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NSRCH01CESARIA A. YALONG, RN, MAN
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objectives
At the end of the lesson, the students willbe able to:
yFormulate their own definition of research and nursing research
yDescribe the characteristics of researchand the researcher
yExplain the importance/purpose of nursing research/ roles of nurses inresearch
yTrace the history of nursing research
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.A - WHAT is Research?
1. Research
2. Nursing research
B. Importance of research in nursing
C. Roles of nurses in research
D. Purposes of nursing researchE. Evolution/ History of nursing research
F. Future directions for nursing research
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WHAT IS
RESEARCH?
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RESEARCH
French word . CERCHIER== To search
Prefix re=== again Search again & again
Examine Carefully
Diligent, To validate & refine existing KnowledgeSystematic and
inquir y or Develop new knowledge
study
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NURSING
RESEARCH?
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Various def inition:y A systematic search for and validation of knowledge
about issues of importance to the nursing
profession (Polit and Hungler, 1999).
y Concerned with knowledge that directly and indirectly
influences clinical nursing practice (Burns and Grove,
1997).
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NURSING RESEARCH A systematic process that
validates & refines and generates ne wkno wledge existing kno wledge
that directl y and indirectl y influence nursing practice
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NU
RSING
RESEARCHdevelopment of knowledge about...
health & promotion of health over the full life span,
care of persons with health problems & disabilities,
& nursing actions
to enhance the abilit y of individuals to respond effectivelyto actual or potential problems (ANA, 1981)
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3 MAJOR AREAS OF CONCERN IN NURSINGRESEARCH:
1. nursing education
2. practice of nursing
3. nursing service
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B - The importance of research
in nursingthe primar y task of nursing
research is the development
and refinement of nursing theories which serve asguides to nursing practice
and which can be organized into a bod y of scientific nursing kno wledge
(R ozella Schlotfeldt, 1960)
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11 Characteristics of Research
1. Directed to wards the solution of a problem.
2. Emphasizes the develop-ment of generalizations,
principles and theories that
ma y be helpful in predicting future occurrences.
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3. It involves the gathering of ne w and existing data from ne w sources or first-hand information
y Research is original work.
4. A nal y tical.- Collect data-> R igorous anal ysis/interpretation
y critical analysis of all the data used so that there is no errorin their interpretation.
y careful examination of detailed components of the objectof study.
y
uses published research to bolster that insight.
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5. R equires expertise
y
Research is done by an expert.yThe researcher uses valid and carefully
designed procedures, valid data gathering
instruments, and valid data.
6. It is empirical.
All procedures employed and the datagathered are perceived in the same mannerby all observers.
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7. Strives to be logical- apply every possible test to validatethe procedures being employed <- researcher hasconfidence in the results.
y Research is objective, unbiased, and logical.
y
All findings and conclusions are logically based onempirical data and no effort is made to alter the results of the research.
8. Honest and characterized b y patient & unhurried activities.
y Research is patient and unhurried activity.
y This to ensure accuracy.
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9. Can be replicated.- Reproducibility: Is your experiment/thesis
designed flawlessly with clear procedures
so that others can test your findings?
10 R equires innovative approaches.
- uses or shows new methods, ideas, etc
11. Carefull y recorded and reported - to
other persons interested in the problem.
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y V alues Derived in R esearch
y
yCritical thinking
yCreativity and innovativeness
y
Intellectual integrity yPatience and perseverance
y Widening of perspective
y Advancement of moral/social responsibility yObjectivity/adherence to truth
y
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yDifficulties encountered in R esearch
y
yRecognizing problems
yDuplication
y Indifference to ResearchyLack of facilities and materials
yFinancial difficulties
yLack of adequate and expert researchconsultants
yOthers (technical, know-how, vocabulary,
uncooperative subjects/respondents, etc.)
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C - ROLES OF NURSES IN RESEARCH
P R R I D E S A C C U
1. PRINCIPAL IN V ESTIGATOR - leader of research team
2. R ESEARCH ASSISTANT- trained in a specific methodof data collection
3. R ESEARCH COOR DINATOR - helps run the daily operations of the study
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4. IDENTIFIER
5. D ATA COLLECTOR - MEMBER
- collect data from clients for another persons research project
6. E V ALUATOR/CRITIC-
- assesses quality of a scientific research document forpublication, securing support funds, fulfillment of university requirements or obtaining permission for oral
presentation
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7. SUBJECT or PARTICIPANT- a person who has decided to
take part in the research by signing a consent form and by providing target information with the aid of appropriateresearch instruments
8. A D V ISER/ CONSULTANT- shares his knowledge to theinvestigator/researcher/research team and offers guidance inthe proper conduct of the study
9. CLIENT / PATIENT A D V OCATE- protects the rights of thehealthcare providers client and speaks on his behalf if hehappens to be a subject in a research investigation conductedin a clinical setting.
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10. CO-IN V ESTIGATOR - member of the
research team with the responsibility of helping the principal investigator andother member of the team in the proper
conduct of the study.
11. USER/CONSUMER OF RESEARCH
FINDINGS- Promoter of better quality care of clients
by utilizing evidence-based best practice
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1. 7 Characteristics of Nurse Researcher
2. Evolution of Nursing Research3. 6 Purposes of Nursing Research
4. Types of research
a. Experimental True experimental, Quasi-
experimental, Pre-experimental ( TPQ)
b. Non-experimental
b.1. Pure or basic research
b. 2. Applied research- Descriptive, Developmental, Ex PostFacto, Action, Correlational, Cause and Field, Historical (
DDEACH)
3. Sources of Evidence for Nursing Practice
4. Paradigm for Nursing Research
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ASSIGNMENT
1. Trace the Evolution of Nursing Research starting fromthe time of Florence Nightingale.
2. Place in a short coupon bond ( maximum of 5 pages
and of any color)3. Submit next Monday
4. Criteria of grading= 20 pts.
a. Content------------ 10 pts.
b. Organization----- 5 pts.
c. Creativity----------5 pts
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7 CHARACTERISTICS OF NURSE RESEARCHERS-
(C3H2AP)
y
C- Curiosit y ------ eager to seek information
undertake inquiry and serious thinking about situations andproblems affecting nurses and nursing.
y C- Creative Thinking
-----abilit y to go be y ond what alread y exist & develop various wa ys of doing things
y C- Critical Thinking----- A bilit y to relate stud y to a kno wn theor y
Clinical expertise and a working knowledge of the scientificproblem-solving technique help to a great extent in formalizingthe study.
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y H- Honest y
----Intellectual honest y==collecting, anal y zing and
reporting datay Intellectual honest y Researchers are honest in
collecting, analyzing, and reporting data
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Characteristics of Nurse Researchers- (C3H2AP)
y H- Humour
----sense of humour as to accept inadequacies in the stud y as basis for improvements
y A - A bilit y to relate their stud y to a kno wn Theor y
y P- Patience and discipline to see the stud y through
--- long hour of digging up, sorting, re writing manuscripts until the stud y becomes an integrated
whole
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D - EVOLUTION OF NURSING
RESEARCHFlorence Nightingale in 1859
---- focus:significance of a health y environment in thepromotion of the patients
physical and well-being
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Evolution of nursing researchNursing R esearch in 1900-19501st publication of A merican Journal of Nursing,
research emphasis is on the organization and
deliver y
of nur
sing
of
nur
sing
service
s
Nursing R esearch in 1950 and 1960research emerged as high priority with support from nursing
leaders HENDERSON & ABDELLAH.
Research was introduced & the steps in baccalaureate level by nursing schools
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Evolution of nursing researchNursing R esearch in 1970
- researches was on the improvement of nursingpractice; new journals were published (Advances
in Nursing Sciences, Image, Research in Nursing &Health, Western Journal of Nursing research);
Nursing R esearch in 1980
- focus was on the conduct of clinical nursingresearch. Many clinical journals published likecancer nursing, CV nursing, etc. NCNR (nationalcenter for nursing research) created in 1985.
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Evolution
o
f nursing
researc
hR esearch in 1990 (Present and Future)
NCNR renamed NINR( national institute fornursing research) under Dr. Hinshaw;
outcomes research has come out as animportant methodology.
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y thurs
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E - 6 PURPOSES OF NURSING RESEARCHP I E C E D
1. P- Prediction
provides knowledge to estimate effects of a given situation,or a prevailing condition.
Examples:
(1) What are the effect of health behaviours like balanceddiet, regular exercises, and no smoking on healthstatus and longevity?
(2) What are the effects of prolonged bed rest on thehospitalized patients recovery?
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Purposes of nursing research
2. I- Identification
Identifying or naming an unknown phenomenon inrelation to the practice; defining or conceptualizing
under inquiry.
Example: People with diabetes investigation aimed at
discovering the basic social problems affecting theiradherence to health care directives.
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Purposes of nursing research
3.
Exploration
NOT only simply observing and describing it, exploratory research investigates the full nature of the
phenomenon, the manner in which it is manifested, andthe factors to which it is related
Provides insights. It asks the question WHAT in order toinvestigate the causes or full nature of an existingparticular question.
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Examples:
(1) What factors diminish or increase a patients
stress?
(2) How is a patients stress related to the behavioursof the nursing staff?
(3) To what extent stress relates to the patientscultural backgrounds?
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Purposes of nursing research
4. C- Control
The manipulation of a given situation to produce the desiredoutcome .
Follows prediction of the outcome of a given situation. Itprovides a barrier to hinder or minimize the effects of a predicted outcome.
Prediction and control combined in nursing research may specify psychological and physiological reactions possible tonursing intervention.
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Example:
Research has shown that the incidence of Down Syndrome ininfant increases with the age of the mother.
---We can predict that a woman aged 40 yrs old is at higher riskfor bearing a child with Down Syndrome than a women aged25 years.
--- We can partially control the outcome by educating womenabout the risks and offering amniocentesis to women olderthan 35 years of age.
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Amniocentesis (also referred to as amniotic fluid test or AFT), is a procedure
used in prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal abnormalities and fetal infections ,
in which a small amount of amniotic fluid, which contains fetal tissues, is
extracted from the amnion or amniotic sac surrounding a developing fetus, and
the fetal DNA is examined for genetic abnormalities.
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Down syndrome (DS), also called Trisomy 21, is a condition in
which extra genetic material causes delays in the way achild develops, both mentally and physically. It affectsabout 1 in every 800 babies.
Normally, at the time of conception a baby inherits geneticinformation from its parents in the form of 46chromosomes: 23 from the mother and 23 from the father.In most cases of Down syndrome, a child gets an extrachromosome 21 for a total of 47 chromosomes instead of 46. It's this extra genetic material that causes the physicalfeatures and developmental delays associated with DS.
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Purposes of nursing research
5. E- Explanation
- Attempts to provide understanding of the underlyingcauses or full nature of a phenomenon.
- Offers understanding, clarification, and informationWHY a certain phenomenon occurs.
Examples: (1) Why do patients in the ICU need to feelsafe? or Why is it significant to provide for thepsychological needs of patients in the ICU?
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Purposes of nursing research 6. D- Description
Describing a phenomenon affecting the nursing profession.
Nurse researcher observes, count, delineate, and classify. It provides
new information.Examples: (1) Describing varied phenomena such as: patients stress
and coping, pain management, adaptation processes, healthbeliefs and practices, rehabilitation success and nursing care.
(2) Describing quantitative changes in psychological andpsychosocial resources six months after kidney transplantation.
(3) Describing the experience of waiting in a critical care room.
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SOURCES OF NURSING KNOWLEDGEyCustoms and Traditions
y Authority
yTrial and error as means of discovering knowledge/Staff
Development and ExperienceyDisciplined research
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SOURCES OF EVIDENCE FOR NURSING PRACTICE
1. Custom and Tradition
handling down knowledge from one generation to
another and leads to actions that occur because wevealways done it that way
2. Authority
experts or authorities in a given field often provideknowledge for other people.
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3. Clinical Experience
4. Trial and error
- alternatives are tried successively until a solution to aproblem is found
5. Logical Reasoning
- Combines experience, intellectual faculties, and formal
system of thought.
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G - RESEARCH PRIORITIES IN THE FUTURE1. Promotion of evidence-based practice
aim: Provide the best possible care based on the bestavailable research
2. Increased multidisciplinar y collaboration
3. Greater focus on outcomes researchaim: assessing and document the effectiveness of
health care services
4. Use of multiple, confirmator y strategies
5. Expanded dissemination of research findings
6. Increased visibilit y of nursing research
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yII PARADIGMS OF RESEARCH
y A. positivismsyScientific
y
Post positivismyB. naturalistic/ constructivism
yC. participatory/ advocacy
yD. pragmatism
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The design of a research studybegins with the selection of a
topic and a paradigm.
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PARADIGMS FOR NURSING RESEARCH
A world vie w: basic set of belief s that
guide action (Guba, 1990: 17)
A general perspective on the complexities of
the real world, with certain assumption about realit y
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PARADIGMy A diagrammatic representation of a conceptual
framework
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y It provides a conceptual framework for seeing andmaking sense of the social world;
y
to be located in a particular paradigm is to view the world in a particular way.
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y The significance of paradigms is that they shapehow we perceive the world and are reinforced by thosearound us, the community of practitioners.
y For the researcher it is important to recognise theirparadigm, it allows them to identify their role in the
research process, determine the course of any researchproject and distinguish other perspectives.
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y Therefore, paradigms are never right or wrong butmerely different ways of looking at society. In thatrespect, they are to be judged as useful or useless inspecific situations only.
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A PARADIGM ENCOMPASSES
FOUR ELEMENTS/ CATEGORIES- Epistemolog y,- Ontolog y - A xiolog y and- Methodolog y
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y Epistomology asks How do we know the world? Whatis the relationship between the inquirer and the known?Source of Data: Subject or Participant (reciprocity)
y Epistemology: what is the relationship between theinquirer and the known: "epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies the nature of knowledge and theprocess by which knowledge is acquired and validated"(Gall, Borg, & Gall, 1996)
y Ontology raises basic questions about the nature of reality. What is there that can be known about the form
and nature of reality? Single or multiple
y Denzin and Lincoln (2001) listed three categories of thosebeliefs:
y
Ontology: what kind of being is the human being.
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y Ontology raises basic questions about the nature of reality. What is there that can be known about theform and nature of reality? Single or multiple
y Denzin and Lincoln (2001) listed three categories of those beliefs:
y Ontology: what kind of being is the human being.
y Ontology deals with the question of what is real.
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y Axiology- values: objectivity vs. Subjectivity: Bias
y axiology deals with the issues about value.y Specific assumptions about research include the role
of value in research, how to avoid value frominfluencing research, and how best to use researchproducts (Baptiste, 2000).
y
Methodology focuses on how we gain knowledgeabout the world. How can the inquirer (would-be-knower) go about finding out whatever he or shebelieves can be known?: Data obtained
y Methodology: how do we know the world, or gain
knowledge of it?
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ontologyy Norman Blaikie offers a fuller definition,
suggesting that ontological claims are claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social realit y, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and ho w these units interact with each other.
y In short, ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social realit y(Blaikie, 2000, p. 8)
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y Epistemolog y, one of the core branches of philosoph y, is concerned with the theor y of kno wledge, especiall y in regard to its methods, validation and the possible wa ys of gaining kno wledge of social realit y, whatever it isunderstood to be.
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Epistemologic
Ho w is theinquirer related
to those being researched?
Inquirer is independent
from those
being
researched;
findings are
not influencedby the researcher
Inquirer interactswith those being
researched;
findings are the
creation of theinteractive process
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Axiologic
W hat is the role of
values in
the inquir y ?
Values& biases
are to be
held incheck;
objectivityis sought.
Subjectivityand values
are inevitable
and desirable
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ASSUMPTION POSITI V IST PARA DIGM NATURALISTIC PARADIGM
Ont l ic
( at is t eat re f eality?)
Reality exists, there
is a real worlddriven by real
natural causes
Reality is multiple and
subjective, mentallyconstructed by
individuals
Epistemologic
How is theinquirer relatedto those beingresearched?
The inquirer is
independent from
those being
researched; findings
are not influenced by theresearcher
The inquirer interacts
with those beingresearched; findings
are the creation of theinteractive process
A xiologic What is the roleof values in theinquiry?
Values andbiases are to be
held in check;
objectivity is
sought.
Subjectivity andvalues are
inevitable anddesirable
Methodologic Deductive processes Inductive processes
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Methodologic
Ho w is the evidence best obtained?
Emphasis on discrete,specificconcepts
Focus on the objective andquantifiable
V erifications of researchers prediction
Outsider kno wledge-researcher is external separate
Fixed pre-specified design
Measured, QuantitativeInformation;statisticalanal ysis
Seeks generalization
Emphasis on entiret y of somephenomenon, holistic.
Focus on the subjective andnonquantifiable
Emerging insights grounded in participantsexperiences.
Insider kno wledge-researcher is internal, part of the process
Flexible, emergent design
Narrative information,qualitativeanal ysis
Seeks indepth understanding
Focus on the product and the
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4 different worldviews
y1. Positivism/Postpositivism
y2. Constructivism/ Naturalism
y 3. A dvocac y/Participator y
y4. Pragmatism
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FOUR WORLDVIEWS USED IN RESEARCH
Postpositivism Constructivism Advocacy and
Participatory
Pragmatism
- Determination
- Reductionism
- Empirical
observation
and
measurement
- Theory
verification
- Understanding
- Multiple
participant
meanings
- Social and
historical
construction
- Theory
generation
- Political
- Empowerment
and
issue oriented
- Collaborative
- Change
oriented
- Consequences
of
actions
- Problem
centered
- Pluralistic
- Real-world
practice
oriented
Source: Creswell (2003)
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Types of Research according to General Classification
A. Quantitative R esearch
Types:
1. Descriptive Research
2. Correlational research
3. Quasi-experimental
4. Expereimental
B. Qualitative R esearch
Types:
1. Phenomenological
2. Grounded theory
3. Ethnographic
4. Historical
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Quantitative R esearch
- Is a formal, objective, systematic process in whichnumerical data are used to obtain information aboutthe world
Qualitative R esearch- Systematic subjective approach to describe life
experiences and give meaning
- Used to describe and promote understanding of human experinces such as pain, caring, powerlessnessand comfort.
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Comparison of Research Approaches
Quantitati
y Ob jectivity val e
y One reality
y
e cti n, c ntr l, andpredicti n
y Meas rable
y arts e al t e le
y eport statistical analyses
y esearc er separate
y eneralization
Qualitative
y Subjectivity valued
y Multiple realities
y
Discovery, description, andunderstanding
y Interpretive
y Whole is greater than theparts
y Report rich narrative
y Researcher part of the process
y Uniqueness
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A. Quantitative R esearch
Types:1. Descriptive Research
2. Correlational research
3. Quasi-experimental
4. Expereimental
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Purposes of Nursing ResearchI D E E C P
1. Identification
3. D..escription4. E..xploration
5. E..xplanation
6. C..ontrol
7. P.rediction
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Purposes of Nursing Research1. Identification
Naming an unknown phenomenon in relation to the nursingpractice
Example : People with diabetes and hypertension investigation
discovering the basic social problems affecting their adherenceto health care directives.
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