AleisterCrowleyonDrugs
ChristopherPartridge
Abstract
Whilemuchhasbeenwrittenaboutthelife,workandinfluenceofAleisterCrowley,
relativelylittleattentionhasbeendirectedtohisdruguse.Thisisalittlesurprising
because,notonlydidhebecomeaddictedtoheroin,butheincorporatedpsychoactive
substancesinhisoccultwork,discussedtheirpsychologicaleffects,commentedon
drug-relatedsocialissues,critiquedcontemporarydruglegislation,publisheddrug
literature,andeventranslatedCharlesBaudelaire’s‘PoemofHashish.’Thisarticle
discusseshisthoughtondrugsandreligiousexperienceandsuggeststhattheywere,
largelybecauseofhisaddiction,amoreimportantforceinhislifethanhasthusfarbeen
acknowledged.
AleisterCrowleywastheepitomeofthefindesiècleoccultist.Hegloriedinaccusations
ofSatanism,delightedintabloidvilificationsofhimas‘AWizardofWickedness,’‘the
WickedestManintheWorld,’andthe‘KingofDepravity,’and,withreferenceto‘the
Beast’(Θηρίον,Therion)inthebiblicalBookofRevelation,heoccasionallyreferredto
himselfas‘theGreatBeast’orthe‘MasterTherion.’Inseveralrespects,hewasagood
exampleof‘thetragicgeneration’eulogizedbyW.B.Yeats.WhileYeatsdidnot,of
course,haveCrowleyinmind—consideringhimtobean‘unspeakablemadperson’
(quotedinKaczynski2010:66)—thesignificantpersonalwealthCrowleyhad
inherited1affordedhimthespacetoembracedecadenceinmuchthesamewaythat
Joris-KarlHuysmansrecountstheperversepleasuresofthewealthyandreclusive
aestheteDesEsseintesinhis1884novelÀrebours(trans.1959).Likewise,justas
Yeats’stragicgenerationwashauntedbydisillusionment,ennuianddespair,oftenasa
resultofthepersistentquestforintenseexperiences,sotoothereisashadowacross
Crowley’slife.Hisexhaustivesearchformomentsofecstasydidnotalwaysendhappily
and,inthecaseofdrugs,ledtothedebilitatingpainandignominyofaddiction.
Whiletherearereferencestodrugsandshortdiscussionsoftheireffectsscattered
throughouthiswork,onlyasmallpercentageoftheCrowleyancorpusspecifically
addressesthesubject,theprincipalworksbeing:threeessaysonthepsychoactive
significanceofdrugs,‘ThePsychologyofHashish’(1909),‘Absinthe—TheGreen
Goddess’(1917a),and‘EthylOxide’(1923)2;threediscussionsoflegislationand
addiction,‘Cocaine’(1917b),‘TheGreatDrugDelusion’(1922a),and‘TheDrugPanic’
(1922b);adiaryofhisstrugglewithaddiction,‘LiberXVIII:TheFountainofHyacinth’
(1921)3;ashortstory,‘TheDrug’(1909);andahastilywrittennovelin1922—the
principalaimofwhichwastomakemoneyfordrugs—largelybasedonhisown
experiencesandrelationships,DiaryofaDrugFiend(1979).Moreover,gathered
togetherunderthetitle‘TheHerbDangerous,’insuccessiveissuesofhisjournalThe
Equinox,4hepublished,firstly,‘APharmaceuticalStudyofCannabisSativa’(March,
1909)byE.P.Whineray—aLondonpharmacistwhooftensuppliedCrowleywith
drugs—secondly,hisessay‘ThePsychologyofHashish’(September,1909),thirdly,his
owntranslationofCharlesBaudelaire’s‘ThePoemofHashish’(March,1910),and
finally,extractsfromFitzHughLudlow’sTheHasheeshEater(September,1910).
WhilethereisverylittlesignificantpublishedresearchintoCrowley’suseof
psychoactives,andwhileheobscuredthetyrannyofhisaddictioninmuchofhis
writing,neverthelessitisclearthatdrugswereincorporatedintohisocculttheoryand
practice.Indeed,thisarticlesuggeststhat,largelybecauseofhisaddiction,theywere
moreimportanttohimthanistypicallyacknowledgedinCrowleyscholarship.
ScientificilluminismandThelemicphilosophy
Readingthroughthismaterial,itquicklybecomesapparentthat,foralltheir
problematicbaggage,Crowleywasimpressedbytheabilityofdrugstoproducewhat
thepsychologistAbrahamMaslowwouldlatercall‘peakexperiences’—‘anillumination,
arevelation,aninsight’(1964:183).Consequently,asMartinBoothdiscusses,hecame
tobelievethat‘thetakingofdrugs—atleast,theright“magical”drugs—shouldprecede
allmagicalceremoniesbecausetheymadeaccesstomysticalexperiencesalltheeasier.’
Moreover,‘hebelievedthattheyweregenuinelymagicalandhemadeuseofthewayin
whichtheyenabledhimtore-examinehisbasicbeliefsandvaluesfromanewpointof
view,reassessingtheworldfromamagicalandmysticalperspective.Oneofthe
primaryaimsofhislifewastheextensionofhisconsciousnessbywhatevermeans,
appliedseparatelyorincombination’(Booth2000:102).Morespecifically,theywere
treatedaspowerfultechnologiesintheserviceof‘scientificilluminism,’thecoreidea
behindwhichwasdistilledintothemotto,‘themethodofscience;theaimofreligion.’5
Essentially,arguingthattheapproachesofbothscienceandreligionhadfailedintheir
attemptstoaccessthetruenatureofreality,Crowleysoughttodevelopaviamediain
theformofasystemthatcombinedthemethodologiesofboth.Psychoactivesubstances
wereusefulinsuchasystembecause,undertherightconditions,theywereableto
inducereproducible(i.e.‘scientific’)momentsofrevelation.Thatistosay,apartfrom
beingpeculiarlyeffectiveintheproductionofalteredstates,theyequippedtheuser
withacertainlevelofcontrol.Onecould,withreasonableaccuracy,determine,notonly
thetimeandplaceofamysticalexperience,butalsoitsintensityandnature.Assuch,
psychoactiveswereenormouslyappealingtoamysticwantingtoapplythescientific
methodtooccultpractice.Indeed,hewasparticularlyimpressedandinfluencedbythe
researchofWilliamJamesintonitrousoxideintoxicationandinducedmysticism.‘Since
1898,’hetellsus,‘Ihavebeenprincipallyoccupiedinstudyingtheeffectsofvarious
drugsuponthehumanorganism,withspecialreferencetotheparallelismsbetween
psychicalphenomenaofdrug-neuroses,insanities,andmysticalilluminations.Themain
objecthasbeentoseewhetheritispossibletoproducetheindubitablyuseful(see
WilliamJames,VarietiesofReligiousExperience)resultsof“ecstasy”inthelaboratory’
(Crowley1922a:573).WhileCrowleywas,ofcourse,noJames,thisdoesindicate
somethingofthedirectionofhisthoughtregardingtheuseofdrugsinoccultpractice.
ThisbringsustohisThelemicphilosophy.Keenlyfocusedonthesignificanceof‘the
will’(θέλημα,thelema),hefamouslyinsistedthat‘“Dowhatthouwiltshallbethewhole
ofthelaw.”“Loveisthelaw,loveunderwill.”“ThereisnolawbeyondDowhatthou
wilt”’(Crowley1976:9).Centraltothisbroadlyegoisticphilosophywasthenotionof
the‘TrueWill,’whichexpressedhisconvictionthatallbeingshavetheirownpurposeto
which,attheexpenseofallelse,theymustdevotethemselves.Thisisnottosaythat
Crowley’segoismadvocatedsimplydoingonlywhatonewants,butratheritinsistedon
thediscoveryofone’spurposeinlife—inaccordancewiththecosmiclawsofthe
universe—followedbythefulfillingofthatpurpose.Inshort,one’sTrueWillmustbe
identifiedandrealized.‘Magick’—thetermheusedforhissystem,whichhedefinedas
‘theScienceandArtofcausingChangetooccurinconformitywiththeWill’(2000:
126)—enabledtheidentificationandrealizationoftheTrueWill(see,Crowley1976:
10).Flowingfromthis,hisdeclarationthat‘everymanandwomanisastar’(1976:19)
suggestedthepotentialitywithinallofusforglorification.Aslongaswefollowour
propercourse,thestrugglesoflifethatinhibitprogresstowardglorificationwill
dissolve.Although,again,Crowleywoulddiscoverthatdrugscanleadtoadulledand
diminishedwill,hewasalsoconvincedthat,intherighthands(andhead),theycouldbe
incorporatedintotheThelemicsystem.
IhavebeensuckingupthevapourofEtherforafewmoments,andallcommon
thingsaretouchedwithbeauty.So,toowithopiumandcocaine,calm,peace,
happiness,withoutspecialobject,resultfromafewminutesofthosedrugs.What
clearerproofthatalldependsonstateofmind,thatitisfoolishnesstoalter
externals?Amillionspentonobjetsd’artwouldnothavemadethisroomas
beautifulasitisjustnow—andthereisnotonebeautifulthinginit,exceptmyself.
Manisalittlelowerthantheangels;onestep,andallgloryisours(Crowley,
quotedinBooth2000:334-335).
Again,concerningcocaine,whileheacknowledgestheshadowofaddiction,
nevertheless,hearguesthat,usedcarefully,itcanbeavaluabletechnologyof
transcendence:‘thehappinessofcocaineisnotpassiveorplacidasthatofthebeasts;it
isself-conscious.Ittellsmanwhatheis,andwhathemightbe;itoffershimthe
semblanceofdivinity,onlythathemayknowhimselfaworm.Itawakesdiscontentso
acutelythatnevershallitsleepagain.Itcreateshunger’(Crowley1917b:292).
Ifdrugsareabletocreateahungerforglorificationandmysticalexperience,then,asfar
asCrowleywasconcerned,theyareaneffectivemeanstoanimportantend.Thisis
essentiallyIsraelRegardie’sthesisconcerningCrowley’sunderstandingoftheesoteric
significancedrugs.AninfluentialinterpreterofCrowleyanmagic,havingworkedashis
secretaryforfouryears,hearguesthathewasprimarilyinterestedintheirabilityto
induce‘aforetasteorsomeadumbrationofthemysticalexperiencetowardswhichhe
wasfocusingallhisenergies’(Regardie1994:23).Thatistosay,Crowleybelievedthat,
‘iftheNeophytecouldtastethegloryandtheineffabilityofhisgoalsbymeansofan
introductorydoseofhashish,hewouldthenbewillingtoembarkuponalifelong
programofself-disciplinetomakethedivineanintrinsicpartofhisbeing’(Regardie
2014:117-118).However,havingsaidthat,hewasalsoverykeentoavoidaccusations
ofattempting‘ashortcutbythemeansofsuchdrugsasopiumandhasheesh’(Fuller
1907:305).Itwas,insistsRegardie,‘nevertheintentionofCrowleyatanytime,touse
drugsasasubstituteforthebody-mind-discipline,whichheinsisteduponbeyondall
otherthings.Thiswasthefurthestnotionfromhismind’(Regardie1994:24;seealso,
Crowley1994:119).Whilewewillseethattheevidencesuggeststhatitwasnotalways
thefurthestnotionfromhismind,nevertheless,itistruethatheatleastclaimedthathe
had‘nouseforhashishsaveasapreliminarydemonstrationthatthereexistsanother
worldattainable—somehow’(Crowley1994:119).Ostensibly,hisargumentwasthat,
‘sincehumannatureishumannatureafterall,andsincepeopletendtobecome
discouragedand,fromthere,giveupthestruggleforenlightenment,’then,asRegardie
insists,‘iftheycouldbegivensomeinklingofwhattheineffableexperiencecouldbe
like,perhaps…theywouldbewillingtoovercometheirowninertiaanddespondency—
andwork.Itwasthecarrottobewavedinfrontofthedonkey’snose.Butwavedonly
longenoughtogetthedonkeystarted’(Regardie1994:24).
Thetrialsandtribulationsofthedrugfiend
Crowley’sstrugglewithdrugsisevidentinthetracesofambivalencetowardsthemin
hiswork—which,ofcourse,hesharedwithanumberofotherfindesiècleoccultistsand
writers.Therewereanumberofreasonsforthisambivalence.Firstly,itisclearfromhis
discussionsofdruglegislation,aswellasanumberofothercommentsscattered
throughouthiswork,thathewasconsciousofthegrowingsocialconcernabout
increasingdruguse.AsGeorgeViereck,theeditorofTheInternational,putitina
revealingdisclaimeratthebeginningofhisarticleon‘Cocaine,’‘wedisagreewithour
contributingeditoronsomepoints,’notingthat‘accordingtopolicestatistics,’thedrug
‘isbeginningtobeaseriousmenacetoouryouth’(Viereck,inCrowley1917b:291).
Whiletheydisagreedoversomepoints,Crowleydidnotdenythatthiswasaconcern.
Moreover,whilepsychoactiveswereassociatedwiththecreativeanddecadentculture
ofthefindesiècle,withartists,intellectuals,andthespiritualavant-garde,theyquickly
becameidentifiedwiththeuncultured,brutalworldofthelowerclassesand‘youthful
thrill-seekers’(Davenport-Hines2002:148-173).Forexample,Crowleyobservedthat
‘everyotherChineselaundryisadistributingcentreforcocaine,morphia,andheroin.
Negroesandstreetpeddlersalsodoaroaringtrade.Somepeoplefigurethatonein
everyfivepersonsinManhattanisaddictedtooneorotherofthesedrugs’(1917b:
293).Whilehedisputesthefigures,nevertheless,hesays,‘thecravingforamusementis
maniacalamongthispeoplewhocaresolittleforart,literature,ormusic,whohave,in
short,noneoftheresourcesthatthefolkofothernations,intheirowncultivatedminds,
possess’(1917b:293).Thisclearlybotheredhim,foritwasnotanareaofsocietyora
culturehewantedtobeassociatedwith.
Secondly,theuseofdrugswithinesotericismwasresistedasaprofaneshortcutby
manywithintheoccultmilieu.Forexample,asRegardienotes,Mathers‘frownedupon
allsuchmethods,preferringtheclassicalsecrettechniquesofmindandspiritual
training’(Regardie1994:9).Elsewhere,hemakesthepointthat‘theGoldenDawn
neverrecommendedtheuseofanyconsciousnessexpandingdrugs’(Regardie2014:
127).Consciousofthis,itwasimportanttoCrowleythathiscontemporaries
understoodhisprincipalfocustobethedevelopmentoftechniquesoftranscendence
rootedinthedisciplinedpracticeofmagick,ratherthanintoxication.Again,Regardie
insiststhatthis‘fundamentalpremisewasstatedoverandoveragain,inahundred
differentways.’
Itwasneverthatthedrugexperiencepersecouldpossiblyreplacethebasic
mentalandspiritualdisciplinethathestoodfor,andwhichallpreviousoccult
teachersinsistedupon…Whatwasrequiredbeyondallotherthingswas
enduranceandpersistency—thedisciplineofthebody-mindsystem,inthe
technicalphasesoftheWorkitself,toprovidethebasicnecessarytoolsthrough
whichthemysticalstatewouldbereinstated,re-experienced,andre-explored
(Regardie1994:25-26).
However,whilethiswastruetheoretically,inpracticeCrowleyfoundtheimmediacyof
inducedexperiencesdifficulttoresist.Forexample,concerningtheexperienceofastral
projection,herecommendsthatit‘shouldbeprecededbya(ceremonial)“looseningof
thegirdersofthesoul.”6Howtodoitisthegreatproblem.Iaminclinedtobelievein
drugs’(Crowley1910:117).Hence,again,thereisambivalencetowardstheuseof
psychoactivesinhiswork.
Finally,becausehisfocuswasonthedevelopmentof‘thewill,’hewashighlycriticalof
thosewhosepursuitofthe‘TrueWill’hadbeencompromised.Hewasadamantthat
‘onlyweaklingsfellvictimtoadrug’(Sutin2000:277).This,ofcourse,meantthathis
ownexperienceof‘therestlesswretchednessofamorphineusedeprivedofthedrug’
(Crowley1970:252)wasadeeplyhumiliatingone.Therefore,thereweretimeswhen,
likemostaddicts,hesimplydeniedthathehadaproblemandinsistedtohisfollowers
thatdrugshadnopoweroverhim.Indeed,toanextenthebelievedthisand,becausehe
did,struggledwiththebrutalrealityofaddiction.Forexample,hearguedthat‘thereare
threemainclassesofmenandwomen:(1)Afraidtoexperimentwithanything…(2)
Enslavedbyanythingthatappealstothem.(3)Abletouseanythingwithoutdamaging
themselves.’He,ofcourse,claimedtobelongtothefinalcategory,eveninsistingthat,in
theserviceofscience,hehadattemptedtoinduceaddictionthroughpersistentuse,but
failed,suchwasthestrengthofhiswill:‘Iattemptedtoproducea“drug-habit”inmyself.
Invain…Iwasalwaysabletoabandonthedrugwithoutapang’(Crowley1922a:573).
This,ofcourse,isnonsense—and,indeed,frequentlyrepeatednonsense.Thetruthis
thathisaddictionhadanincreasinglydetrimentalimpactonhislifeandwork.‘Thereis
noharm,’heargued,‘inman’sexperimentingwithopium-smoking,butthemomenthe
ceasestoexamine,toactfromhabitwithoutreflection,heisintrouble’(Crowley2000:
115).Thiscommentaroseoutofhisownexperienceof‘trouble,’hisowninabilityto
overcomeactingfromhabit.Forexample,duringhistimeattheAbbeyofThelema—the
templeandspiritualtrainingcentrethathehadestablishedinCefalù,Italy—he‘bought
drugsfromaPalermopushernamedAmatoreandmadethemavailabletoallresidents’
(Kaczynski2010:361).Thisledtoproblems.AlthoughRichardKaczynskiclaimsthat
hisstatedgoalwas‘nottoencouragedrugs,buttomakethemsoreadilyaccessiblethat
heremovedalltemptation’(2010:361)inactualfact,asJohnSymondscomments,‘his
over-indulgenceinheroinandcocainehadanadverseeffectonthe…Abbey’sdiscipline’
(Symonds1958:76;seealsoSymonds1971:236-238,245).Hence,in1922,heleftthe
AbbeyforaperiodofrehabilitationinFontainebleau.Again,hestruggled,butfailed.
Someindicationofthenatureofthisstruggleisprovidedinadiaryentryhewroteat
thistime:
I,Baphomet666,wishingtoprovethestrengthofmywillandthedegreeofmy
couragehavepoisonedmyselfforthelasttwoyearsandhavesucceededfinallyin
reachingadegreeofintoxicationsuchthatwithdrawalofthedrugs(heroin&
cocaine)produceaterribleattackofthe‘StormFiend.’Theacutesymptomsarise
suddenly,usuallyonwakingupfromanap….MediumdoseHeroin.Thiswasareal
indulgenceintheworstsenseoftheword.IthasoccurredveryfrequentlythatI
havetakenadoseforreasonsatpresentutterlyunfathomable.(Thisisa
confessionindeed,forme,whoclaimstobetheforemostlivingpsychologist!)
Thereisnottheslightestdiscomforttoberemoved,orthefaintestwishtoreach
somestillsuperiorstate.Itisanabsolutelyperverseimpulse….Therehasbeena
constantlyincreasingindifferencetomattersofordinaryhealth,cleanlinessand
vanity.Iseemhardlytoknowwhatthestateofaffairsis,astodefecation,etc.…
Therearenumerousveryalarmingmentalsymptoms,butallreallyreducetoone
only,thefeelingthatnothingisworthwhile.Itisasortof‘philosophicallaziness’….
Thereisadullmalaise,combinedlackofanyinterestinanythingandthe
knowledgethatcocainewouldputmerightatonce.Cocaineisbarredaltogether
ofcourse.Thereasonisthis:Thehungerforitisstrictlymoralandamanoughtto
beabletomasterhismoralpassions.Physicaltorture,ontheotherhand,simply
throwsthemoralapparatusoutofgear;onecannotbeblamedforcommitting
suicideordoinganyotherfoolishactwhenthepainissostrongastopreventthe
manifestationoftheWillaltogether…OnlycocainecouldhelpmeandIwon’ttake
it...Mediumdose.Myfeelingisthatthesafestcourseistoarrangeamildjag;
sufficienttoovercomemygenerallassitude,whichisbeginningtomakemeopen
toviolentsuggestiontothrowthewholecureoverboard(Crowley1921;seealso
Symonds1971:274-283).
Again,unlikehashishandpeyote,becausehehad‘notmuchtothank’heroinand
cocainefor,hewasdisturbedthathecouldnotresistthem:‘itisfortheseandtheseonly
thatIhanker’(Crowley1921).‘Heroinwas,’asSymondsrecalls,‘essentialtohis
existence.Heneeded,too,ratheralotofheroinowingtohisbody’stoleration:sevenor
eightormoregrainsaday,aphenomenalamountreallyifoneconsidersthattheusual
doseisone-sixteenthorone-eighthofagrain.MorethanonceIhadsteadiedhimwhile
heinjectedhimselfinthearmpit’(1958:51).Itishardlysurprisingthereforethat,in
desperation,he‘wrotetoDr.EdwardCros…tellinghimthewholestory’andrequesting
thathe‘callandfixasanatorium.’However,headdedthatheintendedto‘direct[his]
owntreatment’(Crowley1921).Why?Because,again,astheprophetofThelema,
despitetheseverityofhisaddiction,hedidnotbelievethatheneededmedical
assistance:‘Tosubmittomedicaltreatmentwouldbetodestroymywholetheoryand
blasphemetheGodswhosechosenministerIam!’(Crowley1921)Predictably,hefailed
and,again,must’vestruggledenormouslyasaresult,inthathisaddictionplaceda
questionmarkagainsthisThelemicteachingandpersonalauthority.Indeed,manyof
Crowley’sostensiblyobjectivecommentsabouttherelationshipbetweenaddictionand
thewillcanbeunderstoodasobliquereferencestohisowntorment:‘topossessthe
supplyofadrug,’istobe‘themaster,bodyandsoul,ofanypersonwhoneedsit.People
donotunderstandthatadrug,toitsslave,ismorevaluablethangoldordiamonds’
(Crowley1917:294b).Hence,while,ontheonehand,hewasfascinatedbythepowerof
drugstostimulatetheimaginationandtoproduceecstaticstates—to‘risetothe
cloudlessandpassionlessblissofthephilosopher,’to‘beholdthefantasticgloriesof
fable,andthoseathousandfold,’andto‘perceivetheheartofBeautyineveryvulgarand
familiarthing’(Crowley1916)—ontheotherhand,theyerodedthepowerofthewill,
whichwassocentraltohisthought.
Formuchofthelatterhalfofhislife,drugshauntedandenslavedhim.Whileithasbeen
arguedthatheeventuallymanagedtofreehimselffromheroinin1924(see,Kaczynski
2009:29-30),ithastobeacknowledgedthat,evenifhedid,by1940hehadsuccumbed
toitagain,continuingtouseituntilhisdeathin1947.Certainly,whateverthetruthof
Crowley’sprivatehabit,itwouldbenaïvetobelievethatheentirelyescapedhislonging
forheroineonceithadfounditswayintohissystem.7AsWilliamBurroughsputit,‘junk
winsbydefault…Ifyouhaveneverbeenaddicted,youcanhavenoclearideawhatit
meanstoneedjunkwiththeaddict’sspecialneed.Youdon’tdecidetobeanaddict.One
morningyouwakeupsickandyou’reanaddict…Ihavelearnedthejunkequation...
Junkisnotakick.Itisawayoflife’(1977:xv-xvi).Crowleyunderstoodthisandwe
misunderstandhimifwedonot.LikeBurroughs,hewasclearthat,‘amanwhohasonce
experiencedthedrug-lifefindsitdifficulttoputupwiththeinanityofnormalexistence.
Hehasbecomewisewiththewisdomofdespair’(Crowley1979:353).
HightimeswithAllanBennett
The‘drug-life’beganforCrowleywhenhewasintroducedtotheesotericsignificanceof
psychoactivesbyhisfriend,mentor,andfellowmemberoftheGoldenDawn,Allan
Bennett.AlthoughitshouldbenotedthatGeorgeCecilJones,whohadfirstintroduced
CrowleytotheGoldenDawnandencouragedhisinterestintheoccult,wasanindustrial
chemistwithaknowledgeofpharmaceuticals,itwasalmostcertainlyBennett,whowas
alsoachemistbytraining,whointroducedthemintohislifeastechnologiesthatmight
beusefulforthepracticeofmagic.WhileBennettcouldhave,likeJones,ledamaterially
comfortablelife,hiscommitmenttooccultismandthenBuddhism,aswellaschronic
asthma,ledtofrequentperiodsofpoverty.Indeed,aswithmanyinthenineteenth
century,itwasthemedicationprescribedtoalleviatehissufferingthatrevealedtohim
thespiritualpotentialofdrugs(see,Sutin2000:65).AsCrowleycommented,‘hiscycle
oflifewastotakeopiumforaboutamonth,’then‘whentheeffectworeoff…hehadto
injectmorphine.Afteramonthofthisheswitchedtococaine,whichhetookuntilhe
begantosee“things”andwasthenreducedtochloroform’(quotedinSutin2000:65).
AsBennett’slifebecameincreasinglyorganizedaroundperiodsofintoxication,sohe
becameconvincedthat‘thereexistsadrugwhoseusewillopenthegatesoftheWorld
behindtheVeilofMatter’(Bennett,quotedinRegardie2014:117 ).Crowleywasso
impressedbyhisthesis,thatonceBennetthad‘impartedtohimtherudimentsofhis
pharmacologicalknowledge’(Regardie2014:117 ),hebeganinearnestexperimenting
withopium,cocaine,etherandhashishinanattempttogainaccess‘behindtheveilof
theuniverse’where‘livethemysticandthetrueartist’(Crowley1994:121).(Such
substanceswere,ofcourse,alllegallyavailableinBritainuntilthepassingofthe
DangerousDrugsActin1920.)Together,saysCrowley,heandBennett,‘formany
months…studiedandpracticedCeremonialMagic,andransackedtheancientbooksand
MSSofthereputedsagesforakeytothegreatmysteriesoflifeanddeath.’He
continues:
Throughtheageswefoundthisoneconstantstory.Strippedofitslocaland
chronologicalaccidents,itusuallycametothis—thewriterwouldtellofayoung
man,aseekerafterHiddenWisdom,who,inonecircumstanceoranother,meets
anadept;who,aftersundryordeals,obtainsfromthesaidadept,forgoodorill,a
certainmysteriousdrugorpotion,withtheresult(atleast)ofopeningthegateof
theOther-world.ThispotionwasidentifiedwiththeElixirVitaeofthephysical
Alchemists,oroneoftheir‘Tinctures,’mostlikelythe‘WhiteTincture’which
transformsthebasemetal(normalperceptionoflife)tosilver(poetic
conception)…(Crowley1994:98;cf.,Symonds1958:106-107)
Crowleywouldlaterbemoantheprojectasaseriesof‘fruitlessattemptstopoison
ourselveswitheverydrugin(andoutof)thePharmacopœia,’because,‘likeHuckleberry
Finn’sprayer,nuffin’comeofit’(Crowley1994:98).This,again,reflectsthe
ambivalenceinCrowley’swork.Itwas,however,disingenuous.Itisclearthathis
experimentswithBennett,whohereferredtoas‘aflawlessgenius’(Crowley,quotedin
Kaczynski2009:64)wereimportanttohimandinformedhisthinkingaboutdrugs.
Indeed,farfromnuffin’comingofit,aswehaveseen,agreatdealcameofit.
Thisholyherb
ThisistheProfitofmineIntoxicationofthisholyHerb,TheGrassoftheArabs,
thatithathshewedmethisMystery(withmanyothers),notasaNewLight,forI
hadthataforetime,butbyitsswiftSynthesisandManifestationofalongSequence
ofEventsinaMoment(Crowley1974:127).
AnardentadmirerofRichardBurton,theVictorianOrientalist,travelwriter,and
translatoroftheArabianNights,in1903,Crowley,withhisnewwifeRoseKelly,began
hisownjourneytotheOrient.Duringtheseandsubsequenttravels,notonlydidhe
betraytheinfluenceofBurton’sinterestsandidiosyncrasies(see,Sutin2000:35,51),
but,heclaimsthat,inatleastonerespect,hewentbeyondthegreatman‘whosolved
nigheveryotherriddleoftheEasternSphinx’(Crowley1994:95).WhereasBurtonused
hashishandregardeditas‘nomorethanavice’(1994:96),hediscovereditstrue
significance.InIndia,forexample,herelateshowhewastaught‘systemsofmeditation’
inwhich‘lesserYogisemployedhashish…toobtainSamadhi,thatonenesswiththe
Universe…’(1994:98).Moreover,whilethiswasnodoubttrue,arguablymore
significantwaswhathewasreadingduringthisperiod:‘Ialsohadtheadvantageof
fallingacrossLudlow’sbook,andwasstruckbythecircumstancethathe,obviously
ignorantofVendantistandYogicdoctrines,yetapproximatelyexpressedthem,though
inadegradedanddistortedform’(1994:98-99).Inotherwords,notonlydoesheclaim
thathashishwasusedtoattainstatesoftranscendencethatwerenormallytheresultof
disciplinedmeditation,butalsothataccountsofcannabisintoxicationintheWestcome
veryclosetodescribingtheexperiencesofmysticsintheEast.Nevertheless,heis
carefultoinsistthathashishshouldbeusedasatoolalongwith‘disciplineandtraining
inthemeditativearts’(Regardie1994:20).Thatsaid,althoughwehavenoted
Regardie’sargumentthatheunderstoodhashishprimarilyasaninitialintroductionto
mysticalexperience,hedoesconcedethatCrowleytaughtusersto‘expectfarbetter
resultswithitsusethanifthetoolofmeditationalonewasused,andviceversa’
(Regardie1994:20).Indeed,‘theremightbeoccasions,evenwhenonehadacquired
supremeskillinmediation,whenanadditionalfilliporstimulusprovidedbyjudicious
andtemperateuseofhashishwouldenableonetosurmountthesterilityandgrimness
ofthelong-protracteddiscipline,tosoarexaltedlyabovethearmoredrestrictionofthe
ego-functionsintotheineffable’(Regardie1994:26-27).Assuch,cannabis,‘thegrassof
theArabs,’canbeconsidereda‘Holyherb…whichmightbeappointedfor…
Enlightenment’(Crowley1974:124,127).Hence,again,heinsiststhat,whilesome
mightaccusehimof‘pureslothorweariness’(Crowley1994:95)oflazinessinoccult
practice,infactheusedhashishasatechnologyto‘loosenthegirdersofthesoul’
(Crowley1994:100;seealso,Fuller1907:305).Indeed,in1907,inananalysisof
Crowley’sphilosophy(whichisactuallymoreofaneruditeexerciseiningratiation),
JohnF.C.Fullerclaimsthatthiswasindeedthecase:‘hasheeshmayinsomewaybethe
loosenerofthegirdersofthesoul,butthisisall’(Fuller1907:305).However,thatthis
wasallitwasforCrowleyisdoubtful.Inthefinalanalysis,itisdifficulttoavoidthe
conclusionthatCrowleyfoundincannabisashortcuttotranscendence,which,
regardlessofhisemphasisontheimportanceofskill,knowledge,andsoberritual,he
wasneverquiteabletoleavebehind.Hence,itisunsurprisingtodiscoverthat,notonly
didhestruggletomeditate,butthathefoundpsychoactivestobeasignificanthelpin
realizinghisspiritualgoals.
Iwasawareoftheprimeagonyofmeditation,the‘dryness’…whichhardensand
sterilizesthesoul.Theverypracticewhichshouldflooditwithlightleadsonlyto
darknessmoreterriblethandeath…Meditationthereforeannoyedme,as
tighteningandconstrictingthesoul.Ibegantoaskmyselfifthe‘dryness’wasan
essentialpartoftheprocess.IfbysomemeansIcouldshakeitscatafalqueofMind,
mightnottheInfiniteDivineSpiritleapunfetteredtotheLight?Whoshallroll
awaythestone?(Crowley1994:99)
Theanswer,ofcourse,wasthe‘burningdaughteroftheJinn’—hashish(Crowley1994:
95).
Itsperhapsworthnotingthatofsomesignificanceinhisexperienceofhashishwasthe
perceptionoftranscendingofspaceandtime.Spatiotemporaltranscendence,whichis
socommoninpsychedelichistory,investsintoxicationwithanotherworldly
significance.Ashenotesinhismagnumopus,Magick:LiberABA,Book4,hashish
enablesustounderstandthat‘TimeandSpaceareformsbywhichweobtain(distorted)
imagesofIdeas.OurmeasuresofTimeandSpacearecrudeconventions,anddiffer
widelyfordifferentBeings’(2000:501).Thepointisthat,asbothLudlowand
Baudelairehaddiscussed,hashishintoxication‘involveththeMysteryofthe
TranscendingofTime,sothatinOneHourofourTerrestialMeasuredidIgatherthe
HarvestofanAeon,andinTenLivesIcouldnotdeclareit’(Crowley1974:124).
Theelixir
Whileheisoftenregardedashaving‘experimentedwithmoredrugsmorefrequently
thananybodyintheWestbeforetheNeurologicalRevolutionofthe1960s’(Wilson
2014: xxiii;seealso,Wilson2000 ),andalthoughhebecameaddictedtococaineand
heroin,hispreferredtechnologyoftranscendencewaspeyote.Attheturnofthe
twentiethcentury,itwasknownasanhaloniumlewinii,atermthatacknowledgesthe
groundbreakingresearchofLouisLewin,theGermanpharmacologistwho,in1888,
publishedthefirstscientificreportonthepsychoactivepropertiesofthecactus.8His
workledtomuchinterestinpeyoteandeventuallytotheisolationofmescalineby
ArthurHeffterin1897anditssynthesisbyErnstSpäthin1919.Crowley’sinterest,
therefore,waspartofagrowingfascinationwithpeyoteinEuropeandAmerica.Indeed,
bearinginmindthatBennettwouldalmostcertainlyhaveknownofit,itislikelythat
CrowleyfirstheardofitduringhistimeintheGoldenDawn.Nevertheless,hesoon
familiarisedhimselfwiththeavailableresearchandevenmadeatriptoPark,Davisand
Co.,theAmericancompanythathadoriginallysecuredsamplesofthecactus:‘Parke
Daviswerecharmingandshowedmeovertheirwonderfulchemicalworks…Theywere
kindenoughtointerestthemselvesinmyresearchesinAnhaloniumLewiniiandmade
mesomespecialpreparationsonthelinesindicatedbymyexperiencewhichproved
greatlysuperiortopreviouspreparations’(Crowley1989:768).Althoughhemakes
surprisinglyfewreferencestothedrug—sometimessimplyreferringtoitincodeas
‘31’9—thereislittledoubtthatitwasasignificantpartofhisworkforseveralyears.
Indeed,heindicatedthatheintendedtopublishastudyoftheeffectsofpeyoteinThe
Equinox,entitled‘Liber934:TheCactus.’Itwouldbe‘anelaboratestudyofthe
psychologicaleffectsproducedbyAnhaloniumlewinii(Mescalbuttons),compiledfrom
theactualrecordsofsomehundredsofexperiments;withanexplanatoryessay’
(Crowley1919:16).Althoughitwasneverpublishedandprobablyneverwritten,it
doesindicatehisfascinationwiththedrug.Thisissupportedbyamarginalnoteagainst
‘anhaloniumlewinii’thatCrowleyscribbledintheAbbeyofThelema’slibrarycopyof
DiaryofaDrugFiend:‘Imademanyexperimentsonpeoplewiththisdrugin1910,and
subsequentyears’(Crowley1971:236).Thisclaimwassubsequentlyrepeatedtothe
botanistArthurBernhard-Smith.InashortnoteBernhard-Smithpublishedinthe
BritishMedicalJournal,herecallsthathehad‘carriedoutaseriesofpersonal
experiments,inconjunctionwithDr.HavelockEllis,ontheeffectsofthereputed
deliriantmescal(Anhaloniumlewinii),makinguseofastronginfusionofseedsor
“buttons”oftheplant.’Hethennotesthat,‘actingontheadviceofaliterary
acquaintance,alatter-daymagicianwell-knownintheWestEndoftheLondon,who
claimstohaveadministeredthisformofthedrugtohundredsofhisclients,Iproceeded
toadose…’(Bernhard-Smith1913:21).Themagician,ofcourse,wasalmostcertainly
Crowley.Again,in1913Crowleycommentedthattheresultsofpeyoteintoxication
‘havenotasyetbeenthoroughlystudied.’However,hecontinues‘itismyimmediate
purposetorepairthisneglect’(Crowley1913:37).Ofcourse,ithardlyneeds
mentioningthatfrequentlytakingapsychoactivesubstanceandmakingathorough
studyofitaretwoverydifferentactivities.Iftheyarenot,thenCrowleycertainlyseems
tohavemadeathoroughlystudy,inthatbesidesregularlyusingthedrughimself,he
managedtointoxicatenumerouspeopleathisanhaloniumparties(see,forexample,
Kaczynski2010:315).Atoneofthesepsychedelicesotericsoireesheevenintroduced
thedrugtothecelebratedauthorKatherineMansfield(see,Sutin2000:229-230)andat
anotherinNewYorktoTheodoreDreiser(see,Sutin2000:253).Suchwashisgrowing
relationshipwithpeyote,thathebeganreferringtoitas‘theelixirintroducedbymeto
Europe’(Crowley1913:37)—which,ofcourse,wasnottrue.
Thefactthathereferredtoitasan‘elixir’issignificant,inthatitlocateditfirmlywithin
thetraditionofesotericismasavisionaryandalchemicaltechnologythatcouldbe
employedduringrituals.Likewise,healsoreferstoitasa‘libation.’Forexample,during
aperformanceofhistheatrical‘RitesofEleusis,’whichwerecomprisedofseven
invocations,a‘CupofLibation’waspassedaroundhisaudience.Indeed,herecalledthat
theveryideaofperforming‘rites’cametohimduringasummerspenttakingpeyote
anddevelopingritualswithCommanderGuyMontaguMarston:
MarstonandIstartedwiththeevocationofBartzabel,suggestedbyatalkwhileI
wasstayingwithhimathishouse,Rempstone,Dorset.Theideaofgeneral‘rites’
developedduringthissummerfromcasualritualsadoptedduringtheAnhalonium
experiment.WhenLW[LeilaWaddell]andIplayedandreadpoetryagainsteach
otherbeforetheLord,wegotsuchwonderfulspiritualresultsthatwetriedto
reducealltoarule(Crowley1998:259).
TheRitesofEleusispresentedtheidealoccasionforapsychedelichappening,inthat
theywereintended,asSutinnotes,‘tounitetheperformersandtheaudienceinan
ecstasythatwould,ashadthemysteriesofancientEleusis,revealthedivinecapacities
oftheawakenedhumansoul’(Sutin2000:209).Intheevent,theRitesactuallyhadlittle
todowiththeancientceremoniesofEleusinianMysteries—whichhavebeenlinked
withtheritualuseofpsychoactives.Crowleyreadpoetry,Waddellplayedviolin,and
VictorBenjaminNeuburgdancedastheintoxicatedaudiencegraduallyslippedintoan
enchantedworld.Atoneearlyperformanceofthe‘RiteofLuna’atCrowley’sLondonflat
at124VictoriaStreet,wearetoldthatthe‘CupofLibation’was‘apotentliquidmixture
consistingofalcohol,fruitjuices,possiblysometypeofopiumderivative,andmost
certainlyaninfusionof…peyote’(Sutin2000:210).RaymondRadclyffe,areporterfor
theDailySketch,whoattendedoneoftheceremonies,recordedthefollowing:
TheMasterofCeremonies…orderedabrotherto‘beartheCupofLibation.’The
brotherwentaroundtheroom,offeringeachalargegoldenbowlfullofsome
pleasant-smellingdrink.Wedrankinturn.Thisover,astalwartbrotherstrode
intothecentreandproclaimed‘TheTwelvefoldCertitudeofGod.’Artemiswas
theninvokedbyagreaterritualoftheHexagram.MoreLibation.AleisterCrowley
readustheSongofOrpheusfromtheArgonauts.Followingthissongwedrankour
thirdLibation,andthenthebothersledusintotheroom…Bythistimethe
ceremonyhadgrownweirdandimpressive,anditsinfluencewasincreasedwhen
thepoetrecitedinsolemnandreverentvoiceSwinburne’sgloriousfirstchorus
from‘Atlanta’…AgainaLibation;againaninvocationtoArtemis.
Followingmorepoetry,Neuburg’sdance,andWaddell’smusic,herecordsthat,
intoxicated,‘wewerethrilledtoourverybones’andthat‘mostofusexperiencedthe
EcstasywhichCrowleysoearnestlyseeks.’Itwasherecords,‘areallybeautiful
ceremony—beautifullyconceivedandbeautifullycarriedout’(Radclyffe,quotedin
Booth2000:286-288).
Theceremonialuseofdrugs
Crowley’suseofdrugswithinritualcontextswas,ofcourse,notnovel.Asnotedabove,
itcanbetracedbacktohisexperimentswithBennett.Indeed,Symondsmakesan
interestingobservationconcerningacommentinoneofBennett’snotebooks,dated
1899—whenhewaslivingwithCrowleyinhisflatonChanceryLane.Henotesthathe
hadbeguntousecocaineduringceremoniesfor‘theevokingofgodsandtheconjuring
upofdemons,’because‘itdoubtlesshelpedthematerialisations’(Symonds1958:105-
106).Withsuchideasinmind,itisinterestingtoreadthefollowinginLiberALvelLegis
(TheBookoftheLaw),whichheclaimedtohavebeendictatedtohimbyaincorporeal
entityhereferredtoasAiwass:‘IamtheSnakethatgivethKnowledge&Delightand
brightglory,andstirtheheartsofmenwithdrunkenness.Toworshipmetakewineand
strangedrugswhereofIwilltellmyprophet,&bedrunkthereof!Theyshallnotharmye
atall’(Crowley1976:31).Again,Symondsnotesthat,whileasexritewasoftenusedas
anintroductiontothe‘AlamantrahWorking’—theaimofwhichwastosummonand
communicatewithanentitycalledAlamantrah—whenthisfailed,drugsweretaken,
‘usuallyanhalonium,butsometimesopiumorhashish’(Symonds1958:177-178;see
also,Symonds1971:216).Thereis,inotherwords,anoverlapbetweenBennett’suseof
intoxicationinliturgicalcontextsandCrowley’suse.
Similarly,thereisalsoevidencethatheusedhashishinhis‘Augoeidesinvocations.’The
relativelyobscureNeoplatonicterm,αυγοειδης—whichreferstoluminosity—appears
infrequentlyinmodernoccultism.CrowleyalmostcertainlylifteditfromEdward
BulwerLytton’sRosicruciannovelZanoni,inwhichitisdiscussedinatechnical
footnoteonthe‘mysticalPlatonists’—‘LyttoncallshimAdonaiin“Zanoni,”andIoften
usethisnameinthenote-books’(Crowley1909:159;cf.Lytton1861:130).Lytton’s
novel,whichrelatesthestoryofZanoniandMejnour,thetwolastsurvivorsofan
ancientsect,describesthemasseerswhohavemanagedtotranscendtime,freeing
themselvesfromearthlypassions,andbeingunaffectedbytheravagesofdeathand
decay.Theywereabletodothisbecausetheyhadfoundawayoflivingcontinuallyin
therealmofthespirit,anadvancedstatethatonlythemostaccomplishedmysticscan
hopetoachieve.Whilethepathtothisstateisextraordinarilydifficult,requiring
absolutedevotioninordertosurvivethedauntingtrialsofmindandbody,Lyttonalso
suggestedthattheanswermightbefoundina‘goldenelixir’that‘someofthe
alchemistsenjoyed’(Lytton1861:139).Thesuggestionofan‘immortalelixir,’an‘elixir
thatbafflesdeath’(Lytton1861:31,101)which,moreover,enablesapersontoinvoke
spiritualentities(asBennetthadclaimed),wascertainlyofinteresttoCrowley.Alsoof
interesttohimwasthenotionofAugoeidesastheindividual‘sphereofthesoul,’which
saysLytton,‘isluminouswhennothingexternalhascontactwiththesoulitself;but
whenlitbyitsownlight,itseesthetruthofallthingsandthetruthcentredinitself’
(Lytton1861:130).Although,attimes,CrowleyunderstoodtheAugoeidesinvocationin
termsofcommunionwithadistinctspiritualentity,hisHolyGuardianAngel,atother
timesheusedittorefertohis‘HigherSelf’/’Genius’(conceptswhichwerecommonin
Theosophy).Furthermore,asMarcoPasicomments,‘theritualoftheAugoeidesis
interestingbecauseittookplacealmostexclusivelyinanimaginedritualspace’(Pasi
2012:73)—which,ofcourse,heunderstooddrugstobepeculiarlyeffectiveinevoking.
Itisworthnoting,moreover,thattheAugoeidesinvocationformedpartofthe
‘AbramelinOperation’assetoutinTheBookoftheSacredMagicofAbramelinthe
Mage—atranslationbyMathersofanesotericGermangrimoire,whichhadbeen
translatedintoFrench,andwhichhehaddiscoveredintheBibliothèquedel’Arsenalin
Paris.Thetext,which,interestingly,MathersnoteswasknowntoBulwerLyttonand
ÉliphasLévi,includeditsownfoundingmyth,whichidentifieditasthemagicalsystem
ofAbramelin/Abra-Melin,anEgyptianmage,whopassedonhisknowledgetoAbraham
vonWorms,amedievalJewishscholar.Essentially,theritualconsistsofaseriesof
laboriousandelaboratepreparations,undertakenoveralongperiodoftime,theaimof
whichistoobtainthe‘knowledgeandconversation’ofone’s‘HolyGuardianAngel.’
Havingperformedtheritualininnerspace,Crowleyclaimedthathehadmanagedto
achievethesameresultasifhehadperformeditphysically,namely‘Knowledgeand
ConversationoftheHolyGuardianAngel.’Itwas,asPasisays,subsequently‘perceived
byhimasoneofthemostimportantmagicalachievementsofhisentirelife’(Pasi2012:
73).Thepointhereisthat,inhisdiscussionofthesignificanceofhashish,hementions
anexperienceof‘whatAbramelintheMagecallstheKnowledgeandConversationofthe
HolyGuardianAngel,another(andlessmetaphysicallypretentious)wayofspeakingof
the“HigherSelf”or“Genius”’(Crowley1994:133).Again,speakingof‘thatsupreme
stateinwhichthemanhasbuilthimselfupintoGod’(Crowley1994:141-142),‘thefinal
andperfectidentityoftheSelfwiththeHolyGuardianAngel,’henotesthat,while‘one
maydoubtwhetherthedrugaloneeverdoesthis,’therearethoseforwhomhashish
canbeanimportantinstrumentintheritual:‘itisperhapsonlythedestinedadeptwho,
momentarilyfreedbythedissolvingactionofthedrugfromthechainofthefourlower
Skandhas,obtainsthisknowledgewhichishisbyright,totallyineptashemaybetodo
sobyanyordinarymethods’(Crowley1994:142).Whilethereisnecessarilysome
speculationintheabovediscussion,whatisclearisthat,influencedbyBennett,Zanoni,
andTheBookoftheSacredMagicofAbramelintheMage,aswellasbyhisreadingof
LudlowandBaudelaire,heuseddruginducedalteredstatesto‘loosenthegirdersofthe
soul’withinritualcontexts.
Crowleyandthepsychedelicrevolution
Regardie’sdiscussionofCrowley’suseofhashishneedstobeunderstoodaspartofa
broaderCrowleyanapology.10Morespecifically,whileitbetraysaslightlymore
restrainedattitudetodrugusethanthatofhismentorandapreferenceforceremonial
workfarclosertotheteachingoftheGoldenDawn,itisworthnotingthathisessaywas
writtenin1968.RegardiegottoknowTimothyLearyanddevelopedarelationshipthat,
asGeraldSusternotes,‘stimulatedhisproductivity’(1989:142).Whiledeploringthe
undisciplineduseofpsychoactivesandindeedCrowley’sownaddictiontoheroinand
cocaine,hebegantoappreciate‘theuseofmind-expandingdrugsforwilledmagicaland
mysticalpurposes’(Suster1989:143).Hearguedthat‘drugsarejusttoolsforthe
explorationandenhancementofconsciousness.’Eachdrug,heinsisted,‘shouldbe
employedforaspecificpurposeandusedwithintelligenceandwill’(Suster1989:143).
Hence,althoughhequitecorrectlyrejectedtheideaof‘CrowleyasaVictorianhippie’
(Suster1989:142),nevertheless,inanefforttoreintroducehisworktoanew
generationofseekers,hesoughttodemonstrateitsrelevancetocontemporary
psychedeliabyexplicitlydrawingparallelsbetween‘ThePsychologyofHashish’andthe
ideasarticulatedbyMaslow,Huxley,RobertdeRopp,DavidSolomon,AlanWatts,and
particularlyLeary(see,Regardie1994:39).Indeed,hecommended‘wholeheartedly’
ThePsychedelicExperiencebyLeary,RalphMetzner,andRichardAlpert,as‘theonly
singletextwhichapproximates,albeitdistantly,thehashishessaysofCrowley.’
Moreover,hesaysthat,‘wereCrowleyalivetodayandfamiliarwiththiswork,Iam
altogetherconfidentthathewouldhaveimmediatelywrittena“rave”reviewofitinone
ofhisEquinoxpublications’(Regardie1994:40).Again,heclaimedthat,notonlywould
CrowleyhavegreetedLSDas‘thedrugofchoice,theidealchemicalinstrumenthehad
yearnedforastheexperimentalaidtothemagico-mysticalsystemhehaddeveloped’
(Regardie1994:25),butalsothatHuxley,WattsandLearyintheirowndiscussionsof
thedrugwereessentiallyfollowingatrajectoryinitiatedbyhimintheearlyyearsofthe
twentiethcentury.Indeed,possiblyinfluencedbyRegardie,theBritishoccultist
KennethGrantevenarguedthatLeary‘identifiedhimselfsoentirelywiththecurrent
initiatedbyCrowley…thatheconsidersoneofhisaimstobethecompletionofthe
workofpreparingtheworldforcosmicconsciousness,whichCrowleyhadbegun’
(quotedinSuster1989:142).Regardie,however,wentfurther,insistingthatHuxley’s
argumentthatpsychedelicscanbeused‘topotentiatethenon-verbaleducationof
adolescentsandtoremindadultsthattherealworldisverydifferentfromthe
misshapenuniversetheyhavecreatedforthemselvesbymeansoftheirculture
conditionedprejudices,’reflectstheprincipaltenetsofCrowley’sphilosophy;Watts’
convictionthatthereis‘noessentialdifferencebetweentheexperiencesinduced,under
favorableconditions,by…chemicalsandthestatesof“cosmicconsciousness”recorded
byR.M.Bucke,WilliamJames,EvelynUnderhill,RaynorJohnsonandotherinvestigators
ofmysticism…’concurswiththefindingsofCrowley’sownresearch;Leary’sassertion
that‘themosteffectivewaytocutthroughthegamestructureofWesternlifeistheuse
of…consciousness-expandingdrugs…’goessomewaytowardsCrowley’sown
conclusions(Regardie1994:38-39).However,asfarasRegardieisconcerned,while
therearesignificantlinesofcontinuitybetweentheirattemptstodislocateaperson’s
senseofreality,Crowley‘hadtheedgeovermostofourpresent-dayresearchers’
(Regardie1994:41)becauseheincorporateddrug-inducedtranscendenceintoan
occultsystem.This,hebelieves,wasCrowley’sgeniusfromwhichthenewgenerationof
psychedelicexplorersneedstolearn(seeSuster1989:140-144).
ConcerningtheideaofCrowleyasfatherofthepsychedelicrevolution,itissometimes
claimedthat,inOctober,1930,duringhistimeinBerlin,he‘gavemescalto,amongst
others,theyouthfulAldousHuxley’(King2013:138).JamesWebbevenclaimsthat
thereis‘firsthandevidence’providedby‘aformerdiscipleofCrowley’(1976:439,482;
seealso,Churton2014:171-172).Thiswould,ofcourse,besignificant,inthatitwould
establishaveryclearhistoricallinkbetweenCrowleyandthepsychedelic
counterculture.Unfortunately,itishamperedbyacomprehensivelackofevidence.
ThereislittledoubtthatthetwobrieflymetduringtheeveningofOctober4atthe
MüncherHofbrau,butthereisnoevidencethattheytookmescalinetogetherorthatit
wasevenatopicofconversation.Indeed,notonlydoesHuxleynevermentionthe
encounterwithCrowley,butthereisnottheslightestsuggestionofhimeverhaving
takenthedrugpriorto1953,whenhedeclaredtoHumphryOsmond,‘Iameagerto
maketheexperimentandwouldfeelparticularlyhappytodosounderthesupervision
ofanexperiencedinvestigatorlikeyourself’(Huxley,quotedinMurray2003:399).
‘Thus,’herecalls,‘itcameaboutthat,onebrightMaymorning,Iswallowedfour-tenths
ofagrammeofmescalinedissolvedinhalfaglassofwaterandsatdowntowaitforthe
results’(Huxley1994:3).Therecanbenodoubtthathehadnevertakenitbefore.As
hisrelative,SiggyWessberg,hasstated:‘InMay1953,followingcorrespondencewith
CanadianpsychiatristHumphryOsmond,thenvisitingLosAngeles,AldousHuxleytook
mescalineforthefirsttime’(quotedinDunaway1995:93-94).Again,notonlyisthere
noevidenceinHuxley’scorpusthatCrowleyhadanyimpactonhisthought,buthis
friend,SybilleBedford,inherauthoritativeanddetailedbiography,liststhosewhohad
experimentedwithmescalinesinceLewinandpriortoHuxley,butmakesnomentionof
Crowley(Bedford1974:143).Weallmeetpeopleinthecourseofourlives,someof
whomhaveaprofoundimpactonthewayweviewtheworld,somewhomhaveno
impactatall,andmostofwhomhaveanindiscernibleinfluencesomewherein-between.
WhereverCrowleystoodinHuxley’sworld,heseemsnothavemademuchofan
impressionatall.
Nevertheless,Regardie’sviewofhimasthefatherofmodernpsychedeliabecame
increasinglypopularwithinWesternocculture.Indeed,itisoftensimplyassumedthat,
asFrancisKinginsists,‘most…occultistswhohavetakenafavourableattitudetoward
theuseofconsciousness-alteringdrugshavebeeninfluencedbyAleisterCrowley’(King
2013:138).Similarly,DonWebb,formerhighpriestoftheTempleofSet,isclearthat
CrowleyintroduceddrugstotheWestasamethodofself-transformation(2013:5).
Likewise,KaczynskiportraysCrowleyasapsychedelictrailblazer:‘Halfacentury
beforeTimothyLearytoldtheflowerchildrento“Tunein,turnon,dropout,”AChad
experimentedwithdrugsasanadjunctofconsciousnessexpansion’(2010:562).Again,
WilliamBreezeoftheOrdoTempliOrientishasarguedthatCrowleywas‘apioneerin
theuseofentheogens,’thathisshortstory‘TheDrug’(1909),‘standsasoneofthe
first—ifnotthefirst—accountsofapsychedelicexperience,’andthathefosteredthe
useofdrugs‘inliteraryandoccultcirclesinEuropeandAmerica’(2015:xi,xiii).Indeed,
Boothsuggeststhatheshouldbeplaced‘atleastequaltoAldousHuxleyasawriterand
chroniclerofthepartdrugsplayinvisionaryexperience,’andthat,hadhenot
‘developedsuchanotoriousreputation,hewouldsurelyhavebeenasseriously
consideredinduecourseasHuxleywasafterthepublicationofTheDoorsofPerception
andHeavenandHell’(2000:336).
Whilesuchassessmentsare,ofcourse,notentirelywideofthemark,inthatCrowley
wasanimportantpsychedelicthinkerwhohasnotreceivedtherecognitionhe
deserves,nevertheless,theydotendtooverstatehissignificance.Firstly,notonlywas
creativedrugusehardlyanovelpracticewithinliteraryandoccultcircles,butboth
Baudelaire’s‘ThePoemofHashish’(originallypublishedin1850)andLudlow’sThe
HasheeshEater(originallypublishedin1857),bothofwhichhadaformativeinfluence
onCrowley’sthought,predatedhisbirthin1875.Secondly,althoughitisimportantto
recognizethesignificanceofthelinkCrowleydevelopedbetweenpsychoactivesand
ceremonialmagic,therehadalreadybeensomereflectiononthisrelationship.Louis-
AlphonseCahagnet,PaschalBeverlyRandolph,HelenaBlavatsky,AllanBennett,W.B.
Yeats,andMaudeGonnehadall,invaryingdegrees,giventhemattersomeattention.
Moreover,thereisevidencetosuggestthat,bythemid-1880s,theHermetic
BrotherhoodofLuxorhadalreadyexperimentedwithdrugsduringinitiation
ceremonies(see,Godwin,Chanel,Deveney1995).Thirdly,hiswritingondrugswas
arguablytoooutré,rhetorical,andunsystematictohavehadtheculturalimpactof
Huxley’sfarmoreconciseanderuditediscussions.Finally,adistinctionneedstobe
madebetweenCrowley’sinfluenceasaprofaneiconandhisinfluenceasanoccult
thinker.WhiletheideaofCrowleyfounditswayintotheburgeoningoccultureofthe
1960s,thereisaquestionconcerningtheextenttowhichhisideashadaformative
influenceonpsychedelia.Certainly,theideaofCrowley—asasymboloftransgression—
hadaculturalimpact.NotonlywashisimageusedbyPeterBlakeintheartworkforThe
Beatles’psychedelicclassic,Sgt.Pepper’sLonelyHeartsClubBand(1967),but,inThe
PoliticsofEcstasy,LearyencodestheideaofCrowleywithpsychedelicmeaningby
identifyinghimasoneofBritain’s‘inveteratetrippers,heads,andstonedvisionaries’
(1970:97),notingthat‘heexperimentedwitheveryavailabledrugasameansof
transcendence,’thatheusedpeyote‘toturnontheaudiencesathislectures,’andthat
he‘articulatedtheviewpointthatdrugprohibitionwasnotonlyuselessbutactually
intensifiedtheproblemofdrugabuse’(1990:258).AndyWarholevencommentedthat
theroleofthecounterculturein‘theevolutionofsocietywassimilartothatofAlistair
[sic]Crowley,theoccultphilosopherwhoscandalizedthepreviousgenerationwithhis
flamboyanceandhislibertarianideas(“Dowhatthouwiltisthewholeofthelaw”)’
(Leary1990:199).However,again,itwasprimarilytheideaofCrowleyasprofaneicon
thatappealedtothecounterculture.Thereisrelativelylittleevidenceduringthe1960s
psychedelicrevolution—beyondtheoccultmilieuandthosewhohadaparticular
interestinCrowley’sphilosophy,suchasJimmyPageofLedZeppelin,thefilmdirector
KennethAnger,andthewriterRobertAntonWilson—thatmuchdetailwasknown
abouthisthought,letalonehisideasregardingtheesotericsignificanceofintoxication.
WhileLearymayhavebeenanexception,again,thereareonlyafewreferencesand
littleevidenceofanysignificantinfluence.This,ofcourse,wasnotbecausethe
counterculturedisagreedwithhisideas,butratherbecause,asSustersays,duringthe
1960shis‘books…wereexpensiveandashardtolocateastheworkofaRussian
dissident’(1989:140).However,bytheendofthedecade,whenthepsychedelic
counterculturewasbeginningtofade,arevivaloftheinterestintheocculthadstarted
togainground,centraltowhichwastherepublicationofhisworksinaffordable
editions.Thatsaid,again,despitetheeffortsofRegardie,thefocustendednottobeon
histheoriesofintoxication.Eventoday,thisisstillaneglectedareainthestudyof
Crowley’sthought.
Concludingcomments
Crowley’simportanceinthehistoryofpsychedelicesotericismrelatesprincipallytothe
wayinwhichhewasabletodistilanumberofideascirculatingattheturnofthe
twentiethcentury.Hepossessed,inawaythatfewothersdid,anintellectual
arrogance,11acharismaticauthority,andapenchantfortransgressionthatenabledhim
toimmersehimselfintheoccultureofthefindesiècleandtosurfacewithaneclectic
esotericphilosophythatinspiredbelief.Corethemesoftheperiod,suchasthoseof
declineandrebirth,andtheRomanticnotionofaNewAge,werereimaginedintermsof
thepassingoftheAeonofOsirisandtheapocalypticadventoftheAeonofHorus—
characterizedbyself-realizationandself-actualization(Crowley1976:12-13).Again,if
MaxNordausawinBaudelaire‘atonceamysticandanerotomaniac’inspiredbyvisions
of‘hashishandopium’(1895:285),Crowleywastheepitomeofthatdarktrajectory.
Crowley’sarticulationofanapproachthatused‘themethodofscience’topursue‘the
aimofreligion’wasofcourseadevelopmentofideasalreadyincirculation.Notonly
weresimilarapproachesevidentintheworkofmembersoftheSocietyforPsychical
Research,butCrowleyexplicitlydrewonJamesianideasconcerningthepsychological
interrogationofmysticalstates.Inparticular,drugsemergedastechnologiesthat
enableduserstoinducestatesoftranscendenceinawaythatcouldbecontrolledand,
therefore,examined.Assuch,theyemergedasanimportantelementinthereversalof
themoderndiscoursethatdifferentiatedscienceandreligion.Psychoactiveswere
technologiesthatcouldbeusedtoaccessotherformsofconsciousnessand,perhaps,
otherlevelsofreality.EvenifCrowleycannotbesaidtohavehadtheculturalimpactof
Huxley,hisocculttheoryandpracticerepresentsanimportantmomentinpsychedelic
history.
Finally,becausenineteenthcenturyoccultistswhowantedtomaintainacertainlevelof
credibility,nottosayrespectability,neededtodistancetheirideasfromdiscoursesof
madnessandaddiction,theytendedexpressambivalencetowarddruguseandevena
preferenceforabstinence.Crowley,whilenottooworriedaboutrespectability,was
neverthelessconcernedaboutesotericcredibility.Consequently,severaltimeshe
suggestedthatpsychoactivesshould,ineffect,beseenastrainingwheelsonthenovice’s
occultbicycle.Hewasalsokeentoadvancethenotionthatpsychedelicexperimentation
couldbealignedwithstudiesinthepsychologyofconsciousness.Hence,forexample,
James’sVarietiesofReligiousExperienceprovidedagreatservice,inthatitconstructeda
respectablescientificcontextwithinwhichtoembedhisaccountsofinducedaltered
states.However,regardlessofhisdiscussionsofintoxicationinoccultpractice,hewas
alwayscarefultofocusonthedevelopmentoftheunaidedwill.Thatsaid,inthefinal
analysis,wehaveseenthathisfewtypicallycandidautobiographicalreflectionsreveala
manhauntedbyaddiction.
ReferencesBaudelaire,Charles.1910.‘ThePoemofHashish,’TheEquinox1.3,39-64.Bedford,Sybille.1974.AldousHuxley:ABiography.Vol.2,1939-1963.London:Chatto&Windus,1974.
Booth,Martin.2000.AMagickLife:ABiographyofAleisterCrowley.London:Hodder&Stoughton.Breeze,William.2015.‘Introduction.’InAleisterCrowley,TheDrugandOtherStories.Ware:WordsworthEditions,2015,xi-xviii.Burroughs,WilliamS.1977.Junky.London:Penguin.Churton,Tobias.2014.AleisterCrowley:TheBeastinBerlin.Art,Sex,andMagickintheWeimarRepublic.Rochester:InnerTraditions.Crowley,Aleister.1909a.‘TheTempleofSolomontheKing(Book1),’TheEquinox1.1,141-230.Crowley,Aleister.1909b.‘TheDrug,’TheIdler34,No.36(January),403-408.ReprintedinAleisterCrowley,TheDrugandOtherStories.Ware:WordsworthEditions,2015,107-113.Crowley,Aleister.1910.‘TheTempleofSolomontheKing(Book4),’TheEquinox1.4,43-118.Crowley,Aleister.1913.‘EnergizedEnthusiasm:ANoteOnTheurgy,’TheEquinox1.9,17-46.Crowley,Aleister.1916.‘TheAttainmentofHappiness,’VanityFair(November):https://www.100thmonkeypress.com/biblio/acrowley/periodicals/attainment/attainment.pdf(accessedJuly7,2016).Crowley,Aleister.1917a.‘Absinthe—TheGreenGoddess,’TheInternational(February),47-51.Crowley,Aleister.1917b.‘Cocaine,’TheInternational(October),291-294.Crowley,Aleister.1919.‘A∴A∴Præmonstrance,’TheEquinox3.1,11-17.Crowley,Aleister.1921.‘LiberXVIII:TheFountainofHyacinth’:http://hermetic.com/crowley/libers/lib93.html(accessedJuly4,2016).Crowley,Aleister(writingunderthepseudonym‘ANewYorkSpecialist’).1922a.‘TheGreatDrugDelusion,’TheEnglishReview(June),571-576Crowley,Aleister(publishedunderthepseudonym‘ALondonPhysician’).1922b.‘TheDrugPanic,’TheEnglishReview(July),65-70.Crowley,Aleister.1923.‘EthylOxide’:http://lib.oto-usa.org/crowley/essays/ethyl-oxide.html(accessed27June,2016).Crowley,Aleister.1970.Moonchild.YorkBeach:SamuelWeiser.
Crowley,Aleister.1974.TheBookofThoth.YorkBeach:Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.1976.TheBookoftheLaw.YorkBeach:RedWheel/Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.1979.DiaryofaDrugFiend.London:Abacus.Crowley,Aleister.1989.TheConfessionsofAleisterCrowley.EditedbyJohnSymonds&KennethGrant.London:Arkana,1989.Crowley,Aleister(writingunderthepseudonymOliverHaddo).1994.‘ThePsychologyofHashish.’InIsraelRegardieandAleisterCrowley,RollAwaytheStone:AnIntroductiontoAleisterCrowley’sEssaysonthePsychologyofHashish,withtheCompleteTextofAleisterCrowley’sTheHerbDangerous.NorthHollywood:NewcastlePublishing,93-152.OriginallypublishedinTheEquinox1.2(1909),31-89.Crowley,Aleister.1996.MagicalDiariesofAleisterCrowley:Tunisia1923.EditedbyStephenSkinner.YorkBeach:Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.1998.TheVisionandVoice,withCommentaryandOtherPapers.Boston:RedWheel/Weiser.Crowley,Aleister.2000.Magick:LiberABA,Book4.YorkBeach:SamuelWeiser.Davenport-Hines,Richard.2002.ThePursuitofOblivion:ASocialHistoryofDrugs.London:PhoenixPress.Dunaway,DavidKing.1995.AldousHuxleyRecollected:AnOralHistory.NewYork:Carroll&Graf.Frank,Priscilla.2014.‘MeetCameron,TheCounterculturalIconWhoBewitchedLosAngeles,’TheHuffingtonPost(August8):http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/08/08/marjorie-cameron-moca_n_5656561.html(accessedJuly6,2016).Fuller,JohnF.C.1907.TheStarintheWest:ACriticalEssayUpontheWorksofAleisterCrowley.London:WalterScottPublishingCo.Godwin,Joscelyn,ChristianChanel,andJohnPatrickDeveney.1995.TheHermeticBrotherhoodofLuxor:InitiaticandHistoricalDocumentsofanOrderofPracticalOccultism.YorkBeach:SamuelWeiser.Huysmans,Joris-Karl.1959.AgainstNature.Trans.byRobertBaldick.Harmondsworth:Penguin.Huxley,Aldous.1994.TheDoorsofPerceptionandHeavenandHell.London:Flamingo.Kaczynski,Richard.2009.TheWeiserConciseGuidetoAleisterCrowley.SanFrancisco:Weiser.
Kaczynski,Richard.2010.Perdurabo:TheLifeofAleisterCrowley.Berkeley:NorthAtlanticBooks,2010.King,Francis.2013.TantraforWesterners:APracticalGuidetotheWayofAction,secondedition.Oxford:Mandrake.Leary,Timothy.1970.ThePoliticsofEcstasy.London:Paladin,1970.TLeary,Timothy.1990.Flashbacks:APersonalandCulturalHistoryofanEra.AnAutobiography.NewYork:Tarcher/Putnam.Lewin,Louis.1888.‘UeberAnhaloniumLewinii,’ArchivfürexperimentellePathologieundPharmakologie26.6,401-411.Lewin,Louis.1998.Phantastica:NarcoticandStimulatingDrugs,TheirUseandAbuse.TransbyP.H.A.Wirth.Rochester:ParkStreetPress.Ludlow,FitzHugh.1910.‘TheHasheeshEater,’TheEquinox1.4,135-146.Lytton,EdwardBulwer.1861.Zanoni,Vol.1.Edinburgh:WilliamBlackwood&Sons.Majercik,Ruth.1989.TheChaldeanOracles:Text,Translation,andCommentary.Leiden:E.J.Brill.Maslow,Abraham.1964.Religions,Values,andPeakExperiences.Columbus:OhioStateUniversityPress.Murray,Nicholas.2003.AldousHuxley:AnEnglishIntellectual.London:Abacus.Nordau,Max.1895[1892].Degeneration.NewYork:D.Appleton&Co.Pasi,Marco.2012.‘TheVarietiesofMagicalExperience:AleisterCrowley’sViewsonOccultPractice.’InHenrikBogdan&MartinStarr(eds),AleisterCrowleyandWesternEsotericism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,73-87.Regardie,Israel.1994.‘RollAwaytheStone.’InIsraelRegardieandAleisterCrowley,RollAwaytheStoneandTheHerbDangerous.NorthHollywood:NewcastlePublishing,1-65.Regardie,Israel.2014. TheEyeintheTriangle:AnInterpretationofAleisterCrowley.LasVegas:NewFalconPublications. Rogers,Matthew.2012.‘FrenziesoftheBeast:ThePhaedranFuroresintheRitesandWritingsofAleisterCrowley.’InHenrikBogdan&MartinStarr(eds),AleisterCrowleyandWesternEsotericism.NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress,209-225.Suster,Gerald.1989.Crowley’sApprentice:TheLifeandIdeasofIsraelRegardie.London:Rider.
Sutin,Lawrence.2000.DoWhatThouWilt:ALifeofAleisterCrowley.NewYork:St.Martin’sGriffin.Symonds,John.1958.TheMagicofAleisterCrowley.London:FrederickMuller.Symonds,John.1971.TheGreatBeast:TheLifeandMagickofAleisterCrowley.London:Macdonald.Whineray,E.P.1909.‘APharmaceuticalStudyofCannabisSativa(BeingaCollationofFactsasKnownatthePresentDate),’TheEquinox1.1,233-255.Wilson,RobertAnton.2000.Sex,DrugsandMagick,secondedition.Tempe:NewFalconPublications.Wilson,RobertAnton.2014.‘Introduction.’InIsraelRegardie, TheEyeintheTriangle:AnInterpretationofAleisterCrowley.LasVegas:NewFalconPublications, xix-xxvi. Webb,Don.2013.OverthrowingtheOldGods:AleisterCrowleyandtheBookoftheLaw.Rochester:InnerTraditions.Webb,James.1976.TheOccultEstablishment.LaSalle:OpenCourt. 1WhileCrowley’sparentsbelongedtothePlymouthBrethrensect,hisfatherEdward,whowasanitinerantpreacher,camefromawealthyQuakerfamily,whohadmadetheirfortuneinthebrewingindustry.2‘EthylOxide’wasdictatedtoLeahHirsig(‘Alostrael’)onMay30,1923inTunisia(seeCrowley1996:33).3Posthumouslypublished,CrowleywrotethisadmirablycandiddiaryduringaperiodofrehabilitationinFontainebleu.Itwasoriginallyentitled,‘LiberTzBAVelNIKH.’4Between1909and1914Crowley’sjournalTheEquinoxpublishedawiderangeofmaterial,frompoetryandshortstoriestodiscussionsofyogaandtheoccult.Thetitlereflectsthefactthatitwaspublishedtwiceayearonthevernalandautumnalequinoxes.Overall,thereweretenissues.5ThiswasthemottoforCrowley’sshort-livedjournal,TheEquinox,‘theofficialorgan’oftheA∴A∴—theoccultorderheestablishedfollowinghisdeparturefromtheHermeticOrderoftheGoldenDawn.6ThephraseistakenfromTheChaldeanOracles.Therearevarioustranslationsofavailableonline.CrowleyusedtheversioneditedbyWilliamWynnWestcott.However,foragoodtranslationandscholarlycommentary,seeMajercik1989:‘theinitiatewouldaidinreleasingthesoul[looseningthegirdersofthesoul]byengagingincertainbreathingexercises’(1989:38).7MarcoPasiis,understandably,skepticalthatheevermanagedtofreehimselffromaddiction,notingthat,followinghisfailedattemptatFontainebleau,hecontinuedusinguntilhisdeath(2014:17).8In1924,hepublishedtheinfluentialstudyofpsychoactiveplants,Phantastica:NarcoticandStimulatingDrugs,TheirUseandAbuse.OriginallypublishedinGerman,itwastranslatedintoEnglishin1933.9Itissometimesmentionedincode.Becausetheinitialsofthedrug,‘A’and‘L,’correspondtoHebrewlettersא(aleph)andל(lamedh),inaccordancewithgematria,Crowleyassigneditthenumber31:1=א;.(2301996:Crowleyintablethealsosee215;2012:Rogerssee,)30=ל10Throughouthisdiscussion,hisestimationofCrowleyisalmostentirelylackingincriticaldistanceand,indeed,approacheshagiography.Forexample,notonlydoesheclaimthathis‘fineclassicalandscientificeducationatCambridge’(omittingtomentionthathefailedtocompletehisstudies)and‘hismountaineeringexploits’equippedhimto‘tackletheproblemofpsychedelicdrugs’(how,hedoesnotsay),buthegoesontoinsistthat‘Crowleywasanexperimentalmysticofthehighestmagnitude.Hehadpracticedyogaandmagicaltechniquesassiduouslyformanyyearsuntilhehadachievedathoroughgoing
masteryoverbothEasternandWesternmethods.Alloftheserareskillswereeventuallybroughttobearonhisexperimentationwithavarietyofdrugs.’Moreover,Crowley’swritings,heclaims,‘bearwitnessto,andprovidemassiveevidenceof,hisobjectiveandscientificattitudetothewholeprocess.’Thisisactuallyveryfarfrombeingthecase(seeRegardie1994:42-43).11‘Ishouldhavebeenassignedpubliclymyproperplaceamongmypeersofthepastwithoutdifficultyhaditnotbeenforonefatalfact.Mypointofviewissooriginal,mythoughtssoprofound,andmyallusionssorecondite,thatsuperficialreaders,carriedawaybythesheermusicofthewords,foundthemselves,sotospeak,intoxicatedandunabletopenetratetothepith’(Crowley,quotedinBooth2000:244).
