.Severalobservationscanbemadewithrespecttothedistributionofnon-significantandsignificantcorrelationsacrossthevariablestested,andtheseobservations
canbelinkedtotheliteraturediscussedabove.Firstly,valuingtheenvironmentdoesnotcorrelatesignificantlywithmostofthebehaviour,attitudeorhabitvariablesincludedinoursurvey(exceptintwocases).AsnotedinSection
4.1.1,thismaybeaconsequenceoftheindirectnatureandcontext-dependenceofenvironmentalvalues’influenceuponpro-environmentalbehaviour[44].
Secondly,knowledgeofelectricitysavingcorrelateswithmoreenergybehaviour,attitudesandhabitvariablesatahighersignificancelevelcomparedtoknowledgeofCO2emissions.Thismightbeexplainedinpartbythe
uncertain role of environmental knowledge as a driver of pro-environmental actions. Section 4.1.2 refers to literaturewhich contends that evenwhere people possess higher awareness of environmental impacts, theymay not
necessarilyengageinmoreenergyefficientbehaviour[48,50].
Thirdlyandlastly,payingmoreforelectricity insteadofchangingbehaviour,heatingallorpartsof thehomeandreducingtemperatureorturningoffheating,donotcorrelatewithvaluingtheenvironment,knowledgeof
energysavingorCO2emissions.Twoofthesevariablesareaboutheatingandoneisaboutwillingnesstopayforhigherconsumption.AsnotedinSection4.1.4,UKresidentshavebeenobservedtobelesslikelytoperformenergy
savingbehaviourswithahigherperceivedlevelofdiscomfortorcommitment[33],suchasloweringtheheatingtemperature.
4.2PrincipalCcomponentAanalysisAprincipalcomponentanalysis(PCA)wasappliedtoseventeenvariablesusingoblique(Directoblimin)rotationandtheregressionmethodofcalculatingfactorscores,basedontheassumptionthattheunderlyingcomponents
arecorrelatedwitheachother.Thisassumptionisconsideredtobeappropriateforsurveydataonenvironmentalvaluesandknowledge,andcloselyrelatedattitudes,behavioursandhabits.
ThesamplingadequacyforthePCAtest(Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin(KMO)valueof0.79) fallswithinthe0.7–0.8rangeratedas‘Good’byHutchesonandSofroniou[55].SixcomponentswereactedusingKaiser’scriterionofa
minimumeigenvalueof1,sothattogether,theextractedcomponentsaccountfor62.3%ofthevariance(Fig.2).
Tables6and7presenttherelationshipsbetweenthevariablesandcomponents,withinthepatternandstructurematricesgeneratedbyobliquerotation.Whilethepatternandstructurematricesshowtherelativecontribution
ofvariableswhichloadontospecificcomponents,thestructurematrixalsoreflectstherelationshipsbetweencomponents.Allfactorloadingsachievetheminimumlevelof0.4requiredtobeconsideredstatisticallysignificant[43].
Table6Principalcomponentanalysis/patternmatrix.a
Componentnumber
Surveyvariable 1 2 3 4 5 6
Reducinghouseholdenergyusewouldhelpprotectenvironment 0.80
Savemoneytoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.80
Knowof3thingstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.73
Takenstepstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.48
KnowledgeofCO2fromhouseholds 0.82
Knowledgeofsavingelectricity 0.62
Gender −0.59 0.48
Alwaysactivelyreducinghouseholdenergyuse 0.41
Upgradeinsulationorheatingtoincreaseenergyefficiency 0.74
Employment 0.68
Reducinghouseholdenergyuseisinconvenient −0.81
Valueenvironmentandeconomy 0.84
Payingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour 0.47
Usingthemainthermostatormainradiatorvalvestocontrolheating 0.71
Fig.2Totalvarianceexplainedbyinitialandextractedcomponents.
Energysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehouse 0.67
Buyenergyefficientappliancestoreduceelectricityconsumption 0.65
Changinghabitstoreducehouseholdelectricityuse 0.53
Componentsidentified:
1(Pleasecanyouincreasethefontofthelistednumberstobeequaltothetext(i.e.notsuperscript)andatthesamelevelasthetext,asforexample,1.Reducinghouseholdenergyuse;2.
Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;3.Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment;andsoon.). Reducinghouseholdenergyuse.
2. Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.
3. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment.
4. Reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.
5. Valuingtheenvironmentandeconomyandpayingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour.
6. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology,regulatingheatingtemperatureandchangingenergyhabits.
a Rotationmethod:ObliminwithKaisernormalization.Rotationconvergedin24iterations.Factorscorecalculationmethod:regression.
Table7Principalcomponentanalysis/structurematrix.a
Componentnumber
Surveyvariable 1 2 3 4 5 6
Reducinghouseholdenergyusewouldhelpprotectenvironment 0.80
Savemoneytoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.76
Knowof3thingstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.74
Takenstepstoreducehouseholdenergyuse 0.62 0.43
KnowledgeofCO2fromhouseholds 0.80
Knowledgeofsavingelectricity 0.69
Gender −0.56 0.47
Alwaysactivelyreducinghouseholdenergyuse 0.54 0.55 0.44
Upgradeinsulationorheatingtoincreaseenergyefficiency 0.75
Employment 0.67
Reducinghouseholdenergyuseisinconvenient −0.81
Valueenvironmentandeconomy 0.85
Payingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour 0.46
Buyenergyefficientappliancestoreduceelectricityconsumption 0.43 0.42 0.71
Usingthemainthermostatormainradiatorvalvestocontrolheating 0.71
Changinghabitstoreducehouseholdelectricityuse 0.50 0.66
Energysavinglight-bulbsthroughoutthehouse 0.64
Componentsidentified:
1(Pleasecanyouincreasethefontofthelistednumberstobeequaltothetext(i.e.notsuperscript)andatthesamelevelasthetext,asforexample,1.Reducinghouseholdenergyuse;2.
Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;3.Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment;andsoon.). Reducinghouseholdenergyuse.
2. Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.
3. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnologyandemployment.
4. Reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender.
5. Valuingtheenvironmentandeconomyandpayingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour.
6. Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology,regulatingheatingtemperatureandchangingenergyhabits.
a Rotationmethod:ObliminwithKaisernormalization.Factorscorecalculationmethod:regression.
Theclustersoffactorloadingssuggestthatthesixcomponentsrepresentrespectively:(1)Reducinghouseholdenergyuse;(2)Knowledge,reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;(3)Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology
andemployment;(4)Reducinghouseholdenergyuseandgender;(5)Valuingtheenvironmentandeconomyandpayingmoreforelectricityinsteadofchangingbehaviour;(6)Adoptingenergyefficienttechnology,regulatingheating
temperatureandchangingenergyhabits.
TheoutcomeofthePCAindicatesthatdifferentbehaviourstoreducehouseholdenergyusearelinkedwitheachother(Component1).Inaddition,suchenergyreducingbehaviourisalsoassociatedwithgenderandknowledge
ofGHGemissions(Components2and4).ThelinkbetweenenvironmentalknowledgeandenergysavingbehaviourhasalreadybeendiscussedinSection4.1.2above.Withrespecttogender,separatestudiessuggestthatwomenare
morelikelytoperformpro-environmentalbehaviourwhichleadstoenergysavinginhouseholds[39,56].Nevertheless,analysisofUKtimeusedatabyTorritietal.suggeststhatwomen’shigherrateofhouseholdoccupancyduring
weekdays,contributestohigherelectricityconsumptionathome[57].
Tables6and7alsoindicatethattheadoptionofenergyefficienttechnologiesisclusteredtogetherwithemployment(Component3),aswellaschangingenergyhabitsandtheregulationofheatingtemperature(Component6).
WithrespecttoComponent3,aninternationalreviewofmultiplestudiesfoundtheeffectofresidents’employmentstatusonhouseholdelectricityconsumptiontobeinconclusive[58].Similarly,anempiricalstudyintheUKshowed
thathighelectricityconsumptioninhomeswasnotinfluencedbytheemploymentstatusofoccupants[59].Component6mightbeexplainedbythepositivebehaviour‘spillovereffect’,throughwhichtheadoptionofoneenvironmental
behaviourfollowsanother[60].Finally,ourPCAindicatesthatthereisastatisticalrelationshipbetweenvaluingtheenvironmentandeconomy,andwillingnesstopaymoreforelectricityinordertomaintainexistingenergybehaviour
(Component5).However,itisnotpossibletodeducefromthePCAhowvariablesarecorrelated,ordetermineindependentanddependentvariables,i.e.whichactioncamefirst.
4.3ApplianceownershipanduseInoursurvey,wehaveidentifiedahighproportionofrespondentswithamoderateorgoodknowledgeofenergysavingandasubstantialproportionwithareasonableknowledgeofGHGemissionsfromhouseholds(Sections
4.1.2and4.1.3).However,manyofthesurveyparticipantsownedmultipleappliancesanddemonstratedhighlevelsofapplianceuseanddemonstratedhighlevelsofapplianceuse,withobviousimplicationsforelectricityconsumption.
ThisissupportedbyEllegardandPalm,whoarguethatincreasingenvironmentalawarenessandknowledgeofenergysavingmaynotbesufficientonitsowntoreduceenergyconsumptioninhouseholds[61].Onereasonforthisisthe
rapidgrowthinownershipofhouseholdappliancesandpoorlevelsofunderstandingamongstresidentsofhowmuchenergyeachofthesedevicesconsume,evenamongstthosewhoareknowledgeableaboutenergyandenvironmental
issues[61].
However,ouranalysisonlyobtainedalimitednumberofsignificantFischerexacttestcorrelationsbetweenenvironmentalpredispositionandknowledge,andapplianceownershipanduse.AsindicatedinTable8,onlyoneof
these correlations was significant at the 99% confidence level, between valuing the environment versus frequency of use ofmicrowaves. In addition, three correlations are indicated at the 95% confidence level. Two of these
correlations are between valuing the environment and the frequency of use of electric ovens and computers, respectively. The third of these correlations indicates that knowledge ofCO2 emissions is associatedwith how often
occupantsusedelectricshowers.InmostcasesthedirectionofstatisticalassociationfortheFischerexacttestcorrelationsisinconclusiveoratbesttentative(Table8).Furthertothis,itwasnotpossibletoobtainavalidprincipal
componentanalysis(PCA)whileincludingapplianceownershipandusevariablesfromthesurvey.
Table8Predispositionandknowledgeversusapplianceownershipanduse(FischerExactTest).
Typeofappliance
Descriptionofthecorrelation
Fischer’sexacttestresult
Observations(Fischer’sexacttest)Significancelevel(2-tailedFischer’sexact
test)(%)
% ofrespondents
Electricoven Valuingtheenvironmentversuselectricovenuse 25.4 Directionofstatisticalassociationinconclusive 5 47
Computer(desktop/laptop)
Valuingtheenvironmentversuscomputeruse 24.7 Directionofstatisticalassociationinconclusive 5 51
MicrowaveovenValuingtheenvironmentversusmicrowaveovenuse
28.2 Directionofstatisticalassociationinconclusive 1 48
ElectricshowerKnowledgeofCO2emissionsversuselectricshoweruse
23.9SomeindicationofanassociationbetweenamoderateknowledgeofCO2emissionsandlessfrequentuseofanelectricshower,whilelittleknowledgeofCO2emissionsisassociatedhigherfrequenciesofelectricshoweruse
5 36.5
Therefore,thissectionpresentsanevaluationbasedondescriptivestatisticsfromoursurveypertainingtoapplianceownershipanduse.Theseareofinterestbecauseincreasingownershipandusageofapplianceshasbeen
demonstratedtoimpactsignificantlyonhouseholdelectricityconsumptioninEurope[62].InthegroupofelevenIEAcountries(IEA-11)forexample,domesticelectricalapplianceswereresponsibleforapproximatelytwo-thirdsofthe
doublingofEuropeanelectricitydemandbetween1973and1998.Kitchenandutilityappliancessuchasrefrigeratorsandclotheswashingmachinesmainlyimpacteduponthegrowthofapplianceelectricityconsumptionintheearly
1980s,whilemorerecentgrowthinelectricityuseisduetohomeelectronicsandkitchengadgets[62].
AtanationalscaleinGreatBritain,theownershipofdomesticapplianceshasincreasedsteadilysincetheearly1970s.Between1973and1991thelevelofownershipforhouseholdutilityorkitchenappliancessuchaswashing-
machinesincreasedby22%(from67%to89%),dishwasherownershipincreasedby12%(ownedby1%and13%ofhouseholdsin1973and1990,respectively),whiletheincreaseoffreezerownershipisremarkable(from3%in1973
to38%in1991,respectively)[63].HigherlevelsofapplianceownershipanduseinhouseholdshaveresultedinadoublingofelectricityconsumptionintheUKbetween1972and2002,from44TWhto89TWhperannum[64].
With respect to ‘entertainment’ appliances, the ownershipof colour-television sets increased from49% in1976 to anaverageof 1.6 setsperhousehold in1994 [63], and2.4TVs respectively in 2004 [51]. By 2004, the
electronicsector,includingtelevisions,videorecorders,andexternalpowersupplyunits(digitalTVadapters),accountedfor17.3TWh,whichisequivalenttomorethan16%ofthetotalelectricityconsumedintheresidentialsector.
Televisionscontributedmosttothetotalconsumptionfromdomesticelectronicappliancesin2004(around40%),whileexternalpowersupplyunitsused18%oftheequivalenttotalin2000[64].
Oursurveyprovidesevidenceofmultipleownershipof‘entertainment’appliancesinhouseholds,suchthat9%ofrespondentsownedthreeLCD/PlasmaTVorthreedesktopcomputers/laptops,comparedto21%and26%of
respondentswhoownedtwoofthesedevices,respectively(Fig.3).Intermsofkitchen/utilitydevices,onewashingmachine,kettleandmicrowaveovenwereownedbymorethan90%ofstudyparticipants,whereaslessthanhalf
ownedoneelectrichotwatersystemorelectricshower.Notably,29%ofhouseholdspossessedtworefrigerator/fridge-freezerunitswithanadditional6%owningthreesuchunits(Fig.3).
Of
Inturn,thefrequencyofuseoftheseappliancesvariesconsiderably,bothbetweenthedifferenttypesofappliancesandacrosstherespondents(Table9).Inrelationto‘utilityappliances’,themedianfrequencyofusewas
higherfordishwashers(3timesperweek)comparedtowashingmachines(2timesperweek)andtumbledryers(onceperweek).Withrespectto‘kitchenappliances’,asmightbeexpected,kettleswereusedmuchmorefrequently
thanmicrowaves(medianof4timesperdayversus0timesperday,respectively).Themedianhoursofusefor‘entertainmentappliances’wastwiceasgreatforLCD/plasmaTVs(4hperday) incomparisontodesktoporlaptop
computers(2hperday).
Table9Frequencyofhouseholdapplianceuse.
Typeofappliance Frequencyofapplianceuse(%ofrespondents)
Min 1stQuartile 2ndQuartile/median 3rdQuartile 4thQuartile/max
Utilityappliances Numberofusesperweek
Dishwasher 0 1 3 6 14
Washingmachine 0 1 2 4 24
Tumbledryer 0 0 1 3 14
Steamiron 0 0 1 2 7
Electricshower 0 2 5 9 37
Kitchen/entertainmentappliances Hoursofuseperday
Electricoven 0 0.75 0.75 1 10
LCDorplasmaTV 1 3 4 5 24
Computer(desktop/laptop) 0 0.5 2 4 25
Kitchenappliances Numberofusesperday
Fig.3Ownershipofhouseholdappliances.
Kettle 1 3 4 6 40
Microwaveoven 0 0 0 1 20
ThesefrequenciesarecomparabletothoseobservedinseparatestudiesofUKhouseholds.Forexample,intheUK,in2007theaveragetimespentwatchingtelevisionwas3.6hperday[65].BuildingResearchEstablishment
(BRE)[66]andYohanis[4]foundthatwashingmachineswereusedmorefrequentlythantumbledryers,whilethelatterwereusedlessinthesummer.Aswiththehouseholdsinoursurvey,Yohanisobservedthatthehighestfrequency
ofuseforeitherofthesetwoapplianceswastentimesperweekormore[4].Nevertheless,bothstudiesfoundhigheroveralllevelsofuseoftumbledryersandwashingmachinesthaninoursurvey:4timesperweekforwashing
machines[66],and2–3timesperweekfortumbledryers[4,66],althoughtheusageoftumbledryerswasrevealedbyBREtodecreasetoamedianof0duringthesummer[66].
5ConclusionEnergyproductionanduseareat thespotlightofanyattempt tocontrolandreduceGHGemissions.Whilework in thebroaderenergydecarbonisation fieldmakesuseof technologicaladvancements in
renewableenergyandenergystorage[67,68],astepchangeisrequiredfromtheenergyconsumptiondomain.Inthiscontext,thehouseholdsectorhasanincreasinglyimportantroletoplay,notleastbecauseofthe
proliferationofrooftopsolarenergy[69],smartmetersandsensorsthatallcontributetoaparadigmshiftfromenergyconsumerstoenergyprosumers[70,71].
Ourstudyfocusedontheearlystageofdevelopment(pre-prosumer)oftheenergyuserandspecificallyonthelinksbetweenenvironmentalpredispositionandbehaviour,attitudeandhabitsinenergyuse.In
thiscontextweconfirmedthepositiverelationshipbetweenenvironmentalpredispositionandactivitiesthataimtoreduceenergyconsumption(suchasthereplacementofincandescentwithlowenergylightbulbs).
SimilarlywefoundapositivecorrelationbetweenknowledgeaboutGHGemissionsandenergysaving,andactionstoreduceenergyuse.Ingeneral,knowledgeplayedakeyroleinanumberofexaminedactivitiesthe
respondents engaged in such as behavioural changes that helped them reduce energy consumption and even changes in purchasing patterns.Most strikingly, knowledge about energy saving had an impact on
respondents’perceptionoftheconvenienceorinconvenienceofactionstosaveenergy.
The strong role of knowledge is supported further byMills and Schleich [72] who argue thatmost studies [73,74] reveal education level and the adoption of energy efficient technology to be positive
correlated. The authors’ study in 2010 [72] also found that socio-economic factors like higher education levels, higher income, larger households, and higher electricity prices have a positive correlation with
participants’knowledgeabouttheenergyefficiencylabelofappliances.Ourstudyhasinvestigatedtheroleofenvironmentalvaluesandknowledgeininfluencingenergybehaviour,habitsandattitudesofhousehold
energyconsumers.Assuch,wehavenotexaminedtheinfluenceofeducationorhouseholdincomeonknowledgeorenergyconservationinhouseholds.
Furtherresearchshouldseektobothexpandthesurveybaseandinvestigatethelatterstagesofthe“consumertoprosumer”developmenttoincludethosehouseholdswhichactivelyparticipateintheenergy
marketwithenergygenerationfortheirownconsumption,andthosewhichtradewiththegrid,aswellasprovidingauxiliaryservicestothegrid.ThisworkisparticularlytimelyinthelightofthebroaderEU-wide
discussionofwhatessentiallyconstitutes“consumeremancipation”thathasalreadybeentriggeredatapoliticallevel[75].
AcknowledgementsTheauthorswouldliketothankthesurveyparticipantsinthecommunitystudiedaswellastheanonymousreviewersfortheirusefulcomments.
AppendixAAllcorrelationsextractedfromthesurvey(significantat0.01and0.05level,andnon-significant)TableA1.
TableA1AllSpearman’sRankcorrelationsextractedfromthe(significantat0.01and0.05level,andnon-significant).
Non-significantcorrelations.
N=Numberofcases.*Correlationissignificantatthe0.05level(2-tailed).**Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level(2-tailed).
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Footnotes1Thisincludesallheatedroomsinthedwelling,i.e.bedrooms,bathrooms,livingroom,kitchenetc.
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Highlights
• Environmentalvaluesandenergysavinginhouseholdsarepositivelycorrelated.
• Environmentalknowledgeandhouseholdenergysavingarepositivelycorrelated.
• Householdenergysavingislinkedtogenderandemploymentstatus.