Aalborg Universitet
PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING:
Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods
Mogapi, Nomfundo; Lascano, Josephine Acuna; Anasarias, Ernesto; Swaray, Seidu; Masuko,Themba; Jensen, Steffen
Creative Commons LicenseUnspecified
Publication date:2017
Document VersionPublisher's PDF, also known as Version of record
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Citation for published version (APA):Mogapi, N., Lascano, J. A., Anasarias, E., Swaray, S., Masuko, T., & Jensen, S. (2017). PSYCHOSOCIALMODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING: Addressing Authority-Based Violence in UrbanNeighbourhoods. Dignity, the Danish Institute against Torture. DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture andOrganised Violence No. 15
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DIGNITY Publication Series on Torture and Organised ViolencePraxis Paper
#15PSYCHOSOCIAL MODELS FOR PREVENTION AND WELLBEING:Addressing Authority-Based Violence in Urban Neighbourhoods
Nomfundo MogapiJosephine Acuna LascanoErnesto A. AnasariasSeidu SwarayThemba MasukoSteffen Jensen
Psy
cho
soci
al m
od
els
for
pre
ven
tio
n a
nd
wel
lbei
ng
:
Ad
dre
ssin
g a
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce in
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s
A p
raxi
s p
aper
pre
par
ed in
co
llab
ora
tion
bet
wee
n B
alay
, CSV
R, L
AP
S an
d D
IGN
ITY
for
the
Glo
bal
Alli
ance
DIG
NIT
Y P
ub
licat
ion
Ser
ies
on
To
rtu
re a
nd
Org
anis
ed V
iole
nce
No
. 15
© 2
017
DIG
NIT
Y - D
anis
h In
stitu
te A
gain
st T
ortu
re, t
he a
utho
rs a
nd th
e G
loba
l Allia
nce
org
aniz
atio
ns
Bal
ay R
ehab
ilita
tion
Cen
ter,
the
Ph
ilip
pin
es
ww
w.b
alay
ph
.net
CSV
R, T
he
Cen
tre
for
the
Stu
dy
of
Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
ww
w.c
svr.o
rg.z
a
LAP
S Li
ber
ia A
sso
ciat
ion
fo
r P
sych
oso
cial
Ser
vice
s
ww
w.la
psl
iber
ia.c
om
DIG
NIT
Y –
Dan
ish
Inst
itute
Aga
inst
To
rtu
re
ww
w.d
ign
ityin
stitu
te.o
rg
ISB
N o
nlin
e: 9
788
790
878
89
4
2 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 3
PSY
CHO
SOCI
AL
MO
DEL
S FO
R
PR
EVEN
TIO
N A
ND
WEL
LBEI
NG
AD
DR
ESSI
NG
AU
TH
OR
ITY-
BA
SED
VIO
LEN
CE IN
UR
BA
N N
EIG
HB
OU
RH
OO
DS
A p
raxi
s p
aper
pre
par
ed in
co
llab
ora
tion
bet
wee
n B
alay
, CSV
R, L
AP
S an
d D
IGN
ITY
fo
r th
e G
lob
al A
llian
ce
By
No
mfu
nd
o M
og
api,
Jose
ph
ine
Acu
na
Lasc
ano
, Ern
esto
A. A
nas
aria
s, S
eid
u S
war
ay,
Th
emb
a M
asu
ko a
nd
Ste
ffen
Jen
sen
Con
ten
ts
Fore
wor
d
7
Exec
uti
ve s
um
mar
y 9
Intr
odu
ctio
n
12
Un
der
stan
din
g c
on
text
s o
f vi
ole
nce
14
Mo
del
s fo
r u
nd
erst
and
ing
vio
len
ce
15
Wh
y in
terv
ene
in r
elat
ion
to
vio
len
ce?
18
Vic
tims,
an
d r
isk
and
tar
get
gro
up
s 20
Th
eory
of
chan
ge
– f
ocu
sin
g o
n r
elat
ion
ship
s 21
Vic
tims/
at r
isk
gro
up
s: F
acili
tate
hea
ling
, so
cial
incl
usi
on
an
d p
sych
olo
gic
al a
war
enes
s 22
Fam
ilies
: Pro
mo
ting
fam
ilies
as
sup
po
rt s
tru
ctu
res
rath
er t
han
as
per
pet
rato
rs o
r ri
sk g
rou
ps
23
Co
mm
un
ity: P
rom
otin
g c
om
mu
niti
es a
s su
pp
ort
str
uct
ure
s
rath
er t
han
as
per
pet
rato
rs
24
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s: P
erp
etra
tors
or
du
ty b
eare
rs
25
Co
ncl
usi
on
an
d r
eco
mm
end
atio
ns
26
Ref
eren
ces
30
4 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 5
Fore
wor
dH
um
an r
igh
ts w
ork
, an
d e
spec
ially
wo
rk to
co
mb
at to
rtu
re a
nd
its
effec
ts, i
s o
ften
ch
arac
teri
zed
b
y u
nh
elp
ful
div
isio
ns
bet
wee
n r
ehab
ilita
tion
an
d p
reve
ntio
n.
Reh
abili
tatio
n i
s th
e m
ain
ly t
he
do
mai
n o
f d
oct
ors
, psy
cho
log
ists
an
d o
ther
hig
hly
sp
ecia
lized
hea
lth
pro
fess
ion
als.
Pre
ven
tion
, o
n t
he
oth
er h
and
, is
do
min
ated
by
soci
al s
cien
tists
an
d e
ven
mo
re b
y la
wye
rs,
wh
o t
end
to
fo
cus
on
inst
itutio
nal
ref
orm
an
d le
gal
fra
mew
ork
s. M
uch
has
bee
n a
chie
ved
ove
r th
e ye
ars
in
bo
th re
hab
ilita
tion
an
d p
reve
ntio
n. H
ow
ever
, th
is c
om
par
tmen
taliz
atio
n a
lso
has
ad
vers
e eff
ects
, es
pec
ially
on
the
gro
un
d w
her
e th
e d
istin
ctio
n m
akes
mu
ch le
ss s
ense
. Her
e, s
tate
vio
len
ce a
nd
its
eff
ects
can
no
t ea
sily
be
div
ided
in
to p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
reh
abili
tatio
n.
Oft
en,
stat
e vi
ole
nce
is
chro
nic
an
d r
epet
itive
. A c
lear
ch
ron
olo
gy
of
bef
ore
, du
rin
g a
nd
aft
er a
tra
um
atic
eve
nt
is h
ard
to
est
ablis
h. H
ence
, th
ere
is a
nee
d t
o t
hin
k o
ut
of t
hes
e p
rofe
ssio
nal
ized
an
d d
isci
plin
ary
bo
xes
– n
ot
to r
epla
ce o
r p
ut
in d
ou
bt
the
con
trib
utio
ns
of
leg
al a
nd
hea
lth
inte
rven
tion
s b
ut
to m
ap
ou
t a fi
eld
bet
wee
n th
em w
her
e m
uch
an
ti-to
rtu
re w
ork
alr
ead
y h
app
ens.
Ho
wev
er, w
e n
eed
to
find
a b
ette
r la
ng
uag
e –
a n
ew la
ng
uag
e –
to d
iscu
ss a
nd
refle
ct o
n th
is m
idd
le g
rou
nd
bet
wee
n
reh
abili
tatio
n a
nd
pre
ven
tion
. Th
is p
aper
is o
ur
con
trib
utio
n t
o t
his
larg
er a
dvo
cacy
ag
end
a.
Th
e p
aper
is t
he
pro
du
ct o
f th
e co
llab
ora
tion
bet
wee
n f
ou
r lik
e-m
ind
ed o
rgan
izat
ion
s: B
ALA
Y R
ehab
ilita
tion
Cen
tre
in th
e P
hili
pp
ines
, Th
e C
entr
e fo
r th
e St
ud
y o
f Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
in
So
uth
Afr
ica
(CSV
R),
Th
e Li
ber
ia A
sso
ciat
ion
of
Psy
cho
-so
cial
Ser
vice
s (L
AP
S) in
Lib
eria
an
d
DIG
NIT
Y-D
anis
h I
nst
itute
Ag
ain
st T
ort
ure
in
Den
mar
k. T
he
colla
bo
ratio
n h
as b
een
fo
rmal
ised
u
nd
er t
he
hea
din
g ‘T
he
Glo
bal
Alli
ance
Ag
ain
st A
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
Vio
len
ce’,
esta
blis
hed
in 2
014
. T
he
bas
ic p
rem
ise
of t
he
Alli
ance
is th
at a
rou
nd
the
wo
rld
an
d a
cro
ss d
iffer
ent c
on
text
s, g
rou
ps
of
peo
ple
are
dee
med
‘vic
timiz
able
’ by
the
po
wer
s th
at b
e –
eith
er s
tate
or
no
n-s
tate
– a
nd
hen
ce
leg
itim
ate
targ
ets
of
ord
er-m
ain
tain
ing
– o
r au
tho
rity
-bas
ed –
vio
len
ce. T
he
risk
gro
up
s m
igh
t in
clu
de
you
ng
, in
dig
ent a
nd
cri
min
aliz
ed m
en in
slu
m a
reas
, su
spec
ts o
f ter
rori
sm, m
igra
nts
an
d
refu
gee
s, s
exu
al m
ino
ritie
s o
r al
leg
ed c
arri
ers
of
dis
ease
. Th
eir
alle
ged
tra
nsg
ress
ion
s m
igh
t b
e b
ased
in a
leg
al f
ram
ewo
rk (
like
dru
g p
edd
ling
) o
r in
mo
ral n
orm
s (li
ke s
exu
ality
). H
ow
ever
, all
are
likel
y vi
ctim
s o
f st
ate
or
no
n-s
tate
vio
len
ce.
At
the
time
of
wri
ting
, th
e P
hili
pp
ine
‘War
on
D
rug
s’ p
rovi
des
a c
hill
ing
exa
mp
le o
f th
e le
giti
mac
y o
f vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st s
uch
gro
up
s.
As
a ce
ntr
al e
lem
ent
in t
he
colla
bo
ratio
n, w
e p
rod
uce
a n
um
ber
of
cro
ss-c
utt
ing
an
alys
es o
f a
vari
ety
of
diff
eren
t is
sues
wh
ile e
mp
loyi
ng
diff
eren
t m
eth
od
olo
gie
s. A
ll to
pic
s em
erg
e fr
om
ou
r co
mm
on
dis
cuss
ion
s o
n o
ur
diff
eren
t co
nte
xts,
an
d in
clu
de
linki
ng
hu
man
rig
hts
, dev
elo
pm
ent
and
vio
len
ce in
th
e ci
ty; l
egal
fram
ewo
rks
for
po
licin
g p
oo
r u
rban
nei
gh
bo
urh
oo
ds;
so
cial
wo
rk
mo
del
s; c
om
mu
nity
org
aniz
ing
str
ateg
ies
and
par
tner
ship
mo
del
s.
6 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 7
Exec
uti
ve s
um
mar
yT
his
pap
er
arg
ue
s fo
r th
e n
ee
d t
o d
eve
lop
psy
ch
oso
cia
l ap
pro
ach
es
that
fo
cu
s o
n
co
mb
inin
g p
reve
nta
tive
an
d h
eal
ing
wo
rk t
hro
ug
h c
om
mu
nit
y-le
d i
nte
rve
nti
on
s w
ith
ri
sk g
rou
ps,
th
eir
fam
ilie
s, t
he
ir n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
wid
er
co
mm
un
itie
s, a
nd
fin
ally
th
e au
tho
riti
es
that
pe
rpe
trat
e v
iole
nc
e t
o m
ain
tain
ord
er.
Wh
ile
hig
hly
sp
ec
iali
zed
(le
gal
) p
reve
nti
on
an
d (
he
alth
-re
late
d)
reh
abil
itat
ion
pra
cti
ce
s h
ave
co
ntr
ibu
ted
to
ad
dre
ssin
g
tort
ure
an
d i
ll-t
reat
me
nt,
th
ey
also
le
ave
gap
s, n
ot
leas
t w
he
n w
e b
eg
in a
dd
ress
ing
vi
ole
nc
e e
mp
loye
d t
o p
rese
rve
lo
cal
so
cia
l, l
eg
al a
nd
mo
ral
ord
ers
in
po
or,
urb
an
ne
igh
bo
urh
oo
ds,
wh
at w
e t
erm
sta
te a
nd
no
n-s
tate
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed
vio
len
ce
. T
his
vi
ole
nc
e i
s m
un
dan
e a
nd
ch
ron
ic r
ath
er
than
su
dd
en
tra
um
atic
eru
pti
on
s o
f vi
ole
nc
e an
d h
as o
fte
n b
ee
n n
orm
aliz
ed
, e
ven
by
its
vic
tim
s. I
nte
rve
nti
on
s in
su
ch
co
nte
xts
de
man
d t
hat
we
re
co
nsi
de
r so
me
of
ou
r b
asic
ass
um
pti
on
s ab
ou
t h
ow
to
go
ab
ou
t w
ork
ing
ag
ain
st t
ort
ure
an
d i
ll-t
reat
me
nt.
Th
is p
ape
r at
tem
pts
to
re
co
nc
ep
tual
ise
hu
man
rig
hts
wo
rk i
n w
ays
that
mak
e s
en
se f
or
a fo
cu
s o
n a
uth
ori
ty-b
ase
d v
iole
nc
e i
n
po
or,
urb
an n
eig
hb
ou
rho
od
s. T
he
pap
er
do
es
no
t p
rod
uc
e a
se
t o
f b
est
pra
cti
ce
s an
d
mo
de
ls t
o b
e i
mp
lem
en
ted
. R
ath
er
it s
ets
ou
t o
ur
refl
ec
tio
ns
on
ho
w t
o u
nd
ers
tan
d
the
co
nte
xts
of
vio
len
ce
, id
en
tify
th
e t
arg
et
gro
up
s o
f in
terv
en
tio
ns
and
sp
ell
ou
t th
e th
eo
rie
s o
f c
han
ge
re
leva
nt
in t
he
dif
fere
nt
co
nte
xts.
Th
e p
atte
rns
of
vio
len
ce
mu
st b
e u
nd
ers
too
d t
ho
rou
gh
ly.
Au
tho
rity
-bas
ed
vio
len
ce
in
c
on
text
tak
es
man
y fo
rms
bu
t it
mu
st a
rgu
ably
co
nfo
rm t
o c
ert
ain
un
de
rlyi
ng
cri
teri
a in
ord
er
for
it t
o b
e l
eg
itim
ate
: it
ne
ed
s to
be
co
nst
rue
d a
s se
lf-d
efe
nc
e a
nd
it
mu
st b
e p
rop
ort
ion
ate
to
th
e t
hre
at t
hat
it
pu
rpo
rts
to c
ou
nte
r. T
his
fo
rm o
f vi
ole
nc
e d
oe
s n
ot
exi
st in
iso
lati
on
an
d t
he
pap
er
ou
tlin
es
the
re
lati
on
be
twe
en
dif
fere
nt
form
s o
f vi
ole
nc
e in
clu
din
g y
ou
th v
iole
nc
e,
inti
mat
e v
iole
nc
e,
co
mm
un
al v
iole
nc
e,
stat
e v
iole
nc
e a
nd
re
volu
tio
nar
y vi
ole
nc
e.
Th
is a
nal
ysis
of
vio
len
ce
en
able
s a
rec
on
sid
era
tio
n o
f ta
rge
t an
d r
isk
gro
up
s. I
n m
uc
h a
nti
-to
rtu
re w
ork
, to
rtu
re is
co
nsi
de
red
to
be
an
ext
rao
rdin
ary
eve
nt.
Fo
cu
sin
g o
n t
he
mu
nd
ane
nat
ure
of
tort
ure
an
d i
ll-t
reat
me
nt,
ne
w r
isk
gro
up
s e
me
rge
lik
e y
ou
ng
me
n o
r c
hil
dre
n i
n c
on
flic
t w
ith
th
e l
aw a
nd
th
e c
om
mu
nit
y th
ey
inh
abit
; se
xual
min
ori
tie
s, r
efu
ge
es
and
mig
ran
ts o
r, a
s h
as b
ee
n t
he
cas
e in
bo
th S
ou
th
Afr
ica
and
Lib
eri
a, s
urv
ivo
rs o
r vi
cti
ms
of
dis
eas
es
(HIV
or
Eb
ola
). T
he
se g
rou
ps,
an
d
oth
ers
lik
e t
he
m,
are
se
en
as
affr
on
ts t
o p
ub
lic
mo
rali
ty,
som
eti
me
s b
ec
ause
of
the
ir
acti
on
s an
d s
om
eti
me
s b
ec
ause
of
wh
at d
ang
er
the
y ar
e s
ee
n t
o r
ep
rese
nt
(cri
me
, d
rug
s, t
err
or,
mo
ral
de
cay
, th
reat
s to
liv
eli
ho
od
s, e
co
no
mic
bu
rde
ns
etc
.) a
nd
th
ey
are
vuln
era
ble
to
att
acks
fro
m s
tate
off
icia
ls,
co
mm
un
itie
s an
d e
ven
th
eir
ow
n f
amil
ies
wh
o c
on
sid
er
the
m i
n n
ee
d o
f d
isc
ipli
nin
g.
8 |
GL
OB
AL
AL
LIA
NC
EP
SY
CH
OS
OC
IAL
MO
DE
LS F
OR
PR
EV
EN
TIO
N A
ND
WE
LLB
EIN
G
| 9
Wh
ile
fo
cu
sin
g o
n l
eg
al r
igh
ts o
f c
hil
dre
n,
wo
me
n,
mig
ran
ts a
nd
th
e r
igh
ts n
ot
to b
e to
rtu
red
or
kill
ed
as
imp
ort
ant
be
nc
hm
arks
, le
gal
an
d h
eal
th r
ela
ted
ap
pro
ach
es
are
no
t su
ffic
ien
tly
resp
on
sive
to
th
ese
. O
ur
wo
rk d
em
on
stra
tes
the
im
po
rtan
ce
of
rela
tio
ns
as b
oth
pro
tec
tive
an
d p
erp
etr
ativ
e.
Th
is s
ug
ge
sts
the
ori
es
of
ch
ang
e w
hic
h f
oc
us
on
re
lati
on
s b
etw
ee
n r
isk
gro
up
s, t
he
ir f
amil
ies,
th
e c
om
mu
nit
ies
in w
hic
h t
he
y li
ve a
nd
th
e l
oc
al p
ub
lic
off
icia
ls.
Imp
ort
antl
y, f
amil
ies,
co
mm
un
itie
s an
d p
ub
lic
off
icia
ls m
igh
t c
on
stit
ute
th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t p
rote
cti
ve n
etw
ork
s th
at r
isk
gro
up
s h
ave
. H
ow
eve
r,
the
y m
igh
t al
so p
erp
etr
ate
vio
len
ce
or
allo
w i
t to
tak
e p
lac
e.
If f
amil
ies
are
no
t w
illi
ng
to
pro
tec
t th
eir
ch
ild
ren
, fo
r in
stan
ce
be
cau
se o
f d
rug
ab
use
, th
ose
ch
ild
ren
are
mu
ch
m
ore
at
risk
of
be
ing
har
me
d b
y c
om
mu
nit
y m
em
be
rs a
nd
by
the
sta
te.
Th
is e
nta
ils w
ork
ing
wit
h t
he
yo
un
g p
eo
ple
th
em
selv
es
– t
o d
eal
wit
h t
he
vio
len
ce
pe
rpe
trat
ed
ag
ain
st t
he
m,
and
oft
en
th
e v
iole
nce
th
ey
pe
rpe
trat
e o
n o
the
rs,
as w
ell
as t
o
atte
nd
to
th
e r
ela
tio
ns
the
y h
ave
wit
h f
amili
es,
pe
ers
, co
mm
un
itie
s an
d p
ub
lic o
ffic
ials
. Th
is
mig
ht
incl
ud
e t
he
fo
llow
ing
ele
me
nts
:
a)
Imp
rove
d
self
-est
ee
m,
abili
ty
to
de
al
wit
h
trau
ma,
h
eal
ing
, aw
are
ne
ss
of
the
psy
cho
soci
al im
pac
t o
f to
rtu
re a
mo
ng
ris
k g
rou
ps
in g
en
era
l an
d a
mo
ng
vic
tim
s in
p
arti
cula
r;
b)
Imp
rove
d u
nd
ers
tan
din
g a
mo
ng
vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s o
f th
e is
sue
s th
at p
ut
the
m
at r
isk
and
th
e a
bili
ty t
o d
eal
wit
h t
he
ris
k co
nst
ruct
ive
ly;
c)
Imp
rove
d s
kills
to
en
gag
e i
n m
ean
ing
ful
soci
al a
ctiv
itie
s in
re
lati
on
to
th
e l
abo
ur
mar
ket,
ed
uca
tio
n a
nd
oth
er
soci
al a
ren
as;
and
d)
Vic
tim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s th
at a
re m
ob
ilize
d a
nd
org
aniz
ed
fo
r p
reve
nti
on
an
d f
or
en
gag
ing
in m
ean
ing
ful r
ela
tio
nsh
ips
wit
h a
uth
ori
tie
s, c
om
mu
nit
ies
and
fam
ilie
s.
Wo
rk w
ith
ris
k g
rou
ps
mu
st b
e c
om
ple
me
nte
d w
ith
in
terv
en
tio
ns
in r
ela
tio
n t
o f
amili
es,
co
mm
un
itie
s an
d p
ub
lic o
ffic
ials
. In
th
e G
lob
al A
llian
ce, n
ot
all o
rgan
izat
ion
s w
ork
eq
ual
ly
wit
h a
ll le
vels
. Fo
r e
xam
ple
, w
hile
it
is t
rue
th
at L
AP
S an
d C
SVR
tar
ge
t al
l le
vels
, D
IGN
ITY
wo
rks
mo
re w
ith
pu
blic
off
icia
ls, c
om
mu
nit
y m
em
be
rs a
nd
vo
lun
tee
rs w
he
reas
BA
LAY
wo
rks
mo
re w
ith
fam
ilie
s an
d y
ou
ng
pe
op
le. D
ep
en
din
g o
n t
he
co
nte
xt a
nd
th
e o
rgan
izat
ion
, th
e fo
llow
ing
ele
me
nts
may
be
re
leva
nt:
The
fam
ilies
: a)
Im
pro
ved
fa
mily
co
hes
ion
an
d
fun
ctio
nin
g
to
esta
blis
h
reh
abili
tativ
e an
d
hea
lth
y re
latio
ns,
incl
ud
ing
with
ris
k g
rou
ps
and
tar
get
gro
up
s;
b)
Imp
rove
d s
oci
al p
rote
ctio
n a
nd
pre
ven
tio
n o
f vi
ole
nce
by
sup
po
rtin
g f
amili
es
in
the
ir r
ela
tio
nsh
ips
wit
h n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
sta
te a
uth
ori
tie
s; a
nd
c)
Fam
ilie
s m
ob
ilize
d t
o e
ng
age
in a
dvo
cacy
fo
r n
on
-vio
len
t an
d h
eal
thy
rela
tio
nsh
ips
wit
h s
tate
au
tho
riti
es,
an
d in
ad
voca
cy f
or
stat
e a
uth
ori
tie
s to
ass
um
e t
he
ir r
ole
as
du
ty b
ear
ers
.
The
com
mun
ity:
a)
Th
e co
mm
un
ity, m
app
ed th
rou
gh
sta
keh
old
er a
nal
ysis
an
d tr
eate
d a
s p
ote
ntia
l par
tner
s,
sho
uld
be
par
t o
f an
alli
ance
to
pre
ven
t vi
ole
nce
ag
ain
st r
isk
gro
up
s b
ased
on
a s
olid
an
alys
is o
f vi
ole
nce
;
b)
Ove
rall
com
mu
nity
effi
cacy
imp
rove
s w
her
e th
ere
are
few
er in
cid
ents
of
vio
len
ce a
nd
co
nfli
cts,
an
d w
her
e co
nfli
cts
may
be
add
ress
ed in
co
nst
ruct
ive
way
s; a
nd
c)
Imp
rove
d
abili
ty
to
iden
tify
po
ssib
le
area
s o
f co
llab
ora
tion
an
d
crea
te
incl
usi
ve
com
mu
nal
pro
ject
s (e
spec
ially
th
ose
th
at p
rom
ote
pro
-so
cial
beh
avio
urs
), an
d t
o s
eek
sup
po
rt f
or
them
bo
th in
sid
e an
d o
uts
ide
the
com
mu
nity
.
The
stat
e an
d pu
blic
offi
cial
s:
a)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s co
uld
be
map
ped
th
rou
gh
sta
keh
old
er a
nal
ysis
, an
d p
ote
ntia
l par
tner
s in
sid
e th
e st
ate
cou
ld b
e m
ob
ilize
d b
ased
on
an
an
alys
is o
f th
e p
atte
rns
of
vio
len
ce;
b)
Imp
ort
ant
stat
e o
ffici
als
nee
d t
o r
eflec
t at
titu
des
to
war
ds
risk
gro
up
s th
at a
re b
ased
on
so
un
d u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
the
pro
ble
ms
of
the
risk
gro
up
s;
c)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s n
eed
to
ass
um
e th
eir
resp
on
sib
ilitie
s as
du
ty b
eare
rs t
ow
ard
s ri
sk
gro
up
s, f
amili
es a
nd
co
mm
un
ities
; an
d
d)
Stat
e au
tho
ritie
s co
uld
en
gag
e in
wel
fare
act
iviti
es a
nd
pro
gra
mm
es i
n p
artn
ersh
ips
with
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es th
at e
nab
le th
em to
par
ticip
ate
in s
oci
ety
as fu
ll ci
tizen
s.
10
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
11
Intr
odu
ctio
nA
cro
ss th
e w
orl
d in
po
or,
urb
an n
eigh
bo
urh
oo
ds,
bo
th s
tate
an
d n
on
-sta
te a
uth
ori
ties
use
vio
len
ce
agai
nst
th
ose
th
ey c
on
sid
er t
o b
e in
op
po
sitio
n t
o t
hem
, wh
eth
er t
o c
on
tro
l th
eir
con
stitu
enci
es
or
to i
mp
ose
do
min
ant
mo
ral
no
rms.
Th
is f
orm
of
vio
len
ce i
s o
ften
co
nsi
der
ed l
egiti
mat
e b
y au
tho
ritie
s, e
ven
by
tho
se th
at fa
ll vi
ctim
to it
. Tar
gets
mig
ht b
e d
rug-
dea
ling
or d
rug-
usi
ng
you
th,
sexu
al m
ino
ritie
s, o
uts
ider
s o
r m
igra
nts
. So
met
imes
the
vio
len
ce is
exe
rcis
ed b
y st
ate
auth
ori
ties;
at
oth
er t
imes
, it
is p
erp
etra
ted
by
no
n-s
tate
act
ors
act
ing
on
th
e b
ehes
t, in
th
e ab
sen
ce o
r w
ith
the
con
sen
t o
f th
e st
ate;
an
d fi
nal
ly, s
om
etim
es t
he
vio
len
ce is
dire
cted
aga
inst
th
e st
ate.
Wh
at
un
ites
thes
e d
iffer
ent f
orm
s o
f vio
len
ce is
a c
laim
to u
ph
old
ord
er, d
isci
plin
e, ju
stic
e an
d th
e ri
ghts
o
f th
ose
wh
o a
llege
th
ey r
epre
sen
t th
e m
any
by
targ
etin
g gr
ou
ps
of s
o-c
alle
d t
ran
sgre
sso
rs, a
nd
fo
r th
is r
easo
n w
e ca
n s
ay i
t is
au
tho
rity
-bas
ed.
Imp
ort
antly
, d
iffer
ent
gro
up
s m
igh
t co
nst
itute
th
e o
bje
ct o
f th
e d
isci
plin
e d
epen
din
g o
n w
hic
h a
uth
ori
ties
are
in c
on
tro
l lo
cally
. W
hile
su
ch
vio
len
ce h
app
ens
in r
ura
l are
as a
s w
ell,
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce in
th
e ci
ties
take
s o
n a
sp
ecifi
c n
atu
re d
iffer
ent
fro
m r
ura
l are
as. A
s se
vera
l co
mm
enta
tors
hav
e n
ote
d (
Bja
rnes
on
an
d J
ense
n,
2014
; Ro
dge
rs, 2
014
; Wo
rld
Ban
k, 2
011
, Ari
as, 2
00
6),
urb
an v
iole
nce
is c
har
acte
rize
d b
y a
ran
ge
of
acto
rs a
nd
fo
rms
and
by
a h
igh
deg
ree
of
con
flict
bet
wee
n d
iffer
ent
vio
len
t n
etw
ork
s an
d
acto
rs, i
ncl
ud
ing
vigi
lan
te g
rou
ps,
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
s, a
nd
diff
eren
t co
mp
etin
g p
olit
ical
act
ors
an
d
stat
e o
ffici
als.
Ap
art
fro
m b
ein
g d
iffer
ent
fro
m r
ura
l vio
len
ce, t
his
form
of u
rban
vio
len
ce is
qu
ite d
iffer
ent
fro
m
ho
w w
e o
ften
un
der
stan
d s
tate
vio
len
ce a
s fo
r in
stan
ce t
ort
ure
an
d il
l-tr
eatm
ent
– a
s ex
trem
e,
spec
tacu
lar
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
. R
ath
er,
the
vio
len
ce w
e ar
e ad
dre
ssin
g is
co
mm
on
pla
ce,
take
n
for
gran
ted
; it
hap
pen
s ev
ery
day
; it
is o
ften
co
nsi
der
ed le
gitim
ate
by
the
maj
ori
ty o
f th
e p
artie
s,
and
it o
ften
esc
apes
hu
man
rig
hts
inte
rven
tion
s as
th
ey a
re u
sual
ly fo
cuse
d o
n le
gisl
ativ
e re
form
an
d t
rain
ing
stat
e in
stitu
tion
s o
n h
ow
to
up
ho
ld h
um
an r
igh
ts.
For
inst
ance
, wh
at p
uts
yo
uth
or
sexu
al m
ino
ritie
s at
ris
k is
no
t th
e ig
no
ran
ce o
f au
tho
ritie
s o
f w
hat
th
ey c
an a
nd
can
no
t d
o;
it is
wh
at t
hey
fee
l le
gitim
ated
to
do
an
d w
hat
co
mm
un
ities
dem
and
th
at t
hey
do
, in
clu
din
g th
e ki
nd
s o
f vi
ole
nce
th
at p
olic
e ar
e so
met
imes
exp
ecte
d t
o u
se a
gain
st c
rim
inal
s b
y th
e ge
ner
al
po
pu
latio
n (H
orn
ber
ger,
2014
; Jen
sen
20
14)1 .
Th
e ta
rget
ed g
rou
ps
are
usu
ally
at
risk
bec
ause
of
the
pra
ctic
es th
ey e
nga
ge in
(ste
alin
g o
r rio
ting)
, wh
at th
ey s
ymb
oliz
e (m
ora
l co
rru
ptio
n),
ho
w th
ey
loo
k (s
exu
al m
ino
ritie
s), o
r w
her
e th
ey a
re (s
tran
gers
, mig
ran
ts).
Bu
t m
ore
th
an a
nyt
hin
g th
ey a
re
at r
isk
bec
ause
no
on
e is
will
ing
to p
rote
ct th
em, a
s th
ey a
re s
een
to tr
ansg
ress
mo
ral b
ou
nd
arie
s o
r n
ot
be
“wo
rth
y vi
ctim
s”. W
hen
th
ey a
re h
urt
, few
peo
ple
th
ink
they
des
erve
tre
atm
ent
or
care
. A
diff
eren
t ap
pro
ach
to
ad
dre
ssin
g a
uth
ori
ty-b
ased
urb
an v
iole
nce
is t
her
efo
re n
eces
sary
.
Th
ere
is a
ten
den
cy w
ithin
th
e fie
ld o
f p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
reh
abili
tatio
n t
o d
ivid
e th
e h
ealin
g an
d
pre
ven
tion
an
d t
o e
qu
ate
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
hes
on
ly t
o r
ehab
ilita
tion
. T
his
mea
ns
that
th
e p
ote
ntia
l of t
he
psy
cho
soci
al fi
eld
to in
fluen
ce p
reve
ntio
n is
no
t exp
lore
d. C
urr
ently
in th
e fie
ld o
f p
reve
ntio
n, e
ffo
rts
focu
s m
ain
ly o
n in
stitu
tion
al re
form
an
d tr
ain
ing.
In c
on
text
s o
f urb
an v
iole
nce
, th
e d
iffer
entia
tion
bet
wee
n p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
reh
abili
tatio
n i
s n
ot
use
ful
in c
reat
ing
a su
stai
nab
le
1 T
he
issu
e o
f d
efin
itio
ns
is c
om
plic
ated
. We
use
th
e te
rms
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce h
ere
to s
tres
s th
e n
eed
to
b
egin
fro
m lo
cal p
ract
ices
of
auth
ori
ty r
ath
er t
han
str
ict
leg
al n
orm
s (K
yed
, 20
12).
In m
any
case
s, t
he
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
reg
iste
red
her
e w
ill in
dee
d b
e ca
rrie
d o
ut
by
the
stat
e. W
hile
th
ey m
ay a
pp
ear
leg
itim
ate
fro
m a
lo
cal p
oin
t o
f vi
ew, t
hey
will
oft
en b
e in
co
ntr
aven
tion
of
the
Co
nve
ntio
n A
gai
nst
To
rtu
re, a
t le
ast
the
par
t o
f th
e co
nve
ntio
n t
hat
co
nce
rns
cru
el,
inh
um
an a
nd
deg
rad
ing
tre
atm
ent.
Wh
ile s
tate
offi
cial
s w
ill n
ot
alw
ays
carr
y o
ut
the
vio
len
ce, t
hey
will
oft
en, i
n t
he
wo
rds
of t
he
con
ven
tion
, co
nse
nt
or
acq
uie
sce,
an
d h
ence
be
in
con
trav
entio
n o
f th
e co
nve
ntio
n. F
or
furt
her
dis
cuss
ion
of
defi
niti
on
s in
a S
ou
th A
fric
an c
on
text
, see
Jen
sen
, 20
14 a
nd
Dis
sel,
Jen
sen
an
d R
ob
erts
, 20
09.
app
roac
h t
o a
dd
ress
ing
auth
orit
y-b
ased
vio
len
ce.
Th
e G
lob
al A
llian
ce a
ims
to a
dvo
cate
fo
r an
in
tegr
ated
ap
pro
ach
to
war
ds
wo
rkin
g w
ith h
ealin
g an
d p
reve
ntio
n w
ithin
th
e u
rban
vio
len
ce fi
eld
th
rou
gh u
sin
g th
e p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
. We
ou
tlin
e a
psy
cho
soci
al a
pp
roac
h w
hic
h fo
cuse
s o
n
com
bin
ing
pre
ven
tativ
e an
d h
ealin
g w
ork
th
rou
gh c
om
mu
nity
-led
inte
rven
tion
s w
ith r
isk
gro
up
s,
the
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
s in
wh
ich
th
ey l
ive,
th
eir
fam
ilies
an
d t
he
auth
orit
ies
that
see
fit
to p
un
ish
th
em t
o m
ain
tain
ord
er.
Th
is a
pp
roac
h c
om
ple
men
ts l
egal
ap
pro
ach
es t
o p
reve
ntio
n.
Inst
ead
o
f re
pro
du
cin
g an
ap
pro
ach
th
at a
ssu
mes
a d
ich
oto
my
bet
wee
n v
ictim
s (a
s rig
hts
ho
lder
s) a
nd
p
erp
etra
tors
(e.
g. a
s d
uty
bea
rers
), w
e fo
cus
on
rel
atio
nsh
ips
bet
wee
n v
ictim
s an
d r
isk
gro
up
s an
d t
hei
r su
rro
un
din
gs in
th
eir
fam
ilies
an
d c
om
mu
niti
es a
nd
in r
elat
ion
to
au
tho
ritie
s. W
e al
so
un
der
stan
d th
at in
co
nte
xts
of u
rban
vio
len
ce it
can
be
diffi
cult
to d
iffer
entia
te b
etw
een
vic
tims
and
p
erp
etra
tors
: in
man
y in
stan
ces
the
face
of
the
vict
im a
nd
per
pet
rato
r is
th
e sa
me
(e.g
. so
meo
ne
wh
o is
per
ceiv
ed a
s a
per
pet
rato
r o
f in
terp
erso
nal
vio
len
ce m
ay b
e a
vict
im o
f po
lice
tort
ure
).
Th
e p
urp
ose
of
this
pap
er i
s to
exp
lore
su
ch a
psy
cho
soci
al,
com
mu
nity
-led
ap
pro
ach
. W
e d
o n
ot
des
crib
e in
det
ail
wh
at t
he
diff
eren
t in
terv
entio
ns
in t
he
fou
r co
nte
xts
of
Den
mar
k,
Ph
ilip
pin
es,
Lib
eria
an
d S
ou
th A
fric
a co
mp
rise
. R
ath
er,
we
dis
cuss
pri
nci
ple
s an
d r
eflec
t o
n
ho
w t
o u
nd
erst
and
th
e vi
ole
nce
th
at w
e ai
m t
o p
reve
nt
and
th
e eff
ects
we
aim
to
ad
dre
ss.
Co
mm
un
ity-l
ed a
pp
roac
hes
to
vio
len
ce p
reve
ntio
n a
nd
hea
ling
hav
e o
ften
bee
n h
eral
ded
as
a p
anac
ea f
or
soci
al il
ls in
clu
din
g p
ove
rty
and
vio
len
ce.
Th
e as
sum
ptio
n is
th
at o
nly
th
rou
gh a
co
mm
un
ity-l
ed a
pp
roac
h a
re w
e ab
le to
reac
h th
e co
un
tless
nu
mb
ers
of p
oo
r peo
ple
wh
ere
they
ar
e. F
urt
her
mo
re, c
om
mu
nity
-led
ap
pro
ach
es a
re a
sso
ciat
ed w
ith n
otio
ns
of e
mp
ow
erm
ent a
nd
o
wn
ersh
ip.
Wh
ile w
e ar
e sy
mp
ath
etic
to
th
ese
argu
men
ts,
com
mu
nity
-led
in
terv
entio
ns
hav
e b
een
mar
red
by
a n
um
ber
of s
ho
rtco
min
gs: l
ack
of m
on
itori
ng,
lack
of c
lari
ty o
f go
als,
an
d ta
rget
gr
ou
ps
that
are
ill-
defi
ned
. Th
ey h
ave
also
bee
n c
red
ited
with
bei
ng
effec
tive
even
in s
ituat
ion
s w
her
e th
eir
imp
act
mig
ht
be
limite
d. T
his
pap
er a
ims
to r
ever
se s
om
e o
f th
ese
sho
rtco
min
gs b
y p
rese
ntin
g a
clea
r d
escr
iptio
n a
nd
an
alys
is o
f th
e co
nte
xt o
f au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
, in
clu
din
g
un
der
stan
din
g w
ho
th
e ri
sk g
rou
ps
are,
ou
tlin
ing
po
ssib
le t
heo
ries
of
chan
ge w
ith in
dic
ato
rs f
or
the
psy
cho
soci
al m
od
el, a
nd
ske
tch
ing
the
mai
n n
atio
nal
, reg
ion
al a
nd
glo
bal
ad
voca
cy a
gen
das
. H
ence
, th
e p
aper
exp
lore
s fo
ur
diff
eren
t co
nte
xts
of
auth
ori
ty-b
ased
vio
len
ce,
each
illu
stra
ted
b
y o
ne
of
ou
r fo
ur
case
s. N
ext,
it d
etai
ls w
ho
en
ds
up
at
risk
in
th
e fo
ur
con
text
s. A
s w
e sh
all
see,
wh
o t
hat
is m
igh
t sh
ift d
rast
ical
ly w
hils
t st
ill lo
oki
ng
surp
risi
ngl
y si
mila
r. Fi
nal
ly, w
e ex
plo
re
ho
w w
e u
nd
erst
and
pro
cess
es o
f ch
ange
– w
hat
do
we
hyp
oth
esiz
e w
ill h
app
en w
hen
we
do
so
met
hin
g?
Th
e p
aper
beg
ins
with
a c
ritic
al a
nal
ysis
on
ho
w w
e co
nce
ptu
ally
un
der
stan
d t
he
vio
len
ce t
o b
e ad
dre
ssed
an
d p
reve
nte
d b
y th
e p
sych
oso
cial
ap
pro
ach
. It
then
exp
lore
s p
oss
ible
ele
men
ts o
f a
com
mu
nity
-led
psy
cho
soci
al in
terv
entio
n, i
ncl
ud
ing
theo
ries
of
chan
ge. W
e d
o n
ot
atte
mp
t to
cr
eate
on
e m
on
olit
hic
ap
pro
ach
to b
e fo
llow
ed b
y al
l. R
ath
er, t
he
pap
er a
ims
to e
nab
le re
flect
ion
s ab
ou
t psy
cho
soci
al in
terv
entio
ns
add
ress
ing
vio
len
ce in
po
or,
urb
an n
eigh
bo
urh
oo
ds.
Th
e p
aper
is
bas
ed o
n th
e w
ork
car
ried
ou
t in
fou
r co
un
trie
s: D
enm
ark,
Ph
ilip
pin
es, L
iber
ia a
nd
So
uth
Afr
ica
by
resp
ectiv
ely
DIG
NIT
Y, B
alay
, LA
PS
and
Cen
tre
for
the
Stu
dy
of
Vio
len
ce a
nd
Rec
on
cilia
tion
(C
SVR
). T
hu
s, it
rep
rese
nts
a u
niq
ue
exp
erie
nce
th
at t
ran
scen
ds
the
glo
bal
so
uth
an
d t
he
glo
bal
n
ort
h t
o p
rod
uce
in
sigh
ts t
hat
mig
ht
be
rele
van
t fo
r co
mm
un
ity-l
ed i
nte
rven
tion
s ac
ross
th
e w
orl
d a
nd
fo
r th
inki
ng
of
hea
ling,
fu
nct
ion
ing
and
pre
ven
tion
with
in o
ne
anal
ytic
al a
nd
pra
ctic
al
fram
ewo
rk.
12
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
13
Un
der
stan
din
g co
nte
xts
of v
iole
nce
Wh
en a
imin
g t
o p
reve
nt
vio
len
ce a
nd
ad
dre
ss i
ts i
mp
licat
ion
s fo
r ri
sk g
rou
ps,
tw
o o
f th
e fir
st
qu
esti
on
s to
ask
are
wh
at k
ind
of
vio
len
ce w
e ar
e ad
dre
ssin
g a
nd
ho
w d
iffer
ent
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
rel
ate
to e
ach
oth
er.
Alt
ho
ug
h o
ur
acco
un
t is
no
t ex
hau
stiv
e, w
e id
enti
fy t
he
follo
win
g f
orm
s o
f vi
ole
nce
as
rele
van
t to
th
e fo
ur
diff
eren
t p
roje
ct in
terv
enti
on
sit
es:
1)
You
th v
iole
nce
in
clu
din
g g
ang
vio
len
ce,
crim
inal
ity,
sch
oo
l vi
ole
nce
an
d v
iole
nce
re
late
d t
o d
rug
co
nsu
mp
tio
n;
2)
Co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce i
ncl
ud
ing
vig
ilan
tism
, xe
no
ph
ob
ic a
ttac
ks,
hat
e cr
imes
, se
rvic
e d
eliv
ery
rela
ted
vio
len
ce,
pro
test
ag
ain
st f
orc
ed e
vict
ion
s an
d v
iole
nce
ag
ain
st
vict
ims
of
dis
ease
(e.
g.
HIV
an
d E
bo
la).
Co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce is
usu
ally
leg
itim
ized
by
refe
rrin
g t
o s
om
e ki
nd
of
mo
ral
com
mu
nit
y th
at p
rote
cts
loca
l m
ora
ls o
r a
mo
ral
ord
er;
3)
Inti
mat
e an
d
inte
rper
son
al
vio
len
ce
incl
ud
ing
ch
ild
abu
se,
do
mes
tic
vio
len
ce,
and
co
nfl
icts
bet
wee
n n
eig
hb
ou
rs a
nd
co
mm
un
ity
mem
ber
s re
late
d t
o a
lco
ho
l co
nsu
mp
tio
n,
deb
ts,
reso
urc
es,
lan
d o
r h
um
iliat
ion
s. I
n o
ther
co
nte
xts,
th
ese
are
calle
d ‘s
oci
al f
abri
c’ c
rim
es;
4)
Stat
e vi
ole
nce
invo
lvin
g t
each
ers,
po
lice,
mili
tary
, hea
lth
sta
ff, p
riso
n s
taff
, po
litic
ian
s an
d w
elfa
re o
ffici
als;
5)
Ext
ract
ive
vio
len
ce in
volv
ing
mai
nta
inin
g a
nd
cre
atin
g e
con
om
ic re
sou
rces
incl
ud
ing
st
rike
bre
aker
s, m
inin
g g
uar
ds
and
lan
dlo
rds;
an
d
6)
Rev
olu
tio
nar
y vi
ole
nce
incl
ud
ing
reg
ime-
top
plin
g a
ctiv
itie
s lo
cally
or
glo
bal
ly.
Th
ese
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
exi
st in
diff
eren
t w
ays
and
to
diff
eren
t d
egre
es in
all
fou
r co
un
trie
s.
It s
erve
s n
o p
urp
ose
to
go
th
rou
gh
all
form
s o
f vi
ole
nce
in
th
e fo
ur
diff
eren
t p
lace
s, b
ut
a fe
w e
xam
ple
s m
igh
t ill
ust
rate
th
e p
oin
t. C
olle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
, a
term
th
at d
eriv
es v
ery
mu
ch
fro
m t
he
Sou
th A
fric
an c
on
text
(V
on
Ho
ldt
et a
l, 2
013
) ex
ists
in
all
fou
r co
nte
xts.
In
So
uth
A
fric
a it
ap
pea
rs i
n f
orm
s su
ch a
s vi
ole
nt
serv
ice
del
iver
y p
rote
sts,
vig
ilan
te a
ctiv
itie
s, a
nd
xe
no
ph
ob
ic a
ttac
ks o
n f
ore
ign
ers.
In
Lib
eria
, th
e p
rim
ary
targ
ets
of
vio
len
ce w
ere
you
ng
ex
-co
mb
atan
ts (
oft
en t
alke
d a
bo
ut
as t
he
mo
torc
ycle
bo
ys).
Furt
her
mo
re,
in t
he
wak
e o
f th
e E
bo
la c
risi
s, n
ew t
arg
ets
wer
e th
ose
th
at w
ere
seen
to
bri
ng
in
dis
ease
an
d d
eath
. In
th
e in
terv
enti
on
sit
es i
n t
he
Ph
ilip
pin
es,
colle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
oft
en t
akes
th
e fo
rm o
f vi
gila
nte
act
ivit
ies
bu
t in
oth
er p
lace
s ar
ou
nd
th
e co
un
try,
co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce m
igh
t re
late
to
rev
olu
tio
nar
y, e
xtra
ctiv
e an
d s
tate
vio
len
ce.
In D
anis
h h
ou
sin
g e
stat
es y
ou
ng
peo
ple
, o
r p
eop
le w
ho
are
see
n a
s so
meh
ow
dev
ian
t fr
om
a s
oci
al n
orm
of
a st
ron
g g
rou
p w
ith
in t
he
esta
te, m
igh
t b
e d
isci
plin
ed in
way
s th
at a
re o
ften
ref
erre
d t
o b
y m
ain
stre
am D
anis
h m
edia
as
bei
ng
fro
m a
‘par
alle
l so
ciet
y’ (
Joh
anse
n, 2
013
). Li
kew
ise,
sta
te v
iole
nce
exi
sts
in a
ll fo
ur
loca
tio
ns.
Ho
wev
er,
ther
e ar
e h
ug
e d
iffer
ence
s in
ho
w i
t is
per
ceiv
ed a
nd
ho
w i
t re
late
s to
th
e la
w. V
iole
nce
per
pet
rate
d b
y th
e D
anis
h s
tate
is m
ost
oft
en le
git
imiz
ed in
law
s in
volv
ing
in
carc
erat
ion
an
d p
enet
rati
on
in
to f
amili
es.
In t
he
Ph
ilip
pin
es,
vio
len
ce i
s o
ften
ass
oci
ated
w
ith
co
rru
pt
po
lice
pra
ctic
es.
Mod
els
for
un
der
stan
din
g vi
olen
ce
Thes
e re
mar
ks p
rom
pt q
uest
ions
in
rela
tion
to v
iole
nce
whi
ch a
re c
entr
al t
o t
he p
sych
oso
cial
m
ode
l fo
r pr
even
tion
and
wel
lbei
ng i
n po
or
urba
n ne
ighb
our
hoo
ds,
incl
udin
g th
e fu
ndam
enta
l o
ne o
f w
hy w
e sh
oul
d in
terv
ene
at a
ll to
red
uce
vio
lenc
e. W
e w
ill b
riefly
co
nsid
er t
hese
que
stio
ns
thro
ugh
anth
ropo
logi
cal,
trau
ma
and
publ
ic h
ealth
app
roac
hes
to v
iole
nce.
Let
us
begi
n w
ith t
he
anth
ropo
logi
cal
appr
oac
h. F
irstly
, w
hen
is v
iole
nce
cons
ider
ed v
iole
nt a
nd b
y w
hom
? W
hile
thi
s qu
estio
n m
ight
see
m s
elf-
evid
ent,
it is
act
ually
no
t. M
ost
of
the
peo
ple
we
wo
rk w
ith –
esp
ecia
lly
poo
r, yo
ung
peo
ple
– d
o n
ot c
ons
ider
the
vio
lenc
e th
ey e
xper
ienc
e as
vio
lenc
e be
caus
e it
is w
hat i
t is
– ju
st n
orm
al li
fe. I
n th
e P
hilip
pine
s, th
e te
rm ‘O
k la
ng’ o
r ‘ju
st o
k’ c
aptu
res
the
sens
e o
f vio
lenc
e th
at
is t
o b
e ex
pect
ed a
nd h
ence
no
t ‘re
al v
iole
nce’
, eve
n if
vict
ims
are
hurt
or
hum
iliat
ed b
y it
(Jen
sen,
H
apal
and
Mo
dvig
, 20
13).
Tort
ure
is a
cat
ego
ry o
f vio
lenc
e th
at is
mo
st o
ften
ass
oci
ated
with
spe
cific
ev
ents
or r
egim
es li
ke th
e ap
arth
eid
regi
me
in S
out
h A
fric
a o
r the
mar
tial l
aw p
erio
d in
the
Phi
lippi
nes.
Fe
w
peo
ple
are
will
ing
talk
ab
out
th
e cu
rren
t, ev
eryd
ay
vio
lenc
e pe
rpet
rate
d by
po
lice
as
rele
vant
to
the
Co
nven
tion
Aga
inst
To
rtur
e.
In
thes
e in
stan
ces,
w
hat
defin
es
vio
lenc
e is
w
ho
the
vict
im
is.
Vio
lenc
e pe
rpet
rate
d by
the
po
lice
agai
nst
activ
ists
is
perc
eive
d as
rea
l vi
ole
nce,
ye
t th
e sa
me
vio
lenc
e,
whe
n pe
rpet
rate
d ag
ains
t yo
ung
m
en i
n tr
oub
le w
ith t
he l
aw i
s no
t co
nsid
ered
vio
lenc
e.
Like
wis
e, t
he
repr
essi
ve p
ow
ers
of t
he D
anis
h st
ate
are
rare
ly s
poke
n ab
out
as
vio
lenc
e.
Vio
lenc
e se
ems
to
be
rele
vant
o
nly
in
rela
tion
to
exce
ss,
as
the
Fren
ch p
hilo
soph
er E
tienn
e B
alib
ar
(199
8)
sugg
ests
. H
is a
naly
sis
clo
sely
fo
llow
s th
e le
gal
requ
irem
ents
o
f ju
s be
llum
or
just
war
. U
nder
the
se
requ
irem
ents
, vi
ole
nce
can
be
legi
timat
e o
nly
if it
is p
erpe
trat
ed i
n
self-
defe
nce
and
if it
is p
ropo
rtio
nate
to
the
thr
eat.
This
mo
del i
s im
plic
itly
in o
pera
tion
in a
lmo
st a
ll di
sco
urse
s o
n vi
ole
nce.
Tak
e fo
r in
stan
ce t
he
war
on
terr
or,
whi
ch i
s le
gitim
ized
as
pr
e-em
ptiv
e st
rikes
ag
ains
t a
thre
at
that
w
ill
mat
eria
lize
in
the
futu
re.
Even
att
acks
lik
e th
ese
draw
o
n th
e id
ea o
f se
lf-de
fenc
e, a
s do
m
any
prev
enta
tive
crim
inal
ju
stic
e in
terv
entio
ns.
The
disc
ussi
ons
o
n
sent
enci
ng a
re a
n ex
ampl
e o
f ho
w
14
| G
LO
BA
L A
LL
IAN
CE
PS
YC
HO
SO
CIA
L M
OD
ELS
FO
R P
RE
VE
NT
ION
AN
D W
ELL
BE
ING
|
15
pro
port
iona
lity
is a
co
nsta
nt e
lem
ent
– h
ow
lo
ng s
houl
d a
crim
inal
sta
y in
pris
on
for
a ce
rtai
n
crim
e? T
hese
rem
arks
als
o s
ugge
st t
hat
whi
le t
he p
rinci
ple
for
the
use
of
legi
timat
e vi
ole
nce
refe
rs
to s
elf-
defe
nce
and
to p
ropo
rtio
nalit
y, t
his
is a
fau
lt lin
e w
hich
is u
p fo
r co
nsta
nt d
iscu
ssio
n an
d
cont
esta
tion
by t
hose
inv
olv
ed.
Hen
ce,
whi
le A
mer
ican
mili
tary
per
sonn
el m
ight
co
nsid
er d
rone
at
tack
s le
gitim
ate,
resi
dent
s in
the
trib
al a
reas
of P
akis
tan
clea
rly d
o n
ot a
gree
. The
sam
e ca
n be
sai
d
abo
ut ra
ids
in S
out
h A
fric
an to
wns
hips
. Whi
le th
e po
lice
mig
ht c
ond
uct s
uch
raid
s w
ith s
elf-
defe
nce
in m
ind
– p
rote
ctin
g So
uth
Afr
ica
agai
nst
a dr
ug m
enac
e –
man
y to
wns
hip
resi
dent
s do
no
t ag
ree
(Jen
sen,
20
08
). H
ence
, whe
n vi
ole
nce
is le
gitim
ate
or
not i
s co
nsta
ntly
neg
otia
ted
and
cont
este
d.
The
seco
nd q
uest
ion
to b
e co
nsid
ered
is
Wha
t is
the
pur
pose
of
vio
lenc
e? O
n a
conc
rete
lev
el,
the
answ
er to
this
que
stio
n is
that
it d
epen
ds o
n th
e co
ntex
t. H
ow
ever
, we
can
expl
ore
it a
t a m
ore
ab
stra
ct le
vel.
The
Ger
man
phi
loso
pher
Wal
ter
Ben
jam
in2
sugg
este
d a
usef
ul d
istin
ctio
n be
twee
n
law
-pre
serv
ing
and
law
-mak
ing
vio
lenc
e. In
Ben
jam
in’s
ana
lysi
s, v
iole
nce
is n
ot
dest
ruct
ive
of
law
an
d o
rder
; it
is c
ons
titut
ive
for
law
and
ord
er. H
ence
, we
sho
uld
not
onl
y be
co
ncer
ned
with
wha
t vi
ole
nce
dest
roys
but
als
o w
hat
kind
of s
oci
ality
and
co
mm
unity
it e
nabl
es a
nd p
rodu
ces.
The
idea
th
at v
iole
nce
pro
duce
s so
cial
ity m
ight
be
coun
ter-
intu
itive
fo
r m
any.
Ho
wev
er, c
ons
ider
vig
ilant
e vi
ole
nce
and
how
am
biva
lent
it
is;
whi
le i
t de
stro
ys h
uman
bo
dies
and
liv
es,
it al
so r
eco
nfirm
s an
d re
pro
duce
s th
e ex
iste
nce
of
a pr
ocl
aim
ed m
ora
l co
mm
unity
at
the
sam
e tim
e as
it c
ond
one
s vi
ole
nce
in w
ays
that
arg
uabl
y ea
t aw
ay a
t a
soci
al f
abric
sha
red
by a
ll. I
n th
at s
ense
, it
is e
xact
ly
wha
t Ben
jam
in w
oul
d ca
ll ‘la
w-p
rese
rvin
g vi
ole
nce’
. Whi
le it
is n
ot b
ased
on
form
al o
r co
nstit
utio
nal
law
, it
relie
s o
n an
oth
er,
mo
re l
oca
lized
‘la
w’
whi
ch i
s no
les
s eff
ectiv
e in
the
spe
cific
co
ntex
t. If
we
follo
w th
is th
ou
gh
t, w
e m
igh
t say
that
man
y o
f th
e fo
rms
of c
olle
ctiv
e vi
ole
nce
men
tion
ed
abo
ve f
all
into
th
e ca
teg
ory
of
‘law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce’,
even
if
the
vio
len
t p
ract
ices
are
in
co
ntr
aven
tion
of
form
al l
aw.
An
exa
mp
le h
ere
cou
ld b
e th
e vi
ole
nce
vis
ited
up
on
sex
ual
m
ino
ritie
s, w
hic
h is
ag
ain
st th
e So
uth
Afr
ican
Co
nst
itutio
n b
ut l
egiti
miz
ed b
y m
ora
l an
d re
ligio
us
cod
es (J
ense
n, 2
00
5). I
n a
ll th
e ca
ses,
co
llect
ive
vio
len
ce is
leg
itim
ized
as
the
def
ence
of a
mo
ral
com
mu
nity
; th
at is
, th
at g
rou
p o
f peo
ple
wh
o a
re a
ble
to a
sser
t th
eir a
uth
ori
ty a
s th
e co
mm
un
ity.
Th
is s
ug
ges
ts th
at th
e co
nce
pt o
f co
mm
un
ity is
als
o c
on
test
ed. ‘
Th
e co
mm
un
ity’ t
hen
bec
om
es
an e
ntit
y th
at d
epen
ds
on
th
e ab
ility
an
d p
ow
er t
o d
efin
e it
and
mai
nta
in it
, oft
en t
hro
ug
h ‘l
aw-
pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce’.
Stat
e vi
ole
nce
cle
arly
fal
ls u
nd
er t
he
cate
go
ry o
f la
w-p
rese
rvin
g v
iole
nce
. W
e co
uld
arg
ue
that
man
y fo
rms
of
do
mes
tic a
nd
inte
rper
son
al v
iole
nce
wo
uld
fal
l un
der
th
e ca
teg
ory
of
law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce, a
s d
om
estic
vio
len
ce o
ften
rel
ates
to
th
e p
rese
rvat
ion
of
for
inst
ance
pat
riar
chal
or
gen
erat
ion
al p
ow
er s
tru
ctu
res.
To
a v
ery
larg
e ex
ten
t, t
he
vio
len
ce
her
e d
escr
ibed
thro
ug
h th
e co
nce
pt o
f law
-pre
serv
ing
vio
len
ce is
wh
at w
e re
fer t
o in
the
pro
ject
as
‘au
tho
rity
-bas
ed v
iole
nce
’, th
at is
, vio
len
ce t
hat
pre
serv
es w
hat
is lo
cally
co
nsi
der
ed a
mo
ral
com
mu
nity
or
a co
mm
un
ity o
f m
ora
lly u
pst
and
ing
res
iden
ts.
On
th
e o
ther
han
d,
acco
rdin
g t
o B
enja
min
’s a
nal
ysis
, la